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HISTORY OF ENGLAND, . 
 
 S-CROM THE FIRST INVASION BY JULIUS CESAR, 
 
 irt" 
 
 YEAR EIGHTEEN HUNDRED AND FIFTY. 
 
 PRISING EVERY POLITICAL EVENT WORTHY OF REMEMBRANCE 
 
 A PROGRESSIVE VIEW 
 
 'Jf Religion, Language, and Manners ; of Men eminent for their Virtue or their Learnirw. 
 
 their Patriotism, Eloquence, or Philosophical Research ; of the Introduction 
 
 of Manufactures, and of Colonial Establishments. 
 
 ACCOMPANIED BY 
 
 A BOOK OF QUESTIONS AND A KEY, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW, 
 
 AUTHOR OF A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, ETC. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO., 
 
 SUCCESSORS TO 
 
 GRIGG, ELLIOT & CO., 
 
 No 14, NORTH FOURTH STREET. 
 
 1851. 
 
Instructors of youth are respectfully informed, that stereotype ed 
 tions of the following histories, written by the author of this volume , 
 expressly for the use of academies and schools in the United States, con- 
 tinue to be sold, by all the booksellers, on the most liberal terms : — 
 
 History of France. History of South America. 
 
 Life of Napoleon. History of the United States. 
 
 Each in one volume, accompanied by a book of Questions and a Key. 
 on a plan which affords unusual facilities, both to the teacher and the 
 student ; also, 
 
 AN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 5)0" The demand for Grimshaw' s Histories, for the last thiify yeais, 
 has been greater than was ever known, for any other historical works, in 
 any age, or in any language. 
 
 D0.3 
 
 i*** 
 
 
 S* 
 
 Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by 
 William Grimshaw, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the 
 Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 PRINTED BY T. K. AND P. 0. COLLINS. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE opinion of those gentlemen who examined the 
 manuscript of my revised edition of Goldsmith's Roman 
 History, having been confirmed by its very favourable re- 
 ception when published, I have complied with their wishes 
 in a further undertaking. They advised, that I should 
 either correct and free from its impurities the History of 
 England, by the same author, or compose one, in accord- 
 ance with the present taste. 
 
 To the former task, I was most inclined ; for two reasons — 
 the popular attachment to a long established work, with- 
 out reference to its author; and the universal celebrity of 
 Goldsmith, from the greatness of his genius. To super- 
 sede a favourite book, is to deprive the public of a venerated 
 acquaintance : to enter the lists against a favourite name, is 
 to combat, the powerful bias of education, and the natural 
 infirmity of man. 
 
 Having therefore intended the revisal of Goldsmith's 
 History of England for the use of schools, I commenced a 
 critical examination of its contents. Had it been no fur- 
 ther defective than his History of Rome, the attempt might 
 have been accomplished, with satisfaction to myself, and 
 advantage to the public. But objections accumulated in 
 my progress. To the faults attending all the historical 
 compositions of Goldsmith, owing to confusion, indelicacy, 
 and grammatical inaccuracy, there was added another ob- 
 stacle; most momentous indeed, and insurmountable — the 
 absence of material events. His Roman History, I con- 
 ceived, was sufficiently comprehensive. From what cause, 
 then, proceeded this unexpected vacuity ? — The account 
 of his writings gave me satisfactory explanation. I there 
 found, what I had indeed suspected, but what is little 
 known — that his History of England was not abridged by 
 the Doctor himself; but that public credulity has been made 
 the instrument of an egregious fraud: a fraud, equally in- 
 jurious to the memory of a much respected individual, and 
 the important purposes of useful education. 
 
 The design of revising Goldsmith's history was, in con- 
 sequence, abandoned, and this original work written iu its 
 place. 
 
1V PREFACE. 
 
 Few writers have excelled Goldsmith, in readiness of 
 wit, in elegance, in facility of composition. Few have ex- 
 perienced more trials of distress; the effects of unbounded 
 generosity, or of unguarded simplicity. " Whilst he was 
 composing the comedy of the ■ Good Natured Man,' and 
 preparing to take a more successful flight in his fine poem 
 of the * Deserted Village,' he wrote, for present support, at 
 the instance of the booksellers, a series of histories, which 
 he never considered as conducive to his fame. These 
 were, his Roman History, in two volumes, an Abridgment 
 of the same, and his History of England; which are of- 
 ten superficial and inaccurate." — So, says his biographer. 
 Thus, whilst he poured forth, with unexampled rapidity, 
 those imperfect productions of the hand, his mind labour- 
 ed, with unwearied assiduity, in acquiring for the name of 
 Goldsmith a posthumous renown; and the effort was ac- 
 complished. That name will long be cherished : — after the 
 graven marble, the friendly tribute to departed genius, has, 
 for ages, crumbled into dust, the monument which he him- 
 self had raised, will still remain, uninjured and admired. 
 
 In forming a work of this kind, there are chiefly three 
 objects to be kept in view— a judicious selection of im- 
 portant events, a moderate interspersion of amusement, 
 and occasional reflections, which may guard the reader 
 against the imitation of vice, or inculcate the love of virtue. 
 The narrative should not be exhausted on the infidelity of 
 a queen, or the erection of a scaffold; upon the protracted 
 siege, or the countermarching of an army: entertainment 
 should be free from ribaldry, and praise should be withheld 
 from the commission of enormity. When we have weari- 
 ed the reader with the minute recital of a fictitious plot, 
 we should look back, lest avc have omitted the Fire of Lon- 
 don:* we should consider, that a story may be humorous 
 yet offensive, and avoid recommending intrigues and virtues 
 as joint recommendations to a throne.f 
 
 A book designed for elementary instruction, should in- 
 culcate no doctrines foreign to the relations of the reader. 
 Principles, favourable to the support of a constitutional 
 monarchy, though they may be very excusable in England; 
 should not be instilled into the youth of the United States. 
 Such expressions as " our most gracious majesty," and 
 " we, his most loving subjects," are totally absurd, and 
 
 * Reign of Charles IT. in Goldsmith's Abridged History. 
 t Harold, in the same. 
 
PREFACE. v 
 
 border too much on the ridiculous, when uttered by the 
 children of a republic. 
 
 As regards the selection of matter, I presume, that a 
 larger portion of this, than of any similar work, is devoted 
 to those incidents, and those characters, in the peaceful 
 walks of society, which are the legitimate subjects of his- 
 tory, show the genius and manners of the age, the laws and 
 administration of government, the achievements of science, 
 the progress of arts and manufactures, the extension of 
 commerce, the downfall of superstition, the triumphs of 
 the spirit of religious liberty, — and form the brightest, 
 noblest features, of a nation. 
 
 The history, from which some impudent scribbler has 
 compiled the duodecimo volume of England, does not dis- 
 play a serious disproportion in its principal and subordi- 
 nate parts ; in its political events, and mere matter of amuse- 
 ment. But, unfortunately, the abridging has destroyed the. 
 equilibrium. Those hasty sallies of the Doctor, and those 
 flashy antitheses, which were intended only as an agreeable 
 seasoning, are given with so extravagant a hand, that the 
 banquet is completely spoiled. The lights, which, before, 
 were judiciously arranged, and enlivened the entertainment, 
 are now collected in a body, and blaze is substituted for 
 utility. Those distorted sentences, which may justly be 
 styled literary economy, or metaphor ' burlesqued, and 
 which, when diffused, were less easily perceived, might 
 have been advantageously repressed ; or, when introduced, 
 should have been expanded, or explained. 
 
 Other defects of this inconsiderate reduction, are most 
 glaringly perceptible. The transitions are not unfrequently 
 made without the smallest regard to the relation which pre- 
 ceded : passages are referred to, which are no where to be 
 found, except in the larger work; and, persons are abruptly 
 and unexpectedly presented, in the usual manner of fami- 
 liar acquaintance. 
 
 Every language has apquired a colloquial idiom. Per- 
 haps not any is more corrupted by it than our own. No 
 style gives a greater facility to a writer; none is better 
 adapted to a familiar correspondence; but there is none 
 which presents more difficulty to a foreignei,or should be. 
 more carefully avoided by the historian. The rapidity with 
 which Goldsmith compiled, for pecuniary emolument, has, 
 naturally, caused the admission of the most vulgar of those 
 expressions. These are, in the highest degree, injurious 
 to the reader; for, he will in general acquire the very 
 A 2 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 phrases, and the very manner, of his author. As I have 
 early been aware of this fault, so I have, in the present, 
 and in my former work, endeavoured to avoid it. To a 
 young writer, the task is difficult ; in its accomplishment 
 even the most experienced is not always successful. 
 
 On the subject of indelicacy, some remarks can, advan- 
 tageously, be made. What I shall advance may not be 
 universally agreeable; for, though all should admit their 
 justness, a few may feel offended, because convicted by their 
 truth. As to the opinion of the latter, I am totally regard- 
 less: their censure or their praise is equally unavailing. 
 
 Whilst we acknowledge the difficulty under which the 
 historian labours, of avoiding offensive language, we must 
 also confess, that some writers employ more than is de- 
 manded by the subject: but, we must admit, that many 
 terms, which are not only harmless, but elegant and essen- 
 tial, are rendered disagreeable, by habitual, and improper 
 association — by the use, which, behind-backs, is immorally 
 made of words, that, if restored to their proper destina- 
 tion, Delicacy herself need not be ashamed to utter. How 
 surprising to a teacher, how distressing to a parent, when 
 language is thus interpreted by the reader — perhaps a fe- 
 male, who stammers without a blush; and, whilst she seeks 
 to impress the idea of modesty and refinement, only be- 
 trays the conversation of her retirement. 
 
 If these verbal contaminations be suffered to proceed, 
 our whole stock, in the course of time, will be corrupted ; 
 and the Latin, or some other foreign language, must, again, 
 be used, upon elevated subjects: or, there must be erected, 
 a national institution, to replace, with proportionate indus- 
 try, those words which have been perverted from their 
 original import. 
 
 No expressions have been admitted here, tending, in the 
 smallest degree, to injure the taste of the reader by their 
 vulgarity, or to wound the feelings of youth by their indeli- 
 cacy: no sentiments to rouse the demon of religious intol- 
 erance, or to inflame the rancour of political animosity. 
 Without rising to the language of affectation, a writer may 
 be elegant: without sinking to the monosyllables of the 
 nursery, he may be perspicuous; he may inculcate piety 
 without cant, and patriotism without extravagance. 
 
 Philadelphia, Feb. 15, 1819. 
 
THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ROMANS. 
 
 The invasions by Julius Ccesar; with a description of the Manners^ 
 and civil and religious State, of the ancient Inhabitants. 
 
 PROTECTED by her insular situation, Britain long re- 
 mained unnoticed by the Romans, and undisturbed by the 
 effects of their insatiable ambition. When, however, the 
 successful enterprises of Julius Caesar, had extended their 
 dominion over all the provinces of Gaul, the ardent desire of 
 further glory led that celebrated commander to her shores. 
 
 At this period, our history commences. All previous 
 accounts are either the extravagant inventions of the Greek 
 and Roman merchants, or the poetical fictions of the do- 
 mestic bards. 
 
 a, ie Caesar, with some veteran troops, sailed about 
 
 » j) midnight from the coast of Gaul, and, on the ensu- 
 ing morning, landed near Deal. But his visit was 
 very short. After several battles with the unoffend- 
 ing natives, which induced a few of their sovereigns to feign 
 submission, the non-arrival of his cavalry, and approach of 
 winter, constrained him to return. 
 
 The Britains had promised hostages for their future 
 obedience. Relieved, however, from their alarm, they ne- 
 glected the performance of their stipulations ? for which 
 breach of treaty, the haughty Roman determined to chas- 
 tise them, in the following summer. Accordingly, he came 
 over with a greater force ; and, though he found a more 
 regular resistance, the inhabitants having united under 
 Cassivelaunus, one of their petty chieftains, he defeated 
 them in every action. He then advanced into the country, 
 passed the Thames, in the face of his enemy, and burned 
 
8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the capital of the British commander. Fresh submissions 
 being procured, he again withdrew into Gaul; leaving an 
 authority which was more nominal than real. 
 
 From the writings of Julius Caesar, and other Roman 
 authors, we discern the manners, customs, and mode of 
 warfare, of the Britains, at the time of the first invasion; 
 and, from the same authorities, we are informed of their 
 origin. These accounts represent them as a tribe of the 
 Gauls or Celtae, who had passed over from the neighbour- 
 ing continent. The language of the one was the same as 
 that spoken by the other. But the little refinement in arts, 
 which the inhabitants of those provinces of Gaul, border- 
 ing on Italy, possessed, had, as yet, made small progress 
 amongst the Britains, In the south-east parts, however, 
 before the time of Caesar, they had made some advances 
 towards civilization; and, by the practice of agriculture, 
 were there enabled to live in closely inhabited districts. 
 The other natives of the island still maintained themselves 
 by pasture. They were partially clothed in skins: the 
 uncovered parts of their bodies were painted, so as to ex- 
 cite terror in their enemies ; and, like all other people in 
 primeval rudeness, they shifted their habitations as ne- 
 cessity demanded. Had we not the respectable testimony 
 of Csesar, we should be inclined to doubt the correctness 
 of history, in regard to their means of military annoyance. 
 That perspicuous author gives a particular account of 
 chariots, used by the Britains, with surprising address, in 
 battle. These, they impetuously drove against the enemy's 
 tanks; and, sometimes alighting from their powerful ma- 
 chines, the warriors fought as infantry, on foot. 
 
 All the Britains were divided into small tribes, or na- 
 tions; and, though their governments were monarchal, yet 
 the people were free. They had early acquired a relish for 
 liberty, the common birthright of mankind; and of which 
 they can be deprived, only by their intestine feuds, or their 
 culpable supineness. Their religion formed the mainspring 
 of their government; and the Druids, who were their 
 priests, maintained over them very powerful influence. 
 Besides directing all religious duties, they superintended 
 the education of youth: they possessed both the civil and 
 the criminal jurisdiction; and inflicted upon all who re- 
 fused to submit to- their decrees, penalties so severe, thai 
 death itself became an acceptable relief. They practised 
 their rites in dark and sequestered groves; and, to invest 
 them in mysterious obscurity, forbade the committing of 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 9 
 
 their ceremonies to writing. No idolatrous worship ever 
 attained so great influence over the human mind, as tint 
 which was inculcated by the Druids; so that, the Romans, 
 though they had not before resorted to such a measure, 
 finding it impossible to establish their institutions, where 
 it held its authority, at last abolished the practice of the 
 Druidical mysteries. We cannot, however, even in this case, 
 approve of their interference; for, though we may with im- 
 punity persuade, we have no power given us to justify com- 
 pulsion. Yet, it is scarcely fair, to judge the actions of a 
 Heathen, by the enlightened doctrines of Christianity. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 From the departure of Julius Cassar, to the final withdrawing 
 of the Romans. 
 
 THE civil wars which ensued amongst the Romans, 
 saved the Britains from the yoke which was ready to be 
 imposed upon them. Augustus, the successor of Julius 
 Csesar, was contented with the victory which he had gained 
 over the liberties of his own country; and, fearing that the 
 continued extension of dominion, which had subverted the 
 republic, might have a similar effect upon the imperial 
 government, recommended that the territory of Rome 
 should never be enlarged. 
 » T} They had, therefore, for nearly a century, remain- 
 
 ' ' ed unmolested. But the Romans, under Claudius, 
 began seriously to contemplate their subjection. 
 Accordingly, they sent over an army with Plautius, an able 
 general; who, in the south-east parts, made considerable 
 progress in conquering this inoffensive people. Soon after, 
 the emperor himself arrived; and, in those districts, re- 
 ceived the submission of several petty states. The other 
 Britains, headed by Caractacus, maintained an obstinate re- 
 sistance ; and, against them, the Romans gained little advan- 
 tage, until Ostorius Scapula was sent over to command their 
 armies. This general was more successful. He pierced into 
 the country of the Silures; a warlike nation who inhabited 
 the banks of the Severn; defeated Caractacus, took him 
 prisoner, and sent him to Rome; where the magnanimous 
 behaviour of this valiant chief, procured him better treat, 
 merit than was generally experienced by captive princes. 
 B 
 
10 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 His countrymen, however, were not yet subdued; and 
 the Romans regarded them as a people, from whom mili- 
 tary glory might still be gained. In the reign of Nero, the 
 command was given to Paulinus Suetonius; who prepared 
 to distinguish himself, by victories over these rude and un- 
 disciplined forces. He should have known, that those 
 laurels, which are gathered within the trenches of a barba- 
 rian, are unworthy of the hero. With the expiring shout 
 of Ihe giddy multitude, they drop from the victor's brow, 
 withered and forgotten. 
 
 Finding that the island of Mona, now Anglesea, was the 
 chief retreat of the Druids, he resolved to subject that 
 place; the centre of their superstition, and the usual re- 
 treat of the baffled forces. On this sacred ground, the 
 Britains endeavoured to prevent his landing, by every 
 means which they could devise. The women and the 
 priests intermingled with the soldiers; and, running about 
 with flaming torches in their hands, tossing their dishevel- 
 ed hair, and pouring forth their bowlings and lamenta- 
 tions, caused more terror than the real dangers from the 
 army. But Suetonius, by his address, impelled the Romans 
 to the attack. He drove the Britains off the field; burned 
 the Druids in the fires which they had prepared for their 
 captive enemies; and, having thus triumphed over their 
 religion, thought that his future progress would be easy. 
 
 But, in this, he was disappointed. The Britains, headed 
 by Boadicca, queen of the Iceni, a princess who had been 
 ignominiously treated by the Roman tribunes, attacked, 
 with success, many settlements of the insulting conquerors. 
 Suetonius hastened to the protection of London; then, a 
 flourishing Roman colony; but which, in order to consult 
 the general safety, he was obliged to abandon. It was re- 
 duced to ashes ; and all who were found there, were, 
 through retaliation, massacred, by the Britains. But this 
 cruelty was revenged by the Roman general, in a great and 
 decisive battle; and Boadicea, rather than fall into the 
 hands of the enraged victor, ended her life by poison. 
 
 Suetonius, not long after, was recalled from the govern- 
 ment of a people, whose natural temper, irritated by their 
 sufferings, he appeared so little calculated to soften or ap- 
 pease. 
 
 The. general that eventually established the Roman pow- 
 er in Britain, was Agricola; who governed it in the reigns 
 of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. He conquered all the 
 southern parts; carried his victorious arms into the forests 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. - 11 
 
 and mountains of Caledonia, which is now called Scotland; 
 driving before him all the fierce and intractable portion of 
 the inhabitants, who preferred any deprivation to a state of 
 servitude. He then ordered his fleet to sail along the coast 
 (by which voyage the Romans first ascertained that 
 ' Britain was an island,) and formed between the friths 
 of Forth and Clyde, a rampart and a chain of garrisons; 
 which secured the Roman provinces from their incursions.* 
 During these military employments, Agricola was not in- 
 attentive to the arts of peace. He introduced amongst the 
 Britains laws and civility; gave them a taste for the pur- 
 suits of agriculture; instructed them in letters and science; 
 used every means to reconcile them to subjection; and 
 gradually incorporated them with the empire. 
 
 The Britains gave no further inquietude; but the Cale- 
 donians, defended by their barren mountains, which se- 
 cured them a retreat, made frequent incursions upon the 
 cultivated lands. The better to protect the frontiers, 
 Adrian, who visited the island, built a strong rampart be- 
 tween the river Tyne and the frith of Solway; a defence 
 afterwards strengthened by a wall; traces of which remain 
 at the present day. This was erected by Severus; who, 
 after repelling the invaders, died at York: from which time, 
 so profound a tranquillity prevailed in Britain, during all 
 the emperors' reigns, that little mention is made of it by 
 any historian. 
 
 But, that stupendous fabric, which had extended its con- 
 quests over so great a portion of the globe, began, at length, 
 to approach its dissolution. Those barbarous nations of 
 the continent, who had long been under the government of 
 the Romans, had, whilst in the service of their conquerors, 
 added discipline to their native bravery; and, allured by 
 the prospect of so great a prize, they assailed, at once, the 
 frontiers of the empire. The Romans were now obliged 
 to concentrate their domestic legions, in which, only, they 
 could place reliance; and collected their whole military 
 force for the preservation of the capital and the adjacent 
 provinces: those troops, therefore, which had held Britain 
 
 *It is extraordinary, that the English historians mention this vo$. 
 age as having discovered the insular situation of Britain; thus, over- 
 looking a term repeatedly used by Caesar, in his Commentaries. For 
 instance: " Tamen, magno sibi usui fore arbitrabatur, si modo insulam 
 adisset, genus hominum perspexisset; loca, portus, aditus cognovit 
 pet." Lib. iv. xx. 
 
Vi HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 in subjection, and guarded it from the incursions of its 
 northern invaders, were withdrawn. 
 
 The Picts and Scots, who inhabited those regions which 
 lay beyond the defences formed by the Romans, now made 
 irruptions ; threatening the whole province with depreda- 
 tion and conquest. The former it is thought, were a tribe 
 of Bri tains, who had been chased into the northern parts 
 by Agricola, The latter were of the same Celtic origin ; 
 and were, previously, established in Ireland. These bar- 
 barians broke over the Roman wall ; and, though a con- 
 temptible enemy, they met with no resistance from the un- 
 warlike inhabitants. In this situation, the Britains applied 
 to Rome, and obtained for their relief one legion ; which 
 soon drove the invaders into their ancient limits. The re- 
 turn, however, of this force, to the defence of the southern 
 provinces of the empire, was a signal for a fresh invasion ; 
 which, by the assistance of a legion, was again repelled. 
 But the Romans, reduced to extremity at home, could no 
 longer afford succour to the Britains : and, after generously 
 assisting them in renewing the wall of Severus, they bade 
 
 -jq a final adieu; having been masters of the greater 
 ' part of the island for nearly four centuries. 
 
 The earliest example of successful attention to literature, 
 given by a native of the subjected districts, was by Helena, 
 the daughter of Coilus, a tributary king of Britain, wife of 
 the Roman emperor, Constantius Chlorus, and mother of 
 Constantine the great, who was born in Britain. There 
 was no woman of her time more accomplished, either in 
 letters or the polite arts, or of more amiable disposition. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE BRITAINS. 
 
 UNABLE to protect themselves against their rapacious 
 neighbours, the Britains regarded this present of liberty 
 as a misfortune. The flower of their youth having accom- 
 panied Gratian and Constantine, two Romans who made 
 an unsuccessful attempt on the imperial throne, the people 
 were deprived of the assistance of those who were the 
 most capable of uniting them by their advice. The Picts 
 and Scots, relieved from the terror of the Roman arms, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 13 
 
 now regarded Britain as their prize ; and poured in with 
 unabated ferocity. The Britains again made application to 
 their former masters. Their ambassadors carried to Rome 
 a letter from their countrymen; which was entitled, "The 
 Groans of the Britains." The tenor of the epistle cor- 
 responded with the superscription ; " The barbarians, on 
 the one hand, chase us into the sea: the sea, on the other, 
 throws us back upon the barbarians ; so that we have only 
 the hard choice left us, of perishing by the sword or by 
 the waves." 
 
 But the Romans, pressed by the arms of Attila, the most 
 formidable enemy that had ever assailed the empire, had 
 no leisure to attend to the supplication of allies. Thus 
 rejected, they abandoned their habitations ; and, flying for 
 refuge to the forests and mountains, suffered equally by 
 hunger and by the enemy ; until the barbarians, unable to 
 exist in a land which they had desolated, retreated, with 
 their spoils, into their own country. 
 
 Relieved from the presence of their invaders, the Britains 
 returned to their usual occupations ; and soon forgot their 
 miseries in the comforts which succeeded. But they ne- 
 glected to make provision against any future attacks. The 
 precarious authority, enjoyed by the chiefs, in the various 
 districts independent of each other, created a disunion, 
 which greatly militated against the whole; and to this dis- 
 advantage, were added, their religious disputes, arising 
 from the schismatical doctrines of Pelagius. Labouring 
 under these domestic evils, and threatened by a foreign 
 invasion, they sent into Germany, to implore the aid of 
 the Saxons. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SAXONS. 
 
 THE ancient Germans were the most distinguished of 
 all the barbarous nations, for their valour and their attach- 
 ment to liberty. Even when a monarchy was at any time 
 established amongst them, the sovereign was directed, in 
 every measure, by the approbation of the people. No un- 
 principled despot was allowed the power of sporting with 
 the life, or with the propertv, of his fellow being. When 
 B 2 
 
14 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 any important question was to be debated, the warriors 
 met in arms ; and freely expressed their disapproval, or 
 their assent: the former by their murmurs; the latter, by 
 the rattling of their armour. Their leaders were chosen 
 for their merit ; chiefly for their valour : and the contri- 
 butions which they levied, were merely for subsistence; 
 the honour of exalted rank being the only reward of their 
 dangers and fatigues. 
 
 Of all those tribes, the Saxons were the most distin- 
 guished. War was their principal employment. 
 
 They had spread themselves from the most northern 
 parts of Germany; had taken possession of all the -sea- 
 coast, from the mouth of the Rhine to Jutland ; and had 
 long infested, by their piracies, the southern parts of Brit- 
 ain, and the northern parts of Gaul. It may, therefore, 
 reasonably be supposed, that they gladly accepted the invi- 
 tation of the simple Britains. 
 
 Under the conduct of Hengist and Horsa, two 
 brothers of great authority, the Saxons, amounting' 
 to sixteen-hundred, landed on the isle of Thanet ; and, im- 
 mediately marching against the Picts and Scots, made 
 them fly before them. But these chiefs were determined 
 to conquer only for their own advantage. They soon re- 
 ceived a reinforcement of five-thousand of their country- 
 men, raised a dispute with the Britains, and formed an al 
 liance with the Picts and Scots. A dreadful scene ensued, 
 of slaughter, rapine, and devastation. The bravery of Vor- 
 timer, whom the Britains placed at their head, instead of 
 his ignoble father, Vortigern, could preserve, only for a 
 short time, his degenerate compatriots. Some remained 
 in servitude under their treacherous victors : some fled to 
 Gaul and there founded the province of Brittany; and others 
 took shelter in the remote parts of Cornwall and Wales. 
 
 To share in the general plunder, the Northern hordes 
 came over in succession. The invaders were chiefly Sax- 
 ons, Angles, and Jutes ; who all spoke the same language, 
 and passed under the common appellation, sometimes of 
 Saxons, sometimes of Angles. But, neither amusement 
 nor instruction would be given, by a tedious detail of the 
 barbarous names of those adventurers, who participated 
 in the equally barbarous transactions of that age. The 
 native characters are scarcely more worthy of remark. 
 The only person of interest was Arthur, prince of the Si- 
 lures ; who, by his heroic valour, about the year 508, sus- 
 tained the decUning fortunes of his country, and was much 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 15 
 
 celebrated by the ancient bards ; but his achievements are 
 blended with so many fables, as almost to induce a doubt 
 of his existence. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE HEPTARCHY. 
 
 AFTER a violent contest, of nearly one-hundred-and- 
 fifty years, seven kingdoms were formed in Britain; known 
 by the name of the Saxon Heptarchy. These were Kent, 
 Sussex, Wessex, East-Anglia, Mercia, Essex, and North- 
 umberland; the respective conquests of Hengist, jElla, 
 Cerdic and his son Kenric, Uffa, Crida, Erkenwin, and 
 Ethelfrid. The kingdom of Kent comprised the counties 
 now known by the names of Kent, Middlesex, and Essex, 
 and a part of Surry: Sussex, or South Saxony, the county 
 of Sussex, and the remainder of Surry: Wessex, or West 
 Saxony, Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Berks, and the Isle of 
 Wight: East-Anglia, Cambridge, Suffolk and Norfolk. 
 Mercia extended over all the middle counties, from the 
 banks of the Severn, to the frontiers of East-Anglia and 
 Essex. Essex, or East Saxony, included Essex, Middlesex, 
 and a part of Hertfordshire; Northumberland, the counties 
 of Northumberland and Durham, and some of the eastern 
 counties of Scotland. 
 
 The whole southern part of the island, except Wales 
 and Cornwall, which still remained unsubdued, had totally 
 changed its inhabitants, language, customs, and political 
 institutions. The Britains, under the Roman dominion, 
 had advanced so far, in arts and civilization, that they had 
 built twenty eight considerable cities, besides a great num- 
 ber of villages; but their Saxon conquerors threw every 
 thing back into its ancient barbarity. 
 5 7 At this period, there occurred a happy and me- 
 morable event; the contemplation of which relieves 
 us from the disagreeable feelings excited by the disgusting 
 transactions of those ages. The British Saxons were now 
 taught the benign principles of Christianity. The ancient 
 inhabitants of the districts which the former had usurped, 
 were, from the earliest promulgation of that sacred religion, 
 enrolled amongst its votaries: but its practice had ceased 
 
16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in those parts, upon their dispersion, and was confined to 
 Wales, the remote country of their retreat. The supersti- 
 tion of the British Saxons, in common with that of their 
 German brethren of the Continent, was of the grossest and 
 most barbarous kind. They were idolaters : they worship- 
 ped the sun and moon; and adored the god of thunder, 
 by the name of Thor. But, Woden, whom they conceived 
 was the ancestor of all their princes, and regarded as the 
 god of war, naturally became their supreme deity, and the 
 chief object of their worship. They believed, that if they 
 gained the favour of this divinity, by their valour, (the 
 most esteemed virtue amongst barbarians,) they would be 
 admitted after death, into his hall, and there, satiate them- 
 selves with ale, from the skulls of their enemies whom they 
 had slain in battle. 
 
 Previous to his ascending the papal chair, Gregory, sur- 
 named the Great, had observed in the streets of Rome, 
 some Saxon youths, of interesting appearance, and, struck 
 with the beauty of their blooming countenances, asked, to 
 what country they belonged. Being told that they were 
 Angles; he replied, that they ought, more properly, to be 
 denominated Angels; that it was a pity the prince of dark- 
 ness should enjoy so fair a prey; and that so beautiful an 
 exterior should cover a mind devoid of righteousness and 
 grace. He then inquired the name of their king. Being 
 informed that it was Ella; " Allelujah," cried he : " we 
 must endeavour that the praises of God be sung in their 
 country." Moved by these happy allusions, when he ob- 
 tained the pontificate, he appointed Augustine, a pious 
 monk, to undertake the laudable, but dangerous, duty, of 
 converting the British Saxons to Christianity. 
 
 A favourable incident had prepared the way for intro- 
 ducing Christianity amongst these people. Ethelbert, king 
 of Kent, had married Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, 
 king of Paris, one of the descendants of Clovis, the con- 
 queror of Gaul; which princess, being of the Christian 
 faith, had brought over with her a French bishop, and con- 
 ducted herself in so irreproachable a manner, as to support 
 its virtuous precepts by a virtuous example; and employed 
 every art of insinuation and address, to reconcile her hus- 
 band to her religion. 
 
 Having arrived at the isle of Thane t, Augustine sent an 
 interpreter to Ethelbert, the king of Kent, (a great-grand- 
 son of the first Saxon invader, Hengist) declaring, that he 
 had been scut from Rome with offers of eternal salvation, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 17 
 
 Ethelbert invited Augustine to his court. He was then 
 informed, by the pious stranger, that everlasting joys, and 
 a kingdom without end, would be the reward of his em- 
 bracing the Christian religion. — " Your words and pro- 
 mises," replied the king, " are fair; but, as they are new, 
 and uncertain, I cannot, immediately, relinquish the prin- 
 ciples which I have inherited from my ancestors. You 
 are welcome, however, to remain here in peace : I will 
 supply you with all necessaries, and permit you to explain 
 your doctrine to my subjects." 
 
 This conduct of Ethelbert was discreet and generous; 
 worthy of imitation, even at the present day. Ke soon 
 espoused the religion of Augustine; and his subjects, also, 
 with the inhabitants of the other Saxon kingdoms, were, 
 in a short time, converted to Christianity. 
 
 Ethelbert's conversion, joined to his matrimonial alli- 
 ance, produced an intercourse with the French, the Italians, 
 and other nations of the Continent. This had a"" happy 
 effect. It raised his subjects from the ignorance and bar- 
 barity, in which all the Saxon tribes had been long involved. 
 With the consent of his people, he enacted a body of laws; 
 the first that any of the northern conquerors committed 
 to writing. 
 
 After many revolutions, this monarchy, which, on the 
 death of Ethelbert, descended to his son Eadbald, fell, with 
 the others of the Heptarchy, under the dominion of Eg- 
 bert, king of Wessex; who united them into one kingdom, 
 which he named England ; signifying the land of the Angles. 
 
 The Saxons who subdued Britain, as they nad enjoyed 
 great liberty in their own country, obstinately maintained 
 that blessing in their new settlement. Their kings possess- 
 ed a very limited authority. So far from being entitled to 
 an arbitrary power, they were only the first among the citi- 
 zens. Their influence depended more on their personal 
 qualities, than on their station. They were even so much 
 on a level with the other inhabitants, that a stated price 
 was affixed on their head ; and their murderer was exon- 
 erated by the payment of a fine, in the same manner as for 
 the murder of the meanest subject. All the kingdoms of 
 the heptarchy were, occasionally, united ; and in each there 
 was a national council, called a Wittenagemot, or assembly 
 of the wise men; whose consent was required for enacting 
 laws, and ratifying the chief acts of administration. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxons, in common with all the northern na- 
 tions of Europe, were not very strict in maintaining a regu- 
 
IS HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 lar succession of their princes. Though they paid great 
 respect to the royal family, they either had no rule, or none 
 that was steadily observed, in filling the vacant throne. If 
 any king, on his death, left a son, of an age and capacity 
 fit for government, he naturally ascended the throne; but, 
 if he was a minor, it was occupied by his uncle, or the next 
 prince of the blood. All these changes, however, and in- 
 deed the ordinary administration of government, required 
 the express concurrence, or at least the implied consent, 
 of the people. 
 
 The punishments inflicted by the Anglo-Saxon courts of 
 judicature, as well as the proofs employed, were different 
 from those which prevail amongst all civilized nations, in 
 the present age. Indemnity for all kinds of wounds re- 
 ceived, and for death itself, was fixed, by the Saxon laws, 
 at a regular price. A wound of an inch long, under the 
 hair, was recompensed by one shilling; a scar, of equal 
 size, upon the face, by two shillings; thirty shillings were 
 received for the loss of an ear; and other scars were com- 
 pensated in proportion. Their mode of evidence was still 
 further dissimilar to the modern practice. When any con- 
 troversy about a fact became too intricate for their judges 
 to unravel, they had recourse to (what they called) the 
 judgment of God; that is, to fortune; and their methods 
 of consulting this oracle were various. The most remark- 
 able custom was by the ordeal. It was practised, general- 
 ly, by boiling water, or red-hot iron. The water or Jron 
 being consecrated by many ceremonies, the person accused 
 either took up a stone .immersed in the former a certain 
 depth, or carried the iron a certain distance; and his hand 
 being then wrapped up, and the covering sealed for three 
 days, if there appeared, on examination, no marks of 
 burning, he was pronounced innocent; if otherwise, guilty. 
 The trial by cold water, was different. Into this, the cul- 
 prit was thrown, his feet and his hands being tied. If he 
 swam, he was guilty; if he sunk, he was considered inno- 
 cent; though, to us, it appears extraordinary, that any in- 
 nocent person could ever be acquitted by the one trial, or 
 any criminal be convicted by the other. 
 
 This purgation by ordeal seems to have been very an- 
 cient, and universal in the times of superstitious barbar- 
 ity. It was known to the ancient Greeks; and there is 
 also a very peculiar species of water-ordeal, said to prevail 
 amongst the Indians, on the coast of Malabar; where, a 
 person, accused of anv enormous crime, is obliged to swim 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 19 
 
 over a broad river, abounding with crocodiles; and, if he 
 escapes unhurt, he is reputed innocent. In Siam, too, be 
 sides the usual methods of fire and water ordeal, both par- 
 ties are sometimes exposed to the fury of a tiger, let loose 
 for that purpose: and, if the beast spares either, that per- 
 son is accounted innocent; if neither, both are held to be 
 guilty; but, if he spares both, the trial is incomplete. 
 
 It is easy, to trace out the traditional relics of this watei 
 ordeal, in the ignorant barbarity, still practised in many 
 countries, to discover witches, by casting them into a pool 
 of water, and drowning them to prove their innocence. 
 
 The most ancient British historian was Gildas; from 
 whose writings, dated about the middle of the sixth centu- 
 ry, is derived the only information of that period. John 
 of Beverly, archbishop of York, who died in the year 721, 
 was one of the best scholars of his time; and his pupil, 
 Bede, though possessing all the puerile credulity of those 
 days, shone as a meteor, in the darkness of a barbarous 
 age. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Egbert^ Ethelwotf, Ethelbald and Ethelbert, E their ed, Alfred 
 the Greedy Edward the Elder, Athelstan, Edmunds Edred, 
 Edwy, Edgar, Edward the Martyr, Ethelred the second* 
 Edmund Ironside. 
 
 7 FROM this period, our history will be less diffi- 
 cult of delineation, and more interesting to the 
 reader; as the materials are concentrated, and the events 
 assume some degree of resemblance to those of the pre- 
 sent age. 
 
 The inhabitants of the several provinces showed no de- 
 sire of revolting from the authority of Egbert. Their 
 language and laws, their customs and religion, were, every 
 where, nearly the same ; and, in all the subjected states, 
 the race of their ancient kings was totally extinct. 
 
 By living in the court, and serving in the armies, of 
 Charlemagne, Egbert acquired those accomplishments, 
 which afterwards enabled him to make so shining a figure 
 on the throne. 
 
20 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Governed by a monarch of superior talents and the high- 
 est degree of prudence, and strengthened by their political 
 union, the people had reason to expect, that, thencefor- 
 ward, they would be guarded against inroad and devasta- 
 tion. But these flattering hopes were soon destroyed. 
 The Danes, who, at that period, committed most barbarous 
 ravages, appeared upon the coast. The causes which pro- 
 duced the invasions by this formidable enemy, deserve at 
 tention. The emperor Charlemagne, though naturally 
 generous and humane, had been led, by an erroneous ap- 
 plication of the Christian doctrine, to use great severity 
 against the pagan""Saxons in Germany; and had obliged 
 them, to make a seeming renunciation of idolatry. But 
 that religion, which had been easily introduced amongst 
 the British Saxons, by persuasion and address, appeared 
 odious to their German brethren, when imposed upon 
 them by the sword. The most warlike of the latter fled 
 into Jutland, to escape the fury of persecution; and, assist- 
 ed by the people of that country, they invaded the provinces 
 of France; then but feebly protected by the degenerate pos- 
 terity of Charlemagne; and, under the name of Normans, 
 (signifying men of the north,) became the terror of all 
 whom they attacked. 
 
 Their first appearance, in Britain, was in the year 787 
 The English, being of the same religion as the French 
 were equally the object of retaliation. The next alarm was 
 given about six years afterwards; when a body of these pi- 
 rates robbed a monastery. But their ships being damaged 
 in a storm, and their leader slain, they were at last defeat- 
 ed. These were only the precursors of more serious at- 
 tacks: the Danes followed their example; and now 
 began those formidable invasions, which make so 
 considerable a figure iij the history of those times. They 
 were, however, by the activity of Egbert, driven from the 
 kingdom. 
 
 Ethelwolf, the son of Egbert, had neither the 
 vigour, nor the abilities of his father. He was bet- 
 ter qualified for governing a convent than a kingdom. He 
 divided his dominions; and gave the provinces of Essex, 
 Kent, and Sussex, to his eldest son, Athelstan. 
 
 The incursions of the Danes had now become almost an- 
 nual; and every part of England was exposed to continual 
 alarm. Their vessels, being small, were easily run up the 
 creeks and rivers; upon the banks of which they were 
 drawn ashore; where, an intrenchment was formed around 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 21 
 
 them, and guarded by a part of their number. The rest, 
 then scattered themselves over the country; and, carrying 
 away the inhabitants and the cattle, they all hastened to 
 their boats, and quickly disappeared. 
 
 Athelstan having died, and Ethelwolf being absent, on 
 a pilgrimage, at Rome, Ethelbald, the second son, formed 
 a project for dethroning his father. This induced the king 
 to make a second partition of his dominions; and ghe to 
 Ethelbald the sovereignty of the western division. After 
 this, Ethelwolf lived only two years. He left four sons, 
 Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred and Alfred ; having, by his 
 will, divided England between the two eldest. 
 
 The ecclesiastics now made rapid advances in the acqui- 
 sition of power and grandeur. Though parishes had been 
 instituted in England nearly two centuries before, the cler- 
 gy had not, until the present reign, got possession of the 
 tithes : but, a superstitious and imbecile monarch being 
 on the throne, when the people were discouraged by their 
 losses from the Danes, and terrified by the fear of future 
 invasions, they were susceptible of any impression, that 
 bore the appearance of religion; unable to discern that, 
 though all the Mosaic law was binding on the Jews, only 
 the moral part of it was obligatory on Christians. 
 
 7 Ethelbald was a profligate prince; and lived but 
 a short time after obtaining the government of his 
 province. Ethelbert, who united his deceased brother's 
 division with his own, conducted himself, during a five 
 years' reign, in a manner more becoming his birth and 
 situation, and defeated the Danes, with considerable loss, 
 at Winchester. 
 g6 Ethelbert was succeeded by his brother Ethel- 
 
 red; who, though he defended himself with brave- 
 ry, enjoyed, during his whole reign, no cessation of the 
 Danish irruptions. 
 
 Alfred, (the youngest son of Ethelwolf) who fol- 
 lowed his brother, Ethelred, gave early indications 
 of those great virtues, and illustrious talents, by which, in 
 the most difficult circumstances, he saved his country from 
 bondage and from ruin. He was now twenty-two years of 
 age. When a boy, he had been twice in Rome; yet, it 
 does not appear, that he made, in consequence, any ad- 
 vances in his education; as, he had reached his twelfth 
 vear, without having obtained a knowledge of the lowest 
 elements of literature. His genius, was at length roused 
 by the recital of Saxon poems; and thenceforward he ap- 
 
22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 plied himself to study, so assiduously, that he soon became 
 acquainted with many of the ancient Greek and Latin 
 works. But, when called to the protection of his country, 
 he shook off his literary employments, and took the field, 
 with alacrity, to oppose the Danes. 
 
 A new swarm of those ravagers came over, under 
 , Guthrum, Oscitel, and Amund ; and, having joined 
 
 their countrymen at Repton, spread themselves over the 
 whole kingdom. The king exerted himself so vigorously, 
 that, in the course of one year, he fought eight battles, 
 and reduced them to the greatest extremity. A fresh 
 band, however, of these robbers, landed oil the coast. This 
 so disheartened his subjects, that many of theni fled out 
 of the kingdom; and others submitted to the conquerors. 
 The utmost energies of Alfred were now insufficient to 
 rouse the people to resistance. He was obliged to relin- 
 quish the ensigns of royalty, and, in the humblest disguise, 
 to seek shelter from the enemy. He concealed himself in 
 a peasant's habit, and lived for some time in the cabin oi 
 a herd, who had been intrusted with the care of his own 
 cows. One day, the wife of the herd, observing him en- 
 gaged by the fire-side in trimming his bows and arrows, 
 desired him to take care of some cakes that were toasting; 
 but Alfred, whose thoughts were otherwise engaged, neg- 
 lected his charge. The good woman, finding her cakes 
 all burned, scolded him severely; upbraiding him, that he 
 always seemed well pleased when eating her cakes, though 
 he was thus negligent in toasting them. 
 
 When Alfred found that the enemy had abated the 
 eagerness of their search for him, he collected some of his 
 retainers; and, having retired into the centre of a bog, 
 formed by the stagnant waters of the Thone and Parrett, 
 in Somersetshire, he there discovered about two acres of 
 firm ground, upon which he built a habitation. This place 
 was secured by the difficulty of the passes, and by the for- 
 ests and morasses by which it was surrounded. He called 
 it iEthelingey, signifying the isle of nobles. It now bears 
 the name of Athelney. Thence, he made frequent sallies 
 upon the Danes; who often felt the vigour of his arm, bui 
 knew not from what quarter they received the blow. 
 
 After he had remained in this insulated retreat during a 
 whole year, he heard of an exhilarating event. Hubba, 
 the Dane, having devastated Wales, had landed in Devon- 
 shire, and laid siege to the castle of Kenwith. Odduue- 
 earl of Devonshire, with his followers, had taken shelter 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 23 
 
 there; and, determined, by some vigorous action, to pre- 
 vent the necessity of submitting- to the barbarians, made a 
 spirited sally on the Danes, routed them, killed their chief, 
 and got possession of the famous Reafen, or enchanted 
 standard. This ensign, containing the figure of a raven, 
 was made by the three sisters of Hubba, with many magical 
 incantations; and the superstitious Danes erroneously be- 
 lieved, that the good or the bad success of any enterprise 
 was prognosticated by its different movements. 
 
 Encouraged by this conduct of his subjects, Alfred ven- 
 tured from his retreat. But, lest he might prematurely 
 urge them to the noble attempt of restoring their liberties, 
 he resolved, himself, to inspect the situation of the enemy. 
 He accordingly entered their camp in the disguise of a 
 harper; passed every where unsuspected; so entertained 
 them with his music and facetious stories, that he was in- 
 troduced even into the tent of Guthrum; with whom, he re- 
 mained for several days ; and, having remarked the unguard- 
 ed manner of the Danes, and their inconsiderate wasting of 
 what they gained by rapine and violence, he then departed. 
 
 Animated still further, by these favourable appearances, 
 he summoned his principal subjects, with their warlike fol- 
 lowers, to a rendezvous at Brixton, on the borders of Sel- 
 wood Forest. At the appointed day, they joyfully resorted 
 to meet their prince. With shouts of applause, they sa- 
 luted their beloved monarch, whom they had long regarded 
 as dead ; but who, with voice and looks expressive of con- 
 fidence, now called them forth to victory and freedom. He 
 conducted them to Eddington, where the Danes were en- 
 camped; and, directing his unexpected attack against their 
 most unguarded quarter, instantly routed them, with greai 
 slaughter. Those who remained, he settled in East-Anglia 
 and Northumberland. But, that he might have at least 
 one pledge of their submission, he previously stipulated 
 that they should embrace Christianity: to which, Guthrum 
 and his followers consented. They were then all admitted 
 to baptism. The king answered for the Danish chieftain 
 at the font, gave him the name of Athelstan, and received 
 him as his adopted son. 
 
 Alfred now employed his time in restoring that order 
 which had been shaken by so many violent convulsions. 
 He established military institutions, infused a taste for in- 
 dustry, and a love of justice, and provided against future 
 calamities. As equality in the administration of the laws 
 is a great source of concord, he placed the Danes on the 
 
24 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 same footing with the English. After rebuilding London, 
 which had been destroyed in the reign of Ethelwolf, he 
 very prudently organized a regular militia, to whom he 
 assigned a rotation of duty; so that, whilst a part wepe em- 
 ployed in arms, the remainder attended to the cultivation 
 of the land ; and, wisely judging that the best method of 
 opposing an enemy, who made incursions by sea, was to 
 meet them on the same element, he provided a naval pow- 
 er; an important defence, which, hitherto, had been totally 
 neglected by the English: by which means, he repelled 
 several inroads of the Danes, and maintained his kingdom, 
 during many years, in tranquillity. 
 8Q3 But Hastings, the famous Danish chieftain, ap- 
 
 peared oft' the coast of Kent, with a fleet of three- 
 hundred-and-thirty sail; and he himself, with a division of 
 his vessels, entering the Thames, commenced most de- 
 structive ravages. Their progress, however, was soon ar- 
 rested. Alfred, with his usual alertness and intrepidity, 
 took the field ; and chased the greater part of those free- 
 booters out of the country. He had to contend also with 
 the East-Anglian Danes; who, encouraged by the presence 
 of their countrymen, broke into rebellion, and embarked in 
 upwards of two-hundred vessels, with which they appeared 
 before Exeter. These, he lost not a moment in opposing. 
 He instantly marched against this new enemy ; and, falling 
 suddenly upon them, pursued them to their ships. 
 
 In the mean time, Hastings advanced towards the in- 
 terior, and plundered all around him. But he soon had 
 reason to repent his temerity. Assisted by a party of the 
 citizens, the English army, which had been left in London, 
 defeated him at Bamflete; and carried off his wife and two 
 sons; whom Alfred generously restored; on condition that 
 the Dane should evacuate the kingdom. 
 
 Our limits will not allow us to follow this monarch, 
 through the almost innumerable struggles which he main- 
 tained with these atrocious barbarians, whom he at length 
 subdued. Having taken prisoners a large body, who had 
 landed under the command of Sigefert, a Northumbrian. 
 he tried them at Winchester, then the capital of his do- 
 minions, and hanged them all, as pirates and the common 
 enemies of mankind; a well timed severity; which,'to- 
 gether with the excellent posture of defence, every where 
 established, again restored the happiness of peace. 
 
 The Welsh having acknowledged his authority, which 
 was now extended from the English Channel to the frontiers 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 25 
 
 of Scotland, he died, in the fifty-second year of his 
 age, after a glorious reign of nearly thirty years » 
 having justly obtained the appellation of Alfred the Great, 
 and Founder of the English Monarchy. 
 
 In private, or in public life, the merit of this prince has 
 never been excelled. His only competitor is the illustrious 
 Washington. But, let us not, by endeavouring, pre-emi- 
 nently, to exalt one her*), unwillingly lessen our admiration 
 of the other. Alfred seems, to use the language of an 
 elegant historian, "to be the model of that perfect charac- 
 ter, which the philosophers have been fond of delineating, 
 rather as a fiction of their imagination, than in hopes of 
 ever seeing it really existing; and nature, as if willing that 
 so fine a production should be set in the fairest light, nad 
 bestowed on him every bodily accomplishment, — vigour of 
 limbs, dignity of shape and air, with a pleasant and agree- 
 able countenance." 
 
 When the Danes were subdued, Alfred found the king- 
 dom in a most wretched condition The country was over- 
 tun with straggling parties of those people; and the greater 
 number, even of the English, reduced to extreme indi- 
 gence, had shaken off Jhe bands of government, and plun- 
 dered their fellow citizens, in every direction. That he 
 might render the execution of justice strict and regular, 
 he divided England into shires, or counties; "and subdivided 
 these into hundreds and tithings. Ten neighbouring house- 
 holders were formed into a corporation; under the name 
 of a tithing, decennary, or fribourg; over which, he ap- 
 pointed one person, called a headbourg, to preside. Tiie 
 members were held accountable for each other's conduct; 
 and every man who did not join one of these associations, 
 was considered as an outlaw. 
 
 So regular a distribution of the people, with limitations 
 so strict, may not be necessary where men are inured to 
 obedience to the laws; indeed, in a polished state, it would 
 be subversive of liberty; but, amongst those licentious 
 people, it was well calculated to extend the salutary disci- 
 pline of government. 
 
 All trifling disputes were referred to the decennary; but, 
 in matters of greater moment, in appeals, or in controver- 
 sies between men of different decennaries, the cause was 
 brought before the hundred; which consisted of ten de- 
 cennaries, or a hundred families of freemen, and assembled 
 once every four weeks. Their method of decision resem- 
 bled the present mode by juries; the best institution that 
 C 2 
 
lib HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ever was contrived, for the administration of justice, and 
 the preservation of liberty: but juries were not the inven- 
 tion of Alfred, having been used before in England, and 
 been long in practice amongst all the German nations. 
 Besides these monthly meetings, there was an annual con- 
 vention; for inquiring into crimes, correcting magisterial 
 misconduct, and a general inspection of the police. Supe- 
 rior to this, was the county court; which met twice a year — 
 after Michaelmas and Easter; consisting of all the free 
 holders of the county, who possessed an equal vote in the 
 decisions. The bishop and alderman presided there : the 
 business was to determine appeals, and decide controver- 
 sies between men of different hundreds. 
 
 £rom all these courts, there lay an appeal, to the king 
 himself, in council : where, he was indefatigable in despatch- 
 ing the numerous causes which came before him. The 
 better, however, to guide the magistrates in the adminis- 
 tration of justice, Alfred formed a body of laws; which, 
 though now lost, served long as the basis of English juris- 
 prudence. This code is generally esteemed the origin of 
 the " Common Law." He appointed meetings of the se- 
 veral states, to be held twice a year in London; which he 
 had repaired and beautified, and, thus, rendered the capita! 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 The similarity of these institutions, to the customs of 
 the ancient Germans, to the practice of the other northern 
 conquerors, and to the Saxon laws, during the Heptarchy, 
 prevents us from regarding Alfred as the sole author of 
 this plan of government; but leads us rather to suppose, 
 that, like a wise man, he contented himself with reform- 
 ing, extending, and properly applying, the institutions, 
 which he had found previously established. 
 
 It is recorded of Alfred, that he hung forty-four corrupt 
 judges, in one year; and so exact was the general police, 
 that, it is said, he suspended, near the highways, bracelets 
 of gold; which no man dared to touch. Yet, amidst all 
 these rigours of justice, this great prince preserved an in- 
 violable regard for the liberties of his people. In his will, 
 is this memorable sentiment: "// is just, that the English 
 should ahvays remain as free as their own thoughts" 
 
 At the time of Alfred's ascending the throne, there was 
 not one person, south of the Thames, and very few in the 
 northern parts, who could interpret the Latin service of 
 the church. But this prince invited over the most emi- 
 nent scholars from the continent; established schools in all 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 27 
 
 parts of the kingdom ; and founded, or, at least, re-estab- 
 lished the University of Oxford. He was an author of high 
 reputation; and translated many Latin and Greek works; 
 amongst which were the elegant fables of ^Esop. He 
 also invited industrious foreigners to repeople those dis- 
 tricts which had been desolated by the Danes; encouraged 
 manufactures, and rewarded the inventors of ingenious arts- 
 He usually divided his time into three equal portions. One 
 was employed in study and devotion: another, in the des- 
 patch of business : a third, in sleep, and the recruiting of 
 his body, by diet and exercise : which divisions he exactly 
 measured, by the use of burning tapers, of equal lengths ; 
 an expedient suited to that rude age, when the geometry of 
 dialling, and the mechanism of clocks and watches, were 
 totally unknown. 
 
 The language of England had not, as yet, assumed an 
 appearance, in which we can distinguish the dawning of 
 the present English. Alfred's imitation of Boethius, taken 
 as a specimen, displays the Saxon in its highest state of 
 ancient purity, with scarcely any .intermixture of the 
 Roman. 
 
 Alfred left three sons, and three daughters. The eldest 
 son, Edmund, having died, in his father's lifetime, without 
 children, the second, Edward, succeeded to the throne. 
 
 This prince, known by the appellation of Edward the 
 Elder, possessed considerable military talent ; and success- 
 fully combated every attack made on the tranquillity of the 
 kingdom; whether by foreign, or domestic, enemies. It 
 was he who founded the University of Cambridge. 
 
 Edward was followed by Athelstan; who, though 
 a natural son of the preceding king, yet ascended 
 the throne in preference to Edward's legitimate children , 
 whose tender age rendered them incapable of governing 
 a country, so much exposed to irruptions from abroad, and 
 convulsions within itself. By these national calamities, 
 Athelstan was severely harassed; but, by his great abilities, 
 he preserved his dominions inviolate. 
 
 He maintained a successful war against the king of 
 Scotland, for having protected Anlaf, a Danish nobleman, 
 who had rebelled. When in the neighbourhood of the 
 English army, Anlaf employed the artifice formerly prac- 
 tised by Alfred against the Danes; and entered Athelstan's 
 camp, in the habit of a minstrel. He so highly pleased 
 the soldiers, that they introduced him tp the king's tent ; 
 and. having played before the prince and his nobles, he 
 
28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was dismissed with a handsome present. His prudence 
 p\ evented him from refusing the present, but his pride de- 
 •ei mined him, on his departure, to bury it, when he thought. 
 that he was unobserved. But, a soldier in the English 
 camp, who had formerly served under Anlaf, having enter- 
 rained suspicion on the first appearance of the minstrel, 
 had narrowly watched him; and, regarding this last action 
 as a full proof of Anlaf s disguise, he carried the intelli- 
 gence to Athelstan. The king foresaw that the incident 
 might be attended with important consequences. He re- 
 moved his station in the camp; and, as a bishop arrived 
 that evening with some troops, (for the clergy were then no 
 less warlike than the civil magistrates,) he occupied, with 
 his train, the very place which had been left vacant by the 
 king. The precaution of Athelstan was found prudent. 
 No sooner was it dark, than Anlaf broke into the camp ; 
 and, hastening directly to the place where he had left the 
 king's tent, put the bishop to death, before he had time to 
 make defence. 
 
 Athelstan caused the Scriptures to be translated into the 
 Saxon language; and passed a remarkable law, which dis- 
 plays a mind considerably more enlightened, than could be 
 looked for in those days of almost universal ignorance. It 
 enacted, that a merchant, who, on his own account, had 
 made three long sea-voyages, should be admitted to the 
 rank of a thane ; a title equivalent to that of gentleman. 
 . Edmund, a paternal brother of Athelstan, was 
 
 very young when he came to the crown, and, during 
 his short reign, met with considerable disturbance. At a 
 festival in Gloucester, he was killed in a rencounter with a 
 notorious robber ; who had the presumption to enter the 
 hall where the king was sitting at dinner. 
 
 .. The children of Edmund, being very young. 
 
 were set aside in favour of his brother Edred. 
 In this reign, the monks, whose introduction into the 
 kingdom was coeval with that of Christianity, greatly in- 
 creased in number; and, by the assistance of Dunstan, abbot 
 of Glastonbury, the monastic rules were rendered much 
 more rigid than before. This ecclesiastic, who is known 
 by the name of St. Dunstan, secluded himself entirely from 
 the world. He framed a cell, so small, that he could 
 neither stand erect in it, nor stretch out his limbs during 
 repose ; and here employed himself perpetually, either in 
 devotion or manual labour. By these solitary occupations, 
 he became gradually insane, and imagined chimeras, which, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 29 
 
 being believed by himself and his stupid votaries, procured 
 him a character of great sanctity amongst the people. lie 
 fancied that the devil, in his frequent visits, was one day 
 more earnest than usual in his temptations; till, provok- 
 ed at his importunities, he seized him by the nose, with 
 a pair of red-hot pincers, as he put his head into the cell , 
 and that he held him there, till that malignant spirit made 
 the whole neighbourhood resound with his bellowings. 
 
 A violent altercation now occurred, in consequence of a 
 new order of the Roman church, that a strict celibacy 
 should be observed, by the monks, and all orders of the 
 clergy; which, before the death of the present monarch, 
 was, in a great measure, established. 
 
 The next king was Edwy ; nephew of the last mon- 
 * arch, and son of Edmund, his predecessor. This 
 prince, who ascended the throne at the age of sixteen, wat 
 endowed with the most promising virtues ; and, distinguish- 
 ed by a handsome exterior. His reign was short an*d un- 
 fortunate; but it might have been equally happy for him- 
 self and his subjects, had he not been engaged m a contro- 
 versy with the monks. This arose from his having espoused- 
 against the remonstrances of the bishops, a beautiful prin, 
 cess of the royal blood, named Elgiva; who was within 
 the degrees of affinity forbidden by the canon law. 
 
 By the application of a red-hot iron, his queen was de- 
 prived of her fatal beauty; after which, she was carried 
 into Ireland ; there, to remain, in perpetual exile. Being, 
 however, cured of her wounds, she escaped into England; 
 but, when flying to the embraces of her husband, she was 
 again seized; and was deprived of life, in the most cruel 
 manner. Meanwhile, Edwy was excommunicated; which 
 event was soon afterwards followed by his death. 
 
 Edwy was succeeded by his brother, Edgar. 
 Though he ascended the throne at an early age, yet 
 he soon discovered an excellent capacity: his reign is one 
 of the most fortunate that the ancient history of England 
 can produce. He built and supported a powerful navy; 
 which was always employed in the protection of the coast. 
 His character, however, would be more estimable, had he 
 confined the exercise of his talents to the preservation of 
 his dominions, and not employed them in the subjugation 
 of his neighbours. If the account be true, which men- 
 tions his having been rowed upon the Q,ee by eight of his 
 tributary kings, we have more reason to admire the gran- 
 deur of the scene, than compliment him on his moderation 
 
30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in prosperity. The reputation of Edgar encouraged many 
 foreigners to settle in the kingdom. These, we are to!d ; 
 contributed to corrupt the simple manners of the natives; 
 but, as this simplicity had not preserved them from barba- 
 rity, or from treachery, one of the greatest of all vices, it 
 is probable that their morals did not suffer much injury 
 from the change. 
 
 Edgar's character, in private life, throws a darkening 
 reflection on his lustre as a prince. In the gratification of 
 his desires, he was unrestrained. The circumstances of 
 his marriage with Elfrida, are alike singular and criminal. 
 EllVida was the daughter and heiress of Olgar, earl of 
 Devonshire; and, though she had never appeared at court, 
 she had filled all England with the reputation of her beauty. 
 Edgar was not inattentive to such reports. He resolved, 
 if he found her charms correspondent to her fame, to ob- 
 tain possession of her; and, as her family was noble, not 
 to court her as a mistress, but to place her on his throne. 
 He commissioned earl Athelwold, his favourite, to visit her 
 father's castle, on some pretence, and bring him a certain 
 "account of Elfrida's beauty. Athelwold, found her more 
 beautiful than she had been reported; and, being actuated 
 by the most ardent love, he determined to sacrifice to his 
 passion, his fidelity to his master. He informed Edgar 
 that the report was untrue; that she was not handsome; 
 that she was, on the contrary, of a homely appearance; but, 
 that though she was a very unfitting partner for a king, she 
 would, on account of her great riches, be an advantageous 
 match for an humble earl. Edgar consented to his intend- 
 ed suit; and Athelwold became her husband. The king 
 was soon informed of the truth; but, before he would exe- 
 cute vengeance on Athelwold's treachery, he resolved to 
 ascertain, with his own eyes, the certainty and full extent 
 of his guilt. He told -him, that he intended to pay him a 
 visit, at his castle; and Athelwold, as he could not refuse 
 Ihis honour, begged only leave to go before him, a few 
 hours, that he might the better prepare every thing for his 
 reception. He then discovered the whole matter to Elfrida; 
 and begged her, if she had any regard, either to his own 
 honour or his life, to conceal from Edgar, by every dis- 
 guise, that fascinating beauty, which had seduced him into 
 treachery and falsehood. Elfrida promised to comply, 
 though nothing was further from her intention. She con- 
 sidered herself little obliged to a man, who had deprived 
 her of a crown; and did not despair, even yet, of obtaining 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 31 
 
 that station, by her charms, of which she had been deprived 
 by her husband's artifice. She appeared before the king, 
 in her richest attire, and with the most engaging airs; and 
 excited, at once, the highest love towards herself, and the 
 most furious revenge against her husband. Dissembling 
 his passion, Edgar seduced him into a wood, on pretence 
 of hunting, stabbed him with his own hand, and, soon after- 
 wards, publicly espoused Elfrida. 
 
 By the judicious policy of this monarch, a pecuniary in- 
 ducement was offered, which caused the extirpation of 
 wolves in England and Wales. 
 
 Edgar died after a reign of sixteen years, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son, Edward. 
 
 7 Edward's reign was short, and his end tragical. 
 
 But, though the murder which terminated his life, 
 had no connexion with any religious opinions, his youth, 
 his innocence, and the manner of his death, produced so 
 milch compassion, that the people, believing that miracles 
 were wrought at his tomb, gave him the name of Martyr. 
 
 His stepmother, Elfrida, had a son Ethelred, seven years 
 old, whom she attempted to raise to the throne. Yet Ed- 
 ward had always shown marks of the greatest regard for 
 her; and the most tender affection for his half-brother. 
 He was hunting one dzy : in a forest in Dorsetshire; and, 
 being led by the chace near CorSe-castle, where Elfrida re- 
 sided, he paid her a visit, unattended by any of his retinue, 
 and thereby presented her with the opportunity which she 
 had long desired. After he had remounted his horse, he 
 requested a drink; and, whilst he was holding the cup to 
 his head, a servant of Elfrida gave him a stab behind. The 
 prince, finding himself wounded, put spurs to his horse: 
 but, becoming faint by the loss of blood, he fell from the 
 saddle, his foot stuck in the stirrup, and he was thus drag- 
 ged along by his unruly horse, till he expired. 
 
 Elfrida built monasteries and underwent penances, as an 
 atonement for her guilt; but she could never, by all her 
 hypocrisy and remorse, recover the good opinion of the 
 public. '* 
 
 To him, succeeded Ethelred, his half-brother: to 
 ' whom, historians give the epithet of Unready; from 
 his want of promptness in the hour of danger. 
 
 The northern invaders, aware of the favourable opportu- 
 nity now afforded, by his inactivity and the bad conduct of 
 those intrusted with the reins of government; of whom, 
 Alfric, Duke of Mercia, was the most infamous; made a 
 
32 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 powerful descent, under Sweyn, king of Denmark, and 
 Olave, king of Norway. A numerous army was assembled 
 to oppose them. A general engagement ensued : but, in 
 consequence of the cowardice or treachery of their three 
 commanders, Trithegist, Frena, and Godwin, (all of Da- 
 nish extraction) the English were defeated; and, after many 
 other severe conflicts, Ethelred purchased a precarious 
 peace; and Sweyn with his associate, Olave, evacuated the 
 kingdom. But this shameful compromise served as an in- 
 centive to further inroads. Sweyn, shortly after, recom- 
 menced his invasions. The English, therefore, now de- 
 void both of prudence and unanimity in council, and of 
 courage and conduct in the field, had recourse to their for- 
 mer weak expedient; and again ignominiously purchased 
 by their gold, what they might have gloriously gained by 
 the sword. 
 
 After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, Ethelred 
 died, leaving two sons by his first marriage; Edmund, who 
 succeeded him, and Edwy, whom Canute afterwards mur- 
 dered. His two sons, Alfred and Edward, by his second 
 marriage, with Emma, sister of Richard, duke of Nor- 
 mandy, were immediately upon Ethelred's death conveyed 
 into Normandy, by their mother. 
 
 . . Edmund, who had distinguished himself in the 
 
 preceding reign, was, from his hardy valour, named 
 Ironside. Though his courage and abilities might have 
 been adequate to prevent his country from declining, they 
 were unequal to the task of raising it from its degradation. 
 Frustrated in his endeavours by the disaffection of his no- 
 bility and prelates, and wearied by their importunities, he 
 consented to divide the kingdom with Canute the Dane: to 
 whom, was given the northern division; comprising East 
 Anglia, Mercia, and Northumberland. In a month after 
 this partition, Edmund was murdered at Oxford. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE DANES. 
 
 Canute the Great, Harold Harefoot, Hardicanute. 
 
 (J U CANUTE, the son and successor of Sweyn, king 
 ' of Denmark, now ascended the throne of England : 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 33 
 
 in which usurpation, he was aided by some nobles, who 
 falsely interpreted the treaty, made with Edmund, at 
 Gloucester. 
 
 Edmund Ironside had left two sons, Edwin and Edward ; 
 both in their minority. These young princes were sent by 
 Canute to his ally, the king of Sweden; whom he requested 
 to despatch them. But the Swedish monarch, too generous 
 to comply, conveyed them to Solomon, King of Hungary; 
 to be educated at his court. Edwin married Solomon's 
 sister; and died soon after, without issue. Edward espous- 
 ed a daughter of the emperor, Henry the second ; from 
 which marriage, sprung Edgar Atheling, who will here- 
 after appear as a claimant of the English throne. 
 
 Canute reigned eighteen years; leaving three sons: 
 Sweyn, who succeeded to the crown of Norway; which his 
 father had won by conquest: Hardicanute, then on the 
 throne of Denmark, whose mother was Emma, widow of 
 Ethelred the Unready, and sister of Richard, duke of Nor- 
 mandy : and Harold, who followed his father, as king of 
 England. 
 
 The epithet, attached to the name of Canute, as well as 
 to that of many other princes, is not, by the inexperienced 
 reader, to be construed as implying any extraordinary 
 share of virtue; such virtue as adorns the patriotic citizen. 
 Great, when appJied by the interested adulators of royalty, 
 too often refers to those qualities of the mind, and acts of 
 martial prowess, which are conspicuously exerted in the 
 oppression of an unresisting people, or in the awful de- 
 struction of an unoffending neighbour. 
 . Assisted by earl Godwin, a powerful nobleman, 
 
 Harold, surnamed Harefoot, from his swiftness in 
 running, distinguished himself by cruelty and injustice. 
 
 Hardicanute, (or Canute the Hardy,) his suc- 
 cessor, was, upon his an ival from Denmark, joyfully 
 received by the English. But, very different feelings were 
 soon produced by his atrocity. In all his cruel and tyran- 
 nical proceedings, he, too, was assisted by Godwin. This 
 nobleman, being charged with the murder of prince Alfred, 
 a son of Ethelred the Unready, and maternal brother of Har- 
 dicanute, in order to appease the king, made him a present 
 of a splendid galley. It was rowed by eighty men ; each 
 of whom wore upon his arm a golden bracelet, weighing 
 sixteen ounces, and had his other appointments of the most 
 sumptuous kind. The king, pleased by its magnificence, 
 quickly forgot the murder; and, on Godwin's swearing 
 I) 
 
34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 thai he was innocent of the imputed crime, obtained for 
 him an acquittal. 
 
 This violent reign was of very short duration. Hardi- 
 Canute died suddenly at the marriage of a Danish lord; 
 which it is probable he attended to gratify his habit of 
 intemperance. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SAXON LINE RESTORED. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, {Harold the second.) 
 
 EDWARD, the youngest and only surviving son 
 1041. o f j7 t h e i rec i t h e Unready, and half-brother of Hardi- 
 canute, (their mother being Emma, widow of Ethelred,) 
 was at this time fortunately at court ; and, as Sweyn, the 
 eldest son of Canute, was in Norway, and the last two kings 
 had died without issue, the English embraced the favoura- 
 ble opportunity of shaking off the Danish yoke. Though, 
 however, the descendants of Edmund Ironside were the 
 true heirs of the Saxon family, yet their absence, in so 
 remote a country as Hungary, appeared a sufficient reason 
 for their exclusion. 
 
 The king, by the mildness of his conduct, soon reconcil- 
 ed the Danish inhabitants to his administration; so that all 
 national distinctions gradually disappeared. In most of the 
 provinces, the Danes were interspersed with the English • 
 they spoke nearly the same language: they varied little in 
 their laws or manners ; and there is no further-mention in 
 history of any dissimilarity between them. Edward was 
 educated in Normandy, and had contracted many intima- 
 cies with the natives of that country, as well as a partiality 
 for their manners. The court of England was soon filled 
 with Normans ; who, being distinguished both by the fa- 
 vour of Edward, and a degree of cultivation superior to 
 that of the English, soon rendered their language, laws, 
 and customs, fashionable in the kingdom. The study of 
 the French tongue became general ; and that language was 
 used, in their deeds and other papers, by the lawyers. 
 
 The. most eminent character that appeared in this reign, 
 
XIJSTORY OF ENGLAND 35 
 
 was Siward, earl of Northumberland. This nobleman, 
 besides his unwearied exertions in defence of the govern 
 ment, against the attacks of its internal enemies, particu- 
 larly Godwin, acquired honour to England, by his success- 
 ful management of the only foreign enterprise undertaken 
 during the reign of Edward. Duncan, king of Scotland, a 
 prince of very gentle disposition, having been assassinated 
 by Macbeth, a powerful nobleman nearly allied to the 
 Scottish crown; Siward, whose daughter had been married 
 to Duncan, embraced, by Edward's concurrence, the pro- 
 tection of his distressed family; marched an army into 
 Scotland ; and, having defeated and killed Macbeth in 
 battle, restored Malcolm, Duncan's son and heir, to the 
 throne. This is the historical foundation of the tragedy 
 of " Macbeth ;" one of the finest productions of the il- 
 lustrious Shakespeare. 
 
 Edward, to whom the monks give the name of saint and 
 confessor, was the last of the Saxon line of English mon* 
 arch's. He was the first that touched for the scrophula or 
 king's evil : the opinion of his sanctity induced a belief 
 that he could thus heal that incurable disorder; and his 
 successors indulged the people in this delusion for nearly 
 seven-hundred years.* 
 
 Harold was a son of the famous earl Godwin, 
 (who had acted as steward of the household, under 
 Edward,) and, by his mother's side, grandson of Canute 
 the Great. His sister Editha had been espoused by the 
 late king. Before the death of Edward, he had so well 
 prepared matters, that, notwithstanding the weakness of 
 his title, (Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside, 
 being the legitimate heir of the sovereignty,) he immedi- 
 ately stepped into the vacant throne- and the whole nation 
 seemed joyfully to swear allegiance. 
 
 The new king, however, was not allowed to remain long 
 in tranquillity. A formidable rival soon appeared. Wil- 
 liam, natural son of Robert, duke of Normandy, by the 
 daughter of a tanner in Falaise, was very early established 
 in that grandeur, from which he seemed to have been 
 placed at so great a distance, by his birth; and the eminent 
 qualities which he soon displayed, in the field and in the 
 cabinet, rendered him one of the most powerful princes of 
 his time. Founding his pretensions to the British throne 
 upon a family connexion, and some negotiations which had 
 
 * This ridiculous practice was first discontinued by George the first. 
 
36 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 taken place when at the court of Edward, William now 
 prepared to win by his arms, tnat crown which Harold had 
 gained by his address. Thus, to gratify ambition, the 
 blood of thousands was to flow; and the peaceful cottage, 
 the habitation of the industrious peasant, to become the 
 abode of the afflicted widow and her helpless orphans. 
 
 The Normans were, at this time, the most renowned 
 people in Europe; having been inured to the fatigues 
 of military duty in successive campaigns, under captains 
 of the greatest experience and abilities. The emperor, 
 Henry the fourth, besides giving his vassals permission to 
 eirbark in the intended expedition, promised his protection 
 to the dutchy of Normandy, during the absence of the 
 prince; and, thereby, enabled him to draw his whole force 
 to the attack upon England. He was also supported by 
 the approbation of the pope ; who, to encourage the duke 
 in his enterprise, sent him a consecrated banner, and a ring, 
 in which was one of St. Peter's hairs — at least so it was 
 denominated. 
 
 William had now assembled a fleet of three-thousand 
 vessels, and selected, from his numerous supplies, an army 
 of sixty- thousand men. During these mighty preparations, 
 he had induced Harold's brother, Tosti, and the king of 
 Norway, to make a descent upon England; which they ac- 
 complished. A sanguinary battle ensuing, near Stamford- 
 bridge, in Yorkshire, they were both killed, and their ai - 
 mies entirely routed; but Harold's victory served greatly 
 to reduce the strength of his own forces, and render them 
 less capable of opposing the threatened invasion. 
 
 Without having experienced any opposition in his pass- 
 age, the duke landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, and quietly 
 ^ disembarked his forces. A great battle took 
 place at Hastings ; and after a well contested ac- 
 tion, in which all the energies of the respective command- 
 ers were displayed, and Harold and his two brothers, killed, 
 the Normans were victorious. 
 
 Although the loss sustained by the English, in this mem- 
 orable engagement, was considerable, yet it might easily 
 have been repaired, had the resources of the nation been 
 skilfully concentrated, and vigorously applied. Unfortu- 
 nately, the people, by their long subjection to the Danes, 
 had lost all national pride and spirit; Edgar Atheling, the 
 only heir of the Saxon line, was considered as unfit to gov- 
 ern them, even in times of tranquillity and order, therefore 
 totally incapable of repairing their recent losses; and the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAJND. . 37 
 
 duke was allowed to complete his conquest, with Jittle oppo- 
 sition, except from two powerful earls, Edwin and Morcar: 
 who, in concert with Stigand, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 having proclaimed Edgar, king, used their utmost endeav- 
 ours to stop the progress of the invaders. Their exer- 
 tions, however, were ineffectual, and they retiied with their 
 troops to their own provinces ; after which, the people 
 unanimously yielded to the victor. As soon as William 
 had reached Berkhamstead, the primate made submission 
 to him; and before he came within view of London, all the 
 chief nobility, and Edgar Atheling himself, the newly elect- 
 ed king, (the only remaining prince of the royal blood,) 
 went into his camp, and tendered him the crown; of which, 
 with apparent reluctance, he accepted. 
 
 Thus, ended the Saxon monarchy in England, after con- 
 tinuing more than six-hundred years. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 William the Conqueror, William Kufus, -Henry the First, 
 Stephen. 
 
 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 
 
 1066—1087. 
 
 THE victory gained by William at Hastings, was over 
 the person of Harold, and not over the rights of the Eng- 
 lish nation. Edward the Confessor having died without. 
 issue, the competitors for the crown were Edgar Atheling, 
 Harold, and the duke of Normandy. Edgar had not ca- 
 pacity to sway the sceptre; and the succession of kings 
 was not then decided by any invariable rule. Harold was 
 a subject, and had no legal claim. William was related 
 to Edward, and urged the wishes of this prince that he 
 should succeed him. His victory, accordingly, gave him 
 the title of a successor, and not a conqueror; and, that the 
 quarrel was personal, appears from the circumstance that 
 William offered to decide the dispute with Harold, bv 
 single combat. 
 
 What we call purchase, was, in the feudal law, called 
 conquest,- both denoting any means of acquiring an estate, 
 D 2 
 
38 HISTORY OF ENGLAJND. 
 
 out of the common course of inheritance: and this is stifl 
 the proper term in the law of Scotland; as it was amongst 
 the Norman jurists; who styled the first purchaser (thai 
 is, him who first brought the estate into the family which 
 at present owns it) the conqueror. 
 
 Westminster Abbey was the place appointed for the 
 magnificent ceremony of the coronation ; and the most 
 considerable nobility, both English and Norman, attended, 
 on this important occasion. Aldred, archbishop of York, 
 by whom, rather than by the prelate of Canterbury, Wil 
 liam chose to be consecrated, demanded of the English no- 
 bility, whether they would accept of William as their king. 
 The bishop of Constance put the same question to the 
 Normans. Both having agreed, by acclamations, the arch- 
 bishop administered the usual coronation oath: by which, 
 he bound himself to protect the church, to administer jus- 
 tice, and repress violence. After this, he anointed him, 
 and placed the crown upon his head. At that instant, the 
 Norman soldiers, who were stationed without, in order to 
 guard the church, hearing the shouts within, and fearing 
 that the English were committing violence on their prince, 
 assaulted the populace, and set fire to the neighbouring 
 houses. The alarm was conveyed to the nobility who sur- 
 rounded the king; and it was with difficulty that he him- 
 self could appease the tumult. 
 
 Besides the usual coronation oath, William swore that 
 he would govern by the laws of the Confessor; and, for 
 this purpose, he summoned twelve Englishmen from every 
 county, to ascertain what these laws were; because the 
 greater part of them had 1 not been written, but were the 
 ancient customs of the realm. He also established justices 
 of the peace. His own army, in particular, was governed 
 with severe discipline; and the greatest care was taken to 
 curb the insolence of recent victory. Yet, amidst this ap- 
 parent friendship for his new subjects, he took care to place 
 all power in the hands of the Normans, and still keep pos- 
 session of the sword, to which he was indebted for his crown. 
 10fi _, Anxious to revisit his native country, he now de- 
 parted for Normandy; and, that the kingdom might, 
 in his absence, be exposed to less danger, he carried with 
 him Edgar Atheling and the principal nobility of Eng- 
 land ; who served both to increase the splendour of his 
 court, and remain as hostages for the fidelity of their coun- 
 trymen But the rapacity of the Normans, which had been 
 restrained by the rigour of their sovereign ; and the tend- 
 
HISTORY OF ENCLAIn D. 30 
 
 ency lo revolt, which hud been prevented by his vigilance*, 
 soon began to appear: conspiracies were formed, hostilities 
 commenced in many places, and every thing menaced a 
 revolution, as sudden as that which had placed William on 
 the throne. 
 
 Upon the first intelligence of these commotions, he hast- 
 ened back to England, disconcerted all the plans of the 
 confederates, confiscated their estates, and assigned them 
 to his Norman captains. 
 
 This measure, Whilst it gratified his rapacious followers, 
 increased the number of his enemies. His attention was 
 soon required by an insurrection in the north. At the head 
 of this patriotic struggle, were Edwin and Morcar; who 
 had stipulated for aid, from Blethin, prince of North Wales, 
 Malcolm, king of Scotland, and Sweyn, king of Denmark. 
 But William, knowing the importance of celerity, advanced 
 by forced marches, reached York before his enemies were 
 prepared for resistance, or were joined by any of the foreign 
 succours, except a small body from Wales, and obliged the 
 two earls to make an unconditional surrender. 
 
 The following year, he was again disturbed. An inva- 
 sion was made by Godwin, Edmund, and Magnus; three 
 sons of Harold ; who, after the defeat at Hastings, had 
 sought refuge in Ireland. Having met with a kind recep- 
 tion from Dermot, and other princes of that country, they 
 prepared an expedition against England, and landed in 
 Devonshire. But Brian, son of the count of Brittany, was 
 here ready to oppose them. Several actions ensued, in 
 which the invaders were unsuccessful; and they wei»e oblig- 
 ed, after great loss, to return into Ireland. 
 
 It was at this period, that William introduced 
 into England the feudal system. Finding himself 
 entirely master of the English people, he determined to 
 reduce them to a condition, in which they could no longer 
 be formidable to his government. He divided nearly all 
 the lands of the kingdom into baronies, and conferred them 
 (with the reservation of stated services and payments) on 
 the most considerable of his adventurers. These great 
 barons shared the principal part of their lands with other 
 foreigners, who were called knights, or vassals; and who 
 paid their lords the same duty and submission, in peace 
 and in war, which the lords themselves owed to their sove- 
 reign. The whole country contained about seven hundred 
 chief tenants, and sixty thousand knights. But, as none of 
 the English were admitted into the first rank, the few who 
 
<!0 HISTORY OF ENGLAiN'D 
 
 regained their landed property, were glad to be received in- 
 to the second, and live under the protection of some power- 
 ful Norman. It was a fixed maxim, in this reign, that no 
 one born in the island should ever be advanced to any dig- 
 nity — civil, military, or ecclesiastical; and the natives were 
 universally reduced to such a state of poverty and mean- 
 ness, that the English name became a term of reproach. 
 
 But William reserved a very ample revenue for the 
 crown, and retained for himself upwards of fcurteen-hurt- 
 dred manors; which paid him rent, either in money, or in 
 corn, cattle, and the usual produce of the land: and, not 
 contented with the large forests, which the former kings 
 possessed, in all parts of England, he resolved to make a 
 new forest, near Winchester, the usual place of his resi- 
 dence; and, for this purpose, he laid waste the country in 
 Hampshire, for an extent of thirty miles, expelled the in- 
 habitants from their houses, seized their property, even de- 
 molished churches and convents, and made the sufferers 
 not the smallest compensation. The killing of a deer or a 
 boar, was punished with the loss of the delinquent's eyes; 
 at a time, when the killing of a man could be atoned fol- 
 ly paying a moderate fine. 
 
 No sooner was the Norman prince established on the 
 throne, than the pope, with the concurrence of William, 
 despatched into England, the bishop of Sion, as his legate; 
 who was the first prelate that had ever appeared in that 
 character in the kingdom. The bishops, under frivolous 
 charges of irregularity, were, soon afterwards, by his dic- 
 tation, deprived of their respective sees. The bishop of 
 Worcester was the only English prelate who remained in 
 possession of his dignity. It is said, however, that he, al- 
 so, was removed; but, refusing to deliver his pastoral stciff 
 and ring, to any except the person from whom he had first 
 received it, he went immediately (so it is related by the 
 monkish historians) to Edward the Confessor's tomb, and 
 struck the staff so deeply into the stone, that no one except 
 himself, could pull it out; upon which, he was allowed to 
 resume his office. 
 
 In addition to his other innovations, this monarch enter- 
 tained even the difficult project of abolishing the English 
 language ; and, for that purpose, ordered, that, in all schools, 
 the youth should be instructed in the French tongue. The 
 pleadings in the supreme courts were in French: the laws 
 were written in that idiom: no other language was used at 
 "•ourt: it became fashionable in all the higher circles; a 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 41 
 
 policy, to which is chiefly to be attributed, the mixture of 
 French, at present to be found in the English language. 
 
 After quelling an insurrection of the barons in 
 England, and a revolt of his son Robert in Nor- 
 mandy, William had leisure to begin and finish a survey 
 of all the lands in the kingdom. He appointed commis- 
 sioners to ascertain the quantity and the various qualities 
 of land in each district, with the names of the proprietors ; 
 and, in many counties, the number and specification of the 
 inhabitants: which great undertaking was completed in six 
 years; and the particulars were noted in what is called 
 Domesday-Book. This monument, the most valuable 
 piece of antiquity possessed by any nation, is still pre- 
 served in the Exchequer in London.* 
 
 Having reached the sixty-third year of his age, William 
 died on the Continent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in 
 consequence of a hurt received when riding; in the twenty- 
 first year after the conquest of England, and the fifty-fourth 
 of his reign over Normandy. He left three sons: Robert, 
 William, and Henry. 
 
 The Normans introduced into England the use of sur- 
 names. 
 
 The best historian of this age, was Ingulphus, abbot of 
 Croyland ; who wrote a history of his abbey, interspersed 
 with much general information. 
 
 WILLIAM RUFUS. 
 
 1087—1100. 
 
 William, surnamed Rutus, from the colour of his hair, 
 which was of a reddish hue, though the second son, as- 
 cended the throne by the will of his father ; Robert, the 
 eldest, having succeeded to the dutchy of Normandy. The 
 appointment, however, caused considerable discontent, 
 amongst the Norman barons; who generally possessed large 
 estates both in England and their own country. They fore 
 saw, that it would be impossible for them long to preserve 
 their allegiance to two masters; and that they must, ulti- 
 mately, resign either their ancient property, or their new 
 
 * The cities appear, by Domesday-book, to have been little more, 
 m extent, than villages. York, itself, though, at that period, the 
 second city in England, contained only 1418 houses; Norwich, 738; 
 Exeter, 315; Ipswich, 538; Northampton, 60 ; Hertford, 146; Can 
 terbury, 262; Bath, 64; Southampton, 84 ; Warwick, 113. 
 
42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 acquisitions. A comparison, also, of the personal qualities 
 of the. two brothers, led them to give a preference to the 
 elder. The duke was brave, sincere, and generous ; and, 
 even his predominant defect, extreme indolence, was not 
 disagreeable to those haughty soldiers, who were fond of 
 independence, and submitted with reluctance to a rigorous 
 administration in their sovereign. The king, though 
 equally brave, wa; violent, haughty, and tyrannical. He 
 seemed disposed to govern, more by the fear, than by the 
 love, of his people. An insurrection ensued: but William, 
 by the vigorous measures which he adopted, soon reduced 
 the disaffected to obedience, banished the promoters of this 
 sedition, and divided their estates amongst the barons who 
 had remained faithful. 
 
 Actuated by a criminal ambition, he now thought of 
 wresting from his brother the dutchy of Normandy ; and 
 appeared there with a formidable army. An accommoda- 
 tion, however, took place. It was agreed, that William 
 should be put in possession of Eu, the town of Aumale, 
 and other places: but, in return, he promised to assist his 
 brother in subduing Maine, which had rebelled; and to 
 restore the barons to their forfeited estates in England 
 
 A dispute having arisen between Henry, on the one side, 
 and Robert and William, on the other, Henry retired into 
 a strong fortress on the coast of Normandy; in which, he 
 was attacked by the two brothers. When nearly reduced 
 by a scarcity of water, Robert, hearing of his distress, grant- 
 ed him leave to supply himself, and also sent him some 
 pipes of wine, for his own table. Being reproved by Wil- 
 liam for this ill-timed generosity, he replied : " What ! 
 shall I suffer my brother to die of thirst? Where, shall we 
 {ind another, when he is gone ?" The king, also, performed 
 an act of generosity, which was less suitable to his charac- 
 ter. Riding out one day, alone, to take a survey of the 
 fortress, he was attacked by two soldiers, and dismounted. 
 One of these drew his sword, in order to despatch him ; 
 when, William exclaimed: "Hold, knave! I am the king 
 of England." The soldier suspended his blow; and, having 
 respectfully raised the king from the ground, received a 
 1 and some reward, and was taken into his service. 
 
 Prince Henry, being soon after obliged to capitulate, 
 wandered about, for some time, irk great poverty. 
 lOQfi This period is memorable for the commence- 
 
 ment of the Crusades, which now engrossed the 
 attention of Europe; and may be ranked as the most re- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 43 
 
 markable monument of human folly, that ever was raised 
 by superstition. The appellation of Crusaders was given 
 to the deluded votaries of this mad enthusiasm, from the 
 figure of a cross affixed by each to his right shoulder. 
 All orders of men deemed the crusades the only road to 
 Heaven. The greatest criminals were forward in a ser- 
 vice, which they regarded as a propitiation for every crime. 
 Even women, concealing their sex under the disguise of 
 armour, attended the camp of these warriors; who sought 
 to wrest from the Mahometans, the city of Jerusalem, or 
 breathe their last in sight of that place where their Saviour 
 nad died. How much better might they have fulfilled the 
 injunctions of their sacred Master, by practising, at home, 
 the duties of morality and peace ! 
 
 Impelled by the general frenzy, the king's brother, Ro- 
 bert, had early enlisted in the crusade. Being, however, in 
 want of money, he mortgaged his dominions to the king of 
 England; and William was, accordingly, put in possession 
 of Normandy and Maine. But he did not many years sur- 
 vive this continental acquisition. In the thirteenth year 
 of his reign, and fortieth of his age, when engaged in his 
 favourite amusement of hunting, in the New Forest, in 
 Hampshire, a French gentleman, named Walter Tyrel, hav- 
 ing aimed at a stag which suddenly started before him, his 
 arrow, glancing from a tree, struck the king in the breast, 
 and instantly killed him. His body was buried by the coun- 
 try-people, without any pomp or ceremony, at Winchester. 
 His courtiers neglected to perform the last duties, to a 
 monarch who was so little beloved. They were too much 
 occupied in the more profitable employment of choosing 
 his successor, to allow their attending the funeral of a 
 dead sovereign. 
 
 A fashion prevailed, in this age, in England, and through- 
 out Europe, amongst both men and women, to wear shoes^ 
 of enormous length, to draw the toe to a sharp point, and 
 affix the figure of a bird's bill, or a similar ornament, which 
 was turned upwards, and was often sustained by gold or 
 silver chains, tied to the knee. The clergy declaimed, with 
 great vehemence, against this fashion; which, they said, 
 was an attempt to bely the Scripture, where it is affirmed, 
 that no man can add a cubit to his stature. They even 
 assembled synods, who condemned it. But, though the 
 clergy, at that time, con Id overturn thrones, and had authori- 
 ty sufficient to send a million of men on the crusades, they 
 could never prevail against these long-pointed shoes. 
 
44 HISTOilY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The monuments which remain in England of this prince, 
 are Westminster Hall, and London Bridge; both of which 
 were built by his directions. The Tower, also, was origi- 
 nally founded by him: but the present superstructure of 
 that fortress was erected at the close of the fourteenth 
 century, by Richard U. 
 
 HENRY THE FIRST. 
 1100 — 1135. 
 
 The throne was immediately occupied by Henry, the 
 youngest son of the Conqueror, and the younger brother 
 of the late king. Robert was absent at Jerusalem; where, 
 he distinguished himself, by his extraordinary courage, as 
 well as by that affable disposition and unbounded generosi- 
 ty, which qualify a prince to shine in a military profession. 
 
 As Henry easily foresaw, that a crown, usurped against 
 all rules of justice, would sit very unsteadily on his head, 
 he resolved, by fail appearances, to gain the affection of 
 his subjects. He voluntarily made a charter, which was 
 calculated to remove many grievous oppressions under 
 which the people had long laboured. In this instrument, 
 he promised, that upon the death of any earl, baron, or 
 military tenant, his heir sfiould be admitted to the posses- 
 sion of his estate, on paying a just and reasonable sum to 
 the crown. He also remitted the wardship of minors, and 
 the right of giving any heiress in marriage, without the ad- 
 vice of all the barons; restored the Anglo-Saxon laws, as 
 confirmed in a charter by Edward the Confessor, (the same 
 that the first William had sworn to observe) and made 
 several other concessions, favourable to the property and 
 liberty of the subject. But, when he had gained his pur- 
 pose, he never once thought, during his whole reign, of 
 observing a single article of it. 
 
 Robert, who, shortly after his brother's death, had return- 
 ed to Normandy, took possession of thatdutchy; and com- 
 menced preparations to enable him to gain the English 
 tnrone, of which, in his absence, he had been deprived. 
 He landed with his troops at Portsmouth; but an accom- 
 modation ensued. It was agreed, that Robert should re- 
 sign his claim to England, in consideration of an annual 
 pension ; and, that if either of the princes died without is- 
 sue, the other should succeed to his dominions. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 45 
 
 Henry was the first to infringe the treaty. He 
 * made an attack on Normandy; in the conquest of 
 which ne succeeded, after a severe battle at Tenchebray; 
 where, Robert was made prisoner. This unfortunate prince 
 was detained in custody during the remainder of his life, 
 which was twenty-eight years, in the castle of Cardiff, in 
 Glamorganshire. Thus, are the bonds of kindred affection 
 rent asunder, by the furious impulse of a detestable am- 
 bition. Edgar Atheling, also, who had accompanied Ro- 
 bert to Jerusalem, was amongst the prisoners taken, by 
 the king, at Tenchebray. He gave him his liberty, and 
 settled a small pension on him; with which, having re- 
 tired, he lived to an advanced age in England, totally neg- 
 lected and forgotten; such was the indifference with which 
 he was viewed, from his want of talent. 
 
 Henry died suddenly in Normandy, in the sixty-seventh 
 year of his age, and thirty-fifth of his reign; leaving his 
 daughter, the empress Matilda, heiress of his dominions. 
 This prince, in point of mental attainments, and abilities 
 in general, was one of the most accomplished that ever 
 filled the British throne; and by his great progress in 
 literature, he acquired the name of Beau-clerc, or the 
 scholar. He ma.de canals for joining navigable rivers, and 
 granted a charter to London; which seems to have been 
 the first step towards rendering that city a corporation. 
 
 During his whole reign, the nation was disturbed by 
 violent contentions with the court of Rome. A synod, 
 convened at Westminster, passed a vote, prohibiting the 
 laity from wearing long hair. The aversion of the clergy 
 to this mode, was not confined to England. When the king 
 went over into Normandy, before he had conquered that 
 province, the bishop of Seez, in a formal harangue, earnest- 
 ly besought him to redress the manifold disorders under 
 which the government laboured, and to oblige the people 
 to cut their hair in a decent form. Henry, though he would 
 not resign his prerogatives to the church, was very willing 
 to part with his hair : he cut it in the required form, and 
 obliged all the courtiers to imitate his example. 
 E 
 
46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 STEPHEN. 
 
 1135—1154. 
 
 The irregular manner in which Henry had acquired the 
 crown, might have taught that prince how little regard 
 would he shown to the injunctions of a will; and the casu- 
 istry of the age, how little respect to the oaths of fealty, 
 sworn, by the barons, both of Normandy and England, to 
 Matilda. Indeed, no nation of Europe had ever seen a 
 crown on the head of a female ; and Spain was then the 
 only country that had ever had a king who claimed in a 
 female right. His nephew, Stephen of Blois, maternal 
 grandson of the Conqueror, had, by the friendship of the 
 late king, gained, in England, great riches, honours, and 
 preferments ; and no sooner had Henry expired, than he 
 hastened over from the Continent, and, by the influence of 
 his wealth and dignities, got possession of the throne. 
 
 But Stephen, though he now wielded a sceptre, did not 
 enjoy it in tranquillity. He felt a large share of those in- 
 quietudes, with which Providence is pleased, abundantly, 
 to visit the palaces of kings. The barons, in return for 
 their submission, had exacted most exorbitant demands ; 
 equally destructive of the royal authority, and the peace of 
 the community. Many of these required the right of for- 
 tifying their castles, and increasing their defences; so that 
 all England was immediately filled with those fortresses, 
 which they garrisoned with their vassals, or with licentious 
 soldiers that flocked to them from every quarter. 
 
 Robert, earl of Gloucester, natural son of the late king, 
 was a man of honour and ability, and much attached to the 
 interests of Matilda. From this nobleman, Stephen had 
 much to fear. Having arranged the project of an insur- 
 rection, he retired to the Continent, sent the king a defi- 
 ance, solemnly renounced his allegiance, and upbraided 
 him with a breach of the conditions which had been annex- 
 ed to his oath of fealty. Her uncle, David, king of Scot- 
 land, took the field in defence of Matilda's title; and, pene- 
 trating into Yorkshire, committed most barbarous devasta- 
 tions. The fury of his massacre and ravages enraged the 
 northern nobility, who might, otherwise. have been inclined 
 to join him ; and the earl of Albermarle, William Percy, 
 Robert de Brus, and other powerful barons, assembled 
 an army, with which they encamped at North-Aller- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 47 
 
 ton ; where a great engagement took place, in which the 
 king of Scot? was routed, and very narrowly escaped fall- 
 ing into the hands of his enemies. 
 
 . Matilda, accompanied by the earl of Gloucester, 
 
 nowlanded in England, and fixed her residence at 
 Arundel Castle; where she was joined by many of the 
 barons, with their numerous vassals. An engagement took 
 place at Lincoln ; in which, Stephen was made prisoner, 
 Matilda was shortly after crowned at Winchester; andi 
 though she experienced great opposition from the citizens 
 of London, yet, by the aid of the clergy, whose favours had 
 been gained by concessions, she brought them to submit. 
 
 But, another revolution shortly followed. By a concur- 
 rence of events, which it would be tedious to enumerate, 
 and which, if related, would be devoid of interest, Stephen 
 was released from prison, and Matilda was under the ne- 
 cessity of retiring from the kingdom. Although, however, 
 the king had gained his liberty, he can scarcely be said, at 
 this time, to have reascended the throne. He had to con- 
 tend, not only with powerful opposition from many of the 
 nobles, but also with the anathemas. of the pope. 
 
 Seizing the favourable opportunity now afforded, prince 
 Henry, son of Matilda, made an invasion; and, having 
 gained some advantages over Stephen, compelled him to 
 listen to an accommodation. It was agreed, that Stephen 
 should possess the crown during his life, and that Henry 
 should succeed him. The death of the king, which hap- 
 pened in the next year, prevented all those quarrels and 
 jealousies which were likely to ensue in so delicate a situa- 
 tion ; as it is not very probable, that the young prince 
 would have patiently waited for an event, which he himself 
 might not survive. 
 
 The historians of this period, were William of Malms- 
 bury, and Peter of Blois. On the authority of the latter, 
 it appears, that London then contained only forty-thousand 
 inhabitants. The Saxon language now assumed in Eng- 
 land, a form, in which may plainly be discovered the bt* 
 ginning of the present English. 
 
4S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 CONQUEST OF IRELAND. 
 
 Henry the second, Richard the first, John, Henry the third, Ed- 
 ward the first, Edward the second, Edward the third, Rich- 
 ard the second* 
 
 HENRY THE SECOND. 
 
 1154—1189. 
 
 THIS prince was about twenty-one years of age when 
 he ascended the British throne. In his person, the fami- 
 lies of the Saxon and Norman monarchs were united; his 
 mother being the grand niece of Edgai Atheling, and a 
 lineal descendant of Edmund Ironside. He was master, in 
 right of his father, the earl of Anjou Plantagenet, of Tou- 
 raine, Anjou, and Maine : he inherited from his mother 
 Matilda, Normandy ; obtained by his wife, Perigord, Poic- 
 tou, Guienne, Xaintogne, Auvergne, Limousin, and Angou- 
 mois ; and, soon after, annexed Brittany to his other states. 
 These provinces composed above a third of the whole 
 French monarchy ; and were much superior, in extent and 
 resources, to those territories which were under the imme- 
 diate jurisdiction of the king of France. Henry was the 
 greatest prince of his time, for wisdom, virtue, and politi- 
 cal ability; and the most powerful, in extent of dominion, 
 that had ever worn the crown of England. His character, 
 in private, as well as in public life, is almost without blem- 
 ish. He was of a middle stature — strong, and well pro- 
 portioned : his countenance was lively and engaging ; his 
 conversation, affable and entertaining ; his elocution, easy, 
 persuasive, and always at command. He loved peace, but 
 possessed both bravery and conduct in war. 
 
 As the king, and all the English barons, were of French 
 extraction, the manners of the latter gradually acquired 
 the ascendance. All foreign improvements, therefore, such 
 as they were, in literature and politeness, in laws and in 
 arts, seem then, in a great measure, transplanted into Eng- 
 land ; and this country soon rivaled her continental neigh- 
 oours, in the fashionable accomplishments of the age. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 49 
 
 A dispute having arisen respecting the occupation of 
 Nantz, Henry, lest Louis, the French king-, should inter- 
 pose against him in the controversy, paid that monarch a 
 visit ; and pleased him so much by his deportment, that an 
 alliance was contracted. They agreed, that young Henry, 
 heir of the British throne, should be affianced to Margaret 
 of France; though the former was only five years of age, 
 and the latter was yet in her cradle. 
 
 The usurpations of the clergy, which had, here- 
 tofore, been gradual, were now so rapid and alarm- 
 ing, that it seemed necessary to determine, whether the 
 king or the ecclesiastics, particularly the archbishop of 
 Canterbury, should have the political ascendency. The 
 high spirit of Henry, was not likely to pay a tame submis- 
 sion to their encroachments. The most remarkable person- 
 age in these contentions, was the celebrated Thomas a Beck- 
 et ; the first man of English pedigree, who, since the Nor- 
 man Conquest, had risen to any considerable station ; and 
 who, by natural ability, improved by experience; and by 
 intrigue and affected austerity; raised himself, from an 
 humble station, to the exalted dignity of chancellor of the 
 kingdom^ prime minister, and, ultimately, to that of arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury. In addition to these great employ- 
 ments, he received also the income of two extensive baro- 
 nies; and, to complete his grandeur, was intrusted with the 
 education of the king's eldest son. The pomp of his retinue 
 the luxury of his table, and the munificence of his presents 
 corresponded to these great preferments; or, rather, ex- 
 ceeded any thing which England had ever, before, witness- 
 ed, in any subject. His historian and secretary, Fitz-Ste- 
 phen, mentions, amongst other particulars, that his apart- 
 ments were every day, in winter, covered with clean straw 
 or hay; and, in summer, with green rushes or boughs: lest 
 the gentlemen who paid their court to him, and who could 
 not, by reason of their great number, find a place at table, 
 should soil their fine clothes by sitting on a dirty floor !— 
 That, however, in those days, when carpets were not used 
 even in the royal palace, was considered as effeminate re- 
 finement. He employed himself, at leisure hours, in hunt- 
 ing, hawking, and gaming; and maintained, during fort, 
 days, in one*of the king's wars in Normandy, twelve-hun- 
 dred knights and four-thousand of their train. 
 
 Henry, himself, partook of his entertainments An 
 amusing instance of their familiarity is mentioned; which 
 forcibly displays the manners of that age. One day, as the 
 E 2 
 
50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 king and Becket were riding in the streets of London, they 
 observed a beggar, who was shivering with cold: "Would 
 it not be very praiseworthy," said the king, "to give that 
 poor man a warm coat, in this severe weather?" "It would, 
 surely," replied the .chancellor; "and you do well, sir, in 
 thinking of so good an action." " Then he shall have one 
 presently," replied the king; and, seizing the skirts of 
 Becket's coat, he began to pull it violently. Becket de- 
 fended himself for some time; and both had nearly fallen 
 off their horses, when the chancellor, after a vehement 
 struggle, let go his coat; which the king gave to the beg- 
 gar: who, being ignorant of their persons, was not a little 
 surprised at the present. 
 
 At this time, however, Becket had not attained the sum- 
 mit of his elevation. But, when afterwards he received 
 from Henry the exalted honours of the see of Canterbury 
 which rendered him, for life, the second person in the king- 
 dom, he totally altered his demeanour, and endeavoured to 
 retrieve that character of sanctity, which his former osten- 
 tation had impaired. He immediately resigned all his civil 
 employments ; intimating, that, thenceforth, he must be 
 solely occupied in the exercise of his religious functions. 
 Although he still retained, in his retinue and attendants, 
 his accustomed pomp and lustre, which were useful to 
 strike the vulgar, yet. in his own person, he affected the 
 most rigid mortification. H>i wore sackcloth next his skin; 
 his usual diet was bread; his drink, water; which he had 
 rendered unpalatable by the mixture of unsavoury herbs : 
 he tore his back by the frequent scourgings which he in- 
 flicted on it; and daily, on his knees, washed the feet of 
 thirteen beggars, whom he afterwards dismissed with 
 presents. 
 
 These austerities, could not, however, deceive men of 
 penetration. They easily foresaw, that he meditated some 
 great design; and that his ambition had directed him to- 
 wards a new and more dangerous experiment. 
 
 The ecclesiastics, in that age, had renounced all subor- 
 dination to the magistrates : they openly pretended to an 
 exemption, in criminal accusations, from a trial before 
 courts of justice, and were gradually introducing a similar 
 exemption in civil causes; and, as the clergy had extreme- 
 ly multiplied in England, and many of them were, conse- 
 quently, of very low characters, murders, and robberies, 
 and other crimes of the deepest die, were daily committed 
 \\y them, with impunity. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 51 
 
 The most inquisitive reader would be wearied by a recital 
 of the successive encroachments of the primate, and the 
 endeavours of the sovereign to resist their effects. Henry, 
 seizing a favourable opportunity, resolved to determine, at 
 once, the increasing controversies between the civil and 
 the ecclesiastical jurisdiction. He therefore summoned 
 an assembly of all the prelates in the kingdom ; and put 
 to them this plain and decisive question : Whether they 
 were willing to submit to the ancient laws and customs of 
 England ? The bishops unanimously replied, That they 
 were willing, saving their own order. 
 
 This evasion served only to inflame the king's resent- 
 ment. He was not to be divertedTfrom his purpose. In the 
 following year, he convened, at Clarendon, a general council 
 of the nobility and prelates ; to whom he submitted the im- 
 portant decision of the present alarming differences. The 
 barons having been gained to the king's party, the bishops 
 became overawed; and a body of laws, called the Constitu- 
 . . fi tions of Clarendon, were agreed to, without opposi- 
 tion. It was enacted, that clergymen accused of 
 any crime should be tried by the civil power: that laymen 
 should not be indicted in spiritual courts, except by legal 
 and reputable witnesses : that the bishops, and other spirit- 
 ual dignitaries, should be regarded as barons of the realm, 
 and be bound to assist at trials, and attend the king in his 
 great councils ; and that goods forfeited to the king should 
 not be protected in churches or church yards. 
 
 Although Becket himself subscribed to these articles, it 
 does not appear, that he, in the least degree, relaxed from 
 his usual struggles in favour of the clerical supremacy. 
 Henry and the primate were almost perpetually at vari- 
 ance ; he was at length banished from the kingdom ; and, 
 although, after a compromise had been effected, he was 
 allowed to return, yet, still, the controversy was repeated. 
 He filled all places with exclamations against the violence 
 which he had suffered, excommunicated the king's minis- 
 ters, by name, and every one that obeyed the constitutions 
 of Clarendon ; absolved all persons from the oaths which 
 they had taken to observe them ; and even told Henry that 
 kings reign solely by the authority of the church. 
 
 The king, when on the continent, being one day 
 vehemently agitated, burst forth into an exclama- 
 tion against his servants ; whose want of zeal, he said, had 
 left him so long exposed to the enterprises of that ungrate- 
 ful and imperious prelate. Four officers of his household. 
 
52 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 taking these passionate expressions as a hint for Becket's 
 death, swore to revenge their prince's quarrel, and secretly 
 withdrew from court. The king, apprehensive of their 
 design, despatched after them a messenger; charging them 
 to attempt nothing against the person of the primate. But 
 these orders arrived too late. Becket had been assassinat- 
 ed in the cathedral church of Canterbury. In this manner, 
 did his rashly officious friends, seek a remedy for evil, in 
 the commission of one of the most horrid crimes of which 
 man can be guilty; and plunge, into the severest affliction, 
 him, whose troubles they had sought to alleviate. 
 
 Though Henry had acquitted his own conscience from 
 desiring the assassination of Becket, he was extremely 
 alarmed, lest he might incur the anathemas of the court of 
 Rome. The Thursday before Easter was now approach- 
 ing, when it is customary for the pope to denounce annual 
 curses against all his enemies ; and it was expected that 
 Henry would be solemnly comprehended amongst the num- 
 ber: but an ambassador, sent hastily forward, found means 
 to appease the pontiff, and artfully to elude the blow. 
 
 Two years after his death, Becket was sainted by the 
 pope, his body was removed to a magnificent shrine, en- 
 riched with presents from all parts of Christendom ; and, 
 f in one year, above a hundred-thousand pilgrims arrived at 
 Canterbury, and paid devotions at his tomb. 
 
 AVe shall now proceed to the most important, but not 
 the most pleasing, event, in the history of this reign — the 
 invasion and subjection of Ireland. 
 
 Though it is foreign to the plan of the present work, to 
 devote an equal degree of attention to Irish affairs, as to 
 those of England, yet, viewing as we do, the greatness of 
 the attainment to the British crown, it seems proper to 
 give at least a cursory sketch, of the ancient state of so 
 celebrated an island. 
 
 When we examine the remote histories of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland, and find names and facts given with un- 
 hesitating confidence, and apparent chronological accuracy, 
 it seems, at first sight, an unreasonable degree of scepti- 
 cism, to withhold our assent, or question their authenti- 
 city ; however, a minuter inquiry, evinces them to be, in 
 general, but specious delusions — the inventions of the hu- 
 man mind. Ireland, unquestionably, at a very early period, 
 contained extensive colleges for the reception of literary 
 students ; but, until after the general revival of letters, if 
 we except her music, which was then, as it is now, the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 53 
 
 most delightful in the world, she sent forth no illuminating 
 beams of scientific knowledge, or of elegance. Greece 
 and Italy, though possessed, in remote ages, of few public 
 seminaries of learning, have transmitted, even through the 
 gloomy centuries of barbarism, those immortal produc- 
 tions, which excite the highest admiration, and challenge 
 the ablest exertions, of our modern schools. The language 
 of the Irish, it maybe said, is no longer a collegiate study. 
 The Greek and Latin, though neither is, at this time, the 
 language of a nation, live, from age to age, in the splendid 
 pages which they have adorned. Had those crowded acad- 
 emies of Ireland produced within their walls a Homer or 
 a Virgil, an Herodotus or a Livy, the Iberno-Celtic tongue 
 would not now be confined to the illiterate vulgar. 
 
 The earliest authentic reference to this island, is by the 
 ancient geographer, Strabo. He says, that the position of 
 Ireland, and its distance from the coast of Gaul, were in- 
 serted in the papers of Eratosthenes, librarian of the 
 second Ptolemy, king of Egypt. This prince flourished 
 about two-hundred-and-fifty years before the Christian sera. 
 Pliny, also, refers to a map of Ireland, which was placed in 
 a portico at Rome, amongst other geographical documents 
 collected under the superintendence of Julius Caesar. The 
 names of Iri, Eri, Erin, with their variations, were ancient- 
 ly given to this island. Caesar is, we believe, the first Ro- 
 man writer who mentions it. He calls it Hibernia; proba- 
 bly from its supposed coldness ; hibernus, in Latin, signi- 
 fying winterly. 
 
 As Britain was first peopled from Gaul, so was Ireland, 
 most probably, from Britain. The inhabitants of all these 
 countries seem to have been so many tribes of the Celtse, 
 who derive their origin from an antiquity far beyond the 
 records of any history or tradition. The ancient language 
 of Ireland was what is now called the Gaelic : the same, 
 excepting the changes produced by time, that is still used 
 by at least three-fourths of the lower classes in that country. 
 In many parts of Scotland, Wales, and the Isle of Man, 
 dialects of this tongue are still very common; all bearing 
 so near an affinity, that the people of one can converse in- 
 telligibly with those of another. 
 
 179 At this period, besides many small tribes, there 
 
 were in the island five principal sovereignties; Mun- 
 
 ster, Leinster, Meath, Ulster, and Connaught. Roderick 
 
 O'Connor, king of Connaught, was advanced to the dignity 
 
 of presiding in their councils, and of leading their armies 
 
54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 against a foreign enemy ; but his government, ill obeyed, 
 even within his own territory, was not capable of uniting 
 the people in measures for their general defence. The 
 following circumstance seems to have hastened the at- 
 tempts of the British king upon this island, which had 
 been previously designed by himself, and sanctioned by the 
 Roman pontiff. Dermot M'Murrough, sovereign of Lein- 
 ster, an odious tyrant, had formed a design on Omach, 
 wile of Ororic, king of Meath : Ororic,for better security, 
 during his absence in a distant part of his dominions, had 
 placed his queen in an island surrounded by a bog: but 
 Dermot, seizing the opportunity, invaded the place, and 
 carried off the princess. This immoral and ungenerous 
 act, led to his expulsion from the country. He had then 
 recourse to Henry; and proposed that if he assisted him 
 in recovering his kingdom, he would hold it in vassalage 
 of the crown of England. Christianity had been carried 
 to Ireland by missions from the ancient Britains; but the 
 Irish followed the doctrines of their first teachers, and had 
 never acknowledged subjection to the Roman see. Adrian 
 the third, therefore, in the year 1156, issued a bull in fa- 
 vour of Henry ; in which, after premising that this prince 
 had always been anxious to enlarge the church of God, on 
 earth, and to increase the number of his saints in Heaven, 
 he exhorts him to invade Ireland, to extirpate the vice and 
 wickedness of the natives, and oblige them to pay, yearly, 
 from every house, a penny to the see of Rome. 
 
 The first hostile party of the British was under the or- 
 ders of Robert Fitz-Stephen ; who landed near Wexford. 
 Maurice de Prendergast, Fitzgerald, Raymond, and the 
 earl of Strigul, (surnamed Strongbow,) successively fol- 
 lowed; each with a party under his command. The latter, 
 the most renowned of all, landed at Waterford; which he 
 immediately subdued. He then proceeded to Dublin; 
 which he carried by assault. Henry himself soon arrived, 
 with a few hundred men ; not so much to conquer a dis- 
 puted territory, as to take possession of a subjected king- 
 dom. Amongst the British adventurers, he distributed 
 the lands, which belonged to those leaders who had offend- 
 ed him by their opposition; and, after a short stay, return- 
 ed to England ; leaving most of the Irish chieftains undis 
 urbed in their dominions. 
 
 The Irish, at that time, were undisciplined, and almost 
 entirely without armour; a mode of personal defence used 
 by their invaders: to which causes, and their want of union, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 55 
 
 may be attributed the easy victory over a people,, inferior 
 to none in point of natural bravery and strength. 
 
 Henry died -in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and the 
 thirty-fifth of his reign His life was shortened by the un- 
 grateful conduct of his own children, Henry, Richard, and 
 John; who, disgracefully aiming to deprive their indulgen- 
 father of his dominions, embittered his declining years with 
 corroding anguish. Two, only, of his sons survived him: 
 Richard, who succeeded to the throne ; and John, who did 
 not inherit any territory; and was thence called Lacland. 
 
 The most industrious writer of this reign was Hovedon. 
 
 RICHARD THE FIRST. 
 
 1189—1199. 
 
 By his eonduct, when invested with the regal dignity, 
 Richard endeavoured to atone for his undutiful behaviour 
 to his father. Those who had assisted in his rebellion, in- 
 stead of meeting with the honour and confidence which 
 they had expected, were, on all occasions, hated and des- 
 pised ; but, the faithful ministers of Henry, were received 
 with open arms. 
 
 The events of this reign are unimportant, at the present 
 day. Our business is, to give a faithful detail only of those 
 transactions that have a tendency to elucidate effects which 
 have remained permanent ; not to burthen our pages with 
 those that should rather be forgotten than remembered. 
 
 The character of Richard displays a strange mixture of 
 vice and virtue. He seemed calculated rather to dazzle 
 mankind by the splendour of his enterprises, than to pro- 
 mote the happiness of his people by a well regulated gov- 
 ernment. No man, even in that romantic age, carried per- 
 sonal courage to a greater height. It was this quality 
 which gained him the appellation of Cceur de Lion, the 
 lion-hearted. Shortly after ascending the throne, he joined 
 in a crusade to Palestine; where he remained nearly three 
 years ; shining in every action. The most memorable bat- 
 tle which then occurred, was fought by the Christians on 
 the one side, and Saladin, the renowned emperor of the 
 Saracens, on the other ; who, by the heroic behaviour of 
 Richard, received a signal overthrow. In his return home, 
 the king was treacherously detained by Leopold, duke of 
 Austria; and for a sum of money, assigned to the emperor 
 Henry the sixth ; by whom he was carried into the heart of 
 
56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Germany, and loaded with irons, until ransomed by his 
 country. Nor was that the only cause of his unhappiness. 
 Prince John, during the captivity of his brother, made an 
 attempt to gain the throne; thus, renewing the disgraceful 
 conduct, which had brought his father to the grave. 
 
 Richard, when attacking the castle of Chalus, near Li- 
 moges, received a mortal wound, in the tenth year of his 
 reign, and the forty-second of his age. 
 
 Coats of arms were not introduced into seals, nor indeed 
 into any other use, until about the reign of Richard; who 
 brought them from the Holy Land, where they were first 
 invented, and painted on the shields of the knights, to dis- 
 tinguish the variety of persons, of every Christian nation, 
 who resorted thither, and could not, when clad in complete 
 steel, be otherwise identified. 
 
 This prince established in England a uniformity in 
 weights and measures : a useful institution ; with which, 
 the mercenary disposition of his successor induced him to 
 dispense, for money. 
 
 JOHN. 
 
 1199—1216. 
 
 The late king, who died without children, previous to 
 his departure for the East, had declared his nephew, Ar- 
 thur, duke of Brittany, son of his deceased elder brother 
 Geoffrey, his successor. But John did not acquiesce in this ; 
 and Richard, by his last will, appointed him heir to all his 
 dominions; probably, because he thought that Arthur, 
 then but twelve years of age, was incapable of establishing 
 his claim against the faction of his uncle. 
 
 Philip, king of France, desiring an opportunity to em- 
 barrass John, and disunite his dominions, embraced the 
 cause of the young duke, and brought him to Paris, to be 
 educated with his own son. 
 
 A war with France shortly after ensued ; which was at 
 length concluded by the mutual adjustment of disputed 
 claims ; and, to render the union more durable, John gave 
 his niece in marriage to Prince Louis, Philip's eldest son. 
 Nine barons of the king of England, and as many of the 
 king of France, were guarantees of this treaty; all of 
 whom swore, that if their sovereign violated any article 
 which it contained, they would declare against him, and 
 embrace the cause of the injured monarch. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 57 
 
 Now secure, as he imagined, on the side of France, John, 
 though his queen was still alive, indulged his passion for 
 Isabella, the daughter of Aymar, count of Angouleme; a 
 lady, who had been contracted to the count De la Marche ; 
 and was already delivered into his hands; but, by reason of 
 her tender years, the marriage had not been consummated. 
 Having procured a divorce from his own wife, John es- 
 poused Isabella; regardless both of the menaces of the 
 pope, and the resentment of the count. But the latter 
 soon found means to punish his atrocious rival. Taking 
 advantage of the general discontent which prevailed against 
 John, the enraged husband excited commotions in Poictou 
 and Normandy. The king then summoned all the barons 
 of England, and required them to assist him on the conti- 
 nent. But he found that he possessed as little authority, 
 there, as in his transmarine dominions. They unanimously 
 replied, that they would not attend on this expedition, un- 
 less he would promise to restore and preserve their privi- 
 leges — the first symptom of a regular combination, and 
 plan of liberty, amongst those noblemen. Affairs, however, 
 were not yet fully ripe for the projected revolution. John, 
 by threatening them, dissolved the association, induced 
 many to follow him into Normandy, and compelled those 
 who remained behind, to pay for the indulgence. 
 
 He was, for a while, equally successful against the refrac- 
 tory barons on the continent. But, elated by his superiori- 
 ty, he advanced claims, which gave universal alarm to his 
 vassals, and diffused, still wider, the general discontent. 
 As the jurisprudence in those times, generally required 
 that the causes in the lords' court should be decided by 
 duel, he carried with him a number of bravos ; whom he 
 retained as champions, to fight with his barons in any con- 
 troversy that he might raise against them. The count De 
 la Marche, and other noblemen, regarded this proceeding 
 as an insult, as well as an injury; and declared that they 
 would never draw their swords against men so inferior in 
 quality. The barons having appealed to Philip, their su- 
 perior lord, that prince espoused their cause ; and a new 
 and powerful ally soon appeared, to encourage them in the 
 completion of their designs against the British king. 
 
 The young duke of Brittany, aware of the dangerous 
 character of his uncle, determined to seek both his security 
 and advancement by a union with Philip and the barons. 
 The allies, for a while, were invariably successful. In an- 
 swer to every proposal which the king of England made 
 F 
 
58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 for peace, Philip still insisted, that he should resign all his 
 continental dominions to his nephew. But an event hap- 
 pened which seemed to turn the scale in favour of John. 
 Whilst the duke of Brittany was besieging the town of 
 Mirabel, in Poictou, his camp was suddenly attacked ; and 
 he himself, together with La Marche, and the most con- 
 siderable of the revolted barons, were made prisoners, and 
 carried in triumph into Normandy. Philip, who then in- 
 vested a city in that dutchy, raised the siege, and retired 
 on his approach ; and John, sensible from the spirited dis- 
 position of young Arthur, that he might prove a danger- 
 ous enemy, if he should regain his liberty, murdered him 
 with his own hands ; and, fastening a stone to the dead 
 body, threw it into the Seine! 
 
 All Europe was struck with horror at this inhuman deed. 
 From that moment, the king, detested by his subjects, re- 
 tained a very precarious authority, over both the people 
 and the barons. Philip, as his superior lord, summoned 
 him to stand a trial ; and, on his non-appearance, passed 
 sentence, with the concurrence of the peers, declaring him 
 guilty of felony, and adjudging him to forfeit all the pro- 
 vinces which he held in vassalage of the French crown. 
 These, Philip entered with a numerous army ; and con- 
 quered Anjou, Touraine, Maine, and Poictou; and reunited 
 to the crown of France the whole province of Normandy, 
 two-hundred-and-ninety-four years after it had been ceded, 
 by Charles the Simple, to Rollo, the Dane, the ancestor of 
 William. 
 
 Despised by his army, attacked on all sides by his ene- 
 mies, expelled from every province in France, John retreat- 
 ed into England, with infamy and dishonour. 
 
 That he might cover the disgrace of his own conduct, 
 he exclaimed loudly against his barons; who, he said, had 
 deserted his standard in Normandy; and, as a punishment 
 for this offence, he extorted from them a seventh part of all 
 their moveable estate. Soon after, he forced them to grant 
 him a tax for another expedition. But he did not attempt 
 to enter upon the service for which it was exacted. After 
 many similar preparations, which ended in the same man- 
 lier, he carried his hostile measures a step further; and ac. 
 tually ventured abroad with an army. Terrified, however, 
 by the approach of Philip, he made proposals for peace, 
 and fixvd a place of interview with his enemy. But, in- 
 bt ad of keeping this engagement, he secretly withdrew his 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 59 
 
 forces, embarked at Rochelle, and returned to England, 
 loaded with additional disgrace. 
 
 In an age when personal valour was regarded as the chief 
 accomplishment, such conduct must have been exposed to 
 extreme contempt. But the government exercised by the 
 Norman princes, had wound up the royal power to so high 
 a pitch, that even still further degradation of the regal dig- 
 nity seemed necessary, to impel the barons to insurrection. 
 
 A controversy relating to an ecclesiastical election, com- 
 pleted that odium, which, whilst it debased the sovereign, 
 contributed to enlarge the liberties of the subject. The 
 pope, without a previous writ from the king, had caused 
 Langton to be chosen archbishop of Canterbury; but, 
 aware that this usurpation would be highly resented by the 
 court of England, he despatched to John four gold rings, 
 accompanied by this flattering epistle. " I beg, my son, 
 that you will consider seriously the form of these rings; 
 their number, their matter, and their colour. Their form, 
 being round, is typical of Eternity, which has neither be- 
 ginning nor end; and you ought, thence, to learn the duty 
 of aspiring from earthly objects, to heavenly — from things 
 temporal, to things eternal. The number four, being a 
 square, denotes Steadiness of Mind; not to be subverted 
 by either adversity or prosperity; fixed, for ever, on the 
 firm basis of the four cardinal virtues. Gold, which is the 
 matter, being the most precious of metals, signifies Wis- 
 dom ; which is the most valuable of all accomplishments, 
 and justly preferred by Solomon, to riches, power, and 
 every exterior acquirement. The blue colour of the sap- 
 phire represents Faith : the verdure of the emerald, Hope: 
 the redness of the ruby, Charity ; and the splendour of the 
 topaz, Good Works." 
 
 This, however, was not sufficient to appease him. He 
 vented his rage against all those who had concurred in the 
 irregular instalment; and the pope, on his part, prepared 
 to assert his claims by the application of his spiritual 
 thunders. The kingdom was, consequently, placed under 
 an Interdict; the execution of which was calculated to strike 
 the senses in the highest degree, and operate on the mind 
 with irresistible force. The nation was suddenly deprived 
 of all exterior exercise of religion. The altars were de- 
 spoiled of their ornaments : the crosses, the relics, the 
 images, the statues of the saints, were laid upon the ground : 
 and, as if the air itself was profaned, and might pollute 
 them by its contact, the priests carefully covered them up, 
 
60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 even from their own approach and veneration. The use of 
 bells entirely ceased in all the churches : mass was celebrat- 
 ed with closed doors; and none but the priests were allow- 
 ed to be present at the ceremony. The laity partook of no 
 religious rite, except baptism to new-born infants, and the 
 communion to the dying: the dead were not interred in 
 consecrated ground ; they were thrown into ditches, or 
 buried in the fields. Marriage was celebrated in the church- 
 yards; and, that every action in life might bear the marks 
 of this dreadful situation, the people were prohibited the 
 use of meat, as in lent; were debarred from every pleasure, 
 and forbidden to salute each other, or even to shave their 
 beards, or give any decent attention to their persons or ap- 
 parel. Every circumstance carried the appearance of the 
 deepest distress, and produced an apprehension of immedi- 
 ate divine indignation and vengeance. 
 
 Dreadful, however, as this sentence was, the king seems 
 to have been less alarmed by it than the pope expected. 
 John appeared determined to set him at defiance. The 
 pope, therefore, proceeded to issue against him the more 
 dreadful sentence of excommunication: he likewise ab- 
 solved his subjects from their oath of allegiance; solemnly 
 deposed him from his throne; and gave his dominions to 
 the king of France. 
 
 But John, was at last induced, after a violent struggle, 
 to yield to the pope; and even to submit to the mortifying 
 condition of acknowledging himself a vassal of the Roman 
 see. He resigned his dominions to pope Innocent and his 
 successors; and agreed to hold them by the annual pay- 
 ment of a thousand marks. He did homage to Pandolph, 
 the pope's legate, with all the submissive forms which the 
 feudal law required of vassals before their superior lord. 
 He came disarmed into the legate's presence, who was 
 seated on a throne; threw himself on his knees before him*, 
 lifted up his joined hands, and put them within those of. 
 Pandolph; swore fealty to the pope; and paid a part of 
 the stipulated tribute. 
 
 Such, were the unhappy consequences of John's homage, 
 that the value of English benefices, at one time possessed 
 by Italian non-resident priests, exceeded the ordinary reve- 
 nue of the crown ; and the historians of that age te]l us, 
 that Rome sheared all Europe, but in England she stripped 
 off the skin. 
 
 In the mean time, John's natural inclination 10 tyranny 
 increased. He seemed, wantonly, to disgust all orders of 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 6*1 
 
 men; especially his nobles; from whom, alone, he could 
 reasonably expect assistance. He dishonoured their fami- 
 lies by licentious amours; restrained them from hunting 
 feathered game; ordered that all the hedges and fences 
 near his forests, should be leveled, to give his deer access 
 into the fields for pasture; and continually loaded the na- 
 tion with arbitrary taxes. He once demanded a large sum 
 of money from a Jew of Bristol; and, on his refusal, order- 
 ed one of his teeth to be drawn, every day, until he would 
 comply. The Jew allowed seven teeth to be taken, and 
 then paid the required amount. 
 
 Enough has been already detailed, to show the necessity 
 of reform. We shall now give a summary view of the glo- 
 rious effects which resulted from this tyranny, when the 
 crisis had arrived. 
 
 The barons, having chosen Robert Fitz- Walter for their 
 general, took the field, in defence of their honour and their 
 liberty. John, being soon left with a very slender retinue, 
 was unable to withstand this strenuous attack. A confer- 
 ence was appointed to be held at Runnemede, between 
 Windsor and Staines; a place which has ever since been 
 celebrated, on account of this great event. The king and 
 the barons encamped apart, as open enemies ; and, 
 after a debate of a few days, John, with a facility 
 rather suspicious, signed the contract which was required. 
 This famous deed, commonly called MAGNA CHARTA, 
 or the Great Charter, either granted or secured very im- 
 portant liberties and privileges to every order of men in 
 the kingdom; to the clergy, to the barons, and to the 
 people. 
 
 One clause in this venerable instrument deserves parti- 
 cular attention; as it formed the germe of the present 
 British Parliament; or rather re-established the Saxon 
 Wittenagemot, and the great national council, such as it 
 was before the Conquest, and such as William had solemn- 
 ly sworn to maintain: " No scutage or aid shall be imposed, 
 but by the great council of the nation; except in the three 
 general feudal cases — the king's captivity, the knighting 
 of his eldest son, and the marriage of his eldest daughter: 
 the prelates, earls, and great barons, shall be called to this 
 great council, each by a particular writ; the lesser barons, 
 by a general summons of the sheriff." 
 
 The liberties of Englishmen are not (as some arbitrary 
 writers would represent them) mere infringements on the 
 king's prerogative, extorted from their princes, by taking 
 F 2 
 
62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND; 
 
 advantage of their weakness; but a restoration of their an- 
 cient constitution, of which their ancestors had been de- 
 frauded, by the art and finesse of the Norman lawyers, 
 rather than by the force of the Norman arms. 
 
 John died in the castle of Newark-upon-Trent, in the 
 forty-ninth year of his age, and the eighteenth of his reign. 
 He left two legitimate sons ; Henry and Richard ; the for- 
 mer nine, the latter only seven years old. 
 
 It was in this reign, that the citizens of London procur- 
 ed a charter, which conferred on them the right of choos- 
 ing, annually, a mayor, out of their own body; that office, 
 previously, having been held for life. They also obtained 
 the power to elect and remove their sheriffs at pleasure; 
 and their common-council-men every year. London Bridge 
 was finished in this reign ; being erected on the site of a 
 previous structure which was of wood. 
 
 HENRY THE THIRD. 
 
 1216—1272. 
 
 The concession of the Great Charter, or rather its full 
 establishment, for there was a considerable interval be- 
 tween the one and the other, introduced a degree of order 
 and justice into the administration. Yet this charter made 
 no provision for the creation of new courts, or magistrates, 
 or senates, nor for the abolition of the old. It made no in- 
 novation in the public law of the kingdom. It only en- 
 forced the operation of those laws which already existed. 
 The barbarous license of the king, and perhaps also of the 
 nobles, was, thenceforth, more restrained: men acquired 
 additional security for their liberties; and political author- 
 ity approached nearer to that end for which it was origin- 
 ally instituted — the distribution of justice, and the equal 
 protection of the citizens. 
 
 Were we, in delineating the events of this reign, to de- 
 vote attention in proportion to their number, we should be 
 exercising a talent destructive of the real utility of history. 
 Who could nave the patience to write, or even to read, a 
 long detail of such frivolous occurrences, as those with 
 which it is filled; or attend to the tedious narrative, which 
 would follow, through a period of fifty-six years, the capri- 
 ces of so weak a monarch as Henry? 
 
 The earl of Pembroke was appointed protector of the 
 kingdom, during the minority of the young prince. This 
 nobleman, who had maintained his loyalty to John, through 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 63 
 
 the lowest fortune of that monarch, determined to support 
 the authority of the infant king; and was not dismayed by 
 the number or violence of his enemies. As the nation was 
 still agitated by the effects of those struggles made in the 
 preceding reign, Pembroke wrote letters, in the king's 
 name, to the malcontent barons; in which, he represent- 
 ed, that, whatever animosity they might have entertained 
 against the late king, there had now succeeded to the throne 
 a young prince, the lineal heir of their ancient sovereigns : 
 that, as all past offences of the barons were now buried in 
 oblivion, they ought, on their part, to forget their com- 
 plaints against the deceased monarch; who, if he had been 
 in any measure blameable in his conduct, left to his son 
 the salutary warning, to avoid the paths which had led to 
 extremities so fatal ; and, that having now obtained a char- 
 ter for their liberties, it was their interest to show, that the 
 acquisition was not incompatible with their allegiance; 
 and, that the rights of king and people, so far from being 
 hostile and opposite, might mutually support and sustain 
 each other. 
 
 These considerations, enforced by the great weight of 
 the protector's character, had a powerful influence on the 
 barons. The majority began secretly to negotiate with 
 him: many soon openly returned to their duty; and, in a 
 few months, a general pacification was effected. But Pem- 
 broke did not long survive the consummation of his labours. 
 He was succeeded by Peter de Roches, bishop of Winches- 
 ter, and Hubert de Burgh, high justiciary. The latter 
 took the most active part in the administration. Though, 
 however, he was a statesman of considerable ability, and a 
 man of honour, yet he was not possessed of sufficient au- 
 thority to restrain the turbulence of the barons. They 
 held, by force, the royal castles, which had been committed 
 to their custody by the protector: they seized the royal 
 demesnes; oppressed their vassals ; invited disorderly peo. 
 pie to live upon their lands, and gave them protection in 
 all their robberies and devastations. 
 
 Notwithstanding these intestine commotions, and 
 ~ " the precarious authority of the crown, (Henry be- 
 ing now only in his sixteenth year,) the kingdom was oblig- 
 ed to carry on a war with France. But no military action 
 of any moment was performed on either side. 
 
 De Burgh, the most virtuous minister that Henry ever 
 possessed, having been removed from office, was succeeded 
 by his colleague, the bishop of Winchester. Henry, though 
 
64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 incapable of pursuing the same violent measures, by which 
 his father had so disgusted the nation, had imbibed simi- 
 lar principles of tyranny ; and, prompted by the evil coun- 
 sel of his minister, drove the barons to form another com- 
 bination against the crown. In a very full parliament, 
 when he demanded a supply of money, he was openly re- 
 proached with the breach of his word, and the frequent 
 violations of the great charter. He was asked, whether 
 he did not b!ush, when desiring aid from a people whom he 
 professedly hated and despised; to whom, on all occasions, 
 he preferred foreigners ; and who groaned under the op- 
 pressions which he either exercised or permitted. He was 
 told, that besides insulting the nobility, by forcing them to 
 contract unequal and mean marriages with strangers, no 
 rank of men was so low as to escape vexations, from him- 
 self or his ministers : that even the meat consumed in his 
 household; the clothes which he and his servants wore — 
 still more, the wine, which they used ; were all taken, by 
 force, from the lawful owners : that foreign merchants 
 shunned the English harbours, as if they were possessed 
 by pirates ; and commerce, with every nation, was thus cut 
 off by violence: and that, even the poor fishermen could 
 not escape the oppression of himself and his courtiers. 
 
 On one occasion, the ecclesiastical order sent a deputa- 
 tion of four prelates — the primate, the bishops of Winches- 
 ter, Salisbury, and Carlisle, to remonstrate with him on his 
 frequent violations of their privileges, the oppressions with 
 which he had loaded them and all his subjects, and the un- 
 canonical and forced elections which were made to vacant dignities 
 in the church. " It is true," replied the king, " I have been 
 rather faulty, in this particular. I obtruded you, my lord 
 of Canterbury, upon your see: I was obliged to employ 
 both intreaties, and menaces, my lord of Winchester, to 
 have you elected : my proceedings, I confess, were very ir- 
 regular, my lords of Salisbury and Carlisle, when I raised 
 you, from the lowest stations, to your present dignities. I 
 am, therefore, determined, henceforth, to correct these 
 abuses; and it will also become you, in order to make a 
 thorough reformation, to resign your present benefices, and 
 try to enter again in a more regular and canonical manner." 
 The bishops, surprised by these unexpected sarcasms, re- 
 plied, that the question was not how to correct errors which 
 were past, but how to avoid them for the future. 
 1258 imprudent and illegal measures, of the gov- 
 
 ' ernment induced Simon de Mountfort, earl of Lei- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 65 
 
 center, a brother-in-law of the king, to attempt a revolu- 
 tion. Assisted by many powerful barons, he waged war 
 against the king, and compelled him to agree to an exten- 
 sive reform; particularly as regarded a more equal and 
 popular representation in parliament. This reign, there- 
 fore, may be considered as the epoch of the House of Com- 
 mons. Two knights were now elected, to sit in the legisla- 
 ture, from each county; and deputies were admitted also 
 from the boroughs. The parliaments, before, seem to have 
 consisted exclusively of the nobles. 
 
 Overcome by the cares of government and the infirmi- 
 ties of age, the king died at St. Edmondsbury, when he had 
 reached the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-sixth 
 of his reign; leaving two sons — Edward, his successor, and 
 Edmund, earl of Lancaster; also two daughters — Marga- 
 ret, queen of Scotland, and Beatrix, dutchess of Brittany. 
 
 In this reign, the manufacturing of linen was introduced 
 into England, although there was yet in the kingdom no 
 cultivation of flax ; and, coals, the fL'St that were raised in 
 the country, were dug from the mines at New Castle. The 
 state of our language, about this time, may be discerned 
 by the following extract from an historical poem, written 
 by Robert of Gloucester.* 
 
 The greatest luminary of science in the whole world, 
 during this century, was Roger Bacon; a Franciscan friar, 
 born near Ilchester, in 1214. He began his studies at Ox- 
 ford ; from which seminary, he went to Paris : and, after a 
 long residence there, he returned to England, and studied 
 experimental philosophy with unremitting ardour. This 
 extraordinary man was familiar with the theory and prac- 
 tice of perspective; understood the use of concave and 
 convex glasses; knew the great error in the kalendar, and 
 proposed the remedy. He was also an adept in chemistry, 
 and he is mentioned as the inventor of gunpowder. Through 
 the envy and malice of his illiterate fraternity, who spread 
 the puerile renort of his dealing with an evil spirit, he was 
 imprisoned in his cell for ten years, and the reading of his 
 works prohibited. These are, " Epistola fratris Rogeri 
 
 *Of fe batayles of Denemarch, fat hii dude in fys londe 
 fat worst were of alle of ere, we motte abbe an honde. 
 Worst hii were vor of ere adde somwanne ydo, 
 As Romeyns Sc Saxons, 8c well wuste fat lond f erto. 
 Ac hii ne kept yt holde nojt, bote robby, and ssende, 
 And destrue, 8c berne, 8c sle, 8c ne couf e abbe non ende 
 
66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Baconis de secretis operibus artis et naturae, et de mdlitate mapia*;" 
 printed in Paris in 1542; — " Opus mctjus;" — "Thesaurus 
 chemicus;" all in Latin; the titles of which may be trans- 
 lated thus : The Letter of brother Roger Bacon, on the 
 secret operations of art and nature, and on the non-ex- 
 istence of magic — The Greater Work — The Chemical 
 Treasury — He died, in the succeeding reign, in the eighti- 
 eth year of his age. 
 
 The other distinguished scholars of this time, were Gi- 
 raldus Cambrensis, Matthew Paris, and Bracton. The lat- 
 ter was chief justice, and wrote, in the Latin language, as 
 it was then usual, a book on the laws and customs of Eng- 
 land; which is one of the most ancient as well as most 
 methodical works of the kind produced in Britain. 
 
 v EDWARD THE FIRST 
 
 1272—1307. 
 
 In a battle at Evesham, and many other engagements in 
 his father's reign, as well as in a crusade against the Sara- 
 cens, Edward had given most striking indications of those 
 splendid talents for command, by which, after he ascended 
 the throne, he was so eminently distinguished. He so ter- 
 rified the Saracens, that they employed a ruffian to assas- 
 sinate him. Having procured admittance to the prince, 
 under pretence of negotiating, he took an opportunity, 
 when only Edward and himself were in the room, to aim a 
 poisoned dagger at his breast. Edward found means to 
 ward off the stroke ; though, in so doing, he was wounded 
 in the arm ; and, perceiving the wretch about to repeat the 
 blow, he struck him so forcibly with his foot, that he threw 
 him upon the ground; and then, wresting the dagger from 
 his hand, he plunged it into the barbarian's heart. Ed- 
 ward's wound seemed, at first, very dangerous: but it was 
 at last cured, according to many writers, by the devoted 
 affection of his consort, Eleanor of Castile; who, in order 
 to save her husband's life, at the evident hazard of her 
 own, sucked out the poison with her mouth. 
 
 Edward had reached Sicily, in his return from the Holy 
 Land, when he received information of his father's death; 
 upon which occasion, he discovered a deep concern. At 
 the same time, he was told of the death of an infant son, 
 John ; whom Eleanor had borne him in Palestine. As he 
 appeared much less affected with this misfortune, the king 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 67 
 
 of Sicily expressed his surprise; to whom, Edward replied, 
 that the death of a child was a loss which he might hope 
 to repair — the death of a parent was a loss irreparable. In 
 his passage through Chalons, in Burgundy, he was chal- 
 lenged, by the prince of that country, to a tournament; and, 
 as Edward excelled in that martial and dangerous exercise, 
 the true image of war, he did not decline the opportunity 
 of acquiring honour and renown, in presence of so many 
 nobles as were then collected. But the resemblance of 
 war was, here, unfortunately, turned into reality. Edward 
 and his retinue were so successful in the jotists, that the 
 French knights, provoked at their superiority, made a seri- 
 ous attack, which was repulsed; and much blood was idly 
 shed in the quarrel. 
 
 It is said, that, in order to heighten the grandeur of his 
 coronation, five-hundred horses were turned loose, with 
 liberty for every one to keep as many as he could catch. 
 
 Edward lost no time in commencing the removal of those 
 disorders, which the civil commotions, and the loose ad^ 
 ministration of his father, had introduced into every part 
 of the government. But, notwithstanding the judicious 
 institutions, and public spirited plans, of this prince, we 
 cannot acquit him of those numerous charges, which the 
 history of his own time displays, respecting the severity 
 of his disposition, and the unrestrained extortion which 
 he exercised, when money was required. He was an up- 
 right arbiter between one subject and another; but, in his 
 own cause, a rapacious tyrant. The Jews, who, since their 
 first establishment in England, were invariably persecuted 
 and plundered, felt, in this reign r the overwhelming effects 
 of his oppression. Had these unfortunate people been de- 
 void of riches, they would also have been free from the 
 imputation of crime. 
 
 The king now undertook an enterprise, the sue- 
 ' cess of which might have been as glorious to him- 
 self, as it was advantageous to his people. This was, the 
 conquest of Wales. Lewellyn, prince of that country, had 
 been deeply engaged with the Mountfort party ; and had 
 employed every expedient to depress the royal cause, and 
 promote the encroachments of the barons. In the general 
 accommodation, though Lewellyn had obtained a pardon, 
 yet he seized every opportunity of sowing dissentions 
 amongst the English, and lessening the authority of gov- 
 ernment. Edward was not displeased with this occasion 
 for exercising his favourite pursuit of war, and reducing 
 
68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 entirely, the principality of Wales. The Welsh prince had 
 no resource but in retiring to his mountains, which weie 
 inaccessible to an invading army; and had, hitherto, through 
 so many ages, defended his predecessors against all the at- 
 tempts of the Saxons and the Normans. He took refuge 
 in the hills of Snowdon; and resolved to hold out to the 
 last extremity. But Edward, equally vigorous and cau- 
 tious, entering by the north, pierced into the heart of the 
 country; and ; having carefully explored every road before 
 him, and secured every pass behind, he approached the 
 Welsh army in its last retreat. He here avoided putting 
 to trial the valour of a nation, proud of its ancient inde- 
 pendence, and inflamed with animosity against its here- 
 ditary enemies; br.t trusted to the slow, though sure ef- 
 fects, of famine. Destitute of magazines, and cooped up 
 in a narrow corner, the Welsh army and their cattle suffer- 
 ed equal deprivation; and Lewellyn, without being able to 
 strike a single blow, submitted to the discretion of the vic- 
 tor. He bound himself to pay to Edward fifty-thousand 
 pounds, as reparation for damages, to do homage to the 
 crown of England, and relinquish the country between 
 Cheshire and the river Conway. 
 
 But the English, insolent from the recollection of their 
 easy victory, oppressed the inhabitants of the ceded dis- 
 tricts; and, by many other injuries, raised the indignation 
 of the Welsh; so that they determined, again to encounter 
 a force, already found to be so much superior, rather than 
 any longer submit to the severity of oppression. They 
 flew to arms. This was what Edward had desired. With 
 a powerful army, he advanced with rapidity into Wales — 
 he fought and was victorious. All the Welsh nobility sub- 
 mitted to the conqueror : the laws of England were estab- 
 lished in the principality; an important object, which it 
 had required eight-hundred years fully to effectuate. 
 
 It is with reluctance that we sully our pages with the 
 deeds of cruelty which he then committed. Sensible that 
 nothing kept alive the ideas of military valour and of an- 
 cient glory, so much as the traditional poetry of the people, 
 which, assisted by the power of music, and the jollity of 
 festivals, made a deep impression on the minds of the youth, 
 he gathered together all the Welsh bards, and, with a bar- 
 oarous policy, ordered them to be put to death. 
 
 We now come to give some account of the affairs of 
 Scotland, which produced the most important occurrences 
 of this reign. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 69 
 
 The intercourse of that kingdom with England, either in 
 peace or war, hitherto produced so few events of moment, 
 that we have paid them little attention. The government 
 of Scotland was continually exposed to those factions and 
 conv ulsions, which are incident to all barbarous countries, 
 and to many that are civilized ; but, though the succession 
 of their kings had been disordered by irregularities and 
 usurpations, the true heir of the royal family, had, ultimate- 
 ly, prevailed; and Alexander the third, who had 
 3 ' married Edward's sister, probably inherited, after 
 a period of eight-hundred years, and through a succession 
 of males, that sceptre which was held by the first king, at 
 the time of the original establishment of the Scottish mon- 
 archy. Alexander died, without leaving any male issue, 
 or any descendants, except Margaret, his grand-daughter. 
 This princess, then a minor, seemed, under the protection 
 of Edward, her grand-uncle, to be firmly seated on the 
 throne of Scotland. The English monarch was, however, 
 incited to form ambitious projects on this event; and, hav- 
 ing, lately, by force of arms, brought Wales under subjec- 
 tion, attempted, by the marriage of the queen with his 
 eldest son, Edward, to unite the whole island under one 
 monarchy, and, thereby, give it security against invasion. 
 The sudden death of the young princess defeated the king's 
 intentions. Twelve claimants now appeared ; who, by 
 various titles, demanded their right of succession to the 
 Scottish crown ; but all these were very soon reduced to 
 three ; by the less remote proofs offered, individually, by 
 John Hastings, John Baliol, and Robert Bruce. Scotland 
 was threatened with a civil war. Its parliament, therefore, 
 referred the dispute to Edward ; not reflecting on his am- 
 bitious character, and the almost certain ruin which is 
 likely to attend a small state, divided by factions, when it 
 thus submits to the will of a neighbour, so powerful and 
 encroaching. The temptation was too strong for the Eng- 
 lish monarch to resist. He designed, if not to create, at 
 least to revive, a claim, of feudal superiority over Scotland. 
 He gave his award in favour of Baliol; who was, accord- 
 ingly, put in possession of the kingdom. The decision, 
 itself, was just; and, had Edward done no more, he would 
 have acted an honourable part. But John did not receive 
 an independent crown. It was loaded with the disgrace of 
 vassalage. One insult was followed by another: a war en- 
 sued : Edward marched with a powerful army into Scot- 
 land ; and, after a great battle fought near Dunbar, reduced 
 G 
 
70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the whole country to subjection. The feeble and timid 
 Buliol hastened to make submission to the British king; 
 and surrendered into his hands a crown, which he was more 
 suited to dishonour than adorn. 
 
 But the high spirited chiefs of Scotland, could 
 
 not long endure the indignities of those appointed 
 to govern them. Almost every nation has, at some period, 
 produced a hero. William Wallace was the agent, who, 
 by his patriotism, was incited to undertake, and, by his 
 courage and abilities, enabled to bring about, the deliver- 
 ance of his country. Though, however, the intrepid Wal- 
 lace lived not to see the consummation of his hopes, (hav- 
 ing been betrayed into Edward's hands, and barbarously 
 hanged in London) yet, the flame which he had imparted 
 to his brave associates, survived the throbbings of the 
 breast which gave it birth. After an arduous struggle for 
 many years, they broke the British bonds ; and placed the 
 crown, once more, upon the head of a native prince, — 
 Robert Bruce; a man of conspicuous valour, grandson of 
 that Robert who had been a competitor for the crown. 
 
 7 Edward, in his march, to Scotland with a large 
 
 army, died suddenly at Carlisle, in the north of 
 England; in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirty- 
 fifth of his reign; having enjoined, with his last breath, his 
 son and successor never to desist until he had finally sub- 
 dued that kingdom. 
 
 The great talents of this prince as a legislator, have 
 gained him the appellation of the English Justinian: to the 
 form into which he modeled the common-law, the wisdom 
 of succeeding ages has not been able to add any consider- 
 able improvement. The house of commons, during this 
 reign, made a still nearer approach to its present dignity; 
 but, as yet, the members of that body acted merely as As- 
 sessors of the public taxes; they were allowed no interfer- 
 ence, whatever, in the enactment of laws. The delegates 
 considered their election as a burthen, and, like the mem- 
 bers of the American Congress, at the present day, were 
 remunerated for their services. 
 
 EDWARD THE SECOND. 
 
 1307 — 1327. 
 
 This prince, the only surviving son of the late king, was 
 now in his twenty-third year. He was of a gentle disposi- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 71 
 
 don ; and, as he had never discovered a propensity to any 
 dangerous vice, it was natural to prognosticate tranquillity 
 and happiness from his government. But he soon showed 
 himself to be totally unqualified for the difficult task of 
 managing a turbulent people. Always attached to some 
 unworthy favourite, he forfeited the esteem of his subjects. 
 Piers Gavaston, a native of Gascony, was the first that he 
 selected as a companion in his frivolous pursuits. But that 
 unfortunate associate, in proportion as he was caressed by 
 the prince, became obnoxious to the barons; and fell a vic- 
 tim to their fury. His next favourite, was Hugh Ie Di- 
 spenser, commonly called Spenser, a young -Englishman or' 
 a noble family; who, with his father, a man of immense 
 estates, exercised unbounded sway over the royal mind. 
 
 By the inconsiderate surrender of his authority, and the 
 unremitting attention paid by Edward to his favourite, he 
 lost the affections of Isabella, his queen. She retired to 
 the court of her brother, the king of France. There, she 
 met a young Welch nobleman, named Roger Mortimer; 
 who, also, being inimical to the administration of the Spen- 
 sers, was easily admitted to her company. The graces of 
 his person and address gained quickly on her affections : 
 he became her confidant and counsellor in all her measures; 
 and, at last, engaged her to sacrifice every principle of con- 
 jugal fidelity and honour. Hating, now, the man whom 
 she had injured, and whom she had never highly valued, 
 she entered warmly into all Mortimer's conspiracies; and, 
 having artfully got into her hands the young prince, the 
 heir of the monarchy, who was then at Paris, she resolved 
 on the utter ruin of the king and his obnoxious companion. 
 She accordingly came over into England; where, being 
 joined by many of the powerful nobility, the Spensers soon 
 fell a sacrifice to the general attack. The unfortunate 
 monarch, after in vain attempting to escape, fell into the 
 hands of his enemies; and the*queen summoned a parlia- 
 ment, which voted his dethronement. Edward did not 
 long survive this humiliation : he was put to death, in the 
 most barbarous manner, by the infamous Mortimer and his 
 associates, in the forty-third year of his age, and the twen- 
 tieth of his reign. 
 
 In the sixth year of this reign, was fought, about two 
 miles from Stirling, in Scotland, the celebrated battle of 
 Bannockburn. Edward himself commanded the English 
 forces, and Robert Bruce, the Scottish king, those of his 
 own country. This engagement ended in the signal over- 
 
72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 throw of the British army; and firmly established the 
 victorious Robert on the throne of his ancestors. 
 
 EDWARD THE THIRD. 
 
 1327—1377. 
 
 A council of regency was now chosen by parliament, to 
 superintend the administration of the laws ; and the earl of 
 Lancaster, a nobleman of the blood royal, was appointed 
 guardian and protector of young Edward, eldest son of 
 the late monarch. 
 
 Although it might reasonably be expected, that, as the 
 weakness of his father had caused an alarming licentious- 
 ness amongst the barons, the first disturbance of the pub- 
 lic tranquillity would proceed from them ; yet, it was from 
 external enemies, that the country felt its earliest attack. 
 The king of Scotland, though advanced in years, still re- 
 tained that martial spirit which had raised his nation from 
 the lowest ebb of fortune, and deemed the present opportu- 
 nity favourable for invading England. He first made an at- 
 tack on the castle of Norham; in which, he was disappointed. 
 He then mustered, on the frontiers, an army of twenty-five- 
 thousand men ; and, having selected the earl of Murray 
 and Lord Douglas, as generals, he threatened an incursion 
 into the northern counties. The English regency, after 
 ineffectually using every expedient to restore peace with 
 Scotland, made vigorous preparations for war; and, besides 
 a native army of sixty-thousand men, they procured a large 
 body of foreign cavalry, much superior in discipline to the 
 forces of their own country. Young Edward, burning with 
 a passion for military fame, appeared at their head ; though 
 now only in his fifteenth year; and marched in quest of the 
 enemy, who had already passed the frontiers, laying waste 
 every thing around them. Murray and Douglas were the 
 two most celebrated warriors that arose in the long hostili- 
 ties between the Scots and English; and their forces. train, 
 ed in the same school, were perfectly qualified for this de- 
 sultory and destructive warfare. Except a body of four- 
 thousand cavalry, well appointed, and fit to make a steady 
 impression in a regular battle, their army consisted of light- 
 armed troops, mounted on small horses, which could find 
 subsistence any where, and carry them, with rapidity, 
 whether they meant to commit depredations on the peace- 
 able inhabitants, to attack an armed enemy, or retreat into 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 73 
 
 their own country. The whole equipage of one of these 
 soldiers, consisted in a bag- of oatmeal, which he carried 
 behind him; and a light plate of iron, on which, in the 
 open fields, he quickly baked his meal into a cake. But 
 the principal resource was the cattle which he seized; the 
 cookery of which was as expeditious as any of his other 
 operations. After skinning the animal, he placed the hide, 
 loose, and hanging in the form of a bag, upon some stakes: 
 then poured water into it, kindled a fire below, and thus 
 made it serve as a cauldron, for boiling his meat. 
 
 After Edward had long, in vain, followed the enemy, 
 who, being little encumbered, were so rapid in their 
 marches, he found, at last, that they had fixed their camp 
 on the southern bank of the Were, as if they intended to 
 await a battle; but their prudent leaders had chosen their 
 ground with so much judgment, that the English saw it 
 was impracticable to cross the river in their face, for the 
 purpose of attacking them in their present situation. Im- 
 patient for revenge and glory, Edward sent them a defi- 
 mce; and challenged them to meet him in an equal field, 
 and try the fortune of their arms. The bold spirit of 
 Douglas could not withstand this bravado, and he advised 
 the acceptance of the challenge: but he was over-ruled by 
 Murray; who replied to Edward, that he never took the 
 counsel of an enemy. 
 
 Whilst the armies lay in this position, an incident oc- 
 curred, which had nearly proved fatal to the English. 
 Douglas, having got the watch-word, entered their camp 
 secretly, in the night time, with a body of two-hundred 
 chosen warriors; and advanced to the royal tent, with a 
 design of killing the prince, or carrying him off through 
 the midst of his army. But, in that critical moment, some 
 of Edward's attendants, awaking, made resistance : his 
 chaplain and chamberlain sacrificed their lives for his safe- 
 ty; the king himself, after making a valiant defence, escap- 
 ed in the dark ; and Douglas, after losing the greater part 
 of his followers, was glad, with the remainder, to make a 
 hasty retreat. Soon afterwards, the enemy silently de- 
 camped, in the'dead of night, and arrived, without further 
 loss, in their own country; leaving the English monarch 
 highly incensed at the disappointment. 
 
 «o n The infamous Mortimer, having added, by repeat- 
 ed crimes, to the heavyweight of guilt by which he 
 had rendered himself unworthy of existence, was, at length, 
 condemned by a vote of parliament, and hung, on a gibbet, 
 G 2 
 
74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in the neighbourhood of London. Justice was also execut- 
 ed on some of the inferior criminals; particularly Simon 
 de Bereford; and the queen was confined to her house at 
 Risings. 
 
 The brave and valiant Bruce, who had recovered 
 by arms the independence of his country, having 
 now yielded to the hand of Death, (that conqueror, whose 
 unerring dart strikes, equally, the monarch and the sub- 
 ject,) the earl of Murray was appointed guardian to his 
 son, David, then a minor. Edward, the son of that John 
 Baliol, who had been crowned king of Scotland, lived at 
 this time in Normandy, on a patrimonial estate ; without 
 any thoughts of reviving the claims of his family to the 
 crown of Scotland. But, a dispute having arisen respect- 
 ing the interpretation of a treaty, made between England 
 and Scotland, by which all claim of superiority over the 
 latter kingdom had been renounced, Baliol was now in- 
 duced, by the English, to renew his pretensions to the Scot- 
 tish throne. This produced a contest ; in which Edward 
 was busily engaged. Baliol was put in possession of the 
 crown, but was soon driven from the kingdom ; -and, after 
 a series of military events, unimportant at the present day, 
 affairs stood nearly in. the same state as before the war. 
 
 We come now to a transaction, on which depended the 
 most memorable events, not only of this long and active 
 reign, but of the whole English or French history, during 
 more than a century. Edward, when a youth of but fifteen 
 years of age, had fondly cherished the idea that he was en- 
 titled, in right of his mother, to succeed to the crown of 
 France, upon the death of Charles the Fair. There can- 
 not be conceived a claim weaker, or worse grounded. The 
 principle of excluding females, had been long established 
 in that country, and had acquired equal authority with the 
 most positive law. It was supported by ancient prece- 
 dents : it was confirmed by recent instances, deliberately 
 and solemnly decided; and if Edward was inclined to ques- 
 tion its validity, he thereby cut off his own pretensions ; as 
 each of the last three kings left daughters, who were still 
 alive, and stood before him in the order of succession. He 
 was, therefore, reduced to assert, tnat, although his mother, 
 Isabella, was, on account of her sex, incapable of succeed- 
 ing, he himself, who inherited through her, was not liable 
 to any objection, and might claim by the right of propin- 
 quity. Though, however, the youthful and ambitious mind 
 of Edward had rashly entertained this idea, he did not im- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 75 
 
 mediately insist on his pretensions ; as Philip, the monarch, 
 then on the throne of France, was a prince of mature 
 years, and of an established character, both for prudence 
 and valour It is, therefore, highly probable, that he would 
 have totally relinquished his pretensions, but for some in- 
 cidents, which, subsequently, excited a high degree of ani- 
 mosity between the two monarchs. 
 
 33 „ Edward, now prepared for a powerful invasion of 
 ' the French territories. However, before he entered 
 on this great enterprise, he affected to consult his parlia- 
 ment, and obtained an apparent approbation. He procured 
 from them a grant of twenty-thousand sacks of wool, (the 
 principal article of export in those days,) which was a good 
 instrument to employ with the Flemings, and the price of 
 it with his German allies; as he had previously made ar- 
 rangements for a supply of troops, with many eminent 
 leaders amongst these people. But, after entering the 
 French territory, and assuming the title of King of France, 
 he was intimidated by the powerful force which Philip 
 brought against his hireling troops, and, at last, returned 
 into Flanders; where he dispersed his army. 
 
 But Edward was not discouraged by the first dif- 
 * ficulty of an undertaking. He passed over into 
 England, procured a reinforcement, and fitted out a fleet ; 
 with which he again set sail for the invasion of France. 
 Philip, having been apprized of the preparations making 
 both in England and the Low Countries, collected a fleet 
 of four-hundred vessels, having on board forty-thousand 
 men. These, he stationed off Sluys; with a view of inter- 
 cepting his antagonist. The navy of Edward was much 
 inferior in number; consisting only of two-hundred -and- 
 forty sail. A fierce and sanguinary engagement ensued. 
 The English archers, then highly celebrated, galled the 
 French on their approach; and, when the vessels grappled, 
 and the contest was changed to close fighting, the exam- 
 ple of the king and his gallant nobles so highly animated 
 the soldiery and seamen, that they maintained, every 
 where, a superiority. Thirty-thousand of the enemy were 
 killed, and two-hundred-and-thirty of their vessels taken ; 
 although the loss on the side of the English was inconsid- 
 erable. It is said, that none of Philip's courtiers dared to 
 inform him of this disaster, until his fool or jester had 
 given him a hint, by which he was led to discover his mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 The German allies of Edward, seeing now a strong pro 
 
76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 bability of being paid for their services, assembled theii 
 forces, and expeditiously joined his army. He marched to 
 the frontiers of France, at the head of above one-hundred- 
 thousand men ; a more numerous body than any that had 
 previously, or that has since, been commanded by a king 
 of England. But he was completely frustrated in -his at- 
 tempts ; and, after making a truce with the enemy, again 
 returned into England. 
 
 The truce having expired, Edward again invaded 
 ° ' France. His army, which, during the ensuing cam- 
 paign, was crowned with the most splendid success, num- 
 bered thirty-thousand ; and consisted of four-thousand men 
 at arms, ten-thousand archers, ten-thousand Welsh infan- 
 try, and six-thous?nd Irish. The Welsh and Irish were 
 light, disorderly troops ; fitter for doing execution in a pur- 
 suit, or ravaging a country, than for any regular action. 
 The king created the earl of Arundel, constable of his 
 army; the earls of Warwick and Harcourt, marshals: and, 
 immediately upon his landhig, conferred the honour of 
 knighthood on several of the young nobility, ind on his 
 eldest son, the prince of Wales; who, from the colour of 
 his armour, received the name of the Black Prince. He 
 then spread his army over the country; and, though Philip 
 used every precaution that prudence could suggest, or 
 abilities could execute, Edward penetrated the kingdom 
 with rapidity, and some of his light troops carried their 
 ravages to the very gates of Paris. 
 
 But being closely pressed by the French monarch, he 
 was, at length, obliged to act on the defensive. Besides 
 the numerous parties of the enemy, who, under the most 
 experienced commanders, assailed him in front and in 
 rear, on his right and on his left, Philip himself advanced, 
 at the head of a hundred-thousand men. 
 
 As his last resource, he took an advantageous post near 
 the village of Crecy. He disposed his army in excellent 
 order; determined to await, in tranquillity, the arrival of 
 the enemy; for, he expected that their eagerness to engage, 
 after all their past disappointments, would hurry them on 
 to some rash or ill-concerted action. He drew up his 
 forces on a gentle ascent; and divided them into three lines. 
 The first was commanded by the prince of Wales; and, 
 under him, by the earls of Warwick, Oxford, and Har- 
 court, the lords Chandos, Holland, and other noblemen. 
 The earls of Arundel and Northampton, with the lords 
 Willoughby, Basset, Ross, and sir Lewis Tufton,,were at 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 77 
 
 the head of the second. The king took on himself the 
 command of the third line, which he intended as a reserve. 
 He had the precaution to throw up trenches on his flanks; 
 and placed all his baggage behind him, in a wood ; which 
 also he secured by an entrenchment. 
 
 That he might infuse confidence and spirit throughout 
 his army, Edward rode along the ranks, with an air of 
 cheerfulness and alacrity; and then addressing them: "I 
 demand, only," said he, " that you will imitate my own ex- 
 ample, and that of my son, the prince of Wales; and, as 
 the honour, the lives, the liberties, of all, are now exposed 
 to the same danger, I am confident vou will make one com- 
 mon effort to extricate yourselves from your present diffi- 
 culties, and, that your united courage, will give you the 
 victory over all your enemies." 
 
 The French army, very imperfectly formed into three 
 lines, already fatigued and in disorder, now arrive in pre- 
 sence of their enemy. The first line, consisting of fifteen- 
 thousand Genoese cross-bow-men, was commanded by 
 Doria and Grimaldi. The second was led by the count 
 D'Aleneon, Philip's brother. The king himself was at 
 the head of the third. There were in the field, on the side 
 of the French monarch, no less than three crowned heads; 
 the king of Bohemia, the king of the Romans, and the king 
 of Majorca; with all the nobility, and the great vassals of 
 the crown. His army amounted to one-hundred-and-twen- 
 ty-thousand : four times the number of his adversary's. — 
 The Genoese begin the attack. The English keep their 
 ranks firm and immoveable, and pour forth a rapid stream 
 of well directed arrows. The Genoese, in confusion, fall 
 back upon the line of D'Aleneon ; who, enraged at their 
 cowardice, orders his troops to put them to the sword, — 
 1'he artillery of the English now fire amongst the crowd : 
 the archers ply, incessantly, their well-bent bows : all, 
 amongst the enemy, is hurry and confusion, terror and dis- 
 may. The young prince of Wales seizes the advantage, 
 and leads on his line to the charge. — Now, the French cav- 
 alry, recovered from the disorder into which they had been 
 thrown by the runaways, advance upon their assailants, 
 and, by their superior numbers, begin to hem them round. 
 —The battle becomes for some time hot and dangerous ; 
 and the- earl of Warwick, apprehensive of the event, des- 
 patches a messenger to the king, entreating him to send 
 succours for the relief of the prince. 
 
 Edward had chosen his station on the top of a hill; from 
 
78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 which, he- surveyed, in tranquillity, the scene of action. 
 VVhen the messenger accosted him, his first question was, 
 whether the prince was slain or wounded — On receiving 
 an answer in the negative, " Return," said he, " to my son, 
 and tell him I reserve the glory of this day for him : he 
 will be able, without my assistance, to repel the enemy." 
 
 The prince and his attendants are now inspired with new 
 courage. They make an attack, with redoubled vigour, 
 upon the French: D'Alencon falls: the whole line of cav- 
 alry is thrown into disorder: the riders are killed or dis- 
 mounted — The king of France comes up to their relief — 
 but the confusion is past remedy — the whole French army 
 take to flight, and are followed, and put to the sword with- 
 out mercy, until the pursuit is ended by the darkness of 
 the night. 
 
 There fell, on the side of France, twelve-hundred knights, 
 fourteen-hundred gentlemen, and above thirty-thousand of 
 inferior rank. Many of the principal nobility, and the 
 kings of Majorca and Bohemia, were left dead upon the 
 field. The fate of the latter was remarkable. He was 
 blind from age; but, being resolved to hazard his person 
 for an example, he ordered that the reins of his bridle should 
 be tied, on the outside, to the horses of two gentlemen of 
 his train; from which arrangement, his dead body, and the 
 bodies of his attendants, were afterwards found together, 
 with their horses standing by them. His crest was three 
 ostrich feathers; and his motto these German words: Ich 
 dien. [I serve.] The prince of Wales adopted them, as a 
 memorial of his great victory; and both crest and motto 
 are, at the present day, used by the king of Great Britain's 
 eldest son. The loss of the English in this engagement 
 was remarkably small — only three knights, one esquire, and 
 very few of inferior rank. 
 
 Edward, having taken the town of Calais, after one of 
 the most celebrated sieges in the annals of the world, and 
 having concluded a truce with France, returned into Eng- 
 land.* 
 .«.„- When the truce expired, the war with France 
 was renewed; and the prince of Wales was intrust- 
 ed with the chief command. He invaded France, and sig- 
 
 *The battle of Crecy was the first affair of importance in which 
 Artillery was used. Though the French also were in possession of 
 the invention, they had not any cannon at Crecy: probably in their 
 hurry they had left them behind 
 
- HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 79 
 
 nalized himself by gaining the celebrated victory of Poic- 
 tiers. He had but twelve-thousand men; the enemy sixiy- 
 thousand: yet the latter were completely routed; leaving 
 their monarch, John, a captive with the prince. The 
 French king was treated by young Edward with the great- 
 est humanity and respect; but was carried as a prisoner to 
 London. Here, he met a companion in his misfortunes. 
 David Bruce, the Scottish king, had been eleven years q 
 prisoner in the hands of Edward. After remaining three 
 years, it was agreed, that John should obtain his liberty, 
 by paying three-millions of gold crowns : a mutual adjust- 
 ment of provinces was made; and Edward relinquished 
 his claim to the throne of France. 
 
 The health of the Black Prince had long been 
 declining; and, after a lingering illness, he died in 
 the forty-sixth year of his age ; illustrious by every virtue, 
 and, from his earliest youth, until the hour in which he ex- 
 pired, unstained by any blemish. 
 
 The king survived only a few months this melancholy 
 incident. He died in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and 
 the fifty-first of his reign. 
 
 The order of the Garter was instituted by this prince ; 
 and it was he who built the magnificent castle of Windsor, 
 aided by the architectural knowledge of the learned Wil- 
 liam of Wykeham, bishop of Winchester. A parochial 
 assessment for the poor now began. The woolen manu- 
 facture was promoted by the introduction of foreign weav- 
 ers and cloth-dressers ; an act of parliament was passed, 
 which prohibited the wearing of any cloth except of British 
 manufacture ; and that badge of conquest, the use of the 
 French language in pleadings and public documents, was at 
 this time abolished in England. 
 
 Having employed his arms successfully in subduing the 
 crown of France, Edward thought it unbecoming the digni- 
 ty of the victors to use any longer the language of the van- 
 quished : it was therefore enacted, that all trials should 
 proceed in the English tongue; and be entered and enrolled 
 in Latin. 
 
 This reign is esteemed the fountain of English poetry. 
 Chaucer, who flourished in the time of Edward, was not 
 only the first poet, but among the best poetical writers, that 
 England has ever shown. His poems, in general, display 
 every kind of excellence, except melody and regularity of 
 measure; defects which are to be attributed chiefly to the 
 rude state of the English language, at the time in which he 
 
80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 wrote. The writings of sir John Mandeville, a scientific 
 traveller, furnish us with its form in the year 1356, and 
 show the gradual approximation to the present.* 
 
 RICHARD THE SECOND. 
 
 1377—1399. 
 
 Richard., the only surviving son of the Black Prince, was 
 but eleven years of age when he succeeded to the throne. 
 The young king was assisted in the government by his 
 three uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester; 
 sons of Edward the third; whose dangerous ambition was 
 checked by the plain and unimpeachable title of Richard; 
 the affectionate regard which the people bore to the memo- 
 ry of his father ; and the different dispositions of the three 
 princes. The duke of Lancaster was invested with the 
 principal authority : but Gloucester, though the youngest, 
 was the most conspicuous ; being turbulent, bold, and 
 popular. 
 
 The most remarkable event in this reign, was an insur- 
 rection of the people; the second, we believe, that occur- 
 red in England. This serious disturbance was caused by 
 the unfair method of assessing a poll tax, and the severity 
 with which it was collected. A determined spirit of re- 
 sistance spread rapidly over many of the principal coun- 
 ties : the populace, worked up to the highest pitch of frenzy, 
 by the most daring of their leaders, who assumed the names 
 of Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, Hob Carter, and Tom Miller, 
 entered London ; threatening almost universal destruction. 
 However, by the address of young Richard, then only in 
 his sixteenth year, and some promises made to them, this 
 alarming commotion was, in a short time, quelled. 
 
 The tranquillity of the northern borders was now 
 
 disturbed; not so much from any national quarrel, 
 
 as the rivalship between the two martial families of Percy 
 
 of the north of England, and Douglas of Scotland. A well 
 
 * u In that lond, ne in many other bezonde that, no man may see 
 the sterre transmontane, that is clept the sterre of the see, that is 
 unmevable, aud that is toward the Northe, that we clepen the lode 
 sterre. But men see another sterre, the contrarie to him, that is to- 
 ward the Southe, that is clept Antartyk. And light as the schip 
 men taken here avys here, and govcrne hem be the lode sterre, right 
 so don schip men bezonde the parties, be the sterre of the Southe, 
 the which sterre apperethe not to us." 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 81 
 
 contested action took place at Otterburne; in which, young 
 Percy (surnamed Hotspur) was taken prisoner, and Doug 
 las slain. 
 
 Some insurrections in Ireland obliged the king to go 
 over into that country; which he reduced to obedience. 
 But the general conduct of this prince was little suited to 
 gain the affections even of his English subjects. Indolent, 
 expensive, addicted to low pleasures, he spent the princi- 
 pal part of his life in riot and feasting; and dissipated,- in 
 idle show, or in bounties to his favourites, the revenue 
 which should have been employed for the honour and ad- 
 vantage of the nation. Gloucester, taking advantage of 
 the public feeling, formed a conspiracy against him : but 
 the king seized his uncle, and hurried him off to Calais ; 
 where, it is supposed, he was assassinated. The duke of 
 Lancaster (commonly called John of Gaunt) having shortly 
 after died, was succeeded by his son, Henry, earl of Derby; 
 who had, by his conduct and abilities, acquired the esteem 
 of the public. Richard, however, refused to put this prince 
 in possession of his paternal estates; which produced a 
 general insurrection. The slender talents of the duke of 
 York, who adhered to the royal cause, were "unable to re- 
 sist the storm. The king was dethroned, and Lancaster 
 obtained the crown: the deposed monarch was immured 
 in the castle of Pomfret; and the same party which had 
 wrested from him his feeble sceptre, soon deprived him 
 also of his life. 
 
 But, even had king Richard been justly dethroned, the 
 crown did not regularly devolve upon Henry. By the rules 
 of succession, the posterity of Lionel, duke of Clarence 
 second surviving son of Edward the third, and brother ol 
 the Black Prince, were now entitled to the throne ; the heit 
 of which branch was the young earl of Marche, son of 
 Philippa, the daughter of the duke of Clarence, by Ed- 
 mond Mortimer; whose descendants, as will be seen here- 
 after, at length established their disputed title. 
 
 The House of Commons had now, decidedly, obtained 
 the power of legislation. 
 
 John Wicklifle, a secular priest educated at Oxford, who> 
 in the latter part of the preceding reign, had begun to 
 spread the doctrine of religious reformation, died in 1385. 
 His opinions were nearly the same as those afterwards 
 propagated by Luther, and the other continental reform- 
 ers, in the sixteenth century; having been carried over 
 H 
 
82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 into Germany by some young men who had been students 
 at Oxford.* 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 HENRY THE FOURTH. 
 
 1399 — 1413. 
 
 THE unfortunate Richard left no posterity. The earl 
 of Marche, who, previous to the usurpation of the duke 
 of Lancaster, had been declared the next in succession to 
 the crown, was, at this time, a boy of only seven years of 
 age ; and, as his friends consulted his safety by observing 
 a profound silence with regard to his tiUe, Henry detained 
 him and his younger brother in a kind of honourable 
 custody, at Windsor Castle. 
 
 The new king, however, had to encounter many difficul- 
 ties. He was opposed by a powerful body of the nobility: 
 the peers, in the very first parliament summoned after his 
 cororTation, broke out into violent animosities ; and forty 
 gauntlets, the pledges of furious battle, were thrown on 
 the lloor of the house, by noblemen who gave challenges 
 to as many members of opposite opinion. The king had 
 sufficient authority to restrain the combats; but he was not 
 able to produce reconciliation. These angry passions soon 
 broke out into action; and nothing but the treachery of one 
 of the conspirators, prevented Henry's dethronement from 
 being as rapid as his elevation. Miserable monarch ! whose 
 
 *The following specimen of the language in those days, is taken 
 from WicklifFe's translation of the Bible. 
 
 Luk. Chap. I. [Luke.] 
 IN the days of Eroude kyng of Judee ther was a prcst, Zacarye 
 by name : of the sort of Abia, and his wyf was of the doughtris of 
 Aaron : and hir name was Elizabeth, 
 
 2 And bothe weren juste bifore God : goynge in all the maunde- 
 mentis and justifyingis of the Lord withouten playnt. 
 
 3 And thei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn, and both 
 weren of greet age in her dayes. 
 
 4 And it befel that whanne Zacarye schoulddo the office of prf-.st- 
 hod, in the order of his course to fore God, 
 
 5 Aftirthe custom of the presthod, he wente forth by lot aud en- 
 tride into the temple to encensen. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 83 
 
 only security was the streaming of the scaffold; and whose 
 tottering throne seemed still to vibrate with the agonies of 
 his murdered predecessor ! 
 
 The revolution in England caused an insurrection in 
 Wales, and tempted the Scots to make incursions. In 
 one of these, Archibald, earl of Douglas, with many more 
 of his countrymen, were overtaken by the Percys at Homel- 
 don, on the English borders, and made prisoners. Henry 
 sent orders to the, earl of Northumberland, not to ransom 
 them; though by the laws of war, which then prevailed, 
 he had that privilege. The impatient spirit of Harry 
 Percy, and the factious disposition of the earl of Worces- 
 ter, younger brother of Northumberland, inflamed the dis- 
 contents of this nobleman, and induced him to seek revenge, 
 by overturning that throne which he had assisted to estab- 
 lish. He entered into a correspondence with Glendour, a 
 descendant of the ancient princes of Wales; liberated the 
 earl of Douglas; made with him an alliance, and roused up 
 all his partisans to arms. Northumberland having been 
 suddenly deprived of health, the command devolved upon 
 young Percy, his son; who marched towards Shrewsbury, 
 in order to form a junction with Glendour. The king over- 
 took Percy, before that nobleman was joined by his Welsh 
 friends ; and the policy of one leader, and impatience 
 of the other, hastened on the engagement. — The 
 shock was tremendous. The charges were incessant. Hen- 
 ry exposed himself in the thickest of the fight; and his 
 gallant son, whose military feats became afterwards so 
 famous, now signalized himself by his heroic bravery. 
 Percy supported the renown which he had hitherto main- 
 tained ; and Douglas, formerly his enemy, but now his 
 friend, still appeared his rival, amidst the horror and con- 
 fusion of the day. But, whilst the armies were thus con- 
 tending, the death of Percy decided the victory, and the 
 royalists prevailed. Douglas and Worcester were taken 
 prisoners: the former was beheaded at Shrewsbury; the 
 latter was treated with mercy and respect. 
 
 Tnus, have been related, nearly all the memorable inci- 
 dents of this reign; which, though crowded with sanguina- 
 ry commotions, produced few events that deserve to be 
 recorded. 
 
 After an illness of many months, the king expired at 
 Westminster, in the forty-sixth year of his age, and the 
 fourteenth of his reign. He left four sons : Henry, who 
 succeeded to the crown; Thomas, duke of Clarence; John. 
 
84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 duke of Bedford ; and Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, 
 The military order of the Bath was now founded. 
 
 HENRY THE FIFTH. 
 
 1413 — 1422. 
 
 The precarious title by which the late king held his ele- 
 vated situation, had naturally filled his mind with appre- 
 hension ; and even his own son, whose reign is now the 
 subject o£ narration, was not exempted from the pernicious 
 effect of his unconquerable jealousies. 
 
 The active spirit of young Henry, restrained from its 
 proper exercise ir. political pursuits, broke out, in his 
 father's life time, into extravagancies of every kind; and 
 he endeavoured to forget, in riot and debauchery, the dis- 
 appointments of an ardent and ambitious mind. — The great 
 English dramatist, who availed himself of every striking 
 incident in history, has not omitted Henry as a fit subject 
 for theatrical exhibition.— The nation, however, regarded 
 the young prince with an indulgent feeling : they observed 
 so many gleams of generosity, spirit, and magnanimity, 
 breaking continually through the cloud, which a wild con- 
 duct had thrown over his character, that they never ceased 
 hoping for his amendment ; and ascribed all his irregular- 
 ities to his father's inattention. 
 
 A riotous companion of the prince had been indicted 
 for some disorders, before Gascoigne, the chief justice; 
 and Henry appeared at the bar, to give him his countenance 
 and protection. Finding that his presence had not over- 
 awed the judge, he proceeded to insult him on his tribunal , 
 but Gascoigne, not forgetful of the dignity of his own char- 
 acter, and the respect which is due, by all, without distinc- 
 tion, to the laws, ordered the prince, for his rude behaviour, 
 to be carried to prison. The spectators were agreeably 
 surprised when they saw the heir of the crown peaceably 
 submit to this sentence, make reparation for his error by 
 an acknowledgment, and check his impetuosity in the 
 midst of its career. 
 
 After his elevation to the regal dignity, the first step take]] 
 by the young monarch, confirmed all those prepossessions 
 which had been entertained in his favour. He called to- 
 gether his former companions ; acquainted them with his 
 intended reformation; exhorted them to imitate his ex- 
 ample ; strictly forbade them to appear any more in his 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 85 
 
 presence, until they had given proofs of their amendment j 
 and then dismissed them, with liberal presents. The wise 
 and virtuous ministers of his father, and the upright and 
 noble spirited Gascoigne, were told to persevere in the 
 same impartial execution of the laws; and the character of 
 the young- king now appeared brighter than if it had never 
 been shaded by any errors. Instead of continuing the re- 
 straints imposed by his father on the earl of Marche, he 
 received him with singular courtesy and favour; which mag- 
 nanimity gained so much on the gentle disposition of his 
 rival, that he remained, ever after, sincerely attached to him, 
 and gave no disturbance to his future government. The 
 family of Percy was restored to its estate and honours : 
 Henry's subjects were unanimous in their affection, and the 
 defects of his title were forgot amidst their personal regard. 
 
 The late king, upon his death-bed, most emphatically 
 enjoined his son, not to allow the English to remain long 
 in peace ; but to employ them in foreign expeditions :* by 
 which, he said, the prince might acquire honour, the no- 
 bility, in sharing his dangers, might attach themselves to 
 his person, and all the restless spirits find occupation for 
 their inquietude. This injunction may be used in palliation 
 of those military exploits, in which Henry was afterwards 
 so eminently conspicuous. The injunctions of an expiring 
 parent should have a powerful effect upon the conduct of 
 a son: but, still, they have not sufficient weight, on our 
 minds, to call forth an approval of those reiterated plaudits, 
 given by the historians of this prince. We have allowed 
 Henry the full measure of our praise, for his deportment 
 as a magistrate: we shall withhold them for his conduct as a 
 warrior; and, only the barbarism of the age in which he lived, 
 restrains us from throwing into the opposite scale, a weight 
 of censure, which would overbalance his domestic virtues. 
 
 Charles the sixth, then on the throne of France, was af- 
 flicted with occasional attacks of mental derangement, 
 which rendered him incapable of pursuing any steady plan 
 of public government. The administration of affairs was 
 disputed by the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy: but, the 
 former having been assassinated by order of his rival, the 
 son of the murdered prince sought revenge; and thus, the 
 city of Paris was, for a long time, a deplorable scene of 
 violence and blood. The advantage which might be made, 
 of these confusions, was easily perceived in England; and, 
 according to the maxims too often prevailing amongst na- 
 tions, it was determined to use the favourable opportunity 
 H 2 
 
86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of regaining all those provinces which his ancestors had 
 possessed in France, and, as circumstances might direct, 
 of renewing the claim made by Edward the third to the 
 French crown. 
 
 . „ Henry put to sea, and landed at Harfleur, with an 
 3 * army of thirty-thousand men; mostly archers. He 
 immediately began the siege of that place; and, enraged 
 at a breach of faith in the governor, who had agreed to 
 surrender on a certain day, if succours should not arrive, 
 he ordered a general assault, took the town by storm, and 
 put all the garrison to the sword ; except some gentlemen, 
 whom the victorious army were induced to spare, in hopes 
 of reaping profit by their ransom. 
 
 The fatigues of the siege, with the unusual heat of the 
 season, had severely wasted the English army. Henry 
 could not, therefore, enter on any further enterprise, and 
 wished to return to England : but, as he had dismissed his 
 transports, he lay under a necessity of going by land to 
 Calais; from which place, he proposed to embark. A 
 French army, of fifty-thousand men, now watched his mo- 
 tions; and, after he had passed the small river of Ternois, 
 at Blangi, he was surprised to observe, from the heights, 
 this powerful enemy, drawn up in the plains of Agincourt; 
 and so posted, that it was impossible for him to proceed on 
 his march, without hazarding an engagement. So great 
 was the superiority of the French, in number, that David 
 Gam, a Welsh captain, who had been sent out to reconnoitre 
 them, brought back word, in the homely style of his coun- 
 try, that there was enough to be killed, enough to be taken 
 prisoners, and enough to run away. Henry's situation was 
 similar to that of Edward at Crecy, and of the Black Prince 
 at Poictiers. He was opposed to an army above four times 
 his number; yet no battle was ever more fatal to France than 
 the battle of Agincourt. Of the French forces, ten-thousand 
 were killed, and fourteen-thousand taken prisoners — nearly- 
 half their entire army, and more than double the number 
 that opposed them ! The English lost but forty slain ! 
 
 The trifling resources of all the European princes, in 
 those days, prevented them from prosecuting a war, with 
 uninterrupted vigour; and Henry, yielding to necessity, 
 concluded a truce with the enemy, and returned into Eng- 
 land, 
 j g Still distracted by the furious ambition of her roy- 
 al princes, France was, at this time, badly prepared 
 to resist invasion. Henry, now aiming at the crown of lhaf 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 87 
 
 country, landed, with a numerous army, in Normandy; and 
 was favoured equally by his fortune in the field, and the 
 events which occurred amongst the French. The duke of 
 Burgundy having been murdered, the young dauphin, heii 
 apparent of the crown, was not exempted from the imputa- 
 tion of having shared in the crime; though, from his ex- 
 treme youth, it is probable he was innocent of the charge. 
 The son of that prince thought himself bound, by every tie 
 of honour and of duty, to revenge the murder of his father. 
 The subjection to a foreign enemy, the expulsion of the law- 
 ful heir, the slavery of the kingdom, appeared but small 
 evils, if they led to the gratification of his feelings. By the 
 intrigues, therefore, of the young duke, a treaty was con- 
 cluded at Troye; the principal articles of which, were, thai 
 Henry should espouse the princess Catherine, the French 
 king's daughter; that Charles, during his lifetime, should 
 enjoy the title and dignities of king of France; that Henry 
 should be declared and acknowledged heir of the monarchy, 
 and be intrusted with the present administration of the gov- 
 ernment; that that kingdom should pass to his heirs gen- 
 eral; that France and England should, for ever, be united 
 under one crown; and that Henry should join his arms to 
 those of king Charles and the duke of Burgundy, in order 
 to subdue the adherents of Charles, the pretended dauphin 
 Such was the tenor of this astonishing treaty, which trans- 
 ferred the crown of France to a stranger: a treaty, which, 
 as nothing but the most violent animosity could dictate, so 
 nothing but the sword could carry into execution. In a few 
 days after, he was married to the princess Catherine: he 
 carried his father-in-law to Paris ; got possession of that cap- 
 ital, and obtained, from the French parliament, a ratifica- 
 tion of the treaty. At length, having succeeded in reducing 
 many of the principal towns which had held out against the 
 royal authority, he appointed his uncle, the duke of Exeter, 
 governor of Paris, and passed over into England, for the 
 purpose of raising supplies. 
 .. He had now returned to the French capital; hav- 
 
 ing overcome every difficulty: his queen had a son, 
 who was called by his father's name, and was joyfully re- 
 garded, both at Paris and London, as the future heir of 
 both monarchies. But the earthly glory of the conqueror, 
 when it had nearly reached the, summit, was stopped short 
 by the hand of death, and all his mighty projects glided 
 from his view 
 
8H HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 He died in the thirty-fourth year of his age, and the 
 tenth of his reign. 
 
 He left the regency of France to his next brother, the 
 duke of Bedford; that of England, to his younger, the 
 duke of Gloucester; and the care of his son's person to 
 the earl of Warwick. 
 
 The exterior figure and deportment of Henry were en- 
 gaging. His stature was rather above the middle size: his 
 countenance beautiful: his limbs were slender, but full of 
 vigour; and he excelled in all the warlike and manly exer- 
 cises of the age. 
 
 Catherine of France, Henry's widow, married, soon after 
 his death, a Welsh gentleman, sir Owen Tudor, (said to 
 have been descended from the ancient princes of his coun- 
 try) and bore him two sons; Edmund and Jasper: of whom, 
 the eldest was created earl of Richmond ; the second, earl 
 of Pembroke. 
 
 The fixed revenue of the crown during this reign, 
 amounted only to fifty-five-thousand pounds, and the ordi- 
 nary expenses of government to fifty-two-thousand; so that 
 the king had, yearly, for the support of his household, for 
 embassies, and other contingencies, no more than three- 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 From the earliest times, until the reign of Edward the 
 third, the denomination of money had not been altered. A 
 pound sterling was still a pound troy; (about three pounds 
 of the present money;) hence, the letter L is used to de- 
 note a pound of money: which character is deducible ei- 
 ther from the Latin, libra, or the French, livre — words used 
 in those languages to denote either a pound in weight or a 
 pound in money. Through necessity, Edward coined twenty- 
 five shillings out of a pound troy: but Henry carried the 
 imposition still further; and made thirty shillings from 
 the same quantity. His revenue, therefore, was equal to 
 i>ne-hundred-and-ten-thousand pounds of the present mo- 
 ney; and, by the price of provisions in his time, equivalent 
 to more than three-hundred-and-thirty-thousand.* 
 
 None of the princes of the house of Lancaster ventured 
 to impose taxes without the consent of parliament. Their 
 doubtful, or bad title, became, so far, advantageous to the 
 state; as, thereby, a precedent was established, which could 
 not afterwards, with impunity, be infringed; even by prin- 
 ces of more absolute disposition. 
 
 * Tn the year 1816, after several intermediate changes, the standard 
 was reduced to 66 shillings from a pound of silver. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 89 
 
 HENRY THE SIXTH. 
 
 1422—1461. * 
 
 The British parliament, without paying any regard to the 
 will of the late king, assumed the power of giving a new ar- 
 rangement to the whole government. Not approving of the 
 title of regent with respect to England, they nominated the 
 duke of Bedford protector of the kingdom; a title supposed 
 to imply less authority: they invested the duke of Glouce- 
 ster with the same dignity, during the absence of his broth- 
 er ; and, in order to limit the power of both these princes, 
 appointed a council, without whose advice and approba- 
 tion, no measure of importance could be determined. 
 
 The power of administration in France, vested in Henry 
 the fifth, by the treaty of Troye, was still continued to his 
 heir, though yet an infant ; and the duke of Bedford now 
 managed the affairs of that kingdom. The experience, the 
 prudence, and valour, of this nobleman, qualified him for 
 this high office; and enabled him to maintain union amongst 
 his friends, and gain the confidence of his enemies. He was 
 at the head of armies inured to victory : he was seconded 
 by the most renowned generals of the age — the earls of 
 Somerset, Warwick, Salisbury, Suffolk, and Arundel ; Sir 
 John Talbot, and Sir John Fastolfe. But all these advanta- 
 ges were not sufficient to counterbalance the difficulties by 
 which he was surrounded. Every political arrangement 
 must yield to the changes produced by time. Many of the 
 French nobility, upon whom the regent had most firmly 
 relied, now felt their interest in supporting the opposite 
 cause ; and war again resounded over France. 
 
 The city of Orleans was so situated between the provin- 
 ces commanded by Henry and those possessed by Charles, 
 that it opened an easy entrance into either; and as the duke 
 of Bedford intended to make a great effort to penetrate into 
 the south of France, he began with this place, now become 
 the most important in the kingdom. The eyes of all Eu- 
 rope were turned towards a scene, where it was supposed 
 that the French were to make their last stand for the inde- 
 pendence of their monarchy. The earl of Salisbury ap- 
 proached with an army of ten-thousand men, and commenc- 
 ed his operations by an attack upon the outworks; in which 
 affair, he was killed by a cannon-ball. The English, also, 
 had several pieces of artillery in their camp: the first that 
 were found of importance at any siege in Europe. The earl 
 
00 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of Suffolk, upon whom, the command devolved, trusted, for 
 success, more to famine than to force, and converted the 
 siege into a*blockade. Great scarcity was soon felt within 
 the city. Charles not only gave up the place for lost, but 
 began to entertain a very dismal prospect with regard to 
 the general state of his affairs. But it was fortunate for this 
 good prince, that, as he lay under the dominion of the fair 
 sex, the women whom he consulted had the spirit to sup- 
 port his sinking resolutions. Mary of Anjou, his queen, in 
 particular, exerted herself to kindle in his breast the patriot 
 flame. Love was more powerful than ambition — he re- 
 solved rather to perish with honour in the midst of his 
 friends, than yield ingloriously to the frowns of fortune. 
 . The determination which Charles had made in 
 
 compliance with his queen, was soon assisted by a 
 female of a very different character; who gave rise to one 
 of the most extraordinary revolutions to be found in histo- 
 ry. In the village of Domremy, on the borders of Lor- 
 raine, there lived a country girl, twenty-seven years of age, 
 called Joan d'Arc. She was a servant in a small inn; in 
 which station, she was accustomed to tend the horses of 
 the guests, to ride them, without a saddle, to the watering 
 place, and to perform other offices, which, in well-frequent 
 ed inns, fall to the share of men-servants. This girl was 
 of an irreproachable life, and, hitherto, was not remarked 
 for any singularity; probably because she had met with no 
 occasion to excite her genius. It is easy to imagine, that 
 the present situation of the country was an interesting sub- 
 ject of discourse, even to persons of the lowest rank; and 
 that the peculiar character of Charles, so strongly inclined 
 to friendship and the tender passions, would naturally ren- 
 der him the hero of that sex, whose generous minds know 
 no bounds in their affections. The siege of Orleans, 
 the great distress of the garrison and the inhabitants, the 
 importance of saving the city and its brave defenders, had 
 attracted universal attention; and Joan, inflamed by the 
 general excitement, was seized with a wild desire of reliev- 
 ing the miseries of her sovereign. Her inexperienced 
 mind, employed day and night on this favourite object, 
 mistook the impulse of enthusiasm for heavenly inspira- 
 tion; and she fancied that she saw visions, and heard voices, 
 exhorting her to expel the invaders of her country. She 
 went to the governor of the district, informed him of her 
 inspirations and intentions; and conjured him not to ne- 
 glect the voice of God, which spoke through her, but to 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 91 
 
 second those revelations, which impelled her to this glori- 
 ous enterprise. It is uncertain, whether the governor had 
 discernment sufficient to perceive, that a great effect might 
 be produced on the vulgar, by an instrument so uncommon; 
 or, that he was, himself, a convert to this visionary. He 
 adopted, however, the scheme of Joan, and gave her some at- 
 tendants, who conducted her to the French court at Chinon. 
 
 The more the king and his ministers were determined 
 to profit by the illusion, the more scruples they pretended. 
 An assembly of grave theologians examined Joan's mis- 
 sion, and pronounced it undoubted and supernatural. She 
 was sent to the parliament, then residing at Poictiers, and 
 was interrogated before that assembly. The presidents 
 and die counsellors, who came, persuaded of her imposture, 
 went away convinced of her inspiration ; and a ray of hope 
 soon illumined the minds of those, who, before, were en- 
 veloped in despair/ 
 
 Joan was now armed cap a-pee, was mounted on horse- 
 back, and, in that martial habiliment, was shown to the 
 people. Her dexterity in managing her steed, though ac- 
 quired in her old employment, was regarded as a new proof 
 of her mission : her former occupation was even denied, — 
 she was no longer the servant of an inn. She was con- 
 verted into a shepherdess; and, to render her still more 
 interesting, nearly ten years were subtracted from her age. 
 
 When the engine was thus dressed up in full splendour, 
 it was determined to try its force against the enemy. Joan 
 was sent to Blois, where a large convoy was prepared for 
 the support of Orleans, and an army of ten-thousand men 
 assembled to escort it. She ordered all the soldiers to con- 
 fess their sins, before they set out ; banished from the camp 
 all women of bad fame; and insisted, in right of her pro- 
 phetic mission, that the coftvoy should enter Orleans, by 
 the direct road, from the side of Beausse. But the count 
 of Dunois, an able general, unwilling to relinquish the 
 rules of the military art, ordered that it should approach 
 by the other side of the river; where, he knew, was sta- 
 tioned the weakest part of the English army. 
 
 The powerful influence of superstition on the minds of 
 the besiegers, became evident. When the convoy ap- 
 proached the river, a sally was made by the garrison, on 
 the side of Beausse, to prevent the English general from 
 sending any detachment to the other side : the provisions 
 were then peaceably embarked in boats, sent out by the in- 
 habitants: Joan covered with her troops the embarkation,* 
 
92 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Suffolk did not venture to attack her; and the French gen- 
 eral returned with his army in safety to Blois. The Maid 
 of Orleans, (by which name this female is generally known) 
 entered the town, arrayed in her military garb, displaying 
 a consecrated standard, and was received by all the inhabit- 
 ants as a celestial deliverer. They now believed, that, un- 
 der her sacred influence, they were invincible ; and Dunois 
 himself, perceiving so wonderful an alteration, both in 
 friends and enemies, consented that the next convoy, which 
 was expected in a few days, should enter by the side of 
 Beausse. — The convoy approaches — no sign of resistance 
 appears — the wagons and troops pass through the re- 
 doubts, without interruption — and there remain amongst 
 the besiegers a dead silence and astonishment ! 
 
 We have now related the most interesting scenes in 
 which this remarkable character so conspicuously appear- 
 ed. The blockading army, after her entrance into the city, 
 did not long remain before its walls ; and, from this time, 
 the affairs of the English gradually declined in France 
 The duke of Bedford, however, displayed pre-eminent 
 abilities in bearing up against the misfortunes of the army; 
 but his death, which happened in about six years from the 
 commencement of these reverses, hastened the evacuation 
 of the French dominions. That amiable character by which 
 he had long been distinguished, was, unhappily, sullied by 
 an atrocious act of barbarism. The Maid of Orleans, had, 
 by the chances of war, fallen into his hands ; and this ad- 
 mirable heroine, to whom, as an elegant writer has observ- 
 ed, the more generous superstition of the ancients would 
 have erected altars, was, on pretence of heresy and magic, 
 delivered to the flames ; and expiated, by that dreadful 
 punishment, the signal services which she had rendered to 
 her prince and her native country. 
 
 The English were not finally subdued in France until 
 the year 1450 ; and, even then, neither a truce nor a peace 
 was concluded : nor can it be said that they were over- 
 thrown by the strength of their opponents ; as their retreat 
 proceeded from a gradual diminution in their numbers, 
 which could not be recruited. 
 
 Henry's incapacity for government appeared every day 
 in a fuller light, and his title to the British crown was now 
 disputed. All the males of the house of Mortimer were ex- 
 tinct; but Anne, sister of the last earl of Marche, having 
 been espoused by the earl of Cambridge, beheaded in the 
 leign of Henry the fifth, had transmitted her latent, though 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 93 
 
 not forgotten, claim, to her son, Richard, duke of York 
 This prince, descended from Philippa, only daughter of 
 the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward the third, stood 
 plainly in the order of succession before the king ; who 
 derived his descent from the duke of Lancaster, third son 
 of that monarch. Thus, the English were to pay the se- 
 vere, though late penalty, of their turbulence against Rich- 
 ard the second; and of violating, without just reason, the 
 lineal succession of their monarchs. The duke was second- 
 ed by many of the most powerful nobles in the kingdom; 
 and, amongst the number, by the celebrated Richard Nevil, 
 earl of Warwick, commonly known by the appellation of 
 King-maker. 
 
 4 A sanguinary engagement between the rival par 
 
 ties, took place at St. Albans, where the Yorkists 
 had the advantage ; upwards of five-thousand of their ene- 
 mies having been left dead upon the field. There, the first 
 blood was spilled, in that fatal quarrel; which continued for 
 thirty years ; wa^s signalized by twelve pitched battles ; 
 caused the deaths of eighty princes of the blood, and almost 
 entirely annihilated the ancient nobility of England. 
 
 After alternate battles and negotiations, the parliament 
 declared the title of the duke of York, to be certain and in 
 defeasible ; but, in consideration that Henry had so long 
 enjoyed the crown, without dispute, they determined that 
 he should continue in possession of the title and dignity for 
 the remainder of his life, and that the administration of the 
 government should, immediately, be vested in the duke. 
 
 This prince, however, did not long survive the settlement. 
 Margaret, the queen of England, still kept the field, with a 
 powerful army ; and, in a severe engagement, fought at 
 Wakefield, in which she herself commanded, the duke of 
 York was killed, and his army defeated. But the affairs of 
 the Yorkists were soon retrieved by the bravery of Edward, 
 eldest son of the deceased duke; who entered London, 
 amidst the acclamations of the citizens, and was, by the 
 voice of the people, called to the throne, under the title of 
 Edward the fourth. 
 
 Thus, ended, the reign of Henry ; who, whilst in his 
 cradle, had been proclaimed king both of England and 
 France : — a prince who should be pitied for his misfortunes 
 as lie suffered for the usurpation of another. 
 
 Happily for England, her foreign dominions, except Ca- 
 lais and a few other places, were now lost. From this time, 
 her maritime adventures were better understood, and more 
 I 
 
94 „ HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 clo?ely pursued ; and, as soon as she had rested from her 
 civil wars, she began suddenly to flourish ; and became 
 much more considerable in Europe, than when her princes 
 were possessed of a larger territory, and her councils dis- 
 tracted by foreign interests. 
 
 The historian employed by Henry the sixth, was Thomas 
 Walsingham. The most remarkable law passed in this 
 reign, was for the, due election of members of parliament, 
 in counties : the electors were limited to freeholders who 
 possessed forty shillings a year, free from all burthen, with- 
 in the county for which the members were to be returned. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 EDWARD THE FOURTH. 
 
 1461 — 1483. 
 
 THERE is no part of English history, since the conquest, 
 so obscure, and inconsistent, as that of the wars between 
 the two houses of York and Lancaster. Some events of 
 the utmost importance, in which nearly all the historians of 
 those days agree, are contradicted by records; and it is re- 
 markable, that this uncertainty occurs j\ist on the eve of 
 the restoration of Letters. All we can distinguish, through 
 the deep cloud which covers the transactions of that age, 
 is a scene of horror and bloodshed, savage manners, arbi- 
 trary executions, and treacherous, dishonourable conduct, 
 in all parties. The chief certainty, in this and in the pre- 
 ceding reign, arises, either from public documents, or the 
 notice taken of particular occurrences by the French wri- 
 ters. It is highly probable, that the scarcity of English au- 
 thors, during this period, proceeded from the destruction 
 of the convents, which had been almost the sole reposito- 
 ries of learning; as the nobility and gentry were yet in a 
 state of profound ignorance. They were so much engaged 
 in the sanguinary contests of the field, that they had no 
 leisure to attend to the peaceable studies of the closet 
 
 Young Edward, in the very commencement of his reign, 
 gave symptoms of that cruelty which afterwards so strongly 
 marked the course of his turbulent career. A tradesman 
 in London, who had above his door the sign of the crown, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 95 
 
 having jocosely said that he would make his son heir to the 
 croivn, this harmless pleasantry was interpreted to have 
 been spoken in derision of the king's assumed title ; and 
 he was, for this implied offence, condemned r.nd executed. 
 Such an act of tyranny was a suitable prelude to the scenes 
 which followed. The scaffold and the field incessantly 
 streamed with blood, shed in the quarrel between the two 
 rival families. The adherents of the house of Lancaster 
 chose the red rose, as the symbol of their party : those of 
 York, assumed the white ; and thus, these civil wars were 
 known over Europe by the name of the quarrel between 
 the Two Roses. 
 
 Queen Margaret being still in the field with a numerous 
 army, the king, accompanied by the earl of Warwick, set 
 out with a body of forty-thousand men, to give her battle. 
 A sanguinary engagement shortly ensued: the Lancastrians 
 were defeated ; and the queen, with the unfortunate Henry, 
 fled for safety into Scotland. The good effects of this vic- 
 tory upon the affairs of Edward, were apparent, in the first 
 parliament summoned for the purpose of settling the gov- 
 ernment. The members no longer hesitated between the 
 two families; they recognised his title, through the house 
 of Mortimer; and declared that he was entitled to the 
 throne from the moment of his father's death. 
 
 In the following spring, the nation was again visited by 
 the horrors of war. The French king, induced from mo- 
 tives of policy to support the-weaker party, gave Margaret 
 a body of two-thousand men; with which, assisted by a nu- 
 merous train of adventurers from Scotland, and many par- 
 tisans of the house of Lancaster, this indefatigable woman 
 again appealed to arms. How r ever, in two engagements 
 which occurred, at ^edgley-more and Hexham, her forces 
 were completely overthrown. She herself escaped into 
 Flanders; but the weak and unhappy Henry was made 
 brisoner, and conveyed to the Tower of London. 
 
 The cruel and unrelenting spirit of Edward, though m 
 u red to the ferocity of civil wars, was, at the same time, 
 extremely devoted to the softer passions: which, without 
 mitigating the severity of his temper, maintained over him 
 a powerful influence, and shared his attachment with the 
 pursuits of ambition and the thirst for military glory $ut, 
 as it is difficult to reduce the inclinations within strict 
 bounds of propriety, his amorous temper led him into at; 
 imprudence, fatal to his future repose, and to the stability 
 of his throne. 
 
96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Sir John Gray of Groby having been killed in battle, 
 fighting on the side of Lancaster, his widow, Elizabeth, had 
 gone to reside with her father, sir Richard Wideville, at 
 his seat of Grafton, in Northamptonshire. The king went 
 accidentally to the house, after a hunting party ; and, as 
 the occasion seemed favourable for obtaining some grace 
 from this gallant monarch, the young widow, remarkable 
 for the elegance of her person, threw herself at his feet, and, 
 with tears, entreated him to have pity on her distressed 
 and impoverished children. Edward was strongly affected 
 by the sight of so much beauty in affliction : through the 
 imperceptible agency of compassion, love stole insensibly 
 into his heart; and her sorrow, so becoming a virtuous 
 matron, made his esteem quickly correspond to his affec- 
 tion. With assurance of favour, he raised the lovely mourner 
 from the ground : every moment, by the conversation of 
 the amiable object, he found his passion rapidly increase ; 
 and was soon reduced to become a suppliant at her feet. 
 But, all the endearments, caresses, and importunities, of 
 the young and fascinating Edward, failed, against her rigid 
 and inflexible virtue. Carried, at last, beyond all bounds 
 of reason, he offered to share his throne, as well as heart, 
 with a woman, whose beauty of person, and dignity of char- 
 acter, seemed so well to entitle her to both. Their mar- 
 riage was privately celebrated at Grafton ; and the secret, 
 for a while, carefully concealed. No one could suspect 
 that so libertine a prince would sacrifice so much to a ro- 
 mantic passion ; indeed, there were strong reasons which 
 rendered this union in the highest degree imprudent and 
 dangerous. 
 
 Edward soon felt the effects of his precipitate alliance. 
 Not long before, he had commissioned the earl of Warwick. 
 to request the hand of Bona of Savoy, sister to the queen 
 of France ; to which proposal, through the address of that 
 nobleman, she had acceded. When, therefore, the incon- 
 siderate love-match with the lady Elizabeth came to light, 
 the high spirited Warwick, delicately susceptible of af 
 1470 front, soon determined to seek revenge. Having 
 formed a confederacy with the duke of Clarence, 
 (the king's eldest brother,) and several more of the chief 
 nobility, the earl went over to the continent. There, he 
 nad an interview with queen Margaret; and a plan of inva- 
 sion wa.i soon arranged, under the auspices of the king of 
 France; who assisted them with an army. Warwick with 
 his followers landed at Dartmouth, whilst the king was in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 97 
 
 the north, suppressing an insurrection. The scene winch 
 ensued, is more like the fiction of romance, than an actual 
 historical event. In eleven days from the landing of this 
 celebrated nobleman, and without even a sword having been 
 drawn, Edward was expelled from the kingdom; and 
 Henry the sixth was released from the gloomy walls of his 
 prison, and placed upon the throne. 
 
 But the ascendency of the Lancastrians was of short con- 
 tinuance. Edward, having obtained an armament from the 
 duke of Burgundy, landed, in the ensuing spring, at Rav- 
 enspur, in Yorkshire, and marched with rapidity towards 
 London. In a sanguinary and well contested action, fought 
 at Barnet, near the capital, the reigning party was defeat- 
 ed; and Warwick himself, after combating on foot, fell glo- 
 riously amidst the thickest of his enemies. The intrepid 
 Margaret landed on the same day at Weymouth, with her 
 son, a promising young prince of about eighteen years of 
 age, supported by a small body of French troops; and, be- 
 ing joined by several of the English nobility, she pushed 
 forward as far as Teukesbury. Here, the expeditious Ed- 
 ward soon attacked her : the Lancastrians were totally 
 overthrown, and Margaret and her son taken prisoners. 
 The king having asked him how he dared to invade his 
 dominions, the youth answered, that he came thither to 
 claim his just inheritance. For this reply, the barbarous 
 and ungenerous Edward struck him on the face with his 
 gauntlet; and his attendants, taking the blow as a signal 
 for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apart- 
 ment, where they despatched him with their daggers. 
 Margaret was thrown into the Tower: king Henry died, a 
 few days after the battle of Teukesbury; but the cause of 
 his death is uncertain. 
 
 In the following year, the duke of Clarence, having giv- 
 en some new offence to his brother, was condemned to die; 
 and being allowed to choose the manner of his death, was 
 drowned, by his own desire, in a butt of Malmsey wine. 
 
 We shall now close the unpleasant scenes of this san- 
 guinary period, by the death of the king himself. He died 
 in the forty-second year of his age, and the twenty-third 
 of his reign ; leaving, besides five daughters, Edward 
 prince of Wales, his successor, then in his thirteenth year, 
 and Richard duke of York, in his ninth. 
 
 It was in the seventh year of this reign, that the modern 
 art of Printing was introduced into England, by Edward 
 Caxton, of London. This enterprising citizen became ac- 
 I 2 
 
98 HISTORY OF EiNGLAJN'D 
 
 quainted, in Germany, with that invaluable method of dis- 
 seminating knowledge : where, it was invented, about 
 thirty years before; causing an immense improvement on 
 the mode of printing from wooden stereo-types, used in 
 remote ages by the Chinese. 
 
 EDWARD THE FIFTH. 
 
 1483. 
 
 The late king had expressed a desire, that his brother, 
 the duke of Gloucester should be invested with the regen- 
 cy, during the minority of the young prince. But Glouce- 
 ster soon determined to usurp the throne, which it was his 
 duty to protect. To the greatest abilities, this nobleman 
 united an ambition, which no circumstances could deter, no 
 principle of justice or generosity could restrain. The chief 
 agents in his iniquitous and tragical proceedings, were, the 
 duke of Buckingham, Dr. Shaw a clergyman, the mayor of 
 London, (brother to the latter,) sir William Catesby, and 
 sir James Tyrel. The queen dowager, alarmed at the sud- 
 den arrest of her brother the earl of Rivers, and her son sir 
 Richard Gray, fled from the treachery of Gloucester, into 
 the sanctuary of Westminster; taking with her the five 
 princesses, and the duke of York. Menaces and entreaties 
 were now used by the duke, to induce the queen to deliver 
 up the latter; and she, finding that force would be used, if 
 she persisted in a refusal, at last complied. 
 
 The council, without the consent of parliament, having 
 appointed the duke of Gloucester protector of the govern- 
 ment, he soon proceeded to remove all, who by connexion, 
 attachment, or a sense of duty, stood opposed to his crimi- 
 nal design. Lords Rivers and Hastings, sir Richard Gray 
 and sir Thomas Vaughan, were murdered by his order. He 
 then openly aspired at the throne; and, by intimating the 
 illegitimacy of the king, and his own superior right, through 
 the means of sermons from the pulpit and popular ha- 
 rangues, he endeavoured to gain the suffrages of the peo- 
 ple. But, failing in these, he threw aside almost the sem- 
 blance of propriety; and, with no better title than the hired 
 acclamations of a rabble, assumed the crown. 
 
 The fate of the unfortunate and helpless Edward and his 
 brother, may easily be foreseen. They were murdered in 
 the Tower, the place of their confinement; and their bodies 
 buried there, at the foot of a flight of stairs. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 99 
 
 RICHARD THE THIRD. 
 
 1483—1485. 
 
 The history of the world does not furnish a more flagrant 
 instance of usurpation than that of Richard. Even weie 
 men disposed to pardon these violations of public right, the 
 sense of private and domestic duty, which is not totally 
 effaced in the most barbarous times, must have produced 
 an abhorrence against so detestable a character; and have 
 represented the murder of the young and innocent princes, 
 his nephews, with whose protection he had been intrusted 
 in the most odious and terrific colours. 
 
 A friendship commenced in villany and blood, as was 
 that of Richard and the duke of Buckingham, can never be 
 cemented. No alliance can be lasting, unless sealed by the 
 hand of virtue. — Jealousy, on the one side, and reiterated 
 demands for past services, on the other, having soon caus- 
 ed an irreparable breach, the latter now endeavoured to 
 drag Richard from his throne, and place on it the earl of 
 Richmond. 
 
 This nobleman was grandson of sir Owen Tudor, and 
 Catherine, widow of Henry the fifth; and was related, by 
 blood, to the royal family, through a spurious branch, legit- 
 imated (with an express exclusion from the crown) by act 
 of parliament. He was descended from the eldest illegiti- 
 mate son of John of Gaunt, who was the fourth son of Ed- 
 ward the third. Having fled after the battle of Teukesbury, 
 to seek refuge with the duke of Brittany, Henry the fourth, 
 finding that all the Lancastrians regarded the earl as the 
 object of their hopes, requested that the duke would de- 
 liver him into his hands: but the utmost he could obtain, 
 was a promise, that he should not be allowed to depart 
 from that prince's dominions ; and he was, at this time, 
 detained there in a kind of honourable custody. 
 
 Richard having soon received intelligence of the con- 
 spiracy, Buckingham was obliged to take the field. He 
 was, however, shortly after, made prisoner, condemned, 
 and executed. 
 
 The earl of Richmond, with a retinue of about 
 two-thousand persons, landed at Milford Haven, in 
 Wales. The two rivals approached each other at Bosworth, 
 near Leicester; Henry, at the head of six-thousand men; 
 Richard, with an army of double that number. A dreadful 
 conflict ensued. The sanguinary tyrant fought with a do 
 
100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 gree oi bravery worthy of a better cause : but his forces 
 were defeated, and he himself, fighting to the last, perished 
 oy a fate too mild and honourable for his multiplied enor- 
 mities. The soldiers, suddenly prompted by the joy of so 
 great success, hailed their victorious leader as their king; 
 and the acclamations of " Long live Henry the seventh'* 
 resounded through the field. 
 
 HENRY THE SEVENTH. 
 
 1485—1509. 
 
 Although the adherents of the house of Lancaster, had, 
 for some time, considered Henry as the heir of that family, 
 yet, even admitting that the pretensions of that line to the 
 crown were well founded, which has always been a matter 
 of dispute, this prince was not the true heir. Nothing in- 
 deed but the obstinacy of faction, could have induced the 
 partisans of that house to adopt the earl of Richmond as 
 their head ; for, besides the many other objections to his 
 title, his mother, through whom he derived his claim, was 
 still alive, and evidently preceded him in the order of suc- 
 cession. Previous to Henry's return, it was stipulated, that 
 ne should espouse the princess Elizabeth, eldest daughter 
 of Edward the fourth, heir of the family of York, and, by 
 right, entitled to the crown. But, unwilling that his claim 
 should derive any additional force, from this union of the 
 two branches, he carefully avoided the performance of the 
 contract, until he had obtained a parliamentary acknow- 
 ledgment of his own title ; and, in the act of settlement, he 
 studiously omitted the smallest mention of the princess. 
 
 A few days after the battle of Bosworth, Edward Plan- 
 tagenet, earl of Warwick, son to the unfortunate duke of 
 Clarence, who had been drowned in the butt of Malmsey, 
 and nephew of Edward the fourth, was, by Henry's order, 
 conveyed to the Tower. This gave rise to one of the most 
 remarkable incidents of the present reign. A priest, named 
 Richard Simon, possessed of considerable subtlety and bold- 
 ness, had entertained the design of disturbing Henry's gov- 
 ernment, by raising a pretender to his crown. For this pur- 
 pose, he selected a youth of fifteen years of age, named 
 Lambert Simnel ; who, being endowed with understanding 
 above his years, and address above his condition, seemed 
 well fitted to personate a prince, educated near a court. A 
 uimour had been spread, and eagerly received, that Rich- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 101 
 
 ard, duke of York, had not been put to death by his uncle, 
 but lay concealed in England. Simon, taking advantage of 
 this report, at first instructed his pupil to assume the name 
 of that prince; but, hearing, afterwards, a new rumour, that 
 Warwick had escaped from his confinement, he changed 
 his plan, and made Simnel personate the latter. It was, 
 however, remarked, that Simnel was better informed in 
 affairs relating to the royal family, and, particularly to the 
 earl of Warwick, than he could be supposed to have been 
 from one of Simon's condition ; and it was thence conjec- 
 tured, that persons of higher rank participated in the 
 scheme : nor was the queen dowager herself exempted from 
 suspicion; as she had been treated very unkindly by the king. 
 
 Simon, very properly judging that the artifice would not 
 bear a close inspection, carried his pupil to Ireland; where 
 the inhabitants were zealously attached to the house of York. 
 Warwick's father had been chief governor in that island, 
 and for his memory they bore an affectionate regard. Here, 
 his tale was implicitly believed. The earl of Kildare, who 
 was then governor, espoused his cause; and, by the unan- 
 imous voice of the people, he was crowned in the castle of 
 Dublin, under the title of Edward the sixth. 
 
 When Henry received intelligence of this extraordinary 
 event, he ordered that Warwick should be taken from the 
 Tower, and exposed to public view. This was accordingly 
 done, and had the desired effect in England; but, in Ire- 
 land, the delusion still continued. 
 
 The dutchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward the fourth 
 pleased with an opportunity of disturbing the repose of 
 Henry, despatched over to Ireland a body of two-thousand 
 veteran Germans. These, united with the Irish forces, set 
 sail, under the command of the earl of Lincoln, accom- 
 panied by the newly created king, and landed at Foudrey 
 in Lancashire. Thence, they advanced as far as Stoke in 
 Nottinghamshire; where they were encountered by the 
 royal forces, and completely routed, with the loss of their 
 leader and four-thousand of the common men. Simnel 
 himself was taken prisoner; but, being too contemptible to 
 excite either apprehension or resentment, he was pardoned, 
 made first a servant in the king's kitchen, and then ad- 
 vanced to the station of a falconer. 
 
 France had latterly received an immense increase 
 
 * of territory. Normandy, Champagne, Anjou, Dau- 
 
 phiny, Guienne, Provence, and Burgundy, were, for some 
 
 lime past, united to her crown: the English were expelled 
 
102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 fi om all their continental possessions, except Calais; and 
 Charles the eighth, the present monarch, this year suc- 
 ceeded in annexing also the dutchy of Brittany. It was 
 evidently the interest of Henry to prevent this depression 
 of an ally, and consequent elevation of a rival, already 
 grown dangerous from the extent of his dominions. But, 
 though he had neglected to render sufficient aid, when it 
 might have been given with advantage, he resolved, at all 
 events, to have a war with France; more intent upon gra- 
 tifying his ruling passion, by draining the pockets of his 
 subjects, than anxious for the deliverance of Brittany. He 
 issued orders for levying a Benevolence; a species of taxa- 
 tion, not only pointedly denounced by the Great Charter, 
 but, again forbidden, by act of parliament. Archbishop 
 Morton, the chancellor, instructed the commissioners to 
 employ a dilemma, by which every one might be included 
 in its application. If the persons applied to for money 
 lived frugally, they were told that their parsimony must have 
 enriched them: if their establishments were splendid, they 
 were supposed opulent from their expenses. 
 
 In the autumn of this year, Henry landed at Ca- 
 lais with a large army; which he placed under the 
 command of the duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford. 
 It does not appear, however, that the soldiers were much 
 harassed in their professional duty, as no military opera- 
 tions can be found on record ; but we are informed, that 
 in about a year after this politic and intimidating parade, 
 negotiations for a peace commenced. A few days were 
 sufficient for the purpose. The demands of Henry were 
 wholly pecuniary; and the king of France, deeming the 
 possession of Brittany an equivalent for any sum, readily 
 agreed to the proposals. He engaged to pay Henry 
 seven-hundred-and-forty-five-thousand crowns, and his heirs 
 a yearly pension of twenty-five-thousand. Thus, the king, 
 as is wittily remarked by Bacon, " made profit on his sub- 
 jects for the war, and on his enemies for the peace." 
 
 Rather irritated than depressed by the failure of her past 
 enterprises, the dutchess of Burgundy was determined at 
 least to disturb a government which she was not able to 
 subvert. The report of the escape of the young duke of 
 York, brother of Edward the fifth, and his subsequent con- 
 cealment, was renewed; and another instrument was now 
 tutored for deceit. — One Warbec, of Tournay, had, in the 
 reign of Edward the fourth, visited London, on business, 
 and had there a son born to him Having had opportuni- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 103 
 
 ties of being known to the king, he prevailed with that 
 prince, whose manners were very affable, to stand god-father 
 for his son ; to whom, he gave the name of Peter. Some 
 years afterwards, Warbec, with his family, returned to Tour- 
 nay ; where young Peter (called, after the Flemish manner, 
 Peterkin, or Perkin) did not long remain; but, by different 
 accidents, was carried from place to place; by which means, 
 his origin became unknown, and difficult to be traced by 
 the most diligent inquiry. This Perkin Warbec having 
 been represented to the dutchess as perfectly fitted to her 
 purpose, she became desirous of seeing him, and found 
 him even to exceed her expectations. Warbec, being 
 properly instructed, was sent over to Ireland ; where he 
 was received as the true Plantagenet. Thence, by the in- 
 vitation of the French king, he went to Paris ; and was 
 there treated with the highest marks of distinction, and vis- 
 ited by many of the most respectable nobility of England. 
 Henry now ordered that the bodies of the murdered 
 princes should be searched for in the Tower ; but "they 
 could not be discovered. However, by the vigorous mea- 
 sures which the king pursued against the abettors of this 
 impostor, all men of respectability gradually forsook him.* 
 
 ...-> Perkin, having collected about six-hundred out- 
 
 1495. , i •. r ii 
 
 laws and necessitous persons ot all nations, appear- 
 ed off the coast of Kent ; from which, he was quickly re- 
 pulsed. Soon afterwards, he made an attempt upon Ire- 
 land. But sir Edward Poynings, the governor, had put the 
 affairs of that country in so good a posture, that he met 
 with little success. He then bent his course to Scotland, 
 and presented himself before James the fourth ; who was 
 so much deceived by his plausible accounts and elegant 
 deportment, that he gave him in marriage lady Catherine 
 Gordon ; a relation of his own, equally eminent for her 
 virtue and her beauty. 
 
 As there subsisted, at this time, a considerable jealousy 
 between the courts of James and Henry, the former thought 
 the opportunity favourable for giving disturbance to his 
 neighbour; and, accordingly, having collected a number of 
 his border-men, he made several inroads into England, ac- 
 
 * In the reign of Charles the second, the skeletons of those two 
 young- princes were found in the Tower ; in the very spot assigned 
 by More, Bacon, and other ancient authors, as the place of their in- 
 terment. This fact should be taken as conclusive against the doubts, 
 expressed by several writers of their having been murdered by their 
 uncle. 
 
104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 companied by Warbec. But, in a short time, a truce was 
 made between the two countries ; and Perkin was obliged 
 to retire from Scotland. Being joined by a few adherents, 
 he chose, as a temporary retreat, the wild fastnesses of 
 Ireland ; and soon again issuing forth, landed in Cornwall. 
 Having then, for the first time, assumed the title of Rich 
 ard the fourth, king of England, he advanced into the 
 country; and, when he arrived at Taunton, his army 
 amounted to ceven-thousand men. There, however, hear- 
 ing that a large force was on its march to oppose him, he 
 secretly withdrew to the sanctuary of Beaulieu in the New 
 Forest. The rebels submitted to the king's mercy. Lady 
 Catherine, wife to Perkin, fell into the hands of Henry; by 
 whom she was treated with a degree of generosity and re- 
 spect highly to his honour ; Perkin, under a promise of 
 pardon, surrendered ; but, having entered into a conspira- 
 cy with the earl of Warwick, to effect their escape from 
 the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Perkin was hang- 
 ed at Tyburn, and the earl beheaded. 
 
 When Henry was freed from these alarming attacks, he 
 employed himself in satiating his avaricious propensity, 
 by repeated exactions upon his subjects ; in which illegal 
 proceedings, he was assisted chiefly by two lawyers, named 
 Empson and Dudley. 
 I r/,Q After a busy reign of nearly twenty-four years, 
 ' Henry yielded to the ravages of a consumption; 
 having ordered in his will, that restitution should be made 
 to all whom he had injured. He was a prince equally con- 
 spicuous for his wisdom in the cabinet and his conduct in 
 the field ; and, notwithstanding his occasional errors, the 
 history of his country can produce few monarchs who 
 were less chargeable with the frailties of man. He left 
 only one son, of his own name, who succeeded to the 
 throne; and one daughter, Margaret, wife of James the 
 fourth of Scotland. 
 
 It was in this reign, in the year 1492, that Christopher 
 Columbus, a native of Genoa, sailed from Cadiz on that 
 celebrated voyage which ended in the discovery of the 
 Western World ; and it was only by accident, that Henry 
 had not a considerable share in the glory of this event. 
 Columbus, after experiencing many repulses from the court 
 nf Spain, sent to England his brother, Bartholomew, to ex- 
 plain his projects to the king, and solicit his patronage and 
 aid: but, in his passage, Bartholomew was taken by pirates; 
 and though Henry, after his release, and subsequent arrival 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 105 
 
 at his court, gave an invitation to his brother to come over, 
 it was too late. Columbus, having, in the mean time, ob- 
 tained the countenance of Isabella, was supplied with a 
 small fleet, and happily executed his enterprise. In six 
 years afterwards, Henry employed Sebastian Cabot, of Bris- 
 tol ; who fell in with the main land of America, near the 
 sixtieth degree of north latitude; and then, steering south- 
 ward along the coast, discovered a large island, to which 
 his sailors gave the name of Newfoundland. Changing his 
 course to the west, he came to a smaller island, which he 
 named St. John; and soon reached that part of the new 
 continent now called Virginia. 
 
 Many salutary laws were now enacted. A humane alter- 
 ation was made in the courts of justice; which allows to 
 foreigners the privilege of a jury, half of whose number are 
 also aliens. But, the most important law was one for per- 
 mitting the nobility and gentry to break the ancient entails, 
 and dispose of their estates; by which means, the great 
 fortunes, and consequently the dangerous influence, of the 
 barons, were diminished, and property more equally diffus- 
 ed amongst the commons. Several statutes were also made 
 against engaging retainers, and giving them badges and liv- 
 eries; a practice, by which they were, in a manner, en- 
 listed under some great lord, and kept in readiness to assist 
 him in all wars, insurrections, and tumults; and even to 
 bear evidence for him, in courts of justice. 
 
 HENRY THE EIGHTH. 
 
 1509—1547. 
 
 Every advantage, that the safety of an extensive king- 
 dom could demand, or the ambition of a youthful monarch 
 could desire, was now united in the British crown:- — tran- 
 quillity at home; peace with all abroad; an improving com- 
 merce, and a well stored treasury; a people affectionate to 
 their prince; an undisputed title to the throne. 
 
 The conduct pursued by Henry in the commencement 
 of his reign, served to heighten the favourable preposses- 
 sions of the public. Anxious to gain the applause, if not 
 to increase the happiness, of his subjects, he dismissed from 
 his council those men, who, in his father's reign, had been 
 most obnoxious to the nation Of the new ministers, the 
 K 
 
106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 most ambitious of royal favour, were, the earl of Surry, and 
 Fox, bishop of Winchester. The populace were next grati- 
 fied by the punishment of all who had lately assisted in 
 plundering the kingdom; amongst whom, Empson and 
 Dudley, as they had been the most active, so were they the 
 most exposed to public hatred; and, having been brought 
 to trial, they suffered an ignominious death. 
 
 Henry now deliberated concerning the completion of his 
 marriage with a Spanish princess. His elder brother, Ar- 
 thur, prince of Wales, had espoused Catherine of Arragon, 
 a daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and sister of the cele- 
 brated Charles the fifth; Arthur, being then about sixteen 
 years of age, and Catherine eighteen. But, as Arthur died 
 in a few months afterwards, the king, unwilling to restore 
 the dowry, compelled his second son, Henry, then only 
 twelve years of age, to be contracted to her; having first 
 received the concurrence of the pope. Though, however, 
 this contract had been made by the desire of his father, yet 
 their disparity of years, and her former marriage with his 
 brother, caused him fop a while to hesitate. Her known 
 virtue, however, the sweetness of her temper, the affection 
 which she bore him, the political advantages resulting from 
 the alliance, together with the approbation of his council, 
 determined him, improperly, to consummate the union. 
 
 He was scarcely settled on his throne, when he began to 
 enter warmly into the affairs of the continental princes. In- 
 stigated by the over-reaching intrigues of Ferdinand, and 
 a desire to gain the favour of the pope, he invaded France; 
 but, after defeating the enemy in an engagement called the 
 battle of the Spurs, because, in that action, the French 
 made more use of their spurs than of their swords, his 
 army was reimbarked. In the mean time, Scotland, always 
 the assailant of England, when England made war upon 
 France, renewed her depredations. 
 
 An able minister was now required; and that minister 
 was found in the person of Thomas Wolsey, dean of Lin- 
 coln. This extraordinary man, born at Ipswich in Suffolk, 
 had received a classical education, and being endowed with 
 an excellent capacity, was- admitted as tutor into the family 
 of the marquis of Dorset; where, he gained the friendship 
 of his patron. He was afterwards recommended as chap- 
 lair to the late king; who esteemed him highly for his dili- 
 gence and address: and now, neither his own years, though 
 more than forty, nor his clerical profession, were any re- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 107 
 
 straint upon himself; nor did he check, by any ill-timed 
 severity, the occasional pleasures of his new master. 
 
 The summer of this year was employed chiefly in 
 preparations for the war with France; which, aftei 
 many military operations, presenting no interest at the pre- 
 sent, day, was concluded by a treaty. Henry was contented 
 by receiving a million of crowns, due, by stipulation, to his 
 father and himself; Lewis, by a contract of marriage with 
 the princess Mary, sister to the British king: the one aged 
 fifty-four — the other, but seventeen. 
 
 The success which, in his absence, had attended the arms 
 of Henry, in the North, was much more decisive. In a great 
 battle fought in the field of Flouden,near the Cheviot Hills, 
 the earl of Surry gained a memorable victory. The king 
 of Scotland, brother-in-law of Henry, and most of his prin- 
 cipal nobility, were there killed; and a peace with that 
 country was soon concluded. 
 
 Wolsey, whom the king had promoted to the see of Lin- 
 coln, was now made archbishop of York ; enjoying, at the. 
 same time, the emoluments of many other ecclesiastical 
 establishments. The pope, observing his great influence 
 over the king, by which he wished to profit, advanced him 
 to the high dignities of cardinal and legate; and never did 
 any churchman carry the state and splendour of that char- 
 acter to a more exorbitant height. His income is said to 
 have been equal to the king's ; and he spent it in a not 
 less royal manner. The walls of his palact were covered 
 with cloth of gold, or cloth of silver. His plate was of 
 massy gold. His train consisted of eight-hundred servants; 
 of whom, many were knights and gentlemen, desirous of 
 his patronage. Thus, did the minister of a religion, which 
 demands only the modest exterior of simplicity, rival the 
 puerile magnificence of an eastern despot. But, neither the 
 income of these preferments, nor the pageantry of these 
 establishments, could satiate his ambition. Another step 
 was yet ungained. The papal chair now occupied his 
 thoughts; and to the attainment of this last object of his 
 desire, he sacrificed the faith of treaties, and the tranquilli- 
 ty of Europe. Always watching the varying revolutions of 
 the political machine, he attached himself to that movement 
 which tended towards the last goal of his earthly view; and, 
 by sometimes favouring the intrigues of one monarch, 
 sometimes those of another, he involved his country in 
 foreign broils, equally uninteresting to her feelings, and in- 
 jurious to her welfare. Let us hwever, whilst we condemn, 
 
10S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 allow a due portion of extenuation. Francis the first, then 
 monarch of the French, and Charles the fifth, a prince who 
 swayed at once the powerful sceptres of Germany and 
 Spain, and into whose treasury were poured the riches of 
 the western world — these did not withhold their flattery 
 and their countenance, but courted the aspiring cardinal 
 with the fawnings of hypocrisy, and encouraged the arden- 
 cy of his ambition, by the profusion of their bounties, their 
 promises, and familiarities. 
 
 The extensive field in which the authority of the 
 
 " Roman pontiff had been so freely practised, began, 
 at this time, to contract its limits. From the diffusion of 
 polemical essays, caused by the use of printing, a new era 
 had arisen; and Martin Luther, an Augustin friar, pro- 
 fessor in the university of Wittemberg, was, by that 
 means, enabled to oppose, with unusual effect, the influ- 
 ence of the pope, and the prevailing doctrine ; and, hence, 
 proceeded that important change? called the Reformation. 
 The Lutheran princes of Germany, finding that liberty of 
 conscience was denied them, combined for their own de- 
 fence; and, as they protested against the votes passed m 
 the imperial diet, they received the appellation of protest- 
 ants. To the arguments of Luther, Henry replied in Latin, 
 with considerable ability : as a return for which voluntary 
 service, the pope conferred upon him the title of Defender 
 of the Faith ; an appellation still used by his successors : 
 though they have rejected the doctrines by which it was 
 obtained, and those which the work of Henry had con- 
 demned, are now the fundamental principles of the Church 
 of England. 
 
 Of the arbitrary measures pursued by the British mon- 
 archs, in those days, we can form some idea, by the follow- 
 ing instance. When Henry heard that the commons were 
 reluctant in granting him a supply of money, he was so 
 provoked, that he sent for Edward Montague, one of the 
 members, who had considerable influence; to whom, he 
 cried out: "Ho! man! will they not suffer my bill to 
 pass ?" And laying his hand on Montague's head, who was 
 then on his knees before him, as was customary : " Get my 
 bill passed by to-morrow ; or else, to-morrow, this head of 
 yours shall be off'." Next day the bill was passed. 
 1527 The maus pi c i° us marriage with Catherine, origi- 
 
 ' nally contracted against his will, but afterwards, 
 consummated with deliberation, the king, though she has 
 given him an heiress, now endeavoured to dissolve Their 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. I 
 
 feelings of conscience, which once produced a hesitation, 
 had been quelled; but, at this time, it seems, after a lapse 
 of nearly twenty years, they revived. There lately had 
 appealed at court a young lady, named Anne Boleyn, who 
 was created maid of honour to the queen. This female, 
 whose grandeur and misfortunes have rendered her so cele- 
 brated, was daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, grand-daugh- 
 ter of the duke of Norfolk, and related to all the principal 
 nobility of the kingdom; and was not less remarkable for 
 the graces of her person, than the accomplishments of her 
 mind. She soon became the object of his admiration; but, 
 finding that her virtue was unconquerable, he resolved to 
 raise her to the throne; and applied to the pope for a di- 
 vorce from Catherine. Wearied, however, by the frequent 
 postponements of the Roman pontiff, Henry, at length, ob- 
 tained from the English bishops a dissolution of his mar- 
 riage, after which he espoused his favourite. 
 
 During the various negotiations with the pope, relating 
 to the divorce, Wolsey had practised his accustomed dis- 
 simulation; and the king now determined that the ruin of 
 the cardinal should be as rapid as his elevation. He ac- 
 cordingly removed him from the situation of chancellor; 
 and in his place appointed sir Thomas More: the first 
 person that was regularly qualified for that office, and who, 
 besides the ornaments of literature, possessed the highest 
 degree of political capacity and virtue. Wolsey was or- 
 dered to depart from his palace in London: [now called 
 Whitehall :J his furniture and plate were converted to the 
 king's use: he was convicted in the Star Chamber, and 
 abandoned to all the rigour of the parliament. It was voted, 
 that he was out of the king's protection: that his lands 
 and goods were forfeited; and that his person might be 
 committed to custody. He was, however, pardoned for 
 the present; and, after being compelled to move from one 
 place to another, took up his residence at Cawood, in 
 Yorkshire. At length, he was, by order of the king, ar- 
 rested, on a charge of high treason; and, on his way to 
 London, being attacked by a severe illness, was obliged to 
 stop at Leicester Abbey; where, he shortly afterwards ex- 
 pired. On his death bed, he exclaimed, " Had I but served 
 God, as diligently as I have served the king, he would not 
 have deserted me in my grey hairs." 
 
 In the autumn of this year, the new queen had a 
 ' daughter, called Elizabeth; who afterwards swayed 
 the sceptre with so much renown. Parliament confirmed 
 K 2 
 
110 HI STORY OF Ei\ G L AN D. 
 
 the ecclesiastical sentence which had annulled the formei 
 marriage: that with Anne was ratified: Mary, the daugh- 
 ter of Catherine, was excluded from the succession : the 
 crown was appointed to descend to the issue of this mar- 
 riage; and an oath enjoined to be taken in favour of the 
 new order of inheritance. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 
 and sir Thomas More, were the only persons of rank who 
 expressed a doubt of its legality, and were both committed 
 to the Tower. 
 
 But the persecution of these accomplished men, did not 
 cease with imprisonment. Henry having now thrown off 
 all dependence on the see of Rome, and resolved to abolish 
 entirely me papal authority in England; and the parlia- 
 ment having confer red on him a new title, — " Supreme 
 head, on earth, of the Church of England," they were, for 
 refusing 10 acknowledge this supremacy, most unjustly, 
 condemned, and taken to the block. They both suffered 
 with unshaken fortitude; and More preserved, to the very 
 last, his accustomed cheerfulness, and even his pleasantry. 
 When he was mounting the scaffold, he said to a person 
 near him, " Friend, help me up, and, when I come down 
 again, let me shift for myself." The executioner having 
 asked his forgiveness, he granted his request; but told 
 him, "You will never gain credit, by beheading me, my 
 neck is so short." Then, laying his head upon the block, 
 he bade the executioner wait till he put aside his beard ; 
 " For," said he, " it never committed treason." 
 
 In the year following, queen Catherine yielded to a lin- 
 gering indisposition, in the fiftieth year of her age; having 
 written, a little before she expired, an affectionate letter to 
 the king. On the death of her rival, Anne, it is said, ex- 
 pressed her satisfaction in a manner much to be condemned. 
 But the time was short, during which she was allowed to 
 enjoy her exultation. The affection, which had subsisted 
 so warmly under difficulties, had no sooner obtained posses- 
 sion of its object, than it languished from satiety. Henry's 
 love was now transferred to another object — lady Jane Sey- 
 mour, a maid of honour to the queen. The enemies which 
 Anne had made by her attachment to the reformed religion, 
 seized every opportunity of hastening her fall; and invent- 
 ed most scandalous slanders, to inflame the jealousy of the 
 king. Of these charges, she appears to have been entirely 
 innocent; yet, she had a certain gaiety, if not levity of man- 
 ner, which gave weight to the accusations. Being brought 
 to trial, she was condemned to be burned or beheaded, at the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Ill 
 
 king's pleasure. When this dreadful sentence Avas pro- 
 nounced, she was not terrified; but, lifting- up her hands to 
 heaven, she exclaimed: " O, Father! O, Creator! thou who 
 art the way, the truth, and the life, thou knowest that 1 
 have not deserved this death." She was soon beheaded; 
 and her body was negligently thrown into a common chest 
 made to hold arrows, and buried in the Tower. 
 
 The best evidence, perhaps, that can, at this time, be of 
 fered, to establish the innocence of Anne, is, that the very 
 day after this bloody catastrophe, Henry was married to 
 Jane Seymour. 
 
 A parliament was then called. The children of the two 
 former marriages were declared illegitimate; and the crown 
 was settled on the king's issue by Jane, or any subsequent 
 wife. The progress of the reformation continued; being 
 favoured by the king's disgust at the Roman pontiff, the ex- 
 treme submission, to the royal will, of the parliament and 
 the ecclesiastical convocations, and the general feeling of 
 the nation. The reduction of the monastic establishments 
 went forward with rapidity. In a little time, were sup- 
 pressed, upwards of three-thousand of these institutions; 
 more frequently the encouragers of idleness than of religion. 
 
 But, of all the instruments of superstition, none was sc 
 zealously destroyed, as the shrine of Thomas a Becket. 
 commonly called St. Thomas of Canterbury. The devoiion 
 towards him had quite effaced, in that place, the adoration 
 of the Deity. In a particular year, there was not offered 
 at the altar of God a single penny, though at Becket's there 
 was given above nine-hundred pounds. 
 
 It is evident, how obnoxious to Henry a saint of this re- 
 putation must have been; and how contrary to ail his plans 
 for degrading the authority of the court of Rome. He not 
 only pillaged his rich shrine, but cited the saint himself 
 to appear in court, condemned him as a traitor, ordered his 
 name to be erased from the calendar, his bones to be burn- 
 ed, and his ashes to be thrown into the air. 
 
 7 An event now occurred, which Henry had long 
 
 ' and ardently desired — the birth of a son; who was 
 
 called Edward, and created prince of Wales. Yet, this 
 
 happiness was not without alloy ; for, in two days afterwards, 
 
 he lost his queen. 
 
 The business of dictating to the nation in matters of re- 
 ligion, was unceasing. What the king thought fit to or- 
 der, the parliament was always ready to support; not only 
 in spiritual, but in temporal, concerns: so that, it may be 
 
112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 justly said, that the power of Henry, through his entire 
 reign, was absolute and undisputed. On the one hand, 
 anxious to restrain the pope; on the other, to oppose his 
 own opinions to the bold doctrines of the reformers; every 
 day was pregnant with a royal mandate, and that mandate 
 was most frequently in opposition to the dogmas of the 
 preceding. Adherence to the old, or accordance with the 
 new tenets, was equally fatal, because both were at variance 
 with the king's: and those who preferred a glorious death 
 to a disgraceful denial of their faith, were soon surrounded 
 by consuming flames. A new law was often made, before 
 the old, of a contrary tenor, was repealed. Both protest- 
 ants and catholics were subject to the penalties of his vari- 
 ous statutes ; and it was not uncommon to see two persons, 
 burning in the same fire, for entertaining opinions that were 
 directly opposite. 
 
 Henry, however, was not so entirely engaged by 
 the controversies of religion, as to prevent his look, 
 ing out for another queen. By the advice of Cromwell, 
 the primate, a marriage was concluded with Anne of Cleves, 
 a princess of Germany. On her way to London, the king, 
 impatient to ascertain the correctness of the pictures of his 
 new bride, went privately to Rochester, and saw her. He 
 found her as large, indeed, and as tall as he could wish ; but 
 utterly devoid both of grace and beauty. The matter was 
 still worse, when he found that she could speak no language 
 except Dutch; of which he was entirely ignorant. He 
 would have immediately sent her back, only that political 
 motives restrained him : but a divorce was soon obtained ; 
 to which the queen contentedly submitted. 
 
 To this measure, he had been impelled, by two most pow- 
 erful passions — aversion to one object, and inclination to- 
 wards another. He had fixed his eyes on lady Catherine 
 Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk. Catherine and the 
 duke, being violently inimical to Cromwell, because he fa- 
 voured the protestant opinions, to which they were as strenii' 
 ously opposed, urged a prosecution against that minister 
 on a charge of heresy and treason: and he fell an innocent 
 victim to their malice. Ten days, only, elapsed, between 
 the divorce from Anne, and the nuptials with lady Cathe- 
 rine; and only a few months had passed, when this new 
 queen, destitute of every virtue, both now, and before her 
 marriage, was taken to the scaffold. 
 
 Though Henry had been already deprived of five wives; 
 by divorce, by the hand of nature, and by the executioner ; 
 
HISTORY OF E.N GLAND. 113 
 
 yet, in about a year and a half from this, he espoused his 
 sixth wife, Catherine Par, widow of Lord Latimer. She 
 was a virtuous woman, but was nearly losing her head, by 
 her attachment to the reformation. 
 
 Henry was now at war with both Scotland and 
 ' France. He sent some troops to invade the former, 
 who were disembarked at Leith, and then marched to Edin- 
 burgh ; which city they plundered and burned; and lie 
 himself, with a large army, passed over into France : but, 
 being deserted by his ally, the emperor, his operations were 
 not productive of any material success ; and a peace, in 
 which Scotland was included, ended the campaign. 
 
 The hatred felt by the king, for some time past, towards 
 the family of Howard, from the imputations against Anne 
 Boleyn, and the bad conduct of Catherine, (both related to 
 the duke of Norfolk) was now inflamed by a swelling in 
 his limbs, as well as the declining of his health in general. 
 The duke and his son, the earl of Surry, were brought to 
 trial ; and, upon charges which could not be substantiated, 
 were found guilty. The earl was beheaded — the sudden 
 death of the king prevented Norfolk from experiencing a 
 similar fate. 
 
 He had retired to his seat at Croydon, in Surry ; where 
 he expired in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, and sixty- 
 sixth of his age. About a month before, he had made his 
 will : in which, the previous destination of the parliament 
 was confirmed, by leaving the crown, first to Edward, then, 
 to Mary, and next, to Elizabeth. 
 
 During this reign, a great variety of laws were enact- 
 ed; some beneficial, others injurious, to the community. 
 Amongst the former, was one for depriving criminals of 
 the privilege of sanctuary, when guilty, of enormous of 
 fences : amongst the latter, were many for fixing the prices 
 of labour and provisions, and an act for regulating the in- 
 terest on money. 
 
 Until nearly the end of this reign, neither garden vege- 
 tables, nor small fruits, of any kind, were cultivated in Eng- 
 land ; having, previously, been imported from Holland- 
 When queen Catherine wanted a sallad, she was obliged 
 to send a messenger to that country. 
 
 Although there was now used in the army a sort of 
 musket with a matchlock, called a caliver or harquebuse, 
 the bow, which had been brought over by the Normans, 
 was still a favourite and powerful weapon in the hands of 
 the English soldier. 
 
114 HISTORY OF t:.NGLAND, 
 
 The casting of iron was introduced ; cannon-balls of this 
 metal were used in the place of stone ; and a law was made 
 concerning bankrupts. 
 
 Literature was patronized by the king and cardinal Wol- 
 sey. It was the latter who founded in Oxford the first chair 
 for teaching Greek ; which novelty rent that university 
 into most violent factions. The students divided them 
 selves into two parties — Greeks and Trojans ; and some- 
 times fought with as great animosity as was displayed by 
 those hostile nations, in their celebrated encounters. The 
 institution at Oxford having excited the emulation of Cam- 
 bridge, the rivalship was of important benefit, in correcting 
 the pronunciation. Dramatic poetry was cultivated by Hay- 
 wood; and Leland was an assiduous recorder of antiquities. 
 
 EDWARD THE SIXTH. 
 
 1547 — 1553. 
 
 For the government of the kingdom, during the minority 
 of his son, who now ascended the throne in his tenth year> 
 the late king appointed sixteen executors and twelve coun- 
 sellors; amongst whom, were, Cranmer, archbishop of Can- 
 terbury; Seymour, earl of Hertford, maternal uncle to the 
 king; lord Seymour, brother to the earl; and sir Edward 
 Montague, chief justice of the common pleas. Hertford, 
 who was chosen protector, and created duke of Somerset, 
 had long been regarded as a secret partisan of the reform- 
 ers ; and being now freed from restraint, he used every ex- 
 ertion to repress the old religion, and give encouragement 
 to the new. He took care, that those intrusted with the 
 education of the king, should be of his own creed; by which 
 means, the protestant opinions of young Edward, already 
 inculcated, were confirmed. Cranmer, though more mode- 
 rate in his actions than the protector, was a sincere pro- 
 moter of the reformation; and to him, was opposed, Gardi- 
 ner, bishop of Winchester. At length, however, the prin 
 cipal ceremonies of the Roman Catholics were abolished; 
 and a form of worship, very nearly resembling that of the 
 present Church of England, and the protestant episcopal 
 church of the United States, was established, throughout 
 the kingdom. But that scope which the reformers had 
 given to theii own judgment, in disputing the principles of 
 the ancient religion, was not allowed to others ; not only 
 
HISTORY OF EJN GLAND. 115 
 
 the practice, but the very doctrine, of toleration, being 
 then, to every sect, unknown. 
 
 Hostility with both Scotland and France was now so 
 much a matter of course, that, on the commencement of a 
 reign, we do not more regularly look for the account of a 
 coronation, than a war. In compliance with the late king's 
 desire, the protector demanded, that Mary Stuart, the young 
 queen of Scots, whose mother was sister to Henry, should 
 be married to the king of England : Arran, her guardian, 
 as resolutely opposed the union : Somerset invaded hei 
 territory ; and in a great engagement, called the battle of 
 Pinkey, lord Arran was defeated, with the loss of ten-thou- 
 sand men. As a last resource, Mary was sent over to 
 France; where she was soon after contracted to the dauphin. 
 
 The victory at Pinkey was ascribed chiefly to the cour- 
 age and ability of Warwick; a man alike conspicuous for 
 his talents and his contempt of justice. Having by his in- 
 trigues induced the protector to exercise the royal autho- 
 rity against lord Seymour, this nobleman was, in conse- 
 quence, tried, found guilty, and executed. Although Sey- 
 mour was not entirely innocent of the charges of sedition, 
 yet he was obnoxious to the earl of Warwick more as u 
 rival, than as a disturber of tranquillity. 
 
 Somerset himself was next removed. Having grown 
 extremely unpopular, by the part which he had taken in 
 his brother's death, and his having pulled down several 
 churches, to make room, or furnish materials for a palace 
 in the Strand, Warwick was enabled to deprive him of his 
 office, and to gain an entire ascendency in the government. 
 He also obtained the titles and estates of the house of Per- 
 cy ; as sir Thomas, the heir of that family, had been at- 
 tainted for rebellion. Thus, by the greatness of his acqui- 
 sitions, the ruin, which he had been so earnestly preparing 
 for the duke of Somerset, could now, without danger, be 
 completed. The duke was brought to trial, upon a variety 
 of charges. None, however, of a treasonable nature, could 
 be proved ; but, by his own confession, of having enter- 
 tained a design against the lives of Warwick (lately created 
 duke of Northumberland) and others, to which he had been 
 impelled by repeated insults, he was convicted, and, accord- 
 ingly, beheaded. 
 
 The princess Mary, a sister of Henry the eighth, had, on 
 the decease of her husband, the king of France, espoused 
 Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. From then), was de- 
 scended lady Jane Gray; who, considering the opposite de 
 
116 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 crees which affected the titles of Henry's two daughters, 
 Mary and Elizabeth, had, certainly, fair pretensions to the 
 crown. To that lady, Northumberland married his fourth 
 son, lord Guildford Dudley ; and then, by his artifices, so 
 influenced the king, whose youth and declining health made 
 him susceptible of every impression, that, by the royal let- 
 ters patent, he set aside his sisters, and vested the succes- 
 sion in lady Jane. 
 
 The symptoms of Edward's complaint became every day 
 more alarming: his physicians were removed: in their 
 place, was substituted a feeble and ignorant woman ; and 
 in a short time the young prince yielded to the effects of 
 the disorder or the medicines. He expired at Greenwich, 
 in the sixteenth yeai of his age and the seventh of his reign ; 
 highly respected for his mildness of disposition, his love 
 of equity, and application to business and literature. 
 
 The prospect of opening a communication with China, 
 by a north-east passage, induced the English, at this peri- 
 od, to send out three vessels, under the command of sir 
 Hugh Willoughby ; who steered directly along the coast 
 of Norway, and doubled the North Cape. But, having 
 been separated in a storm, Willoughby, with two of the 
 vessels, took refuge in a desert part of Russian Lapland ; 
 where he, and all his companions, were frozen to death. 
 Chancelour, the captain of the other, having entered the 
 White Sea, wintered at Archangel; and, although no for- 
 eign vessels had before visited that part of the globe, they 
 were received there with the greatest hospitality. Being 
 informed that it was part of a vast empire subject to the 
 Czar of Muscovy, who resided in a great city twelve-hun- 
 dred miles from Archangel, he instantly set out for the 
 capital ; which was Moscow. Here, he was treated with 
 respect : and, thenceforward, an intercourse continued be- 
 tween England and Russia. 
 
 MARY. 
 
 1553—1558. 
 
 The late attempt to violate the order of succession, by 
 having the crown assigned to Jane, so fully displayed the 
 ambition and injustice of Northumberland, that, when the 
 people reflected on the long train of fraud and cruelty, by 
 which that project hid been conducted, they were moved by 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 117 
 
 indignation to exert themselves in opposition to such crimi- 
 nal enterprises. 
 
 Lady Jane is alike the object of our pity and admira- 
 tion. Amiable, engaging-, accomplished, she was worthy 
 of the most exalted throne; as well by her acquirements, 
 as by her reluctant acceptance of what she supposed to be/ 
 another's right. *- 
 
 Orders were given by the council to proclaim Jane 
 throughout the kingdom; but they were observed only 
 near the court. No applause ensued: on account of the 
 hatred, of all parties, towards Northumberland, they heard 
 the proclamation with silence and concern, or with ex r> ses- 
 sions of contempt. At this time, Mary was in Suffolk. 
 There, having declared, that she would not alter the reli- 
 gious establishments of Edward, the nobility and gentry 
 flocked with their adherents to her standard. The duke 
 of Northumberland being deserted by the council and the 
 army, lady Jane, after wearing the crown but ten days, re- 
 turned to the more pleasing enjoyment of a private life. 
 Northumberland was arrested by the earl of Arundel, and 
 suffered the punishment which he so justly merited. Sen- 
 tence of death was pronounced also against lady Jane 
 Gray, and her husband, lord Guildford Dudley; but, with- 
 out any intention, then, of putting it in execution. Indeed, 
 their innocence and youth, neither having reached seven- 
 teen years, pleaded amply in their favour. 
 
 But the joy arising from the accession of the lawful heir, 
 was succeeded by disgust. The queen soon displayed that 
 malignity of disposition, which, throughout her reign, was 
 so destructively exercised on her unhappy subjects. Bigot- 
 ry, cruelty, tyranny, and revenge, were the strongest pas- 
 sions of her mind: and these were well depicted in the for- 
 bidding cast of her exterior. From her earliest years, she 
 had imbibed an aversion to the reformed religion; and now, 
 contrary to her solemn pledges, she reinstated in their sees 
 all the most violent of her own party, and established 
 throughout the kingdom the Roman Catholic form of wor- 
 ship. The prisons were crowded with the protestants : the 
 flames burned with unexampled fierceness; and all who re- 
 fused to subscribe to the religion of the queen, were sacri- 
 ficed by the ferocity of persecution. Amongst those dis- 
 tinguished for intolerance, may be mentioned, Gardiner, 
 bishop of Winchester, and Bonner, bishop of London. The 
 prelates who suffered martyrdom, were Cranmer, Ridley, 
 Latimer, Hooper, and Ferrar 
 L 
 
118 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 A marriage was this year solemnized between 
 Mary and Philip the second of Spain, son of Charles 
 the fifth. Her husband was little calculated to gain the 
 affections of the nation; being as gloomy and tyrannical as 
 the queen herself; and public feeling was soon displayed 
 by an insurrection. This rebellion was, however, after 
 much bloodshed, suppressed. But the vengeance of the 
 queen reached even to the innocent. Lady Jane Gray and 
 lord Guildford Dudley suffered for the actions of their 
 friends. Notice was given this amiable and interesting 
 couple to prepare for death; and they were soon relieved 
 from their anxiety. On the scaffold, Lady Jane said, that 
 her offence was not her laying her hands upon the crown, 
 but her not rejecting it with sufficient constancy; and that 
 she willingly received death, as the only satisfaction she 
 could make to her injured country. 
 
 Soon afterwards, the duke of Suffolk, father of lady 
 Jane, was taken to the block; where, he would have met 
 with more compassion, had not his temerity caused his 
 daughter's untimely end. 
 1555 England was now at war with France; and, by 
 the negligence of government, Calais, the only place 
 remaining to the British, on the continent, was taken by 
 the duke of Guise* after being in their possession above 
 two-hundred years. This event sunk deep into the mind 
 of Mary. She had long been in a delicate state of health : 
 a variety of reflections now tormented her, and threw her 
 into a fever; of which she died, in the sixth year of her 
 reign, and the forty-third of her age. Cardinal Pole, de- 
 scended from the royal family, who had, for a considerable 
 time, laboured under bodily afflictions, expired on the same 
 day. 
 
 At this time, the dwellings of people, even of considera- 
 ble estate, were very meanly constructed. They were of 
 plank, badly put together, and chimneys, were almost un- 
 known in England. The fire was kindled by the wall, and 
 the smoke found its way through the roof, door, or windows. 
 The furniture was appropriate. The people slept on straw 
 pallets, having a log under their heads for a pillow; and 
 almost every domestic utensil was of wood. Dinner and 
 supper were taken about an hour earlier than at present: 
 Which were their only meals; breakfast not being then in 
 use 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 11 9 
 
 ELIZABETH. 
 
 1558 — 1603. 
 
 This princess, the daughter of Henry the eighth and 
 /Ynne Boleyn, ascended the throne in her twenty-sixth 
 year. Her principal ministers were, sir William Cecil, 
 (afterwards lord Burleigh,) and sir Francis Walsingham; 
 men of highly eminent abilities. 
 
 Although it was generally believed that she had em- 
 braced a religion opposite to that which now prevailed in 
 England, yet, so much were men displeased with the con- 
 duct of the late queen, that, overlooking their theological 
 disputes, they expressed unfeigned joy at the coronation of 
 Elizabeth. When she was conducted through London, 
 amidst the acclamations of the people, a boy, who person- 
 ated Truth, descended from one of the triumphal arches, 
 and presented her with a copy of the Bible. She received 
 it with the most gracious deportment, placed it next hei 
 bosom, and declared, that amidst all the costly testimonies 
 of their attachment which the citizens had on that day 
 given her, this present was by far the most acceptable. In 
 this manner, did the queen gain the affections of her sub- 
 jects. Gracious and affable in public, she joined in then 
 amusements, without departing from her dignity ; and, 
 notwithstanding the high and unbending tenor of her gov- 
 ernment, she acquired a popularity, greater than was ever 
 attained by any other sovereign of England. 
 
 Though the queen, previous to her coronation, had made 
 several alterations in the existing ceremonies of the church, 
 yet she delayed the entire change until the meeting of par- 
 liament. Immediately on its assembling, the statutes of 
 Edward the sixth with regard to religion were confirmed ; 
 many fresh innovations were made, and the Protestant re- 
 ligion was again established throughout the entire kingdom- 
 It was not thought sufficient to prohibit, by severe penalties, 
 the celebration of the Mass : the Roman Catholics, and al! 
 other sects, without distinction, were even compelled to par- 
 take in the Liturgy of the court — Such measures are not 
 only unjust,but ineffective. We cannot refrain from con- 
 demning the slightest exercise of inquisitorial power. Uni- 
 formity of opinion can never be produced by violence. 
 
 This parliament was completely obsequious to the royal 
 will ; all the members having been nominated by the court. 
 Indeed, during her whole reign, Elizabeth swayed the 
 
120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 sceptre with an authority unrestrained by the least regard 
 to the constitution ; and, to this domineering; spirit both 
 lords and commons submitted, with a degree of tameness 
 and servility, which stamps their memories with indelible 
 disgrace. They might indeed give directions for the due 
 tanning of leather, or the milling of cloth ; the assessment 
 of taxes, the mending of decayed bridges, or the whipping 
 of beggars ; any thing further, she thought, was above 
 their understanding. Three representatives, however, 
 Carleton, Yelverton, and Peter Wentworth, resolutely sup- 
 ported parliamentary independence. 
 
 We come now to the most interesting, though, certainly, 
 the most disagreeable, part of the history, of this celebrated 
 reign. 
 
 The lineal heir to the crown, after Elizabeth, was Mary 
 queen of Scots, (descended from Margaret, a sister of Henry 
 the eighth, and wife of James the fourth of Scotland,) who 
 still resided abroad, and now, as wife of Francis the second, 
 enjoyed also the title of queen of France. As both, by di- 
 rection of the late French king, had assumed not only the 
 arms, but the royal titles, of England, Elizabeth persever- 
 ed in opposing the wishes of the nation, that Mary should 
 be acknowledged her successor; nor could she, until her 
 latest breath, be induced to concur in the appointment even 
 of another. Always fearful of an heir apparent, she amus- 
 ed the parliament by most artful evasions; and though she 
 had frequently declared her resolutions to remain unmar- 
 ried, she listened to the addresses of her numerous lovers; 
 but, with the most refined coquetry, held her parliament 
 and her lovers equally in suspense : the one by the hopes 
 of an heir ; the other by the expectation of a bride. 
 
 The death of the French monarch naturally m- 
 ' duced Mary to return to Scotland ; and no woman, 
 perhaps, ever experienced so great a change, in point of 
 social enjoyment. To the gay and easy manners of the 
 French, were now opposed the rough familiarities of the 
 Scotch : to the splendid exterior of the Roman Catholic 
 worship, the total abolition of the. ancient rites. Every 
 insult, that the violence of fanaticism could produce, was 
 offered to her, without reserve ; to which harsh and prepos- 
 terous treatment, may, in part, be ascribed, those errors of 
 her subsequent life, so much at variance with the tenor of 
 her early conduct. For, hitherto, her deportment had been 
 amiable. — She had now reached her nineteenth year : and 
 ihe bloom of youth, and beauty of her person, were height- 
 
HISTORY OF EiNGLAJND. 121 
 
 ened by the politeness of her manners, and the elegance of 
 her acquirements. Her age, her rank, her education, in- 
 vited her to liberty and cheerfulness; but, by the absurd 
 severity of the reformers, she was debarred from every 
 amusement; and her uncles, with the other French no- 
 bility, were driven to their own country, in disgust. 
 
 Notwithstanding the umbrage which Elizabeth had con- 
 ceived, arising from Mary's having openly usurped the 
 English dignities, and the resentment which the latter, on 
 her side, might justly feel against Elizabeth, on account of 
 the active part she had taken to encourage the Scotch in 
 opposition to her rival, a cordial friendship seemed to be 
 cemented between them: they wrote, every week, amicable 
 letters to each other; and adopted the style and sentiments 
 of sisters. 
 
 As Mary's uncle, the duke of Guise, was endeavour- 
 ing to form a matrimonial alliance with her and the Arch- 
 duke Charles, Elizabeth, to prevent it, not only gave tins 
 prince some hopes of obtaining herself, but intimated to 
 Mary, that if she would espouse an English nobleman, her 
 title to the crown of England should be examined. The 
 person whom she named, was the earl of Leicester. This 
 nobleman, a son of the late duke of Northumberland, had 
 Jong been the favourite of Elizabeth, and, by his handsome 
 person and insinuating address, had so deceived her, that 
 she discovered not the odious vices of his disposition. Ma- 
 ry listened to the proposal: but Leicester was too great a 
 favourite to be parted with; and Elizabeth soon withdrew 
 the bait. By this duplicity of conduct, joined to some in- 
 dications of insolent superiority, the correspondence of the 
 two queens was for some time interrupted; but, to make 
 up the breach, Mary despatched to London sir James Mel- 
 ville; a courtier of pleasing address and conversation. 
 Melville insinuated himself completely into the confidence 
 of Elizabeth, and made her discover the recesses of her 
 heart, full of those levities, and ideas of rivalship, which 
 possess the youngest and most frivolous of her sex. Some- 
 times, she was dressed in the English costume — some- 
 times, in the French — at another time, in the Italian; and 
 she asked him which of these became her most. He an- 
 swered, the Italian: a reply which die knew would be agree- 
 able; because that mode showed to advantage her flowing 
 locks; which, he remarked, though they were more red 
 than yellow, she fancied were the handsomest in the world 
 She asked, whether his queen, or she, had the finest hair. 
 I. 2 
 
122 HISTORY OF EJNGLAND 
 
 She even inquired which had the fairest person — a very 
 delicate question; which he prudently eluded, by saying, 
 that her majesty was the fairest person in England, and his 
 mistress, in Scotland. From the whole of her behaviour, 
 Melville concluded, that his queen had no reason ever to 
 expect any cordial friendship from Elizabeth; and that all 
 her professions were full of falsehood and dissimulation. 
 
 At length, Mary was married to lord Darnley, son to 
 the earl of Lenox, of the house of Stuart, and, after her, 
 heir to the crown of England. Elizabeth was so enraged 
 at this, that she threw the countess of Lenox and her 
 second son into the Tower, and confiscated the earl's 
 English estate; though without being able to assign a 
 single reason for her displeasure. 
 
 But Mary had overlooked the qualities of her husband's 
 mind : insolent, credulous, and easily governed by flatter- 
 ers, all domestic enjoyments were poisoned by those pro- 
 pensities, and the whole nation soon became a scene of fac- 
 tion and confusion. Of these, Elizabeth was always sure 
 to take advantage. There was, at this time, in the Scottish 
 court, one David Rizzio, an Italian musician, who enjoy- 
 ed, with Mary, an extraordinary degree of confidence, and 
 acted as secretary for French despatches. By these fav- 
 ours, and his joining the Roman Catholic party, he be- 
 came so obnoxious, that a conspiracy was formed against 
 him. Lord Ruthven, George Douglas, Darnley, and some 
 . fi . others, entered the room where Mary, with the 
 countess of Argyle, and Rizzio, was at supper; and, 
 rushing upon the favourite, they despatched him with their 
 daggers. 
 
 Henceforth, Mary conceived an incurable antipathy to- 
 wards Darnley. Now, commenced, the decline of all her 
 grandeur, and a total contempt of virtue, or even of char- 
 acter. She attached herself to lord Bothwell: the murder 
 of her husband was soon effected; and, of their being the 
 perpetrators of that horrid deed, no reasonable doubt re- 
 mains ! Scarcely three months had passed, befoie she was 
 married to this man; though he then had a wife alive. The 
 earl of Argyle, lord Hume, and many more, flew to arms. 
 Bothwell escaped to Denmark; Mary was dethroned and 
 imprisoned, and her infant son, by Darnley, was proclaimed 
 <ing, under the title of James the sixth. 
 
 The miserable queen escaped into England. Here, ho. 
 mg again imprisoned, she desired to exonerate herself, by 
 trial, from the charg-e of her husband's murder: and r in 
 
I1LSTOHY OF ENGLAND 123 
 
 consequence, many meetings of the Scotch and English 
 commissioners took place; but without a decision In the 
 mean time, the duke of Norfolk, contrary to the wishes of 
 Elizabeth, having made Mary a tender of his hand, she 
 promised to espouse him, as soon as she could be legally 
 divorced from Bothwell. Though Norfolk was a protest- 
 ant, he was highly respected amongst the great catholic no- 
 bility; by whose influence, and that of the king of Spain 
 he joined Mary in a plan of insurrection, invasion, and sub- 
 version of the government. This conspiracy, however, be- 
 ing detected, the duke was condemned and executed. The 
 unhappy queen, during a long series of years, was remov- 
 ed from prison to prison; still, naturally, forming plans for 
 her liberation. At length, she was charged with associat 
 mg in a conspiracy, which aimed even at the life of Eliza- 
 beth, and was conveyed to Fotheringay-castle, in North- 
 amptonshire; which, it was determined, should be the last 
 stage of her earthly sufferings. Here, she was brought to 
 trial and condemned. As soon as her son, the king of Scot- 
 land, heard of this event, he sent sir William Keith with a 
 letter to Elizabeth ; in which, he remonstrated, in severe 
 terms, against the indignity and cruelty of the procedure. 
 But this exercise of filial duty had no effect. After delays, 
 produced rather by dissimulation than humanity, she sign- 
 . 87 ed the warrant for her execution ; and Mary's head 
 was soon severed from her body. Thus, perished, 
 this unfortunate female, in the forty-fifth year of her age, 
 and nineteenth of her captivity in England. 
 
 During these transactions, Elizabeth was engaged in 
 succouring the protestants in France and the Low Coun- 
 tries. In the latter, the infamous Philip of Spain, aided by 
 the equally atrocious duke of Alva, had driven the follow- 
 ers of Luther to so great a pitch of desperation, that they 
 flew to arms ; and, in a few days, the provinces of Holland 
 and Zealand shook off his authority. William, prince of 
 Orange, by uniting the revolted districts into a league, laid 
 the foundation of the celebrated Dutch Commonwealth ; 
 since erected into a monarchy, called the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Francis Drake, a bold and celebrated seaman, fitted out, 
 at his own expense, five vessels, with which he passed 
 through the Strait of Magellan, into the Pacific Ocean : 
 then, having taken many rich prizes from the Spaniards, 
 he set sail for the East Indies, and returned by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, after an absence of more than three yeais. He 
 
124 UlSTOKY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 was Ihe first Englishman that sailed round the glebe, and 
 the first commander, of any nation; (Magellan, whose ship 
 had before performed the same voyage, having died in 
 the passage ;) for which memorable achievement, he was 
 knighted by the queen. 
 
 In retaliation for Elizabeth's enmity, Philip sent a small 
 body of men into Ireland. But the earl of Ormond besieg- 
 ed them in Kerry, where they had erected a fort, and made 
 them all prisoners. 
 
 Accounts were now received from all quarters, 
 of an immense armament nearly completed by the 
 Spaniards; whose monarch, founding his pretensions to the 
 English crown, upon his descent from a female branch of 
 the house of Lancaster, and the will of his late consort 
 Mary, meditated the invasion and entire conquest of Eng- 
 land. The chief support of the kingdom seemed to consist 
 in the vigour and prudence of the queen; who, undismayed 
 by the present dangers, issued all her orders with -tran- 
 quillity. The more to excite the martial ardour of the na- 
 tion, she appeared, on horseback, in the camp at Tilbury ; 
 and, riding along the lines, cheered the soldiers by her 
 eloquence, and the animation of her countenance. People 
 of every class, and of every religion, forgot their animosi- 
 ties, and strove only for the safety of their country. The 
 royal navy of England amounted only to twenty-eight sail, 
 of but small size : all the sailors in the kingdom, to four- 
 teen-thousand ; however, the seaports freely contributed 
 to increase the fleet, and what was wanting in the number, 
 was supplied by the bravery and experience, of the men. 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of courage and capacity, 
 was admiral ; and, under him, were, Drake, Hawkins, and 
 Frobisher ; the most renowned seamen in the world. The 
 admiral had scarcely got out qf Plymouth, when he saw the 
 Spanish Armada (by which name this famous armament 
 is known) coming full sail towards him, disposed in the 
 form of a crescent, and displaying a front of no less than 
 seven miles. It consisted of one-hundred-and-thirty ves- 
 sels, of laxger size than were ever before used in Europe, 
 and had on board thirty-thousand men. — As the Armada 
 advances up the Channel, Effingham hangs upon its rear, 
 occasionally giving battle ; when, each trial abate's the con- 
 fidence of the Spaniards, and adds courage to the English. 
 The fire of the enemy passes over the heads of tfyeir as- 
 sailants, whilst almost every English shot is the messenger 
 of death — Effingham now sends fire-ships amongst the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 125 
 
 Spaniards: — nothing is to be seen but terror and confu- 
 sion: — they take to flight — the English seize the advan- 
 tage and pursue; but want of ammunition constrains them 
 to desist. 
 
 Their disasters were not yet completed. A violent tern, 
 pest overtook them, driving them either upon the coast of 
 Ireland, or on the Western isles of Scotland; where, they 
 were so miserably wrecked or shattered, that not half of the 
 boasted armament returned to Spain. 
 
 From the noble breed of horses then driven on these 
 places, are descended the beautiful little race of Scotch 
 ponies; which, without the size, retain all the spirit, and 
 all the symmetry, of their progenitors. 
 
 The affairs of Ireland next demand attention. Al- 
 though the claim of England to that country had 
 now existed above four centuries, her authority was, hither- 
 to, little more than nominal. The Irish princes and nobles 
 divided amongst themselves, readily paid exterior marks of 
 obeisance to a power which they were not able wholly to 
 resist; but, as no permanent force was ever assigned for 
 the purpose of retaining them in subjection, they still re- 
 lapsed into their former state of independence. The laws 
 enacted for the government of this unhappy country, were 
 ungenerous and absurd. When every other Christian na- 
 tion was cultivating the sciences, and the refinements of 
 society, Ireland, lying in a temperate climate, enjoying a 
 fertile soil, with many other natural advantages, was in- 
 habited by a people whose situation was deplorable. To 
 suppress the extensive insurrections of the O'Neales, (the 
 earls of Desmond and Thomond,) the queen sent over a 
 powerful army, under the command of Devereux, earl of 
 Essex; whom she appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland. 
 This young nobleman had distinguished himself in many 
 naval and military enterprises; and, as the earl of Leices- 
 ter was now dead, Essex occupied his place in the queen's 
 affections. But, in Ireland, he was entirely unsuccessful. 
 He was recalled — disgraced— received again into favour — 
 again dismissed; and being driven, at last, almost to fren- 
 zy, by the fluctuation of his hopes and disappointments, he 
 endeavoured to overturn the government. For this, he was 
 condemned, and taken to the scaffold; where he confessed 
 the justice of his sentence. 
 
 From the death of Essex, the health of the queen 
 visibly declined. She fell into a profound melancho- 
 ly, which all the glories of her administration were unable 
 
126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 to alleviate; and expired in the seventieth year of her age, 
 and the forty-fifth of her reign; having expressed a desire 
 that the king of Scotland should succeed her. 
 
 Few sovereigns have displayed abilities equal to Eliza- 
 beth's; and, certainly, such talents were never shown by 
 any other female, in any age, or in any nation. She was a 
 woman of considerable accomplishments: Greek and Lat- 
 in were familiar to her; but she was devoid of that soft- 
 ness of disposition, without which, her sex are never amia- 
 ble. Overbearing in the council, her ministers feared her 
 as a tiger. Imperious in the palace, her servants dreaded 
 her approach. 
 
 Elizabeth founded Trinity College in Dublin; ordered 
 the printing of the " English Mercury," which was the 
 earliest newspaper in the kingdom; established posts for 
 the regular transmission of letters; directed the cultivation 
 of hemp and flax, and introduced into England the manu- 
 facture of gunpowder and of brass-cannon. She also grant- 
 ed a charter to the East India Company; the first voyage 
 to the Indian seas having been effected in her reign: des- 
 patched a squadron for the purpose of finding a passage to 
 Hindostan, by the north-west, under the command of 
 Frobisher; and another, intrusted to the skill of Davis; 
 who were unsuccessful, but respectively, discovered the 
 straits that bear their names : and she obtained from the 
 czar of Muscovy a privilege of vending the manufactures 
 of England through his whole dominions, free from duty, as 
 well as of carrying them to Persia and Media, by the Cas- 
 pian sea ; the merchants of other nations not being allow- 
 ed to trade beyond Moscow. Copper-mines were opened, 
 and mills erected for slitting iron bars. The printing of 
 linen commenced, and the manufacture of paper; and com- 
 merce was rendered less hazardous to individuals, by in- 
 surance on ships at sea. The nobility began to build their 
 houses of brick and stone, with glass windows: coaches 
 were introduced, pocket-watches brought over from Ger- 
 many; and the queen, having received a present of a pair 
 of silk knit-stockings, discontinued the previously universal 
 fashion of hose, or stockings made of cloth. Sir Thomas 
 Gresham, a merchant, erected in London, at his own ex- 
 pense, a building, which, in presence of the queen, was 
 called the Royal Exchange; and the Bodleian Library, at 
 Oxford, was, with equal liberality, founded and largely en- 
 dowed by sir Thomas Bodley. 
 
 Though the population of England did not then exceed 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 127 
 
 four millions, the rage of colonization was very great. Sir 
 Walter Raleigh made several unsuccessful attempts to 
 establish a colony on the island of Roanoke, off the coast 
 now called North Carolina ; then called Virginia : a name 
 given by Elizabeth to all the English discoveries in Ame- 
 rica during her reign; as a memorial that they were made 
 under a virgin queen. Tobacco was brought into England 
 from those parts ; and was rendered fashionable by Ra- 
 leigh ; and (in 1565) the potato, called battata by the In- 
 dians, was brought into Ireland from # Mexico, by sir John 
 Hawkins ; being the first of that valuable article of food 
 introduced into Europe. 
 
 Elizabeth had the honour of patronizing Spenser and 
 Shakespeare, Sackville and sir Philip Sidney. Spenser is 
 the author of that admired poem, the Fairy Queen; written 
 in a provincial dialect ; not in the national language of his 
 time. The numerous productions of Shakespeare, show 
 that he possessed dramatic talents, and a knowledge of 
 human nature, greater than were ever displayed by any 
 other man, at any period of the world. Holinshed was 
 distinguished for his Chronicles ; and Briggs, for his in- 
 genious researches in mathematics. 
 
 CHAPTER *XIII. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Union of the English and Scotch Crowns. 
 JAMES THE FIRST. 
 
 1603 — 1625. 
 
 THE sceptre now passed from the house of Tudor to 
 that of Stuart ; and, henceforward, the crowns of England 
 and Scotland were united. 
 
 James the first of England, and sixth of Scotland, v/as 
 son of the unfortunate Mary, and Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
 ley; and grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry the 
 seventh. He had been baptized a Roman Catholic, but was 
 afterwards educated in the protestant religion; the famous 
 historian, Buchanan, being his tutor. 
 
128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 James was at this time in his thirty-eighth year; was a 
 man of considerable learning, of a social disposition, but 
 averse to the bustle of the world, and to the noisy demon- 
 strations of joy, which the people, crowding around him, 
 so willingly displayed. He was not, however, insensible to 
 this great overflow of affection. He seems to have been in 
 haste to make them some return. Hence, that profusion 
 of favours, in the beginning of his reign. In six weeks 
 after his entrance into England, he conferred knighthood on 
 above two-hundred persons ; and titles of all kinds became 
 so common, that they were no longer considered as marks 
 of distinction. ■ From an excusable weakness, he was par- 
 tial to men of his own country ; yet, he retained, in all the 
 principal offices, the ministers of Elizabeth; and sir Rob- 
 ert Cecil, created by him earl of Salisbury, (son of the 
 great Burleigh) was always regarded as his prime minister. 
 To congratulate the king on his accession, there soon ap- 
 peared at court ambassadors from almost every state in 
 Europe; amongst whom, was the accomplished marquis 
 of Rosni, (afterwards duke of Sully,) the favourite min- 
 ister of the celebrated Henry the fourth, of France. 
 
 Amidst the great tranquillity, with which the nation was 
 now blessed, nothing could be more surprising, than the 
 discovery of a conspiracy, to place on the throne Arabella 
 Stuart, a near relation of the king. Of this, there were ac- 
 cused, several men of different religions: and, amongst the 
 number, sir Walter Raleigh ; who was, in consequence, 
 (without, however, any satisfactory proof,) condemned to 
 die; but afterwards reprieved, though wot pardoned. The 
 prosecutions were conducted by sir Edward Coke; who 
 insulted Raleigh with abuse, so extremely gross, that his 
 conduct may be deemed a reproach, not only on his own 
 memory, but on the manners of the age. 
 
 This year is remarkable for one of the most cele- 
 brated events in the history of England — the Gun- 
 powder Plot : a fact as certain as it appears incredible ; 
 displaying, at once, the widest departure from moral vir- 
 tue, and the steadiest attachment to religious prepossession. 
 Catesby, a man of respectable family, and Percy, a descend- 
 ant of the house of Northumberland, were the projectors 
 of a scheme, for restoring the Roman Catholics to power; 
 nnc } formed the diabolical plan of blowing up the house of 
 parliament with gunpowder. " We must destroy," said 
 Ihey, u the king, the royal family, the lords, the commons t 
 and burv all our enemies in one general ruin. They are 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 129 
 
 now assembled in the first meeting of parliament ; and af- 
 ford us the opportunity of glorious and useful vengeance. " 
 For this purpose, they engaged one Guy Fawkes, an officer 
 in the Spanish service ; with whose zeal and ingenuity, they 
 were well acquainted. Happily, however, Providence avert- 
 ed, by a discovery, this dreadful blow; after the gunpowder 
 and the matches were conveyed into a vault under the house 
 of lords. Here, Fawkes being seized, he made a full con- 
 fession of his own guilt, and that of his associates ; who, 
 with himself, met the reward which their crime so highly 
 merited. But let us not involve the Roman Catholic body 
 in this horrid plot. It would be unjust. The king was 
 conscious that they were unfairly implicated; and declared, 
 that, for his part, the conspiracy, however atrocious, should 
 not alter, in the least, his plan of government. 
 
 " James frequently boasted," says Hume, " that the man- 
 agement of Ireland was his masterpiece. Upon inquiry, it 
 will appear, that his vanity, in this particular, was not 
 without foundation. Although Elizabeth had succeeded in 
 finally subjecting that country ; yet, the more difficult task 
 remained — to civilize the inhabitants, and reconcile them 
 to industry and laws. James proceeded by a steady and 
 well concerted plan ; and, in less than ten years, did more 
 towards the improvement of that kingdom, than all his pre- 
 decessors had accomplished, in upwards of four centuries. 
 By the old Irish custom, every crime, however enormous, 
 was punished, not by death, but by a pecuniary fine. Mur- 
 der itself was atoned for in this manner: and each man, ac- 
 cording to his rank, had a different rate or value affixed to 
 him ; which, if any one was willing to pay, he might as- 
 sassinate his enemy. This rate was called his eric. When 
 sir William Fitzwilliams, a governor of Ireland, told Ma- 
 guire, an Irish chieftain, that he intended to send a sheriff 
 into Fermanagh ; which, a little before, had been made a 
 county, and subjected to the English laws ; i Your sheriff,' 
 said Maguire, 'shall be welcome to me: but, let me know, 
 before hand, his eric, or the price of his head ; that, if my 
 people cut it off, I may levy the money upon the county.' 
 As for oppression, extortion, or other trespasses, so lit- 
 tle were they regarded, that no redress for such offences 
 could ever be obtained. James abolished these Irish cus- 
 toms, and substituted the laws of England ; and, having 
 declared the natives to be free citizens, proceeded to gov- 
 ern them by a regular administration. The whole province 
 of Ulster having fallen to the crown, by the attainder of the 
 M 
 
130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 rebels, a company for establishing in it new colonies was 
 formed in London : tenants were sent over from England 
 and Scotland : the Irish were removed from their retreats, 
 and settled in the open country: husbandry and the arts 
 were taught them ; and, by these means, Ulster, from be- 
 ing the wildest and the most disorderly province of all Ire- 
 land, soon became the most highly cultivated and the most 
 civilized." 
 
 Although we do not deny Hume our general approba. 
 tion, yet we cannot accord with his manner of treating the 
 affairs of Ireland. In this instance, he is extremely super- 
 ficial ; indeed, more so, than the extended plan of his valu- 
 able work would lead us to expect. That the Irish, even 
 at the period to which he alludes, were in some degree un- 
 civilized, and that their laws were neither judiciously fram- 
 ed, nor properly enforced, we readily admit. But, the op- 
 pressions under which they laboured from their rapacious 
 masters, had assisted in prolonging this miserable condi- 
 tion ; and we confidently maintain, that they were not more 
 remarkable for insubordination than the Scotch ; nor many 
 degrees more uncivilized than the English. To Scotland 
 Hume is certainly not partial ; but still, he has paid more 
 attention to her affairs than to those of Ireland ; and had he 
 gone more minutely into the latter, this " master piece" of 
 James, would not appear so equitable. Historians of great 
 research, attribute the colonization of Ulster to his desire 
 of extending the protestant religion; and assert, that seve- 
 ral of the Irish chieftains had been attainted and deprived 
 of rheir estates, without sufficient evidence. 
 
 Those who feel an interest in the concerns of Ireland, 
 will be gratified by the Avorks of Davies," Leland, O'Hal- 
 loran, Ledwich, Gordon, Plowden, and Lawless f and by a 
 late work — the " Vindiciae Hibernicse" of Carey. 
 
 James had, in common with other men, his failings and 
 his follies. His puerile attachment to favourites was first 
 conspicuous in the honours, and confidence, which he so 
 lavishly gave to Robert Carr. Though Carr was made 
 known to the king merely by accident, he was soon created 
 viscount Rochester, and earl of Somerset ; was loaded with 
 riches, and had, for a while, the sole direction of national 
 affairs. Unworthy, from the beginning, of these distinc 
 tions, this upstart minion plunged headlong into the deepest 
 crimes ; was disgraced, and dragged out a miserable life in 
 obscurity and detestation. To Carr, succeeded George 
 Villiers; a younger b'-other of a good English family; whose 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 131 
 
 chief advantages were a handsome person, genteel air, and 
 fashionable dress. First, he was made cupbearer to the 
 king; then, successively, created viscount Villiers, earl, 
 marquis, and duke of Buckingham, knight of the garter, 
 master of the horse, chief justice in Eyre, warden of the 
 cinque ports, master of the king's bench office, steward of 
 Westminster, constable of Windsor, and lord high admiral 
 of England ! Of every talent, requisite for a statesman, he 
 was utterly devoid; and, to indulge his pride or his inso- 
 lence, he sacrificed the faith of treaties, the character ot 
 the nation, and the honour of his benefactor. 
 
 Hitherto, the influence of parliament, in questions of 
 great national importance, was undefined. Those invalu- 
 able rights, which the people fondly supposed had been 
 ascertained and secured by the great charter, were frittered 
 away, by the insolence of the crown, the servile flattery of 
 ministers, the ignorance and submission of the public guar- 
 dians. But a new era now burst forth. The minds of men 
 became more enlightened; the prince was less capable of* 
 tyranny, though not less inclined to be a tyrant. 
 
 In one of his speeches, he insisted, that, as it was blas- 
 phemy for man to dispute what God might do, in the ful- 
 ness of his omnipotence; so, was it sedition, for subjects to 
 dispute what a king might do, in the fulness of his power. 
 The commons, however, assumed a degree of vigour and 
 boldness: they began to call public officers to account; and 
 no situation was above the reach of their investigation. 
 The office of chancellor was then filled by the celebrated 
 Francis Bacon, viscount St. Albans; a man universally ad- 
 mired for the greatness of his genius, and beloved for the 
 humanity of his disposition. But, unfortunately, his want 
 of economy havirg involved him in necessity, he had taken 
 several bribes from the suitors in chancery;' which caused 
 his impeachment, and a sentence, that he should pay a fine 
 of forty-thousand pounds, and be for ever incapable of 
 holding any public employment. 
 
 We have another instance of deviation from the path of 
 rectitude, in sir Walter Raleigh. This great man had been 
 confined in the Tower for thirteen years; during which 
 time, he had increased his literary reputation, by writing a 
 history of the world. Eager, after so long an imprisonment, 
 to obtain his liberty, he spread a report of a gold mine, that 
 in one of his excursions he had discovered in Guiana; to 
 which country, he perhaps imagined that England had 'j 
 claim, from his having set up a mark upon the coast. The 
 
132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 king gave him liberty to go in search of this reported mine, 
 but reserved the capital sentence, as a check upon his beha- 
 viour. Raleigh, accordingly, fitted out a fleet; with which 
 he set sail to South America. But the mine from which 
 he endeavoured to draw his riches, was the Spanish town 
 of St. Thomas; which he seized, and afterwards set on fire. 
 For this, he was, on his return, executed upon his 
 " former sentence. The crown lawyers justified them- 
 selves, by a maxim, that no man could be tried on a fresh 
 indictment, whilst lying under a previous sentence of death. 
 This is strict law ; however, their conduct bears a strong 
 tincture of barbarism and injustice. 
 
 In this spring, the king was seized with a tertian 
 ague; whicn terminated his life, in the fifty-ninth 
 year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign over Eng- 
 land. He was possessed of considerable virtues; but scarce- 
 ly any of these were pure, or free from the contagion of 
 the neighbouring vices. His generosity bordered on pro- 
 fusion, his learning on pedantry, his pacific disposition on 
 pusillanimity, his wisdom on cunning, his friendship on 
 light fancy and boyish fondness. 
 
 He left only one son, Charles; and one daughter, Eliza- 
 beth, married to the Elector Palatine. 
 
 It was in this reign, and through the desire and patron- 
 age of James, that the last authorized English translation 
 of the Bible, was begun and finished. 
 
 But, notwithstanding this monarch's attention to reli- 
 gion, his mind was clouded with the childish superstition 
 of his native country. In the first year of his reign in 
 England, it was enacted, that all persons invoking any evil 
 spirit, covenanting with, entertaining, employing, feeding, 
 or rewarding it, or taking up dead bodies from the grave, 
 to be used in any witchcraft, sorcery, charm, or enchant- 
 ment; or killing or otherwise hurting any one by such in- 
 fernal arts, should be guilty of felony without benefit of 
 clergy, and suffer death.* This law continued in force till 
 lately; to the terror of all ancient females in the kingdom; 
 many of whom were thereby sacrificed, to the prejudice 
 of their neighbours, or their own illusions. 
 
 * The term "benefit of clergy," signifies, in the English law, a 
 privilege anciently granted to all clergymen, by which they were ex- 
 empted from capital punishment, for a first offence. It was afterwards 
 allowed to any person that could read; and is now, in many cases, 
 pleaded, by every criminal, as a matter of course, and obliges the judge 
 to commute the infliction of death, for some milder punishment. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 133 
 
 Throughout all Europe, and especially in England, a 
 taste was now generally diffused for literature, and the lib- 
 eral as well as mechanical arts; for commerce, and for colo- 
 nial establishments. But the English seem not yet to have 
 learned the art of dyeing and dressing woolen-cloth: it was 
 mostly exported as it came from the loom, and was dyed 
 and finished by the Dutch. Holland, at this time, traded 
 to England with six-hundred ships; England to Holland, 
 with only sixty. The most active promoter of the colonies 
 was Richard Hakluyt, prebendary of Westminster; who, 
 in order to excite his countrymen to naval enterprise, pub 
 lished his valuable collection of voyages and discoveries 
 made by Englishmen. King James divided Virginia" into 
 two districts: the southern portion still retained its name; 
 but the northern received the appellation of New England. 
 A charter was granted to Hakluyt, Gates, and Summers; 
 authorizing them to occupy, in the former, an extent of 
 one-hundred miles along the coast, and extend to an equal 
 distance into the interior. Accordingly, three vessels, under 
 the command of captain Newport, with one-hundred men, 
 set sail; and, on the 26th of April, 1607, entered the Bay 
 of Chesapeake ; contemplating, with delight, the happy 
 discovery of that spacious inlet. Then, keeping along the 
 southern shore, they sailed up a river, which the natives 
 called Powhatan; and to which they gave the name of 
 James River. Having landed, they called their infant set- 
 tlement James Town ; which, though still only a poor 
 place, can boast of being the most ancient English estab- 
 lishment in America. Gates and Summers, about two 
 years afterwards, sailed with five-hundred planters. In 
 their passage, they were stranded on the Bermuda Islands; 
 but, at length, they succeeded in reaching James Town, 
 with all their adventurers. The first governor of the new 
 colony was lord Delaware. 
 
 We must not omit to mention captain Smith, as a most 
 intrepid and distinguished character amongst these early 
 settlers; nor the marriage of captain Rolfe, with the beau- 
 tiful and amiable Pocahuntas, daughter of the great chief 
 Powhatan; from which celebrated princess, some of the 
 most opulent families in Virginia are proud to claim their 
 descent. 
 
 The most ancient permanent establishment in New Eng- 
 land, was made in the year 1620, in Massachusetts Bay ; and 
 was named New Plymouth,. Thence, arising from theolo- 
 gical disputes, were formed, Rhode Island and Connecti- 
 M 2 
 
134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cut; one under the direction of a clergyman named Wil- 
 liams ; at a place which he called Providence : the other, 
 under that of Hooker, also a clergyman ; the oldest settle- 
 ment in which is Hartford. New Hampshire is indebted 
 for its rise to the same cause : it made no advancement, 
 until Exeter was founded by Mr. Wheelright ; a divine 
 who had been banished from Massachusetts. 
 
 To enter into a minute criticism of the writers of this 
 age, would exceed our plan. Their style was rude, and 
 widely different from the present; but their distorted ex- 
 pressions are attended with such vigour of mind, that we 
 must admire the imagination which produced them. Ben 
 Jonson, nn eminent dramatic Avriter, possessed more learn- 
 ing than Shakespeare, but was far inferior to him in genius; 
 and Beaumont, and his coadjutor, Fletcher, were also con- 
 spicuous for their comic talents. Camden was the most 
 correct historian of his age; Speed and Stow are distin- 
 guished for their labours in the same walk; and Spelman, 
 as well as sir Robert Cotton, has transmitted interesting 
 researches for the antiquarian. As a lawyer, deeply learn- 
 ed in his arduous profession, we must distinguish sir Ed- 
 ward Coke; advanced to the office of lord chief justice 
 His most remarkable work is the Institutes of the Laws of 
 England; part of which is a translation from the writings 
 of sir Thomas Littleton, one of the judges in the reign of 
 Edward the fourth. Inigo Jones has left various monu- 
 ments of skill in architecture. Mathematics engrossed the 
 chief attention of Hariot, Gunter, and lord Napier. Gunter 
 is the contriver of the valuable rule of proportion inscribed 
 upon his Scale: in 1614, that science was enriched by Na- 
 pier's invention of logarithms; and, in five years after- 
 wards the circulation of the blood was discovered by Dr. 
 Harvey. But, so slow is the progress of truth, in every 
 science, when opposed by pre-existing opinions, that no 
 physician in Europe, who had reached: forty years of age, 
 ever adopted that great discovery; and Harvey's practice 
 in London was extremely diminished, from the reproach 
 which it drew upon him. 
 
 The dignity of Baronet, the lowest degree of hereditary 
 honours, was founded by king James. This title, originally 
 confined to gentlemen who held a clear annual income from 
 lands of one-thousand pounds, was granted in consideration 
 of a certain pecuniary payment, and of each members rais- 
 ing and maintaining thirty soldiers for the defence of the 
 Irish province, of Ulster. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 135 
 
 Agriculture, though much improved, was still very im- 
 perfect. England, in a great measure, depended upon 
 Foreign nations for her daily bread. Wheat was considered 
 low at thirty-two shillings; barley, at sixteen shillings per 
 quarter, of eight bushels : a turkey sold for three shillings 
 and six pence; a goose two shillings ; though the pay of a 
 private soldier, enlisted from a much better rank than at 
 present, was only eight pence a day ; by which, we may 
 form some estimate of the general remuneration of manual 
 labour ; and conclude, that the working people were not so 
 comfortably provided, as at the present time. By the king's 
 direction, mulberry-trees were planted, and silk-worms in- 
 troduced ; but, to the success of this project, the climate 
 of England was unfavourable. That valuable article, Alum, 
 indispensable in the dyeing of several colours, was first 
 manufactured in England in the year 1608 ; having, before, 
 been imported from the continent. 
 
 Hudson, when searching for a north-west passage to the 
 East Indies, entered the spacious bay which retains his 
 name ; and the English, in this reign, discovered and plant- 
 ed the island of Barbadoes. 
 
 CHARLES THE FIRST. 
 
 1625—1649. 
 
 Charles, the only surviving son of James, ascended the 
 throne at the age of twenty-five years. In his father's life 
 time, he had been contracted to the princess Henrietta, of 
 France, daughter of Henry the fourth; with whom the 
 nuptials were celebrated shortly after he assumed the reins 
 of government. 
 
 When we view him in the domestic circle of his family, 
 it is difficult to imagine a character more respectable : a 
 kind husband — an indulgent father — a gentle master — a 
 steadfast friend. His address and manner, though inclin- 
 ing towards formality, corresponded to his rank; and gave 
 grace to his natural gravity and reserve. The good sense 
 which he evinced in conversation, promised success in 
 every reasonable undertaking ; and he displayed other en 
 dowments, which, in a private gentleman, would have been 
 highly ornamental, and, in a monarch, might have been 
 exerted for the benefit of society. In any other age, or na 
 tion, this prince would probably have enjoyed a happy 
 reign. The exalted idea, however, of regal authority 
 
136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 which he had imbibed, made him incapable of yielding to. 
 the determined spirit of liberty, which now began to pre- 
 vail amongst his subjects ; but, happily for the nation, he 
 was deficient in ability to maintain, what he, from educa- 
 tion, supposed to be his right. 
 
 At war with Spain and with the house of Austria; com- 
 menced in the late reign for the purpose of aiding his 
 brother-in-law, the Elector Palatine, against the encroach- 
 ments of the latter; and continued by the evil counsel of the 
 duke of Buckingham; his empty treasury, and precarious 
 revenue, promised an unsuccessful struggle. From a parlia- 
 ment, composed of all the talent, and all the patriotism of 
 the nation ; men, who carried their opinions of religious re- 
 formation, far beyond the moderate doctrines of the king 
 and who viewed with indignant jealousy the unmerited hon- 
 ours of the duke, the bosom friend and minister of Charles, 
 no supplies could be expected, without his yielding to their 
 demands. The house of commons were almost entirely led 
 by characters of the most uncommon capacity, and the 
 largest views; formed into a regular party, united by prin- 
 ciple, and by the injuries which many of them had sustain- 
 ed. Amongst these, were, sir Edward Sandys, sir Edward 
 Coke, sir Francis Seymour, sir Dudley Digges, sir John 
 Elliot, sir Thomas Wentworth, Mr. Selden, and Mr. Pym; 
 which distinguished patriots, animated with a warm regard 
 for liberty, boldly resolved not to grant any supplies, with 
 out receiving some favourable concessions. 
 
 The grievances complained of, were forced loans, taxes 
 without consent of parliament, arbitrary imprisonments, 
 the billeting of soldiers, and martial law. 
 
 There raged then in London a violent plague; which 
 constrained the king, after receiving, in return for some 
 small token of complaisance, about one-hundred-thousand 
 pounds, to remove the parliament to Oxford. Here, he 
 made an attempt to gain some further aid. But they re- 
 mained inexorable, and Charles finished the session by a 
 dissolution; openly expressing his displeasure. 
 
 As a substitute for parliamentary supply, he issued privy 
 seals, for borrowing money from his subjects; which creat- 
 ed considerable disgust: and, to increase tie public mur- 
 murs, an expedition, which he had despatched against the 
 Spaniards, proved unsuccessful and disastrous. 
 
 In the ensuing spring, a second parliament was sum- 
 moned. Four of the popular leaders of the commons — 
 Coke, Philips, Seymour, and Wentworth, had been ap- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 137 
 
 pointed, by the crown, sheriffs of counties, to prevent their 
 election as members. But, notwithstanding this measure, 
 and other improper stretches of prerogative, a sufficient 
 number of patriots was returned. The king went so far, 
 as to threaten the commons, that, if they did not furnish 
 him with supplies, he should be obliged to try new councils. 
 These threats served rather to rouse than to intimidate; 
 and the commons went boldly forward in the great work 
 of liberty. The king, with occasional retractions, as vio- 
 lently opposed: and, at length, irritated by the increasing 
 spirit of patriotic firmness, again closed the session by a 
 dissolution. 
 
 To uphold the authority of the crown, by the interfer- 
 ence of religion, sermons were preached and distributed, 
 in favour of the " new councils," and a general loan which 
 Charles began to exact throughout the kingdom. In these, 
 passive obedience, in its full extent, was recommended ■ 
 the whole civil power was declared to belong to the king 
 alone; and all constitutional limitations were rejected, as 
 impious and seditious. But many refused to lend their 
 money, and were immured in prison. Five gentlemen, 
 only — Darnel, Corbet, Earl, Heviningham, and John Hamb- 
 den, had sufficient spirit to defend the public liberties, and 
 to demand enlargement: not as a favour, but as a right. 
 This question was brought, by Hambden, to a solemn argu- 
 ment, in the Exchequer Chamber; but, as the judges were 
 then removable from office at the will of the king, and con- 
 sequently afraid of contravening his decree, only four of 
 their number had the honesty to support the laws; and the 
 decision was given against Hambden. 
 
 The duke of Buckingham, having daily become 
 more obnoxious to the public, had been impeached 
 in parliament; but without a final decision. Yet, as if he 
 still further courted the odium of the nation, he plunged 
 his country into a war with France. The monarch then 
 on the throne of that kingdom was Louis the thirteenth; 
 his minister, the celebrated cardinal Richelieu. It ap- 
 pears, that Buckingham, presuming on an easy and polite 
 reception given him by the French queen, had entertained 
 towards her, serious intentions of gallantry; and, that, 
 after his departure, having, upon some pretence, returned, 
 he paid her a visit; and was dismissed, with .a reproof 
 which savoured more of kindness than of anger. Informa- 
 tion of this was soon carried to the cardinal; whose vigi- 
 lance, it is said, was roused by a stronger motive than re* 
 
138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 spect for the honour of his mistress. When, therefore, the 
 duke was preparing for a new embassy to Paris, a message 
 was sent him, from Louis, intimating that he must not 
 think of such a journey. But, Buckingham, in a romantic 
 passion, swore, that he would see the queen, in spite of all 
 the power of France ; and, from that moment, determined 
 to have a war. Accordingly, under pretence of assisting the 
 Hugonots, a sect of protestants in France, he made an at 
 tempt, with a large fleet and an army of seven-thousand 
 men, upon the Isle of Rhe; but, instead of reaching Paris, 
 he had much difficulty in even returning to England; as he 
 was compelled to retreat, with the loss of two-thirds of his 
 forces; totally discredited, both as an admiral and a general 
 
 It may well be imagined, that the king and the duke 
 now dreaded, above all things the calling of a parliament; 
 but the urgent occasion for money drove them under the 
 necessity of embracing that expedient. When the com- 
 mons assembled, they displayed the same independent 
 spirit as their predecessors; yet, although many of the 
 members had been cast into prison, and had suffered by 
 the measures of the court, they entered upon business with 
 perfect temper and decorum. The king said to them in 
 his speech, " If you do not perform your duty, in contribut- 
 ing to the necessities of the state, I must, in discharge of 
 my conscience, use those other means, which God has put 
 into my hands; in order to save that, which the folly of 
 some men, may, otherwise, put in danger. Take not this 
 for threatening," added he, " for I scorn to threaten an)- 
 but my equals; but as an admonition, from him, who, by 
 nature and duty, has most care of your preservation and 
 prosperity." 
 
 The business having commenced, sir Francis Seymour 
 said : " This is the great council of the kingdom; and here, 
 with certainty, if not here, only, his majesty may see, as in 
 a true glass, the state of the kingdom. We are called 
 hither, by his writs, to give him faithful counsel; such as 
 may stand with his honour: and this we must do without 
 flattery. We are also sent hither by the people, to deliver 
 their just grievances: and this we must do without fear. 
 Let us not act as Cambyses' judges; who, when their ap- 
 probation was demanded by the prince, to some illegal 
 measure, said, that, though there was a written law, the 
 Persian kings must follow their own will and pleasure. 
 This was base flattery; fitter for reproof than imitation: 
 and as fear, so flattery, taketh away the judgment. For 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 139 
 
 my part, I will shun both; and speak my mind, with as 
 much duty as any man, to his majesty, without neglecting 
 the public." 
 
 Philips and Wentworth ably supported the eloquence of 
 Seymour; and their sentiments were unanimously em- 
 braced. 
 
 Though a supply of tw r o-hundred-and-eighty-thousand 
 pounds was voted, the house deferred passing it into a 
 law, until they had provided some barriers against the en- 
 croachments of the crown. A bill, entitled the Petition of 
 Rights, was then passed through the commons ; which re- 
 ceived the sanction of the lords, and, after much evasion 
 and duplicity, obtained the royal assent. 
 
 But, the manner in which the king assented to this bill, 
 served rather to heighten the animosity, than relax the 
 vigour, of the commons. To the compfeints against ton- 
 nage and poundage, (impositions said to be levied for the 
 navy,) loud outcries were joined against the Catholics, and 
 the Arminians ; so that political and theological disputes 
 went hand in hand. Information being given by the speaker, 
 that he had a command from the king to adjourn the house, 
 a short remonstrance was passed in the most tumultuary 
 manner; declaring, that those who levied tonnage and 
 poundage, and those who should voluntarily pay those du- 
 ties, were, alike, enemies of the commonwealth. 
 
 To prepare an expedition for a further attack on 
 France, the duke of Buckingham went to Ports- 
 mouth; where his career was ended by an assassin. He 
 was stabbed in the breast by one Felton ; who, having serv- 
 ed under him as a lieutenant, was disappointed in promo- 
 tion. Thus, do the unfortunate, by seeking for revenge, 
 throw an indelible stain upon their memories, plunge theii 
 families into misery, and violate the most awful command- 
 ment of their Creator. 
 
 Henceforward, Charles placed his principal friendship 
 and confidence in his queen; from whom, Buckingham 
 had, in some degree, alienated his affections. By her 
 general good sense and spirit, as well as by her beauty, 
 she justified the fondness of her husband ; though, being 
 rather of a passionate temper, she involved him in hasty 
 and imprudent measures. Her religion, likewise, to which 
 she was strongly attached, must be regarded as a great 
 misfortune; as it increased the jealousy of the nation 
 against the court. 
 
 Charles, being disgusted with parliaments, resolved, un- 
 
140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 til he should see the nation in a better humour, to do with- 
 out their assistance ; and, to lessen his expenditure, made 
 peace with France and Spain. 
 
 Various expedients were used to augment his revenue. 
 For a stipulated sum of money, individuals were allowed 
 the exclusive advantages arising from certain branches of 
 commerce and manufacture; and all persons having a 
 yearly income of twenty pounds, were compelled, under the 
 pretence of being qualified, in conformity with a long ex- 
 ploded custom, to attend the sovereign in war, either to 
 accept knighthood, or pay a heavy fine. 
 
 The people were still further irritated by the conduct of 
 Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; who studied to exalt the 
 ecclesiastical power, and depress the civil : to revive the 
 ancient ceremonies, and retard the progress of the puri- 
 tans. The latter went off in great numbers to New Eng- 
 land; and there sought for that civil and religious liberty, 
 which they were denied at home. But their enemies were 
 unwilling that they should any where be happy. Eight 
 ships, lying in the Thames, ready to sail, were detained 
 by the council ; in which, were embarked, Hazlerig, Crom- 
 well, and Hambden ; a measure of which the king had, af- 
 terwards, great reason to repent. 
 
 The situation of Scotland now demands our at- 
 tention. There, too, the misguided Charles was 
 involved in difficulties the most serious. With him, pre- 
 judice had usurped the seat of reason; and misfortune ex- 
 alted his lofty ideas of prerogative. The form of church 
 government established in Scotland, was the presbyterian : 
 could any thing, therefore, be imagined more absurd, or 
 more impolitic, than an attempt to force, upon his northern 
 subjects, the English liturgy, with the whole train of eccle- 
 siastical dignities ? Yet this was really attempted ! A day 
 had been appointed, by proclamation, for the first reading 
 of the new servTce in Edinburgh : and, accordingly, the 
 dean, arrayed in his surplice, began the service; the 
 bishop himself, and many of the privy counsellors, being 
 present. But, no sooner had the dean opened the book, 
 than a multitude of the meanest sort, most of them wo- 
 men, clapping their hands, cursing, and crying out, Ji 
 pope! a pope! antichrist! stone him ! raised so great a tu- 
 mult, that it was impossible to proceed with the service 
 The bishop, when mounting the pulpit in order to appease 
 the populace, had a stool thrown at him ; and, after the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 14 1 
 
 magistrates had expelled the rabble, stones were thrown 
 in through the doors and windows. These rude indications 
 displayed, however, the general sentiments of the nation : 
 an assembly soon after met at Glasgow; in which, the litur- 
 gy, and the whole fabric of episcopacy, were abolished, and 
 a Covenant entered into, renouncing the papal doctrines, 
 and binding the subscribers to resist all religious innova- 
 tions. But, being sensible of the opposition which would 
 be made, and that their religious tenets must be protected 
 by military force, they prepared themselves for a vigorous 
 defence. The earl of Argyle was their chief leader: the 
 carls of Rothes, Cassils, Montrose, Lothian; lords Lindsey, 
 Loudon, Yester, and Balmerino; distinguished themselves 
 on the same side; and the marquis of Huntley adhered to 
 the king. War soon commenced, and continued with great 
 disadvantage on the side of Charles. 
 
 Heavy debts having been contracted, and the 
 treasury exhausted, a parliament, after above eleven 
 years' intermission, was summoned, as the only resource. 
 But the commons paid no regard to the distresses of the 
 king. Grievances were again the order of the day; and, 
 again, the friends of the king were outnumbered by his 
 enemies; or, rather, the enemies of the nation were out- 
 numbered by its friends. No supply was voted; and a dis- 
 solution hastily ensued. 
 
 An army, undisciplined, disheartened, mutinous, and 
 badly paid, was very unfit to contend with the enthusiastic 
 soldiers of the North; and retain in subjection the zealous 
 and discontented inhabitants of England. Charles, in de- 
 spair of being able to stem the torrent, resolved, again, to 
 try the temper of the commons. In the month of Novem- 
 ber, the great council of the nation assembled; distinguish- 
 ed by the name of the long parliament; which immediately 
 entered upon business, and in its very first proceeding gave 
 an awful indication of what followed. 
 
 Sir Thomas Wentworth, who had so eminently distin- 
 guished himself in defence of liberty, had been, with many 
 other patriots, loaded with royal favours. These may be 
 regarded as the first attempts of the crown to lessen the 
 strength of opposition, by enlisting the ablest members on 
 its side; a measure equally degrading to the monarch and 
 the subject. Wentworth had been created earl of Strafford ; 
 appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland; latterly, he was made 
 commander of the forces against the Scotch; and, for many 
 years, was considered as chief counsellor of the king. But 
 N 
 
H2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in proportion as he gained the affection of the kinp, lie 
 loot the confidence of the people; and, by a concurrence 
 of accidents, laboured under the severe hatred of the Eng- 
 lish, the Irish, and the Scotch. Aware of the danger of 
 appearing amongst his enraged enemies, he would gladly 
 have been excused from attending the present parliament: 
 but the king promised him protection ; and assured him, 
 that " not a hair of his head should be touched." On his 
 arrival, the attack commenced. Pym enumerated the na- 
 tional grievances ; from the several oppressions, inferred, 
 that a plan had been formed for subverting the ancient 
 constitution of the kingdom, and mentioned Strafford as 
 the most distinguished betrayer of his country. He was 
 impeached for high treason and arrested. Westminster 
 Hall was the place appointed, for Jus trial; where both 
 houses sat: the commons as accusers, the lords as judges; 
 and a close gallery was prepared for the king and queen; 
 who attended during the whole of this important busi- 
 ness. Four months had been employed in framing the ac- 
 cusation ; yet, so great was the genius and presence of 
 mind displayed by this accomplished statesman, that he 
 gained over his accusers a decided victory. Finding that, 
 upon these charges, it would be impossible to convict him, 
 a bill of attainder was voted in parliament, and carried to 
 the king for his assent. The populace nocked about the 
 palace, and accompanied their demands for justice with 
 the loudest clamours, and the most open menaces; and 
 every thing threatened an imminent convulsion. Charles 
 abhorred the idea of dooming to destruction his friend, for 
 whose safety he was pledged. But the queen, in tears, 
 pressed him to gratify the people ; and Strafford, himself, 
 wrote a letter to the king, entreating him " to put an end to 
 his unfortunate, though innocent, life." Charles, in an evil 
 hour, consented to the bill ; and by this act, consigned to 
 the scaffold his firmest friend, and fixed upon his own 
 memory an indelible reproach. The authority of the crown 
 was now annihilated : the government became purely de- 
 mocratical ; and the king merely an instrument of form. 
 In the following autumn, Charles was employed 
 in Scotland; endeavouring, by concessions, to ap- 
 pease the general discontent. When preparing to return 
 he received intelligence of a formidable rebellion having 
 broken out in Ireland. On every side, he was pursued by 
 opposition and civil wars. The most effective portion of 
 the army having been withdrawn from the protection of the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 143 
 
 Irish government, the native race resolved to seize the fa- 
 vourable opportunity of driving out the new settlers in 
 Ulster : the flames of rebellion instantly spread over the 
 whole country ; so that, in a short time, Dublin, and a few- 
 other fortified towns, were all that remained in the hands 
 of the English. 
 
 In England, affairs rapidly approached a crisis. To the 
 general amazement, the king, in order to arrest some ob- 
 noxious members, entered the house of commons; having 
 left an armed retinue at the door. The speaker withdrew 
 from the chair ; of which, the king took possession. Hav- 
 ing made a short speech, he then demanded of that officer, 
 whether any of those persons were in the house; but he 
 gave him no satisfaction. The commons were thrown into 
 the utmost disorder. When the king was departing, some 
 members cried aloud, privilege! privilege! and the house 
 then adjourned until the next day. 
 
 Alarming cries resounded through the city: tumult suc- 
 ceeded ; and the king, dreading the result, retired to 
 Hampton Court; a royal palace, about fourteen miles from 
 London. The parliament immediately assumed the com- 
 mand of the army, and of all the principal fortresses and 
 towns; issuing their orders under " the authority of the 
 king, signified by both houses of parliament." Charles 
 then removed, still further, from the capital; taking with 
 him two of his sons, the prince of Wales, and the duke of 
 York; and sending his queen to Holland: whence, by 
 pawning the crown-jewels, and by the influence of her son- 
 in-law, the prince of Orange, she was enabled to return 
 with artillery and ammunition. 
 
 . With a degree of activity, neither expected by his 
 
 friends, nor apprehended by his enemies, (Jharles 
 prepared himself for defence, and roused up his adherents 
 to arms. Above forty peers, of the first rank, attended him 
 at York; and his court soon bore the appearance of dignity 
 and splendour. From that city, he advanced southwards 
 to Nottingham, and there erected his standard — the open 
 signal of discord and civil war. 
 
 From Nottingham, the king marched to Shrewsbury ; 
 where, on mustering his army, he found that it amounted to 
 ten-thousand men. The earl of Lindsey was appointed 
 general : prince Rupert, his nephew, son of the Palatine, 
 commanded the light cavalry; sir Arthur Aston, the dra- 
 goons : sir Jacob Astley, the foot : sir John Heydon, the 
 artillery: lord Bernard Stuart was at the head of a troop of 
 
144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 guards ; and, besides these officers, he had, in the course 
 of the war, the assistance of the earl of Montrose, the duke 
 of Hamilton, and many more persons of distinction. 
 
 The parliamentary army was commanded by lord Fair- 
 fax, sir William Waller, the earl of Essex, and earl of Man- 
 chester. The earls of Northumberland and Warwick, were 
 intrusted with the navy. But the men, on whom the events 
 of the war finally depended, were, sir Thomas Fairfax, son 
 of lord Fairfax, and Oliver Cromwell ; particularly the lat- 
 ter. This extraordinary man, already conspicuous in par- 
 liament, for his opposition to the Roman Catholics, was 
 born at Huntingdon, of a respectable family, who inherited 
 an independent landed estate. His mother, whose name 
 was Stuart, was related, it is supposed, to the family on 
 the throne. He had been sent, to college ; but his genius 
 was little suited to the elegant pursuits of learning. In his 
 person, he was ungraceful : in his dress, slovenly : in his 
 elocution, tedious and obscure. 
 
 The first military affair took place near Worcester; 
 where colonel Sandys, who commanded a body of cavalry 
 under Essex, was defeated by prince Rupert. To this, suc- 
 ceeded the well contested battle of Edgehill; in which, the 
 king himself bore a conspicuous part. He was there op- 
 posed by the earl of Essex; and both sides continued the 
 action with the utmost bravery, until night ended the fury 
 of the combat. 
 
 Afterwards, there occurred, the battles of Stratton, 
 Roundway-down, Chalgravefield, (where the great Hamb- 
 den was killed) Atherton-Moor, and Copredy-B ridge; in 
 which, the king was successful: those of Landsdown and 
 Newbury, undecided ; also, the battles of Wakefield, Gains- 
 borough, Horncastle, Selby, Cherington, Marston-Moor, 
 and a second battle at Newbury; those of Naseby, Torring- 
 ton, Sherburne in Yorkshire, Stowe, and Preston in Lan- 
 cashire; in favour of the parliament. At Naseby, the roy- 
 alists were so severely beaten, as to render their affairs 
 irretrievable. In that engagement, the main body of the 
 royal army was ably commanded by the king himself, sec- 
 onded by prince Rupert. Fairfax led on the forces of the 
 parliament; assisted by Skippon, Cromwell, and his son- 
 in-law, Ireton. 
 
 There were few places, throughout the entire kingdom, 
 which did not feel the effects of these dreadful commotions. 
 Bristol, Gloucester, and Hull; Nantwich, Newark, and 
 Lincoln, York, Newcastle, Lyme, and Weymouth; ex- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 145 
 
 perienced the hardships of a siege: also, Pomfret, Carlisle, 
 and Chester ; Taunton in Somersetshire ; Leicester, and 
 Bath; Sherborn, Winchester, and Dartmouth; Exeter, 
 Hereford, and Colchester. 
 
 Scarcely had the parliament acquired the ascendency, 
 when their meetings became scenes of faction and confu- 
 sion. A new party arose upon the ruins of the old. These 
 were called Independents; who aimed not only at the total 
 abolition of monarchy and aristocracy, but also of eccle- 
 siastical distinctions, and every other rank in society. Their 
 principal leaders were sir Harry Vane and Oliver Crom- 
 well. Essex, Northumberland, Warwick, and sir William 
 Waller, remained firm to the more rational opinions of the 
 presbyterians. The command of the army devolved upon 
 sir Thomas Fairfax, a moderate independent; and under 
 him, in appearance, upon Cromwell; by whom, the former 
 was, for a long time, entirely governed. 
 
 In the midst of this confusion, Archbishop Laud was 
 executed. 
 
 Nearly four years had elapsed since the king 
 erected his standard at Nottingham ; during which 
 lime, he had encountered every difficulty with the greatest 
 fortitude. When driven from the field, Oxford may be 
 considered as his principal retreat. Here, he had, for a 
 short time, a distinct parliament ; and made many fruitless 
 endeavours towards a reconciliation. Henceforth, from the 
 independents, he had nothing to expect but death. From 
 the Scotch army, his countrymen, he had, he thought, some 
 claim to protection. Accompanied only by two gentlemen, 
 he passed, therefore, to their camp, at Newark. But they 
 instantly placed a guard upon him, and soon afterwards 
 delivered him to the English parliament. 
 
 Most violent contentions had, for some time past, existed 
 between the parliament and the army. But the latter now 
 struck a blow which maybe deemed decisive. Charles had 
 been conveyed to Holdenby in Northamptonshire; at which 
 place, by the directions of Cromwell, cornet Joyce, at the 
 head of five-hundred horse, appeared ; and going up to the 
 king, told him, that he must immediately accompany him- 
 " Whither?" said the king. " To the army," replied Joyce. 
 " By what warrant?" demanded Charles. — Joyce pointed to 
 his soldiers—tall, handsome, and well accoutred. " Your 
 warrant," said Charles, smiling, " is written in fair charac- 
 ters — legible without spelling." He was then conveyed to 
 Triplo-Heath, near Cambridge. 
 N 2 
 
146 HISTORY OF EiS GLAND. 
 
 Cromwell now proceeded to London, in order to subject 
 the parliament. In this, he completely succeeded. The 
 government became, in reality, a military tribunal; parlia- 
 ment, an empty name; used rather to countenance the tur- 
 bulence of the army, than to curb its licentiousness, or ad- 
 minister justice to the people. Tedious negotiations en 
 sued. The king granted more than was desired by the 
 friends of the nation, and nearly all that was demanded by 
 his own enemies. But, though he agreed to surrender al- 
 most every exercise of regal office, and almost entirely to 
 suppress the established religion throughout the empire, 
 and even within the precincts of his own house, he could 
 not obtain a restoration; either because, from his equivo- 
 cal manner of negotiating, it was thought imprudent to 
 confide in him, or that it was not the wish of the ruling 
 faction, that an accommodation should be effected on any 
 terms. 
 
 In the house of commons, a vote was made, de- 
 ' claring it treason in a king to levy war against his 
 parliament; and appointing a High Court of Justice, to 
 try Charles for that offence. This measure was rejected 
 by the lords ; but the commons disregarded their dissent, 
 and unanimously passed an order for his trial. 
 
 The court sat in Westminster Hall ; and consisted of 
 one-hundred-and-thirty-three members, appointed by the 
 commons ; of which number, there never met above seven- 
 ty. Amongst these, were Cromwell, Ireton, and many 
 other officers of the army. Bradshaw, a lawyer, was pre- 
 sident : Coke, (not sir Edward,) was solicitor for the peo- 
 ple of England. Having examined some witnesses, who 
 proved that the king had appeared in arms against the 
 forces of the parliament, they pronounced a sentence of 
 death. Three days were allowed him, between his sentence 
 and execution : which interval, he passed with great tran- 
 quillity ; chiefly in reading and devotion. All his family 
 who then remained in England were allowed to see him. 
 These were, the princess Elizabeth, and a little child, the 
 duke of Gloucester: the rest having escaped. 
 
 The awful scaffold, upon which this unhappy monarch 
 was to expiate the errors of his government, was erected 
 in the street before White Hall. Here, having attributed 
 his misfortunes, and his death, to the unjust sentence which 
 he had allowed to take effect upon the earl of Strafford ; 
 and freely forgiven his enemies, even the chief instruments 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 147 
 
 of his death; at one blow, his head was severed from his 
 body. 
 
 Charles was executed in the forty-ninth year of his age. 
 and the twenty-four\h of his reign. His features were 
 regular and handsome ; though of rather a melancholy as- 
 pect : he was of a middle stature; strong and well pro- 
 portioned. He left six children: three males — Charles, 
 prince of Wales, James, duke of York, Henry, duke of 
 Gloucester : and three females — Mary, princess of Orange, 
 Elizabeth, and Henrietta. 
 
 The commons ordered a new Great Seal to be engraved; 
 with this legend : " On the first year of freedom, by God's 
 blessing restored, 1648." The king's statue in the exchange 
 was thrown down ; and, on the pedestal, was inscribed : 
 "Exit Tymnnus, Regum Ultimus." [The tyrant is gone; 
 the last of the kings.] 
 
 If we take an impartial review of this memorable period, 
 we shall find much to admire, and much the subject of re- 
 gret and condemnation. We must admire the sincere 
 patriotism of the lamented Hambden, we must regret the 
 early obstinacy of the king, and condemn the deep dis-. 
 simulation of the detested Cromwell. 
 
 Pym and the earl of Essex died before the total over- 
 throw of their party : the former, in the beginning of the 
 war ; the latter, about two years previous to the death of 
 Charles. 
 
 Gataker, and Usher, archbishop of Armagh, who flour- 
 ished at this period, were highly eminent, not only as di- 
 vines, but for their general acquirements in literature. St 
 Christopher's, Nevis, Antigua, and Maryland, were settled 
 in this reign. The latter colony was planted, under royal 
 authority, by lord Baltimore. 
 
 THE COMMONWEALTH. 
 
 1649 — 1660. 
 
 To give a clear delineation of the government, or the 
 religion, at this time existing in England, is a task to which 
 the pen of the historian is unequal. That the government, 
 shortly after the death of Charles, and the consequent ex- 
 tinction of the civil wars, assumed a degree of vigour, un- 
 known before in England, or, indeed, in any other country 
 of the world, the history of that period sufficiently evinces. 
 But, by what title f his ruling power should be denbml- 
 
148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 nated, is a question, to which we are unable to reply. It 
 was not a democracy; because, though the house of lords 
 was abolished, the semblance of a parliament, which yet 
 remained, was not the choice of the people. The members 
 were added, or expelled, at the caprice of its own majority ; 
 and, instead of a republic, the best calculated for the hap- 
 piness of a virtuous nation, England now beheld herself 
 under the absolute control of a despot ; a many-headed des- 
 pot : having exchanged the tyranny of one, for the more 
 odious tyranny of a number. 
 
 In matters of religion, almost every one had adopted a 
 system, which, not being derived from any scriptural au- 
 thority, was peculiar to himself — founded, rather on ima- 
 ginary inspiration, than on a clear principle of human 
 reason — promulgated by vulgar declamation, and a bold 
 hypocritical cant. 
 
 It was usual for the pretended saints of this time, to 
 change their names, from Henry, Edward, Anthony, or 
 William, which they regarded as heathenish, into others 
 more sanctified and godly: even the New Testament names, 
 such as James, Andrew, John, or Peter, were not held in 
 so much regard, as those borrowed from the Old Testa- 
 ment ; and sometimes a whole sentence was adopted as a 
 name.* 
 
 The presbyterians, by whose credit the arms of the par- 
 liament had first been supported, being overthrown by the 
 treachery of the zealots, would gladly again have embrac- 
 ed a well regulated monarchy, in place of the present 
 mockery of freedom. But the great influence of Crom- 
 well ; his dark, designing, and impetuous manner, aided 
 by a well disciplined army of fifty-thousand men devoted to 
 his will ; and his uncommon talents as a general ; main- 
 tained, throughout England, a profound tranquillity. 
 
 No new writs of election were issued, except to places 
 
 * The following are the names of a jury, said to have been on a 
 rial in the county of Suffolk- 
 
 Accepted Trevor, Return Spelman, 
 
 Redeemed Compton, Be faithful Joiner 
 
 Faint not Hewit, Fly debate Roberts, 
 
 Make peace Heaton, Fight the good fight of faith White, 
 
 God reward Smart, More fruit Fowler, 
 
 Standfast on high Stringer, Hope for Bending, 
 
 Earth Adams, Graceful Harding, 
 
 ("ailed Lower, Weep not Billing, 
 
 Kill sin Pimple Meek Brewer. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 149 
 
 where the commons hoped that their own friends would be 
 chosen ; and, though the Executive Council contained 
 many highly respectable characters, we may safely affirm, 
 that, as Cromwell himself was a member of that body, 
 every important measure must have required his previous 
 consent. 
 
 In Ireland, the ascendency had been contended for by no 
 fewer than three parties — the king, the parliament, and the 
 natives. Butler, marquis of Ormond, lord lieutenant at 
 the time of the king's overthrow, had surrendered, by di- 
 rection of Charles, all the garrisons in that country, to the 
 forces of the parliament, in preference to the council of Kil- 
 kenny, by whom the Irish were directed. But, the earls 
 of Clanricarde and Inchiquin, dreading the ruin of their 
 country, as well from its own commotions, as from the do- 
 minion of the parliament, succeeded in uniting, a jjpwerful 
 body of the Irish and the Royalists, and successfully at- 
 tacked the towns of Dundalk and Drogheda. 
 
 In this situation of affairs, Cromwell, having go- 
 himself appointed lieutenant of Ireland, proceeded 
 thither with a numerous and well appointed army. He 
 landed at Dublin; and thence, hastened to Drogheda; then 
 well fortified and garrisoned with three-thousand men, un- 
 der sir Arthur Aston. Cromwell was not fond of a long 
 protracted siege. Here, as in all other places, the busi- 
 ness was soon performed. Having effected a breach, he 
 ordered a general assault; himself and Ireton leading the 
 attack. The town was taken, sword-in-hand ; and one, only, 
 of all the garrison, escaped the barbarous slaughter. 
 
 Wexford, and its defenders, experienced a similar fate : 
 and, in a few months, he made himself master of the entire 
 kingdom. Even to this day, his name is still fresh amongst 
 the Irish. There is not a ruined castle, or delapidated 
 mansion, throughout the country, with which, the very chil- 
 dren are not taught to associate the name of Cromwell. 
 
 The whole authority in Scotland had fallen into the hands 
 of Argyle, and the rigid covenanters ; a party, who, though 
 warmly opposed to the royal interest, were still more strong- 
 ly averse to the independents. They therefore proclaimed 
 the prince of Wales, under the title of Charles the second: 
 but on condition of " his good behaviour, and strict ob- 
 servance of the covenant." 
 
 Charles, poor and neglected ; living sometimes in Hol- 
 land, sometimes in France, and occasionally in Jersey; was 
 glad to obtain a footing in the country, in any manner; ac- 
 
150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cepted the crown upon such terms as were prescribed ; 
 and, after his arrival in Scotland, joined in the most de- 
 grading declarations against the conduct of his father, and 
 the religion of his mother 1 
 
 Fairfax having resigned his commission, Cromwell was 
 declared, what he really was before, captain general of all 
 the forces in England ; and entered Scotland with an army 
 of sixteen-thousand men. The command of his northern 
 enemies was given to Leslie ; an officer cautious and ex- 
 perienced. But the Scottish clergy, deceived by a frenzied 
 imagination, forced their general to an untimely battle, at 
 Dunbar ; where Leslie was overthrown, with the loss of 
 nearly his whole army. 
 
 Now reduced to despair, Charles embraced a resolution 
 worthy of success. Accompanied by Hamilton and Leslie, 
 with fourteen-thousand troops, he entered England ; and 
 advanced as far as Worcester. Cromwell, leaving general 
 Monk to complete the subjef tion of Scotland, pursued the 
 enemy, and almost totally destroyed them. Charles took 
 refuge at Boscobel, a solitary house on the borders of Staf- 
 fordshire, inhibited by one Penderell, a farmer, and his 
 four brothers; to whom he discovered himself: and, though 
 death awaited the knowledge of their generosity, or re- 
 ward the betraying of their trust, those noble-minded peas- 
 ants were faithful to their guest. Here, Charles assumed 
 a rustic dress : and, for better concealment, mounted upon 
 an oak ; where he remained for twenty-four hours. When 
 hidden within the branches, he saw several soldiers pass 
 in search of him. This tree was afterwams named the 
 " Royal Oak •*' a rude painting of which, with the prince's 
 head seen amongst the leaves, is still used throughout the 
 British dominions, as an external appendage to an inn. 
 
 After many adventures, highly interesting and romantic, 
 he arrived safely at Fescamp, in Normandy. 
 
 All the settlements in America, except New England, 
 having adhered to the royal party, a few ships were des- 
 patched for their reduction ; and the Bermudas, Virginia, 
 Antigua, and Barbadoes, were obliged to surrender. 
 . . _ 9 By the universal pacification of the British do- 
 minions, the parliament had leisure to look abroad 
 for employment; and the Dutch were the first that felt the 
 weight of their successful arms. A feeling of hostility 
 had, for some time, mutually existed ; but, what eventually 
 produced a war, was the famous Act of Navigation. This 
 prohibited every state from carrying into England any com- 
 
HISTORY OF EiNGLAND. 151 
 
 modity which was not the growth or manufacture of the 
 country to which the vessels employed in its transporta- 
 tion respectively belonged. In the English navy, Blake, 
 one of the greatest admirals of his day; also Bourne, Penn, 
 Deane, Monk, and Ayscue; sustained the honour of the 
 British flag. On the side of the Dutch, were, the cele- 
 brated Tromp and De Ruytcr; with De Witte and Van 
 Galen. Though, however, the states defended themselves 
 with admirable bravery, they were unable to withstand the 
 valour of the English, aided by the superior size of their 
 ships of war. 
 
 The parliament, grown jealous of the land-forces, 
 had been, for some time, ardently working to de- 
 press the army, and exalt, by every means, the power and 
 character of the navy. But, Cromwell resolved to coun- 
 teract them. He entered the house, accompanied by a 
 strong guard, and loaded them with the vilest reproaches, 
 ; ' For shame," cried he; " get you gone: give place to hon- 
 ester men; to those who will more faithfully discharge 
 their trust. You are no longer a parliament: the Lord has 
 done with you." Then, having ordered his soldiers to clear 
 the house, he himself went out the last, and, putting the key 
 into his pocket, departed to his lodgings at Whitehall. 
 
 The whole power, civil and military, of three extensive 
 kingdoms, was now in the hands of Cromwell. In propor- 
 tion to the increase of his authority, the talents of this won- 
 derful man seemed always to expand; and, every day, he 
 displayed new abilities, which had lain concealed until the 
 very event which had called them into action. The name 
 of parliament, however, seemed a necessary cover to his 
 ambition; and, at that time, a necessary instrument of na- 
 tional subjection. He summoned, therefore, a legislature 
 of his own appointment ; the majority of which were the 
 very dregs of the fanatics. This body, from the mortified 
 appearance of its members, particularly of one of its cant- 
 ing hypocrites, received the name of Barebone's parlia- 
 ment. It was by them seriously proposed, to abolish the 
 Common Law, as a badge of the Norman Conquest : to 
 dispense with the clerical function, as being, in their opin- 
 ion, a remnant of popery: to eradicate learning, as heathen- 
 ish and unnecessary ; to burn the records in the Tower ; 
 to efface the memory of things past, and to begin the whole 
 system of life anew. 
 
 But, at length, even Cromwell himself growing ashamed 
 
152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 of his legislators, he sent to the house a party of soldiers; 
 who dispersed them. 
 
 Through the influence of general Lambert, Cromwell 
 was, by the voice of a few military officers, declared chief 
 magistrate ; under the title of protector, with the honoura- 
 ble addition of highness ; subject, in some matters, to the 
 control of a council of twenty-one. After this, a new par- 
 liament was summoned; chosen according to the ancient 
 constitution, but, ultimately, selected, agreeably to the 
 protector's will 
 
 England had never been so formidable as during 
 * Cromwell's usurpation. Having compelled the 
 Dutch to sue for peace, the Spaniards next felt the vigour 
 of her arms. In this war, Blake had an extensive field, in 
 which to display his valour and abilities; and every where 
 supported the national renown. Penn and Venables being 
 sent to the West Indies, annexed to the British empire the 
 island of Jamaica; one of the most valuable colonies thai 
 England ever possessed; if, indeed, the colonial system is 
 not rather injurious, than beneficial, to the parent country- 
 At length, the crown was tendered to the pro- 
 tector. Many, even of the royalists, through a de- 
 sire of settling the nation, joined, on this occasion, in the 
 address. But the military became alarmed; and Cromwell 
 was constrained to refuse what he would have willingly ac- 
 cepted. Great discontents soon prevailed throughout the 
 kingdom. Lord Fairfax and sir William Waller, united 
 with the royalists in a conspiracy : the army were infected 
 with the general feeling; and every thing indicated a sud- 
 den and tremendous eruption. The anxious mind of Crom- 
 well began to shake the firmness of his constitution: a 
 slow fever was produced; and, to that, succeeded a tertian 
 ague ; which carried him off in the fifty-ninth year of his 
 age, and the fifth of his protectorship. 
 
 His eldest son, Richard, was appointed to succeed him. 
 Henry, the brother of Richard, being governor of Ireland, 
 ensured him the obedience of that kingdom; and Monk 
 supported his authority in Scotland. 
 
 But the new protector was ill-suited to uphold the crazy 
 grandeur of his father. Peaceable, amiable, unambitious, 
 he was calculated to live happily in the social enjoyments 
 of his family, amidst the delightful satisfaction of a coun- 
 try retirement ; to which he had long been accustomed. 
 He was soon deposed ; and willingly resigned the sceptre 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 163 
 
 for the plough. Plaving, therefore, returned to his estate, 
 he lived to an extreme old age; contented and undisturbed. 
 Anarchy now held her dreadful reign. But, for- 
 tunately for the empire, Providence had prepared 
 a welcome agent for its relief. General Monk, with most 
 admirable address, appeared in London, with his army: a 
 free parliament was chosen ; and the temper of the new 
 members, wearied by commotions, clearly evinced their 
 wishes for the ancient constitution. 
 
 Every thing being arranged, the general directed An- 
 nesly, president of the council, to inform the commons, 
 that sir John Granville, had been sent over by Charles ; 
 and was then at the door, with a letter to the House. 
 Granville was called in : the letter was eagerly read ; with- 
 out a moment's delay, a committee was appointed to pre- 
 pare an answer; the lords hastened to reinstate themselves 
 in their accustomed authority ; and Charles, with great 
 solemnity, was proclaimed king. Thus, ended, after eleven 
 years' struggle, the Commonwealth of England. How dif- 
 ferent has been the fate of the American republic ; and yet 
 how similar were their patriots. But the latter owes the 
 stability of its admirable constitution, to the happy ar- 
 rangement of its territorial members, — sufficiently united, 
 to resist the severity of war : sufficiently detached, to de- 
 feat any rash experiments in peace. 
 
 The fixed annual revenue, at this period, was about two- 
 millions ; but, by forfeitures and other means, the national 
 income amounted to nearly two-millions-and-a-half. Inter- 
 est of money was now reduced to six per cent. 
 
 Tea, coffee, and chocolate, were lately introduced into 
 England ; also, asparagus, cauliflower, and a variety of 
 other garden vegetables. 
 
 From rather an inauspicious beginning, that orderly and 
 respectable religious society, called Quakers, had their rise, 
 during the commonwealth; of which sect, George Fox, of 
 Drayton in Lancashire, was the founder. 
 
 The poets of this age, were, Milton, Waller, Southern, 
 Cowley, and Denham. Milton, the great author of Para- 
 dise Lost, and the successful rival of the Grecian Homer, 
 was a zealous advocate of liberty. He. was employed by 
 Oliver Cromwell, as Latin secretary to the council. Ed 
 mund Waller, nephew of the patriot Hambden, is esteem- 
 ed the earliest refiner of English verse ; and it is to him we 
 are indebted for the present form of our heroic rhyme, in 
 couplets. The measure generally used in the clays of Eliza 
 O 
 
154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 beth, James, and Charles the first, was the stanza of eight 
 lines, such as Spenser employs, borrowed from the Italian j 
 a measure very constrained and artificial. He was also 
 much admired for the force and beauty of his parliamen- 
 tary eloquence. But, in the hour of danger, his timidity 
 allowed him to betray his party and his friends. Cowley, 
 though, in his life time, more praised than even Milton, is 
 now remarkable only for the display of a despicable taste; 
 which, indeed, then too generally prevailed. Denham, in 
 his Cooper's Hill, has given to English rhyme, a loftiness 
 and vigour, which it had never before attained. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 RESTORATION. 
 
 CHARLES THE SECOND. 
 
 1660—1685. 
 
 CHARLES the first had roused the indignation of the 
 people, by the stubbornness with which he contended for 
 unlimited prerogative. His successor deserved their ha 
 tred, for the exercise of qualities, more reproachable to his 
 character as an individual, and more injurious to the na- 
 tion; because more perfidious. The father offended through 
 regard to principle : the son, through the odious failing of 
 private gratification. Charles, by his degrading compli- 
 ance with the Scotch, had already given a specimen of his 
 meanness; and his conduct throughout his reign too well 
 accorded with that early departure from the true firmness 
 of a man. 
 
 Now, in his thirtieth year, he united to the graces of his 
 person, a lively wit and sound understanding; but, being 
 of a careless disposition, he conferred his favours indis- 
 criminately; without regard to the services of his friends, 
 or the injuries of his enemies Monk, however, was not 
 forgotten ; having been created duke of Albemarle ; an 
 honour, to which, from his previous conduct, he was emi- 
 nently entitled. Sir Edward Hyde, now earl of Clarendon, 
 was appointed chancellor and prime minister; and the 
 marquis of Ormond, advanced to the dignity of duke, was 
 made steward of the household. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 155 
 
 All judicial proceedings, transacted in the name of the 
 Commonwealth, being ratified by the new government, the 
 trials commenced of those who were active in the late 
 revolution. Charles, before his arrival, had agreed to con- 
 fine his prosecutions to those whom the parliament should 
 select; and, accordingly, Harrison, Scot, Carew, Jones, and 
 Scrope, who sat as judges on the late king, Coke, the soli- 
 citor, and a few others, were executed. Their sufferings 
 did not interrupt the festivities of the palace. Licentious 
 gayety and joy had banished every sentiment of decency or 
 humanity. Indeed, the manners of the court were soon 
 diffused throughout the kingdom; so that it is difficult to 
 judge, whether the covered vices of the former hypocrisy, 
 or the open violations of decorum which succeeded, were 
 the most injurious. 
 
 In Scotland, the marquis of Argyle was chosen as a vic- 
 tim; and, though no further criminal than many thousands 
 who, also, had participated in the civil wars, he was con- 
 demned to die. At his trial, Albemarle produced the pri- 
 vate letters of the marquis ; a treacherous proceeding, 
 which has excited the indignatiorrof every honourable mind. 
 
 The settlement of Ireland was a work of considerable 
 difficulty. Nearly all the valuable lands in that country, 
 had been given to those who lent money to the parliamert, 
 as a means of suppressing the rebellion; or to the soldiers, 
 in payment of arrears. But, to prevent confusion and 
 bloodshed, all parties seemed willing to make abatements 
 from their claims; and the new holders agreed to relinquish 
 a fourth of their possessions. 
 
 A new parliament was now assembled. The 
 majority consisted of high-churchmen and royalists. 
 Ancient establishments were restored, and efficient meas- 
 ures taken to prevent the smallest degree of toleration, to 
 all who refused conformance with the liturgy of the court. 
 Charles would willingly have dispensed with this severity ; 
 not because he cherished the generous principles of indul- 
 gence, but, that if he harboured within his breast any feel- 
 ings of religion, they inclined towards the Roman Catholic; 
 which, by the late regulation, was treated with as little re- 
 spect as the presbyterian, or the puritan. On this occasion, 
 upwards of two-thousand clergymen sacrificed their tem- 
 poral interest to the dictates of an approving conscience. 
 
 In the ensuing year, the king concluded a bargain, by 
 which he received, in marriage, Catherine of Portugal; 
 with a fortune of five-hundred-thousand pounds, and two 
 
156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 fortresses — Tangier and Bombay. The money produced 
 a seasonable relief to his private necessities ; and the for- 
 tresses, a certain expenditure to his affectionate subjects. 
 The festivity of the espousals was further enlivened by 
 the execution of three regicides; Berkstead, Cobbet, and 
 Okey: who had eluded the former vigilance of parliament. 
 Vane, who had been passed over, fell a sacrifice to the 
 opinions of the present parliament; and, contrary to a 
 positive law, suffered the punishment of death. 
 
 The close union with Holland, which, with small 
 ' interruption, had subsisted nearly seventy years, 
 was again broken, in subservience to the views of com- 
 merce. The Dutch, by industry and frugality, being ena- 
 bled to undersell the English merchants in every market, 
 the government now endeavoured to usurp this advantage, 
 by the unjust influence of naval superiority. The duke of 
 York (himself a member of a commercial company, an 
 enemy to the religion of the Dutch, and an amateur of ma- 
 rine enterprises) was an active stimulator of this iniquitous 
 attack. Sir Robert Holmes was secretly despatched to the 
 coast of Africa; where, he seized their shipping and their 
 settlements : thence, he steered for America, and took 
 possession of Nova Belgia, since called New Jersey and 
 New York. 
 
 The affairs of the Dutch were conducted by the virtuous 
 and celebrated John De Witt ; who lost not a moment in 
 retaliation. The British Channel became the scene of fre- 
 quent and well contested engagements; in which, neither 
 party could boast of much superiority. The English fleet 
 was principally commanded by the duke of York, prince 
 Rupert, the earl of Sandwich, Albemarle, Allen, Berkely, 
 and Sprague : the Dutch, by De Ruyter, young Tromp, 
 son of the famous Tromp, killed in the former war, aided 
 by many others of celebrity. The French king, Louis the 
 fourteenth, prepared a fleet, and declared in favour of the 
 States. In the Channel, an engagement ensued; in which 
 the English, after a contest of four days, gained over the 
 combined fleet a decided victory. 
 
 . A dreadful plague which occurred in London, 
 
 and, in one year, swept off a hundred-thousand in- 
 habitants, was now succeeded by another signal calamity. 
 A fire commenced in a baker's shop in that city, and con- 
 sumed four-hundred streets; comprising thirteen-thousand 
 houses. It has, however, proved beneficial. The old wood- 
 en buildings have been replaced by houses of brick or stone, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. i >< 
 
 more regularly arranged. But there remains one trace of 
 that visitation, which is much to be regretted. The Monu- 
 ment, then erected, bears an inscription, falsely imputing 
 the destruction to the Catholics.* 
 
 Charles, having received a grant from parliament, of 
 nearly two-millions, embraced the first opportunity of end- 
 ing hostilities. He had a prospect of small benefit from 
 the war, but an urgent occasion for the supply. A peace 
 was concluded at Breda; by which, all that England gain- 
 ed was Nova Belgia, in return for the blood of her citi- 
 zens and the honour of the crown. 
 
 As it was necessary that some minister should be sacri- 
 ficed, to appease the people and the parliament, the earl of 
 Clarendon was chosen for the victim. This eminent char- 
 acter laboured under the combined hatred of every party. 
 By impartiality, he had excited the enmity of the religious 
 sects; always jealous of each other: by opposing his licen- 
 tiousness, he had caused the displeasure of the king. He 
 was, accordingly, banished from the country, and retired 
 into France ; where he composed his much admired histo- 
 ry of the civil wars. 
 
 It was now Louis's turn to attack his defenceless 
 neighbours. As he had already overrun the Span- 
 ish Netherlands, and it was evident that the States were 
 the next object of his ambition, Charles deemed it expe- 
 dient to restrain his advances, and formed a defensive alli- 
 ance with the Dutch. To this, succeeded a change in the 
 administration. All the virtuous ministers were excluded ; 
 and the national affairs intrusted to five persons — Clifford, 
 Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale ; known 
 by the appellation of the Cabal; a title formed by the initial 
 letters of their names. Of these infamous ministers, lord 
 Ashley, afterwards created earl of Shaftesbury, and the duke 
 of Buckingham, were the most corrupt. Over this dis- 
 honourable cabal, the gold of Louis easily prevailed. Even 
 Charles himself became a willing participator in the bribes 
 of France. By means of the dutchess of Orleans, who was 
 Charles's sister, and the caresses of a handsome mistress, 
 which she brought him, he relinguished every principle of 
 honour ; and made an arrangement for the destruction of 
 
 * This imputation is repelled by Pope, in the following couplet : 
 
 "Where London's column, pointing to the slues, 
 Like a tall bully, lifts its head, and lies.'' 
 O 2 
 
158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 Holland, and the overthrow of the national religion of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The duke of York at this time openly declared 
 himself a Roman Catholic; which acknowledgment, 
 as he was heir apparent to the crown, gave considerable 
 alarm. — Sir William Temple, the virtuous ambassador to 
 the States of Holland, is, soon afterwards, recalled : every 
 insult is offered to the Dutch : a piratical attempt is made 
 to intercept their Smyrna fleet ; and, without anv ground 
 for hostilities, they are involved in war. Louis now pours 
 down his forces like a torrent, and enters their strong towns 
 in rapid succession. But the States, having appointed the 
 young prince of Orange to command their armies, he, as- 
 sisted by the Imperialists, drives the haughty Louis, with 
 precipitation, from all his conquests — A change in the Eng- 
 lish ministry soon followed. Shaftesbury was dismissed, 
 and sir Heneage Finch appointed chancellor, in his place. 
 To this, succeeded a separate peace with Holland ; and an 
 adjournment of the parliament. 
 
 When the legislature was again assembled, the commons 
 in appropriating the supplies, evinced an open distrust of 
 the king ; and displayed the utmost jealousy of the duke of 
 York, as well as of all who professed a similar religion. 
 This body was now divided into the court and the country 
 party. Into the former, some were enlisted by offices and 
 bribes; but many acted entirely from principle. To the 
 country party, several, likewise, were attached by private 
 views, or by faction ; but numbers had no other object than 
 the public good. 
 
 In the midst of those violent contentions, which again 
 threatened the nation with civil wars, the cry of a plot re- 
 sounded in the city ; and soon spread its baneful influence 
 throughout the kingdom. The detail, or even the mention 
 of an occurrence, at once so puerile and absurd, though 
 producing effects so sanguinary and disgraceful, we should 
 willingly omit; but, that the recital maybe, hereafter, use- 
 ful, in guarding against blind credulity and intolerance.— 
 1678 Whilst the king was walking in the Park, he was 
 accosted by one Kirby, a chemist : " Sir," said he, 
 "keep within your company : your enemies have a de- 
 sign upon your life : you may be shot in this very walk." 
 Being asked the reason of this strange address, Kirby re- 
 plied, that two men, called Grove and Pickering, had' en- 
 gaged to shoot him ; and that sir George Wakeman, the 
 queen's physician, had undertaken to poison him. An in- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 159 
 
 quiry was instituted. This brought forward many atro- 
 cious ruffians ; amongst whom, none were so highly infa- 
 mous as Titus Oates and William Bedloe ; men who had 
 been guilty of almost every crime in the catalogue of hu- 
 man vices. Oates said, that he had been employed by the 
 Jesuits: that he had received three blows with a stick and 
 a box on the ear, from the provincial of that order, for hav- 
 ing revealed their conspiracy; and, dreading a still severer 
 punishment, had concealed himself, and nearly perished for 
 want of bread : that the pope had declared himself entitled 
 to the possession of England and Ireland, on account of the 
 heresy of prince and people ; that new crown officers and 
 churchmen were appointed ; and immense preparations 
 made for invasion: that four assassins, at twenty guineas a 
 piece, were employed to stab the king; and that Coleman, 
 secretary to the late dutchess of York, had given the mes- 
 senger who carried them the orders, a guinea, to quicken 
 his diligence. 
 
 After this, the city prepared for defence, as if an enemy 
 were at the gates; which induced sir Thomas Player, the 
 chamberlain, to exclaim, that were it not for such precau- 
 tions, all the citizens might rise next morning with their throats 
 cut. 
 
 Sir George Wakeman and Coleman, with many others, 
 were brought to trial. The former was acquitted ; but 
 Coleman, and several more, were found guilty and exe- 
 cuted. Two years afterwards, the venerable lord Stafford, 
 a catholic nobleman, who had been confined as a participa- 
 tor in this pretended conspiracy, was impeached by the 
 house of lords ; by whom, after a trial of six days, he was 
 pronounced guilty. In all these cases, the witnesses were 
 the most profligate of the human race: their testimony 
 was contradicted, not only by themselves, but by the clear- 
 est evidence on the part of the accused; and, still further- 
 by the solemn declarations of the unfortunate sufferers, at 
 the place of execution. 
 
 Charles now found it expedient to dissolve the parlia- 
 ment. It had existed, without any general election of the 
 commons, since the second year of his reign ; a period of 
 seventeen years; guided, rather by the impulse of party 
 violence, than the dispassionate influence of patriotic integ- 
 rity. But, in the following year, he was constrained to 
 order a new election. Besides, that he might, in some 
 measure, appease the national ferment, he desired his 
 brother to withdraw to the Continent; with which request. 
 
J 60 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the duke readily complied. But Charles found the present 
 parliament, particularly the lower house, more refractory 
 than even the former. In concert, therefore, with sir 
 William Temple, a new council was formed ; into which, 
 were admitted, many of those statesmen who enjoyed the 
 confidence of the people; and the king declared, that with- 
 out their advice, he would not transact any business of 
 importance. The earls of Essex and Sunderland, viscount 
 Halifax, and Temple, formed the cabinet; and, contrary 
 to the remonstrance of the latter, Shaftesbury, who, after 
 the dissolution of the Cabal, had espoused, with violence, 
 the popular side, was made president of the privy council. 
 In the house of commons, a bill was passed, by a large 
 majority, for totally excluding the duke from the crown ; 
 but it did not become a law. Soon afterwards, the two 
 houses, having a most violent altercation as to their re- 
 spective privileges, the king, without advising with his 
 council, dissolved the parliament. 
 
 7 By the tyrannical conduct of Lauderdale and the 
 
 duke of York, the people in Scotland were at length 
 driven to open rebellion. Though prelacy had been abol- 
 ished, and the presbyterian form of worship established 
 there, soon after the reformation ; yet, an exact compli- 
 ance with the episcopal form of worship was now enforced 
 with so rigorous and severe penalties, that the people 
 rose in arms, and put to death the archbishop of St. An- 
 drews. English soldiers were dispersed over the country, 
 and power was given to all commissioned officers to com- 
 pel every one they met to take a prescribed oath ; and in- 
 stantly to shoot any person that refused. Three women, 
 who declared they would not take it, were condemned to a 
 capital punishment, by drowning. One of these was an 
 elderly woman, the other two were young: one of the lat- 
 ter was eighteen years of age; the other, only thirteen. 
 Even these violent persecutors were ashamed to put the 
 youngest to death : but the other two were tied to stakes, 
 within the sea-mark, at low water; a contrivance, which 
 rendered their death lingering and dreadful. The elderly 
 woman was placed the farthest in, and, by the rising of the 
 waters, was first drowned. The younger, partly terrified 
 by the view of her companion's death, partly overcome by 
 the entreaties of her friends, was prevailed on to say God 
 save the king. Immediately, she was loosened from the 
 stake : but, the officer who guarded the execution, having 
 again required her to take the oath, on her refusal, he or- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 161 
 
 dered her instantly to be plunged into the water ; where 
 she was held until every sign of life was extinct. 
 
 To quell the insurrection in Scotland, the king despatch- 
 ed a body of troops, under the duke of Monmouth. This 
 popular nobleman, a member of the established church, 
 who makes a conspicuous figure in the history of that age, 
 tfas a natural son of the king, and by the intrigues of tne 
 earl of Shaftesbury, was inspired with the hope of succeed- 
 ing to the crown. Monmouth encountered the Scottish 
 malcontents at Bothwel-Bridge, between Hamilton and 
 Glasgow; and soon put them to flight. — Shortly afterwards, 
 the king, being dangerously ill, was visited by the duke of 
 York; at whose suggestions, Monmouth was sent out of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 At this time, there was summoned another par- 
 ' liament; which, for the greater security of the king 
 and his adherents, against the violence of the people, was 
 ordered to meet at Oxford. The country party had lately 
 received the name of Whigs ; the court faction that of 
 Tories ; and mutual animosity rose to so alarming a height, 
 that the king thought it expedient again to dissolve them. 
 
 There is the same difference between the whigs and the 
 tories, as subsisted between the plebeians and the patrici- 
 ans of ancient Rome. The latter would have conferred all 
 power, honours, and riches, upon a few individuals, whilst 
 the great body of the people were kept in a state of pover- 
 ty and dependence: the former wished to preserve as much 
 equality amongst the different ranks of men, as is consist- 
 ent with the ends of civil government. 
 
 During the latter part of his reign, Charles continued to 
 rule without parliaments, and proceeded to invade, with- 
 out fear or remorse, the most valuable privileges of his 
 subjects. He deprived the city of London, and most of 
 the corporations in England, of their charters ; and, though 
 they were afterwards restored, yet, it was on conditions &o 
 precarious, that the rights of the people were left entirely 
 at the king's mercy. 
 
 There was now formed a regular project of in- 
 surrection. A council of six was erected ; consist- 
 ing of Monmouth, Russel, Essex, Algernon Sydney, lord 
 Howard, and John Hambden, grandson of the great par- 
 liamentary leader. These men differed extremely in their 
 views. Essex and Sydney were advocates for a common- 
 wealth : Russel and Hambden aimed only at the exclusion 
 of the duke of York: lord Howard was a man of no princi- 
 
162 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 pie; and Monmouth intended <o acquire the crown for 
 himself. Notwithstanding this discordance, their common 
 hatred of the duke of York united them into one party. 
 There was also an inferior order of conspirators, whose 
 meetings were called the Rye House Plot; which, in addi- 
 tion to the insurrection, carried on other schemes, unknown 
 to the former. Through the treachery of some of these 
 subordinates, intelligence was given to government. Mon- 
 mouth absconded: Russel, Essex, Sydney, Hambden, and 
 Howard, were arrested. Russel and Sydney, both eminent 
 for their virtues, suffered death, from the infidelity of How- 
 ard, and the violence and inhumanity of chief justice Jef- 
 feries; who prevailed on a partial jury to give a verdict 
 contrary to the evidence. Hambden was fined forty-thou- 
 sand pounds : Essex was found dead in prison ; having, ac- 
 cording to the inquest, committed suicide. 
 
 It was supposed by some, that the king had at 
 length determined to dismiss his obnoxious minis- 
 ters, and throw himself on the affection of his subjects. 
 But, amidst these virtuous designs, (which, it is probable, 
 he never did entertain,) he was seized with an apoplexy ; 
 that,"in a few days, carried him off, in the fifty-fifth year of 
 his age, and the twenty-fifth of his reign. 
 
 On his death-bed, he received the sacrament from a Ro 
 man Catholic clergyman. 
 
 In 1671, an officer who had served in Cromwell's army, 
 named Blood, had nearly succeeded in carrying off the 
 crown and other regalia, from the Tower. He had wound- 
 ed and bound Edwards, the keeper of the jewel-office, and 
 had escaped from that fortress with his prey, when he was 
 overtaken and seized. This man had, a little before, beer 
 concerned in an attempt much more criminal, and nearly 
 as hazardous. Having been attainted in Ireland for en- 
 deavouring to raise an insurrection there, and some of his 
 accomplices having been capitally punished, he determined 
 to be revenged upon the duke of Ormond, the lord lieuten 
 ant. Having, by artifice, drawn off the duke's footman, he 
 attacked his coach, as it drove in the night-time, through 
 St. James' Street in London; and made himself master of 
 his person. He might here have finished nis crime, had 
 ho not meditated refinement in his revenge. He resolved 
 to hang the duke at Tyburn, the place for executing the 
 vilest criminals ; and, foi. that purpose, he bound him, and 
 mounted him on horse-back, behind one of his companions. 
 They were advanced some distance into the fields, when the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. lo3 
 
 duke succeeded m throwing himself to the ground, and 
 brought down with him the assassin to whom he was fast- 
 ened. They were struggling together in the mire, when 
 the duke's servants, whom the alarm had now reached, 
 came up, and saved him ; and Blood, with his companions, 
 firing their pistols in a hurry at the duke, rode off, and 
 saved themselves by means of the darkness. 
 
 Blood having been soon afterwards imprisoned, the king 
 was moved, by an idle curiosity, to see and speak with a 
 person so noted for his courage and his crimes. Blood 
 might now esteem himself secure of a pardon. Charles 
 bestowed upon him an estate of four-hundred pounds a 
 year ; encouraged his attendance about his person ; and, 
 whilst old Edwards, who had bravely ventured his life in 
 defending the regalia, was neglected and forgotten, this 
 man, who deserved to be detested as a monster, became a 
 kind of favourite. 
 
 On the restoration, the king consented to turn all the 
 military tenures, established at the Conquest, (with only one 
 exception) into what is called socage, or payment of a com- 
 mon rent, in consideration of a settled revenue ; and thus, 
 the feudal system was abolished, though many of the rules 
 of English law, founded'on its principles, still retain their 
 force. Many other salutary changes were extorted from 
 this tyrannical sovereign. Besides having their lands de- 
 livered from the slavery of military tenures, his subjects 
 had their bodies freed from arbitrary imprisonment, by the 
 Haheas Corpus act; and their minds from the tyranny of 
 superstitious bigotry, by the abolition of the law for burning 
 heretics ; the last badge of persecution in the English law. 
 
 It is said, that Andrew Marvell, a member for Hull in 
 this reign, was the last person in England that received 
 wages from his constituents. Two shillings a day, the al- 
 lowance to a burgess, was so considerable a sum in ancient 
 times, that there are many instances in which the boroughs 
 petitioned to be excused from sending members to parlia- 
 ment ; and, it is remarkable, that from about the middle of 
 Edward the third's reign, to the end of Henry the fourth's, 
 the sheriff of Lancashire returned as an excuse, " that 
 there are not any cities or boroughs within the county of 
 Lancaster, out of which any citizens or burgesses ought or 
 are used to go to the said parliament ; nor can they, by 
 reason of their inability and poverty."* 
 
 * "Non sunt oiiqui civitates seu burgi infra comitatem Laucaslriae, 
 
lo4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Immediately after the Restoration, Wilkins, bishop of 
 Chester, brother-in-law of Cromwell, with a few other men 
 of philosophical taste, established the Royal Society of 
 London. But, to this institution, Charles contributed 
 only his countenance ; for, though he was a great admirer 
 of the sciences, his courtiers and his mistresses kept him 
 so extremely poor, that he was unable to give pecuniary 
 assistance. In this reign, was enacted, the first law for 
 establishing turnpikes : sea-signals were invented by the 
 duke of York* and a charter was granted to the Hudson's 
 Bay Company. 
 
 The poets, who properly fall under our present division, 
 are, Butler, and Cotton; Dryden, Otway, and Roscommon. 
 Samuel Butler was author of the celebrated satirical poem 
 of Hudibras ; the action of which is laid in the time of 
 Cromwell. The hero is a fanatical justice of the peace; 
 who, through the confidence of authority, and the impulse 
 of zealous ignorance, ranges the country, to repress super- 
 stition, correct abuses, and prevent the exercise of inno- 
 cent amusement. Cotton wrote an amusing travestie of 
 the TEneid.— Scarcely any man has employed his pen so 
 variously as Dryden: he was a critic, and a dramatist; a 
 modernizer of obsolete literature, and a translator. As a 
 poet, he was either serious, satirical, or encomiastic ; equal- 
 ly ready to praise the dark hypocrisy of Cromwell, or the 
 open licentiousness of Charles. His most esteemed work 
 is his translation of Virgil. — Otway, whose principal talent 
 lay in moving the passions, has afforded the admirers of 
 the tragic drama a rich feast, in his Orphan, and in his 
 Venice Preserved. — Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscom- 
 mon, has left some fine translations from the Latin; amongst 
 which, Horace's Art of Poetry is thought to be the best. 
 Dennis is celebrated as a critic; Wycherley, as a contribu- 
 tor to the comic drama; and Bunyan, for his Pilgrim's Pro- 
 gress. The Oriental languages were indefatigably studied 
 by Dr. Thomas Hyde. Antiquities employed the indus- 
 trious Ware, Skinner, and sir William Dugdale. Mathe- 
 matics were attended with increasing ardour James Greg- 
 ory and Hobbes, Wallis, and John Flamsteed, rivalled the - 
 most illustrious philosophers of the European continent. 
 Gregory was the inventor of the reflecting telescope; and 
 
 tie quibus aliqui cives vel burgenses addictum parliamentuni venire 
 debent seu solent; nee possunt, propter eorum debilitatem et pauper- 
 (atem " 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 165 
 
 Flamsteed, for his extensive discoveries, was appointed 
 astronomer at Greenwich: the observatory having been 
 raised under his directions. 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale, chief justice of the king's bench, was 
 a highly respected character, and wrote on a variety of 
 subjects. Of his several works, the " Pleas of the Crown," 
 and the " Original Institution, Power, and Jurisdiction of 
 Parliaments," are the most deserving of attention. In his 
 time, the judges were not so attentive as at the present day, 
 in preserving a clear conscience; but this great lawyer 
 formed an amiable contrast to the votaries of corruption. 
 In one of his circuits, a gentleman, who had a trial at the 
 assizes, sent him a buck for his table. When sir Matthew 
 heard his name called, he asked, if he was not the same 
 person who had sent him the venison ; and finding that he 
 was, he told him, that he could not suffer the trial to go on 
 until he paid him for his buck. It was accordingly paid 
 for ; and the gentleman withdrew his record. 
 
 In consideration of admiral Penn's services, the king, in 
 the year 1681, granted to that officer's son, William, the 
 power of colonizing the great tract of country, called, after 
 the admiral, Pennsylvania. 
 
 A remarkable instance of longevity had been shown in 
 the reign of Charles I ; when, Thomas Parr, a labouring 
 man of Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns, completed 
 one-hundred-and-sixty years ; and James Bowels of K 1- 
 lingsworth, died in the time of the Commonwealth, at the 
 great age of a hundred-and-fifty-two. But a still more un- 
 common length of years was attained by Henry Jenkins, 
 of Yorkshire, who died in 1670; having completed one- 
 hundred-and-sixty-nine. 
 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 JAMES THE SECOND. 
 
 1685—1689 
 
 The late king, not having had any legitimate children, 
 was succeeded by his only brother, James, duke of York 
 Unfortunately for himself, and for the empire, he professed 
 a religion different from that of the established church ; 
 the members of which, in England, together with the pres- 
 byterians, outnumbered the Roman Catholics in the pro- 
 portion of one-hundred to oue. 
 P 
 
166 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 No declarations could appear more fair, than those which 
 the king: made on assembling the council. " It has been 
 reported," he said, " that I have imbibed tyrannical princi 
 pies: but I am determined never to violate the laws of Eng- 
 land. They are sufficient to make me as great a monarch 
 as I can wish; and I shall, as heretofore, venture my life, in 
 defence of the nation, and its just liberties and rights." 
 
 Amongst the numerous addresses, which James received 
 from his subjects, the congratulation of the Quakers is a 
 tittle singular. " We are come," said they," to testify our 
 sorrow for the death of our good friend, Charles, and our 
 joy for thy being made our governor. We are told, that 
 thou art not of the persuasion of the church of England, 
 no more than we. Wherefore, we hope thou wilt grant us 
 the same liberty which thou allowest thyself: which doing, 
 we w?sh thee all manner of happiness." 
 
 Soon, however, the public suspicion was realized. He 
 Issued orders lor illegally collecting duties ; despatched to 
 Rome an agent, to make submissions to the pope; and re- 
 ceived from him a nuncio, though, by so doing, he infringed 
 an established law. He recalled the duke of Ormond from 
 the government of Ireland ; and, in his place, appointed 
 Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel ; who carried over with him, as 
 chancellor, one Fitton ; a man who was taken from a jail; 
 who had been convicted of forgery and other crimes; and 
 who, as well as Tyrconnel, was chosen merely on account of 
 his great zeal for the religion of his master. The officers 
 and soldiers, in that kingdom, who professed the reformed 
 religion, were disbanded; stripped of their clothing, and 
 turned out upon the public. In every department, through- 
 out the empire, men were appointed to official duties with- 
 out having taken the legal test. Corporations were de- 
 prived of^their charters, parliamentary elections, in many 
 places, were made by the sole authority of the king; and 
 the parliament itself was threatened with the royal pre- 
 rogative, in case of opposition to his wishes. 
 
 The satisfaction which James enjoyed by these oppres- 
 sions, Wets suddenly interrupted. The duke of Monmouth, 
 Having procured a few ships in Holland, arrived at Lime, 
 m Dorsetshire; and, alleging that his mother had been 
 married to Charles the second, openly declared himself 
 the legitimate heir of the English throne. Though, on 
 landing, he had scarcely one-hundred followers; yet, so 
 great was his popularity, that, in a few days upwards of 
 six-thousand men crowded to his standard. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 167 
 
 To check his progress, three-thousand well disciplined 
 troops, under the command of the earl of Feversham arid 
 lord Churchill, (afterwards duke of Marlborough) were sent 
 forward by the king. At Sedgemoor, near Bridgewater, a 
 battle ensued. Great bravery was displayed by the coun- 
 try forces ; but, through the bad generalship of Monmouth, 
 and the cowardice of lord Gray, who commanded the cav- 
 alry, they were defeated. Monmouth fled from the field 
 of battle, until his horse sunk, exhausted by fatigue. He 
 then changed clothes with a peasant; and, at last, was found, 
 covered over with fern, in the bottom of a ditch — his body 
 emaciated by hunger ; his mind depressed by the recollec- 
 tion of the past, and the prospect of the future. Soon. 
 however, this unhappy nobleman ended his career upon the 
 scaffold. He warned the executioner not to fall into the 
 error which he had committed in beheading lord Russel : 
 when it had been necessary to repeat the blow. But, this 
 precaution served only to dismay him. He made a feeble 
 stroke at Monmouth, who raised his head from the block, 
 and looked him in the face, as if reproaching him with his 
 failure. He gently laid down his head a second time ; and 
 the executioner struck him again and again, without effect. 
 He then threw aside the axe, and cried out that he was in- 
 capable of finishing the bloody office. But the sheriff com- 
 pelled him to renew the attempt; and, at two strokes more, 
 his head was severed from his body. 
 
 Had Monmouth's design succeeded, the miseries of tht- 
 nation would have been increased ; not alleviated. Expe- 
 rience has shown, that it is a bad remedy to exchange tv 
 ranny for usurpation. 
 
 The attempts of the marquis of Argyle, who, in concert 
 with Monmouth, had landed in Scotland, were equally un- 
 successful. That nobleman, who, after being condemned 
 in the preceding reign, had escaped into Holland, was now- 
 taken prisoner, and executed. 
 
 The edict of Nantz, which Henry the fourth had enacted 
 in favour of the protestants, was, by the impolicy of Louis, 
 revoked ; and, in consequence, above half a million, of his 
 most industrious subjects, deserted France; nearly fifty- 
 thousand of whom arrived in England. This measure ot 
 the French king, whilst it established, in Great Britain, 
 many of his most valuable manufactures, especially silk. 
 served to increase the general apprehensions for the national 
 religion. Another event, too, occurred, which pro- 
 duced a considerable sensation. This was, the birth 
 
.68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 uf a royal heir ; who received the usual title of prince of 
 Wales. 
 
 National grievances were now at their greatest height. 
 The appellation of whig or tory was no longer heard. All 
 lovers of their country joined to throw off the oppressive 
 burthen, and applied to the prince of Orange for assistance. 
 The bishop of London, the earls of Danby, Nottingham, 
 Devonshire, and Dorset ; the duke of Norfolk, the marquis 
 of Halifax, the lords Lovelace, Delamare, Paulet, and 
 Eland; Messrs. Hambden, Powle, and Lester; besides 
 many eminent citizens of London — all these persons, 
 though of opposite parties, concurred in the application. 
 
 William, prince of Orange, was a maternal grandson of 
 Charles the first, and a maternal nephew and son-in-law of 
 James; having been married, in the late reign, to the prin- 
 cess Mary. 
 
 With the utmost secrecy and expedition, the prince pre- 
 pared a fleet of five-hundred vessels, and an army of four 
 teen-thousand men ; with which, he sailed from Helvoet- 
 Sluys, and arrived safely in Torbay. All England was soon 
 in commotion. In a few days, the greater part of the Eng- 
 lish army had gone over to him. James, agitated and alarm- 
 ed, determined to escape to France; and sent off, before 
 him, the queen and the infant prince. He himself, accom- 
 panied only by sir Edward Hales, disappeared in the night ; 
 and, having thrown the great seal of England into the 
 Thames, endeavoured to reach a ship which waited for him 
 near the mouth of the river. But, being seized by the 
 populace at Feversham, he was taken back to London. 
 
 All now was anarchy and suspense. The Dutch guards 
 took possession of the palace; and the king, deserted by 
 his friends, and despised by his enemies, was suffered qui- 
 etly to withdraw. He embarked at Rochester ; and thence 
 proceeded to Ambleteuse, in France. — Thus, was the de- 
 liverance of England effected ; and with very little effu- 
 sion of blood : as only a few soldiers were killed, in an 
 accidental skirmish. 
 
 . For the purpose of settling the government, a 
 
 convention was assembled. It consisted of all the 
 members who had sat in the house of commons, during 
 any of the parliaments of Charles the second ; as those 
 of James were illegal : also, the mayor, aldermen, and 
 fifty of the common council of London. They made the 
 following declaration ; which received the concurrence of 
 the peers: "That, king James the second, having endeav 
 
HISTORY GP ENGLAND. 169 
 
 oured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by break- 
 ing the original contract between king and people ; and 
 having, by the advice of wicked counsellors, violated the 
 fundamental laws, and withdrawn himself out of the king- 
 dom, has abdicated the government; and that the throne 
 is thereby vacant." 
 
 A bill was then passed, which excluded Roman Catho- 
 lics from the regal office, and settled the crown on the 
 prince and princess of Orange and her issue ; the sole ad- 
 ministration to remain in the prince ; after their death, on 
 the princess Anne, second daughter of king James, and 
 wife of prince George of Denmark, and her issue; and 
 lastly, on the heirs of the prince himself. 
 
 To this settlement, was annexed a Declaration of Rights; 
 in which, all those matters, between the king and the 
 people, so often the subjects of dispute, were finally deter- 
 mined ; and, thus, the royal prerogative was more nar- 
 rowly circumscribed than at any former period of the 
 English government. i 
 
 James was twice married : first, to Anne Hyde, daugh- 
 ter of the earl of Clarendon; and afterwards to Maria 
 Josepha, sister of the duke of Modena. By his first queen, 
 who was of the protestant faith, he had eight children; 
 two only of whom were at this time living — Mary, married 
 to the prince of Orange, and Anne, the consort of prince 
 George of Denmark. By his second, who was a Roman 
 Catholic, he had five children ; of whom, there was now 
 alive one son, James, prince of Wales. 
 
 The national debt, at the revolution, amounted to about 
 a million sterling: the fleet consisted of one-hundred-and- 
 seventy vessels, and required forty-two-thousand men. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 WILLIAM AND MARY. 
 
 1689—1702. 
 
 THE principal ministers, at this time, were, the earls of 
 Nottingham and Shrewsbury, the marquis of Halifax, anri 
 Bentinck, created earl of Portland ; who was the greatest 
 Favourite of the king. In religious affairs, William was a 
 man of considerable moderation; and, beinp* a presbyterian 
 V 2 
 
170 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 naturally used his influence with parliament, to obtain, for 
 all sects of dissenters from the established church, some 
 degree of toleration; in which, he was successful. That he 
 would have extended to the Roman Catholics the same 
 protection, we have just reason to believe ; but the fer- 
 ment then existing in England, would have rendered abor- 
 tive every exertion in their favour. 
 
 In Scotland, the duke of Hamilton, and all the presby- 
 terians, declared for William : the duke of Gordon, and 
 his friends, held out in favour of James. At length, a 
 smart engagement ensued, at the pass of Killycrankie, 
 in Perthshire; where, the Highlanders, headed by lord 
 Dundee, defeated the English under general Mackay. In 
 this battle, twelve-hundred of the latter were killed: but 
 Dundee having fallen, the affairs of his party, thence- 
 forward, went to ruin ; and, in a short time, all the clans 
 submitted to the English. 
 
 Ireland, the population of which was then, as it is now 3 
 mostly Roman Catholic, maintained allegiance to the exiled 
 monarch; affording him a flattering prospect of success. 
 Having therefore received from the king of France every 
 assistance that such an expedition required, James, ac- 
 companied by a splendid retinue, sailed from Brest ; and 
 arrived, on the 22nd of March, at Kinsale. In a few days 
 afterwards, he made a public entry into Dublin. Then, 
 having summoned a parliament to meet in the ensuing 
 May, he departed for the north, and took his post before 
 the walls of Derry. 
 
 This city, being an English settlement, resolved to de- 
 fend itself to the last, against king James; and maintained 
 one of the most obstinate sieges that history records. De- 
 serted by the commander, who saw no probability of suc- 
 cess, the townsmen chose for their governors, George 
 Walker, rector of Donaghmore, and major Baker. Their 
 situation was deplorable. Their fortifications were only 
 trifling: their cannon, which did not exceed twenty pieces, 
 were badly mounted: they had not one engineer to direct 
 their operations ; and were besieged by a king, in person, 
 at the head of a formidable army, with experienced offi- 
 cers, and every engine either for a siege or battle. After 
 being many times repulsed, James returned to Dublin; 
 having left the command to the French general, Rosene, 
 This officer disgraced his memory, by his subsequent be- 
 haviour in the siege; having acted in the most barbarous 
 manner, contrary even t-> the express orders of his employ- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 171 
 
 er. The garrison, for want of food, were now reduced lo 
 extremity ; but an English frigate, having broken the boom 
 which had been laid across the river, brought them a joy- 
 ful relief ; and the besiegers abandoned the attack j aftei 
 losing before the place nine-thousand men. 
 
 By the inattention of the English administration, James 
 had been six months in Ireland before an army was sent 
 over to oppose him. In the month of August, duke Schom- 
 berg, with ten-thousand men, landed near Carrickfergus; 
 of which place, he got possession, and, subsequently, of 
 Belfast, Newry, and Dundalk : but, in the neighbourhood 
 of the latter, he remained encamped, upon low, swampy 
 ground, until half his army fell victims to a contagious 
 disorder. 
 
 lg In the middle of June, William himself, attended 
 
 by prince George of Denmark, the duke of Ormond, 
 the earl of Stair, and many more persons of distinction, 
 landed at Carrickfergus. Thence, he proceeded for Bel- 
 fast; where he was met by Schomberg. Having rested 
 there for a few days, he passed through Lisburn and Hills- 
 borough, to Loughbrickland ; where, on reviewing his army, 
 he found that it amounted to thirty-six-thousand effective 
 men. He then marched to Dundalk ; and, taking the road 
 through Ardee, arrived on the left bank of the Boyne, about 
 three miles above Drogheda. On the opposite bank, James 
 was prepared to oppose him ; with an army composed of 
 Irish and French, nearly equal in number to his adversa- 
 ry's. The ground on which James's army stood, was much 
 exposed to the fire of his enemy. Rising gradually from 
 the river, it forms an inclined plane, receding about two 
 miles ; so that every shot from the other side must take 
 effect: and its bank offers to an assailant not the smallest 
 natural obstruction. William had every advantage that 
 a general could demand. The bank upon which he stood 
 is elevated at least twenty feet above the river, presenting, 
 along its entire front, a commanding battery. Trom this, 
 his cannon could play upon the enemy, directly over the 
 heads of his own men, during the crossing of the river , 
 which, with little difficulty, is fordable. On his right, there 
 winded a deep ravine, which extended to the Boyne, and 
 afforded a cover to his troops, when approaching to the 
 attack. William, when he had leisure to view from this 
 situation the surrounding country, delighted with its beau- 
 ty and fertility, exclaimed—-" This, indeed, is a kingdom 
 worthy of a battle" 
 
172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 In the morning, at six o'clock, general Douglas, with 
 the younger Schomberg and the earl of Portland, marched 
 towards Slane bridge; and, with little opposition, passed 
 the river. The Irish troops then faced about, and hastily 
 retreated to Duleek. At this moment, king William's main 
 body, consisting principally of the Dutch guards and some 
 battalions of English, crossed the river, under a general 
 discharge of artillery. The elder Schomberg, who led on 
 the attack, being killed by the fire of his own men, the 
 battle was for some time doubtful ; but William, having 
 gone over with his left wing, after a hard contested action, 
 gained a complete victory. 
 
 In this memorable engagement, the French and Swiss 
 auxiliaries sustained the contest with intrepidity and per- 
 severance ; but the Irish displayed none of that undaunted 
 bravery, which has covered them with glory when abroad. 
 James, who remained during the action on the hill of Dun- 
 more, which overlooked the field of battle, retreated through 
 Dublin, to Waterford. There, he embarked ; and, in a few 
 days, arrived in France. 
 
 At the scene of action, upon a small projecting rock on 
 the left bank of the Boyne, there is erected a handsome 
 obelisk, with an inscription commemorative of his defeat. 
 
 But William met a severe repulse at Limerick. This 
 place was commanded by Boisseleau ; who, ably assisted 
 by colonel Sarsfield, drove the king from before its walls, 
 with considerable loss. After this, he embarked at Dun- 
 cannon, and returned to England. His affairs, however, 
 were soon retrieved. Marlborough having arrived in Ire- 
 land, in a few days reduced the towns of Cork and Kinsale. 
 At Athlone and Aughrim, the adherents of James were 
 equally unfortunate. General Ginckel, having taken the 
 former, proceeded to Aughrim ; where, after a most gal- 
 lant resistance by the French general, St. Ruth, who w^as 
 killed in the action, the Irish army were overthrown. They 
 then retreated to Limerick, resolved to make there a final 
 stand ; in the hope of receiving from France succours suffi- 
 cient to restore their affairs, or of obtaining favourable 
 terms from the court of England. 
 
 . . Limerick was now the only place of importance 
 unsubdued. It was invested by general Ginckel; 
 who, after a severe bombardment, forced it to capitulate ; 
 and, on the fourth of October, tl^e articles of surrerder 
 were completed. This celebrated treaty extended to all 
 places in the kingdom, that were yet in the hands of the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 173 
 
 Irish : it restored to the Roman Catholics, the same de- 
 gree of religious liberty, enjoyed by them in the reign of 
 Charles the second ; and their estates, privileges, and im- 
 munities. It allowed the inhabitants of all the garrisons 
 to remove their goods, without search, or payment of duty; 
 and all who were inclined, to leave the kingdom, and settle 
 in any country, except England or Scotland. In conse- 
 quence, twelve-thousand men emigrated to France; where, 
 James thanked them for their loyalty, and assured them, 
 that the French king had already given orders for their re- 
 ception. 
 
 To dwell upon the numerous conspiracies in England, 
 which successively kept the nation in alarm : to carry our 
 readers over that extensive field upon the Continent, in 
 which the ambition of the king of France was combated, 
 with various fortune, by the bravery of William and his 
 .-allies; or to detail the numerous operations of the con- 
 tending navies ; would produce neither interest, nor plea- 
 sure, nor admiration. We can feel no interest in con- 
 spiracies, of which the agents and the effects are alike 
 forgotten: no pleasure in the recital of massacre and ruin; 
 nor admiration in the review of sea-fights, not conspicuous 
 for a display either of heroism or skill. Of all the admirals, 
 the most prominent was Rooke : the most remarkable 
 sieges were those of Namur. This place, situated at the 
 confluence of the Mease and Sambre, was besieged by 
 Louis the fourteenth, at the head of one-hundred-and- 
 twenty-thousand men ; and taken, in sight of king Wil- 
 liam's army, after an obstinate resistance. Though, how- 
 ever, Vaubaii the celebrated engineer, had exhausted his 
 whole art in its defence, it was retaken by the allied forces, 
 under William's command. 
 
 In the preceding year, the queen was seized with the 
 small pox; which caused her death, in the thirty-third year 
 of her age. 
 
 After a tedious and sanguinary contest, peace was 
 concluded at Ryswick, in Holland. From this pe- 
 riod, nothing claiming particular attention, occurred, until 
 the death of James; which happened at St. Germains, in 
 four years after that of his daughter Mary. Contrary to 
 an article in the treaty of Ryswick, Louis proclaimed the 
 prince of Wales, James's son, king of England; which ac- 
 knowledgment, in the course of time, produced important 
 consequences. 
 
174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 In the following spring, the bustling life of the 
 
 ' ' martial William closed. When he had reached the 
 fifty-second year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign, 
 he exchanged the gaudy trappings of the soldier, for the 
 plain habiliments of the tomb. This prince was of the 
 middle stature : he had an aquiline nose, and sparkling eyes. 
 In the palace, he was unpleasing and reserved : in battle, 
 free, spirited, and cheerful. 
 
 In this reign, the linen manufacture of Ireland was pro- 
 moted, and the Bank of England established; the notes of 
 which, owing to the public distress arising from the im- 
 mense expenses of the war, were, for a while, twenty per 
 cent, below their nominal value. About the same time, 
 commenced also in England, the system of private banking ; 
 before which, all money transactions were managed by the 
 goldsmiths. 
 
 The celebrated Peter the Great of Russia at this time 
 visited England ; and attended chiefly to acquiring the arl 
 of ship-building. 
 
 William had the honour of employing in his service, those 
 two transcendent luminaries of science — sir Isaac Newton, 
 and John Locke. Of all the philosophers, or mathemati- 
 cians, that the world ever produced, sir Isaac Newton was 
 the greatest. He was born at Woolsthorp, near Grantham, 
 in Lincolnshire, in 1642, and died in 1726, in the eighty-fifth 
 year of his age; universally admired for his amiable dispo- 
 sition. His great works are, his Mathematical Principles 
 of Natural Philosophy, his Optics, and his Fluxions; of 
 which science, he was the inventor. If we say that Locke, 
 as a profound philosopher, has had no superior, except 
 Newton, we accord with the general opinion. His most 
 celebrated performance is the Essay on Human Under- 
 standing. 
 
 Robert Boyle was one of the most illustrious and virtu- 
 ous men that ever employed their lives in the developement 
 of nature. His completion of the air-pump, in which he was 
 aided by the mechanical genius of the astronomer, Hooke, 
 beserves recording: though it is. a very small portion of his 
 successful labours. Halley, also, and David, nephew of James, 
 Gregory, were accomplished mathematicians : Anthony 
 Ashley Cooper, lord Shaftesbury, grandson of the infamous 
 member of the Cabal, reflected lustre upon his title, by his 
 devotion to the cause of freedom, and by his admirable 
 4 Characteristics:" nor can too much veneration be admit- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 175 
 
 ted for sir John Holt, a lawyer, as bold and patriotic in the 
 senate, as he was learned and incorruptible on the bench. 
 
 Dr. Tillotson was archbishop of Canterbury; and Burnet, 
 who wrote the History of the Reformation,, enjoyed the see 
 of Salisbury. 
 
 This, and the succeeding reign, are conspicuous for their 
 poetical productions. The poets of this period were, Pom- 
 fret, Garth, Lee, Prior, Congreve, and sir Richard Black- 
 more. The best written of the first mentioned, is his 
 'Choice;" a work which has been as much read as almost 
 any in our language. Garth was a patron of learning, was 
 distinguished for his own literature, his knowledge of medi- 
 cine ; and, still more, for his exertions in favour of the poor. 
 He is the author of the Dispensary ; a poem written prin- 
 cipally to defend the utility of assisting the needy with me- 
 dicine and advice. Prior was first brought into notice by 
 his City Mouse and Country Mouse, written, in conjunction 
 with Mr. Montague, (afterwards lord Halifax,) to ridicule 
 Dryden's Hind and Panther. This procured its author's 
 speedy preferment at court. As a diplomatist, Prior's abili- 
 ties were of the first order ; and he was employed in the 
 most difficult negotiations. One day,'whilst surveying the 
 royal apartments at Versailles, being shown the Victories 
 of Louis, painted by Le Brun, and being asked, whether 
 the king of England's palace had any decorations of that 
 kind: "The monuments of my master's actions," he repli- 
 ed, " are to be seen every where but in his own house." — 
 Congreve is to be considered as a dramatic writer; in which 
 line, he was highly distinguished. His best produccions, 
 are, his Old Bachelor, and Mourning Bride. But the gene- 
 ral tenor of his plays, in common with nearly all that were 
 written in his day, is reprehensible. However, by long con- 
 tinued critical attacks, in which Collier was the principal 
 assailant, the immorality of the drama was in a great mea- 
 sure overthrown. — Blackmore, as well as Garth, was an 
 eminent physician, and was employed in that profession by 
 the king. His Creation, a philosophical poem, has been 
 much admired, for the beauty of its versification and the 
 strength of its reasoning. 
 
 Dr. Edward Bernard, a learned critic, linguist, and as- 
 tronomer, composed many valuable nautical tables, and was 
 industrious in collecting and comparing ancient manuscripts 
 in different parts of Europe. — Few literary men have expe- 
 rienced more opposition than Dr. Bentley, an eminent critic 
 and divine of this period ; who, in a suosequent reign, filled 
 
176 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ihe situation of royal professor of divinity, in the university 
 of Cambridge. Besides having the great Boyle as an an- 
 tagonist, he was assailed by the cutting satire of Swift, in 
 the Tale of a Tut> and Battle of the Books, and in the far- 
 famed Dunciad of Pope. 
 
 It has been frequently observed, that king William's 
 ideas were all military. Two establishments, at Greenwich 
 and Chelsea, the one commenced, and the other completed, 
 in this reign, to which we may reasonably suppose he gave 
 particular attention, are adduced in corroboration. Green- 
 wich Hospital, upon the Thames, about six miles from Lon- 
 don, originally a favourite residence of the English princes, 
 especially of Henry the seventh, and Charles the second, 
 was now enlarged ; and, with a few acres of ground, appro- 
 priated for the residence of aged and disabled seamen, the 
 widows and children of those who lost their lives in the ser- 
 vice of their country, and for the encouragement of naviga- 
 tion. The present establishment consists of two-thousand- 
 four-hundred pensioners, and three-thousand out-pension- 
 ers, with a sufficient number of nurses, and other attend- 
 ants. In point of elegance of architecture, and liberal en- 
 dowment, there is scarcely so great an institution in the 
 world. Behind the hospital, is a delightful park, well stock- 
 ed with deer, in which is an observatory, furnished with all 
 kinds of astronomical instruments. — Chelsea Hospital, 
 sometimes called Chelsea College, is also situated on the 
 Thames, about a mile above the western extremity of Lon- 
 don. This noble building, as well as the addition to Green- 
 wich Hospital, was designed by the great architect and 
 mathematician, sir Christopher Wren; and is exclusively 
 for invalids of the land-service. The ordinary pensioners 
 are about five-hundred : but the extraordinary, or out-pen- 
 sioners, exceed twelve-thousand ; and are allowed each 
 twelve pounds a year; which expense is supported chiefly 
 by a poundage deducted from the pay of the army, and one 
 clay's pay in each year from every officer and private. 
 
 Bayonets, a French invention, were at this time first used 
 by the English army. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 177 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ANNE. 
 
 Legislative Union with Scotland. 
 
 1702—1714. 
 
 IN conformity with the act of settlement, Anne, second 
 daughter of the unfortunate James, ascended the throne ; 
 having the general approbation of the kingdom. She was 
 now in her thirty-eighth year; being married, as we before 
 related, to George, prince of Denmark. She was rather 
 pleasing than beautiful; and though, like the rest of her 
 family, she was fitted rather for the domestic employment 
 of a parent, than the public duty of a sovereign, few mon- 
 archs have swayed the English sceptre with more ability. 
 
 From the parliament, Anne soon received the most friend 
 ly and flattering addresses. Then, with the usual solemnity, 
 she went to the house of peers ; and, in a speech to the 
 lords and commons, expressed her satisfaction at their 
 unanimous concurrence with her opinion, that too much 
 could not be done to encourage the allies in humbling the 
 power of France: she desired them to consider on the best 
 means of procuring a legislative union with Scotland; and, 
 after some other remarks, concluded, by saying, " As I 
 know my own heart to be entirely English, I can very sin- 
 cerely assure you, that there is not any thing you can ex- 
 pect, or request from me, which I shall not be ready to do, 
 for the happiness and prosperity of England; and you shall 
 always find me a strict observer of my word." 
 
 Sharp, archbishop of York, was her director in ecclesias- 
 tical affairs : the earl of Rochester was continued as lord 
 lieutenant of Ireland : the privy seal was intrusted to the 
 marquis of Normanby : the earl of Nottingham and sir 
 Charles Hedges were made secretaries of state. The prince 
 of Denmark was appointed generalissimo of all the forces, 
 both by sea and land ; assisted, as admiral, by a council- 
 amongst whom was sir George Rooke. Marlborough (to 
 whom we shall, henceforth, give the title of duke) was des- 
 patched to Holland, that he might animate the states to a 
 vigorous effort against France; in which embassy, he com- 
 pletely succeeded. With them, in conjunction with the 
 
 a 
 
178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Imperial minister, he arranged, that war should be declared 
 against Louis, on the same day, at the Hague, Vienna, and 
 London ; and concerted the operations of the campaign. 
 
 Marlborough, who makes so conspicuous a figure in his- 
 tory, was first inured to the dangers of the field under 
 the famous French marshal, Turenne ; in whose army, he 
 had been a volunteer. At first, more remarkable for the 
 beauty of his person, than the greatness of his talents, he 
 was known in the camp by the name of the handsome En- 
 glishman ; but his master., who saw much deeper than the 
 surface, perceived the superiority of his genius, and pic- 
 tured in his imagination the laurels which victory was pre- 
 paring for him. When appointed to command, Marlbo- 
 rough deviated from the established practice of the army, 
 by advancing the subaltern officers; whose claims had hith- 
 erto been neglected. With him, title, or seniority, was no 
 passport to promotion : he gave the preference to bravery 
 and talent ; by which means, merit was rewarded, and vic- 
 tory secured. 
 
 The name of Blenheim is intimately associated 
 * with that of Marlborough. There, the greatest bat- 
 tle of that age was fought; and there he established his re- 
 nown. The allied army, at the head of which were the 
 duke, and prince Eugene, who commanded the Imperialists, 
 amounted to fifty-thousand. The French army, command- 
 ed by marshal Tallard, outnumbered their antagonists, by 
 at least eight-thousand. Tallard chose his station on a hill; 
 his right being protected by the Danube, and the village 
 of Blenheim ; his left, by the village of Lutzengen ; his 
 front, by a rivulet, the banks of which were steep, and 
 its bottom marshy. Marlborough, at the head of his Eng- 
 lish troops, having crossed the rivulet, attacked, with im- 
 petuosity, the cavalry of Tallard. Prince Eugene, on the 
 left, had not yet come in contact; and nearly an hour 
 elapsed before he could bring up his troops to the charge 
 The French cavalry being totally defeated, Tallard, at this 
 distressing moment, flew to rally some squadrons; but, pav- 
 ing mistaken a detachment of the assailants for his own, he 
 was made prisoner. In the mean time, Eugene had joined 
 the battle, and assisted to increase the enemy's confusion. 
 .The rout then became general. So great was the conster- 
 n at ion, that numbers of the French plunged into the Dan- 
 ube ; and thus, in avoiding one danger, embraced another. 
 Twelve-thousand of the enemy perished by the sword and 
 l he 'waters ; an J thirteen-thousand were made prisoners 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 179 
 
 The next day, when the duke visited his prisoner Tal- 
 lard, the marshal, intending it as a compliment, assured 
 him, that he had conquered the best troops in the world — 
 " I hope, sir," replied the duke, " you will except those by 
 whom they have been conquered." 
 
 Marlborough was received in England as the champion 
 of his country, and the retriever of its ancient glory. The 
 parliament conferred on him the manor of Woodstock ; 
 where there was subsequently built for him a magnificent 
 palace, called Blenheim House. 
 
 At sea, also, the English were in general successful. But, 
 on that element, so rich a harvest of military greatness was 
 not gathered, as on land. They were not opposed, there, 
 by the same degree of talent ; nor were they equally free 
 from the mortification of defeat. A lasting monument of 
 their success remains, in the acquisition of Gibraltar. Be- 
 ing at war with Spain, chiefly owing to an interference in 
 the choice of her sovereign ; an interference always impoli- 
 tic, and always unjust; an English squadron, returning from 
 a fruitless expedition, under the command of sir Cloudesly 
 Shovel and sir George Rooke, made an easy conquest ot 
 that celebrated fortress. Gibraltar was the Calpe of the an- 
 cients, and formed, in their puerile geography, one of the 
 Coin mnae Herculis, or pillars of Hercules. On the oppo- 
 site coast, in Africa, is Ceuta, formerly called Abyla; dis- 
 tant only eighteen miles. These, by the Heathens, were 
 supposed to be the boundaries of the labours of Hercules ; 
 and, with equal fertility of imagination, were thought to 
 have been joined, until that hero opened a passage from 
 the Mediterranean into the Atlantic. If any station abroad 
 is valuable to England, it is Gibraltar. We are, however, 
 entirely opposed to such military outposts. In war, they 
 are certainly useful, by giving protection to trade: but they 
 are a means of producing war. Had England fewer of these 
 bulwarks, she would be the less liable to conceive offence 
 and the less ready to commit violence. 
 
 The administration was, at this time, composed of the 
 two parties — whigs and tories. Of all who influenced the 
 public councils, the most powerful was Marlborough, who 
 was of the whig party. But he was removed from all his 
 employments, by the intrigues of a female. The dutchess 
 of Marlborough, who, in the most imperious way, had long 
 ruled the opinions of the queen, was displaced, by the cun- 
 ning servility of a fawning rival — a Mrs. Mash am. This 
 woman was related to the dutchess; had been raised, by her? 
 
180 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 from indigence and obscurity, and brought to court to con 
 tribute to the queen's amusement. But this hypocritical 
 dependant had a partner in her schemes. Robert Harley, 
 then secretary of state, having determined to ruin the credit 
 of the duke, and employed her as an instrument, she was 
 successful. In his career of ambition, Harley chose for 
 his coadjutor the celebrated Henry St. John : the one was 
 created earl of Oxford ; the other, lord Bolingbroke ; who 
 is much celebrated for his wit and eloquence; but, his 
 strong passions led him into many acts of indiscretion 
 and folly. 
 
 The duke of Marlborough was remarkable for his ava- 
 rice; a blemish that is recorded in the following anecdote. 
 The earl of Peterborough, a general who had highly dis- 
 tinguished himself at the head of some British troops in 
 Spain, one day driving through London, was much impeded 
 by an immense crowd, who had mistaken him for the duke. 
 The earl repeatedly assured them, that they were in error ; 
 that he was not Marlborough : but, they still persisted that 
 he was; and were proceeding to take his horses from his 
 carriage, for the purpose of drawing it themselves, when 
 the earl, throwing a handful of money amongst them, ex- 
 claimed, " There, now, I hope I have convinced you that 1 
 am not the duke." 
 
 After more than ten years of severe hostility, Eng- 
 land and France seemed willing to change the deso- 
 lating scene. Louis, that arch-disturber of the continent, 
 was at length alarmed ; and begged with a suppliant tone 
 for peace. A treaty commenced at Utrecht, and on the 
 fifth of May, peace was proclaimed in London ; causing 
 great joy to the majority of the people. The Dutch and 
 the Imperialists, after complaining of the desertion of their 
 ally, found their interest in acceding; the one, by the bar- 
 rier treaty ; the other, by the treaty of Radstadt. 
 
 In the mean time, (May 1, 1707) the long projected 
 Union with Scotland was completed. The principal terms 
 of which were, that the two kingdoms should be represent- 
 ed in one parliament : that all subjects of Great Britain 
 ♦should enjoy equal privileges and advantages : that the law 
 concerning public rights and civil government should be 
 the same throughout the united kingdoms ; but, that those 
 law s which concerned private rights, should remain unalter- 
 ed • except the alteration were advantageous to the people of 
 Scotland : that Scotland should be represented by sixteen 
 peers and forty-five commoners ; and should have the liber- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 181 
 
 ty, not before enjoyed, of trading with the British West 
 India plantations. 
 
 The ministerial changes produced a serious alarm amongst 
 the whigs; who apprehended a design in favour of the Stu- 
 arts. Mr. Steele, (afterwards sir Richard Steele,) was ac- 
 tive in exciting the national fears. In a pamphlet, called 
 the Crisis, he vehemently declaimed against the ministry, 
 and spoke of the immediate danger of their bringing over 
 the exiled prince. For this, he was expelled the house of 
 commons. Steele was one of the celebrated wits of that 
 time; and a large contributor to the Tatler, Spectator, and 
 Guardian, of which periodical writings, he was the founder. 
 
 The queen's health was for some time past declining ; 
 and her anxiety, caused by the turbulence of faction, hast- 
 ened her decay. She expired in the fiftieth year of her age, 
 and thirteenth of her reign ; having, to the last moment in 
 which she possessed her faculties, assiduously laboured for 
 the future welfare of her country. The prince of Denmark 
 had died about six years before, and none of their children 
 survived them. 
 
 This period was so prolific in writers of genius and ele- 
 gance, that it has been styled the Augustan Age of Eng- 
 land. Our language had then, and not till then, acquired 
 a degree of polish, which invited the whole poetical genius 
 of the nation, to celebrate the passing events of a busy age. 
 The poetry, of this time, will, most probably, never be ex- 
 celled. It seems to have attained all the strength, and all 
 the beauty, of the ancient. The prose, however, even up 
 to our own day, has been gradually improving. If, as a 
 specimen of the latter, we take the papers of the Specta- 
 tor ; a work which employed the best talents of the king- 
 dom ; we discover humour, and wit, and learning, strug- 
 gling with the long continued dominion of grammatical 
 imperfection. Few numbers of that celebrated compila- 
 tion, are equal, in point of style, to the daily effusions of a 
 common newspaper. The English language had not been 
 long used in exalted subjects. In the preceding reigns, 
 divinity had been almost exclusively taught, and polemical 
 disputation, conducted, in the Latin tongue: philosophy 
 was disseminated in the same ; and thus, the native lan- 
 guage was allowed to remain unpolished, until the im- 
 petuous feelings of lord Bolingbroke raised it from its 
 degradation, lopped off its ungraceful and ambiguous in- 
 cumbrances, and gave it the majestic features, the per- 
 spicuous animation, of his own mind 
 Q2 
 
182 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. 
 
 The brightest of the splendid constellation, that appear- 
 ed then, was Pope ; the most mellifluous poet that Eng- 
 land has produced. His greatest work is, the translation 
 of Homer. In this, he was assisted by Fenton and Broome. 
 To Fenton, were assigned, the 1st, 4th, 19th, and 20th : to 
 Broome, the 2d, 6th, 8th, 11th, 12th, 16th, 18th, and 23d 
 Books of the Odyssey; and so well have his associates per- 
 formed their part, that no reader can distinguish their books 
 from those of Pope. For this translation, he received, by 
 contract, ten-thousand pounds. His Essay on Criticism,, 
 Rape of the Lock, and Dunciad, are instructive and amus- 
 ing.— -Of an interview with a noble lord, Pope gives the 
 following account. " The famous lord Halifax was rather 
 a pretender to taste, than really possessed of it. When I 
 had finished the first two or three books of my Iliad, that 
 lord desired to have the pleasure of hearing them read at 
 his house. Addison, Congreve, and Garth, were at the 
 reading. In four or five places, lord Halifax very civilly 
 stopped me ; saying, I beg yo'ur pardon, Mr. Pope — but 
 there is something in that passage which does not quite 
 please me. Be so good as to mark the place, and consider 
 it at your leisure — I am sure you can give it a little turn. 
 I went from his lordship's with Dr. Garth, and mentioned 
 to the doctor, that lord Halifax had laid me under a great 
 deal of difficulty, by such loose and general observations. 
 Garth laughed heartily at my embarrassment ; said, that I 
 need not puzzle myself much about looking those places 
 over, but, to leave them just as they were ; to call on lord 
 Halifax in two or three months, and read them to him, as 
 if altered. I did so; and his lordship was extremely pleased 
 with them ; and cried out ; ' Ay, now they are perfectly 
 right — nothing can be better.' " 
 
 Though Swift, the celebrated Dean of St. Patrick's, 
 stands high as a satirical poet, yet his merit as a political 
 writer, and a patriot, is still more exalted. His numerous 
 poems are witty and correct. His prose is unaffected and 
 perspicuous. As a patriot, he delivered Ireland, his native 
 country, from plunder and oppression; showing, that wit, 
 when combined with truth, is irresistible. His Drapier's 
 Letters, written against the nefarious coinage of Wood, will 
 long be admired for their argument, and respected for their 
 integrity. There is, however, one objection to his writings. 
 His satire is continually interwoven with indelicacy; a 
 means which he used, to make impropriety the more dis- 
 gusting. His " Gulliver's Travels" abounds with that mode 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 183 
 
 of portraying tne depravity of man. Swift did every thing 
 in a manner peculiar to himself. A story told by Pope will 
 afford a specimen of his humour : — " Dr. Swift has an odd, 
 blunt way, which is mistaken, by strangers, for ill-nature. 
 'Tis so odd, that there's no describing it but by facts. I'll 
 tell you one that first comes into my head. One evening, 
 Gay and I went to see him : you know how intimately we 
 were all acquainted. On our coming in, ' Heyday, gen- 
 tlemen,' says the doctor, ' what's the meaning of this visit? 
 How came you to leave the great lords that you are so fond 
 of, to come hither to see a poor dean?' — ' Because we would 
 rather see you than any of them.' — i Ay, any one that did 
 not know you so well as I do, might believe you. But, 
 since you are come, I must get some supper for you, I sup- 
 pose.' — ' No, doctor, we have supped already.' — ' Supped 
 already? that's impossible! why, 'tis not eight o'clock yet. 
 — That's very strange; but, if you had not supped, I must 
 have got something for you. — Let me see ; what should I 
 have had? A couple of lobsters ; ay, that would have done 
 very well — two shillings — tarts, a shilling: but you will 
 drink a glass of wine with me, though you supped so much 
 before your usual time only to spare my pocket?' — 'No; we 
 would rather talk with you, than drink with you.' — ' But, if 
 you had supped with me, as in all reason you ought to have 
 done, you must then have drank with me. — A bottle of wine, 
 two shillings — two and two are four, and one are five: just 
 two and six pence a piece. There, Pope ; there's half a 
 crown for you; and there's another for you, sir; for I wont 
 save any thing by you, I am determined.' — This was all 
 said and done with his usual seriousness on such occasions ; 
 and, in spite of every thing we could say to the contrary, 
 he actually obliged us to take the money." 
 
 Addison has acquired great celebrity by his tragedy of 
 Cato ; but he is better known as the principal contributor 
 to the Spectator ; a work that every one should read : the 
 subjects are literature, morality, and familiar life. In this 
 reign, he was under secretary, and in the succeeding, prin- 
 cipal secretary, of state ; an office, for which, notwithstand- 
 ing his general talents, he was unqualified. 
 
 *To those, we have to add, Parnell, Ambrose and John 
 Philips, Hughes, Tickel, Rowe, and Gay; of whom, the 
 last two were the most eminent. Gay was the founder of 
 the English Opera. Of this poet, we shall, by way of 
 amusement, relate the following incident. — Having been 
 invited to read a tragedy, called the Captives, before the 
 
IS4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 princess of Wales, when the hour came, he saw the prin- 
 cess and her ladies all in expectation ; but, advancing with 
 reverence, too great to admit of any other attention, he 
 stumbled over a stool; and, falling forward^ threw clown a 
 weighty Japan screen. The princess started ; the ladies 
 screamed ; and poor Gay, after all the disturbance, had 
 still to read his play.' — The Drama is indebted also to Far- 
 quhar and Colley Gibber, particularly the former; who, 
 by such comedies as the Rivals, Inconstant, and Beaux 
 Stratagem, has enrolled his name amongst the most fa- 
 voured votaries of Thalia. Rymer is known by the volum- 
 inous compilation of state-papers in his Foedera; sir Hanse 
 Sloane, by his works on botany and medicine ; and sir 
 James Thornhill, by the classical beauty of his paintings. 
 
 We recollect, with much pleasure, the names of Berke- 
 ley, the celebrated bishop of Cloyne, and the highly admir- 
 ed Arbuthnot. The former ^tudied at. Dublin College, of 
 which great establishment he was a fellow. His first pub- 
 lic essays were published in the Spectator and Guardian ; 
 which he adorned with many papers in favour of religior 
 and virtue. Amongst his other productions, are, The Prin- 
 ciples of Human Knowledge, A New Theory of Vision, 
 and Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher. Berkeley can- 
 not be exhibited in a more favourable light, than by our 
 relating, that when offered a benefice more productive than 
 the see of Cloyne, he declined it ; saying, " My neighbours 
 and myself love one another, and I cannot think of forming 
 new connexions in my old days, and tearing myself from 
 those friends whose kindness to me is my greatest happi- 
 ness." — Arbuthnot, a Scotch physician, joined with Pope 
 and Swift in publishing several volumes of Miscellanies ; 
 in which, are the well-known Memoirs of Martinus Scrib- 
 lerus— - an admirable satire on the abuses of human learn- 
 ing ; and afterwards composed tables of ancient coins, 
 weights, and measures, besides other works of great utility. 
 
 An important act was now passed, to encourage learn- 
 ing. Copy-rights were, by this, secured, for a certain pe- 
 riod, to the respective authors; and placed beyond the 
 vague issue of common-law. 
 
 A statute of Henry the eighth had limited the interest o*f 
 money to ten per cent.; an act of James the first, to eight: 
 in the reign of Charles the second it was reduced to six; 
 and lastly, in the reign of Anne, to five per cent. ; which ia 
 now the highest rate of interest that can legally be taken, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAxND 185 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 GEORGE THE FIRST. 
 
 1714—1727. 
 
 WHEN reading the historic pages of the Henrys, the 
 Edwards, or the Williams — even when we reach the less 
 remote period of Anne, we are accompanied by a solemn 
 impression of Antiquity. Then, with a gently gliding, 
 and nearly imperceptible motion, the old times seemingly 
 retreat; whilst the mind diverges from the receding scene, 
 until the full, animating, and lively, prospect of our own 
 days, opens with increasing splendour. 
 
 The Stuarts had now completed their period of royalty. 
 A new branch of the regal family ascended the throne, in 
 the order of succession provided by act of parliament. 
 
 George was at this time in the fifty-fifth year of his age 
 He was son of Ernest Augustus Guelf, first elector of 
 Brunswick, and the princess Sophia, grand-daughter of 
 James the first ; and inherited Planover; which, near the 
 end of the preceding century, had been made the ninth 
 Electorate of the Germanic Empire. 
 
 The new king was violently prejudiced against one party, 
 and attached to the other. His confidence and affection 
 were wholly given to the whigs. The duke of Ormond, 
 who commanded the army, was now dismissed, and Marl- 
 borough restored. The great seal was given to lord 
 Cowper; the privy seal to the earl of Wharton; and the 
 government of Ireland, to lord Sunderland. The duke of 
 Devonshire was made steward of the household : lord 
 Townshend and Mr. Stanhope were appointed secretaries 
 of state. The duke of Somerset was constituted master 
 of the horse; the duke of Argyle commander of the forces 
 in Scotland; Mr. Pultney secretary of war, and sir Robert* 
 Walpole, who had undertaken to manage the house of 
 commons, paymaster of the army. 
 
 The king's partiality soon produced dissatisfaction. In 
 different places, seditious libels were dispersed; and alarm- 
 ing tumults raised. Birmingham, Bristol, Chippenham, 
 Norwich, and Reading, were disturbed -with licentious riot. 
 17 The conduct of the late ministry became the 
 
 chief subject of parliamentary inquiry; and a com- 
 mittee were appointed to examine all papers relative to 
 
186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the late negotiation for peace. When their report was 
 made, an impeachment was voted against lord Bolingbroke, 
 the earl of Oxford, and the duke of Ormond. Mr. Har- 
 ley, brother of the earl, and Mr. Foley, his brother-in-law, 
 defended the ministerial conduct of their relative. They 
 insisted, that he had done nothing without his sovereign's 
 command : that the peace was advantageous and honoura- 
 ble; sanctioned by the voice of one parliament, and approv- 
 ed by another ; and they asked, what security could be af- 
 forded to a minister, against the vengeance of his enemies, 
 if the sanction of a parliament, the great legislature of the 
 nation, were insufficient. The measures of the duke of 
 Ormond were ably advocated by Archibald Hamilton, Mr. 
 Hutcheson, general Lumley, and sir Joseph Jekyll. They 
 enumerated the eminent services performed to the crown 
 and the nation, by the duke and his illustrious ancestors : 
 observed, that, in the whole of his late conduct, he had 
 obeyed the queen's directions ; and that the allegations, 
 even if substantiated, did not amount to high treason. 
 Bolingbroke, having observed the gathering storm, had 
 early secured shelter from its most dangerous effects, by 
 retiring to the continent. Ormond, fearing that it would 
 burst upon him with overwhelming fury, remained not to 
 try so unequal a contest. The names of those two noble- 
 men were erased from the list of peers, and their estates 
 were declared forfeited to the crown. Oxford, after two 
 years' imprisonment in the Tower, was brought to trial ; 
 when, owing to a violent animosity between the two houses 
 of parliament, ne was liberated without inquiry. 
 
 The chevalier St. George, (by which title, the son of 
 the late king James was known) conceiving this a favoura- 
 ble time for making an attempt upon the British throne, 
 used every means to increase the national ferment, and ex- 
 cite his partisans to arms. He was assisted by Ormond 
 and Bolingbroke; but, his intrigues being discovered by the 
 earl of Stair, the English ambassador at Paris, the king 
 took effectual measures to oppose them. Another misfor- 
 tune arose, to thwart his attempts upon the peace of Eng- 
 land. This was the death of Louis the fourteenth ; who, 
 contrary to the treaty of Utrecht, had espoused his cause. 
 The regency having devolved upon the duke of Orleans, 
 he gave the chevalier very trifling assistance ; and amused 
 his agents with equivocal expressions, tending rather to 
 frustrate than to forward his design. 
 
 JBul, the adherents of the chevalier had already gone so 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 187 
 
 far, that to retreat with safety was impossible. Resolved, 
 therefore, to try their fortune in the field, many persons of 
 the first distinction called out their warlike clans. The earl 
 of Mar, as his lieutenant-general, the marquises of Huntley 
 and Tullibardine, the earls Marischal and Southesk, were 
 the first in arms. Meanwhile, two vessels had arrived from 
 Havre, with military stores, and a great number of officers; 
 who gave information that the chevalier himself would very 
 soon arrive. Some of his partisans attempted to surprise 
 the castle of Edinburgh ; but the vigilance of colonel Stu- 
 art, lieutenant-governor of that fortress, defeated their de- 
 sign. The duke of Argyle set out for Scotland, as com- 
 mander in chief of the royal forces in that country ; and 
 many of the Scottish peers returned thither to signalize 
 their attachment to the existing sovereign. 
 
 In England, the Pretender had a number of respectable 
 supporters. Lords Lansdown and Duplin, sir William 
 Wyndham, and sir John Packington, Messrs. Haiwey, and 
 Forster, Anstes, and Kynaston, members of parliament, 
 were ordered to be committed to prison, on suspicion of 
 disloyalty. Forster, joined by some gentlemen from the 
 borders of Scotland, proclaimed the pretender in Wark- 
 worth, Morpeth, and Alnwick, in Northumberland ; and, 
 being further reinforced by lords Kenmuir, Carnwath, and 
 Wintoun, with two-hundred Scottish horse, the whole rest- 
 ed at Kelso in Roxburghshire. 
 
 The earl of Mar was now at the head of ten-thousand 
 well-armed troops. He fixed his head quarters at Perth; 
 and made himself master of all Fifeshire, and the entire 
 sea-coast on that side of the Frith of Edinburgh. He then 
 selected two-thousand-five-hundred men, commanded bv 
 brigadier Mackintosh ; who, after displaying the greatest 
 courage and abilities in a series of difficult enterprises- 
 joined the forces at Kelso. 
 
 When arrived at Jedburgh, one-half of the Highlanders 
 declared that they would not quit their own country, and 
 returned home. At Brampton, Forster opened his commis- 
 sion of general, and then continued his march, through 
 Kendal and Lancaster, to Preston ; of which town, (the royal 
 army having retired,) the rebels took possession. Here, 
 they were attacked by general Willis, with six regiments 
 of horse and one battalion of foot. But the assailants were 
 driven off with considerable loss. Next day, general Car- 
 penter arrived, with three regiments of dragoons; by which 
 reinforcement, the rebels being intimidated, the whole army 
 
188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 surrendered at discretion. The common men were impris- 
 oned at Chester and Liverpool ; the nobility and principal 
 officers were sent to London, and committed to the Tower 
 and Newgate. 
 
 The same day on which the rebels surrendered at Pres- 
 ton, the duke of Argyle and the earl of Mar were engaged 
 at Dumblain, in Scotland. There, was fought, the best con- 
 tested battle that occurred during the whole rebellion. The 
 latter nobleman, having been joined by the northern clans 
 under the earl of Seaforth, and by those of the west under 
 general Gordon, had resolved to pass the Forth, that he 
 might join his southern friends, and march with them into 
 England. Argyle, aware of his intention, determined to 
 arrest his progress; and, on the i2th of November, en- 
 camped, with his left on the village of Dumblain, and his 
 right towards Sheriffmoor. The next morning, Glengary 
 and Clanronald, two Scottish chieftains, who commanded 
 under the earl of Mar, charged the left of the royal army, 
 sword-in-hand, with so great impetuosity, that, in seven 
 minutes, both horse and foot were driven, with great 
 slaughter, from the field. At the same time, the duke of 
 Argyle attacked the left of the enemy, at the head of Stair's 
 and Evans' dragoons, and drove them as far as the Water 
 of Allan. After much hard fighting, both parties desisted, 
 and fronted each other until the evening; when, the duke 
 drew off towards Dumblain, the rebels towards Ardoch. 
 This was what is called a drawn battle : on each side were 
 killed about five-hundred men. 
 
 In another quarter, the hopes of the insurgents were 
 completely ruined. Lord Lovat, having deserted their 
 cause, secured the important post of Inverness for the 
 government ; after which, many of the pretender's prin- 
 cipal adherents were constrained to retire, for the protec- 
 tion of their estates ; and then, the clans, according to cus- 
 tom, returned home. 
 
 Notwithstanding this desperate situation of his affairs ; 
 the account of which was confirmed on the return of the 
 duke of Ormond, who had come over to reconnoitre ; the 
 chevalier determined to join his friends in Scotland. Ac- 
 companied by the marquis of Tinmouth and a few others, 
 he landed at Peterhead. Thence, having passed through 
 Aberdeen, he arrived at Feterosse ; where, he was met by 
 the earl of Mar, and about thirty noblemen and gentlemen, 
 of considerable rank. Here, he was solemnly proclaimed 
 kingf. Having visited Dundee and Scone, he stopped at 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 189 
 
 Perth ; where he formed a regular council, issued procla- 
 mations, and, for a while, enjoyed all the satisfaction of con- 
 scious royalty.* But these golden days were of short con- 
 tinuance. The duke of Argyle was now approaching. Pro- 
 clamations on the one hand, congratulatory addresses on 
 the other, and pathetic speeches in reply, were unavailing. 
 Money, arms, ammunition, provisions, — even men, were 
 wanting, Thus circumstanced, the chevalier abandoned the 
 enterprise ; and, accompanied by the earls of Mar and Mel- 
 ford, with several other persons of distinction, embarked 
 at Montrose, and, in a few days, arrived at Gravelines. 
 
 Ireland, though always branded as seditious, remained, 
 throughout the whole rebellion, completely tranquil. The 
 only event which then occurred in that kingdom, worthy 
 of relation, in this small work, was the precautionary or- 
 der for apprehending lords Antrim, Westmeath, Netter- 
 ville, Cahir, and Dillon. 
 
 Stuart's departure had given the signal for hostilities in 
 the field to cease. In a few days afterwards, impeachments 
 and attainders were voted against his principal friends. Sen- 
 tence of death was passed on lords Derwentwater, Ken- 
 muir, Carnwath, Nairn, Widdington, and Nithsdale. The 
 first two were immediately beheaded : the next three were 
 respited until the following month; and, ultimately, par- 
 doned. Lord Nithsdale escaped in a female dress, which 
 had been brought to him by his mother. Forster, Mackin- 
 tosh, and several others, broke out of Newgate. Many were 
 hanged in London, Preston, and Manchester ; and about 
 one-thousand were obliged to settle in America. 
 
 It should be carefully remembered, that, in this rebel- 
 lion, persons of various religions were engaged — members 
 of the Church of England, the Church of Scotland, and 
 the Church of Rome. 
 
 As the present parliament was now drawing towards a 
 conclusion, and it was thought dangerous to hazard a gen- 
 eral election, whilst the minds of the people were in so great 
 a ferment, a bill was passed for discontinuing triennial par- 
 liaments, (which term had subsisted ever since the sixth 
 year of William and Mary,) and establishing septennial. 
 
 The civil war had scarcely terminated, when a formida- 
 ble enemy was created on the continent. This was the cele- 
 brated Charles the twelfth, of Sweden ; a man equally re- 
 markable for the splendour, and the madness, of his ex- 
 ploits. The king, as elector of Hanover, having purchased, 
 from the opponents of that prince, the dutchies of Bremen 
 R 
 
190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and Verden, which had constituted a part of the Swedish 
 dominions, Charles determined to have revenge; and en- 
 tered into a treaty with the chevalier St. George, to assist 
 him in another attempt upon the English throne. In con- 
 sequence, the king went over to the continent ; where he 
 remained a short time, that he might secure his Hanoverian 
 dominions. In the following year, the Swedish monarch was 
 killed in the trenches before Frederickshall, in Norway; 
 removing, by his death, the apprehensions of invasion. 
 
 But England seems to live only amidst the noise 
 ' of arms. She soon hastily embraced, what, a mo- 
 ment before, she had so cautiously avoided. The king, hav- 
 ing been appointed by Philip of Spain an arbitrator in a dis- 
 pute with the emperor of Germany, made a decision unpleas- 
 ing to the former; who, consequently, refused compliance. 
 This produced a war between England and Spain. Admiral 
 Byng was despatched to the Mediterranean, with twenty- 
 two ships of the line. Having performed the most signal 
 service, by relieving the Neapolitans and Sicilians, then 
 threatened by the Spaniards, the British admiral, after a 
 long chase, engaged the enemy's fleet, superior in number, 
 off Cape Passaro ; and, in a well contested action, captured 
 them all, except six or eight ships. For this achievement, 
 Byng was honoured with a letter of approbation from the 
 king, written with his own hand; and, for his further ser- 
 vices, ennobled, by the title of viscount Torrington. 
 
 The duke of Ormond having gone to Madrid, measures 
 were there concerted for exciting another insurrection in 
 Great Britain. These plans, however, being made known 
 to the English government, by the regent of France, every 
 precaution was taken to repel the danger. The duke sailed 
 from Cadiz with six-thousand troops, and arms for twelve 
 thousand more; but, when off Cape Finisterre, his fleet 
 was disabled and dispersed by a storm. Only two frigates 
 arrived in Scotland ; with the earls Marischal and Sea- 
 forth, the marquis of Tullibardine, some field officers, three- 
 hundred Spaniards, and arms for two-thousand men. Being 
 joined by a small body of Highlanders, they took posses- 
 sion of Donan Castle. General Wightman marched against 
 them ; and, after driving them before him for some time, 
 mucle prisoners of all the Spaniards ; the Highlanders hav- 
 ing previously dispersed Marischal, Seaforth, and Tulli- 
 bardine, retired to one of the Western Isles; and thus 
 ended the expedition. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 191 
 
 7 Information was now received from the duke of 
 
 Orleans, of a fresh conspiracy. A camp was im- 
 mediately formed in Hyde Park : all military officers were 
 ordered to join their regiments ; and the court was removed 
 to Kensington. Many persons of distinction were commit- 
 ted to the Tower, on charges of high treason ; amongst 
 whom, was Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, who was, by 
 an act of parliament, deprived of all his offices and digni- 
 ties, banished from the realm, and subjected to the penalty . 
 of death, in case he should return. The other prisoners 
 were liberated on bail. A pardon was afterwards granted 
 to lord Bolingbroke ; who, as we have already mentioned, 
 had been impeached, in the beginning of this reign. 
 .„ . This year was distinguished by a remarkable in- 
 cident — the trial of the earl of Macclesfield, lord 
 chancellor of England. It was reported to the house of 
 commons, that the chancellor had embezzled the estates 
 of many widows, orphans, and lunatics : that he had raised, 
 to an exorbitant sum, the price of situations of masters iu 
 chancery ; trusting in their hands large sums of money 
 belonging to suitors, that those officers might be enabled 
 to comply with his demands ; and that he had made, in 
 several cases, irregular orders. He was accordingly im- 
 peached at the bar of the upper house. The trial lasted 
 twenty days, and ended in his conviction; by which he 
 was lined thirty-thousand pounds. — How honourable to the 
 laws— how disgraceful to the judge ! 
 -,~c,7 ^ ne ^ n n> having appointed a regency, left England 
 
 ' * to visit his Hanoverian dominions. But, on his journey, 
 he was seized with a paralytic disorder, and conveyed, in a 
 state of insensibility, to Osnaburgh ; where he expired, in the 
 sixty-eighth year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign. In 
 his person and address, he was plain and unaffected : in his 
 general deportment, grave and composed ; though, when re- 
 moved from the cares of business, easy, facetious, and familiar. 
 
 This reign is remarkable for stock-jobbing projects ; and 
 particularly for the South-Sea speculation ; which involved its 
 numerous victims in ruin, and its managers in well merited 
 punishment and infamy. 
 
 In 1722, died the great duke of Marlborough ; the only 
 general, either of ancient or modern times, except the duke 
 of Wellington, of whom it can be said, that he never fought a 
 battle that he did not gain, nor ever besieged a town that he 
 did not take. 
 
 In the year 1723, the decorations of St. Paul's cathedral 
 
192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in London were completed. This is the most magnificent 
 protestant church in the world; and one of the finest struc- 
 tures that any age has produced. It is said to have been 
 originally founded by Ethelbert, a Saxon prince, on the site 
 of a temple which the Romans had dedicated to Diana. The 
 old building was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. The 
 first stone of the present structure was laid by sir Christo- 
 pher Wren, in 1675. It is built of fine Portland stone, after 
 the model of St. Peter's at Rome. Its length from east to 
 west is five-hundred feet; its breadth, three-hundred-and- 
 eleven, including the porticos; its height, from the ground 
 to the top of the cross, three-hundred-and-forty-four feet ; 
 occupying an area of six acres. The expense of building 
 amounted to more than seven-hundred-thousand pounds. 
 
 In 1716, John Lombe, erected a silk mill at Derby; the 
 first established in England. The building in which his 
 machinery, copied from the Italian models, was placed, is 
 still used by the original manufacture. About the same 
 time, the astronomical instrument, called the Orrery, was 
 invented, by George Graham, of London ; and lady Mary 
 Wortley Montague introduced, from Constantinople, the 
 practice of inoculation for the small-pox. — The Royal Bank 
 at Edinburgh received its charter in the last year of this 
 reign ; being the second public money establishment in 
 the country of which that city is the capital. The first, 
 called the Bank of Scotland, was instituted in the reign of 
 William and Mary. 
 
 The poets who began, at this time, to attract public at- 
 tention, were, Watts, Thomson, and Savage. Doctor Watts 
 was a dissenting minister, and amongst the first who gave 
 the presbyterians a taste for the graces of language, in 
 the service of their church : he showed them, that zea) 
 and purity might be expressed and enforced in a polished 
 composition. His version of the psalms of David, is very 
 generally adopted. As a logician, he was particularly emi- 
 nent. His system of logic has been received into the uni- 
 versities. Every one must look back with veneration on 
 this truly useful and charitable man. He laid aside the 
 scholar, the philosopher, and the wit, to write little poems 
 of devotion and systems of instruction for children ; adapt- 
 ed co their wants and capacities, from the earliest dawn of 
 reason to the first approaches of maturity ; and, during a 
 great part of his life, gave to the poor a third part of his 
 annual revenue, though it did not exceed one-hundred 
 pounds. Thomson may be rated amongst the highest 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 193 
 
 class of* poetical writers. His Seasons, the most admired 
 of all his performances, display some of the sweetest pas- 
 sages that any poet has produced. An account of the life 
 and writings of Savage, will be found in Johnson's Lives 
 of the Poets. He was equally remarkable for his genius 
 and misfortunes ; which his biographer has recorded with 
 much effect and elegance. The life of Savage is almost 
 the only one that Johnson \hs given with impartiality ; 
 and is written with more perspicuity, and less affectation, 
 than any other in his collection. 
 
 Nathaniel Hooke had an extensive knowledge of foreign 
 languages, and wrote an admired history of Rome De 
 Foe was equally ingenious either in politics, or in commer- 
 cial economy ; and was a strenuous advocate of the peo- 
 ple's rights : but, he is best known as the author of Robin, 
 son Crusoe ; the most fascinating romance that has ever 
 appeared ; and not more conducive to entertainment, than 
 to the interest of morality. He has been accused of deal- 
 ing unfairly with Alexander Selkirk, upon whose adven- 
 tures the work is founded : but the charge seems to have 
 been framed by his political enemies ; as Selkirk printed 
 his own narrative, many years before the appearance of 
 the imaginary Crusoe. 
 
 GEORGE THE SECOND. 
 
 1727—1760 
 
 George the second, only son of the late king, ascended 
 the throne in the forty-fourth year of his age. At this pe- 
 riod, lord Townshend was minister of foreign affairs, and 
 the interior government was conducted chiefly by sir Robert 
 Walpole ; a man who had raised himself to this high 
 situation by his eloquence, and his talent for political in- 
 trigue. Lord Torrington was placed at the head of the 
 admiralty. Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of Chesterfield., 
 was nominated ambassador to the Hague. 
 
 The national debt of Great Britain was more than fifty- 
 two millions ; an alarming sum, when compared with her 
 cotemporary finances. The ministers, as at present, boast- 
 ed of their sinking fund, as a powerful means of reducing 
 the debt : but, as yet, this far-famed invention has been in- 
 effective. Theory is overthrown by fact. Arithmetical 
 calculation seems as much opposed to this method of re- 
 duction, as mathematical demonstration is to the attempts 
 
 h 2 
 
194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 at producing perpetual motion by the unaided agency oi 
 mechanical power. 
 
 The system of corrupting the members of parliament, 
 was carried to a most shameful height. The immoral cus- 
 tom of voting large sums, under the name of secret ser- 
 vice money, had placed an engine of corruption in the hands 
 of the administration ; and patriotism was, by that means 
 nearly extinguished. The most eminent opposers of the 
 ministry, at this period, were, sir William Wyndham, Mr 
 Shippen, and Mr. William Pulteney. But their industry 
 and eloquence were unsuccessful. The treasury was still 
 more eloquent. Subsidies were liberally given to conti- 
 nental powers ; and treaties concluded, entirely uninter- 
 esting to Great Britain. 
 
 Lord Carteret, who had governed Ireland with 
 much propriety, returned to England ; being suc- 
 ceeded in his office by the duke of Dorset. The parliament 
 of that country had lately paid much attention to the in- 
 terest of agriculture, manufactures, and trade. 
 
 In the following year, seven Indian chiefs, of the Chero- 
 kee nation, were brought to England, by sir Alexander 
 Cumin. We may naturally imagine the feelings of these 
 rude people, from the novelty of all around them. Being 
 introduced to the king, they laid their regalia at his feet; 
 and, by a regular deed, acknowledged themselves subject 
 to his dominion, in the name of all their compatriots, by 
 whom they had been commissioned. They were amazed 
 at the splendour of the court. They compared the king 
 and queen to the sun and moon ; the princes, to the stars 
 of heaven, and themselves to nothing. After finishing a 
 treaty of friendship and commerce, these interesting visiters 
 were loaded with presents, and conveyed to their own 
 country. 
 
 We pass over the detail of many violent debates in par 
 liament, on finances, provision for the royal family, and il- 
 legal practices of the court to insure a majority. The op- 
 position had now acquired considerable strength. They 
 combated, with assiduity and manly eloquence, every at- 
 tempt upon the liberties of the people. A motion made 
 by Mr. Bromley, for repealing the septennial act, and for 
 the more frequent calling of parliaments, elicited the tal- 
 ents of both parties beyond any other question in this reign. 
 
 On that subject, sir William Wyndham delivered a 
 speech, plainly referring to sir Robert Walpole and the 
 reigning sovereign, which snowed him to be the unrivalled 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 195 
 
 orator, and the unshaken patriot.— " Let us suppose," said 
 ne, in the conclusion, " a man destitute of all sense of vir- 
 tue and honour; of no great family; of mean fortune; raised 
 to be chief minister of state by the concurrence of many 
 whimsical events ; afraid, or unwilling', to trust any but 
 creatures of his own making ; lost to every feeling of shame 
 or reputation ; ignorant of his country's true interest ; pur- 
 suing no aim but that of aggrandizing himself and his fa- 
 vourites ; in foreign affairs, trusting none, but those, who, 
 from the bent of their education, cannot possibly be quali- 
 fied for the service of their country.*— Let us suppose the 
 true interest of the nation, by such means, neglected or 
 misunderstood; her honour tarnished ; her importance lost; 
 her trade insulted ; her merchants plundered ; her sailors 
 murdered ; and all these circumstances overlooked, lest his 
 administration should be endangered. Suppose, next, that 
 he is possessed of immense wealth, the plunder of the na- 
 tion, with a parliament composed chiefly of men whose 
 seats are purchased, and whose votes are bought, at the ex- 
 pense of the public treasure. In such a parliament, sup- 
 pose that all attempts made to inquire into his conduct, or 
 to relieve the nation from the distress which has been en- 
 tailed upon it, by his administration, are- fruitless. Sup- 
 pose him screened by a corrupted majority of his creatures ; 
 whom he retains in daily pay, or engages in his interest, by 
 distributing amongst them those posts and places which 
 ought never to be given to any but for the good of the pub- 
 lic. Let us suppose him domineering, with insolence, over 
 all the men of ancient families ; over all the men of sense, 
 figure, or fortune, in the nation , as he has no virtue of his 
 own, ridiculing it in others, and endeavouring to destroy or 
 corrupt it, in all. With such a minister, and such a par- 
 liament, let us suppose a case, which I hope will never hap- 
 pen — a prince upon the throne, uninformed, ignorant, and 
 unacquainted with the true interest of his people — weak, 
 capricious, transported with unbounded ambition, and pos- 
 sessed of insatiable avarice. I hope that such a case will 
 never occur ; but, as it possibly may, could any greater evil 
 happen to a nation, than such a prince on the throne — ad- 
 vised, and solely advised, by such a minister, and that min- 
 ister supported by such a parliament ? — The nature of man- 
 kind cannot be altered, by human laws : the existence of 
 such a prince, or such a minister, we cannot prevent, by 
 act of parliament — but, the existence of such a parliament. 
 (. think we may prevent; and as it is more likely to exis' 
 
190 [IIS TOR Y Ok' EJNGLAlND. 
 
 while the septennial law remains in force, than if it were 
 repealed, I am, therefore, heartily, for its being repealed." 
 
 But, notwithstanding- the nervous arguments in favoui 
 of the motion, the advocates of liberty were overthrown 
 by a ministerial majority. 
 
 In the house of lords, the minority were not less vigilant 
 m detecting, and resolute in opposing, every measure inju- 
 rious to their country. The most remarkable object of 
 Iheir attention, at this time, was a petition, presented by the 
 duke of Bedford, subscribed by the dukes of Hamilton, 
 Queensbury, and Montrose, the earls of Dundonald, March- 
 mont, and Stair, complaining, that improper influence had 
 been used in the election of the sixteen peers returned to 
 parliament, for Scotland. The partisans of the ministry 
 would willingly have stifled the inquiry in the beginning; 
 but it was so strongly supported *by the earls of Chester- 
 field, Abingdon, and Strafford, the lords Bathurst and 
 Carteret, that they could not so soon dismiss it, with any 
 regard to decorum. The petitioners stated, that a list of 
 the sixteen peers, called the king's list, had been made, 
 previous to the election, by persons in high trust under the 
 crown: that votes were procured for their favourites, by 
 pensions, offices, and money ; and that, on the day of elec- 
 tion, his majesty's troops were drawn up, contrary to cus- 
 tom, in the Abbey-court of Edinburgh, without any appar- 
 ent cause, but that of overawing the electors.— Authentic 
 documents, taken from the journal of the election, were 
 then produced ; which fully supported the allegations of 
 the petition. But all these proofs, though supported by 
 the charms and energy of eloquence, were exhibited in 
 vain ; and a motion was carried for adjourning. 
 
 w In this year, Great Britain was deprived of one 
 
 of her greatest ornaments— lord Chancellor Talbot ; 
 who, by his probity and professional acquirements, had 
 given additional dignity to his exalted situation. He was 
 succeeded in his office by lord Hardwick. 
 _ Owing to a disgraceful treaty with Spain, in 
 
 which the national dignity had been sacrificed, by 
 its not expressly providing that British ships, when trading 
 from one English colony to another, should not be search- 
 ed oy the Spaniards; that country paid little regard to its 
 fulfilment ; and her dereliction was succeeded by a war. 
 They now claimed the right of searching all British ves- 
 sels m the American seas, without exception. Admiral 
 Vernon was despatched to attack the town of Porto Bello, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 197 
 
 on the isthmus of Darien ; which place he easily reduced* 
 and then demolished all its fortifications. But he was not 
 so fortunate in his subsequent operations. Being 
 joined at Jamaica by a large reinforcement, under 
 sir C. Ogle, his fleet now amounted to nearly sixty sail ; 
 one-half of which were of the line. With about twelve 
 thousand land-troops, under general Wentworth, he sailed 
 with the intention of reducing Havana, in the island of 
 Cuba; but, changing his destination, he proceeded to the 
 attack of Cai thagena. The attempt, however, proved abor- 
 tive. Owing to the want of co-operation between the sea 
 and the land forces, in which the admiral was in fault, the 
 troops were re-embarked ; after suffering incredible hard- 
 ships, both from the fire of the enemy, and sickness : and, 
 in the end, only a tenth part of their number returned to 
 England. 
 
 Commodore Anson had been sent with a small squadron 
 to annoy the enemy in the South Sea. This enterprising 
 officer returned, after an absence of three years and nine 
 months ; having made considerable prizes, and circumnavi- 
 gated the globe. His voyage, the particulars of which 
 were published, has been much celebrated ; and his con- 
 duct procured him advancement to the peerage. His fleet 
 being shattered by dreadful severity of weather, he took 
 shelter at the island of Juan Fernandez, off the coast of 
 Chili ; a place famous for having given rise to the story of 
 Robinson Crusoe. The following interesting observation 
 is extracted from his voyage. — " Former writers have re- 
 lated, that this island abounded with vast numbers of goats ; 
 and their accounts are not to be questioned ; this place hav- 
 ing been the usual haunt of the buccaniers and privateers 
 that formerly frequented these seas. And there are two 
 instances, one of a Musquito Indian, the other of Alexan- 
 der Selkirk, a Scotchman, who were left there by their re- 
 spective ships," and lived alone upon the island for some 
 years; consequently, were no strangers to its productions. 
 Selkirk, who was the last, after a stay of four or five years, 
 was taken off the place by the Duke and Dutchess priva- 
 teers of Bristol. His manner of life, in most particulars, 
 was very remarkable ; and there is one circumstance he re 
 lates, so fully verified by our own observation, that I can 
 not avoid reciting it. He tells us, amongst other things 
 that he often caught more goats than he wanted ; some- 
 times marked their ears and let them go. This was about 
 thirty-two years before our arrival at the island. Now, it 
 
198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 happened, that the first we killed there, had his ears slit , 
 from which, we concluded that he had been formerly under 
 the power of Selkirk. This was indeed an animal of most 
 venerable aspect; dignified wiih an exceedingly majestic 
 beard, and with many other symptoms of antiquity. Dur- 
 ing- our stay, we met with others, marked in the same man- 
 ner; all the males being distinguished by an exuberance of 
 beard, and every other characteristic of extreme age/ 
 
 The continent of Europe was now afflicted with most 
 sanguinary contests; arising from a disputed claim to the 
 imperial throne, and the conquest of Silesia by the Prus- 
 sians. This is the period in which Frederick the Great, 
 king of Prussia, appeared so conspicuous, as an indefatiga- 
 ble soldier and a wise politician. His Memoirs of the Seven 
 Years War are highly interesting. In these contests, the 
 king of England found an opportunity of engaging, as elect- 
 or of Hanover ; assisted by British and Hanoverian troops, 
 in conjunction with a body of Dutch and other auxiliaries. 
 A great battle ensued at the village of Dettingen. The al- 
 lies, amounting to forty-thousand, were commanded by the 
 earl of Stair : the French, by whom they were opposed, in 
 number thirty-thousand, were under the duke de Gram- 
 mont. The engagement was sustained, on both sides, with 
 distinguished bravery, and ended in the defeat of the enemy, 
 with considerable loss. George himself, and his second 
 son, the duke of Cumberland, were in this action, and ex- 
 posed themselves in the very hottest of the fight. 
 
 Meanwhile, the councils of the nation were most violent- 
 ly disturbed. A powerful party being formed against the ad- 
 ministration, Walpole and his adherents seemed tottering 
 on their seats. Mr. Sandys informed him, that, in two days, 
 he intended to bring a charge against him, in public. Sir 
 Robert received the intimation with great indifference, and 
 quoted the following, as a passage of Horace : 
 Nil conscire sibi, nulli pallescere culpse. 
 (To be conscious of no guilt, to turn pale at no charge.) 
 Mr, Pulteney who sat on the same bench with him, said, 
 that that was false Latin. Sir Robert wagered a guinea, 
 that it was not; a copy of Horace being produced, and the 
 words ol the author appearing to be, 
 
 Nil conscire sibi, nulla pallescere culpa. 
 Mr. Pulteney took the guinea, and, holding it up, said, 
 with a sneer, that it was the only guinea of the public 
 money, he had received for many years. — But these dissen- 
 sions were suddenly suspended. From the general dissatis- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 199 
 
 faction in Great Britain, the French were persuaded that 
 the people were ready for revolt; and the court of Ver- 
 sailles having- been informed, that if the chevalier St. George, 
 or his eldest son, Charles, would appear in that country, at 
 the head of a French army, a revolution would immediately 
 follow in his favour; measures were accordingly concerted 
 by the. minister, cardinal de Tencin, with the former; who 
 then resided at Rome. The chevalier, being far advanced 
 in years, delegated his authority to his son. Young Charles 
 having arrived in Paris, preparations went vigorously for- 
 ward for the intended invasion. In order to protect the land- 
 ing of the troops, M. de Roquefeuille sailed from Brest, 
 with twenty vessels of the line; directing his course up the 
 English Channel : but, on the approach of admiral Norris, 
 he quickly returned into port. Thus, England, for the pres- 
 ent, was saved from the horrors of civil war. 
 
 Notwithstanding the battle of Dettingen, and this at- 
 tempted invasion, France and England were nominally at 
 peace. A British minister was still at Paris. War, how- 
 ever, was soon formally proclaimed. The French king, Louis 
 XV, having resolved to humble the house of Austria, by 
 making a conquest of the Netherlands, sent thither an im- 
 mense army, commanded by count Saxe ; and Louis himself, 
 accompanied by the Dauphin, having arrived in the camp, 
 they invested the town of Tournay. The duke of Cumber- 
 land, at the head of the combined troops, marched to its 
 relief; and came in sight of the enemy near Fontenoy; 
 where a dreadful battle ensued. The English and Hano- 
 verians fought with determined bravery; but, being unsup- 
 ported by the Dutch, they were, in the end, defeated. 
 
 During these events, the administration had undergone 
 an important revolution. Sir Robert Walpole, having been 
 gradually losing his influence in parliament, was at length 
 overpowered by a decided majority. The next day, both 
 houses were for a short time adjourned: in the interim, he 
 was created earl of Orford, and, after being prime minister 
 for twenty years, resigned all his employments. Many of 
 the country party came into power. Mr. Sandys was made 
 chancellor of the exchequer ; lord Carteret, secretary of 
 state; Mr. Pulteney was admitted into the privy council, 
 and created earl of Bath ; and the earl of Stair, appointed 
 field marshal of all his majesty's forces. But this was a 
 change only of men — not of measures. Several of those 
 who had declaimed the most loudly against the court, now 
 as loudly opposed an inquiry into the past corruptions. 
 
200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Amongst these, were lords Carteret, Bathurst, the new earl 
 of Bath, and Mr. Sandys. Amongst the firm adherents of 
 the" people, were, the duke of Bedford, the earls of Stan- 
 hope, Sandwich, and Chesterfield. The latter nobleman 
 was, afterwards, lord lieutenant of Ireland ; and, principal 
 secretary of state. During his short government, his 
 urbanity and mildness gained the affections of the Irish 
 people, and he contributed highly to the improvement of 
 the Phoenix Park. He was distinguished for his*wit, elo- 
 quence, and polished manners, and for his extraordinary 
 address in negotiation: but he merits a severe reproach, 
 for having recommended his diplomatic system of flattery 
 and dissimulation, to aspiring youth ; from their first intro- 
 duction to the drawingroom, to their last stage of national 
 advancement. Man is, by nature, or by gradual contami- 
 nation, already too apt to become a time-serving sycophant, 
 and needs not the eloquence of Chesterfield to urge him 
 on his march to dishonourable attainments. 
 
 We are now approaching the most prominent 
 ' event of this reign. Though more than half a cen- 
 tury had passed since the house of Stuart forfeited the 
 throne, yet the hope of regaining it was not extinct. Young 
 Charles determined to make another effort. The majority 
 of his friends, however, sent a messenger, advising, that, as 
 he could not then expect the necessary aid from France, 
 his enterprise might end in the ruin of himself and his ad- 
 herents. But this advice did not arrive in time to prevent 
 his embarkation. Being furnished with some money and 
 arms, on his private credit, he set sail, on board a small 
 frigate, from Port St. Nazaire; accompanied by the mar- 
 quis of Tullibardine. sir Thomas Sheridan, sir John Mac 
 Donald, with a few other Irish and Scotch friends; and was 
 joined off Belleisle by the Elizabeth, a French ship of sixty- 
 six guns, as a convoy. Having fallen in with the Lion, 
 an English ship of the line, there ensued an obstinate and 
 sanguinary action. The Elizabeth was so disabled, that she 
 with difficulty arrived at Brest ; and the Lion was render- 
 ed almost a wreck. The return of the Elizabeth deprived 
 Charles of a large quantity of arms, and a number of ex- 
 perienced officers ; but, he at length arrived at Borrodale, 
 where he was in a short time joined by a considerable num- 
 ber of hardy mountaineers, under their respective leaders. 
 On the 19th of August, the marquis of Tullibardine 
 elected the pretender's standard at Glensinnan. Charles, 
 himself, having assembled about twelve-hundred men, en- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 201 
 
 camped near Fort William, situated on Loch Eil, in In- 
 vernesshire. Hostilities immediately began. In another 
 quarter, major Donald Mac Donald, at the head of a small 
 party of Keppoch's clan, encountered two companies of 
 newly-raised royalists; whom he easily disarmed. Charles 
 was afterwards joined by the duke of Perth, the earls of 
 Kilmarnock and Cromartie, and viscount Strathallan; lords 
 Nairn, George Murray, Elcho, Balmerino, and Ogilvie; 
 Pitsligo, Lewis Gordon, and John Drummond. The gov- 
 ernment, which, for some time, had doubted the truth of 
 Stuart's landing, was now effectually alarmed. A proclama- 
 tion was soon issued, offering a reward of thirty-thousand 
 pounds for his person ; whilst he, in another proclamation, 
 set the same price upon the head of the " elector of Han- 
 over.'' The Highlanders marched to Perth ; where the. 
 chevalier St. George was proclaimed king of Great Britain ;• 
 and, on the 17th of September, Charles entered Edinburgh, 
 and took possession of the royal palace of Holyrood House. 
 
 Three-thousand of the king's troops, commanded by sir 
 John Cope, were now approaching. On the 20th of the 
 month, they encamped near Preston Pans. Early next 
 morning, the young pretender, with an inferior number of 
 half-armed Highlanders, attacked them, with so great im- 
 petuosity., that, in a few minutes, the royalists were totally 
 beaten, with the loss of their colours, tents, baggage, and 
 military chest. Five-hundred of the king's troops were 
 killed on the field of battle. Amongst these, was colonel 
 Gardiner; who, when abandoned by his own regiment of 
 dragoons, disdaining to save his life at the expense of hon- 
 our, joined the infantry, and combated on foot, until, cover- 
 ed with wounds, he fell, in view of his own door, bravely 
 fighting to the last. 
 
 After the engagement, the victor returned to Edinburgh. 
 Whilst he resided there, some of the presbyterian clergy 
 continued to preach in the churches cf that city, and, with- 
 out meeting any interruption, publicly prayed for king 
 George. A minister, named Mac Vicar, having been so- 
 licited by some Highlanders to pray for their prince, promis- 
 ed to comply, and performed his promise in these words: 
 "And, as for the young prince, who has come hither in 
 search of an earthly crown — grant, O Lord, that he may 
 speedily receive a crown of glory" 
 
 Young Stuart had gained possession of nearly all Scot- 
 land : the number of his followers daily increased, and ne re- 
 ceived considerable supplies of money, artillery, and ammu- 
 S 
 
202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ration, from France. At length, having collected about five- 
 thousand men, he resolved to make an irruption into Eng-^ 
 land. He entered by the west border: invested Carlisle 
 which in a few clays surrendered ; and, leaving a small gar- 
 rison in the castle, advanced to Penrith ; marching, on foot 
 in the Highland dress.* Thence, he proceeded, through 
 Lancaster and Preston, to Manchester; where, on the 29th 
 of November, he established his head quarters. Here, he 
 was joined by a small regiment under the command of col- 
 onel Townley; and, apparently, was received with affection- 
 ate regard. Leaving Manchester, he forded the Mersey at 
 Stockport, at the head of his troops; passed through Mac- 
 clesfield and Congleton, and entered Derby; which is within 
 one-hundred-and-tventy miles of London. — In the mean 
 time, general Wade, with a body of the royal forces, ling- 
 ered in Yorkshire ; and the duke of Cumberland, with 
 another army, was posted'near Lichfield. The capital was 
 now a scene of terror and suspense: but this alarm quickly 
 subsided. Stuart was not supported in England as he had 
 expected. In a council of war, which he called at Derby, his 
 proposal, that his army should proceed to London, was re- 
 jected : it was determined 1o return into Scotland without 
 delay; and, on the sixth of December, he commenced his 
 retreat. He was overtaken, at Clifton, by two regiments of 
 dragoons ; whom he repulsed with great slaughter : on the 
 19th he reached Carlisle; and, having reinforced the gar- 
 rison, he crossed the rivers Eden and Solway, into Scot- 
 land ; after accomplishing one of the most surprising re- 
 treats that history records. 
 
 ._ By this time, a considerable body of troops were 
 
 assembled in Scotland, under the command of gen- 
 eral Hawley. On the 14th of January, his army was at 
 Falkirk ; whilst the rebels were stationed at Banrrockburn. 
 On the 17th, the pretender made a furious attack on the 
 
 * No infantry in the world have so lively, and so martial an appear- 
 ance, as the Highlanders of Scotland. Their present full dress con- 
 sists in a bonnet, with a broad tartan edge, and a profusion of black 
 ostrich feathers: a scarlet jacket, a plaid thrown over the shoulder, 
 in the manner of a scarf: a tartan kilt, which reaches to within a few 
 inehes of the knee, of the same form as the ancient Roman; having a 
 handsome pouch in front: tartan stockings, which ascend only to the 
 calf of the leg ; their shoes being fastened with brass buckles. For- 
 merly, they wore a dirk and a Tremendous broadsword; and, when 
 rushing to the charge, threw away the musket, and attacked sword 
 in hand. ^ Their officers still retain the dirk and basket-hilted sword, 
 with ail their other ancien>t appendages ; and, in this dresb, Appear not 
 only in the field, but at the royal court- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 203 
 
 royal forces ; drove them off the field, and captured the 
 greater part of their tents and artillery. 
 . On the 16th of April, the duke of Cumberland advanced 
 to attack the rebels ; who, beaded by their young prince, 
 were stationed on Culloclen Muir. Their number was only 
 about four-thousand ; and they were greatly confused and 
 disheartened, by an unsuccessful attempt, made by them a 
 few days before, on the quarters of the duke. The royal 
 army was much more numerous, and in excellent order. — 
 About one o'clock in the afternoon, the cannonading began. 
 The artillery of the rebels was ill-served, and did little ex- 
 ecution ; but that of the king's troops made dreadful havock. 
 After a vigorous resistance, the rebels were defeated. The 
 French picquets covered their retreat by a close and 
 regular fire ; and then retired to Inverness, where they 
 surrendered. Twelve-hundred of the rebels were killed or 
 wounded ; and the victorious soldiers exercised around the 
 country the usual barbarities of civil war. 
 
 The vanquished invader rode off the field with a few 
 friends, crossed the Nairn, and retired to the house of a 
 gentleman in Strattharick; where he conferred with old lord 
 Lovat. Then, having dismissed his followers, he wandered, 
 in wretchedness and solitude, amongst the isles and moun- 
 tains, for the. space of five months ; in which time, he un- 
 derwent a series of misery and dangers, such as it is scarce- 
 ly credible that a human being could withstand. He was 
 surrounded by armed troops, who chased him from hill to 
 hill, from rock to cavern, and from shore to shore. Foi 
 some days, he appeared in female dress. One day, he was 
 in the very centre of a party of the royal troops, whom he 
 heard relieving the guard, and conversing. Here, a young 
 man, permitting himself to pass for Charles* and refusing 
 to surrender, was killed on the spot. This contributed 
 greatly to save the life of the pretender, who, being sup- 
 posed dead, afterwards travelled by several camps, and 
 even passed between their sentinels. He was obliged to 
 trust his life to the fidelity of more than fifty individuals ; 
 and, though many of these were in the greatest indigence, 
 they all nobly resisted the allurement of reward. 
 
 At length, a privateer, hired by Sheridan and other Irish 
 adherents, arrived in Lochnannoch; on board of w r hich the 
 unfortunate young prince embarked, on the 20th day of 
 September ; and, after passing unseen, during a thick fog 
 through a British squadron, and being chased by two ships 
 of war, he arrived safely near Morlaix, in France. 
 
204 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The victory at Culloden had extinguished the rebellion 
 An act of attainder was now passed against the princi- 
 pal insurgents: courts were opened in different places for 
 trying the prisoners, and many persons were executed; 
 amongst whom, were, the lords Kilmarnock, Lovat, and 
 Balmerino. 
 
 The behaviour of lord Lovat, on the scaffold, was re- 
 markably cheerful, and even facetious. He surveyed the 
 crowd with attention, examined the axe, jested with the 
 executioner; and, after repeating, though with very little 
 propriety, the famous line of Horace, Duke et decorum est 
 pro patria mori, (it is pleasant and honourable to die for 
 one's country,) he laid his head upon the block, with the 
 utmost indifference. 
 
 The naval operations, for some time past, were very fa- 
 vourable to Great Britain. But they were more advantage- 
 ous than glorious. In almost every engagement, she had a 
 superiority of force. The sea officers, recently the most 
 distinguished, were, Anson, Warren, Hawke, and Bos- 
 cawen. Their victories, which had nearly annihilated the 
 French navy, and destroyed their commerce; the sailing 
 of Boscawen against the French settlements in the East 
 Indies, added to some military disappointments suffered by 
 Louis ; induced this monarch to think seriously of peace. 
 Plenipotentiaries from the contending powers as- 
 sembled at Aix-la-Chapelle ; and, in the month of 
 October, a definitive treaty was signed, and hostilities 
 ceased in all quarters. 
 
 Notice was given to the young pretender, that, in conse- 
 quence of an article in this treaty, he must immediately 
 quit France; but, as he refused to comply with this order, 
 and even threatened to shoot the first person that would 
 presume to arrest him, he was, one evening, when stepping 
 out of his coach at the opera-house, in Paris, seized bv a 
 party of French guards; who, having tied him with a 
 cord, like a common felon, conducted him beyond the fron- 
 tiers of the kingdom. 
 
 The few years of peace which followed, were the most 
 prosperous and happy that Europe had ever known. Arts 
 and letters were successfully cultivated: manufactures were 
 improved, and commerce extended: the intercourse of 
 mankind was rendered more frequent and easy by means 
 of new roads and newly invented ccrriages. This was 
 particularly the case in France and England, and between 
 the people of these, two rival kingdoms. Forgetting their 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 205 
 
 past animosities, they seemed to contend only for pre- 
 eminence in refinement and mutual civility. 
 
 But that harmony was soon interrupted. With monarchs, 
 the happiness of a people is, in general, of small import- 
 ance. A criminal ambition is, too frequently, the spring of 
 all their actions. When Louis signed the treaty of Aix-la- 
 Gh ape lie, his ministers had formed a plan of encroaching 
 upon the principal English settlements in America and the 
 Last Indies : as soon, therefore, as he had recruited his 
 diminished navy, he commenced his operations. 
 
 The province of Nova Scotia, in North America, to 
 which the French had given the name of l'Acadie, had been 
 ceded to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht. But, the 
 soil being reputed barren, and the climate intensely cold, 
 only a few English families had settled in that country; 
 notwithstanding its advantageous situation for the fishing 
 trade, and its abounding in naval stores; so that the French 
 inhabitants, having sworn allegiance to the British, had 
 continued to enjoy their lands and ancient privileges under 
 the government of England. As they were exempted from 
 carrying arms against the subjects of Louis, they assumed 
 the name of neutrals. But this peaceful character, they 
 shamefully violated in 1746, when France attempted to re- 
 gain possession of the province. It therefore became ne- 
 cessary to people it with subjects of Great Britain; 
 \ and, in consequence of liberal encouragement, about 
 three-thousand families, many of whom were Germans, 
 arrived in Nova Scotia. The town of Halifax was then 
 built, and the harbour strongly fortified. 
 
 New disputes arose, of still more importance. These 
 related to the boundaries of the British provinces, (now in- 
 cluded in the United States,) on which the French had 
 systematically tried to encroach. Their plan was, to unite 
 Canada and Louisiana by a chain of forts ; and to confine the 
 English in that tract of country which lies within the Alle- 
 ghany mountains and the sea. Although the British col- 
 onists had then made few settlements beyond those moun- 
 tains, yet the inhabitants of Virginia considered that their 
 territory towards the west was unlimited, except by the 
 ocean; having been partly occupied even before the French 
 discovered Louisiana; and the people of the two Carolinas 
 had never doubted that they might extend their plantations 
 to the banks of the Mississippi, without interfering with 
 any of the European powers. Their only care was to quiet 
 the jealousy of the Indians. 
 S 2 
 
200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Roused, at length, by the insults and invasion of 
 the French, the several colonies determined to sup- 
 port the British claims in every part of North America. 
 In consequence of this resolution, major Washington, whom 
 we have already mentioned in comparison with a great 
 English character, was despatched from Virginia with four- 
 hundred men; to watch the motions of the enemy, and re- 
 cover the places which they had taken on the Ohio. Wash- 
 ington encamped on the banks of that river, threw up some 
 works for his defence, and waited to receive a reinforce- 
 ment from New York. De Villier, having in vain sum- 
 moned him to abandon his post, attacked him at the head 
 of eight-hundred men; but Washington defended it with so 
 much skill and intrepidity, as to render all the efforts nf 
 his enemy abortive. It was, however, agreed that both 
 parties should retire: the Americans towards Will's creek: 
 the French, towards the Monongahela. 
 
 In the following year, more important operations were 
 projected, for attacking the French forts along the Ohio. 
 The conduct of the forces was intrusted to general Brad- 
 dock; who, for that purpose, had been sent from Europe, 
 with two regiments of foot. This officer, having passed the 
 mountains at the head of twenty-two-hundred men, rapidly 
 advanced to attack Fort du Quesne, the chief object of 
 his enterprise. But, unfortunately, he did not use sufficient 
 caution in reconnoitring the savage country ; a country 
 with which he was as little acquainted, as with the nature 
 of an American war; in which, the danger of surprise is 
 perpetual, amongst woods, defiles, and morasses : and he 
 was too proud to ask the advice of the provincial officers ; 
 for whom he entertained a sovereign contempt. This enter- 
 prise terminated in an awful misfortune. Within ten miles 
 of the fort, Braddock fell into an ambuscade of French and 
 Indians ; and, after a gallant resistance, in which his ob- 
 stinacy seemed to increase with the surrounding dangers, 
 he was mortally wounded in the breast, and defeated with 
 the loss of seven-hundred men killed. In this action, the 
 Virginians and other provincials, were not in the least af- 
 fected by the horrid yells of the Indians, which had para- 
 lysed the efforts of the Europeans ; and young Washington 
 again gave proofs of that bravery and presence of mind, 
 which, amidst the most appalling conflicts, always accom- 
 panied him in his patriotic march. 
 
 Meanwhile, both parties made extensive preparations for 
 a vigorous struggle. Reinforcements successively arrived 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 207 
 
 in America. A detachment of regulars and provincials, 
 under colonel Monckton, quickly reduced the French forts 
 in Nova Scotia, and restored in that province perfect tran- 
 quillity. 
 17 .,- We shall now return to the affairs of Europe. 
 The island of Minorca, which England had held 101 
 nearly fifty years, being threatened by the French, admiral 
 Byng, son of the celebrated lord Torrington, was sent into 
 the Mediterranean, to its relief, with a fleet of seventeen 
 sail; eleven of which were of the line. Prior to his arrival, 
 the enemy had landed on the island fifteen-thousand men, 
 and were besieging the castle of St. Philip, which com- 
 mands the port and town of Mahon. On Byng's approach- 
 ing the harbour, he had the satisfaction to see the British 
 colours still flying on the castle; but, notwithstanding this 
 animating circumstance, his attempts to relieve it were 
 feeble, and consequently ineffectual. When a French fleet, 
 very little superior to his in force, advanced to prevent his 
 landing troops, he remained at so great a distance, un- 
 der pretence of preserving his line unbroken, that his divi- 
 sion did very little damage to the enemy, and his own no- 
 ble ship, of ninety guns, was never properly in the action. 
 However, the division under admiral West defeated three 
 of the French ships ; and, if supported, would have gained 
 a complete victory. Although the English fleet had lost 
 only forty men, Byng retired to Gibraltar, and shamefully 
 suffered the whole island to be taken. The public voice 
 being now loud against him, he was superseded by sir Ed- 
 ward Hawke, and brought home to answer for his conduct. 
 He was, accordingly, tried by a court martial, in Ports- 
 mouth harbour; was found guilty, and shot in conformity 
 with his awful sentence. 
 
 Soon after that miscarriage, the king, urged by the clam- 
 ours of the nation, which were first caused by the disa- 
 greeable complexion of affairs in America, formed a new 
 administration. William Pitt, the most popular man in 
 England, accepted the office of secretary of state for the 
 foreign department, in the place of Henry Fox ; and Mr. 
 Legge was made chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 The first measures of Mr. Pitt were highly patriotic and 
 wise. Lie procured an order for sending home the foreign 
 troops; so long and so justly odious to the kingdom ; and 
 assisted in establishing a militia, nearly on the present foot- 
 ing, as the best constitutional defence. 
 
208 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The duke of Cumberland was now on the conti- 
 nent,for the purpose of guarding the Hanoverian do- 
 minions. But his measures were injudicious, and ended in 
 defeat. Being hard pressed by the duke de Richelieu, the 
 conqueror of Minorca, he was under the necessity of sign- 
 ing the singular convention of Closter-seven ; by which, his 
 army, of thirty-eight thousand foreigners, in British pay, 
 was dissolved, and distributed into different places of can- 
 tonment, without being disarmed, or considered as prisoners 
 of war. After this unhappy occurrence, the French were, 
 for a while, in possession of all Hanover. To this, succeed- 
 ed several attempts on the maritime towns in France ; which, 
 in general, were unsuccessful : nor were affairs in America 
 now more cheering. But, at sea, the gallant Hawke, and 
 other brave men, sustained the honour of their flag: in the 
 East Indies, the army were gaining ground, under colonel 
 Clive, captain Coote, and their active associates ; and at 
 Minden, in Westphalia, the British troops were highly dis- 
 tinguished. Not even at Blenheim, was more heroism 
 shown. The king of England having formed an alliance 
 with the Prussian Monarch, (his nephew,) prince Frederick 
 of Brunswick, was placed at the head of the combined forces; 
 of which, the British infantry and two battalions of Hano- 
 verians formed the centre. They were opposed at Minden 
 by the French army, commanded by marshal Contades. 
 After an obstinate engagement, the enemy, unable to with- 
 stand the intrepid charges of the centre, were defeated; 
 with the loss of seven-thousand men, in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners. 
 
 The vigorous and enterprising spirit of Mr. Pitt, seemed 
 to communicate itself to all ranks and classes; especially 
 to the officers of the army and navy. In North America, 
 where, in general, there had occurred delay, disaster, and 
 disgrace, affairs assumed a most favourable aspect. The 
 chief command in that quarter was now held by genera) 
 Abercrombie ; who divided his men, amounting to thirty- 
 six-thousand, into three bodies — one division, of sixteen- 
 thousand, headed by himself, in person: another, of twelve- 
 thousand, by general Amherst; and the third, of eight 
 thousand, by general Forbes. The first was destined against 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point: the second against Louis- 
 bourg, the capital of Cape Breton : the last against Fort 
 du Quesne. — Amherst, aided by a large fleet under Bos- 
 cawen, gained possession of the whole island of Cape Bre- 
 ton, and all the inferior stations in the gulph of St, Law- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 209 
 
 rence. But Abercrombie was not successful : having made 
 a rash attack upon Ticonderoga, he was driven oft' with 
 considerable loss. Amherst, however, subsequently cap- 
 tured both this place and Crown Point; meeting scarcely 
 any opposition. General Forbes marched from Philadel- 
 phia against Fort du Quesne, through a tract of country 
 very little known, and almost impassable, by reason of 
 woods, mountains, and morasses ; and, after incredible 
 exertions, surmounted every difficulty, though continually 
 harassed by the Indians ; and took possession of the place 
 Fort du Quesne, which then received the name of Fort 
 Pitt, is the site of the present Pittsburgh. 
 1759 ^ ie most brilliant achievement during this war, 
 was the capture of Quebec. This city, the capital 
 of Lower Canada, is built chiefly upon a steep rock, at the 
 confluence of the rivers St. Lawrence and St. Charles 
 Naturally strong from its situation, it had received every 
 additional strength which the art of war could give ; and 
 was still further defended by its numerous garrison, the 
 bravery of its inhabitants, and a force, superior to the assail- 
 ants, advantageously posted in its neighbourhood, com- 
 manded by the gallant marquis de Montcalm. The reduc- 
 tion of this place, upon the fate of which important conse- 
 quences depended, was intrusted to general Wolfe; a young 
 officer, of amiable manners, already distinguished in sev- 
 eral engagements ; beloved and respected by his army and 
 his country. His land forces did not exceed seven-thou- 
 sand men, British and Americans. 
 
 Passing over some bold but unsuccessful operations, in 
 which the enterprising commander lost about five-hundred 
 men, and was reduced to an alarming situation, bordering 
 on despair, we shall proceed to the attack. 
 
 The French commander, being apprehensive that the in- 
 vaders might make a distant landing, and come on the back 
 of the city, detached M. de Bougainville, with fifteen-hun- 
 dred men, to watch their motions. Meantime, a daring 
 plan was formed, by the three English brigadier generals, 
 Monckton, Townshend, and Murray, and presented to the 
 commander in chief; which was, to land the troops in the 
 night, under the heights of Abraham, a little above the 
 town ; in hopes of climbing the rugged ascent before morn- 
 ing. The very boldness of this plan, which was made whilst 
 Wolfe was confined by sickness, recommended it to his 
 intrepid and generous spirit. — The stream was rapid, the 
 shore shelving, the intended landing-place so narrow, as to 
 
210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 be easily missed in the dark; and the ascent so difficult, as 
 hardly to be surmounted in the day-time, even when unop- 
 posed. The French general could not think that such an 
 approach would be attempted. — Wolfe is amongst the first 
 that leap on shore : colonel Howe, with the Highlanders 
 and light infantry, lead the way up the hill ; and the whole 
 army gain the summit before break of day. — The French 
 general is amazed, astonished! But he hesitates not a mo- 
 ment. When he finds that a battle cannot prudently be 
 avoided, he bravely puts his troops in motion, and hastens 
 to the attack. — At first, the British suffered severely by a 
 galling fire from the marksmen placed in the corn-fields 
 and bushes on the enemy's front. However, when the 
 main body of the French came up, they were so warmly 
 assailed by a shower of bullets, that they soon gave way. 
 At this moment, general Wolfe, whilst pressing on at the 
 head of his grenadiers, received a fatal shot in his breast, 
 and fell in the arms of victory. — On the other side, the 
 brave Montcalm and his second in command were killed. — 
 Under all the agonies of death, Wolfe's anxiety for the suc- 
 cess of the day was unabated. When told, that the enemy 
 were entirely routed, and fled on all sides, — " Then," said 
 he, " I am happy ;" and he instantly expired. Five days 
 afterwards, Quebec surrendered; and, before the termina- 
 tion of the following year, Montreal, Detroit, Michili- 
 machinac, and every other place within the government of 
 Canada. It was stipulated, that their garrisons should be 
 conveyed to France ; and that the Canadians should be se- 
 cured in their property, and in the free exercise of their 
 religion. 
 
 At length, the town of New Orleans, and a few planta 
 tions on the Mississippi, were all that remained to France, 
 of her numerous settlements in North America. 
 
 Meanwhile, the French talked loudly of retaliating the 
 several insults On her coast, by invading, at the same time, 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland. For that purpose, they as- 
 sembled large, bodies of troops, and collected men of war, 
 transports, and flat-bottomed boats, into their principal sea- 
 ports. In order to defeat their intention, powerful fleets 
 were sent from England, under Rodney, Boscawen, and 
 Hawke; by whose vigilance, supported by the brave con- 
 duct of their seamen, all the enemy's vessels were either 
 sunk, taken, or dispersed. Hawke came up with twenty- 
 one sail of the line and four frigates, under De Conflans, 
 between Belleisle and Cape Quiberon. The French admi 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 211 
 
 ral, afraid to engage the English, tried to avoid a battle, by 
 keeping on a lee-shore, thick with rocks and shoals, with 
 which he was well acquainted. Hawke, however, regard- 
 less of every peril, bore down upon the enemy, and ordered 
 the pilot to lay his own ship, the Royal George, along side 
 that of the French admiral, named the Royal Sun. Con- 
 flans did not decline the combat: but a French captain 
 gallantly threw his vessel between them ; and one broadside 
 from the Royal George sent his noble ship Le Thesee, 
 with him and all his crew, to the bottom. The* Royal Sun 
 drove ashore ; many others shared the same fate ; and the 
 remainder of the enemy were indebted to a tempestuous 
 night for their escape. 
 
 Thurot, rendered famous by his privateering ad- 
 
 ' ' ventures, had got out of Dunkirk a little before Con- 
 ilans left Brest. His squadron consisted of one ship of 
 forty-four guns, called the Belleisle, and four small frigates ; 
 carrying twelve-hundred land forces. After a series of dis- 
 asters, owing to inclement weather, in which he parted 
 with one of his ships, he sailed for the coast of Ireland, and 
 made himself master of Carrickfergus. Having victualled 
 his fleet and pillaged the town, he received intelligence of 
 the defeat of Conflans, and then put to sea; steering to- 
 wards France. He was swiftly pursued by captain Klliot, 
 with the jEolus, Pallas, and Brilliant frigates, and overtak- 
 en near the Isle of Man. The force on each side was nearly 
 equal; and the engagement that followed was sanguinary 
 and obstinate. The death of Thurot determined the con- 
 test. The Belleisle struck her colours, and the rest of the 
 French squadron followed her example. 
 
 Great Britain was now every where victorious. She 
 had not only destroyed the power of France in North 
 America, but had reduced it in the East and West Indies, 
 and in Africa; and she triumphed on the waves. Yet all 
 these conquests were thought insufficient by the people. 
 They complained that some islands in the West Indies 
 were still in possession of the French. With more jus- 
 lice, they were incensed, that the war in Germany was 
 continued, for the protection of Hanover, and the assist- 
 ance of Prussia. 
 
 In the midst of this clamour, the king, on the 25th of 
 October, was suddenly taken ill, and almost instantly ex- 
 pired, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and thirty- 
 fourth of his reign. "His character," according to an im- 
 partial historian, "is by no means complicated. Violent 
 
912 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 in his temper, but humane and candid in his disposition, if 
 he failed to command the respect of those who were about 
 his person, he conciliated their affection. If his under- 
 standing was not very capacious, his judgment was sound; 
 and if he had little of the munificence of a great monarch, 
 he possessed the economy of a prudent prince." 
 
 This reign is distinguished by many writers of eminence. 
 The poets are, Somerville, and Christopher Pitt; West 
 Collins, and Shenstone ; Young, Akenside, and Gray ; Her- 
 vey and Aaron Kill; Carey, Southern, and Allan Ramsay; 
 Hoadly, Simpson, and Maclaurin, were mathematicians ; 
 anatomy and physic engrossed the talents of Fordyce and 
 Cheyne, Monro, Cheselden and Meade^ In his " Chace," 
 Somerville delights and interests us by his animated and 
 correct description of the various modes of hunting in dif- 
 ferent countries. — Pitt is known chiefly as a translator. 
 His versions of the jEneid and Vida's Art of Poetry, are 
 harmonious and correct. The former is, by many judici- 
 ous critics, preferred to that of Dryden.— West has given 
 an elegant translation of Pindar ; and some valuable works 
 on religion. — Collins was a man of extensive learning, and 
 vigorous faculties ; but he has left no works of import- 
 ance. — The poems of Shenstone consist of elegies, odes, 
 moral pieces, humorous, sallies, and ballads. His delight 
 was in rural pleasures, and in rural elegance ; to enliven 
 the. prospect and diversify the surface of his grounds, by 
 forming the tedious labyrinth, and winding the channel of 
 the brook.^-In the Universal Passion, Night Thoughts, 
 and Revenge, of Doctor Young, there is a copious dis- 
 play of the highest order of talent. The first, for which 
 he received three-thousand pounds, is a species of satire, 
 between that of Horace and that of Juvenal. It is related 
 of Young, that one day, being much engaged in reading a 
 book, he wandered, with it in his hand, into a military 
 camp ; where he had much difficulty in proving that he 
 was only an absent poet, and not a spy.^-Akenside is best 
 known by his Pleasures of the Imagination; and Gray, by 
 his Elegy in a Church Yard : both of which are esteemed 
 classical productions. 
 
 Eminent, however, as were those candidates for poetic 
 fume, the genius of Great Britain was still more highly 
 displayed, by writers of a different class. As a divine, 
 whose learning was solely employed in critical researches 
 appertaining to his own profession, Doctor Lowth must be 
 considered in the very first rank. Samuel Clarke, also, 
 
HISTORY OF EN GLAND. 213 
 
 was a critical divine, and published improved editions of 
 Caesar's Commentaries, and Homer. 
 
 Richardson was intended to transmit his name to futurity 
 by exercising his talents in a less serious description of 
 literature. This celebrated author, though acquainted with 
 l.o language but his own, stands in the very first order of 
 English writers. His epistolary novels — Pamela, Clarissa, 
 and sir Charles Grandison, have given him a just claim to 
 the title of founder of that species of amusement.«— Field- 
 ing, as a novelist, is not inferior to Richardson. His char 
 acters are his own, and drawn with the pencil of a master 
 He does not, however, rest his fame on his novels, alone : 
 before he reached his thirtieth year, he had written no less 
 than eighteen pieces for the stage; several of which have 
 remained in public estimation— Scotland has great reason 
 to boast of Smollett. He is no less remarkable for the 
 greatness, than for the versatility, of his genius. Educated 
 as a surgeon, he served in that capacity at the siege of 
 Carthagena; and, in his Roderick Random, has given us 
 an account of his expedition. His early adventures seem 
 to have impressed him with that extraordinary turn for 
 displaying the human character in so many different situa- 
 tions, and in so just a colouring. But, to the work already 
 mentioned, as well as his Peregrine Pickle, Count Fathom, 
 sir Launcelot Greaves, and Humphrey Clinker, some ob- 
 jections may be made, respecting their occasional want of 
 delicacy. We are much indebted to him, however, for his 
 fine translations of Gil Bias, Don Quixote, and Telemachus; 
 but do not so highly admire his continuation of Hume's 
 History of England. 
 
 At Oxford, were first promulgated the doctrine and dis- 
 cipline of the numerous sect called Methodists; an appel- 
 lation given to them on account of the rigid system which 
 they pursued. Whitfield and the Wesleys may be consid- 
 ered as the great extenders of their church, though it is 
 said that Law was the original founder. Georgia, the last 
 settled of all the English colonies now under the govern- 
 ment of the United States, was planted in the reign of 
 George the second. The first governor was general Ogle- 
 thorpe ; who, with about one-hundred poor people, began 
 his operations on Savannah river. 
 
 In 1752, the year commenced, in England, on the first of 
 
 January, instead of the twenty-fifth of March ; and the 
 
 third of September was reckoned as the fourteenth: by the 
 
 latter change, correcting an error in the kalendar, which 
 
 T 
 
214 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 had been increasing for many ages. This alteration, call- 
 ed the Gregorian, or new style, had not been adopted in 
 any of the protestant states until the year 1700; nor is it 
 yet used in the Russian empire. 
 
 The erection of Westminster bridge, over the Thames, 
 was completed in 1750, after nearly twelve years being em 
 ployed in its erection. This magnificent and useful build 
 mg would do honour to the taste and public spirit of any 
 age or people. It consists of fifteen semi-circular arches, 
 is more than twelve-hundred feet in length, and cost three- 
 hundred-and-ninety-thousand pounds sterling. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 GEORGE THE THIRD. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 1760—1820. 
 
 w IF the glory of a nation can justly be estimated 
 
 ' by its success in arms, the British empire was now 
 a brilliant object of admiration. The martial spirit of the 
 people, directed by accomplished leaders, supported by 
 immense resources, which were industriously concentrated, 
 and skilfully applied by a patriotic minister, gave to the 
 young sovereign an exalted situation. 
 
 George the third, who ascended the throne in bis twen- 
 ty-third year, the first prince of the Brunswick line that 
 was born in England, was son of the late Frederick, prince, 
 of Wales, and grandson of George the second. In the 
 ensuing year, he was married to the princess Charlotte ol 
 Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; and their coronation was perform- 
 ed with the usual magnificence, in Westminster Abbey. 
 As yet, he was little known by the people. Brought up in 
 retirement, introduced neither to the pleasures nor the. 
 business of a court, it seemed a leading object in his edu- 
 cation, to preserve him from the contaminating allure- 
 ments, thrown, at an early age, in the way of a royal heir 
 The attention thus devoted to his welfare, Mas not un- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 215 
 
 profitably given. Whatever political impropriety ^e can 
 discover, through the almost impenetrable veil of minis 
 terial management, we can still trace the benefits of a care- 
 ful superintendence, in his morals. 
 
 No immediate change occurred, either in the national 
 policy, or in the cabinet. One of the first acts of royalty, 
 was introducing into the privy council the earl of Bute; a 
 nobleman who enjoyed an ascendency over the king's mind, 
 in consequence of the office which he had held in direct- 
 ing his education; a duty which he apparently discharged 
 with fidelity, however we may find occasion to condemn 
 his conduct in public. In the following spring, the par- 
 liament, after appropriating the sum of eight-hundred- 
 thousand pounds as the annual expenditure of the civil list, 
 passed an act, in accordance with the king's recommenda- 
 tion, which gave additional security to the independence 
 of the judges; by continuing their commissions during 
 good behaviour, without being liable to removal on tin- 
 death of the sovereign ; a salutary amendment to the regu- 
 lations made in the reign of William the third. Some 
 changes ensued in the administration. Mr. Legge was re- 
 moved from the office of chancellor of the exchequer, and 
 was succeeded by lord Barrington. The earl of Bute was 
 made one of the secretaries of state, and the vice-royalty 
 of Ireland was conferred on lord Halifax. 
 
 An expedition, secretly prepared in the spring, 
 ' sailed in the month of March from Spithead, undei 
 the orders of commodore Keppel and general Hodgson, 
 and in a few days arrived off Belleisle on the coast of 
 Brittany. The first attempt to land was defeated. The 
 next, however, was successful; but, so resolutely was the 
 place defended, that two months were employed in its re- 
 duction. In the East, and the West Indies, the British 
 still maintained an overwhelming superiority. 
 
 During these hostilities, the belligerents were anxioush 
 attentive to promote a peace. Negotiations were for s 
 time going forward. Although the conduct to be observ- 
 ed with respect to the German allies, was a matter of con- 
 siderable difficulty, the English ministers having declared 
 their resolution of preserving their faith with the king of 
 Prussia and the neighbouring princes ; yet that obstacle 
 was gradually removing. But, unfortunately, the French 
 diplomatists introduced a highly offensive subject, relating 
 to the affairs of Spain; a power then neutral, and of course 
 not directlv concerned in the deliberations. The interfere 
 
216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 enee arose from a family connexion between the French 
 •and Spanish courts; which had long been a source of jeal- 
 ousy to Great Britain. Cordiality and confidence, there- 
 fore, were now destroyed, and the negotiation terminated. 
 
 The active and provident mind of Mr. Pitt conceiving 
 that Spain intended, on the first favourable moment, to be 
 come a party in the contest, he urged the policy of includ- 
 ing that country in the war. But this measure his col- 
 leagues opposed, as not only rash, but unjustifiable. 
 Wherefore, finding himself unable to carry his point, and 
 being, from his temper and long continued success, inca- 
 pable of bearing contradiction, he resigned his situation, 
 and the office of principal secretary of state was given to 
 lord Egremont. 
 
 Although the measure proposed by Mr. Pitt, of an im- 
 mediate attack on Spain, when considered with the cool re- 
 flection of an experienced politician, could not be declared 
 one of necessity; nor, when judged by the imperious dic- 
 tates of morality, could not be recommended; yet, his pro- 
 phetic notice of that country's hostile inclination was cor- 
 rect. As soon as the negotiation with France was broken 
 off, the behaviour of the Spanish court left no doubt on the 
 minds of the British cabinet of its intention, and lord Bris- 
 tol, the ambassador at Madrid, suddenly took leave. The 
 
 7 usual festivities of the new year were scarcely ended, 
 when war was formally declared. Though already 
 loaded with heavy charges; burthened by an accumulating 
 debt; without any expectation of assistance in the contest ; 
 this great accession of hazard seemed little to affect the 
 spirits of the nation. Indeed, a war with Spain is generally 
 popular in England ; where, she is viewed, especially by 
 the navy, rather as a tempting prey, than a formidable an- 
 tagonist. This dangerous, demoralizing avidity, first taught 
 a people by their monarchs, and now influencing many who 
 boast a higher degree of public virtue than is supposed to 
 prevail in Europe, is the despicable feeling of a pirate, not 
 the noble impulse of an offended patriot. 
 
 In expectation of this rupture, it had been determined to 
 curtail the power of France in the West Indies. Accord- 
 ingly, twelve-thousand troops under Monckton, and eight- 
 een ships of the line commanded by Rodney, were sent 
 against Martinico. A landing being easily made, the army 
 proceeded to Fort Royal ; a place guarded by a strong cit- 
 adel, and by two powerful batteries. These, however, were 
 with great intrepidity taken by storm. The town then cap- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 217 
 
 itulated. St. Pierre, the capital, was the next object of at- 
 tack : but further operations became unnecessary, as the 
 governor of the colony surrendered the whole island. This 
 success was followed by the easy acquisition of all its de- 
 pendencies ; and thus, the whole Caribeean chain weer 
 now under the British dominion. 
 
 The next object of attack, in that quarter of the globe, 
 was Havana; the centre of the Spanish trade and naviga- 
 tion in the West Indies. The fleet destined for this import- 
 ant and dangerous service, consisted of nineteen ships of 
 the line, eighteen small armed vessels, and one-hundred- 
 and-fifty transports; carrying fourteen-thousand land forces: 
 the former, under the direction of admiral Pococke; the 
 latter, under general lord Albemarle. Fort Moro, which 
 was considered as almost impregnable, having been storm- 
 ed through a breach made by springing a mine, Havana, 
 with a district extending one-hundred-and-eighty miles, 
 was yielded to the victors. A richer conquest has rarely 
 been effected. Besides fourteen ships of the line, and four 
 frigates, the British deprived the enemy of money and 
 merchandise amounting to three-millions sterling. In the 
 same month, an armament sailed from Madras, command- 
 ed by admiral Cornish and colonel sir William Draper, 
 against Luconia, the principal of the Philippine islands. 
 Having stormed the capital, Manilla, they made an agree- 
 ment with its inhabitants, by which their lives, liberties 
 and property, were allowed them, on their promising a 
 ransom of one-million sterling. With the surrender of 
 the capital were included the whole country and depending 
 settlements. The ransom, however, was never paid. 
 
 By the rupture with Spain, an ancient ally of Great Brit- 
 ain was involved in war. This was Portugal; a country 
 gradually declining into disorganization and debility. A 
 memorial, inviting the king of Portugal to join the alliance 
 against England, had been presented by the ambassadors of 
 France and Spain : but, as he refused compliance, his ter- 
 ritories were invaded by a powerful army. However, by the 
 assistance of a British force under general Burgoyne, the 
 feeble Portuguese were saved from the impending ruin. 
 
 Lord Bute's preponderating influence on the king's mind 
 being very sensibly felt by his ministerial colleagues, an 
 extensive change occurred in the members of the govern- 
 ment. The duke of Newcastle, who held the post of first 
 commissioner of the treasury, usually, though not always, 
 •considered, as giving the title of "premier," retired, and 
 T 2 
 
218 . HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 was succeeded by the favourite. The new minister, either 
 from the increased difficulty of continuing the war in the 
 face of a powerful opposition, or a desire of relieving the 
 nation from its burthens, was induced to treat for peace. 
 In this measure, the Bourbon courts agreeing, it was not 
 difficult to accomplish so happy an event. Preliminaries, 
 afterwards ratified, were signed at Fontainbleau,on the third 
 of November. The most important articles related to North 
 America. The French ceded to great Britain the entire 
 province of Canada, and that part of Louisiana situated east 
 of the Mississippi ; together with Cape Breton and the other 
 islands in the gulf of St. Lawrence. Spain yielded East and 
 West Florida, and all her possessions east and south-east 
 of the Mississippi; and confirmed to the English a claim 
 of cutting logwood on the coast of Honduras. In return, 
 she obtained restitution of Havana, and all the other con- 
 quests in the late war. 
 
 In this treaty, the interests of Frederick were not entire- 
 ly neglected. France was withdrawn from the German war, 
 so that Austria and Prussia were left to settle their quarrel 
 by themselves; and, before the close of the year, an adjust- 
 ment was signed at Hubertsburg, giving the latter quiet 
 possession of all the territory belonging to her at the com- 
 mencement of hostilities. 
 
 ._ The winding up of the war expenses, as usual, 
 
 ► " exhibited large arrears of debt. To satisfy this, new 
 financial schemes were tried. Amongst these, was a tax of 
 four shillings a hogshead on cider, to be paid by the maker; 
 a most unfeeling and impolitic tax. For, surely, no im- 
 posts can offer a greater outrage to the happiness and do- 
 mestic rights of mankind, than such as give an excise of- 
 cer frequent admission to a dwelling — the boasted " castle" 
 of a freeman. This obnoxious measure did not pass without 
 strenuous opposition. Lord Bute resigned his place, and 
 was succeeded by Mr. George Grenville. 
 
 But the influence of the ex-minister was not, it was sup- 
 posed, lessened by his retirement. He was still the object 
 of much virulent, and perhaps merited, abuse. Of this, 
 the chief vehicle was the " North Briton ;" a periodical 
 publication set up by Mr. Wilkes, in opposition to the 
 " Briton," conducted by Smollett, which advocated the 
 measures of lord Bute. 
 
 176 1 This period will long be remembered. Events of 
 singular importance arose from the tyrannical sys- 
 tem of finance which now commenced. A severe, but salu- 
 
HI STORT OF ENGLAND. 219 
 
 tary lesson, was given to a misguided sovereign. A lively 
 prospect of relief was opened to the future exertions of the 
 oppressed. The bold experiment began, of laying taxes on 
 the North American Colonies. For levying them, the naval 
 commanders on the American coast were sworn to act as 
 revenue officers ; the result of which measure was the con- 
 demnation of many cargoes, without any means of redress 
 in England. 
 
 7 In the following winter; an interesting character 
 
 ' departed. The chevalier St. George, son of James 
 
 the second, ended an anxious existence, at Rome, in the 
 
 seventy-eighth year of his age; leaving two sons — Charles, 
 
 the adventurer of 1745, and Henry, cardinal York.* 
 
 The marquis of Rockingham was now at the head of the 
 treasury: the duke of Grafton and general Conway were 
 secretaries of state. By the repeal of the cider tax, and a 
 modification of the obnoxious colonial imposts, the Rock- 
 ingham party obtained the general approbation of the peo- 
 ple. This, however, did not insure them the favour of the 
 court. The whole tenor of their administration was by no 
 means pleasing to the sovereign; or, at least, to those by 
 whom he was secretly advised. Another change was made. 
 The duke of Grafton was appointed in the room of Rock- 
 ingham; and Mr. Pitt, now raised to the title of earl of 
 Chatham, received the office of lord privy seal, and was re- 
 garded as the leading minister. 
 
 In the house of Commons, this great statesman had op- 
 posed, by his uncommon powers of eloquence, the princi- 
 ples of colonial taxation. Alluding to the spirit which that 
 obnoxious measure had excited, " I rejoice,'' said he, " that 
 America has resisted. Three-millions of people, so dead 
 to all feelings of liberty, as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
 would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the 
 rest." 
 
 In the East Indies, a new foe was added, to those already 
 raised by commercial avidity and national ambition. We 
 mean Hyder Ally; an adventurer, who, from the humble 
 condition of a private soldier, was now a powerful prince, 
 
 7 7 in possession of a large tract of the Malabar coast 
 Near Trincomalee, this extraordinary man was, how - 
 ever, entirely defeated by colonel Smith, and sought a tem- 
 porary safety in the mountains; from which, having de- 
 
 * Charles died at Rome, in 1788; and Cardinal York, the lasl of 
 that royal house, about the year 1810. 
 
220 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 scen'ded, he was, in -the following year, again beaten, by 
 colonel Wood. 
 
 Soon after this, Great Britain was surprised by another 
 change, in the cabinet. Treated with disregard, either on 
 account of his bodily infirmities, or his stern, uncomplying 
 disposition, lord Chatham resigned the national helm, and 
 the privy seal was given to the earl of Bristol. 
 J7fi But the agitation of the public mind made it ne- 
 
 cessary for the king to make a further experiment. 
 This ferment arose from the distracted state of the Ameri- 
 can colonies, and a remarkable struggle between the house 
 of commons and Mr. Wilkes. Many resignations occurred. 
 Amongst the number, the duke of Grafton made room for 
 lord North; who then commenced his long prime-ministry. 
 Mr. Wilkes, who has been already mentioned, as editor of 
 the North Briton, was at one time lord mayor of London, 
 and was distinguished for the long political warfare which 
 he sustained against the court, and the government influ- 
 ence in the house of commons. His contest with colonel 
 Luttrel, (afterwards lord Carhampton,) who, by an extra- 
 ordinary stretch of parliamentary law, was admitted to take 
 his seat for Middlesex, in preference to Mr. Wilkes, the 
 fairly chosen member, is an important occurrence in the 
 history of England ; and occupies a large portion of the 
 celebrated letters published with the name of Junius, 
 jp.^ In the month of February, a message from the 
 king to both houses excited considerable interest. 
 The immediate cause of this arose from two marriages 
 lately contracted by his two brothers, the duke of Glouce- 
 ster with lady Waldegrave, and the duke of Cumberland 
 with a widow lady, Mrs. Norton. Accordingly, a bill was 
 enacted, which, with some limitations, rendered void all 
 marriages of the royal family, made without the king's 
 consent, formally declared in council. 
 
 The situation of the colonies now claims undivided atten- 
 tion. For several years past, a high degree of agitation ex- 
 isted in America. But, that we might exhibit a narration 
 so very important, uninterrupted, and detached as much 
 as possible from the affairs of Europe, the history of the 
 colonial misunderstanding has been, in a great measure, 
 postponed. 
 
 Although the general feeling in England and America 
 had caused the repeal of some of the iniquitous imposi 
 tions, amongst which was a stamp-tax, yet the right of levy- 
 ing taxes v as not abandoned by the court. Accordingly, (in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 22\ 
 
 -1767,) Charles Townshend, procured an act for laying du- 
 ties on glass, paper, painters' colours and tea, when import- 
 ed into the colonies. This revived the former discontents. 
 At a public meeting of the inhabitants of Boston, measures 
 were adopted for the encouragement of home-manufactures, 
 and the promotion of frugality by restraining the use of 
 foreign superfluities. This salutary example was followed 
 in the other provinces. In the ensuing spring, the ferment 
 was increasing: by the king's order, the assembly of Mas- 
 sachusetts was dissolved: most of the colonies determined 
 against importing any English goods, during the existing 
 duties : the people of Boston again convened, and resolved 
 to prepare arms and ammunition ; and a convention from 
 ninety-six townships, held in that city, sent a statement of 
 their transactions to England. In September, a detach- 
 ment of artillery arrived from Halifax ; and, soon after- 
 wards, general Gage appeared, with two regiments from 
 Ireland. These seem to have produced a temporary calm, 
 as the remainder of the year passed in tranquillity. 
 
 Yielding a little to the mercantile voice, lord North with- 
 drew the obnoxious imposts, on all the articles except tea; 
 the duty on which was retained, apparently for the pur- 
 pose of still asserting the right of taxation. This impolitic 
 measure was a source of perpetual enmity, and caused in 
 several colonies the importation of tea to be prohibited. At 
 length, a regulation, providing that the salaries of provin- 
 cial governors and judges should be paid by the king, at 
 whose will they could, at any moment, be removed, aggra- 
 vated the public jealousy and dissatisfaction. — The tenden- 
 , w 7 n cy to riot was first displayed by an attack on a royal 
 schooner posted at Providence in Rhode Island, to 
 prevent smuggling. It was boarded by a number of armed 
 men, who put the captain and crew on shore, and burned 
 the vessel. The next indication of popular resentment oc- 
 curred at Boston. On the eighteenth of December, a par- 
 ty, disguised as Mohawk Indians, entered three ships laden 
 with tea, and threw their entire cargoes into the water. In 
 consequence of this, the port was closed, the charter of 
 Massachusetts new-modeled by the British government, 
 and additional forces were sent to general Gage, as gov- 
 ernor of the province and commander in chief — Matters 
 daily grew more alarming — anarchy was rapidly in- 
 creasing : general Gage fortified Boston neck, seized the 
 militia-stores at Cambridge, and conveyed them to Boston. 
 
'>22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Early in September, a Congress, representing 
 ' twelve of the old colonies, was held at Philadelphia. 
 The sentiments expressed by this respectable assembly were 
 constitutional and loyal, sensible and manly, in language 
 elegant and perspicuous. They expostulated, by letter, with 
 the British general, on his^Tostile proceedings; published a 
 declaration of rights, and an enumeration of grievances; re- 
 commended, as a means of obtainingredress, a non-importa- 
 tion, non-exportation, and non-consumption agreement, to 
 which they bound themselves and their constituents ; and 
 drew up a petition to the king, and a memorial to the 
 English people. 
 
 17 ~„ The sword was at length unsheathed. To it, re- 
 mained the paramount decision. Civil warfare soon 
 spread its desolating reign. When a party which general 
 Gage had sent from Boston to seize the provincial stores at 
 Concord, reached Lexington, a body of militia appeared, to 
 arrest their progress ; and a short skirmish ensued, in which 
 several of the latter were killed. The royal detachment 
 then proceeded ; and, having destroyed some ammunition 
 at Concord, they were attacked, and commenced a retreat, 
 which was a continued battle. At sunset, they arrived at 
 Charlestown, near Boston; having lost, in killed, wounded, 
 and prisoners, nearly three-hundred men. After this, the 
 whole province was roused : twenty-thousand militia in- 
 vested Boston ; a small party, under colonels Allen and 
 Arnold, surprised Ticonderoga; and Crown Point was 
 taken by colonel Warner. 
 
 The congress, having assembled a second time, chose 
 Mr. Hancock president, and took the most effectual meas- 
 ures for defending the United Colonies. 
 
 Near the end of May, the English generals, Howe, Bur- 
 goyne, and Clinton, arrived at Boston, with large rein- 
 forcements, and the harbour was filled with ships of war. 
 
 Further hostilities, were, of course, mutually expected 
 The post of Charlestown, separated from Boston only by 
 Charles River, being considered by the Americans an im- 
 portant acquisition, they sent a party, at night, to throw up 
 works upon Bunker's Hill, an eminence commanding the 
 isthmus which joins the peninsula to the continent. 
 
 This was effected, with so great silence and expedition, 
 lhat, before day -break, the defences were nearly completed. 
 A heavy cannonade soon poured in from the vessels in the 
 harbour; and, about noon, a strong body of troops, under 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 223 
 
 Howe and Pigot, was sent to storm the place. As they 
 approached, so hot and well directed a fire was opened 
 against them, that they were thrown into confusion, and, 
 for a while, general Howe was left nearly alone. Being, 
 however, soon rallied, they made a furious attack on the 
 American works, and forced them at every quarter. The 
 loss of the British, in killed and wounded, was above one- 
 thousand men — about a third of their entire number: that 
 of the provincials, above four-hundred. Amongst the lat- 
 ter, was the brave general Warren, universally lamented 
 by his countrymen. But this defeat was not sufficient to 
 dishearten the Americans. They immediately afterwards 
 formed redoubts in another situation. 
 
 In October, general Gage having returned to England, 
 the command of the British devolved on Howe. 
 
 Meanwhile, Georgia had joined the continental alliance. 
 The Thirteen United Colonies were, New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut; New York, 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware; Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The 
 era of their determined struggle now arrived. At the head 
 of their armies was placed George Washington ; already 
 experienced, and not less eminent as a soldier, than re- 
 spectable as a country gentleman. 
 
 This year terminated in an unsuccessful attempt made 
 by the Americans on Quebec. General Montgomery, 
 after capturing fort St. John and Montreal, having attack- 
 ed that city by escalade, was, with most of the men near 
 his person, killed upon the spot, and a division of his 
 army was taken prisoners. The next important occur- 
 . 77( . rence was the evacuation of Boston. On the 17th 
 
 ' ' of March,' that town was entered by Washing- 
 ton. In the month of June, generals Clinton and Corn- 
 vvallis, aided by a fleet under sir Peter Parker, attacked 
 Sullivan's Island, in South Carolina, in hopes of forcing 
 their way into Charleston, but were obliged to retire, after 
 considerable loss. 
 
 At length, the flame of patriotism could neither be ex- 
 tinguished by the terrors of an army, nor damped by the 
 experiments of temporizing duplicity. The harshness of 
 the parent had rent the bands of natural affection, and her 
 children no longer owed her either duty or respect. On 
 the 4th of July, the colonies renounced their allegiance to 
 Great Britain, and signed a Declaration of Independence. 
 This celebrated declaration, drawn by the philosophic Jef- 
 
224 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 ferson, gives a particular detail of their grievances, and 
 has these memorable sentiments ; " We hold these truths 
 to be self evident — that all men are created equal: that 
 they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unaliena- 
 ble rights : that, amongst these, are life, liberty, and the 
 pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, govern- 
 ments are instituted amongst men; deriving their just pow- 
 ers from the consent of the governed : that, whenever any 
 form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it 
 is the right of the people to alter, or abolish it, and to in- 
 stitute a new government ; laying its foundation upon such 
 principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to 
 them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and hap- 
 piness." 
 
 In the remainder of this, and throughout the succeeding 
 year, the chief military operations occurred at Long Island, 
 Trenton, and Bennington; Saratoga, Brandy wine, and Ger- 
 mantown ; with various success ; but, on the whole, rather 
 in favour of the British. However, the spirit of the great 
 Frederick, divested of its impurities, seemed diffused 
 amongst the colonies. Their energies, unrelaxed by dis- 
 appointment, arose more vigorous after every misfortune; 
 and an event, which lord Chatham had predicted, inspired 
 . ^^ them with additional hope. On the 6th of February, 
 
 ' ' ' the American commissioners at Paris concluded a 
 treaty with Louis, which was productive of most important 
 benefit, from the aid afforded them, in extensive naval co- 
 operation, in military stores, and a large reinforcement of 
 veteran troops. — Of all the French officers in this war, the 
 marquis La Fayette was the most distinguished, and the 
 most entitled to the gratitude of America. His services were 
 tendered from a pure love of liberty. But the same cannot 
 be said of Louis. His aid was given through opposition to 
 England ; not through affection towards the oppressed. 
 
 Other events, too, concurred in favour of the colonies. 
 The summer had scarcely commenced, before Spain, on 
 some slight and general charges, declared war against the 
 British; and in the course of the revolutionary contest, Hol- 
 land was added to the number of their antagonists. Thus, 
 was England engaged, at the same time, with four enemies; 
 without a single ally, except some German mercenaries. 
 
 The next principal occurrences were at Monmouth, Sa- 
 vannah, Stony-Point, and Charleston ; Waxsaw, Camden, 
 Broad River, Guilford, Eutaw Springs, and Yorkiown. 
 
 Although the latter was not the closing scene of this san- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAJND. 225 
 
 quinary contest, yet it was there that the Americans gave 
 the decisive blow. Lord Cornwallis having- fixed on York- 
 town, situated on the peninsula between York and James- 
 rivers in Virginia, as a place the best adapted to his plans, 
 took post there, with about seven-thousand chosen troops, 
 and commenced the necessary fortifications. In the mean 
 time, Washington, always vigilant and active, spread a re- 
 port, that his next object of attack was New York, and that 
 he had relinquished his intention of marching to relieve 
 Virginia. In conjunction, therefore, with the French com 
 mancler, Rochambeau, having given a hot alarm to that 
 city, he suddenly crossed North River, proceeded through 
 New Jersey to Philadelphia, thence to the head of Elk River 
 on the Chesapeake ; and, after there embarking a division 
 of his troops, pursued his march, with the main body, 
 through Baltimore, to Annapolis, in Maryland. — The 
 French admiral, De Grasse, having entered the Chesa- 
 peake, with twenty-eight sail of the line, sent the welcome 
 news of his arrival to the combined army; blocked up 
 York River, and occupied James River, to a considerable ex- 
 tent, to prevent Cornwallis attempting a retreat to Carolina. 
 Soon afterwards, a partial and indecisive engagement took 
 place off the mouth of the Bay, between the French and 
 the English fleet; the latter of twenty sail, under admiral 
 Greaves; when, the former being reinforced by a squadron 
 from Rhode Island, the English returned to New Y~ork 
 From this time, De Grasse was entire master of the Chesa- 
 peake ; and thus, all the hopes of the blockaded forces were 
 destroyed. Invested by an army more than double the 
 number of his own ; with no better cover than earthen 
 works, hastily thrown up, and assailed by nearly one-hun- 
 dred pieces of heavy ordnance, the British general sur- 
 rendered, and all his troops became prisoners of war. 
 
 Cornwallis, -who, with all his officers, was set at liberty 
 on parole, publicly acknowledged the liberal treatment ex- 
 perienced by himself and his whole army. 
 
 Meanwhile, the people of England were thrown into great 
 alarm. An extensive plan had been formed, by the linked 
 powers of France and Spain, for an expedition to the Eng- 
 lish coast; propably intending an invasion, should a favour; 
 able opportunity occur. Accordingly, the combined fleets, 
 above sixty in number, with a vast attendance of frigates 
 and smaller armed vessels, having passed, unobserved, the 
 English fleet of thirty-eight sail, under admiral Hardy, then 
 cruising in the Bay of Biscay, appeared for several days 
 
 v 
 
226 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 before Plvmouth. But, fortunately for 1hal depot, no at- 
 tempt against it was made; and the enemy, after suffering 
 much from sickness, returned to Brest. 
 
 Sir George Rodney, having been appointed, with a strong 
 squadron, to the chief naval command in the West Indies, 
 and ordered on his way thither to relieve Gibraltar, then 
 closely blockaded by the Spaniards ; when only a few days 
 at sea, captured a large convoy, bound from St. Sebastian 
 to Cadiz. Their lading consisted principally of flour ; which 
 he sent to Gibraltar, at that time much in want of provi- 
 sions. Off Cape St. Vincents, he encountered a Spanish 
 fleet of eleven ships of the line; seven of which, including 
 the admiral's vessel, he captured or destroyed. Soon after- 
 wards, admiral Parker had a severe action with the Dutch 
 fleet, under Zoutman, on the Dogger Bank. They Avere 
 of nearly equal force; and, after an uninterrupted cannon- 
 ading for three hours and a half, both squadrons lay like 
 logs upon the water, incapable of further efforts. 
 
 In the month of May following, the British lost the prov- 
 ince of West Florida; one of the principal acquisitions re- 
 tained by the treaty of Paris. 
 
 Even their ancient possessions in the American seas were 
 with difficulty preserved. Jamaica, however, was freed 
 from its perilous situation by the bravery and good seaman- 
 ship of Rodney; who, with thirty-six sail of the line, en- 
 countered an equal force, commanded by the French admi- 
 ral, de Grasse. In this action, which continued from seven 
 in the morning until sun-set, Rodney practised a new ma- 
 noeuvre, since attended with so great success — that of 
 breaking the enemy's line. Both sides displayed deter- 
 mined courage. But, when the crew of De Grasse's ship, 
 the Ville de Paris of one-hundred-and-twelve guns, had suf- 
 fered prodigious carnage, he struck his flag to sir Samuel 
 Mood, in another vessel, the Barfleur; and the French fleet, 
 after losing five others, bore away for St. Domingo. 
 .„ The most interesting military scene, afforded in 
 
 this year, was the siege of Gibraltar. Although the 
 town had been already ruined, by the almost constant fir- 
 ing of the Spaniards during upwards of three years, yet 
 small progress had been made in overpowering its terrific 
 defences; and a sally, made in the preceding November, by 
 its vigilant commander, general Elliot, had spread ruin 
 through the nearest works of the besiegers. They were, 
 however, still determined to persevere. To diffuse a spirit 
 of enterprise in their army, twelve-thousand French troops 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 227 
 
 were procured : the supreme command was given to the 
 duke of Crillon ; and the plan of attack confided to the 
 chevalier d'Arcon. The preparations now made, by land 
 and water, were immense. Volunteers and spectators 
 assembled from almost every part of Europe; amongst 
 whom, were two French princes of the blood, the count 
 d'Artois, and the duke of Bourbon. 
 
 The grand project of d'Arcon was founded on the con- 
 struction of floating batteries; so contrived, that it was 
 thought they could neither be sunk nor set on fire. Be- 
 sides having timbers of extraordinary thickness, they were 
 fortified, on the exposed side, by a wall of cork and soaked 
 timber ; between the layers of which, wet sand was inter- 
 posed; whilst a circulation of water was provided through 
 the entire mass. The vessels thus prepared, were ten 
 ships, from six-hundred to fourteen-hundred tons burthen; 
 cut down to accommodate the intended superstructure, 
 and furnished with brass cannon of unusual weight. On 
 the land side, new and powerful batteries were opened ; 
 and forty-eight sail of the line, with many smaller vessels, 
 were brought to co-operate. — In the morning of the ?3th 
 of September, the ten battering ships being moored ill a 
 line, from the old to the new mole, at nine-hundred yards 
 from the Rock of Gibraltar, there instantly commenced 
 a cannonading and bombardment, by assailants and de- 
 fenders, more tremendous and awful than the imagination 
 can conceive. But the showers of red-hot shot, which 
 issued from the walls, were not to be resisted by any ef- 
 forts of human art. Confusion and distress were hourly 
 augmenting: the flames broke out from stem to stern: 
 all the vessels, in succession, blew up ; and not a vestige 
 was left, on the following day, of an apparatus so novel 
 and formidable. 
 
 When the affair was decided, the English displayed 
 most generous conduct, in saving their enemies who were 
 crying for help amidst the flames. 
 
 The possibility of subduing the Americans at length be- 
 came hopeless, even in the opinion of the crown ; and 
 opposition to the unhappy measures of administration 
 was gradually increasing. The colonists had a large share 
 of popular regard in England, and many of the most elo- 
 quent senators espoused their cause. Edmund Burke and 
 Charles James Fox, (son of Henry Fox, created lord Hoi 
 land,) the ablest members of the lower house, had long 
 combated the unjust proceedings, with a strength and 
 
228 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 brilliancy of argument, worthy of ancient Greece or Rome. 
 General Conway, too, was active on the side of justice. 
 He succeeded in a motion, that an address should be pre- 
 sented to the king, expressing a hope that a reconciliation 
 might be effected ; to which, his majesty gave a satisfactory 
 reply. This interposition of the commons produced an 
 agreeable effect : in a few days afterwards, the administra- 
 tion was dissolved. The marquis of Rockingham was ap- 
 pointed first lord of the treasury, the earl of Shelburne and 
 Mr. Fox were made secretaries of state: lord Camden. 
 Mr. Burke, Richard Brindesly Sheridan, the duke of Graf- 
 ton, lord John Cavendish, admiral Keppel, and the duke of 
 Richmond, also, were members of the new government. 
 The command of the forces was given to general Conway, 
 the vice royalty of Ireland to the duke of Portland, and 
 lord Thurlow was continued in the office of chancellor. 
 
 Several highly commendable measures of economy and 
 reform succeeded. Revenue officers were disqualified from 
 voting at parliamentary elections, public contractors ren- 
 dered incapable of sitting in the house of commons, and 
 many sinecures abolished. 
 
 But, whilst engaged in these laudable improvements, the 
 new ministry received a fatal blow, by the death of the pre- 
 mier, lord Rockingham. To the vacant place at the head 
 of the treasury, the earl of Shelburne was advanced ; which 
 appointment was followed by the resignation of the most 
 distinguished members of administration; amongst whom, 
 were Cavendish, and Fox; Burke, Sheridan, and the duke 
 of Portland. William Pitt, second son of lord Chatham, 
 (who died in 1778,) was made chancellor of the exchequer, 
 and lord Temple succeeded to the government of Ireland. 
 The former, afterwards so celebrated, had already given a 
 favourable specimen of his oratorical powers, in several 
 debates in favour .of reform. 
 
 The pacific, inclination to which we have alluded, aided 
 by the mediation of Russia and Austria, happily produced 
 a termination of hostilities. The dispute between Great 
 Britain and her colonies was the first subject of attention, 
 and the first matter that was accommodated. On the 
 thirtieth of November, preliminaries were arranged at 
 Paris.^ By these, the Independence of the Thirteen United 
 Sta f es was acknowledged; many concessions were made 
 to the new republic ; amongst which, was the right of fish- 
 ing on the banks of Newfoundland, and on all othei fishing 
 grounds previously frequented by A mericans This memor- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 229 
 
 able adjustment was ratified in the autumn of the following 
 year; and, at the same time, definitive treaties were signed 
 with all the other belligerents. On the part of England, the 
 commissioners were, Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald. 
 Those of America were Dr. Franklin, Messrs. Adams, 
 Jay, and Laurens. Franklin, the great American Philoso- 
 pher, had been deputed by his countrymen to negotiate in 
 London ; where he was examined before the house of com- 
 mons, and completely baffled the antipacific members, by 
 his uncommon smartness of reply. 
 
 During the colonial war, the East Indies, also, displayed 
 a scene of miserable devastation. The calamity, usually 
 suffered from the individual usurpations of the native prin- 
 ces, was increased by the collision of the French and Dutch 
 interests. The most distinguished military officer, in that 
 quarter, was sir Eyre Coote. But the army was deprived 
 of the services of this gallant officer, by his death; which 
 happened at Madras; arising from a constitution worn out 
 by long-continued attention to the arduous duties of a mili- 
 tary life. Latterly, he had frequent opportunities of show- 
 ing his activity and talents, in opposing Hyder Ally; 
 whom he very frequently defeated. This noted sultan 
 having died, was succeeded by his son, Tippoo Saib ; a 
 prince who, with the territorial acquisitions, inherited also 
 the martial and political genius, of his father. The gov- 
 ernment of the British possessions in the East, was, at this 
 period, intrusted to Warren Hastings; whose conduct in 
 that important office afterwards became a subject of much 
 parliamentary discussion. 
 
 Let us now turn from these miserable conflicts. Divested 
 of her sanguinary passions, let us view human nature in the 
 occasional exercise of Christian meekness. In the Austrian 
 dominions, the spirit of improvement, had been operating, 
 in the most laudable manner, by the abolition of torture, 
 the introduction of religious toleration, the releasing of the 
 peasants in Bohemia from slavery, and granting them por- 
 tions of land at easy rents. This just and enlightened 
 policy of the emperor Joseph, having called forth, in the 
 Irish house of commons, the eulogium of Mr. Dillon of 
 Lismullin, of which the emperor was informed through the 
 medium of the public journals, he handsomely conferred 
 upon that gentleman a German title — -baron of the Holy 
 Roman Empire; an honour, approved by the British mon- 
 arch. In return for this attention, rather singular on the 
 part of sovereigns, the Irish member sent to the continent, 
 U 2 
 
230 HISTORY OF ENGLAIN'D. 
 
 his son, the present general Dillon; with a request that his 
 imperial majesty would accept of the youth's services in 
 the Austrian army; to which, he very graciously acceded. 
 That liberal spirit soon afterwards produced in England a 
 repeal of several penalties and disabilities affecting the Ro- 
 man Catholics. These included the punishment of offici- 
 ating catholic clergymen, as felons and traitors: the forfeit- 
 ure of the estates of catholic heirs educated abroad : the 
 power given to a son or near relation, being a protestant, 
 of seizing a father's or other relation's estate: and a re- 
 striction on members of that communion from acquiring 
 landed property by purchase. The lenity cf the times, 
 however, had, in practice mitigated the rigour of these in 
 tolerant enactments. Yet, still, they were a national dis- 
 grace, and a most serious grievance; as the liability to 
 incur such penalties, was, of itself, a degrading hardship. 
 This benevolent measure, brought forward by sir George 
 Saville, was received with universal approbation. In a few 
 days afterwards, Mr. Gardiner having introduced the sub- 
 ject in the Irish parliament, some concessions were ob- 
 tained in favour of his suffering countrymen. 
 
 But, in Scotland, these relaxations were not viewed with 
 the same degree of liberality. Associations were formed 
 there, inimical to Roman Catholic indulgence. At the head 
 of these, was lord George Gordon ; (brother to the duke of 
 Gordon;) a man of singular character, compounded of en- 
 thusiasm, artifice, and folly. Through his exertions, the fa- 
 natical spirit was roused in London; but his partisans in 
 that city were the very lowest dregs of the populace. Its 
 effects, however, were, for a while, extremely dangerous. 
 The demoniacal frenzy which impelled them, created not 
 only serious alarm, but extensive mischief; requiring the 
 aid of a strong military force, to arrest its progress. They 
 destroyed all the catholic chapels, in and around the city : 
 they burned the prisons of Newgate, the Fleet, and the 
 King's-bench, and many private houses; amongst which, 
 was the dwelling of that great lawyer, lord Mansfield, with 
 all his invaluable papers. Nearly five-hundred of these de- 
 luded wretches, by death or wounds, felt the consequences 
 of their diabolical behaviour. Gordon was tried on a 
 charge of high treason, but acquitted ; his crime not ap- 
 pearing to the jury in accordance with the indictment. 
 
 This period is memorable on account of the removal of 
 those illiberal and unjust restrictions, which had so long af- 
 fected the trade of Ireland, and rendered her parliament 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 231 
 
 dependent, in some measure, on the ministers of !£nj*lu» ; . 
 The cause of this important victory, for in thai light i\ 
 must be viewed, deserves attention. We shall, therefore; 
 trace it to its source. — A refusal, by the English parlia- 
 ment, to remove those grievous impediments, having caus- 
 ed meetings in Dublin, resolutions were there taken against 
 the importation of any British manufactures, or other arti- 
 cles, which could be made or produced in Ireland. But, as 
 the restrictions were not likely, by that means, to be re- 
 moved, something further became necessary. The next ob- 
 ject, therefore, was to strengthen the hands of the people. 
 This could now be readily accomplished. The country be- 
 ing threatened by a French invasion, an opportunity was 
 afforded of arming for national defence. Accordingly, (in 
 1779,) associations were formed for raising volunteer corps ; 
 which soon became general, and included every party. To 
 join them, was justly regarded as an act of patriotism; and 
 men of the first fortune served in the ranks. Government, 
 aowever, viewing with apprehension these numerous bands, 
 which might wrest the island from its control, attempted 
 to bring them under the regulation and authority of the 
 crown. It was then too late. The people seemed to appre- 
 ciate their strength. Dreading, therefore, that the same 
 spirit which had nearly caused the loss of one jewel from 
 the English crown, might deprive it of another, the minis- 
 ters apparently acquiesced in a scheme, now beyond their 
 power to defeat, and furnished the volunteers with arms 
 The nation were resolved to have redress; and, in calling 
 the attention of the throne, the Irish parliament declared, 
 that nothing short of a free trade could save the country 
 from ruin. Scarcely two months elapsed, before the British 
 legislature yielded to the demand; and, in three years from 
 this period, the Irish parliament obtained its independence. 
 
 For his eminent services at this important era, Henry 
 Grattsfh, then a member of the Irish house of commons, 
 obtained from parliament fifty-thousand pounds, for the 
 purchase of an estate ; a return which he well deserved; 
 but which has been proclaimed, by those who calculate ac- 
 cording to the meanness of their own hearts, to have been 
 the stimulant to his exertions. — Admirable reasoners ! by 
 what precedent, could the Irish orator have formed the 
 most distant prospect of pecuniary reward ? 
 
 The affairs of Ireland continued to be highly in- 
 
 ( ' teresting and important. Projects for a reform of the 
 parliamentary representation, had been for some time warm* 
 
232 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 ly entertained by the volunteers. In September, a meeting 
 of delegates, from upwards of three-hundred companies in 
 the province of Ulster, was held at Dungannon; at which, 
 a plan of reform being arranged, it was resolved that a con- 
 vention of representatives from the whole volunteer army, 
 should assemble on the 10th of November, at Dublin. This 
 meeting having taken place, Mr. Flood, on the following 
 day, brought the topic before the house of commons, by 
 moving for leave to bring in a bill for the more equal re- 
 presentation of the people in parliament. The motion, how- 
 ever, was received with much displeasure, as being a pro- 
 posal tendered at the " point of the bayonet ;" and was re- 
 jected by a large majority. An address to the king was 
 next voted ; in which, the lords concurred ; expressing " the 
 happiness enjoyed under his government, and their deter- 
 mination to support the present constitution with their lives 
 and fortunes." The convention then agreed on a counter- 
 address ; beseeching, that their wish for remedying certain 
 perversions in the parliamentary representation, might not 
 be imputed to a spirit of innovation, but to an honest desire 
 of upholding the constitution, and perpetuating the union 
 of the two nations. This patriotic zeal was encouraged by 
 a great change in the administration. Mr. Pitt, for many 
 years a strenuous advocate of reform, was now, at the ag i 
 of twenty-four, made prime minister of the British empire; 
 and, from his influence, the friends of that cause had every- 
 thing to hope. In the ensuing spring, therefore, Mr. Flood 
 again brought forward his bill, supported by a great num- 
 ber of petitions : but it was again rejected. Exasperated at 
 this defeat, the citizens of Dublin held a meeting, at which 
 another petition to the king, and a circular address to the 
 people, were prepared. In the address, it was proposed, 
 that five persons should be selected from every county, city, 
 and considerable town, to meet in Dublin, as a " national 
 congress." The very name of " congress" alarmed the gov- 
 ernment. Measures, therefore, were immediately taken to 
 counteract the intentions of the people, by fining and im- 
 prisoning the most active of the magistrates who had call- 
 ed meetings throughout the kingdom; and by prosecuting 
 the publishers of those newspapers in which the resolutions 
 bad been inserted. These means, however, were insuffi- 
 cient. The congress assembled in October, though in 
 rather an incomplete form ; passed a number of resolu- 
 tions , earnestly recommended a future and more nume- 
 rous meeting, and then adjourned. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 233 
 
 There was another cause of discontent in Ireland, pro- 
 ceeding from the distresses of the manufacturing' class. 
 To so great a height, had these arisen, in Dublin, that a 
 state of anarchy would have been the consequence, had not 
 some public measures been adopted for their relief. A com- 
 mittee of the house of commons having been appointed to 
 take into consideration the state of the manufacturers, a 
 proposal was afterwards made, that protecting duties should 
 be laid on all piece-goods imported into the kingdom. The 
 rejection of this motion having caused a great ferment 
 amongst the populace, at the next sitting of the house a 
 mob broke in, and reproached the members with having 
 " sold themselves to England." They were, however, dis- 
 persed by the guards, without bloodshed ; and, fortunately, 
 their rage gradually subsided, from the succeeding im- 
 provement of their trade. 
 
 From the period at which we commenced our al- 
 lusions to the state of Ireland, nothing very remark- 
 able occurred, until the impeachment of Warren Hastings. 
 Owing to the number of serious charges against him, for 
 improper conduct in the East, his situation excited unusual 
 attention. On no former occasion, was there so conspicu- 
 ous a flow of eloquence. The most remarkable speakers 
 were Sheridan and Burke. Indeed, the subject was particu- 
 larly favourable to that kind of impassioned eloquence, 
 which the orators of antiquity, when acting as public ac- 
 cusers, displayed ; and, it was universally agreed, that 
 never in the British senate, nor probably elsewhere, was a 
 speech of this class delivered of equal force to that, by 
 Which Mr. Sheridan, during five hours and a half, riveted 
 the attention of a full house, and an audience of distin- 
 guished visiters. Mr. Burke declared it to be the most as- 
 tonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit, united, of 
 which there was any record or tradition. Mr. Fox said, 
 all that he had ever heard, all that he had ever read, when 
 compared with it, dwindled into nothing, and vanished 
 like vapour before the sun. Mr. Pitt acknowledged, that 
 it far surpassed all the eloquence of ancient, or of modern 
 times ; and possessed every thing that genius or art could 
 furnish, to agitate or control the human mind. 
 
 The trial continued for seven years, but ended without 
 producing the expected, and, we have no doubt, merited, 
 conviction. 
 
 Amidst the preparations for that solemn arraignment 
 the public mind was arrested by another event; the death 
 
234 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Of the Prussian monarch. Frederick, who has, of all mod- 
 ern princes the best deserved the title of Great, sunk un- 
 der the rapid decline of an exhausted constitution, in the 
 seventy-fifth year of his age. Chargeable as all the early 
 part of his career may be, with despotism and rapacity, his 
 latter years exhibited him as a mild and beneficent sover- 
 eign, devoted to the happiness and prosperity of his sub- 
 jects ; and a patriotic assertor of the rights of the German- 
 ic body, of which he was the most illustrious member. 
 
 Amongst the remarkable domestic incidents, was an at- 
 tempt on the king's life, by a woman ; who, when present- 
 ing a paper to him as he was alighting from his chariot at 
 the garden gate of St. James', made a stroke at his breast, 
 with a concealed knife. The blow being happily avoided, 
 the king, humanely, exclaimed, " I am not injured — take 
 care of the woman — do not hurt her." On examination 
 she was found to be a poor creature, named Margaret 
 Nicholson ; whose reason was bewildered, by some idea 
 which she had formed of her having a right to the crown. 
 
 « The latter part of this year was made memorable 
 
 by an occurrence more serious than the preceding, 
 also affecting the person of the sovereign. We allude to his 
 mental derangement. This affliction, which threw so deep 
 a gloom over his later years, and by which he had been 
 many years before t attacked, though slightly, rendered 
 him, now, totally incapable, of business; and, being unpre- 
 cedented in English history, produced a general consterna- 
 tion, and occasioned extraordinary movements amongst 
 the different parties. When parliament, which had ad-, 
 journed, again assembled, it was proposed by Mr. Fox, 
 that the royal functions should be immediately vested in 
 the Prince of Wales : who, as heir apparent, he asserted, 
 had an indisputable claim, as soon as the sovereign, from 
 any cause, became incapable of acting. To this opinion, 
 however, Mr. Pitt, who was not in so intimate a friendship 
 with the prince as Mr. Fox, was far from acceding. He 
 declared the doctrine -to be little less than treason to the 
 constitution. At length, an arrangement was concluded, 
 placing the royal authority in the prince, under consider- 
 able restrictions; amongst which, the entire care of the 
 royal person, and the appointment of the household officers, 
 were assigned to the queen. 
 
 But, in Ireland, different measures were adopted. In that 
 country, the easy manners of the prince had gained him al- 
 most universal affection. The people looked up to him as 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 235 
 
 their future benefactor. In the house of commons, an ad- 
 dress, propose^ by Mr. Conolly and Mr. Grattan ; and, in 
 the house of lords, one of similar import, introduced by 
 the earl of Charlemont, requesting the prince to take 
 upon himself, without any restriction, the executive power 
 m Ireland, was carried by a large majority. When the 
 deputies arrived in London, with this address, the prince 
 of Wales returned his warmest thanks ; but, at the same 
 time, informed them of his hope, that his father would 
 very shortly be able to resume the government. 
 
 These expectations were soon realized. In a few days 
 afterwards, the king was perfectly recovered; having been 
 ill about four months. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 GREAT WAR WITH FRANCE. 
 
 THE affairs of France, at this period, having had so 
 momentous an influence on the political concerns of Eng- 
 land, in common with the impression made upon almost 
 every nation of the earth, require unusual attention. 
 
 The French people had long been struggling to recover 
 the small degree of legislative authority, wrested from 
 them, nearly two centuries ago, by a rapacious monarch. 
 Their first efforts were made in the reign of Louis the 
 fifteenth. That prince having, in 1763, issued an edict for 
 the continuance of some war taxes, and the imposition of 
 others, the provincial parliaments refused their assent, and 
 made a strong remonstrance against a proceeding so tyran- 
 nical. In consequence, the king sent officers into the 
 several provinces, to register them by force; but the par- 
 liaments persisted in their opposition, and even issued or 
 ders for the apprehension of his agents. That monarch, 
 equally detestable in his private and his public conduct, 
 was succeeded by Louis the sixteenth ; a prince, naturally 
 inclined rather to indulge, than oppress, the people. But 
 his good intentions were often frustrated by his family, 
 and by the interested counsel of the neighbouring sove- 
 reigns. In that respect, the queen herself was considered 
 highly culpable. The duke of Orleans, also, than whom 
 the history of Europe scarcely affords a character more 
 
236 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 infamous, served greatly to perplex his government. He 
 has been charged even with hastening the downfal of his 
 relative, that he might himself ascend upon his ruin. 
 
 Having thus given a sufficient sketch of the causes, \vc 
 shall next trace the progress, of the revolution. 
 
 The disordered condition of the French finances, occa- 
 sioned by the expenses of the late war and the extravagance 
 of the court, had suggested an application to the body of 
 the people, in the form of a convention of " notables," or 
 principal persons in the different classes throughout the 
 kingdom. This assembly met at Versailles; and was open- 
 ed with great solemnity by the king, accompanied by the 
 royal princes and the chief officers of state. But the pro- 
 posed manner of raising the supplies, was far from being 
 agreeable to the deputies, emboldened by the recent suc- 
 cess of the American patriots. Very little business was 
 transacted, and the meeting was dissolved. 
 
 In the mean time, the necessity of the government had 
 caused a recurrence to the usual mode of levying money, 
 by royal edicts; with which, the parliament of Paris refused 
 to acquiesce; and the king having endeavoured to compel 
 their registry, all the parliaments of France denounced pen- 
 alties against those who should attempt to enforce their 
 execution. The royal authority being now at stake, the 
 king improperly retaliated, by banishing the Parisian dele- 
 gates to Troyes. But the popular resentment constrained 
 him to recall them. A compromise ensued, and the edicts 
 were withdrawn. However, this apparent return of good 
 understanding was of short duration. The government ne- 
 cessities becoming still more urgent, applications for sup- 
 ply were again made, and were again repulsed. The result 
 was, the imprisonment, by a royal order, of two of the 
 members; followed by a bold remonstrance against this 
 act of power, and a demand, in the name of the laws, for 
 their liberation ; with which open assertion of the princi- 
 ples of free government, the year 1787 closed. 
 
 The new year was productive of still more serious con- 
 tests. The crisis was rapidly approaching. The further 
 tyranny of the court was met by increasing opposition from 
 the people. All the royal ordinances were again suspend- 
 ed : the minister of finance resigned his uneasy post, and 
 was succeeded by Necker, the celebrated banker of Gene- 
 va; who, at a former period, had held the office, and, more 
 than any other man, possessed the confidence of the nation. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 237 
 
 At length, in 1789, the popular voice was entirely pre- 
 dominant in France. A large accession of number in the 
 tiers etat, or third estate, having been gained, this bodyj 
 now feeling their importance, and being joined by a few of 
 the clergy, who belonged to a distinct assembly, declared 
 themselves the legislative body, and assumed the title of 
 National Assembly. The king, however, supported by the 
 nobles, declared their proceedings null, and commanded 
 them to separate, Violent tumults ensued : in some of 
 which, the dangerous symptom of fallen authority appear- 
 ed, — an attachment of the soldiery to the popular feeling ; 
 which induced the king and the nobles to acquiesce in the 
 joint deliberation of the three orders. 
 
 Meanwhile, the court was collecting an army around 
 Paris; and, on the 11th of July, Necker was suddenly dis- 
 missed, with an order to quit the kingdom in twenty-four 
 hours. This event excited furious commotion. On the 
 fourteenth, the citizens, aided by some of the military, 
 stormed the state prison, (called the Bastile,) massacred 
 the governor with several others, and carried their heads 
 in triumph through the streets. 
 
 Necker was immediately recalled ; several decrees were 
 passed by the national assembly, abolishing ancient insti- 
 tutions ; and a declaration of rights was agreed on, as the 
 basis of a new constitution. This frame of government, 
 assented to by Louis, was a limited monarchy ; in which, 
 the legislative authority was made superior to the execu- 
 tive, and the king was allowed only a suspensive veto. 
 But the general distress created fresh insurrections. With 
 much difficulty, the king and queen were saved from the 
 fury of the mob by the marquis La Fayette, at the head of 
 the national guards; which corps he then commanded. 
 Important changes were again made by the assembly; 
 amongst which, were, the abolition of all titles, the annul- 
 ment of tithes, and the total dissolution of monastic estab- 
 lishments. 
 
 These transactions created alarm amongst the 
 continental sovereigns. The emperor of Germany 
 wrote a letter to the unhappy Louis, deprecating the late 
 decrees ; and prepared to assist him in their revocation. 
 An army of French emigrants, under the prince of Conde, 
 was assembling on the German border ; insurrections of 
 the royal party were occurring in different provinces of 
 France, and suspicions mutually increasing: the king, with 
 X 
 
238 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the queen, his sister, his brother, and the latter's wife, se- 
 cretly left the palace, by a subterranean passage, and set 
 off for the frontiers; leaving behind him a paper, in which 
 he protested against all the decrees sanctioned by him 
 while under a state of restraint, and recited the depriva- 
 tions and indignities which he alleged he had undergone 
 from the national assembly. But his journey was soon 
 prevented. He and his party were stopped at Varennes, 
 and brought back under an escort of national guards. His 
 brother and sister, having taken a different route, reached 
 Brussels in safety. 
 
 To enumerate the various negotiations winch succeeded, 
 would carry us beyond our limits. In September, the na- 
 tional assembly having unfortunately dissolved itself, af- 
 fairs were thenceforth managed by legislative, bodies, under 
 various titles, much influenced by the famous Jacobin club, 
 a society of about forty, who formed a kind uf national as- 
 sembly in miniature, and an instrument of the most violent 
 faction. 
 .„ France and Austria were now at open war. Hos 
 
 tilities commenced with an attack on the Austrian 
 Netherlands, by a large body of troops under general Ro- 
 chambeau. Soon afterwards, it was announced, that the 
 king of Prussia had marched above fifty-thousand men to 
 co-operate with the emperor. Paris was filled with con- 
 fusion and alarm : the legislative assembly declared that 
 .the country was in danger. The arrival at the capital, of 
 the provincial volunteers, increased the general tendency 
 to riot ; and, in this inflammable state of the public mind, 
 appeared the two celebrated declarations of the duke of 
 Brunswick, commander in chief of the allied forces, dated 
 at Coblentz, on his way to Paris. These were drawn up 
 in a style of sanguinary menace; and espoused the cause 
 of Louis and his ancient authority, in a manner which con- 
 firmed every suspicion of his consenting to the invasion. 
 A dreadful scene ensued. The palace was attacked: the 
 Swiss guards, the gentlemen ushers, the pages, and all who 
 came in the way of the insurgents, were cut to pieces. The 
 king and queen, with the rest of the royal family, having 
 taken shelter in the hall of the assembly, which was then 
 sitting, thus gained a respite from the fury of their enemies. 
 The executive power was now suspended, and Louis and 
 his queen were imprisoned in the Temple. In the next 
 place, royalty was declared forever abolished in France, all 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 239 
 
 distinctions in society were overturned ; and every thing 
 which had graced and decorated polished life was aban- 
 doned with contempt. 
 
 With the turbulence, the energies, also, of the French 
 nation, were increased. Dumorier and Kellerman were 
 successful, not only in checking the advance of the duke 
 of Brunswick, but in lowering his tone so completely, that 
 he acknowledged the right of the people to make their 
 own laws, desired nothing further than the admission of 
 Louis into the government, however limited in power, and, 
 before the end of October, evacuated the territories of 
 France. 
 
 Having gone thus far in portraying this memorable scene 
 of anarchy and bloodshed, we must turn to the effects pro- 
 duced in England. 
 
 In the house of commons, allusion having been made to 
 the late revolution, which Mr. Fox mentioned in terms of 
 approval, Mr. Burke rose, and delivered a severe and op- 
 probrious censure, not only on its conductors, but on its 
 principles. Mr. Fox and Mr. Sheridan defended the prin- 
 ciples of the revolution, whilst they joined in detestation of 
 the outrages by which it had been accompanied; but Mr. 
 Pitt and several other members expressed their entire con- 
 currence with Mr. Burke. Similar oppositions of senti- 
 ment spread rapidly through the empire; producing a spirit 
 of hostility more acrimonious than that which had prevailed 
 even during the colonial war. Every sect,rand every rank, 
 felt interested in the contest. The anniversary of the popu- 
 lar triumph in France having been celebrated in different 
 places, Mr. Burke soon afterwards published his celebrated 
 work, entitled, Reflections on the French Revolution ; by 
 which, he gave offence to all rational friends of political 
 freedom. On this occasion, his most able antagonist was 
 Thomas Paine; who brought forward his " Rights of Man," 
 which greatly contributed to the spreading of democratical 
 principles, and a bold spirit of reform. In the following 
 year, the anniversary of the revolution was the cause of an 
 alarming riot at Birmingham. The populace there, being 
 averse to the cause of freedom, collected in a mob, and, 
 uncontrolled by the magistrates, burned several meeting- 
 houses, and the dwellings of the principal dissenters. The. 
 house, books, papers, and apparatus, of that eminent divine 
 and philosopher, Dr. Priestley, were consumed; and he 
 himself was compelled to become a fugitive, in order to 
 preserve his life. 
 
240 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Ten years had elapsed, since the cause of the Roman 
 Catholics particularly engaged the attention of the Irish 
 parliament; since they took a serious review of those disa- 
 bilities, which the passions and prejudices, perhaps the 
 pressure, of an intemperate season, had entailed upon them 
 An intimation from the throne invited them to resume that 
 duty. The good offices which they owed to each other; the 
 indulgence due to their fellow subjects, recommended by 
 the unimpeachable conduct of a century; the consideration 
 demanded by national prosperity; all, united, in again call- 
 ing them to a revision of that subject, at a time when the 
 public mind was becoming more enlightened, and prejudice 
 and jealousy were every day yielding to confidence and af- 
 fection. A bill, introduced by sir Hercules Langrishe 
 which afterwards received the royal assent, happily re- 
 moved the most grievous restrictions from that numerous 
 and loyal body of their Irish brethren. By this, and a suc- 
 ceeding enactment, they were allowed the privilege of vot- 
 ing at parliamentary elections; serving on petit and grand 
 juries ; holding commissions of the peace, in counties ; 
 pleading at the bar, and rising to the rank of lieutenant 
 colonel in the army. The honour of assisting in the na- 
 tional councils, with their emancipation from every restric- 
 tion, would be attended with the highest benefit to the 
 British empire. 
 
 But, whilst England was thus increasing the number of 
 her friends at home, she was creating a formidable enemy 
 abroad. On the deposition of the king of France, the Brit- 
 ish ambassador at Paris, lord Gower, had been recalled, 
 17 n and the French ambassador at London was no long- 
 er respected. Every thing, seemed tending towards 
 more serious hostility. It is, indeed, difficult to say, which 
 nation advanced with the greatest earnestness, to so dreadful 
 an appeal. The indications of one government were met by 
 the less ambiguous declarations of the other. A letter from 
 the French minister of marine, addressed " to all friends of 
 liberty in the seaports," contained the following appeal ; 
 which, with some others, was quoted by Mr. Pitt in the 
 house of commons : " The king of England and his parlia- 
 ment mean to make war against us. Will the English re- 
 publicans suffer it? Already, these freemen show their dis- 
 content, and their repugnance to bear arms against their 
 brothers, the French. Well ! we will fly to their succour: 
 we will make a descent upon the island : we will lodge 
 there fifty-thousand caps of liberty : we will plant there the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 241 
 
 sacred tree, and will stretch out our arms to our republican 
 brethren. Their tyrannical government shall soon be de- 
 stroyed." 
 
 The execution of the unfortunate Louis took place on 
 the twenty-first of January. When intelligence of that 
 event reached England, the French ambassador was order- 
 ed to quit the kingdom ; and this marked avowal of dis- 
 pleasure was followed, on the part of the new Republic, by 
 a declaration of war; in which Holland, also, was included. 
 
 If we pause here for a moment, and view the immense 
 load of debt with which Great Britain was already burthen- 
 ed, amounting to more than two-hundred-and-fifty-millions, 
 we cannot refrain from commiserating her dangerous situ- 
 ation. The effect of the transition from a pacific to a hos- 
 tile attitude, on nearly every branch of manufactures, was 
 truly deplorable. The numerous dependents on large es. 
 tablishments, generally improvident, had made no provi- 
 sion against a sudden stagnation of their trade. As the pa- 
 rent can no longer support his children, or be secure from 
 the horrors of a jail, in despair he rushes from their pres- 
 ence, and leaves them, to their fate ; or, with an aching 
 heart, takes them as companions of his sorrow, and seeks a 
 temporary living from the charity of strangers. 
 
 A French army, under Dumorier, assembled at Ant- 
 werp, for the purpose of attacking the Dutch. Breda and 
 other places soon opened their gates. But, at William- 
 stadt, which commands the passage of an arm of the sea 
 into Holland, he was driven back by the garrison, aided 
 by a detachment of English guards and gun-boats. Gen- 
 eral Miranda invested Maestrecht, with a force of twenty- 
 thousand men ; and, after completing his works, summon- 
 ed it to surrender. The prince of Hesse, however, its 
 commandant, determined on a resolute defence. Clairfait, 
 the Austrian general, having passed the Roer, repulsed 
 the enemy in that quarter ; and, soon afterwards, the arch- 
 duke Albert captured some of their batteries, These af- 
 fairs were followed by a complete victory, gained by the 
 prince of Saxe-Cobourg over the French army, at Aix la 
 Chapelle; from which, they were driven as far as Liege: 
 and, on the same day, prince Frederick of Brunswick de- 
 feated a body at Bruges. Miranda was therefore compelled 
 to raise the siege of Maestrecht, and hastily retreat. 
 
 The good fortune of Dumorier seemed to have deserted 
 him. All the splendid conquests made by that active com- 
 mander in the Austrian Netherlands, being, before the end 
 X 2 
 
2 12 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of March, recovered by the allies, he was obliged to retire 
 upon his own frontier. Dumorier was a moderate repub- 
 lican, and invariably opposed Robespierre, Marat, and 
 others of that ferocious party; who had used the name of 
 liberty for accomplishing the most sanguinary barbarities 
 in the annals of the world. He therefore formed a design 
 of marching to Paris, to effect a counter-revolution. But, 
 being suspected by the convention, he departed from his 
 army, and took refuge with the Austrians. Dampiere was 
 then appointed in his place. From his fortified camp at 
 Famars, near Valenciennes, the French general made an 
 impetuous attack on the allies, which ended in his defeat; 
 he himself being mortally wounded. In this engagement, 
 the British troops, under the duke of York, second son of 
 the king of Englind, were highly distinguished. The 
 camp of Famars afterwards yielded to the allies ; by which 
 means, Valenciennes being left uncovered, the siege of 
 that place was intrusted to the duke; to whom, after it had 
 been reduced almost to ashes by a bombardment, it surren- 
 dered. But that officer, shortly after, met a severe repulse. 
 Having commenced the siege of Dunkirk, the delay in re- 
 ceiving his heavy artillery, and the want of an early co-op- 
 eration by a naval force, caused the loss of so much time, 
 that the enemy were enabled to collect a powerful army 
 fo.r its defence, before any progress was made in its invest- 
 ment: the result of which was, that he was obliged to 
 raise the siege, and leave behind him his battering cannon, 
 with a large quantity of ammunition. 
 
 Toulon, in the south of France, became an interesting 
 and melancholy object. The citizens, in conjunction with 
 admiral Turgot, had given admiral Hood possession of the 
 town and shipping; on condition that they should be re- 
 turned to the French monarchy, whenever it should be re- 
 established. But the appearance of a numerous republican 
 army, soon made it necessary for the British to retire. A 
 conflagration of the magazines, arsenals, and vessels in the 
 harbour, followed, under the direction of sir Sidney Smith ; 
 on which occasion, fifteen ships of the line, several frigates, 
 and an immense quantity of naval stores, were consumed 
 
 In the month of October, Marie Antoinette, widow of 
 the unfortunate Louis, was taken to the scaffold. The 
 guillotine streamed with the blood of many others ; several 
 of whom deserved a better fate. But the execution of the 
 duke of Orleans, then known by the name of Egalite, (who 
 l iad been so active in procuring the king's death,) was re- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 243 
 
 gretted by none. Very different was the feeling for Ma- 
 dame Roland, whose character was the object of general 
 admiration. 
 
 The East and the West Indies had again a large share of 
 military operations. However, no useful knowledge would 
 be imparted, by our attending to them, in this early stage 
 of the great contest. The domestic transactions are the 
 next subject of importance. 
 
 In Scotland, a party zealous for reform had projected 
 what they entitled, rather injudiciously, a national conven- 
 tion. This society having thereby attracted the notice of 
 government, prosecutions were instituted against some of 
 its leading members; upon an old Scottish statute, of very 
 wide and dangerous application. In consequence, Mr. 
 Muir and Mr. Palmer received sentence of transportation: 
 which judgment, being the first instance of the imposition 
 of that punishment, for such a crime, and pronounced 
 against persons of respectable character, was regarded as 
 unreasonably severe. 
 
 About this time, the British government became involv- 
 ed in those disputes with the United States of America, 
 which, finally, were attended with so serious effects. Or- 
 ders having been given, by the former, for stopping all 
 vessels carrying corn or military stores, either to France, 
 or to her colonies, more than six-hundred of the American 
 shipping were consequently seized, within a period of five 
 months. This violation of neutral rights, accompanied by 
 the impressment of American seamen, was resented by an 
 embargo on the British shipping; after which, Mr. Jay 
 an ambassador from the United States, having arrived in 
 London, the dispute was for the present adjusted. 
 
 The popular odium, which Mr. Pitt had already gained, 
 by his precipitate breach with the French republic, was 
 now increased by another measure, highly offensive to a 
 nation entitled to the privileges of freemen. This was, the 
 suspension of the habeas corpus act; as a counterpoise to 
 the rapidly increasing spirit of reform. But, though he had 
 thus succeeded in bringing over a majority in parliament 
 to countenance his encroachments, he was entirely defeat- 
 ed in his next experiment. Indictments being found against 
 several members of the reforming societies, Mr. Hardy 
 was first tried ; and, after an investigation of eight days 
 continuance, in which the talents of his counsel, Mr. 
 Erskine and Mr. Gibbs, were admirably displayed, he 
 was acquitted/ The trial of Home Tooke ended in the 
 
244 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 same manner; after which, the other prisoners were dis- 
 charged. 
 
 We are again called to the grand theatre of war. The 
 continent exhibited a spectacle no less interesting than aw- 
 ful ; unparalleled in the previous history of Europe. 
 
 France, amid the ferocious contentions of successive fac- 
 tions; unaided by a single friend; assailed, on all sides, by 
 the strongest energies of the surrounding kingdoms ; pre- 
 served her territory uninjured. Austria, Prussia, and Hol- 
 land; Great Britain, Sardinia, and Spain; seemed to wage 
 against the republic an unequal contest. Their veteran 
 troops, their long experienced commanders, now yielded to 
 the soldiers of a day; led on by generals just emerged from 
 the very lowest ranks. A degree of enthusiasm, bordering 
 on madness, had infused amongst the undisciplined armies 
 of France, an artificial courage, which nothing could resist. 
 Before the end of autumn, the whole of Austrian Flanders 
 and Brabant, with many of the strong towns on the Dutch 
 frontiers, had fallen ; and so disheartened were the Aus- 
 trian and Prussian monarchs, that they would have made a 
 hasty peace with their powerful antagonist, had it not been 
 for the interposition of British gold. 
 
 But, on another element, the French experienced a re- 
 verse. At sea, they had to meet a foe, certainly not inferior 
 in natural ardour, and far superior in skill and discipline. 
 On the first of June, lord Howe, with twenty-five sail 
 ' of the line, engaged the enemy's fleet of twenty-six, 
 off the coast of Brittany. The French steadily awaited the 
 attack ; but, in less than an hour after the action became 
 general, their commander, whose immediate opponent was 
 Howe, in the Queen Charlotte, went off with crowded sails, 
 followed by most of his van who were able to carry canvass 
 Of those which were left crippled, seven ships were taken; 
 the remainder having escaped, owing to the disabled or 
 separated state of the English. The slaughter in the 
 French fleet was very great. In the captured vessels, alone, 
 the killed and wounded amounted to twelve-hundred. The 
 total loss of the British was nine-hundred. 
 
 Early in the ensuing spring, Mr. Pitt brought forward a 
 plan for the augmentation of the navy; requiring for that 
 service ninety-thousand men. The regular land-forces 
 amounted at this period to considerably more. So large a 
 military establishment, with the expense of maintaining a 
 majority in parliament, and subsidizing the continental sov- 
 ereigns, required upwards of twenty-seven-millions for the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 245 
 
 service of the year. With regard to the king of Prussia, it 
 was observed by the opposition, that he had misapplied the 
 assistance so largely given him ; having directed it chiefly 
 towards promoting his* unjust designs against Poland: and 
 as to Austria, that the conduct of the emperor did not then 
 justify a much higher degree of confidence. 
 
 The conquest of Holland had become the great object 
 with the French; an enterprise in which the power of Louis 
 the fourteenth had failed. But the present state of the prov- 
 inces rendered success more probable, than at any formei 
 time. Since the forced restoration of the Stadtholder, by 
 the arms of Prussia, in 1787, disaffection to the house of 
 Orange, and its supporters, was a prevailing sentiment 
 amongst them; and, in several districts, open declaration 
 had been made of their attachment to the French Republic 
 and their aversion to Great Britain. The principal difficul- 
 ty which obstructed the French, was the crossing of the 
 waters between Holland and Brabant; for, when attempting 
 to pass on rafts, they were repulsed by the British and Ger- 
 man troops. At length, owing to a frost, more intense than 
 any experienced for several years, they were enabled to 
 transport a numerous army, on the ice, over the Waal, and 
 carry all the posts in the isle of Bommel. A gallant attack 
 by eight-thousand British troops, under general Dundas, 
 forced them to recross the river, with considerable loss 
 But this was only a momentary check. Their numbers ren- 
 dered them irresistible. Part of Pichegru's army made good 
 their passage without opposition, and the British were forc- 
 ed to retreat ; during which, until their arrival at Bremen, 
 where they took shipping for England, their sufferings, from 
 the weather, the pursuing enemy, and the inhospitality of 
 the country through which they passed, exceeded almost 
 any of the kind that have ever afforded matter for descrip- 
 tion. The French immediately took possession of Utrecht 
 and Rotterdam. The Stadtholder, with his son, escaped 
 with difficulty from the Hague to Scheveling; and, having 
 embarked in an open boat, on the following day reached 
 England. Pichegru, having received a formal invitation, 
 entered Amsterdam on the 20th of January. The inde- 
 pendence of the United Provinces was then declared, and 
 the preceding constitution abolished. 
 
 This was soon followed by a peace between the French 
 Republic and the king of Prussia. The treaty, which had 
 been for some time progressing, was entirely in favour of 
 the former; and gave her the satisfaction of being acknowl- 
 
216 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 edged by a power which had stood foremost in the hostile 
 confederacy. Spain, too, completely dispirited by the last 
 campaign, found it necessary to sue for peace, and accept 
 of such terms as she could obtain. She yielded all her part 
 of Hispaniola, with its artillery and stores, acknowledged 
 the French and Dutch republics, and undertook to use her 
 influence in detaching Portugal from the alliance with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Although, since the downfal of Robespierre, Marat, and 
 their atrocious confederates, the internal relations of France 
 had been gradually improving, yet there still arose a con- 
 siderable degree of inquietude, from the successive colli- 
 sion of the factions which remained. The fifth of October 
 was a dreadful day at Paris. A conflict took place near the 
 hall of the convention, between the citizens and the regulai 
 army ; and ended in the total rout of the people, after a 
 loss of about a thousand lives. On this occasion, Napoleon 
 Buonaparte, a native of Corsica, distinguished himself as a 
 commander, by his intrepid conduct. Tranquillity being 
 restored, a new constitution was formed, and the conven- 
 tion, after a continuance of three years, resigned its author- 
 ity. The executive power was now vested in five directors : 
 Reubel, Latourneur, Barras, Sieyes, and Larevelliere Le- 
 paux; who were installed with regal pomp, and, on public 
 occasions, displayed all the appendages of sovereignty. 
 The founding of the national institute, an establishment 
 which revived and included 'all the former celebrated acade- 
 mies of science and polite literature, and the forming of 
 central schools for the superior branches of education in 
 each department, honourably testified the enlarged views 
 of the new authorities. 
 
 The republic, however, with all its attention and energy, 
 was still unable to meet the British on the ocean. A fur- 
 ther reduction of its navy was made, by admiral Hotham 
 and lord Bridport; by the one, off Genoa, and the other, off 
 Port L'Orient. But an exploit of more importance than any 
 during this year, was the capture of the Dutch colony, the 
 Cape of Good Hope, by general Craig and admiral sir G. 
 Keith Elphinstone; its governor having rejected a proposal, 
 that it should be assigned to the protection of Great Britain. 
 . Whatever consolation the minister derived from the in- 
 variable success of the navy, and the occasional triumphs 
 of the army, there seemed no reasonable hope of eventually 
 controlling the formidable power of France. The people 
 were extremely desirous of peace. But every motion in 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 247 
 
 parliament upon that subject had been rejected. A petition, 
 therefore, to both houses, was voted in the Common Hall 
 of London, by a large majority; and also in several towns 
 throughout the kingdom. The ministry, and other advo- 
 cates of war, became daily more unpopular, and the re- 
 forming societies acted with increasing boldness. One 
 meeting, in the fields near Copenhagen House, was distin- 
 guished by the daring spirit of the addresses, made to at 
 least fifty-thousand persons. In the autumn, when the king 
 was proceeding through the Park to the house of lords, he 
 was surrounded by a crowd of all ranks, who clamorously 
 demanded peace, and the dismission of Mr. Pitt: one of the 
 glasses of his coach was broken by a bullet, and on his re- 
 turn he was treated with much rudeness and indignity. 
 
 The attention of all Europe was now turned to Italy. 
 That country, so frequently the theatre of hostile opera- 
 tions, became the chief ground on which the present bel- 
 ligerents-contended. Buonaparte, being placed at the head 
 of fifty-thousand troops, began, in the month of April, that 
 rapid series of victories, which overthrew the proudest 
 armies of Austria, removed from his ancient throne the 
 father of the Roman church, crushed the power of every 
 other sovereign beyond the Alps, and raised his military 
 fame above the greatest generals of antiquity. The ene- 
 mies of France will long remember Lodi, Mantua, Rivoli, 
 and Marengo. 
 
 War was declared against Great Britain, by the Dutch, 
 (the Batavian Republic) in May, and by the Spaniards in 
 October. 
 
 The Dutch had already experienced the effects of their 
 attachment to the French. In the East Indies, their set* 
 tlements in Ceylon, with Malacca, Cochin, Chinsura, Am- 
 boyna, and Banda, were taken without resistance. In 
 South America, they were deprived of Demerara and 
 Essequibo, by general Whyte ; and afterwards of Surinam, 
 by lord Hugh Seymour. But these were not their only 
 losses. Admiral Elphinstone captured, at Saldanha Bay, 
 several ships of the line and frigates, with two-thousand 
 land forces on board. 
 
 H 7 Early in this year, another splendid victory was 
 
 ' '.gained by the British navy. In Spain, so much dili- 
 gence had been exerted, that a large fleet was soon prepar- 
 ed, with the intention of joining the French squadron at 
 Brest. It consisted of twenty-seven sail of the line ; six of 
 which mounted, each, one-hundred-and-twelve, and one was 
 
248 IILSTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 even so powerful as one-hundred-and-thirty-six guns. The 
 squadron destined to intercept this gigantic fleet, was com- 
 posed of no more than fifteen ships of the line and some frig- 
 ates, but had much better seamen than the Spaniards, and 
 was commanded by admiral Jervis, an officer of first rate 
 abilities, seconded by many of the most distinguished offi- 
 cers in the navy. On the 14th of February, the enemy were 
 descried off Cape St. Vincent, on the coast of Portugal; 
 and, before they had time to form, were attacked, and one- 
 third of their number separated from the rest. An at- 
 tempt to rejoin their ships was prevented by commodore 
 Nelson; who, at one time, had singly to encounter their 
 admiral and two other first rates ; and the engagement 
 ended in the capture of four of their vessels, and their re- 
 turn to Cadiz. Jervis was rewarded with the title of earl 
 St. Vincent, and Nelson with the order of the Bath. 
 
 In the same month, the enemy sent over to the English 
 coast an armament, not less singular in its materials, than 
 unmeaning in its object. Fourteen-hundred men, who were 
 embarked at Brest in four vessels, three of which were 
 large frigates, entered the Bristol Channel, and anchored 
 off Ilfracombe; but, when informed that a regiment of vol- 
 unteers was prepared to oppose them, they stood over to 
 Pembrokeshire, and landed in a bay near Fishguard. The 
 alarm was immediately given ; people assembled from all 
 parts; more than three-thousand men, amongst whom were 
 a body of militia, were soon collected ; and to these, headed 
 by lord Cawdor, they immediately surrendered. The as- 
 tonishment of the captors may easily be imagined, when 
 they found that the invaders were mostly in rags, with 
 every appearance of having been taken out of prison. 
 
 Scarcely had the conversation excited by that mysterious 
 affair subsided, when a cause of serious alarm was given in 
 another quarter, and from a very different source. This 
 proceeded from a mutiny which broke out in the navy at 
 Portsmouth. Discontents had for some time existed ; aris- 
 ing from the smallness of the* seamen's pay, the unequal 
 distribution of prize money, and the severity of discipline 
 However, by the timely intervention of parliament, by 
 whom their grievances were redressed, order was happily 
 restored. But these concessions, to which they were, enti- 
 tled, led the way to further demands, unreasonable and un- 
 just. A more dangerous spirit of insubordination shortly 
 afterwards appeared, amongst the fleet lying off the Nore. 
 The head of this revolt was one Parker; a man of some ed- 
 
HlriTORY OF ENGLAND. 249 
 
 ucation, and equally remarkable for activity and courage. 
 He informed the admiralty, that the seamen had resolved 
 to keep possession of the fleet, until they complied with 
 their request. It therefore became necessary, when every 
 remonstrance and an offer of pardon were ineffectual, to 
 employ force for their reduction. Accordingly, the buoys 
 at the mouth of the Thames were removed, batteries for 
 throwing red-hot shot erected, and proclamations issued, 
 forbidding all intercourse with them from the shore. One 
 ship after another at length submitted ; and Parker with 
 his fellow delegates was seized. He and some of the lat- 
 ter were condemned and executed ; after which, good order 
 throughout the navy was completely restored. 
 
 An opportunity was soon afforded the British seamen to 
 regain the confidence of their officers and the admiration 
 of their country. Duncan, with sixteen ships of the line, 
 having encountered, near Camperdown, a Dutch fleet of 
 equal force, under Winter, captured eight of the line, two 
 of fifty-six guns and two frigates ; for which brilliant suc- 
 cess, that gallant officer was advanced to the peerage. 
 
 On tne continent, the superiority of the French arms was 
 still increasing. The Austrians had been expelled from 
 Italy; and, though another army entered that country, un- 
 der the command of the archduke Charles, an officer brave, 
 skilful, and active, they were unable to contend with the 
 greater energies of Buonaparte, aided by numerous gene- 
 rals, scarcely inferior to himself in the art of war. Nor was 
 it in Italy alone that the Imperialists were beaten. The 
 French pushed their successes so far, that even Vienna was 
 in danger; and thus compelled them to conclude a peace. 
 
 * The diminution of territory, suffered by the re- 
 
 ' " volt of the American colonies, appeared to have 
 been soon forgotten by the English government. Furthei 
 and more serious warning was required, to make a perma- 
 nent impression. A rebellion in Ireland now raised its aw- 
 ful voice, to declare the wrongs and disappointments of an 
 oppressed and insulted people: oppressed by the continu- 
 ance of unnecessary restrictions : insulted by the hope of 
 redress, no sooner given than withdrawn. 
 
 'Jo form a just decision, as to the innocence or crimm * 1 i - 
 ty of the Irish people, almost the whole effective popula- 
 tion of the country, thus taking arms against a long estab- 
 lished sovereignty, it will be necessary to make a retro- 
 grade movement; in our history. We have already shown 
 live effects of the American revolution, in producing a gen 
 Y 
 
250 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 eral spirit of resistance, and its influence in Ireland, by em- 
 bodying the volunteers. Their first object had been gained : 
 but much was yet to be accomplished. So early, therefore, 
 as 1791, an association, with a view towards parliamentary 
 reform, was established in Belfast; called the Society of 
 United Irishmen : which consisted chiefly of protestant dis- 
 senters. Amongst these, lord Castlereagh, (then the hon- 
 ourable Robert Stewart,) was one of the most active mem- 
 bers. To that .succeeded a society in Dublin, having a simi- 
 lar object, with the addition of a test. Of this, James Nap- 
 per Tandy was secretary, and Simon Butler chairman, Be- 
 sides their immediate object of reform, these liberal patriots 
 gave the most strenuous aid in gaining indulgence to the 
 catholics ; a body ertitled to the highest degree of political 
 confidence. The removal of several restraints which affect- 
 ed them has been already mentioned. For those acts, they 
 were indebted, it is generally supposed, to the sole orders 
 of the king: without whose desire, previously expressed 
 to the minister, no motion in their favour would have been 
 successful ; as Mr. Pitt, notwithstanding his professions, 
 "was inimical to their emancipation; and the majority of 
 the Irish parliament, were, on that subject, invariably gov- 
 erned by the ministerial nod. 
 
 The sudden recall, from the government of Ireland, of 
 lord Fitzwilliam ; a nobleman who had been selected, in the 
 year 1795, for the avowed purpose of healing its dissen- 
 sions, by reforming its representation and admitting the 
 catholics to a full participation of constitutional privileges; 
 was the cause of this rebellion. The king, possessing more 
 virtue in the design, than steadiness in the execution, of his 
 measures, was persuaded, by the insidious whisperings of 
 pensioners and placemen, to withdraw his generous direc- 
 tions. Of these self-interested advisers, the late Mr. Beres- 
 ford, who enjoyed a lucrative situation in the custom-house 
 at Dublin, was the most distinguished. All hopes, either of 
 emancipation or reform, were thus destroyed. Catholic and 
 Protestant thence aimed only at one object; and, as redress 
 had been denied them, that object was revolution. The va- 
 rious names which had previously marked the contending 
 parties, became lost, in the two great divisions of Uny.ec! 
 Irishmen on the one side, and Orangemen on the other; the 
 latter consisting of the very meanest of the established 
 church, led and infuriated by government dependents, un- 
 der the once respected banners of Nassau, to cover il.e 
 most atrocious persecution. For their cruelties, lord Cam- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 251 
 
 den, the successor of Fitzwilliam, is responsible. He 
 either encouraged them by his countenance, or suffered 
 them to proceed by his neglect. 
 
 The management of the intended revolution was intrust- 
 ed to a Directory. Its first members were, lord Edward 
 Fitzgerald, brother to the patriotic duke of Leinster; Oli- 
 ver Bond, a merchant of considerable eminence in Dublin; 
 Counsellor Emmett; Arthur O'Connor, nephew of lord 
 Longueville ; and doctor M'Nevin; all of whom, except the 
 last, were protestants. A correspondence was opened, and 
 an invasion of Ireland arranged, with the government of 
 France. This measure, however, had often been frustrated 
 by the vigilance of the English admirals; and, when a large 
 fleet had escaped from Brest, with a powerful armament on 
 board, under general Hoche, it was so scattered by a storm, 
 that only a part reached Ireland: and even these, after wait- 
 ing a considerable time in Bantry Bay, for the general and 
 the remainder of the fleet, sailed without landing their 
 troops. An insurrection, unaided by the French, was not 
 intended, in the beginning. But, the chief leaders having 
 been imprisoned, and the people goaded to the last stage 
 of desperation by the ministerial assistance of lord Castle- 
 reagh, that great political apostate, a rebellion was begun 5 
 without heads to direct, or officers to execute. 
 
 The insurgents first assembled on the 23d of May. On 
 the following morning, they attacked the garrison of Naas, 
 in the county of Kildare, fourteen miles from Dublin ; from 
 which, after a warm contest, they were repulsed. Simul- 
 taneous attempts were made at many other towns; particu- 
 larly Carlow, Hacketstown, and Monasterevan; in general, 
 with no better success. The insurrection then spread 
 through several of the southern and northern counties, 
 threatening a total dissolution of the government. Severe 
 engagements occurred at Wexford, Vinegar Hill, and New 
 Ross; Antrim, Saintfield, and Ballinahinch. 
 
 Happily for Ireland, the earl of Cambden was recalled, 
 and lord Cornwallis deputed to restrain the fury of civil 
 war. The system of moderation and mercy pursued by 
 this nobleman, was attended with immediate effect. Mili- 
 tary execution being repressed, and a general pardon offer- 
 ed, before the end of July the flames of rebellion were near- 
 ly extinguished. But, in the following month, an ill-timed 
 expedition from France raised disturbance in the west. 
 Eleven-hundred infantry, commanded by Humbert, seem- 
 ed, for a while, to bid defiance to the whole military force 
 
252 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of Ireland. It must for ever remain a humiliating reflection 
 on the power and lustre of the British arms, that so pitiful 
 a detachment should have routed a select army of six-thou- 
 sand men, marched one-hundred-and-fifty miles through the 
 country, and maintained their superiority until surrounded 
 by upwards of twenty-thousand troops. After an obstinate 
 resistance, the gallant band surrendered to lord Cornwallis, 
 at Ballinamuck. Historical justice, however, requires us 
 to state, that, in a previous rencounter, a small party of 
 the Limerick militia, under colonel Vereker, gave them a 
 severe check;* and that no blame can be attached to the 
 common soldiers. Their discipline had been so much 
 relaxed by the turbulent policy of a former commander 
 in chief, lord Carhampton, that his successor, the correct 
 soldier, sir Ralph Abercrombie, declared, " the army id 
 Ireland was formidable to every one but the enemy.'* 
 
 It was fortunate for the government, that, as the land 
 forces were so inefficient, the usual vigour and discipline 
 continued in the navy. On the 12th of October, a squad- 
 ron of one ship of the line and eight frigates, with troops 
 and ammunition on board for Ireland, was arrested in its 
 progress by sir John Borlase Warren, at Lough Swilly; 
 where, after a smart engagement, the ship of the line and 
 three frigates were captured; and, eventually, the whole 
 of the squadron, with the exception of two frigates, was 
 taken. 
 
 Thenceforward, the chief governor applied himself as- 
 siduously to retrieve the country from its devastation. 
 
 France being disengaged from her continental enemies, 
 the invasion of England became more than ever the object 
 of her rulers. It was the favourite theme of their public 
 orators. The conquest of their only remaining foe was 
 anticipated with all the boastful confidence of the nation. 
 Troops were collected on the opposite coast, andjnamed 
 The Army of England : transports of every kind were 
 prepared, and a loan was negotiated on the credit of the 
 English spoils. These threats had a very injurious influ- 
 ence upon the funds, and upon the manufacturing class, al- 
 ready deprived of an extensive market, by the hostile situa- 
 tion of so large a portion of their ancient consumers. - 
 
 But the enemy, whilst alarming the domestic empire of 
 Great Britain, seimed to meditate a more distant blow. 
 Her settlements in India being viewed with an eye of jeal- 
 ousy, it was attempted to reach them by the way of Egypt. 
 For this purpose, a large fleet, carrying twenty-thousand 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 253 
 
 troops, sailed from Toulon. Accompanying them, were 
 artists of all kinds, men of science in all its various depart- 
 ments, with every requisite for the establishment of a great 
 colony ; and the conduct of the whole was given to Buona- 
 parte. In his passage, he made an easy conquest of Malta; 
 an island considered as almost invulnerable. Egypt's be- 
 ing a province of the Turkish empire, then at peace with 
 France, created no objection to the scheme. Having land- 
 ed the troops, he took Alexandria by storm; gave the Beys 
 a defeat, which rendered him master of Cairo ; organized 
 a temporary government, and then set out in pursuit of 
 the fugitives, to Syria. 
 
 On the first of August, one month after the entry of the 
 French, admiral Nelson discovered their fleet, anchored 
 across Aboukir Bay, near the mouth of the Nile, consisting 
 of thirteen ships of the line and four "frigates; a number, 
 superior to the English. Naval history does not record a 
 more awful combat than that which followed. The confla- 
 gration of the French ship, L'Orient, ended in a dreadful 
 explosion; in which, the admiral and his whole crew of 
 more than one-thousand men, perished; the terrific gran- 
 deur of the scene being heightened by the gloom of night. 
 Eleven sail of the line and two frigates testified the accus- 
 tomed heroism of the British seamen and their great com- 
 mander; who was loaded with honours of every kind: 
 amongst which, was the appropriate title of Baron Nelson 
 of the Nile. 
 
 Sir Sidney Smyth had already gained high reputation on 
 his proper element, the sea. The advance of the French 
 into Syria, gave him an opportunity of displaying bis tal- 
 ents on land; by defeating Buonaparte, who, hitherto, had 
 been successful in every undertaking. Intrusted with the 
 defence of Acre, he compelled his antagonist to retire, after 
 a series of desperate attacks, during a two months' siege. 
 
 In the mean time, France was losing ground in Europe- 
 Russia, induced by the pecuniary aid of England, had join- 
 ed Austria in another attempt to reduce her power ; which 
 new war had considerably, impaired the credit of the re- 
 publican arms, and her financial resources. In this state 
 of things, France was surprised by the sudden appearance 
 of Buonaparte from Egypt. The existing government waa 
 immediately dissolved, and the executive authority 
 ' committed to three Consuls; of whom, Buonaparte 
 was appointed chief, for a term of ten years. 
 
 He addressed a letter to the king of Great Britain, re- 
 Y2 
 
254 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 questing him to enter on a negotiation for a general peace. 
 But his desire did not meet a corresponding return. After 
 some notes, passed between lord Grenvilie, secretary of 
 state for foreign affairs, and M. Talleyrand, the French 
 minister, the business terminated. 
 
 India next demands attention. Seven years had elapsed, 
 since Tippoo Saib had ceded to lord Cornwallis half his 
 dominions, to be held, by the British and their Eastern al- 
 lies, as the penalty of his hostile operations ; and, as secu- 
 ri y for his submission, delivered to the former his two 
 eldest sons; an interesting pledge. Influenced by the French, 
 he again gave indication of unfriendly movements, and 
 thereby incurred the vengeance of his watchful enemy. At 
 this time, the governor of British India was lord Morning- 
 ton, (since entitled marquis Wellesley,) under whose direc- 
 tions, generals Harris and Stuart, with an immense army, 
 marched to Seringapatam ; which they carried by assault. 
 In the attack, Tippoo himself was killed. His remaining 
 territory was divided. The capital, with extensive districts, 
 was assigned to the English : a large portion was given to 
 the Nizam, and the rest to the ancient rajahs of Mysore, 
 formerly dispossessed by Hyder Ally. 
 
 To the calamity of war, another, if possible more afflict- 
 ing, was at this time added. Owing to unfavourable har- 
 vest weather, the price of corn, and every other article of 
 food, had reached a height, in Great Britain and Ireland, 
 unknown at any former period. Not only was it impossible 
 for the labourer to earn the means of purchasing the hum- 
 blest necessaries of life, but the utmost dread existed, lest 
 there should not remain seed sufficient for the ensuing 
 spring. However, by the humanity of those whom Provi- 
 dence had placed above the pressure of a season, and by a 
 general system of rigid economy throughout every rank, 
 the people outlived their heart-rending situation. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, one of the greatest philosophers and 
 statesmen, either of ancient or modern times, died at Phila- 
 delphia, in 1790, in his eighty-fifth year. 
 
 No man ever excelled Franklin in familiarly illustrating 
 an argument. He was once a member of a society, in which 
 it was contended that e*very person who gave a vote for a 
 member of the legislature, should possess a certain amount 
 of property; at least fifty dollars. The doctor was opposed 
 to the restriction. — " To-day," said he, " a man owns a jack- 
 ass worth fifty dollars, and he is entitled to vote; but, be- 
 fore the next election, the jackass dies. The man, in the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 255 
 
 mean time, has become more experienced: his knowledge 
 of the principles of government, and his acquaintance with 
 mankind, are more extensive, and he is therefore better 
 qualified to make a proper selection of rulers :> — but, the 
 jackass is dead, and the man cannot vote. Now, gentlemen," 
 he continued, " pray inform me, in whom is the right of 
 suffrage, — in the man, or in the assP" 
 
 General Washington died at his seat, Mount Vernon, in 
 Virginia, on the fourteenth day of December, 1799, in the 
 sixty-eighth year of his age. He was the first elected Presi- 
 dent of the United States; in which exalted office, his abili- 
 ties as a statesman were equally conspicuous with his for- 
 mer conduct as a soldier. 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 Legislative Union with Ireland. — Peace of Amiens. 
 
 ONE consequence resulting from the rebellion, 
 was a legislative union between Great Britain and 
 Ireland ; long a favourite measure of administration. No 
 subject ever met so strenuous opposition in the Irish parlia- 
 ment. Eloquence and intrigue failed to obtain a majority 
 in its favour. But titles and emoluments were lavishly 
 employed, and hushed the new-born patriotism of many, 
 who, hitherto, had voted with the ministerial benches. It 
 was resolved, that Great Britain and Ireland should, on the 
 first day of January in the present year, be styled the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; that they should be 
 represented by one parliament: that four spiritual lords, 
 (bishops,) and twenty-eight temporal peers of Ireland, 
 should sit in the house of lords; the former by rotation of 
 sessions, the latter by election for life; and one-hundred 
 representatives in the house of commons. The regal title 
 also underwent a change; being divested of the frivolous 
 assumption of " king of France;" which, for many ages, had 
 been more a subject of ridicule, than a mark of dignity. 
 
 On the continent, the talents of the First Consul had again 
 compelled the allies to conclude a peace. Each succeed- 
 ing treaty increased the dominion and the influence of 
 France. The " armed neutrality," re-organized under this 
 control, now assumed a formidable aspect. It threatened 
 to deprive Great Britain either of her arrogated dominion 
 of the sea, or the benefits arising from her commerce with 
 
256 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the Baltic. Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia, -were 
 leagued against her maritime encroachment. To defeat 
 this compact, lord Nelson made an attack on the Danish 
 fleet and batteries at Copenhagen ; and, after one of the 
 most dreadful engagements ever witnessed, burned, sunk, 
 or captured, the entire fleet, and constrained the prince 
 royal to sign an armistice. This was the termination of 
 hostilities, in that quarter. The Russian emperor, Paul, 
 whose actions had long denoted insanity, became intoler- 
 able to his subjects, and being found dead in his bed- 
 chamber, was succeeded by his son, Alexander ; who im- 
 mediately declared for the political system of his grand- 
 mother, Catherine the second. 
 
 Though, by his hasty departure from Egypt, Buonaparte 
 had incurred the charge of desertion, he escaped the mor- 
 tification of defeat. England was not an idle spectator of 
 the French progress to the East. Eighteen-thousand men, 
 under sir Ralph Abercrombie, Hutchinson, and other ex- 
 perienced generals, were sent into Egypt, to check that 
 ambitious march. At no former period, were the valour 
 and discipline of the British army so conspicuous. The 
 finest of the enemy's regiments were there literally trampled 
 under foot ; and in a short time the whole of their remain- 
 ing forces agreed to evacuate the country. This service, 
 however, was not performed without considerable loss, ag- 
 gravated by a mortal wound received at Alexandria by the 
 venerable commander ; who thus ended a long series of 
 brilliant achievements : and the infection of ophthalmia, a 
 disorder, prevalent in the sandy regions, by which blind- 
 ness was spread through the British ranks, was a melan- 
 choly addition to the usual miseries of war. 
 
 An exhilarating event soon afterwards occurred in Eng- 
 land. In the course of our history, it may have been fre- 
 quently remarked, that a change of ministry is the harbin- 
 ger of peace. The tone of decided hostility, which Mr. 
 Pitt and several of his official colleagues had maintained 
 against the government of France, rendered the formation 
 of another cabinet necessary, to insure success in the in- 
 tended negotiation. Accordingly, they retired; and Mr. 
 Addington, speaker of the house of commons, was placed 
 at the head of the new administration. 
 
 The avowed cause of resignation was, that the king, re- 
 ferring to his coronation oath, had refused to acquiesce in 
 their wishes for catholic indulgence; a declaration which 
 must be received with considerable doubt. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 257 
 
 On the 27th of March, a definitive treaty, between 
 the French Republic, Spain, and the Batavian Re- 
 public, on the one part, and Great Britain on the other, 
 was signed at Amiens. By its conditions, the latter restor- 
 ed to the three powers all its conquests during the war; 
 with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon, respectively 
 ceded by Spain and Batavia. Malta, which the British had 
 retaken from the French, was returned to the order of St 
 John of Jerusalem; under many stipulations, guaranteed 
 by the great powers of Europe. 
 
 Peace is at all times desirable by England. But it must 
 have been particularly welcome, at this time ; when her 
 annual expenditure had arrived at thirty-five-millions, and 
 her national debt at five-hundred-millions sterling : a sum 
 so vast, that it cannot be contemplated by the human mind. 
 
 FOURTH PART. 
 Renewal of the War. 
 
 THE peace of Amiens gave the French Republic an 
 opportunity of turning its arms against the negroes of St. 
 Domingo; who, having, in the early stage of the revolution, 
 shaken off the bonds of slavery, were now, under Chris- 
 tophe and Tuissaint, rapidly establishing their independ- 
 ence. Nor were the British West India colonies free from 
 insurrection. Considerable bloodshed was committed in 
 many of these, by the same unhappy race, whom avarice 
 has doomed to unremitting toil and unrelenting cruelty. 
 
 Only a short time, however, could be exclusively de- 
 voted to their reduction. The same pen which communi- 
 cated the intelligence of peace, is now employed in an- 
 nouncing a renewal of war. 
 
 In October, the king of Spain annexed to the royal do- 
 mains all the property of the knights of Malta in his do- 
 minions, and declared himself, there, grand-master of the 
 order. This step, which created a new obstacle to the 
 treaty of Amiens, in addition to others which had before 
 occurred, was supposed to have been taken at the sugges- 
 tion of the French. Early in March, a royal message was 
 i sent to parliament, which was regarded as an imme- 
 diate prelude to hostilities. It mentioned, that great 
 preparations were going forward in the ports of France 
 and Holland; which though professedly directed to colonial 
 
25S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 service, yet, as discussions of uncertain issue were subsist- 
 ing between the British and French governments, rendered 
 it expedient to increase the means of national security. A 
 corresponding address was unanimously voted, and a reso- 
 lution passed for an augmentation of ten-thousand seamen. 
 Parliament having adjourned during the Easter recess, 
 some weeks passed in a state of awful suspense. After its 
 re-assembling, his majesty informed both houses, that he 
 had given orders to lord Whitworth, his ambassador in 
 France, that, if he could not, on a certain day, conclude the 
 negotiations, he should immediately leave Paris; and that, 
 in case of such an event, general Andreossi, the French am- 
 bassador at London, had applied for his passport to return. 
 
 On the part of France, the chief subjects of complaint 
 were, the delay of the British troops in evacuating Malta 
 and Alexandria, and the rancorous abuse of the first consul 
 in the English newspapers. These were dwelt on with con- 
 siderable warmth at a levee, in a conversation between Buo- 
 naparte and lord Whitworth ; when, the ambassador, feel- 
 ing indignant at the menacing gestures of the consul, pla- 
 ced his hand upon his sword. 
 
 Great Britain complained of severity and injustice prac- 
 tised towards her merchants, immediately after the late 
 peace ; of an army being kept in Holland, contrary to the 
 remonstrances of the Batavian government; the violation 
 of the independence of Switzerland ; the annexation of 
 other territories to the French dominions,; the conduct of 
 France and Spain towards the knights of Malta; and hos- 
 tile indications against Turkey. But, perhaps the greatest 
 incentive to hostility, was a bravado, made by the first con- 
 sul and his ministers, that " Great Britain could not singly 
 contend with the power of France." 
 
 On the 17th of May, war was declared against the 
 -French; and, in the following month, against the Batavian, 
 republic. 
 
 Whilst measures were taking for supporting these hasty 
 declarations, an insurrection broke out in Ireland. The 
 promoter of this was Robert Emmett. He was a brother of 
 Counsellor Emmett, who has been, for many years, one of 
 the chief ornaments of the American bar ; son of Dr. Em- 
 mett, who once filled the office of state physician ; and for- 
 merly a distinguished student of Trinjty College, at Dub- 
 lin. The centre of this plot was the capital. On the evening 
 of the 23d of July, about five-hundred of the very lowest 
 classes, mostly armed with pikes, assembled ; intending, in 
 
HISTORY OF EN GLAND. 259 
 
 the first place, to attack the castle. The probability of suc- 
 cess in such an undertaking, with such materials, in a city 
 garrisoned by upwards of five-thousand regular troops, 
 may easily be conjectured. Proceeding, however, through 
 Thomas-street, lord Kilwarden, one of the principal judges, 
 and his nephew Mr. Wolfe, unfortunately fell in their way, 
 were dragged from their carriage, and massacred. Some 
 of the yeomanry, when returning from parade, shared a 
 similar fate; all, unquestionably, without the concurrence 
 of Mr. Emmett. In less than an hour, these infatuated 
 people were imprisoned or dispersed. Their leader, and 
 nearly twenty others of the party, were tried, and, afte/ 
 patient and impartial investigations, condemned and exe- 
 cuted. The fate of Mr. Emmett was particularly lament- 
 ed; though, even his friends could not acquit him, for 
 having thus disturbed the peace of the country, whilst 
 there existed no rational hope of gaining the desired end. 
 
 Fortunately, that humane and respectable nobleman, lord 
 Hardwicke, at that time presided over the Irish counsels, 
 and checked the habitual malignity of those who then urg- 
 ed the necessity of suspending the trial by jury. 
 
 The first occurrence in this year, essential to be 
 
 noticed, was the resignation of Mr. Addington, and 
 
 the resumption of his office by Mr. Pitt. In the new 
 
 ministerial list appeared the name of lord Castlereagh, as 
 
 president of the board of control. 
 
 Intelligence being received, that some vessels, with treas- 
 ure, from the South American mines, were expected at 
 Cadiz, the Indefatigable and three more frigates were des- 
 patched, to intercept them. Four Spanish ships, of the 
 same class, being discovered steering for that port, the 
 English frigates^ook a situation, each along-side of an an- 
 tagonist ; and a shot was fired, to make them bring to. A 
 close engagement commenced ; and, within ten minutes, 
 La Mercedes, the Spanish admiral's second, blew up, with 
 a tremendous explosion. All on board perished, except for- 
 ty, who were saved by the English boats. The others, after 
 considerable loss, struck their colours, in succession. It 
 was a peculiarly afflicting circumstance, that, in the vessel 
 which exploded, were the whole family of a South Ameri- 
 can, consisting of his lady, four daughters and five sons ; 
 with the exception of one of the latter, who, with his father, 
 had gone into another, and were thus spectators of the 
 dreadful catastrophe. The lading of the captured vessels 
 was of immense value; the destination of which for the 
 
260 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 service of France, was the reason assigned for this act of 
 piracy, so much censured, both at home and abroad. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, the court of Spain commenced hos- 
 tilities. 
 
 Buonaparte had risen too high, to be contented with the 
 smallest inferiority. Title was yet wanting, to fill the 
 present measure of his ambition. This was easily obtained 
 The senate, from his own suggestions, requested that he 
 would consent to become Emperor : addresses to the same 
 effect followed from the army and the municipal bodies ; 
 and a motion in the tribunate, that he should be made Em- 
 peror of the French, with hereditary succession, passed, 
 with only one dissentient voice; that of Carnot; who de- 
 livered his sentiments with great force and freedom. The 
 title of prince and princess, was respectively conferred on 
 all the branches of the Buonaparte family ; Napoleon and 
 his empress, Josephine, were crowned at Paris, by the 
 pope ; and, in the following year, the new emperor placed 
 the regal crown of Italy upon his head, at Milan. 
 
 Soon afterwards, Francis the second, emperor of Ger- 
 many, whose crown /was previously elective, assumed the 
 additional title of hereditary emperor of Austria. 
 
 In the mean time, serious discussions occurred, between 
 the emperor of Russia and the government of France. Al- 
 exander remonstrated warmly against the usurping spirit of 
 the latter, and insisted that the French troops should evac- 
 uate the kingdom of Naples and the north of Germany, 
 But France remained firm in her determination. A 
 new league was therefore formed; by which, Russia 
 and Austria joined with England, for the purpose of secur- 
 ing the independence of the different states. But Napoleon 
 resolved to strike a decisive blow against nis Austrian an- 
 tagonist, before his troops could be joined by those of Rus- 
 sia. Accordingly,he entered his territory at the head of one- 
 hundred-and-fifty-thousand men, accompanied by marshals 
 Bernadotte, Marmont, Davoust, Soult, Ney, and Lasnes, 
 and took possession of Vienna; which, Francis with his 
 court had abandoned, on his approach. In two days after- 
 wards, Napoleon set out to join a division which was ad- 
 vancing to meet the Russians; and, without loss of time, 
 came in contact with the allies at Austerlitz. Here, was 
 fought the memorable battle, in which were present the 
 three emperors, of Austria* Russia, and France. This san- 
 guinary action ended in the defeat of the allies, with the 
 loss of the greater part of their artillery and baggage ; and 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 261 
 
 compelled Francis to submit to an armistice : by the terms 
 of which, the victor was to retain all his conquests, until 
 the signing of a definitive peace. 
 
 Whilst the French were thus pursuing a victorious ca- 
 reer on land, their ambitious ruler experienced the defeat 
 of his hopes in gaining a superiority at sea. This element 
 still witnessed the almost unvaried triumphs of the British. 
 Off Cape Trafalgar, near the southern point of Andalusia, 
 the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to 
 thirty-three sail of the line, were totally overthrown by Nel- 
 son, with twenty-seven. This great officer had laid a plan 
 of attack, a master-piece of naval skill. Having given the 
 memorable signal, " England expects every man to do his 
 duty," he bore down in a double column. The enemy, on 
 his approach, extended their line in the form of a crescent. 
 But, though the victory which followed deprived them of 
 twenty-four sail of the line, the British suffered a much 
 heavier loss, in the death of their commander. His coun- 
 try justly appreciated his services. The honours paid, by a 
 grateful and admiring nation, to the memory of Nelson, 
 were never surpassed, in any age. In the same degree that 
 they condemned the authors of the danger, they applaud- 
 ed the heroes by whom it was repelled. 
 
 An anecdote is told, of one of the crew of a British ves« 
 sel engaged in that decisive battle, which is strikingly char- 
 acteristic of a brave seaman. A limb having been carried 
 off by a cannon-ball, when some of his comrades were bear- 
 ing him on their shoulders, to the surgeon's room, below, 
 he called out to one of his messmates — " I say, Jim, give 
 a look about the deck, for my leg : you'll find a braa« buc- 
 kle in the shoe ; take care of it for me, that's a good fel- 
 row : I'll do as much for you again." 
 
 About this time, lord Cornwallis, who had been appoint- 
 ed successor to marquis Wellesley, died, at an advanced 
 age, in India. 
 
 The death of those two prominent characters was 
 followed by that of Mr. Pitt. In the preceding sum- 
 mer, having sensibly felt the decline of a constitution, orig- 
 inally delicate, and long severely injured by care, fatigue, 
 and the misfortunes of the allies, he retired to Bath, with 
 very faint hopes of recovery. On the 23d of January, he 
 expired, in the forty-seventh year of his age. This minister 
 has been styled, by his own party, "The pilot who weath- 
 ered the storm ;" but, though we grant that he was a states- 
 man of considerable talent, it was he who raised the gale — 
 Z 
 
262 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the people, who triumphantly survived it. He only assess- 
 ed the taxes — the people had the merit of paying them. 
 
 Lord Hawkesbury having declined the ofi'er of becoming 
 his successor, a total change was made in the administra- 
 tion. Lord Grenville became first lord of the treasury ; 
 earl Spencer, Mr. Fox, and Mr. Windham, secretaries of 
 state; lord Erskine, (the late commoner,) lord chancellor- 
 Important offices were also assigned to lords Fitzwilliam; 
 Moira,Sidmouth,and Howick,(Addington and Grey.) The 
 duke of Bedford was made lord lieutenant of Ireland; and, 
 in that kingdom, George Ponsonby was made lord chancel- 
 lor, Curran, the celebrated orator, master of the rolls. 
 
 One of the first measures brought forward by the new 
 cabinet, was an alteration in the military system ; particu- 
 larly in the mode of recruiting the army. By this excel- 
 lent arrangement, instead of being, as before, engaged for 
 life, the soldiers are now enlisted for a term of years, with 
 privileges augmented in proportion to the length of ser- 
 vice; commencing with seven, and concluding with twen- 
 ty-one years. 
 
 That was an act of policy mingled with humanity. The 
 abolition of the slave-trade, which succeeded, was one of 
 humanity required by justice. More than twenty years 
 had passed, since Mr. Wilberforce commenced his annual 
 appeal to parliament, in behalf of the long oppressed Afri- 
 can. In that period, much had been done to lessen his suf- 
 ferings during the passage from his native shore; and this 
 total abolition of a nefarious traffic would have been voted 
 much sooner, but for the interference of commercial in- 
 terest, in the sea-ports. 
 
 In about a year after this, a similar non-importation 
 commenced in the United States of America. 
 
 Meanwhile, a splendid achievement was performed 'by 
 the British army, in Calabria. Near Maida, sir John Stu- 
 art, with a force of less than five-thousand, defeated seven- 
 thousand French infantry, under Regnier. This affair, 
 which caused the expulsion of the enemy from that quar- 
 ter, was decided on a plain, by the bayonet. 
 
 A horrid proposal of assassinating the French emperor, 
 having been intimated, by a foreigner, to Mr. Fox, this ex- 
 cellent man, with his characteristic generosity, disclosed 
 the infamous plot, in a letter to M. Talleyrand; and, at. the 
 same time, expressed a desire to treat of peace. But a dif- 
 ficulty arose. The British cabinet refused to act separately 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 263 
 
 from Russia, and, after much negotiation, the treaty was 
 abandoned. 
 
 Every day increased the political influence of Napoleon. 
 Having first succeeded in overawing- all the inferior sover- 
 eigns of Germany, and forming an alliance, named the Con- 
 federation of the Rhine, of which he himself was the head, 
 he. compelled Francis to relinquish the office of chief of 
 the Germanic body, and yield the precedence to France ; 
 and used a similar tone of authority to the king of Prussia. 
 Roused, however, from his long continued lethargy, Fred- 
 erick engaged single handed against Napoleon. But, this 
 spirit, which, at one period, might have preserved his dig- 
 nity, now hastened his degradation. The victory of Jena 
 gave his enemy possession of Berlin ; and the subsequent 
 operations, in which the Russians, too, were almost inva- 
 riably defeated, enabled him to dictate his own terms in 
 the treaty of Tilsit By this, the temporising Frederick 
 lost a large territory, Alexander acknowledged the con- 
 federation of the Rhine, and Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, 
 Buonaparte, as kirgs of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. 
 It is said, that a request, made by the queen of Prussia, 
 induced Napoleon to relinquish a considerable part of his 
 acquisitions. When at dinner, on removing the napkin 
 from her plate, the concession was found, thus laconical Iv 
 expressed : " Silesia. 1 ' 
 
 "When I was at Tilsit," relates Napoleon, "with the 
 emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia, I was the most 
 ignorant of the three, in military affairs. These two sover- 
 eigns, especially the king of Prussia, were completely at 
 home, as to the number of buttons there ought to be in front 
 uf a jacket, how many behind, and the manner in which the 
 skirts ought to be cut. No tailor in the army knew bet- 
 ter than king Frederic, how many measures of cloth it took 
 to make a jacket. In fact, I was nobody, in comparison with 
 them. They continually tormented me with question, 
 about matters belonging to tailors, of which I was entirely 
 ignorant; though, in order not to affront them, I answered 
 just as gravely as if the fate of an army depended upon the 
 cut of a jacket. When I went to see the king of Prussia, 
 instead of a library, I found he had a large room, like an 
 arsenal, furnished with shelves and pegs, in which were 
 placed fifty or sixty jackets of various modes. Every da\ 
 he changed his fashion, and put on a different one. He was 
 a tall, dry looking fellow, and would give a good idea of 
 Don Quixote. He attached more importance to the cut 
 
264 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of a dragoon or a hussar uniform, than was necessary for 
 the salvation of a kingdom. At Jena, his army performed 
 the finest and most showy manoeuvres possible, — but I 
 soon put a stop to their coglionerie, and taught them, that 
 to fight, and to execute dazzling manoeuvres and wear 
 splendid uniforms, were different affairs. If the French 
 army had been commanded by a tailor, the king of Prussia 
 would certainly have gained the day ; from his superior 
 knowledge of clothing ; but as victories depend more upon 
 the skill of the general commanding the troops, than upon 
 that of the tailor who makes their jackets, he consequent- 
 ly failed."* 
 
 During those momentous transactions, the British ad- 
 mirals made several captures. Sir Home Popham, with a 
 body of troops under general Beresford, after assisting in 
 the reduction of the Cape of Good Hope, ventured, without 
 any authority from home, to carry his whole naval force to 
 South America. In the beginning of June, he entered the 
 river Plata, and soon afterwards the general took posses- 
 sion of Buenos Ayres. Here, they found a considerable 
 treasure. But, being attacked by Liniers, a French colo- 
 nel in the Spanish service, the British troops, after a san- 
 guinary contest, surrendered themselves prisoners of war. 
 The succeeding operations, in that quarter, it is unnecessa- 
 ry to detail. We shall only mention, that, in the following 
 year, sir S. Auchmuty stormed Montevideo on the same 
 river ; that, in a few months afterwards, general Whitelock 
 made an unskilful attack on Buenos Ayres, which ended 
 in the destruction of a great part of his brave soldiers, and 
 the evacuation of the country by the whole of the British 
 army. 
 
 Whitelock, on his return, was, by the sentence of a 
 court martial, cashiered, and declared totally unworthy to 
 serve his majesty, in any capacity whatever. 
 
 Within a very short period, we have recorded the death 
 of three conspicuous public characters. The great politi- 
 cal opponent of Mr. Pitt was carried off, on the 7th of Sep- 
 tember, in his 58th year, by a dropsy. Though the loss 
 of Mr. Fox was a severe blow to the administration, yet it 
 produced no change worthy of notice ; except the substi- 
 tution of lord Howick, as secretary in the foreign depart- 
 ment, and the admission into the cabinet of the deceased 
 statesman's relative, lord Holland. 
 
 * Voice from St. Helena, Vol. II. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 265 
 
 7 Early in the spring, lord Howick made a motion 
 in the house of commons, which caused a dissolu- 
 tion of the ministry. He proposed, that catholics, in Great 
 Britain, should be entitled to the same privilege of serving 
 and advancing in the army, that was possessed by those of 
 the same religion in Ireland. But this indulgence having 
 been represented to the king as impolitic, the conversa- 
 tions which arose on the subject, between his majesty and 
 the cabinet, made it necessary to form a nevv administra- 
 tion. The duke of Portland was placed at the head of the 
 treasury, lords Hawkesbury and Castlereagh, with Mr. Can- 
 ning, were made secretaries of state, and Mr. Perceval was 
 appointed chancellor of the exchequer. Lords Eldon and 
 Manners succeeded Erskine and Ponsonby; and the new 
 chief governor of Ireland was the duke of Richmond. 
 
 Even the Ottoman court was now under French influ- 
 ence. The. Dardanelles and the Bosphorus were closed 
 against English and Russian vessels. In consequence, a 
 fleet was sent under the command of sir J. Duckworth 
 with orders to force a passage; and, if certain terms were 
 not arranged, to bombard Constantinople. Having passed 
 the outer castles, and done considerable damage to the 
 Turkish fleet and batteries, the English admiral anchored 
 within eight miles of the city, and commenced a negotia- 
 tion. But his proposals were rejected. Formidable pre- 
 parations were made on shore, and a nearer approach to 
 the city was impracticable. Wherefore, he retreated, and 
 repassed the castles; which assailed hinTwith vast marble 
 shot; one of which, weighing eight-hundred pounds, cut 
 in two the mainmast of the Windsor. 
 
 That defeat gave less uneasiness to the nation, than a 
 succeeding victory. Fearing that the influence of Napo- 
 leon would turn the naval power of Denmark against Eng- 
 land, the ministry despatched to Copenhagen an immense 
 fleet; which, after enveloping that capital in flames, car- 
 ried off* her entire navy and military stores. This flagrant 
 act clearly evinced the sentiments of the British ministry; 
 who thus maintained the barbarous principle, that a meas- 
 ure, though morally wrong, may be politically right. 
 
 But, even in a political view, it was erroneous. In avoid- 
 ing an uncertain, they raised an immediate, enemy. The 
 emperor of Russia prohibited all intercourse with the ag- 
 gressors, and restored the armed neutrality. 
 
 When Napoleon had accomplished his present designs 
 in the north, he directed his ambition towards another 
 Z 2 
 
266 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quarter. Portugal and Spain became the objects of attack 
 Having entered the former, he obliged the court to seek 
 refuge in Brazil. In Spain, he seemed still more success- 
 ful. Through the perfidy of the queen, and her favourite 
 Godoy, (styled the Prince of Peace,) and the weakness ol 
 her husband, Charles the fourth, he conveyed that mon- 
 arch, with his son Ferdinand, to the interior of France, and 
 obtained possession of the throne. The Spanish 
 ' crown was then given to Joseph Buonaparte ; and 
 that, of Naples, which, by his removal, became vacant, to 
 Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon. 
 
 As soon as this usurpation became known, an explosion 
 of indignant patriotism burst forth amongst the. people, 
 from one extremity of Spain to the other. To give a regu- 
 lar organization to the popular efforts, provincial " juntas" 
 were established. Of these, the supreme junta at Seville 
 took the lead, proclaimed Charles's son, Ferdinand the 
 seventh, declared war against * France, and solicited the 
 friendship and aid of England. Never was any foreign in- 
 terest adopted with more ardour and unanimity. Peace 
 with Spain was ordered on the 5th of July: the Spanish 
 prisoners were liberated, clothed, and sent to join their 
 countrymen. 
 
 In Portugal, a similar spirit of resistance was evinced, 
 and British aid requested. Sir Arthur Wellesley, having 
 landed at Mondego Bay, directed his march towards Lis- 
 bon, then occupied by the French, and after defeating a 
 corps under La Borde, at R.oleia, encountered Junot, at 
 Vamiera; over whom, he gained a splendid victory, which 
 obliged the enemy to consent to a total evacuation of Por- 
 tugal. 
 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley, (a younger brother of the marquis 
 Wellesley,) who now began h»s career on the Peninsula, by 
 delivering Portugal from so dangerous an enemy, had pre- 
 viously distinguished himself in arms, particularly at Assye, 
 in India. He was born in Ireland, at Dangan Castle, in 
 the county of Meath. His father, the late lord Mornington, 
 had placed him, at an early period of life, in that profes- 
 sion which enabled him to perform achievements so im- 
 portant to Europe, and so glorious to himself. 
 
 A charge made, during Mr. Pitt's administration, by Mr 
 Whitbread, against lord Melville, paymaster of the navy, 
 and his secretary, Mr. Trotter, had produced their degra- 
 dation. There was, at this time, brought before parlia- 
 ment, a subject of much greater, and more extraordinary, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 267 
 
 interest. Colonel Wardle, after mentioning- a system of 
 corruption which had long prevailed in the military depart- 
 ment, directly charged the commander-in-chief, the duke 
 of York, with having suffered himself to be swayed by a 
 mistress, named Clarke ; who had carried on a traffic in 
 commissions. He asserted, that Mrs. Clarke possessed the 
 power of military promotion ; and that she received pecu- 
 niary consideration, of which the commander-in-chief was 
 a partaker. During the proceedings in this remarkable 
 case, which occupied the greater part of two months, and 
 drew fuller houses than were almost ever known, long and 
 minute examinations took place, of persons of both sexes ; 
 several of whom were of a description rarely seen at the 
 bar of a legislative assembly; and gave answers, (especially 
 the female most concerned,) which often more contributed 
 to the entertainment, than corresponded with the dignity, 
 of that body. That Mrs. C. had received sums of money 
 for obtaining promotions, clearly appeared ; but, the proof 
 of the duke's participation depended chiefly on the credi- 
 bility of that female herself. As he was defended by the 
 ministry, he was exculpated by a majority, of two-hundred- 
 and-thirty-five, to one-hundred-and-twelve. His situation, 
 the official duties of which he certainly performed much 
 to the general advantage of the army, he had in the mean 
 time resigned. 
 
 When this investigation was concluded, a vast armament 
 was prepared in the English harbours. Its principal object 
 was to gain possession of the islands commanding the en- 
 trance of the Scheldt, and destroy the French ships of war 
 in that river; with the dock yards and arsenals ; on which, 
 great labour had been expended, as an essential part of 
 Napoleon's project of contending, on equal terms, with 
 the navy of England. The command of this expedition was 
 given to lord Chatham ; a general by profession, brother of 
 the late Mr. Pitt. The event accorded with this injudicious, 
 or rather criminal, selection, of an inexperienced leader ; 
 and too fully justified the anticipations of an indignant 
 public. Never was an enterprise so extensively fatal to a 
 British army, and so disgraceful to its projectors. When, 
 by the commander's inaction, the opportunity of employ- 
 ing his forces had been lost, the ill-fated soldiery were left 
 in the pestiferous marshes of Walcheren, without tents to 
 cover, or medicine to relieve, until half the land-forces 
 were either buried or expiring. 
 
 By a very surprising occurrence, Sweden, which, dur- 
 
26S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 nig this war, had generally been favourable to England, at 
 length assumed a hostile attitude. Marshal Bernadotte, 
 prince of Ponte Corvo, was chosen Crown Prince, and 
 thereby became successor to the throne of that kingdom ; 
 affording an example, unprecedented, in modern history, 
 of an ancient monarchy rejecting every branch of its royal 
 line, and choosing for its future sovereign a soldier of for- 
 tune; a stranger, of humble oiigin, known to the nation 
 only by his residence in the north of Germany, as an offi- 
 cer of Napoleon. Immediately, the Swedish court issued 
 a decree of non-intercourse with Great Britain, and declar- 
 ed its adherence to the " continental system," which ex- 
 cluded everv article of British manufacture. 
 
 FIFTH PART. 
 
 REGENCY. 
 
 Continuation of the War — Peace of Paris. 
 
 THE latter part of this year was marked by the recur- 
 rence of a domestic calamity, producing a change in the ex- 
 ecutive, which forms an era in the present reign. The king, 
 in consequence, it was supposed, of deep affliction, from 
 the sufferings of his youngest daughter, the princess Ame- 
 lia, which terminated in her death, was attacked by the 
 mental malady under which he had before laboured. It 
 therefore became necessary to appoint a Regent; and, on 
 the 5th of February, that important office was as- 
 signed, by parliament, to the prince of Wales. 
 
 A second enumeration of the inhabitants of Great Brit- 
 ain was now completed. This exhibited a population of 
 twelve-millions-five-hundred-thousand; and an increase of 
 above one-million-and-a-half, in ten years. The census was 
 ordered to be made in Ireland; but it was not very accu- 
 rately taken. Its inhabitants, however, may be estimated 
 then, at five-millions. 
 
 The annual expenditure of the empire, including inter- 
 est on the public debt, was, at this period, upwards of 
 sixty-millions sterling. 
 
 Contrary to general expectation, the early friends of the 
 Prince, amongst whom those able and upright Irishmen, 
 lord Moira and Mr. Sheridan, held a distinguished place, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 26 9 
 
 were not treated with that degree of political confidence, 
 expected by themselves and desired by the people. The 
 administration proceeded unchanged, until deprived of its 
 leader by a most tragical and extraordinary event. As Mr. 
 Perceval was entering the lobby of the house of commons, 
 1812 a P erson namec l Bellingham, fired a pistol at him; 
 the ball from which pierced his heart. He stag- 
 gered, fell, and in a short time expired. It was soon dis- 
 covered that the act was in revenge of a supposed injury 
 Bellingham> having, in a commercial visit to Russia, under- 
 gone losses, for which he thought the British government 
 were bound to procure him redress, their refusal to take 
 any cognizance of his case made such an impression on his 
 mind, that he resolved to sacrifice a conspicuous member. 
 The assassin suffered death for a deed of atrocity, which 
 would have been a national stain, had it not evidently re- 
 sulted from a degree of mental distemperature. 
 
 Since we last alluded to Napoleon, he inflicted addition- 
 al humiliation on the house of Austria. Francis had again 
 tried the fortune of the field, and had again been conquered. 
 The battle of Wagram, in which the archduke Charles and 
 Napoleon contended with more than three-hundred-thou- 
 sand men and twelve-hundred pieces of artillery, having 
 ended in the total overthrow of the Austrians, obliged them 
 to conclude a disadvantageous peace. This gave the vic- 
 tor, and the assisting members of the Rhenish Confederacy, 
 a large portion of the Austrian dominions, constrained the 
 unhappy Francis not only to acquiesce in all his ambitious 
 projects, but, by a secret article of the treaty, to deliver, to 
 his enemy, a beloved and affectionate child. In conformity 
 with this stipulation, Josephine, who had given no heir to 
 Napoleon, was divorced, and her place supplied by Maria 
 Louisa ; the interesting sacrifice of an unworthy parent. 
 
 But, on the Peninsula, the French arms were opposed 
 with determined heroism. In Spain, their victories in one 
 quarter, were followed, in another, by defeat. There, they 
 were opposed, not by the cold calculations of political ex- 
 pediency, but by the ardent feelings of an insulted nation. 
 The ablest marshals of France, assisted by the national de- 
 sertion of an enervated nobility, though they might have 
 ultimately destroyed, had as yet failed to intimidate, the 
 people. The disastrous retreat of the gallant Moore, upon 
 Corunna, where he ended his misfortunes, and his remaining 
 army purchased their embarkation by the sword, was but 
 a temporary check to the British arms The long series of 
 
270 HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 success which followed the cautious intrepidity of Welles- 
 ley, (now lord Wellington,) aided by such officers as Hope, 
 Beresford, and Graham ; Hill, Sterrett, and Pictonj obliged 
 the new sovereign to evacuate his capita 1 , with slender 
 hopes of a return. The victories of Talavera, Buzaco^ 
 Fuentes d'Honor, Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz, and Salaman- 
 ca, were gained, in person, by lord Wellington. The battle 
 of Albuera was won by Beresford ; that of Baroso, by Gra- 
 ham : Arroyo del Moiino, by Hill; and Sterrett, claimed 
 the honours of Tariffa. The commanders who opposed 
 the British, Spanish, and Portuguese combined armies, 
 were Joseph Buonaparte, and Soult ; Victor, Junot, Kel- 
 lerman, Sebastiani, Ney, Mortier, Suchet, Massena, and 
 Marmont. But, only the most remarkable conflicts are 
 here recorded. Nor, is any notice taken of the numerous 
 engagements fought exclusively by the Spaniards, under 
 their own officers. 
 
 W r hilst these operations promised to wrest the Spanish 
 sceptre from the grasp of violence, the continued success 
 of the British navy, and of the land-forces on colonial duty, 
 had annihilated Napoleon's transmarine dominion. He had 
 not now remaining a foot of land in either of the Indies, 
 nor a ship on the Indian ocean. Some consolation, how- 
 ever, in these disappointments, was derived, from the birth 
 of a son ; who, even in his cradle, was advanced to the 
 regal dignity, as king of Rome. 
 
 As he was unable to preserve the ancient colonies in 
 Asia or America, Napoleon seemed anxious to gain an 
 equivalent in Europe. This equivalent was Russia. Alex- 
 ander's refusal to concur in his favourite scheme of ex- 
 cluding the British commerce from the whole European 
 continent, he regarded as a sufficient cause for marching 
 against that country, with all the disposable force of his 
 own territories, or those under his influence. The mass 
 of military power thus collected, surpassed, probably in 
 numerical amount, certainly in discipline, any with which 
 a European conqueror had taken the field, since the ages 
 of barbarism ; and was undoubtedly designed to greater 
 changes, than mere commercial regulation. 
 
 The first movement connected with Napoleon's plan, was 
 the occupation of Swedish Pomerania. Twenty-thousand 
 French troops were stationed there, as a pledge for the con- 
 duct of Sweden in the ensuing contest. Early in the spring, 
 rhe grand army began its march towards Poland ; and on 
 its way was joined by a body of Prussians. The emperor, 
 
 + 
 
HISTOKY OF ENGLAJND. 271 
 
 Alexander, prepared to meet the storm, by quitting his 
 capital, and advancing to Wilna: where, he met Barclay 
 de Tolly, commander-in-chief of his first army. On the 
 16th of May, Napoleon, accompanied by his empress, reach- 
 ed Dresden; at which place, they were to hold an inter- 
 view with the emperor and empress of Austria. 
 
 At length, the invading army, commanded by the French 
 emperor, advanced in nine divisions; composing a total so 
 much superior to the Russians, that a defensive plan, only, 
 could be recommended by the cabinet of Petersburgh. This 
 was, to retreat gradually, and make a stand in favourable 
 positions. When the determination was taken, the danger 
 became still more imminent. Austria sent her stipulated 
 number of troops to act with the French, already strength- 
 ened by the sudden junction of the Poles. The first great 
 stand was made at Smolensko; from which, after a sangui- 
 nary effort, the Russians retreated. Moscow being now 
 the great object of contest, a strong position was taken 
 at Borodina. Here, an obstinate combat took place, and 
 each side claimed the victory; yet, whilst Te Deura was 
 singing at Petersburgh, the French, with only a little skir- 
 mishing, entered Moscow. So far, Napoleon seemed vic- 
 torious. Russia seemed united to his empire. But, whilst 
 its fate was trembling in the balance, the scale was quickly 
 turned against the invader, by an unexpected enemy — an 
 awful conflagration. To deprive the French of a place for 
 winter quarters, the governor of Moscow caused the city 
 to be set on fire, in many places; which occasioned a de- 
 struction, so extensive, that, within a few days, not more 
 than a tenth of the buildings remained unconsumed. No 
 shelter could be found amongst the ruins. On the 19th of 
 October, Napoleon left that scene of desolation. His re- 
 treating army were closely pressed by an exasperated fee ; 
 and, what was still worse, by a Russian winter. Half bu- 
 ried in snow, stiffened by the frost, their sufferings were 
 extreme, their losses of every kind, prodigious. Horses 
 died in so great numbers, that nearly all their artillery were 
 abandoned, and almost the entire of their cavalry, dis- 
 mounted. Whole bodies of men, disabled by cold and hun- 
 ger, surrendered without resistance. Every thing wore the 
 appearance of disaster and dismay. When the army reach- 
 ed Wilna, Napoleon proceeded rapidly to Paris ; where, 
 such was the impression of his former achievements, his 
 re-appearance was attended with all the accustomed de- 
 monstrations of reverence and attachment. 
 
272 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 His total losses, by capture, up to the 26th of December, 
 were stated, in the Russian accounts, at thirteen-hundred- 
 and-thirty-nine officers, (amongst whom forty-one were 
 generals,) one-hundred-and-sixty-seven-thousand non-com- 
 missioned officers and privates, and eleven-hundred-and- 
 thirty-one pieces of cannon ! 
 
 The king of Prussia now assumed the part of a 
 ' mediator between the belligerent parties. But, his 
 proposals for a truce, having met with small attention, he 
 took the decisive step of forming an alliance with Alexan- 
 der; and in a few months they were joined by Austria. 
 
 The French senate having placed at Napoleon's disposal 
 three-hundred-and-fifty-thousand men, he caused the em- 
 press to be declared regent during his intended absence, 
 and in the middle of April departed for the army. Besides 
 the imperial guards, his forces were divided into twelve 
 corps. The viceroy of Italy (Beauharnois) was appointed 
 second in command, and Berthier chief of the staff. The 
 several divisions were headed by marshals and generals 
 long known in the service, and no traces appeared of the 
 Russian disasters. 
 
 Passing over many serious conflicts, sometimes in favour 
 of the French, at other times in favour of the allies, follow- 
 ed by an abortive negotiation, we shall attend to the greater 
 operations which succeeded. Hostilities recommenced at 
 Dresden ; where the allies were defeated, with considera- 
 ble loss. The next important contest was at Leipsic; for 
 the decision of which, a larger force was assembled, than 
 had, perhaps, ever acted, on so confined a theatre. The 
 first general attack by the allies, made to the south of the 
 town, after much slaughter, left the opposite armies nearly 
 in their former position. Two days afterwards, another 
 attack was made, on the town itself. In this conflict, the 
 French lost seventeen battalions of German auxiliaries, by 
 desertion, and forty thousand men in killed, wounded, and 
 prisoners. Next day, the 18th of October, Leipsic was 
 taken by assault ; about two hours before which, Napoleon 
 had escaped. The king of Saxony, with all his court,upwards 
 of fifty-thousand French troops, and their magazines, artil- 
 lery, and stores, were taken in the city. In a few weeks 
 afterwards, fifty-thousand more surrendered ; making a 
 total loss, on the side of the French, within a month, of 
 one-hundred-and-forty-thousand men ; and, within a year, 
 adding their losses in the retreat from Moscow, and in 
 Spain, of four-hund red-thousand. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 273 
 
 Meanwhile, the victories of Wellington, particularly at 
 Vittoria and St. Sebastian, had enabled him to drive the 
 enemy before him, and gain a firm footing in France. On 
 the 12th of March, a detachment, commanded by 
 marshal Beresford, occupied Bordeaux; where, the 
 mayor and principal inhabitants assumed the white cock- 
 ade, and declared for the Bourbons. 
 
 Notwithstanding the immense losses of Napoleon, which 
 enabled his northern pursuers, also, to enter France, the 
 result was for some time extremely doubtful. However, be- 
 fore the end of February, they arrived in sight of Paris. On 
 the 30th of March, Joseph Buonaparte, assisted by mar- 
 shals Marmont and Mortier, took a position on the heights 
 near the city, in a long line ; the centre of which was pro- 
 tected by several redoubts, and one-hundred-and-fifty pieces 
 of cannon. An attack being commenced, by the two prin- 
 ces of Wurtemberg, the French, after an obstinate resist- 
 ance, were defeated. Paris then capitulated ; and on the fol- 
 lowing day was entered by the allied sovereigns, with their 
 guards; the most exact order being every where preserved. 
 
 On the first of April, the French senate assembled, and 
 formed a provisional government ; at the head of which, 
 was Talleyrand, prince of Benevento. On the following 
 day, they pronounced, that Napoleon Buonaparte had vio- 
 lated his compact with the people, that he had forfeited 
 the throne, and that the hereditary right established in his 
 family was abolished. 
 
 Whilst these great events were transacting, Napoleon, 
 learning the danger impending over his capital, moved his 
 army from Troyes to Sens; and, arriving at Fromont at 
 the time of the last battle, would have reached Parts on 
 the same day, had it not been in possession of the allies. 
 He then retired to Fontainbleau ; from which, on the 4th 
 of April, he sent a deputation to the senate, offering to 
 abdicate in favour of his son. 
 
 A treaty between the allied powers and Buonaparte was 
 signed at Paris ; by the articles of which, in return for his 
 renunciation of the crowns of France and Italy, he and Ma- 
 ria Louisa were to retain the imperial title for life; he was 
 to hold the isle of Elba, in full sovereignty, whilst he lived ; 
 and the empress was to have the dutchies of Parma, Gues- 
 talla, and Placentia, with succession to her son. To this 
 treaty, however, the British ministry refused their concur- 
 rence, further than respected the assignment of Elba md 
 the Italian dutchies. 
 2 A 
 
274 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 When the fallen emperor was on his way to his little in- 
 sular dominion, the Bourbon sovereign, now recognised as 
 Louis the eighteenth, left his retirement in England, and 
 made his solemn entry into Paris. 
 
 The general peace, between France, and the allied pow- 
 ers of Austria, Russia, Great Britain, and Prussia, was 
 signed at Paris on the 13th of May. The principal acqui- 
 sitions retained by Great Britain, were, Malta, Tobago, St. 
 Lucia, and the Isle of France. In a distinct article between 
 France and Great Britain, Louis engaged to join his efforts 
 with the latter, for procuring the total abolition of the slave 
 trade, by all the Christian powers; and to abolish it with 
 regard to France at the end of five years. In August, an 
 arrangement was concluded with the prince of Orange, 
 then restored in Holland, as king of the Netherlands; by 
 which, Great Britain retained the Cape of Good Hope, 
 Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. 
 
 Thus, peace was happily restored in Europe. But 
 America was still suffering the calamities of war. Great 
 Britain and the United States were in the midst of a san- 
 guinary contest. 
 
 SIXTH PART. 
 
 PEACE OF GHENT. 
 
 THE various decrees of the two great European bellig- 
 erents, intended to retaliate distress, had been carried to a 
 degree so destructive and humiliating, that neutral rights 
 were no longer regarded. Acquiescence or submission, on 
 the part of those affected, was alike impolitic. That was 
 commercial ruin : this, national dishonour. The Embargo, 
 and other defensive experiments, in the United States, un- 
 der the administration of Mr. Jefferson, and the serious ne 
 gotiations under his successor, Mr. Madison, had served 
 more to inflame than conciliate. It is not entirely agreed, 
 which of the rival powers was the most unjustifiable ag- 
 gressor. The offended power, however, had a right of 
 choosing her antagonist. On the 18th of June, 1812, the 
 Congress passed an act, declaring the " actual existence of 
 war between the United States and Great Britain." 
 
 An attack on Canada was the first grand object oi" the 
 American government. Operations against it commenced 
 in Julv. General Hull entered the upper province and is- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 276 
 
 sued a proclamation to the Canadians, in a style expressing 
 confidence of success. But his campaign ended in disgrace 
 —not to his soldiers, but himself. Having proceeded to 
 Fort Maiden, he was foiled in his attempts to invest it; 
 and, when the British general Brock, had collected a force 
 for its relief, he retired to Fort Detroit; which he surren- 
 dered, with twenty-five-hundred men, before he gave them 
 an opportunity of contending. There ensued in that quar- 
 ter many severe engagements; in some of which the Ameri- 
 cans displayed considerable bravery, and evident improve- 
 ment in discipline. On Lake Erie, the American commo- 
 dore, Perry, gained a complete victory over captain Bar- 
 clay; and, on Lake Champlain, M'Donough was equally 
 successful against an English squadron commanded by 
 captain Downie. 
 
 On the Atlantic, the British found in the American frig- 
 ates an enemy more vigorous than any that they had ever 
 encountered. The loss of a few vessels of the same de- 
 scription, considered in the ordinary way, was of no im- 
 portance. But the cause of that loss was unusually interest- 
 ing. If it proceeded, as the English seamen declare, from 
 an effective superiority on the side of the enemy's ships 
 engaged, (a point too delicate for our discussion,) much 
 blame attaches to the Admiralty, in subjecting their ves- 
 sels to surprise. To say more on this subject, is not requir- 
 ed. It would be improper, and superfluous : improper, as 
 tending to animosity ; superfluous, as the bravery of either 
 nation cannot for a moment be contested. 
 
 The attack on Washington must always be a subject of 
 deep regret. The destruction of the pwblic buildings, in a 
 city rendered venerable by so illustrious a name, might well 
 accord with the previous barbarities of Cockburn, but form- 
 ed a lamented contrast to the Peninsular achievements of 
 the gallant Ross. Even in revenge for asserted injuries re- 
 ceived in Canada, the measure was impolitic. The most 
 glorious retaliation, on a reflecting enemy, is forbearance. 
 
 In the following month, (Sept. 12,) admiral sir A. Coch- 
 rane and General Ross made an attack on Baltimore. The 
 fleet commenced a tremendous bombardment against Fort 
 M'Henry: the army landed at North Point, about eight 
 miles below the city. But the utmost efforts of the fleet 
 were unable to make the least impression on the fort: and 
 the purpose of the attack by land was abandoned ; either 
 from the loss of the commander, or the expectation of a 
 spirited resistance, near the city. As the van-guard was 
 
276 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 engaged with the American riflemen, general Ross receiv- 
 ed a mortal wound, in the breast. Sending for colonel 
 Brooke, the second in command^ he gave him some instruc- 
 tions, recommended his young children to the protection 
 of his country, and exclaiming, " My dear wife," expired. 
 
 The war with the United States being extremely unpop- 
 ular in the British empire, injurious to her commerce and 
 manufactures, and, since the continental pacification, easily 
 concluded, proposals of peace were made, in. a letter from 
 lord Castlereagh, and accepted by the American President. 
 The commissioners at Ghent having, after a long negotia- 
 tion, come to an agreement, a treaty of peace and amity 
 was signed on the 24th of December; which was after- 
 wards ratified by both governments. The articles of this 
 treaty related chiefly to the disputes respecting bounda- 
 ries; for the determination of which it was agreed that 
 commissioners should reciprocally be appointed. Botrji 
 parties covenanted to persevere in their efforts for the abo- 
 lition of the slave-trade, but no notice was taken of the 
 circumstances which had occasioned the war.* 
 
 This year was rendered memorable by a concourse of 
 illustrious visiters to the English capital; in number and 
 rank surpassing any modern example ; at the head of whom 
 were the emperor of Russia and his sister, and the king of 
 Prussia with his two sons. 
 
 The administration had now leisure to contemplate the 
 situation of the country ; which, even the return of peace 
 had not restored to internal happiness, or commercial pros- 
 perity. The sudden change, from hostile to pacific rela- 
 tions, produced, in every class, a degree of pecuniary dis 
 tress, unequalled even at the commencement of the war. 
 — The annual expenditure exceeded seventy-five-millions : 
 the funded debt of the nation, eight-hundred-millions ster- 
 ling. — The navy comprised above one-thousand vessels ; 
 of which, more than one-hundred were of the line, and 
 above three-hundred were frigates. 
 
 * The most important military event that occurred between the 
 belligerents, after the signing of the treaty, was an abortive attack 
 on New Orleans. In this, (on the 8th of January, 1815,) the British 
 loss amounted to at least two- thousand, in killed, wounded, and pris- 
 oners : amongst the slain were general Packenham, the commander, 
 and general Gibbs. The Americans were commanded by general 
 Jackson; and displayed extraordinary coolness, and uncommon ac 
 curacy of fire. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 27' 
 
 SEVENTH PART. 
 
 REASCEN3I0N AND SECOND DETHRONE- 
 MENT OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 FAMILIES who had been disjoined by a war of 
 more than twenty years, awaited, with delightful an- 
 ticipation, a re-union. The soldier who had exchanged the 
 bloom of youth for the silvery hairs of age, hastened to 
 view the^ountry of his birth, and enjoy a long continued 
 peace. But, the field which had been abandoned, was yet 
 to be regained. The banners, which necessity had furled, 
 were again raised, when opposition was withdrawn. The 
 meteor, which had illumined by its splendor, and amazed 
 by its rapidity, was not extinguished. Napoleon emerged 
 from his political eclipse, and made another revolution. 
 
 The terms on which Louis had ascended the throne of 
 Fiance, he did not faithfully observe. Questions had been 
 debated in the legislative chambers, particularly those rel- 
 ative to emigrants' property and the freedom of the press, 
 which, though carried, there, in favour of the court, were 
 determined on other principles, by the nation. Nor, was 
 the idea of being ruled by a dynasty, restored by foreign 
 arms, the least revolting to their feelings; nor, the army as 
 contented to remain inactive under an imbecile monarch, 
 as desirous to aid a venerated chieftain in retrieving their 
 military honour. Napoleon was not unapprized of the gen- 
 eral wish. On the 26th of February, under the shade of 
 evening, he left Elba, in a sloop of war, with 1 100 men, 
 chiefly of his old guard ; and, on the 1st of March, landed 
 in the small port of Juan. On the 7th, after meeting a tri- 
 fling resistance near Antibes, he was joined by the garrison 
 at Grenoble, and on the 9th, by the troops at Lyons. When 
 he reached Auxerre, he was strengthened by marshal Ney, 
 with 12,000 men. This step was decisive. All confidence 
 in the army being lost, the king and royal family left Paris 
 on the 19th; which was entered, on the following day, by 
 Napoleon, without having had occasion to fire a musket. 
 
 But, it was not to be expected, that those powers which 
 had united in dethroning him, would acquiesce in this re- 
 sumption. In the same month, Austria, Russia, Great 
 Britain, and Prussia, determined, each, to keep in the field 
 150,000 men, until he should be again expelled, 
 2 A 2 
 
278 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 From the commencement of the alarm, troops had been 
 unremittingly sent from England, into Belgium ; to rein- 
 force the British garrisons already there : and the duke of 
 Wellington had arrived as commander of these, and of tht 
 auxiliaries in that country. The principal French army 
 was, at this time, posted at Avesnes, in Flanders. Buona- 
 parte, after promising a free constitution to the French 
 people, left Paris on the J. 2th of June. He determined t i 
 attack the British and Prussian armies, whilst the Austri- 
 ans and Russians were yet too distant to afford them suc- 
 cour. On the 15th, he drove in the Prussian posts upon the 
 Sambre ; and the next day, defeated their chief, marshal 
 Blucher, on the heights between Brie and Sombref. In the 
 mean time, lord Wellington had directed his whole army 
 to advance on Quatre Bras ; where, the first division, under 
 general Picton, had arrived ; followed by a corps under the 
 command of the duke of Brunswick, and by the troops of 
 Nassau. It was the duke of Wellington's desire, to afford 
 assistance to Blucher ; but, he was, himself, attacked, by a 
 large body of cavalry and infantry, with a powerful artil- 
 lery, under marshal Ney, before his own cavalry had arriv- 
 ed. A warm action ensued. The repeated charges of the 
 French were steadily repulsed : yet, considerable loss was 
 suffered, including the duke of Brunswick. 
 
 Blucher retreated, during the night, to Wavre ; and lord 
 Wellington made a corresponding movement to Waterloo, 
 his left communicating slightly with the Prussians. 
 
 Napoleon was now entering his fiftieth battle; in forty- 
 nine of which, he had been victorious. But, in none of these 
 had he encountered Wellington. The meeting must have 
 been full of solicitude to both. On the morning of the 18th 
 of June, he assembled his whole force, nearly equal, in num- 
 ber, to his enemy, consisting of 70,000 veterans, and 240 
 cannon, upon a range of heights opposite to the British 
 army; with the exception of one division, under marshal 
 Grouchy; which had been detached to observe, and pre- 
 vent the junction of the Prussians. At ten o'clock, Napo- 
 leon began the action, by a furious attack on Hougomont; 
 which was renewed, by different efforts, during the entire 
 day ; but resisted with so much firmness, that the position 
 was effectually maintained. At the same time, he kept up 
 a heavy cannonade against the whole British line ; and 
 made repeated charges on several other points, which were 
 uniformly repulsed, except at the farm-house of La Haye 
 Sainte. Late in the evening, a desperate effort was made 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 27& 
 
 near that place, against the left of the centre. This pro- 
 duced a severe contest. For a time, it appeared dubious, 
 whether the resistance would be effectual. But the English 
 were at length relieved. A distant cannonade was heard. 
 The Prussians appeared, and the right flank of the enemy 
 retreated. Wellington seized the moment, and advanced 
 his whole line of infantry, supported by cavalry and artil- 
 lery. The French were soon forced from every position, 
 and fled in the utmost confusion; leaving on the field of 
 battle 150 pieces of cannon, with their ammunition. They 
 were followed by the victors, until long after dark ; when, 
 the pursuit was continued by the Prussians. Nothing could 
 be more complete than the discomfiture of Napoleon's 
 army; of which, the remains, consisting of about 40,000, 
 partly without arms, and carrying with them no more than 
 twenty-seven pieces of artillery, made their retreat through 
 Charleroi. 
 
 This, was the issue of the battle of Waterloo. But, such 
 a victory, over so brave an enemy, could not be cheaply 
 purchased. In no action, of the previous war, had so many 
 British officers been slain. Two generals, Picton and Pon- 
 sonby, besides four colonels, were killed ; nine generals and 
 five colonels were wounded; and, the total number, killed 
 and wounded, of the British and Hanoverians, was above 
 12,000. 
 
 Finding that all was lost, Napoleon hastened back to 
 Paris; and, assembling his council, requested to be made 
 dictator. This desire being, however, resisted by La Fay- 
 ette, and other leading members of the legislature, Buona- 
 parte, perceiving that he was no longer the object of pub- 
 lic confidence, issued a declaration ; in which, " offering 
 himself a sacrifice to the hatred of the enemies of France," 
 he proclaimed his son emperor, by the title of Napoleon 
 the second. The nomination of his son was not so readily 
 accepted, as the abdication of himself; and commissioners 
 repaired to the allied armies, with proposals of peace. 
 The victors, however, would treat only under the walls of 
 Paris. They accordingly advanced ; and entered that city, 
 after considerable opposition from the adjoining heights, 
 followed by a capitulation, on the 3d of July. 
 
 Thus, was the capital of France a second time in posses- 
 sion of the allies. 
 
 Buonaparte was, in the mean time occupied with the 
 care of his own safety; endeavouring to gain a sea-port, 
 and embark for the United States. Accompanied by a 
 
280 HISTORY OF ENGLAJND. 
 
 general, he arrived at Rochfort. The place, however, be- 
 ing closely watched by English cruisers, after some at- 
 tempts to elude their vigilance, he determined to throw 
 himself on British protection. On the 15th of July, he 
 went, with his suite and baggage, on board the Bellerophon 
 man of war, captain Maitland. Upon intelligence of this 
 event reaching the allied sovereigns, it was determined that 
 he should be carried, as a state prisoner, to St. Helena; a 
 British island in the southern Atlantic: there, to be retain- 
 ed, under the strictest guard, within specified limits for 
 recreation. Accordingly, the Bellerophon sailed for Tor- 
 bay; where, the dangerous captive, with a few of his most 
 attached adherents, was transferred to the Northumberland, 
 captain sir George Cockburn; who conveyed him to his 
 destined abode. 
 
 At this time, fell also Murat, a brother-in-law of Napo- 
 leon. He had been suffered to remain as king of Naples; 
 the only individual that was allowed to continue as sove- 
 reign, except Bernadotte, now on the throne of Sweden, of 
 all the friends who had risen with his elevation. Being 
 defeated by the Austrians, and taken prisoner, by his own 
 subjects, in Calabria, he was condemned by a military com- 
 mission, and shot. Lucien, Jerome, and Louis Buonaparte, 
 are settled in different parts of the European continent, 
 and Joseph resides in the United States. 
 
 A portion of the great naval strength of England, was 
 in the following year employed in a most beneficial duty. 
 The barbarians who occupy the immense northern coast of 
 Africa, were compelled to abandon their inhuman piracies. 
 The United States had nobly caused them to respect her 
 vessels: Britain was now called on to achieve, for the other 
 civilized nations, what they were unable to accomplish for 
 themselves. The Barbary corsairs seldom or never mo- 
 lested British ships or subjects: since the first treaty made 
 with the barbarians, in the reign of Charles the second, no 
 English vessel had been captured by their public ships of 
 war, nor had any English subject been made a slave. But 
 the forbearance was, in some measure, purchased. Great 
 Britain had been paying them a disgraceful tribute. This, 
 however, the existing spirit of the age required should be 
 discontinued, and the practice of sea-plunder and enslaving, 
 relinquished, as regarded every nation of the world. Lord 
 Exmouth (admiral Pellew) was accordingly despatched with 
 a fleet, to Tunis and Tripoli; at which places, he was com- 
 pletely successful: a treaty was signed, without a battle. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 2S1 
 
 But, the dey of Algiers was more powerful. He would 
 agree only to a part of the proposed terms. The admiral, 
 therefore, returned to England, and sailed with a more 
 commanding force : in all, seven ships of the line and a 
 proportional accompaniment of frigates and gun-boats ; 
 supported by a fleet of the Netherlands, under admiral 
 Capellan. Exmouth entered the bay of Algiers on the 27th 
 of August; and, having anchored within fifty yards of the 
 mole, in front of their tremendous batteries, mounted with 
 cannon of unusual size, and defended by 50,000 men, con- 
 tinued, with uninterrupted fury, for nearly three hours, so 
 destructive a storm of shells and bullets, that their contig- 
 uous works were entirely ruined, and 7000 of the garrison 
 killed or wounded. The dey was completely humbled. The 
 loss of the brave assailants was, however, lamentably great. 
 No squadron, had been, at any time, exposed in so awful a 
 situation But, the consequences of the victory were more 
 cheering, than its effects to be lamented. The dey imme- 
 diately restored to liberty above a thousand captives, re- 
 funded all the money which he had previously received for 
 ransoms, bound the state to relinquish piracy for ever, and 
 the practice of condemning prisoners to slavery. Thus, 
 was accomplished, an achievement, in attempting which, 
 the. emperor, Charles the fifth, had lost 150 vessels, and 
 expended the lives of 30,000 men; which had, three several 
 times, in the reign of the first James, baffled even the Eng- 
 lish navy; and again, a numerous fleet under admiral Du 
 Quesne ; when, the dey committed the atrocious act of 
 binding the French consul to the mouth of a mortar, and 
 firing him off amongst the bombarding squadron. 
 
 Britain had acquired a large share of military glory, 
 by these signal triumphs : but her internal situation soon 
 afterwards became alarming. Her taxation is enormous ; 
 the difficulty of employing her population, was greater, 
 then, than it had ever been known before. Dissatisfaction 
 to the government was annually increasing. The meetings, 
 under the influence of such leaders as Hunt and Watson, 
 Thistlewood and Wooler, caused serious alarm, even to 
 patriots of established reputation : but, the conduct of the 
 armed yeomanry, who assailed, with deplorable effect, a 
 vast assemblage of both sexes at Manchester, has branded, 
 with everlasting infamy, not only themselves, but the san- 
 guinary magistrates, by whose orders the murders were 
 committed. 
 
 The princess Charlotte, only daughter of the regent, 
 
Ue2 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and presumptive heiress of the crown, who had been mar- 
 ried to prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, died, in her twen- 
 ty-second year, universally lamented. The queen, having 
 reached her 75th year, died in November, 1818. 
 
 The king, who haci continued since 1811 as only a nomi- 
 nal sovereign, was insensible to every occurrence. His bodi- 
 ly health was unimpaired, but his intellectual malady had 
 been long confirmed. Corporeal weakness at length be- 
 came visible: he rapidly declined; and, on the 29th 
 of January, expired at Windsor, in the 82d year of 
 his age, and 60th of his reign. 
 
 The king's fourth son, the duke of Kent, died only a few 
 days before his father. 
 
 Besides five daughters, and the prince of Wales, who has 
 succeeded*him, under the title of George the fourth, the 
 deceased monarch left fiva other sons; the dukes of York 
 and Clarence, Cumberland, Sussex, and Cambridge; the 
 first of whom is now presumptive heir to the crown. 
 
 That long protracted warfare, was unable to repress the 
 growing spirit of national improvement. Every species of 
 literature, science, and manufacture, was cultivated with 
 unceasing ingenuity. Even those manufactures, invented 
 and assiduously cherished on the continent, have almost 
 invariably admitted of refinement in Great Britain. France 
 has been an exceedingly prolific inventor; as an invenUpr, 
 perhaps unrivalled ; but she must yield to England the 
 character of completing and finishing, with permanent ele- 
 gance, what she had previously commenced. 
 
 As a scientific manufacturer, Wedge wood has displayed 
 most admirable research, in the article of porcelain. This 
 sumptuous production was first brought from China and 
 Japan, and received its English appellation, (probably 
 through the French,) from the Portuguese porcellana, which 
 signifies a cup. The illustrious Reaumur, the first who 
 attended to its manufacture, as a science, published his 
 discoveries in France, at the beginning of the last century ; 
 but, before that period, it had been brought, in that coun- 
 try, to considerable perfection. 
 
 No branch of industry ever had more powerful influence, 
 in extending the commerce, congregating the inhabitants, 
 and, at the same time, corrupting the morals, and increas- 
 ing the misery of the British, than the Cotton Manufacture. 
 It seems to have reached its highest point of excellence. 
 The most ancient mode of spinning, that we can discover, 
 was by the distaff, an emblem in the Heathen mythology, 
 
HISTORY OF EA GLAND. £83 
 
 From the distaff, the material was drawn by the revolution 
 of a ball, held underneath; which twisted and received the 
 thread. We next perceive the addition of a frame ; in 
 which, the spindle was supported, and set in moticn by a 
 band that encompassed a wheel, and received an occasional 
 impulse from the hand ; forming the domestic machine used 
 in spinningwool. To this, followed the common linen-wheel; 
 invented in Germany in the year 1530; which possesses the 
 advantage of a flyer, and a uniformly steady motion from the 
 action of the foot. At length, in 1767, James Hargrave, of 
 Blackburn, in Lancashire, constructed a machine, by which 
 a great number of threads can be spun at once. This, call- 
 ed the Jenny, is the best that has hitherto appeared for mak- 
 ing very coarse weft. About the same time, cylinder card- 
 ing was introduced ; an invention claimed by many indivi- 
 duals. The next improvement was derived from a clock- 
 maker of Bolton. But the fruits of his ingenuity were reaped 
 by another; a person named Richard Arkwright, who was 
 knighted for the invention. Arkwright followed the busi- 
 ness of a village tonsor ; and, during his morning visits to 
 the mechanic, was enabled, by the loquacity characteristic 
 of that profession, to become master of the secret. We here 
 allude to what is called the Warp-spinning-frame, distin- 
 guished by the addition of rollers. The latest modification, 
 which is perhaps the most important, certainly the most in- 
 genious, received the name of Mule ; by its combining the 
 principles of the Jenny and the Warp machine. From this, 
 can be produced a thread equal in fineness to the most deli- 
 cate of India. The first cotton mill erected in England was 
 by Arkwright and Hargrave, at Nottingham ; in Scotland, 
 by Peter Brotherston, at Pennecuic, near Edinburgh. In 
 Ireland, the first twist machinery was made at Greencastle, 
 under the direction, and for the use of, Nicholas Grimshaw; 
 and the first cotton mill erected (in 1784) at Whitehouse, 
 near Belfast, by the latter, in conjunction with Nathaniel 
 Wilson. Several of these improvements have been suc- 
 cessfully applied to the spinning of flax and wool. The 
 printing of calicoes held a simultaneous progress, in 
 point of extent; and in regard to brilliancy and variety 
 of colour, went hand-in-hand with chemistry, its parent 
 science. 
 
 Berthollet, a French chemist, has enabled us to curtail 
 the time formerly used in bleaching linen and cotton fab- 
 rics. The oxygenated muriatic acid, first applied by him 
 to that purpose, will produce as much effect in a few days> 
 
284 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 as the old method of atmospherical exposure, in as many 
 weeks. 
 
 The Steam-Engine next demands our notice. The first 
 account of this great invention, is in a book published by 
 the marquis of Worcester, in 1663 ; with which nobleman, 
 it unquestionably originated. From that period, it has re- 
 ceived many improvements. Its present high state of ex- 
 cellence, indeed its application to any purpose, with a due 
 degree of economy and effect, is owing to the chemical and 
 mechanical knowledge of Mr. Watt, a pupil of Dr. Black. 
 He commenced his experiments upon the steam-engine in 
 1763, about the time when this great chemist promulgated 
 his discovery of latent heat. The greatest mechanical pro- 
 ject that ever engaged the attention of man, was on the 
 point of being executed by this machine. The States of 
 Holland were treating with Bolton and Watt for draining 
 the Haerlem Meer, and even reducing the Zuyder-Zee, 
 until prevented by their revolution. 
 
 Francis Egerton, duke of Bridgewater, is celebrated as 
 the person who began, in England, the cutting of naviga- 
 ble canals with locks. Assisted by Brindley, a man of as- 
 tonishing powers of mind, but without the polish of educa- 
 tion, having surveyed his estate at Worsley, he obtained 
 an act of parliament, authorizing him to open a communi- 
 cation between Manchester and Worsley, and return over 
 the river Irwell, to Manchester. Though a solid rock op- 
 posed their progress, the opulence of the one and genius 
 of the other overcame every obstacle. Air funnels were 
 made through the hill, to discharge the noxious air from 
 below ; and this great canal was conveyed, not only more 
 than a mile under ground, b*t over an arch forty feet above 
 the surface of the Irwell : so that whilst vessels pass through 
 the dark subterranean cavity, others sail on the canal above. 
 Thus, the coals of the duke's estate were carried to the 
 neighbouring towns, and the commerce of Liverpool was 
 united by the Mersey, to Manchester. 
 
 The year 1782 is remarkable for having produced the 
 first effective Air-Balloon. Stephen and John Montgolfier, 
 of France, were the successful experimentalists, after many 
 suggestions and trials, by various persons, during more 
 than a century. Bishop Wilkins, in 1762, undoubtedly 
 gave the first hint. His idea was pursued by Cavendish ; 
 by whom, the specific gravity of inflammable air was as- 
 certained, and communicated to Doctor Black. The same 
 thought afterwards occurred to Cavallo; who has the hon- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 285 
 
 our of making the first practical experiment; though he 
 proceeded no farther than blowing up soap-bubbles with 
 hydrogen gas. The Montgolfier Balloon, however, was 
 distended by rarefied air, formed by burning straw and 
 wool; not by the hydrogen gas; that, having been adopted 
 afterwards. Lunardi ascended from London, in 1784; 
 Blanchard and Dr. Jefferies made a voyage in a balloon, 
 from Dover to Calais, in the year following. In the late 
 revolutionary war, the French established an iErostatic In- 
 stitute; from which, issued skilful seronauts, for the use of 
 the armies. Coutel ascended in 1794, accompanied by an 
 adjutant and a general; and conducted the wonderful and 
 important service of reconnoitring the enemy's manoeuvres 
 at the battle of Fleurus. He remained, at each of two pe- 
 riods, four hours in the air; and, by means of signals, car- 
 ried on a correspondence with Jourdan, the commander of 
 the French army. The experiment, however, had nearly 
 proved fatal. His intended ascent had been made known 
 to the enemy; who, at the moment the balloon began to 
 take its flight, opened the fire of a" battery against it. The 
 first volley was directed too low ; but one ball afterwards 
 passed between the balloon and the car. 
 
 The mails, which had been previously conveyed on 
 horseback, were, since 1784, by the recommendation of 
 John Palmer, carried in regularly established coaches : 
 three years after the beginning of the great revolutionary 
 war, telegraphs were copied from the French plan : in 
 1800, the vaccine inoculation was perfected in England, 
 by Dr. Jenner : about the same time, public buildings were 
 heated by steam, and lighted by carbureted hydrogen gas ; 
 and Lancaster spread his amazing system of elementary 
 school-education. 
 
 In 1787, the British government established the colony 
 of Botany Bay ; as a residence for convicts. The progress 
 of this settlement has been rapid. It has now a population 
 of almost 50,000 : amongst a large portion of these, the 
 cause of transportation is not observable; they have ac- 
 quired habits of industry and good conduct, and use the 
 arts and luxuries of polished states. 
 
 Nearly all Hindostan is at length comprised within the 
 British empire. Her colonial subjects number one-hun- 
 dred-and-fifty-millions; which are computed to be one- 
 fourth of all mankind, covering a fifth of the habitable glo^e. 
 
 The medical science had many accomplished professors. 
 Its greatest ornaments were, Cullen, Cleghorne, Hunter, 
 '2 B 
 
280 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Smellie, Fordyce, and Mac Bride. In the fine arts, we dis- 
 tinguish Boydell, Strange, and Woolet, as engravers; Ho- 
 garth and Barrett, Barry, Stubbs, and Opie, Gainsborough, 
 Moreland, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, as painters. Hogarth 
 was also conspicuous in the graphic, and Stubbs in the 
 anatomical, school. The former, though not remarkable 
 for elegance, stands unrivaled for originality of conception 
 and strength of expression; either in delineating the fol- 
 lies, or the dangerous vices, of mankind. On the establish- 
 ment of the Royal Academy, in 1769, none seemed so well 
 entitled to the honourable office of president, as Reynolds ; 
 and he was accordingly appointed. Sculpture acquired 
 cotemporaneous improvement. Besides the accession of 
 foreign talent, England may justly boast of the coriecc and 
 expressive chisel of her native Bacon. In Music, the 
 compositions of Arnold and Arne will be admired, whilst 
 there remains an ear to appreciate, or feeling to sympa- 
 thize with harmony. 
 
 At the head of astronomy and mechanics, by universal 
 concurrence, is placed James Ferguson ; a man who learn- 
 ed to read by hearing his father teach his elder brother*, 
 and. during his whole life, had not above half a year's in- 
 struction at school. His "Lectures," which are so per- 
 spicuous that they cannot be misunderstood, will be found 
 equally instructive and amusing. 
 
 Amongst the dramatic writers are Colman, general 
 Burgoyne, Murphy, and Cumberland ; Home, Foot, Gar- 
 rick, and "Dibden. The last three were distinguished also 
 as performers. 
 
 Foot was an ever-flowing fountain of colloquial wit. He 
 had the misfortune to require a wooden leg. Being once 
 on a visit at a friend's house, near London, at Christmas, 
 he found the rigour of the season little softened by the 
 influence of a blazing hearth. He resolved to shorten the 
 period of his intended stay, and was one morning, very 
 early, preparing to depart. " What is the matter, my dear 
 Foot," exclaimed his fuel-saving host: "what can be the 
 reason of this unexpected hurry?" — " Oh, there is no rea- 
 son at all," replied his half-frozen guest; " only, that as 
 coals are so very scarce here, I was afraid that, some 
 morning, before I was up, Betty might thrust my right leg 
 into the fire." 
 
 Garrick was unrivaled for a quick perception of proprie- 
 ty, and a consequent observance of the ways of nature. Fie 
 was always seen " to suit the action to the word," and " the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 287 
 
 word to the action." No public speaker, however emi- 
 nent, was above listening to his precepts, and profiting- by 
 his example. A young clergyman having requested him 
 to notice the manner in which he administered divine ser- 
 vice, Garrick very kindly attended. On leaving the church 
 together, Garrick took hold of his friend's arm, whose 
 countenance and gait betokened self-applause.' — " Have 
 you any urgent business, to attend to, after service I" in- 
 quired Garrick. "No; none at all 1" replied the divine: 
 " why, do you ask me such a question ?" — I thought you 
 had something pressing, from your going up into the pul- 
 pit in so much haste. — What was that book, on the desk 
 before you ? — That book ! — why, only the Bible ! — " Only 
 the Bible," rejoined his acute monitor : " I thought it had 
 been a merchant's leger, or a journal, — some common ac- 
 count book, left accidentally in your way, from your toss- 
 ing it about with so much indifference." 
 
 In poetry, the most successful candidates for lasting fame, 
 are, Falconer, Grainger, and Armstrong; Glover, Mason, 
 and Chatterton ; Goldsmith, and Johnson ; Churchill, 
 Burns, Cowper, Darwin, Beattie, and Walcott. With the 
 first five names, it is sufficient to associate, respectively, 
 The Shipwreck; A Poem on the Sugar Cane, and a trans- 
 lation of Tibullus; The Art of preserving Health; Leoni- 
 d as ; Elfrida, and Caractacus. A more extraordinary youth 
 has seldom appeared than Chatterton. He published a 
 number of poems which he described as written about 
 three-hundred years before, by Rowley, a monk of Bristol ; 
 declaring, that he had received them from his father, 
 whose family had held, for nearly one-hundred-and-fifty 
 years, the office of sexton of Redclift church; and that 
 they had remained buried in dust, in an old chest, above 
 the chapel. 
 
 The Traveller of Goldsmith abounds with animated de- 
 scription; his Deserted Village exhibits beauties peculi- 
 arly its own, and, for harmony and softness, is not inferior 
 to the happiest lines of Pope. As long as the simple tale 
 of indigent nature and suffering humanity can interest 
 the heart, so long will the poetry of Goldsmith continue to 
 be read. This amiable man studied at Trinity College, 
 Dublin ; for which university he was prepared by the Rev. 
 Mr. Hughes, of Edgeworthtown, in the county of Long- 
 lord, the district of his nativity. In his last journey to 
 school, he had an adventure, which is thought to have sug- 
 gested the plot of his admired comedy, She Stoops to Con- 
 
eS8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 quer, or the Mistakes of a Night. Some friend had given 
 him a guinea; and, in his way to Edgeworthtown, (about 
 twenty miles from his father's house,) he had diverted him- 
 self by viewing the gentlemen's seats on the road, until, at 
 che approach of night, he reached a small town, named 
 Ardagh. Here, he inquired for the " best house" in the 
 place, meaning the best, inn; but, being understood too lit 
 erally, he was directed to the house of a private gentleman ; 
 where, calling for somebody to take his htfrse and lead him 
 to the stable, he alighted, and was shown into the parlour; 
 supposed to be a guest come to visit the master. The gen- 
 tleman immediately discovered the mistake; and being a 
 man of humour, and also learning from him the name of 
 his father, who happened to be his acquaintance, he en- 
 couraged the deception. Goldsmith accordingly " called 
 about him," ordered a good supper, and generously invit- 
 ed the master, his wife and daughters, to partake; treat- 
 ed them with a bottle or two of wine, and, on going to bed, 
 ordered a hot cake to be prepared for his breakfast; nor 
 did he, until at his departure, when he asked for the bill, 
 discover, that he had been hospitably entertained in a pri- 
 vate family. Doctor Goldsmith died in 1772, in his 46th 
 year. Many scenes of his life are extremely interesting. 
 In his Vicar of Wakefield, the philosophical wanderer is 
 supposed to be drawn from his own adventures ; and, in his 
 Citizen of the World, he gives an account of his worthy 
 father, under the character of " the man in black." 
 
 Dr. Johnson was born at Lichfield, and died in 1784; 
 having attained the age of 75. He studied for about three 
 years at Oxford ; where his collegiate exercises displayed 
 superior powers. He first visited London with his pupil, 
 Garrick ; who, like himself, was in quest of employment. 
 In 1738, he published his "London," in imitation of Ju- 
 venal's third satire ; which was so favourably received, that 
 it passed to a second edition within a week. But, were we 
 to consider Johnson merely as a poet, we should form a 
 very inadequate estimate of his erudition, talents, and per- 
 severance. Although his Dictionary of the English Lan- 
 guage, and his Rambler, are only a small portion of his la- 
 bours, they are sufficient to elevate him to a high degree of 
 fame. The former was published in 1775. The Rambler, 
 he continued for two years ; writing a Number for every 
 Tuesday and Saturday: during which period, he was en- 
 gaged with his dictionary, only five papers were contribut- 
 ed by others, and he was frequently distracted by anguish 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 2SD 
 
 and disease. His dictionary, however, would admit of con- 
 siderable improvement. The derivations of words, from for- 
 eign languages are too frequently given from compounds; 
 the definitions and examples exhibit rather the various 
 senses in which words have been written, than the classical 
 acceptation in which" they may be used with propriety and 
 elegance ; a large number have been admitted which are 
 obsolete ; and many, of his own forming, that are both use- 
 less and pedantic. It might, with advantage, be curtailed 
 to half its present size. — Johnson has been justly entitled 
 the great Moralist. In his Rambler, we perceive the most 
 profound and elevated ethics ; and the style exhibits the 
 English language in its highest state of sublimity and mag- 
 nificence. But that work was not so splendid or correct, 
 on its first appearance. The* assertion of Mr. Boswell, his 
 minute biographer, is erroneous, when he says that a copy 
 printed at Edinburgh, from the periodical papers, " is the 
 most accurate and beautiful edition." It received, in the 
 second and third editions, several thousand alterations; 
 many of which seem indispensable, to protect it from the 
 animadversions of the most liberal critic. Boswell was 
 fond of inflating trifles, and recording even the infirmities 
 of his illustrious patron ; as if he had despaired of trans- 
 mitting his name to posterity, by his own merits, but 
 sought, like the destroyer of the Ephesian temple, to gain 
 associated immortality amongst ruins. 
 
 Robert Burns, though literally a ploughman, rose to high 
 poetic fame, by the strong powers of his genius ; and was 
 soon drawn from his agricultural profession, to the com- 
 pany of men of letters. Since the days of Shakespeare, 
 perhaps not any have portrayed the nice shades of the hu- 
 man character with so masterly a hand, as Burns: especially 
 in those poems written in the Scottish dialect. No readers, 
 however, except those of Scotland, or of the northern 
 counties of England and Ireland, where that dialect is fa- 
 miliar, can fully appreciate the beauties of this poet. His 
 countryman, Dr. Currie, long known as an eminent physi- 
 cian in Liverpool, published in 1800, four years after the 
 death of Burns, a fine edition of his works ; and be- 
 nevolently assigned the entire profit to his widow and 
 children. 
 
 Beattie is deservedly admired for his Minstrel : Cowper, 
 
 for his translation of Homer, in blank verse, and his Task : 
 
 Walcott, for his satires, with the assumed name of Peter 
 
 Pindar. Cowper, is also the author of John Gilpin, a popu- 
 
 2 B 2 
 
2<J0 HISTORY OF EJSGLAJSD. 
 
 lar ballad; the story of which was related to him, as 
 amusement in a tedious hour, by his friend Lady Austin. 
 
 Robertson and Gibbon, are to be considered as historians: 
 Hume, in addition to the character of historian, ranks high 
 in the abstruse philosophy of metaphysics. Of these great 
 writers, the last two may be pronounced the more acute 
 and elaborate reasoners ; the first the most generally es- 
 teemed. Hume's great performance, is the History of 
 England ; Gibbon's, the Decline and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire. The most admired works of Robertson, are the 
 History of Charles the fifth, and the History of America. 
 Sterne, by his Tristram Shandy, and Sentimental Journey, 
 has obtained the honour of introducing a new species of 
 composition; and, whatever maybe objected to particular 
 passages in these, he stands pre-eminent in awaking the 
 noblest sympathies of the human heart. Besides the writ- 
 ings which Blair and Paley have left, connected with re- 
 ligion, the former has given us the most valuable lectures 
 on rhetoric and belles lettres ; the latter, the most popular 
 work on moral philosophy, that Great Britain has ever pro- 
 duced. The English language owes much to the profound 
 researches of Bishop Lowth, son of the eminent divine, 
 mentioned in the last reign ; and to John Home Tooke. In 
 his grammar, though it is now nearly obsolete, Lowth has 
 shown a philosophical knowledge of our language, and giv- 
 en a foundation on which subsequent improvements have 
 been raised. He is still mere eminent for his lectures on 
 the sacred Hebrew poetry, delivered at Oxford. Hornt 
 Tooke, in his Diversions of Parley, has inquired into the 
 derivations of English words, from the Saxon, with extra- 
 ordinary, and successful, minuteness. He was also one of 
 the most active politicians of his day. Having been occa- 
 sionally of a different opinion from Junius, he opposed him 
 with so much ability, that, notwithstanding the powerful 
 logic of this unknown author, every unprejudiced reader 
 must assign the victory to Home. Of the powers of mind 
 and comprehensive information evinced by Adam Smith, 
 his Wealth of Nations will be a memorial to the latest pos- 
 terity. Graves is the author of lucubrations in prose and 
 rhyme, published under the name of Peter Pomfret ; and 
 of an ingenious performance called the Spiritual Quixote. 
 No lawyer ever contributed so much to lessen the difficul- 
 ties of his profession, as sir William Blackstone. His 
 Commentaries are invaluable, and should be studied by 
 every gentleman who feels interested in the laws of Eng- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 291 
 
 land. In a different walk, lord Kaimes is almost equally 
 distinguished. His elements of Criticism, and Sketches, 
 are not less calculated to give amusement than instruction. 
 
 Postlethwaite and Anderson wrote on commercial econo- 
 my: Grose was equally devoted to antiquities. Hawkes- 
 worth is author of the Adventurer, besides, a Narration of 
 Discoveries in the Pacific Ocean; and sir William Jones, 
 by his Oriental Researches, has excited very general ad- 
 miration. The church was adorned by the unrivaled ap- 
 peals of-Kirwan. "He called forth the latent virtues of 
 the human heart, and taught men to discover in themselves 
 a mine of charity, of which their proprietors had been un- 
 conscious. He came to interrupt the repose of the pulpit, 
 and shake one world with the thunder of another." 
 
 The female pen, if it did not contribute to the advance- 
 ment of science, was, at least, conducive to amusement. 
 Many females, however, achieved no more than mere com- 
 mon-place romances. But, the names of More, Hamilton, 
 and Inchbald ; Opie and Barbauld ; Williams, Burney, and 
 Edgeworth ; will be respected : they have combined mo- 
 rality with recreation.* 
 
 Whilst those were following the retired inclinations of 
 the closet, others sought renown by exploring the most 
 distant regions of the globe. Of these, some chose the 
 burning desert, some the boisterous surface of the deep. 
 The one has given celebrity to Bruce and Park; the othei 
 to Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook. The Royal Society, 
 wishing to observe the transit of Venus, over the sun's 
 disk, from some of the islands in the Pacific, captain Cook 
 was appointed to command the ship Endeavour. Accom- 
 panied by sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander, and Mr. Green, 
 he reached Otaheite in April, 1769; the place where the 
 observations were to be made. In his third voyage round 
 the world, after making many useful discoveries, he was 
 killed in a quarrel with the natives of Owyhee, one of the 
 Sandwich Islands, in 1779. 
 
 Every one is familiar with the name of Howard, the cele- 
 brated philanthropist. On his way to Lisbon, to view the 
 dreadful consequences of an earthquake which destroyed 
 that city in .the year 1755, being captured by a French pri- 
 vateer, the severities of confinement he endured in France, 
 excited that sympathy for suffering captives, which has 
 rendered his memory so illustrious. A statue, erected in 
 
 * Several of these accomplished females are still living. 
 
HISTORY OP EN OLA 
 
 Si. Paul's, represents him in a Roman dress, holding- in 
 one hand a scroll of writings on the improvement of pris- 
 ons, and in the other, a key; whilst he tramples upon 
 chains and fetters. 
 
 Two remarkable instances of longevity are" noticed. 
 Colonel Winslow died, in Ireland, aged 146, and Consest, 
 in England, at the yet more patriarchal age of 150 years. 
 
 Architecture, useful as well as ornamental, has in this 
 reign employed very general attention. Black Friar's 
 Bridge, in London, combines both utility and elegance. 
 The first stone of this important means of communica- 
 tion, which is eleven-hundred feet long, and was finished 
 at an expense of more than one-hundred-and-fifty-thousand 
 pounds, w r as laid a few days after the late monarch ascend- 
 ed the throne. The Irish capital, however, especially in 
 the Custom-House, on which was expended seven-hundred- 
 thousand, and the Four Courts, which cost five-hundred- 
 thousand pounds, exhibits the most classical and magnifi- 
 cent public buildings, that have been erected, perhaps in 
 any country of Europe, since the finishing of St. Paul's 
 cathedral. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 GEORGE THE FOURTH. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 His Private History. 1820—1830. 
 
 BY the death of his afflicted parent, the regency, after a continuance of 
 almost nine years, was at an end, and the Prince of Wales became 
 monarch of the British empire, under the title of George IV 
 
 He was now in the fifty-eighth year of his age, having been born on 
 the 12th of August, 1762 ; a day deemed auspicious by the people of 
 England, being the anniversary of the Hanoverian succession to the 
 British throne. Princes soon become public personages ; and his royal 
 highness displayed himself at a sufficiently early age ; for in 1 7G5 he 
 received a deputation from the Society of Ancient Britons, on St. David's 
 day. The prince's answer to their address, was certainly not long ; for 
 it was simply — " I thank you for this mark of duty to the king, and 
 wish prosperity to the charity :" — though probably an earlier speech has 
 seldom been made ; the speaker being not quite three years old. But it 
 was not lost upon the courtiers. They declared that it was delivered 
 with the happiest grace of manner and action ; and that the features of 
 future oratory were more than palpable : all which the flatterers of roy- 
 alty are bound to believe as true. 
 
 The prince at length reached a period when it became necessary to 
 commence his education. In 1771, Lord Holdernesse was appointed 
 governor: the preceptors were Dr. Markham and Cyril Jackson. In the 
 usual branches of classical education, he was carefully instructed ; and 
 the prince often afterwards expressed his gratitvide to those assiduous 
 teachers. But, although the classics might flourish in the princely estab- 
 lishment, it soon became obvious that peace did not nourish along with 
 them. Rumours of discontent rapidly escaped, even from the close con- 
 fines of the palace; and, at length the public, less surprised than per- 
 plexed, heard the formal announcement, that the whole preceptorship of 
 his royal highness had sent in their resignations. Those disturbances 
 were the first and the inevitable results of the system. Lord Holdernesse 
 obscurely complained, that attempts had been made to obtain an illegiti- 
 mate inlluence over the prince's mind. Public rumour was active in 
 throwing light upon what the courtly caution of the noble governor had 
 covered with shade. The foreign politics of the former reigns, the 
 Scotch premier (lord North,) and the German blood of the queen, became 
 
 293 
 
294 HI8T0RY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 common topics of reprehension; and it was loudly asserted, that the 
 great object of the intrigue was to supersede flic prince's British princi- 
 ples, by the despotic doctrines of Hanover. 
 
 A new establishment of tutors was now to be formed for the Prince of 
 Wales. It bore striking evidence of haste; as lord Bruce, who was 
 placed at its head, resigned within a few days. .Some ridicule was 
 thrown upon this rapid secession, by the story that the young prince had 
 thought proper to inquire into his lordships attainments, and, finding 
 that the pupil knew more of classics than the master, had exhibited on the 
 occasion the very reverse of courtiership. Lord Bruce was succeeded 
 by the Duke of Montague ; with Hurd, bishop of Litchfield, and the 
 reverend Mr. Arnald, as preceptors. 
 
 In 1783, at a period of most luxurious and dissolute manners in the 
 British metropolis, the Prince of Wales commenced his public career. Hia 
 rank alone would have secured him flatterers ; but he had higher titles to 
 homage. He was then one of the handsomest men in Europe; his 
 countenance open and manly ; his figure tall, and strikingly propor- 
 tioned; his address remarkable for easy elegance, and his whole air sin- 
 gularly noble. But he possessed qualities which might have atoned for 
 a less attractive exterior. He spoke the principal modern languages 
 with sufficient skill: he was a tasteful musician; his acquaintance with 
 English literature, was, in early life, unusually accurate and extensive. 
 Markham's discipline, and Jackson's scholarship, had given him a large 
 portion of classical knowledge ; and nature had gifted him with the more 
 important public talent of speaking with fluency, dignity, and vigour. 
 
 His establishment at Carlton House soon involved him in pecuniary 
 embarrassments, from which he was never thoroughly extricated, even 
 by the repeated liberality of parliament. Yet, notwithstanding his in- 
 adequacy of means to his habits of lavish expenditure, he was prevailed 
 on to commence the erection of a country seat. F*or this purpose, he 
 selected Brighton, then a little fishing village ; and. having purchased a 
 few acres of ground, he began to build. His first work was a cottage, in 
 a field. The prince's household and visiters gradually increased, and 
 there was then no other resource, but in a few additional apartments. 
 It was at last found that these repeated improvements were deformities, 
 and that their expense would be better employed in making a complete 
 change. From this change, grew the present Pavilion ; the perpetual 
 ridicule of witty tourists, and certainly unsuited in style to its present 
 incumbered and narrow site, and perhaps to European taste. Yet the 
 happiest hours of the prince's life were spent in this cottage. The so- 
 ciety at the Pavilion was remarkably attractive ; no prince in Europe 
 passed so much of his time in society expressly chosen by himself. The 
 prince's table afforded the display of men too independent, both by their 
 place in society, and their consciousness of intellectual power, to feel them- 
 selves embarrassed by the presence of superior rank. Hare, Jekyll, Fitz- 
 patrick, and Erskine, with the great parliamentary leaders, were constant 
 guests ; and the round was varied by the introduction of celebrated for- 
 eigners and other persons capable of adding to the interest of the circle. 
 
 Some of tae s.ayings of the prince and his companions are still remem- 
 bered. — The merit of Hare's jeux cVesprit was their readiness and their 
 oddity. — Fox, after the fall of the coalition ministry, coming to dinner 
 at the Pavilion, just as he had returned from London, and apologizing 
 for his appearing in his dishabille, and without, powder; — " Oh," said 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 295 
 
 Hare, " make no apology ; our great guns are discharged, and now we 
 may all do without powder" 
 
 " Pleasant news, this, from America," said he, meeting general Fitz- 
 patrick on the first intelligence of Burgoyne's defeat. — The general 
 doubted, and replied, " that he had just come from the secretary of state's 
 oilice, without hearing any thing of "it ;" — " Perhaps so," said Hare, " but 
 take it from me as a. flying rumour." 
 
 On the king's opening the session of parliament, the prince had gone 
 in state, in a military uniform, with diamond epaulettes. At dinner, 
 general Doyle came in late, and, to the prince's inquiry " whether he 
 hud t^en. the procession '?" answered, that he had been amongst the mob, 
 " who prodigiously admired his royal highness's equipage." — " And 
 did they say nothing else]" asked the prince, who was at this time a 
 good deal talked of, from his incumbrances. — " Yes. One fellow, look- 
 ing at your epaulette, said, ' Tom, what an amazing fine thing the 
 prince has got on his shoulders!' — 'Ay,' answered the other, Mine 
 enough ; and fine as it is, it will soon be on our shoulders.' " — The prince 
 paused a moment, then looked Doyle in the face, and laughing, said, 
 " Ah ! I know where that hit came from, you rogue ; that could be no- 
 body's but yours. Come, take some wine." 
 
 Curran, the celebrated Irish barrister, was a frequent guest at the 
 Pavilion, and all his recollections of it were panegyrical. He said that, 
 considered as a test of colloquial liveliness and wit, he had never met 
 with any thing superior to the prince's table ; that the prince himself was 
 amongst the very first there, and that he had never met any man who 
 kept him more on the qui vive. 
 
 The regency question, of which we have spoken in a preceding chap- 
 ter,* drove the prince from politics. The result was disastrous to him- 
 self, to the kingdom, and to the king. It abandoned him to pursuits 
 still more obnoxious than those of public ambition. It encouraged his 
 natural taste for those indulgences, which, however common to wealth 
 and rank, are, in all their shapes, hostile to the practical virtues, and 
 high-minded purposes of life ; and it embarrassed his circumstances, un- 
 til, pressed by creditors, and entangled by a multitude of nameless 
 perplexities, he suffered himself to be urged into a marriage, formed with- 
 out respect or attachment, and endured in bitterness and vexation, until 
 its close. 
 
 The prince's marriage now became the principal topic. The duke of 
 York had already been married some years, but was still childless; and 
 the king, naturally anxious to see an undisputed succession, and leave 
 his descendants masters of the throne, strongly urged the heir-apparent 
 to select a wife from the royal families of Europe ; and thus give a 
 pledge to the empire, of that change of habits, and that compliance with 
 the popular wish, which, in those days of revolution, might even be 
 essential to the public safety. — In an evil hour, without affection on 
 either side, he consented to give his hand to his cousin, Caroline Amelia 
 Elizabeth, daughter of the duke of Brunswick, and niece to his majesty 
 George III., then in her twenty -fifth year ; and on the 8th April, 1 795, 
 the nuptial ceremony was performed at St. James's palace. 
 
 The royal marriage was inauspicious. Through the insidious man 
 agement of Lady Jersey, one of the female favourites of the Prince of 
 
 Pa«e 234. 
 
296 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 W files, a partial separation was etfected ; and it was soon rumoured, 
 that the disagreements of habit and temper, on both sides, were too 
 strong, to give any hopes of their being reconciled. 
 
 The king still interposed his good intentions, and desired that the 
 princess should, at least, reside under the same roof with her husband. 
 She had apartments at Carlton House, while the prince spent his time 
 chiefly at Brighton. But Charlton, a village near Blackheath, was 
 finally selected for her residence ; and there, with the princess Charlotte, 
 her daughter, who was born on the 7th January, 1796, and some ladies 
 in attendance, she lived for several years ; not, however, without drawing 
 upon herself serious imputations in relation to her private conduct. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 Thistle-wood Conspiracy. — Death of Henry Or attan. — Trial of the 
 Queen. — Coronation. — Death of the Queen. — Visit of the King to 
 Ireland, and to Hanover. 
 
 THE situation of the country, at the commencement of the year 1820, 
 was more tranquil than the violent popular agitation of the preceding 
 months had given reason to expect. 
 
 The death of a sovereign generally gives birth to many hopes and 
 fears, in the bosoms of different persons, and to various speculations con- 
 cerning the line of conduct likely to be pursued. New prejudices, and 
 new connexions begin to exert an influence upon public affairs. If there 
 were (as there always must be) any measures of the preceding reign 
 unpalatable to a considerable part of the community, a pleasing altera- 
 tion is expected, from the real or supposed virtues of the new sovereign. 
 But these feelings, and these delusions, had no scope at the accession of 
 George IV. The new sovereign had already held the reins of power 
 for nearly nine years; his character and habits were known; his public 
 policy had long been declared and put into practice ; nor was there the 
 slightest probability that any alteration would occur, either in the selec- 
 tion ol those to whom the administration was entrusted, nor in the prin- 
 ciples en which it was conducted. The royal power was in the same 
 hands as before : it was in the title only that there had occurred a 
 change. The seals were continued in the hands of lord Eldon; and the 
 other cabinet ministers were severally re-appointed to their former offices. 
 
 Though, however, there had appeared no likelihood of a change, yet the 
 ministry narrowly escaped a speedy and tragical termination. The con- 
 spiracy formed for their destruction, was one of the most atrocious, 
 though extraordinary plots, recorded in the annals of any country. Its 
 ultimate end was to effect a revolution ; its immediate object, the assas- 
 sination of the ministers. The persons engaged in it were few in num- 
 ber, low in situation, without knowledge, resources, or foresight. 
 
 The framer of this plot, was Arthur Thistlewood. Born about the 
 ypar 1770, he set out in life originally with some fortune, and with a fair 
 proportion of the advantages of education. He had been a. subaltern of- 
 ficer, first in the militia, afterwards in a regiment of the line, stationed in 
 the West Indies. After having resigned his commission, and spent 
 Bonn? time in America, he passed into France, where he arrived shortly 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 297 
 
 after the fall of Robespierre. He had been deeply engaged in the 
 wicked and absurd scheme of Dr. Watson. Having beer., like the 
 latter, acquitted, he thought proper, soon afterwards, to send a challenge 
 to Lord. Sidmouth. That nobleman had recourse to the laws, and 
 Thistlewood was punished by imprisonment and fine. On his libera- 
 tion, in August 1819, he found himself in circumstances which stimu- 
 lated the natural violence and habitual corruption of his disposition. Am- 
 bitious, without any of those advantages of fortune or of talent, by which, 
 in the regular course of things, ambition can be gratified, he found him- 
 self excluded from every respectable class in society, without sources of 
 present enjoyment, or hopes of future improvement in his condition. Ho 
 now associated only with the most degraded of the lowest class ■ spend- 
 ing his time in forming and maintaining connexions with men whose 
 'poverty and profligacy fitted them for any enterprise. Gradually, he 
 collected around him a number of individuals, equally desperate with 
 himself, all bent on the destruction of the ministers. Ings, a butcher, 
 Tidd and Brunt, shoe-makers; and a man of colour, named Davidson, 
 were his principal confidants. After the death of the late king, their 
 meetings were held twice a-day, and began to take a more determinate 
 aim. At one time, it was proposed, that, availing themselves of the ab- 
 sence of the greater number of the troops, in consequence of the royal 
 funeral, they should endeavour to get possession of the metropolis ; but 
 this scheme was rejected, as not involving the sure destruction of tho 
 ministers. At last, it was resolved, at one of their meetings, that poverty 
 did not allow them to delay their purposes any longer; and they deter- 
 mined to murder the ministers, who, it was announced, were to be pre- 
 sent at a cabinet-dinner at lord Harrowby's, on Wednesday, the 23d of 
 February, at his house in Grosvenor Square. One of the conspirators 
 was to go with a note, addressed to lord Harrowby ; when the door was 
 opened to him, a part of their number were to rush in ; and, while some 
 seized tho servants, and prevented any person from escaping from tho 
 house, others, forcing their way into the room where the ministers were 
 assembled, were to murder them without mercy. It was particularly 
 specified, that the heads of lords Sidmouth and Castlereagh were to be 
 brought away in a bag. From lord Harrowby's house, two of their 
 number were to proceed^ to throw fire-balls into the straw-shed of the 
 eavalry barracks in King-street, while the rest were to co-operate in tho 
 execution of the subsequent parts of the scheme. In the course of tho 
 day, several of the infatuated wretches met, from time to timt, at the old 
 place of rendezvous, in a court adjacent to Gray's-Inn-lane ; and, towards 
 six in the evening, they assembled in a stable, situated in an obscure 
 street, called Cato-street, in the neighbourhood of Edgeware-road. Be- 
 sides the stable in the lower part, the building contained two rooms 
 above, accessible only by a ladder; in the larger of which, a sentinel 
 having been stationed below, the conspirators mustered, to the number 
 of about twenty-five; all busy in adjusting their accoutrements, by the 
 scanty light of one or two candles, and exulting in the near approach of 
 the bloody catastrophe. 
 
 All these machinations, however, were known to the very men, whom 
 they hoped, within an hour, to see lying butchered at then feet. One of 
 the conspirators, Edwards, had, for some time, been in the pay of govern- 
 ment, to whom, he communicated every step that was taken. Tho 
 ministers made no movement that might deter or alarm the ruffians 
 
298 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 The preparations for the dinner proceeded at lord Harrowby's house 
 until eight in the evening, though, in fact, no dinner was to be given. 
 
 In the mean time, a strong party of Bow-street constables proceeded to 
 Cato-street, where they were to be met and supported by a detachment 
 of the Coldstream guards. The police officers reached the* spot about 
 eight o'clock. They immediately entered the stable, and, mounting the 
 ladder, found the conspirators in the loft, on the point of proceeding to 
 the execution of their scheme. The principal officer called upon them 
 to surrender. One of the constables, pressing forward to seize Thistle- 
 wood, was pierced by him through the body, and immediately fell. The 
 lights in the loft were now extinguished; some of the conspirators rushed 
 down the ladder, and the officers along with them; others forced their 
 way out through a window in the back part of the building. At this moment 
 the detachment of the military arrived, rather later than the precise time 
 fixed. Two of the conspirators, who were in the act of escaping, were 
 seized ; nine more were taken that evening, and conveyed to prison. 
 Thistle wood was amongst those who had escaped ; but he was arrested 
 the next morning, in bed ; and some others were seized in the course of 
 the next two days. Thistlewood, and his companions, Ing, Brunt, Tidd, 
 and Davidson, were severally tried, convicted, and executed ; six more 
 of the conspirators pleaded guilty ; five of whom were transported for 
 life : and one, who appeared to have joined the conspirators in Cato- 
 street, without being aware of its tragical purpose, received a pardon. 
 
 The new parliament assembled on the 20th April. Mr. Manners. Sut- 
 ton was again elected speaker of the house of commons ; and on the 
 27th, the king opened the session in person, by delivering a speech from 
 the throne. 
 
 In the course of the session, the house was deprived of one of its most 
 eminent members. Mr. Grattan had come over from Ireland, to take 
 his seat once more, for the especial purpose of advocating the claims of 
 the Roman Catholics. On his arrival in London, he found himself in a 
 weak state of health, which rendered him incapable of exertion ; his in- 
 firmities increased, and he expired, without having again appeared in 
 that house which he had so often instructed and delighted. The claims 
 of the catholics was the last subject that occupied his thoughts : and, in 
 his dying hour, he exhorted them, how often soever they might be dis- 
 appointed, to abstain from taking any part in the dissentions that might 
 be caused by existing differences in the royal - family ; and never tc 
 make common cause with the abettors of radical reform and universal 
 suffrage. 
 
 Mr. Grattan may be considered as the last of those celebrated parlia- 
 mentary orators, who dignified the close of the eighteenth, and the com- 
 mencement of the nineteenth century. He had been the cotemporary 
 and the rival of Pitt, of Fox, of Sheridan, of Windham, and, if he 
 did not surpass them as orators, he exhibited at least a peculiar spe- 
 cies of brilliant eloquence, in which he had no equal. In losing him, 
 the house of commons was deprived, not only of one of its most distin- 
 guished individuals, but of the last member of one of the most illustrious 
 band of orators that it had ever possessed, at any one time. 
 
 Mr. Grattan's son came forward as a candidate for the vacancy in the 
 representation of the city of Dublin, caused by his father's death; but 
 he was successfully opp sed by Mr. Ellis, one of the masters of the Irish 
 chancery. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 299 
 
 No rank can expect to be free from the common visitations of life ; 
 and George the Fourth, always much attached to his relations, had suf- 
 fered, within a few years, the loss of his royal mother;* of his brother, 
 the duke of Kent,f only a week before the death of his father ; and of 
 his daughter, the Princess Charlotte ; + all regretted by the nation ; but 
 the loss of the last creating an unexampled sorrow. 
 
 But he had scarcely ascended the throne, when perplexities of a more 
 harassing kind awaited him. The Princess Caroline, his consort, who 
 had long resided in Italy, announced her determination of returning to 
 England, and demanding the appointments and rank of queen. Her life 
 abroad had given rise to the grossest imputations ; and her presiding at 
 the court of England, while those imputations continued, would have 
 been intolerable. But the means adopted to abate the offence, argued a 
 singular ignorance of human nature. Lord Liverpool was utterly un- 
 equal to the emergency : always, hitherto, a feeble, unpurposed, and 
 timid minister, he now assumed a preposterous courage, and defied this 
 desperate woman. He had even the folly to bring her to trial ; with 
 what ultimate object, is inconceivable. That he could not have obtained 
 a divorce, the reason was obvious ; because she could easily have recrimi- 
 nated upon her husband. If she had been found guilty, he could neither 
 have exiled, nor imprisoned her ; his only resource must have been her 
 decapitation; yet he knew that the people of England would have risen 
 indignantly against so cruel and horrid a sentence. There was but one 
 alternative remaining — to be defeated. 
 
 The queen was probably a criminal, to the full extent of the charge. 
 But there had been so long a course of espionage, which the English 
 mind justly abhors: the practices against her had been so shameful, and 
 the details of the evidence were so repulsive, that the crime was forgotten, 
 in the public scorn of the accusers. The feeling, however suppressed in 
 the higher ranks, had its full operation with the multitude ; and while 
 the ministers were constrained to steal down to the house of lords, or 
 were visible only to receive all species of insults from the mob, the queen 
 went daily to her trial in a popular triumph. Her levees at Branden- 
 burgh House, a small villa on the banks of the Thames, where she 
 resided for the season, were still more triumphant. Daily processions of 
 the people filled the road. The artisans marched with the badges of their 
 callings; the brotherhoods of trade ; the masonic lodges; the friendly 
 societies ; all the nameless incorporations, which make their charters 
 without the aid of office, and give their little senates laws, down to the 
 fish-women; paid their respects, in full costume: and assured her ma- 
 jesty, in many a high-flown piece of eloquence, of her "living in tag 
 hearts of her faithful people." 
 
 Concession after concession was forced from ministers. The title ci 
 queen was acknowledged; and finally, on the 10th of November, tho 
 earl of Liverpool, defeated in the house of lords, and become an o' ject 
 of outrageous detestation to the populace, admitted that he could pro- 
 ceed no further, and withdrew the prosecution. The announcement was 
 received with a roar of victory in the house of commons : the sound w;is 
 caught by the multitude, and I-ondon was filled with acclamations. 
 
 The graver judgment of the country regretted, that, by the rash ft ess 
 which suffered a question of individual vice to be mingled with one c'f 
 
 * l?th Nov. J818 . 93J Jan. 1820. t Gtli Nov 1317. 
 
300 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 public principle, the crime received the sanction which belonged only to 
 tiie virtue. But the deed was done ; and the only hope now was, that 
 it might be speedily forgotten. But this the queen would not suffer • 
 the furious passions of the woman were still unappeased. She took a 
 house within sight of the palace, that she might .present the perpetual 
 offence of her mobs to the royal eye : she libelled the king ; she pursued 
 him to public places; and persevered in this foolish vindictiveness, until 
 she completely lost the sympathy of the people. At length, she deter- 
 mined to insult him at the coronation, in the presence of his nobles, and 
 in the highest ceremonial of his throne. 
 
 The heavens were most propitious to the celebration of this splendid 
 and interesting ceremony. Never was there seen a calmer or more bril- 
 liant morning. At the early hour of four, on the 19th of July, the door 
 of Westminster Hall was opened to the crowd. We shall endeavour to 
 give a picture of the Hall, as it was then beheld. The reader must 
 imagine a long and lofty room, (the longest and widest m Europe, we 
 believe, without the support of pillars) lined with two tiers of galleries 
 covered with red cloth, and carpeted down the middle with broad-cloth 
 of blue. At the very end, facing the north, were erected two gothic 
 towers, with an archway, which led to Palace Yard, and over this was a 
 huge gothic window. The tables for the faest extended on each side ; 
 and at the head, on a raised platform, was a bright gold throne, with a 
 square table standing before it, on which was a costly blue cloth, 
 worked with gold. Boors on each side led up to the galleries. The 
 dark fretted roof, from which hung bright chandeliers, was an admirable 
 relief to the whole. Along the cloth-covered pavement, all was life, and 
 eagerness, and joy, and hope. Here, were to be seen the pages putting 
 back a cluster of plumed beauties, with a respectful determination and 
 courtly haste : — there, a flight of peeresses, feathered, and attired in white, 
 winging their way, as though in hopeless speed, like birds to their 
 allotted dove-cotes. In one place, you might behold some magnificent 
 soldier, half in confusion, half in self-satisfaction, pausing, in bewildered 
 doubt and pleasure, over his own splendid attire: — in another, those who 
 had reached their seats were sighing happily, adjusting their dresses, 
 and gazing around with delight at the troubles of others below them. 
 The light streamed in at the great window, like a flood of illumined 
 water, and touched every plume, and every cheek. Expectation seemed 
 to have given a bloom of Life to each female countenance, as if to com- 
 pensate fur the ravages endeavoured to be made by broken rest and 
 fatigue. Some of the royal family were seated in the state-box, at. a 
 very early hour. Over the royal box, sat the ladies of the principal offi- 
 cers of state ; and immediately opposite, were the foreign ambassadors and 
 their suites. About seven o'clock, Miss Fellovves (his majesty's herb- 
 woman) with her hand-maids in white, was conducted into the hall, and 
 took her seat at the lower end. 
 
 The hall now rapidly filled, not with mere visiters only, but with 
 knights, and pages, and noble serving men, all in the richest dresses. 
 The barons of the cinque-ports rehearsed the ceremony of bearing the 
 gold canopy down the hall ; exciting, in no small degree, the mirth oi 
 (he company; for they staggered along at most uneven paces; and one. 
 splendid personage in powder could not walk straight, so encumbered 
 was he with a sense of his own magnificence. 
 
 The interest now manifestly deepened atevery moment, and not a plume 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 301 
 
 in the galleries was still. At length, the judges, the law-officers, the 
 - gentlemen of the privy chamber, the aldermen of London, and the king's 
 chaplain, entered the hall, and gave sign of preparation. The Knights 
 of the Bath, in splendid dresses, arranged themselves at the lower end of 
 the hall. The officers attendant on the knights commanders, wore crim- 
 son satin vests, ornamented with white ; and over these a white silk 
 mantle. They also wore ruffs, chains, and badges. Their stockings 
 were of white silk, with crimson roses. The Knights Commanders oi 
 the Bath wore the prevalent costume of the day — a la Henri Quatre — 
 with ruffs, and hats turned up in front. Their vests and slashed planta- 
 loons were of white satin, overspread with small silver Jace; their cloaks 
 were short, of crimson satin, embroidered with the star of the order, and 
 lined with white. Their half-boots were of white silk, with red heels, 
 crimson satin tops, and crimson .roses; their spurs were of gold; then 
 sword-belts and sheathes, white; and their hats were black, with white 
 ostrich feathers. The dress of the knights grand crosses had all the 
 beauty of the knights commanders, with rather more magnificence ; it 
 being, in all respects the same, except, that for the short cloak was sub- 
 stituted an ample flowing mantle, and for the feathers a larger and loftier 
 plume. 
 
 The privy counsellors were dressed in blue satin and gold. 
 
 The doors of the hall, which had been opened, were suddenly closed ; 
 and there was a confused murmur amongst the persons at the gateway, 
 which was soon circulated and explained, by a buzz of " the queen ! the 
 queen ! !" Some of the attendants were, for the moment, alarmed ; and 
 the ladies were, for an instant, disturbed with an apprehension of some 
 mysterious danger ; — but the queen soon retired, the gates were pre- 
 sently re-opened, and all proceeded as gayly as before. 
 
 The peers now poured in from behind the throne, robed in crimson 
 velvet, with ermine tippets, and rich coronets. The royal dukes also en- 
 tered, and took their seats on each side of the throne. At about half- 
 past nine, the names of the peers were called over by one of the heralds, 
 and the order of their procession was arranged. 
 
 The long expected moment arrived; and the people arose with 
 waving handkerchiefs, and lofty voices, to greet the entrance of the 
 king. His majesty advanced, arrayed in a stately dress. On his head 
 was a rich purple velvet cap, jewelled, and adorned with a plume of os- 
 trich feathers. His robe was of crimson velvet, spreading amply abroad, 
 and studded with golden stars. Eight young noblemen supported the 
 train. The king looked down his hall of state with a proud expression 
 of delight ; and the eyes of the attendant ladies seemed to sparkle thrice 
 vividly, with the consciousness of their being the living lights and jewels 
 of the scene. 
 
 The whole arrangements for the procession being perfected, the duke 
 of Wellington, as lord high constable, and lord Howard of Effingham, 
 as earl marshal, ascended the steps of the platform, and stood at the 
 outer side of the table, while the train-bearers stationed themselves on 
 each side of the throne. 
 
 The three swords were then presented by the lord chamberlain, and 
 
 the officers of the jewel office ; and the gold spurs were, in like manner. 
 
 delivered, and placed upon the table. The noblemen and bishops who 
 
 were to bear the regalia having been summoned, the several sword**, 
 
 2c2 
 
Siyi HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 sceptres, the orb, and crown, were delivered to them separately, and the 
 procession immediately began to move. The martial music heralded the 
 cavalcade along; and the procession itself seemed one stream of varying 
 and exquisite colour. It poured forth through the gray gothic arch at 
 the end of the hall, in slow, solemn, and brilliant beauty, and nothing 
 could surpass the gorgeous effect of the whole scene. 
 
 The. king left his throne, and descended the steps of the platform. The 
 splendid golden canopy, of which we have before spoken, awaited his 
 majesty at the foot of the steps; but he walked under it, and past it, and 
 so continued to precede it until he left the hall. His course was magni- 
 ficent, down the thronged avenue into the open air ; — the ladies stand- 
 ing up with waving handkerchiefs, and the brilliant attendants thronging 
 around the sovereign, with busy pride, and a restless consciousness of 
 their glory ; while the king looked about him with marked delight, and 
 smiled on his people. 
 
 The hall was soon nearly half emptied, by those who had tickets to 
 view the solemn ceremony of the crowning in the abbey. The proces- 
 sion was ushered into the gateway by Miss Fellowes, and her group of 
 youjig ladies in white, scattering flowers. On the king's canopy ap- 
 pearing, a universal shout arose, and the coronation anthem was com- 
 menced : — " I was glad when they said unto me, Let us go into the 
 house of the Lord." — The full chorus was awfully sublime, and thrilled 
 all hearers, while the august crowd poured magnificently forward ; the 
 canopy stopped at the chancel, and his majesty advanced to the sacra- 
 rium, attended by the officers bearing the regalia. 
 
 The king now stood up, and the archbishop of Canterbury turned on 
 all sides to the people, saying, " I present you King George the Fourth, 
 the undoubted king of this realm ; wherefore all you that come this day 
 to do him homage, are you willing to do the same 1" — The shout was 
 sublime — the multitude standing up, and waving caps and handker- 
 chiefs for several minutes, -while the plumes tossed about in the chancel 
 and transept, like a brilliant stormy sea. 
 
 Certain services were now performed, and, after short prayers were 
 said, a sermon was delivered by the archbishop of York. The corona- 
 tion-oath was next administered to the king; when, arising out of his 
 chair, supported as before, he went to the altar, and there, being un- 
 covered, made his solemn oath, in the sight of all the people, to observe 
 the promises ; laying his right hand upon the holy gospel in the great 
 bible, which had been carried in the procession, and was now brought 
 from the altar by the archbishop, and tendered to him as he knelt upon 
 the steps, saying these words ; — 
 
 " The things which I have beforo promised, I will perform and keep ; 
 So help me God." 
 
 Now followed the anointing, succeeded by two anthems ; and, after 
 other ceremonies, the king sat down in Edward's Chair, and was crowned 
 by the archbishop. At this moment, the shouts of the people had a line 
 effect. The trumpets sounded forth their martial music, and the guns of 
 the Park and of the Tower were instantaneously fired. 
 
 His majesty was now borne to his throne, by the bishops and peers 
 around him. Homage was then done by the peers; after which cere- 
 mony, each class or degree going by themselves, they all, one by one, in 
 oider, put on* their coronets, singly ascended the ihronc again, and 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 303 
 
 stretching forth their hands, touched the crown on his majesty's head, as 
 promising, by that ceremony, to be ever ready to support it with all their 
 power; and then each of them kissed the king's cheek. 
 
 The sacrament was afterwards administered to his majesty, and an 
 anthem sung, at the end of which the drums beat, and the trumpets 
 rang, and the people shouted, Long live the king. The archbishop then 
 went to the altar, and prayed for some time — and the ceremony of 
 crowning ended. 
 
 Then came the chivalrous banquet in the hall. The king was now 
 habited in robes of purple velvet, furred with ermine : — the crown of 
 state was on his head ; in his right hand was the sceptre, and in his left 
 the orb with the cross. He walked under the canopy, which was sup- 
 ported as before. When the gorgeous procession had at length arrived 
 within the hall, the passage from the kitchen to the lower end was 
 opened ; and the gentlemen bearing the golden dishes for the first course 
 were seen, in regular line, ready to proceed to the king's table. At this 
 moment, the doors at the end of the hall were opened, the clarions and 
 trumpets at the same time sounding, and the duke of Wellington, as 
 lord high constable, the marquis of Anglesea, as lord high steward, and 
 lord Howard of Effingham, as deputy earl marshal, entered upon the 
 floor, on horseback. The marquis of Anglesea's horse was a beautiful 
 cream-coloured Arabian ; lord Howard's was a dun ; and the duke ol 
 Wellington's a white steed. After a short pause, they rode gracefully 
 up to the royal table, followed by the gentlemen with the first course. 
 When the dishes were placed upon the board, the bearers first, retired, 
 with their faces towards the king ; and then the noble horsemen retreated, 
 by backing their steeds down the hall, and out at the archway. 
 
 Before the dishes were uncovered, the lord great chamberlain presented 
 the basin and ewer, to bathe his majesty's hands; and the lord of the 
 manor of Heydon attended with a rich towel. The dishes were then 
 uncovered ; and his majesty was helped, by the carvers, to some soup. 
 
 At the end of this course, the gates of the hall were again thrown 
 open, and a flourish of trumpets announced to the eager assembly, that 
 the champion was about to enter. He advanced under the gateway, on 
 a fine pie-bald charger, and clad in complete steel. The plumes on his 
 head were of three colours, and extremely magnificent; and he bore in 
 his hand the loose steel gauntlet, ready for the challenge. The duke of 
 Wellington was on his right hand ; the marquis of Anglesea on his left. 
 The herald then read the challenge : — 
 
 " If any person, of what degree soever, high or low, shall deny or 
 gainsay our sovereign lord King George the Fourth, of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, son and 
 next heir to our sovereign lord king George the Third, the last king de- 
 ceased, to be right heir to the imperial crown of this United Kingdom, 01 
 that he ought not to enjoy the same, here is his champion, who saith 
 that he lieth, and is a false traitor; being ready, in person, to combat 
 with him, and in this quarrel will adventure his life against him, on 
 what day soever he shall be appointed." 
 
 At the conclusion of this challenge, the champion hurled down his 
 gauntlet, which fell with a solemn clash upon the floor. He then 
 placed his wrist against his steeled side, as if to show how indifferent he 
 was to the consequence of his challenge. The herald, in a few seconds, 
 took up the glove, delivered it to the squire, who kissed it, and handed 
 
304 HISTORY OE ENGLAND. 
 
 it to the champion. In the middle of the hall, the same ceremony was 
 performed ; and also a third time at the foot of the royal platform. The 
 king then drank his health, and sent him the cup ; and he taking it, 
 drank to the king, but his voice was drowned by the tumultuous shouts. 
 
 On the champion retiring, the second course was brought in. Cer- 
 tain services were then performed, which generally ended in a peer or 
 some other fortunate personage being presented with a gold cup. The 
 most interesting was the present of two falcons to his majesty from the 
 duke of Athol, as an acknowledgment of fealty, and the tenure by which 
 he held his estates under the crown. 
 
 The king's health was about this time drunk, with great acclamations, 
 and the national hymn of " God save the King" was sung by the choir. 
 The king, standing up, drank to his subjects; notice of which honour 
 was communicated by the duke of Norfolk; and shortly afterwards — 
 No?i Nobis Domine having been sung — in which the king took a part — 
 his majesty retired, amidst the joyous clamours of his people. 
 
 The exclusion from Westminster Hall, was the last of the many mor- 
 tifications which it was the lot of the unfortunate daughter of the house 
 of Brunswick to endure. After a week's suffering from an internal 
 inflammatory disorder, this ill-fated and ill-treated, and we fear we must 
 add, this ill-conducted princess, breathed her last, on the night of the 
 7th of August, in the fifty-fourth year of her age. 
 
 In her will, she had directed that her body, three days after her death, 
 should be carried, without being opened, to Brunswick, for interment,; 
 and that the inscription on the coffin should be, " Here lies Caroline of 
 Brunswick, the injured queen of England." 
 
 On the morning of the fourteenth, at eight o'clock, the funeral pro- 
 cession moved from Brandenburg house. The queen's executoi's had 
 made a protest against the moving of the body, and the measures which 
 had been pursued respecting it, by order of the government, particularly 
 its being accompanied by a military guard. There was in consequence 
 exhibited a dreadful scene of opposition and tumult, in which many of 
 the military were hurt, and two of the populace were killed. 
 
 During these proceedings, the king was in Ireland. He had set out 
 the day before the illness of the queen commenced ; but the news of 
 her death reached him before he had left the English shores. He landed 
 at Howth on the 12th of August ; and, in consequence of his late consort's 
 decease, he wished to have gone on shore in private. But privacy was 
 impossible, and the moment his approach was known, all Dublin poured 
 forth its population, to greet him. The enthusiasm rose to extrava- 
 gance, and the king was all affability, in return ; condescending to shake 
 hands cordially with the very lowest of the populace. He did not mike 
 Lis public entry into Dublin until the 17th of August. During the 
 whole period of his stay in Ireland, he met with nothing but the most 
 ardent demonstrations of loyalty. He returned to London on the IGth 
 i f September, and on the 24th left it again, to visit Hano\er. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 305 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 Mr. Peel appointed Secretary of State for the home Department.— 
 Marquis of Wellesley, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. — Visit of the 
 King to Scotland. — Death of the Marquis of Londonderry. — Mr. 
 Canning appointed Secretary of Stale for Foreign Jiff airs. — Dis- 
 turbances in Ireland. 
 
 THE clamours of the country gentlemen, before the next meeting of 
 parliament, had probably a great influence in determining the ministers 
 to form a union with the Grenville party. The marquis of Bucking- 
 ham was elevated to the dignity of a duke; Mr. C. Wynne was placed at 
 the head of the board of control ; and another of the family, Mr. A. 
 Wynne, was named envoy to the Swiss Cantons, with appointments to 
 the amount of about four thousand pounds a year. This union excited, 
 as might have been expected, loud clamours amongst the whigs. 
 
 Another change which occurred in the ministry, in the month of 
 January, was the retirement, from active employment, of lord Sid- 
 mouth ; who, retaining his seat in the cabinet, was succeeded in his 
 office of secretary of state for the home department, by Mr. Peel, eldest 
 son of Sir Robert Peel, of Lancashire ; a gentleman, who, from a very 
 slender capital, had amassed an immense estate by the manufacture of 
 cotton fabrics. 
 
 The marquis of Londonderry (lately entitled, before the death of his 
 father, viscount Castlereagh) was in great want of official aid in the 
 house of commons: there, he was the sole Atlas of the state: on his 
 shoulders almost exclusively lay the burthen of giving explanations, an- 
 swering questions, and repelling attacks in relation to the affairs of the 
 home department, as well as to those of the foreign. The retreat of 
 lord Sidmouth made room for the promotion of Mr. Peel, who proved an 
 effective co-operator with lord Londonderry in the house of commons, 
 and relieved the latter from some part of that mass of multifarious busi- 
 ness by which his mind had been distracted. 
 
 The change which occurred in the administration of Ireland, was of 
 much greater importance. The appointment of the marquis Wellesley 
 to be lord-lieutenant of that part of the empire, was regarded as the com- 
 mencement of a new system of government; and this presage was 
 strengthened by the removal of Mr. Saurin, the able and vehement 
 friend of protestant ascendancy, from the high situation of attorney- 
 general, in order to make way for the advancement of his rival, Mr. 
 Plunket, one of the ablest advocates of catholic emancipation. Under 
 these new auspices, it was supposed that every ebullition of that spirit 
 which exulted in the depression of the catholics, would be discouraged ; 
 their affections would be conciliated; and, from the vigorous measures 
 which the energy of Lord Wellesley's character would lead him to 
 adopt, joined with his freedom from anti-catholic prejudices, his adminis- 
 tration, it was hoped, would prove an epoch, from which Ireland might 
 date an era of internal tranquillity and union. Put no such question as 
 catholic emancipation then existed in the cabinet: the catholics .were to 
 continue excluded from all that was then closed against them. Lord 
 Wellesley did certainly discourage orange toasts and ceremonies : but 
 what did that avail] While the laws of the land conferred political as 
 
306 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 cendancy upon the protcstants, it could not be otherwise than fruitless 
 to attempt to restrain them from the joyous and ostentatious celebration 
 of their triumph. 
 
 If the presence of the marquis Wellesley was ineffectual to allay the 
 heart-burnings which raged between the upper classes in Ireland, it was 
 equally inadequate to suppress the outrages which made a great part of 
 the island a tempestuous scene of violence, iniquity, and disorder. 
 Atrocious deeds, similar to those which disgraced the conclusion of the 
 preceding year, continued to be daily and nightly perpetrated. Nearly 
 the whole of Munster was in a state, into which it is difficult to conceive 
 how a civilized country could fall, that was not afflicted by foreign inva- 
 sion, or had not been the seat of a protracted civil war. 
 
 Not many months after his assuming the reins of government in Ire- 
 land, Lord Wellesley had a very decisive proof of the animosity which 
 his line of conduct had excited in the breasts of the orange party. On 
 the evening of the 14th of December, he attended the theatre ; when his 
 visit was hailed with every expression of dislike. As the play proceeded, 
 the disturbance became more outrageous, until at length a bottle, and a 
 fragment of a watchman's rattle, were thrown from one of the galleries, 
 in the direction of the vice-regal box. 
 
 Indeed, lord Wellesley stood in entirely a false position. Friendly 
 himself to the catholic claims, he was to administer the government ot 
 Ireland, according to anti-catholic laws, and under an anti-catholic 
 cabinet. There was, therefore, a constant opposition between his own 
 feelings and principles, and the spirit of the system on which it was his 
 duty to act.* 
 
 The year 1821 will be for ever memorable, by the death of Napoleon 
 Buonaparte ; whose spirit passed from its mortal tenement, to the Great 
 Judge of all, on the fifth of May.f 
 
 On the 10th of August, the king embarked at Greenwich, for Scotland, 
 on board the Royal George Yacht. On the 15th, he landed at Leith, 
 and, accompanied by the different officers of the city, and an immense 
 concourse of people, proceeded to the ancient palace of Holyrood-house, 
 where the lord-provost, magistrates, and town-council of Edinburgh, pre- 
 sented a congratulatory address. On the 17th, his majesty held a court; 
 and on the 20th a levee ; at which, the addresses of the different public 
 bodies in Scotland, were received. On the 22d, accompanied by a grand 
 procession, he proceeded from Holyrood-house to the castle, escorted by 
 the highland clans, under their respective leaders, in full costume. On 
 the following day, he reviewed the troops on Porto-Bello sands, amidst an 
 immense assemblage of his Scottish subjects. He afterwards was pre- 
 sent at a ball, given by the peers; dined with the corporation ; attended 
 the High Church ; and thence proceeded to Dalkeith. On the 27th, he 
 embarked at Queensferry, near the earl of Hopetown's, and sailed for the 
 Thames, where the royal squadron arrived on the 30th. His majesty 
 landed at Greenwicn, and immediately proceeded to Carlton-House. 
 
 The gratification derived by his majesty from this excursion to his 
 northern dominions, was allayed by his receiving, on his arrival at Leith, 
 
 * The marquis Wellesley, about this lime, was joined in matrimony with Mrs 
 Patterson, an American lady, a daughter of , the late Mr.Caton and^rand daughtei 
 of the venerable Cuartes Carroll, of Carrollton. 
 
 t Fw the particulars oftris imprisonment at St. Helena, see the Life of Napoleon, 
 by Hie aith >r of t'i s work 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 307 
 
 intelligence of the tragical death of the marquis cf Londonderry. This 
 event occurred at his lordship's residence, at Foot's Craig, on Monday, 
 the 12th of August, from a wound inflicted by himself, in his neck, with 
 a pen-knife, while labouring under insanity, caused, it was suppo35d, by 
 the pressure of severe ministerial duties. He was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey, between the graves of Mr. Pitt and Mr. Fox. 
 
 To find a successor to the marquis of Londonderry's situation in the 
 ministry, was no easy task. Mr. Canning was universally admitted to 
 be the individual best qualified for the vacant post; and, at length, lord 
 Amherst having been appointed, in his stead, governor-general of India— 
 to fill which highly honourable station, Mr. Canning had been, for some 
 time, making preparations — this distinguished orator was, in September, 
 appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs. 
 
 1824. By an act of parliament, passed in this year, was reversed the 
 attainder of lord Stafford, who was executed in the reign of Charles II. : 
 and four other acts were passed, to restore John Francis Erskihe to the 
 honours of earl of Mar; John Gordon, to the honours of earl of Ken- 
 mure ; James Drummond, to the honours of earl of Perth, and lord 
 Strathallan ; and William Nairn, to the honours of lord Nairne ; their an- 
 cestors having been attainted for their adherence to the unfortunate 
 royal family of Stuart. 
 
 1825. Except as regarded the agitation amongst the catholic popula- 
 tion of Ireland, chiefly by the instigation of Mr. O'Connell, Mr. Lawless, 
 and Mr. Shiel, the political horizon of the British islands, during the 
 greater part of the year 1825 was unclouded. Nearly all property in 
 England had risen greatly in pecuniary value, and every branch of inter- 
 nal industry was thriving. Agricultural distress had disappeared ; the 
 persons engaged in the cotton and woollen manufactures, were in full 
 employment ; the various departments of the iron trade were flourish- 
 ing ; in every district, new buildings were in the progress of erection ; 
 and money was so abundant, that men of enterprise, though without 
 capital, found no difficulty in obtaining funds for any plausible under- 
 taking. 
 
 The ministers determined to appoint charges des affaires to the states 
 of Colombia, Mexico and Buenos Ayres ; and entered into treaties ol 
 commerce with those states, respectively, on the basis of the recognition 
 of their independence of Spain ; from which, nearly the whole continen- 
 tal dominions of that* monarchy had revolted on the invasion of tho 
 peninsula, by Napoleon, in the year 1810. 
 
 182G. But the too great abundance of money, which had stimulated 
 industry in the beginning of the preceding year, proved, before its ter- 
 mination, most disastrous. Enterprise was pushed to an extreme degree 
 of speculation, and what may fairly be termed mercantile gambling, par- 
 ticularly in the creation of innumerable joint-stock companies in 
 London. The consequences were felt most calamitously throughout tho 
 present year. Private credit was almost destroyed ; the failure of private 
 bankers, both in the metropolis and in the country, continued to increase ■ 
 and the universal distrust which existed, by limiting the facilities of ob- 
 taining discounts and advances, deprived commerce of its natural auL 
 and increased the difficulties of the trader 
 
308 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 FOURTH PART. 
 
 Death of the Dwke of York. — The Duke of Wellington appointed 
 Commander-in-chief. — Death of the Earl of Liverpool. — Mr. Can- 
 ning becomes Prime Minister. — Jfis death. — is succeeded by Lord 
 Goderich. — He resigns. — The Duke of Wellington placed at the 
 head of the Administration. — The Marquis of Anglesea is succeeded 
 in the government of Ireland, by the Duke of Northumberland. 
 
 1827. THE earliest public event of this year, was the death of the 
 duke of York, the nearest heir presumptive of the crown. He died on 
 the 5th of January, being then in his sixty-fourth year. He had held 
 the office of commander-in-chief of all the forces for more than thirty- 
 two vears; in the administration of which he did not merely im- 
 prove, — he literally created, an army. By unceasing diligence, he gave 
 to the common soldier comfort and respectability ; the army ceased to 
 be considered as a sort of pest-house for the reception of moral lepers ; 
 and discipline and regularity were exacted with unceasing strictness.; 
 the officers were advanced by a gradual and well-ordered system of pro- 
 motion, by which merit was not, as formerly, pushed aside, to make way 
 for mere rank and wealth. 
 
 The duke of Wellington, already master-general of the ordnance, was 
 now called to the head of the army, which had so often followed him to 
 victory in the field. 
 
 By the death of the duke of York, his next brother, the duke of Cla- 
 rence, became the nearest presumptive heir of the crown. 
 
 In the middle of February, the earl of Liverpool was suddenly 
 attacked by a paralytic stroke. The immediate and more violent effects 
 of the disease yielded to the power of medicine ; but its permanent 
 consequences were of such a nature, as to remove the minister for ever 
 from public life.* The office of premier was thus unoccupied ; the govern- 
 ment was left without a head ; and unfortunatehy the usual difficulties ol 
 appointing a successor were greatly increased by the very nature of that 
 cabinet over which the earl of Liverpool had presided. For some years, it 
 had not been characterized by perfect unanimity of sentiment, with regard 
 to more than one of the most important public questions. Himself immovea- 
 ble in his hostility to the demands of the catholics, it was, notwith- 
 standing, he who had introduced into the office which he now held, 
 Mr. Canning, who, since 1812, had thought it prudent to exert his elo- 
 quence in their support. The catholic question, above all, was now a 
 stone of offence to many of the members ; and it was upon this rock 
 that the cabinet went to pieces. The lord chancellor, the duke of Wel- 
 lington, and Mr. Peel, formed the strength of the party opposed to eman- 
 cipation. Mr. Canning, though his sincerity in the cause had often 
 been denied or questioned, was placed^ by his official situation, at the 
 Head of its friends. The king at length finally determined, that the 
 new ministry should be, like its predecessor, divided in its opinion upon 
 
 * Ho died on the 4th of December, having been prime minister about twelve 
 years 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 309 
 
 • fhe catholic, question ; but that Mr. Canning, the leader of the catholic 
 party, who refused to serve under an anti-catholic premier, should be at 
 its head. The consequence was, that, having formally received, on the 
 I Oth of April, the king's instructions to form a ministry, he found him- 
 self, in less than forty-eight hours, deprived of the assistance of no fewer 
 than six of the leading members of the former cabinet, — Mr. Peel, lord 
 Eldon, earl of Westmoreland, lord Bathurst, duke of Wellington, and 
 lord Melville ; — and those resignations were speedily followed by 
 others.* 
 
 The session of parliament, during which those important changes 
 had occurred, was one in which very little business had been done, but 
 the events of which had excited more hopes and fears, and had given it 
 a character of more intense interest than would have been called forth 
 by the usual routine of political discussion. It had borne, in a great 
 degree, a personal character. It was " man to man, the soldier axid his 
 sword." It was destined to be speedily followed by an event, which 
 stretched that interest to its utmost degree, and taught one of the most 
 impressive lessons, that the history of politics presents, of the vanity and 
 uncertainty of ambition. The health of Mr. Canning had been hi a 
 very delicate siate, even at the commencement of the session ; and the 
 mental anxiety which followed could not be otherwise than injurious to 
 its restoration. His care-worn appearance betrayed that the mind was 
 ill at ease within ; mind and body panted equally for repose. Soon after 
 the rising of parliament, he was visited by an illness, which seemed, how- 
 ever, to yield to medical treatment, and he went down to the duke cf 
 Devonshire's seat at Chiswick, to seek tranquillity, and enjoy a purer air. 
 The disease returned ; inflammation had commenced ; it proceeded with 
 a violence and rapidity which set art at defiance ; and Mr. Canning ex- 
 pired at Chiswick (the same house in which Mr. Fox had breathed his 
 last,) on the 8th of August, in the 57th year of his age, after having been 
 prime minister only four months. 
 
 * When the parliament re-assembled on the 1st of May, the new ministry wah 
 as follows :— 
 
 THE CABINET. 
 
 Lord Chancellor .... Lord Lyndhurst (Jate Sir John Copley ) 
 
 Lord President Earl of Harrowby. 
 
 Lord Privy Seal .... Duke of Portland. 
 
 Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster Lord Bexley. 
 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs Viscount Dudley. 
 
 Secretary of State for the Colonies - Viscount Goderich (late Mr. Bobinson. ) 
 
 Sec. of State for the Home Department W. S. Bourne. 
 
 President of the Board of Trade • W. Huskisson. 
 
 President of the Board of Control - C. W. Wynne. 
 
 Secretary at War .... Viscount Palmerston. 
 
 First Lord of the Treasury, and ) G eor*e Canning 
 
 Chancellor of the Exchequer \ ^eor b e canning. 
 
 NOT IN THE CABINET. 
 Lord High Admiral • - - - Duke of Clarence. 
 Master-General of the Ordnance Marquis of Anglesea. 
 
 Lord Chamberlain of the Household Duke of Devonshire. 
 Master of the Horse - - - Duke of Leeds. 
 
 Chief Sec. to the Lord Lieu of Ireland. W. Lamb. 
 
 LAW APPOINTMENTS. 
 
 Master of the Rolls - Sir John Leach. 
 
 Vice Chancellor - • • • Sir A. Hart. 
 Attomev- General ... Sir James Scarlett . 
 
 Soiicuor-Gencral - Sir N Tindall. 
 
 2 D 
 
?I0 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 It was not unnatural to expect, that, on the removal of Mr. Canning, 
 whose influence alone seemed to have brought, and to have kept together, 
 the heterogeneous materials, of which the cabinet was composed, its dis- 
 cordant elements would again fly asunder. Very few changes, however, 
 occurred ; and their effect was to bring back into office a portion of 
 Mr. Canning's former friends. The duke of Wellington almost imme- 
 diately resumed the command of the army, but without any seat in the w 
 cabinet. Lord Goderich took the reins of government, as first lord of the 
 treasury ; Mr. Huskisson succeeded him as colonial secretary ; and 
 Mr. Hemes was appointed chancellor of the exchequer. 
 
 On the appointment of lord Goderich to the premiership, lord Wil- 
 liam Bentinck was named to succeed lord Amherst, as governor-general 
 of India ; and lord Amherst, in the mean time, was making " a pro- 
 gress" up the Ganges, receiving the visits of the neighbouring princes, 
 amidst the amusements and luxuries of oriental magnificence. 
 
 1828. This was an era of ministerial changes. Unequal to the task 
 of maintaining concord amongst the members of the new administra- 
 tion, on the 8th of January, lord Goderich made known his difficulties to 
 the king, and ceased to be premier ; and thus perished the Canning 
 coalition ministry, after an existence of seven* months. 
 
 Now abandoned by his ministers, the king sent for the duke of Wel- 
 lington, and commissioned him to form a new cabinet, with himself 
 at its head. The new government was speedily constructed. In framing 
 it, nearly all the members of the former cabinet were retained, except 
 the whigs, who had joined Mr. Canning in the day of his necessity. 
 Mr. Peel returned to the home department, in the place of the marquis 
 of Lansdown. Mr. Tierney surrendered the mint. Sir James Scarlett 
 resigned the office of attorney-general, which was restored to ^ir Charles 
 Wetherell. Lord Melville (son of the celebrated colleague of Mr. Pitt) 
 was placed at the head of the board of control ; Mr. Goulburn was made 
 chancellor of the exchequer ; and earl Bathurst president of the council. 
 The duke of Wellington was first lord of the treasury, and he imme- 
 diately resigned the office of commander-in-chief. 
 
 Another important change occurred, before the termination of the 
 year, in the government of Ireland. The marquis of Anglesea (who had 
 succeeded lord Wellesley) having, in a letter to one of the Roman Ca- 
 tholic bishops, expressed himself favourable to the system of " agitation,'' 
 by which the Irish peasantry, induced by their principal orators to assem- 
 ble and parade in immense multitudes, to the terror of the protestant in- 
 habitants of the southern and middle counties of Ireland, the next wind 
 that blew from England brought the mandate which recalled him from 
 Ireland. He quitted Dublin in the ensuing January, and was succeeded 
 by the duke of Northumberland. 
 
 FIFTH PART. 
 
 British settlements at the Cape of Good Hope. — War -with the Jlshan* 
 tees. — War "with the King of JLya. — Capture of Bhurtpore. — Battle 
 of Navarmo. — Voyages of Discovery. 
 
 THE transactions in the British colonies, situated in Africa and the 
 East Indies, are too important to be passed over unnoticed. The settle- 
 ments at the Cape of Good Hope weie extending towards the interior, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 31, 
 
 and increasing in commercial prosperity : but the quiet of the colony 
 was disturbed by the extreme unpopularity of its governor, lord Charles 
 Somerset. 
 
 The British possessions, in another part of Africa, became, in the year 
 1824, the scene of much more important events. A question of sove- 
 reignty having arisen between two of the native tribes, the Ashantees 
 and the Fantees, whose territories were situated in the neighbourhood 
 of Cape Coast Castle, the British governor became involved in the dis- 
 pute, and espoused the side of the latter nation. At first, the enemy 
 showed on the frontiei only a few small detachments. One of these 
 was completely beaten by captain Laing, though not without considera 
 blc loss on his side. This reverse, and two others, which soon afterwards 
 ensued, seem only to have urged the king to more strenuous prepara- 
 tions. He sacrificed daily nine or ten victims, to propitiate his deities ; 
 he called upon all his chiefs and vassals to furnish their quotas of troops , 
 and sir Charles M'Carthy received intelligence, that the whole force of 
 the Ashantee nation was in rapid movement towards Cape Coast. Pre- 
 parations were immediately made by that officer, to oppose them. On 
 the 21st of January, having under his command, about seven hundred 
 European and native troops, consisting of regulars, militia, and volun 
 teers, aided by a large number of the Wassan and Dinkera nations, he 
 encountered the Ashantees, ten thousand in number, en the banks of the 
 Boosam-pra. The issue was most disastrous- to the British commander. 
 The Wassans having left the field early in the day, and the troops of 
 sir Charles M'Carthy being greatly fatigued, and their ammunition en- 
 tirely consumed, the enemy sent a considerable force round his flanks, 
 to cut off his retreat; in which, from their superior numbers, they com- 
 pletely succeeded. The whole now became one scene of confusion. 
 The enemy were intermixed with the colonial troops. Sir Charles 
 M'Carthy, in the midst of them, received a mortal wound in the breast, 
 from a musket ball. The troops dispersed in different directions. A 
 series of engagements followed, unparalleled in previous warfare with 
 the native race of Africa, as well on account of the numbers brought into 
 the field against the colonial forces, as the obstinacy displayed by the 
 former in renewing the engagement, and the skill with which they en- 
 deavoured to outflank their more practised antagonists. The settlers 
 at Cape Coast Castle became justly alarmed. The Ashantees gradually 
 drove the colonial troops before them, until they appeared before the 
 town, with not less than ten thousand men; but colonel Sutherland, 
 upon whom the command had now devolved, having received a small 
 re-inforcement from the vessels then lying in the harbour, at length suc- 
 ceeded in repulsing them ; and on the 20th of July, they withdrew. 
 
 In 1826, the settlements in that quarter were again threatened by the 
 restlessness of the Ashantees. Colonel Pardon, having assembled a het- 
 erogeneous army, consisting of eighty men of the Royal African corps; 
 five hundred militia, British, Dutch, and Danish, belonging to Accra and 
 Cape Coast Castle, and about ten thousand friendly natives, under their 
 respective princes, marched, on the 29th of July, to meet the enemy. On 
 the 7th of August, he engaged them on an extensive plain, at Ashrovean; 
 i:nd, after a severe conflict, defeated them with a loss of five thousand 
 men. The whole of the camp equipage, of great value, fell into the-. 
 hands of some of the least deserving of the allied forces. Amongst those 
 f-poils, were, the golden umbrella of state ; the golden stool of state ; and 
 
312 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 gold-dust, ivory, and other valuable commodities, to a large amount 
 Adononaqua, king of Aquapim, recovered the head of the late sir Charles 
 M'Carthy, which had been considered by the Ashantees as their greatest 
 charm, or fetish. It was enveloped in two folds of paper, covered with 
 Arabic characters, and also in a silk handkerchief, and lastly, served up 
 in a leopard's skin. The captor refused to give it to the British com- 
 mander. 
 
 The tranquillity of the eastern dominions, was interrupted by hostili- 
 ties of greater magnitude, than any in which the British had been pre- 
 viously engaged, in that quarter of the world. The king of Ava, reigning 
 over the extensive territory, and numerous nations of the Burmans, 
 compelled the governor-general of India to declare war against him. 
 The English had a dispute with the court of Ava, in 1795, respecting 
 some Burmese robbers, who had taken refuge at Chittagong ; and gene- 
 ral Erskine was sent, with a military force, from Calcutta, to repel the 
 Invasion of the Burmese : but the quarrel was then settled, and the ag- 
 gressors were surrendered, without any actual use of arms. The aggres- 
 sions, however, were at length renewed. Elated by its conquests over 
 the petty tribe's by which it is surrounded, the Burmese government 
 ventured to violate the British territories; to attack and kill a party of 
 British sepoys; to^eize and imprison British subjects; to avow extensive 
 schemes of mischievous aggression ; and to make hostile preparations on 
 the colonial frontier. 
 
 A considerable armament, both naval and military, partly from Ma- 
 dras, and partly from Calcutta, was in consequence assembled, in the 
 beginning of May, 1S24, at Port Cornwallis^ under the command of sii 
 Archibald Campbell and commodore Grant. They reached the Rangoon 
 river on the 10th, and, on the following day, attacked Rangoon, the 
 principal seaport of Ava, which they entered by storm, without the loss 
 of a single man. Detachments were sent against several other places in 
 the enemies' dominions. The island of Cheduba soon afterwards sur- 
 rendered to the British arms; the town of Negrais was taken about the 
 same time; Kemmerdine was subdued, after a sanguinary contest; Tavoy 
 and Mergui, the most valuable possessions of tho Burmese on the Te- 
 nasserim coast, surrendered to an expedition commanded by colonel 
 Miles; the important town of Martaban was taken by colonel Godwin; 
 and the last mentioned success was followed by the submission of Te- 
 nasserim, and of the town and province of Yeali; and thus, the whole 
 of the Burmese coast, from Rangoon to the eastward, was subjected to 
 the British arms. 
 
 In the mean time, Maha Bundoola had been nominated to the chief 
 command of the Burmese army. On the morning of the 1st of Decem- 
 ber, that chief appeared in front of general Campbell's position, at the 
 head of the whole united force of the Burmese empire, amounting to nol 
 less than 50,000 men, apparently well armed, with a numerous artillery, 
 and a body of Cassay horse; but, after a series of impetuous attack 
 several of the British commander's posts, particularly at Kemmerdine, 
 Bundoola was driven from all his intrenchments, having lost, in killed 
 and wounded, about five thousand men, and left upon the field two htfn- 
 dred and forty pieces of cannon, and a large quantity of muskets, in- 
 trenching tools, and ammunition. 
 
 The Chittagong frontier, also, had been the scene of military o^rn- 
 tions; and. after a long- series of conflicts, with various success, 'he i • ; 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 313 
 
 puign terminated, every where, in favour of the British arms, and an 
 end was put to the apprehensions, at one time entertained, of an inva- 
 sion of Bengal, through Assam. 
 
 In the following year, the hostilities against the Burmese, were pro- 
 secuted with activity, and in their details successfully, hut without pro 
 ducing any general result. On the 2d of April, Donabeu was entered 
 by sir Archibald Campbell ; the place having been evacuated the pre- 
 ceding night. During the siege, the enemy made several bold and 
 desperate sorties upon the British line, but they were, on every occasion, 
 quickly repulsed. In one of these sorties, a novel scene was presented, 
 in front of the two armies. Seventeen large elephants, each carrying a 
 complement of armed men, and supported by a column of infantry, were 
 observed moving down towards the right flank of the besiegers. But 
 the body-guard, under captain Sneyd, charged these formidable assail- 
 ants, and, mixing boldly with the elephants, shot their riders off their 
 backs, and finally drove the whole into the fort. On the 25th of April, 
 sir Archibald Campbell entered Prome, without firing a shot. A series 
 of brilliant operations gave the British divisions, under the command of 
 colonels Richards and M'Dougall, and generals Morrison, Macbean, and 
 Cotton, possession of the towns of Rangpoore, Arracan, and Meiloone. 
 and of the islands of Ramree and Sandowey; and in the middle of 
 February, 1826, when sir Archibald Campbell had reached Yandaboo. 
 within four days' march of the capital, a treaty of peace was concluded, 
 and on the 5th of March, the British troops commenced their return to 
 Rangoon. 
 
 The king of Ava paid to his triumphant invaders, the sum of twenty - 
 five lacs of rupees ; renounced all claims to the principality of Assam 
 and its dependencies, and also upon the contiguous petty states of 
 Cuchar, and Jyntia; and ceded to the British government, the con- 
 quered provinces of Arracan, Ramree, Cheduba, and Sandowey; the 
 Arracan mountains being designated as the boundary between the two 
 great powers, on that side. The king of Ava also ceded to the British 
 government, the conquered provinces of Yeh, Tavoy, and Mergui, and 
 Tenasserim, with the islands and dependencies appertaining; fixing the 
 Saluen river as the line of demarcation on that frontier. 
 
 While the Burmese war was brought to this triumphant conclusion- 
 fortune had been equally propitious to the arms of Britain on the north- 
 western frontier of her Indian empire; where her interposition was de- 
 manded to protect a native prince against a usurper. The rajah of 
 Bhurtpore, Buldeo Singh, had died in terms of strict alliance with the 
 company, by which they were bound to assist each other against all 
 enemies. Apprehensive of the consequences which might follow upon 
 his death, the rajah had declared his son, Bulwunt Singh, his successor, 
 and had obtained for him, from the company, the formal investiture of 
 the Khilaat, or robe of inauguration. From that moment, the young- 
 rajah was under the protection of the British government. On the 
 death, however, of Buldeo Singh, his nephew, Doorjan Sal, gained a 
 party in the army, excited a successful rebellion, obtained possession of 
 Bhurtpore itself, and seated himself upon his cousin's throne. Bulwunt 
 Singh demanded the protection of the company ; and, in the end of the 
 year 1825, an army, under the command of lord Combermere, marched 
 to re-instate him. 
 
 The first and leading object, was the reduction of Bhurtpore itself; a 
 2d2 
 
3i4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 fortress of immense strength, deemed, by the natives, impregnable, and 
 already celebrated for its successful resistance to British troops, when 
 besieged, in 1805, by lord Lake; who was compelled to abandon the 
 enterprise, after he had lost three thousand men. On the 10th of De- 
 cember, 1825, lord Combermere appeared before it, with an army erf 
 more than twenty thousand men. Its mud walls resisted every endeav- 
 our to breach them, by means of cannon ; but, at length, by the explo- 
 sion of a mine, on the 1 8th of January, 1826, one of the bastions was 
 hurled into the air with terrific effect, and immediately afterwards the 
 besiegers made an assault, and became masters of the place, by storm. 
 
 The loss of the enemy could not be computed at less than four thou- 
 sand killed ; anu, owing to the disposition of the cavalry, hardly a man 
 bearing arms escaped. The fortifications were demolished ; the principal 
 bastions were blown up, and it was left to the rains to complete the ruin. 
 The Futty Bourg, or "Bastion of Victory," built, as the Bhurtporeins 
 vaunted, with the bones and blood of British soldiers, wdio fell in the 
 assault under lord Lake, was laid low; and, amongst its destroyers, were 
 some of the very men, who, twenty years before, " had been permitted," 
 in the boasting language of the natives, " to fly from its eternal walls." 
 — All the other fortresses within the rajah's dominions, immediately 
 surrendered ; the inhabitants returned to their abodes ; the prince was 
 reinstated in his authority ; and, on the 20th February, lord Comber 
 mere commenced his return to Calcutta. 
 
 In another part of the world, nearer home, a conflict arose, of a char- 
 acter veiy different from those which have been just narrated. For a 
 series of years, the Greek subjects of the Ottoman government, had been 
 heroically struggling, with various success, to cast off the unnatural 
 shackles which bound them to their Mahometan masters; and the 
 whole christian w r orld had long sympathized in the cruel fate of the de- 
 scendants of a people endeared to them by so many associations of classi- 
 cal interest and glory. The heart bled at the recital of so much slaughter 
 and so many woes. Neutrality could no longer retain the sword un- 
 sheathed ; and the strict principles of international law, which forbid the 
 interference of one nation in the domestic quarrels of another, were at 
 length violated upon the altar of religious feeling and commiseration. 
 On the 6th of July, 1827, a treaty was entered into, at London, by the 
 ambassadors of the three great powers, Great Britain, France, and Russia, 
 having for its basis the stopping of the further effusion of christian blood ; 
 and, to effectuate its purpose, a fleet was despatched by the government 
 of each, which, in the autumn of the same year, arrived upon the west- 
 ern coast of Greece. Thus disappointed in his attempt at naval opera- 
 tions, Ibrahim Pacha, the Turkish commander, proceeded to execute his 
 orders to quell the insurrection of the Greeks, on land ; and, irritated 
 perhaps by the disappointment he executed them mercilessly with fire 
 and sword. On the 19th of October, he marched a corps of six thou- 
 sand men to Calamata, another of three thousand men to Arcadia, and 
 prepared to proceed himself at the head of a third body into the district 
 of Maina. His footsteps were marked by blood and desolation. He 
 issued orders to put all to the sword, who should be found armed ; and in 
 the villages of Maina, where some resistance had been shown, these 
 orders were ruthlessly obej-ed. Continual clouds of fire and smoke, 
 rising all around the gulf of Covon, bore frightful testimony to the de- 
 vastation that was going forward. The miserable survivors, who escayxc 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 316 
 
 slavery and the sword, sought concealment in caves amongst the moun- 
 tains, where women and children were daiiy perishing of absolute star 
 va»ion ; for, even in the plains, and around the cities, the war had already 
 produced famine. A morsel of boiled grass was almost the only food of 
 these miserable people. 
 
 The British admiral, Codrington, who had united the squadrons be- 
 fore Navarino, in the middle of October, determined, if it were possible, 
 to put a slop to these atrocities. He had already, by flags of truce, 
 made many unavailing remonstrances to Ibrahim against his violent 
 proceedings ; and had exhausted his means of persuasion and concilia- 
 tion. He therefore resolved to enter the harbour of Navarino with the 
 combined fleets, in the hope that it might produce a determination leading 
 to the desired object, without the effusion of blood, and without hostili- 
 ties, but simply by the imposing presence of the squadrons. In the af- 
 ternoon of the 20th of October, the combined fleets passed the batteries 
 to take up their anchorage, formed in the order of sailing, in two lines ; 
 the British and French squadrons forming the weather or starboard line, 
 and the Russian squadron the lee line. The Turkish ships were moored 
 in the form of a crescent; the larger vessels presenting their broadsides 
 towards the centre ; the smaller vessels in succession within them, filling 
 up the intervals. The Asia, which carried Admiral Codrington's flag, 
 led in, followed by the Genoa and Albion, and anchored close alongside 
 a ship of the line, bearing the flag of the Capitana Bey, and also another 
 ship of the line, and a large double-banked frigate ; each of the three 
 British ships having thus her proper opponent in the front line of the 
 Turkish fleet. The four ships to windward, part of the Turko-Egyptian 
 squadron, were allotted to the squadron of rear-admiral de Rigny ; and 
 those to leeward, in the sight of the crescent, were to mark the stations 
 of the whole Russian squadron ; the ships of their line closing those of 
 the English line, and being followed up by their own frigates; while 
 proper stations were assigned to the frigates of the English and French 
 squadrons. — At length, the Turks, supposing that a boat despatched 
 from one of the English squadrons, was approaching for the purpose of 
 boarding, fired at her a volley of musketry, by which a lieutenant and 
 several of her crew were killed ; and this was quickly followed by a general 
 engagement. As each ship of the enemy became disabled, such of her 
 crew as could escape from her, set her on fire, and the combined fleets 
 nad to exercise as much activity in avoiding danger from the fre- 
 quent explosions, as in continuing the contest. The battle continued 
 with unabated fury, during four hours. At the end of that period, the 
 Turkish and Egyptian fleets had disappeared; the bay of Navarino was 
 covered with their wrecks; only a few of the smaller vessels, or some 
 battered and useless hulks, escaped into the security of the inner har- 
 bour. The carnage on board the crowded ships of the enemy, was 
 dreadful. In two of their ships of the line alone, two thirds of their 
 crews were killed or wounded. The severest loss on the side of the 
 allies, was sustained by the British squadron, which had seventy-five 
 men killed, and one hundred and ninety-seven wounded. Of the 
 French, there were killed forty-three, and wounded one hundred and 
 forty-four. 
 
 Under any predecessor of the Sultan Mahmoud, the intelligence of 
 such a disaster, inflicted by powers who had their representatives resident 
 at his court as friends and allies, would have endangered the life of every 
 
3i6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 christian in Constantinople ; but the Sultan had made himself mastei of 
 the nioD of his capital ; and there was not much reason to apprehend, on 
 the present occasion, those excesses of popular fury which had distin- 
 guished the reign of the Janissaries. In their communication with the 
 Reis Etfendi, the ambassadors admitted the occurrence of the disaster at 
 Navarino, but added their conviction, that the event, however much it 
 was to be deplored, had been caused entirely through the fault of the 
 Turkish commander. Frequent meetings of the Divan were held, to 
 deliberate upon the policy which should be followed towards the Euro- 
 pean powers. During their deliberations, a new event occurred, to ag- 
 gravate their angry feelings. The Greeks had accepted the armistice, as 
 soon as it was offered to them; but, while the combined fleets had been 
 compelling Ibrahim to accede to it by destroying his ships, a body of 
 Greek troops, led by lord Cochrane and colonel Fabvier, landed in the 
 island of Scyros, and compelled the pacha to retire into the fort. The 
 news of this expedition, which the Turks believed to have been under- 
 taken with the aid, or at least with the connivance of the allies, arrived, 
 while the government was in the midst of its deliberations on the affairs 
 of Navarino, and contributed to increase the irritation which was already 
 felt. One party in the Divan, and, at the head of it, the sultan himself, 
 was for immediately declaring war ; but the views of the more pacific, 
 or rather the more politic portion of the cabinet, prevailed. It was, 
 at least, of importance to gain time for the purposes of preparation ; 
 and the allies might, at the same time, be amused with propositions 
 which would at once assert the honour of the Porte, and delay the ap- 
 peal to arms, until its forces were ready to act. Accordingly, the Reis 
 Eifendi communicated to the British ambassador on the 8th of Novem- 
 ber, and to the ambassadors of France and Russia on the 9th, the final 
 resolution of the Turkish government, comprehended in three demands: 
 — That the allied courts should desist from all interference in the affairs 
 of Greece ; — that the Porte should receive an indemnity for the loss sus- 
 tained in the destruction of its fleet; and that the sultan should receive 
 satisfaction for the insult which had been offered to him. To these de- 
 mands, the ambassadors, on the 10th, returned for answer, that the 
 treaty of the 6th of July, forbade the allies to abandon the question of 
 Greece; that the Turkish fleet gave occasion to the battle of Navarino, 
 which destroyed every claim of the Porte to an indemnity ; that the 
 I'orte bad the less reason to expect satisfaction, as it had been informed, 
 in due time, that an event such as that at Navarino might occur, if it 
 did not listen to the counsels of moderation, or if it should be the first to 
 attack. 
 
 All hopes of an accommodation seeming thus to be at an end, the 
 ambassadors left Constantinople on the 8th of December. The Rus- 
 sian minister repaired to Odessa; those of Britain and France to the 
 Ionian isles. 
 
 PART SIXTH. 
 
 The political disabilities under which the Roman Catholics of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, still continued to labour, have been a subject upon 
 which we have frequently commented in this history. The time was 
 now approaching, when those grievances were about to be removed; and 
 it was reserved for the former lenders of the party inimical to their do- 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 31? 
 
 mauds, to yield through the pressure of necessity, what had so often 
 been refused on the ground of liberality or favour. To so dangerous a 
 height, had the agitation by the Catholic leaders been carried in the 
 south of Ireland, that it wanted only the signal for insurrection, to rouse 
 the whole mass of the population, professing that religion, in rebellion 
 against the British throne. The alternative of a civil war, if the ap« 
 proaching storm were not averted by legislation, was dreadful to every 
 reflecting statesman ; and the ministers of Georga IV. at length resolved 
 to sacrifice their private opinions, and their character for political con- 
 sistency and honesty, to the public good. The Catholic Relief Bill, bj 
 which the Roman Catholics of Great Britain and Ireland were placed 
 substantially on the same footing as protestants of the established church, 
 with only three exceptions — exclusion from the throne, and from the 
 offices of lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and lord chancellor of that kingdom, 
 and of England — having been introduced into the house of commons by 
 Mr. Peel, passed that house finally on the 30th of March, 1829, by a 
 majority of one hundred and seventy-eight; there being three hundred 
 and twenty in favour of the bill, and one hundred and forty-two against 
 it. In the house of lords, the bill was introduced by the duke of Wel- 
 lington, where it received the final reading on the 3d of April, and passed 
 by a majority of one hundred and four; two hundred and thirteen peers 
 having voted for it, and one hundred and nine against it ; and on the 
 13th, it received the royal assent. The bill was accompanied by another 
 for the disfranchisement of " forty shilling" freeholders in Ireland ; and 
 the raising of the elective franchise, in counties, in that kingdom, to the 
 possessing of a freehold estate of the clear annual value of ten pounds, 
 and thus, thousands of the humbler class of freeholders were stripped of 
 their long exercised privilege of voting at elections for members of the 
 house of commons, in order to gratify the ambition of the few catholic 
 gentlemen of Ireland qualified to sit in that body, whose number at any 
 one time will probably never exceed ten. 
 
 In consequence of aspersions thrown by the earl of Winchelsea, upon 
 the motives and conduct of the duke of Wellington in his advocacy of 
 the catholic relief bill, the former nobleman was challenged by the duke: 
 a meeting accordingly took place ; when the earl having received the 
 duke's fire, discharged his pistol in the air. 
 
 There are in the peerage of the United Kingdom, eighteen Roman 
 Catholics : — eight for England, eight for Ireland, and two for Scotland. 
 Of these, one is a duke, five are earls, four are viscounts, and eight 
 barons. 
 
 A series of interesting voyages, towards the North Polar regions, oc- 
 curred in this reign. The first expedition was intrusted to captain 
 Ross ; who sailed from England on the 18th of April, 1818, and returned 
 unsuccessful, after an absence of six months. The second polar expe- 
 dition was commanded by captain Parry, who sailed in the ensuing 
 year ; and, about the same time, lieutenant Franklin was despatched, for 
 the purpose of endeavouring to penetrate the polar regions by land. The 
 last mentioned officer made a second attempt to explore the polar regions, 
 and captain Parry continued to direct several other expeditions, with 
 considerable success; having, in the year 182J), discovered a passage 
 through Lancaster's Sound, into the supposed polar sea. 
 
 In the month of May, 1 827, the first stone of the London University 
 was laid. — On the 2d of February, 1829, the celebrated edifice, railed 
 
318 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 York Minster, one of the chief architectural glories of England, was 
 almost totally destroyed by fire. The fire was not accidental. It was 
 discovered to have been caused by a fanatic, of the name of Martin, who 
 was subsequently tried for the offence, at York, and found to be insane. — 
 In the year 1830, the University of Oxford contained 5,269 members; 
 the University of Cambridge, 5,263. — In 1814, the number of steam- 
 boats in Great Britain and Ireland, was only eleven ; in 1 820, there 
 were seventy-eight; in 1829, three hundred and forty-two. In the year 
 1825, a steam-boat performed a voyage from London to Calcutta ; being 
 the first vessel of the kind that had attempted to reach that distant 
 quarter of the world. In 1826, the number of steam-engines in Eng- 
 land was not less than fifteen thousand ; one of which, in Cornwall, 
 was of 600 horse-power. 
 
 George the Fourth died at Windsor, on the 26th of June, 1830, of 
 ossification of the heart, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the 
 eleventh of his reign ; being succeeded on the throne by his brother, 
 William Henry, duke of Clarence, under the title of William the 
 Fourth. 
 
 The following eminent persons died in the reign of George IV. 
 
 Benjamin West, 
 
 Arthur Young, 
 
 Henry Grattan, 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks, 
 
 Earl of Malmsbury, 
 
 Mrs. Piozzi, 
 
 John Bonnycastle, 
 
 Mrs. Inchbald, 
 
 John Rennic, 
 
 Sir James Mansfield, 
 
 John Emery, 
 
 Marquis of Londonderry, 
 
 Sir Wm. Herschell, 
 
 Mrs. Garrick, 
 
 Charles Hutton, 
 
 Dr. Jenner, 
 
 Mrs. Radcliife, 
 
 John Philip Kemble, 
 
 Admiral Earl St. Vincent, 
 
 General Dumourier, 
 
 Joseph Nollekcns, 
 
 Sir Henry Raeburn, 
 
 William Coombe, 
 
 Robert Bloomfield, 
 
 Lord Erskine, 
 
 G. Belzoni, 
 
 Rev. John Lempriere, 
 
 Major Cartright, 
 
 Lord Byron, 
 
 Mr. Saddler, aeronaut, 
 
 George Chalmers, 
 
 Abraham Rees, 
 
 March 10, 
 
 1820, 
 
 aged 82 years 
 
 April 12, 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 June 4, 
 
 11 
 
 " 73 " 
 
 " 19, 
 
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 Nov. 21, 
 
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 May 2, 
 
 1821, 
 
 " 82 « 
 
 " 15, 
 
 " 
 
 _ u 
 
 Aug. 1, 
 
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 " 66 " 
 
 Oct. 4, 
 
 " 
 
 " 63 " 
 
 Nov. 23, 
 
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 « 87 " 
 
 July 25, 
 
 1822, 
 
 K 
 
 Aug. 12, 
 
 it 
 
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 Oct. 16, 
 
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 Jan. 26, 
 
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 April 23, 
 
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 July — , 
 
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 Nov. 30, 
 
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 Sept. 29, 
 
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 1825, 
 
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HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Charles Incledon, 
 
 Feb. 11, 
 
 1826, 
 
 « 
 
 
 years 
 
 Lindley Murray, 
 
 « 23, 
 
 u 
 
 " 
 
 80' 
 
 " 
 
 Bishop Heber, 
 
 April 3, 
 
 " 
 
 ii 
 
 42 
 
 it 
 
 Rev. John Milner, 
 
 " 19, 
 
 It 
 
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 74 
 
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 Carl Von Weber, 
 
 June 5, 
 
 " 
 
 « 
 
 39 
 
 it 
 
 Mrs. Mattocks, 
 
 " 25, 
 
 it 
 
 « 
 
 81 
 
 tt 
 
 Marquis of Hastings, 
 
 Nov. 29, 
 
 " 
 
 « 
 
 71 
 
 « 
 
 John Flaxman, 
 
 Dec. 7, 
 
 « 
 
 41 
 
 72 
 
 it 
 
 William Gifford, 
 
 " 31, 
 
 It 
 
 " 
 
 70 
 
 it 
 
 Major A. G. Laing, 
 
 
 " 
 
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 32 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 Duke of York, 
 
 Jan. 5, 
 
 1827, 
 
 " 
 
 64 
 
 it 
 
 Charles Dignum, 
 
 March 29, 
 
 ti 
 
 (1 
 
 — 
 
 it 
 
 George Canning, 
 
 Aug. 8, 
 
 " 
 
 (1 
 
 56 
 
 " 
 
 Captain Clapperton, 
 
 April 13, 
 
 1828, 
 
 II 
 
 40 
 
 it 
 
 Sir Wm, Congreve, 
 
 May 16, 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 56 
 
 " 
 
 Margaret Nicholson, 
 
 ■ 17, 
 
 ii 
 
 « 
 
 100 
 
 " 
 
 Dugald Stewart, 
 
 July — , 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 75 
 
 " 
 
 Earl of Liverpool, 
 
 Dec. 4, 
 
 ii 
 
 II 
 
 — 
 
 it 
 
 John H. Johnson, Com'n, 
 
 « 26, 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 78 
 
 it 
 
 William Shield, 
 
 Jan. 29, 
 
 1829, 
 
 II 
 
 80 
 
 it 
 
 Francis Plowden, 
 
 March — , 
 
 " 
 
 It 
 
 — 
 
 " 
 
 Sir Humphry Davy, 
 
 May 29, 
 
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 51 
 
 ti 
 
 Sir David Baird, 
 
 Aug. 18, 
 
 (t 
 
 tl 
 
 — 
 
 u 
 
 Helen Maria Williams, 
 
 
 ti 
 
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 Sir Thomas Laurens, 
 
 Jan. 7, 
 
 1830, 
 
 it 
 
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 Lord Redesdale, 
 
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 81 
 
 It 
 
 George Tierney, 
 
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 It 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 WILLIAM THE FOURTH. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 His Private History. 1830—1837. 
 
 PRINCE William Henry, Duke of Clarence, ascended the throne 
 of the British Empire, in the 65th year of his age, under the title of 
 William IV. 
 
 Having received his elementary education chiefly in association with 
 his two eldest brothers, the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York, on 
 the 15th June, in the year 1779, Prince William, then in his 14th yeai, 
 entered, as a midshipman, on board the Prince George, of ninety-eight 
 guns, carrying the flag of Rear Admiral Digby, at Spithead ; and from 
 that period, with little intermission, continued to fight the battles of his 
 country, until, having regularly passed through every grade in the 
 naval service, and reached the forty-seventh year of his age, on the 
 death of Sir Peter Parker, he succeeded that gallant officer, as admiral 
 of the fleet. 
 
320 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 In the month of January, 1780, Admiral Rodney, commander of the 
 fleet in which the young' prince then sailed, fell in with a large Spanish 
 fleet off St. Vincent; when, after a severe engagement, the Spanish 
 admiral, Don Juan De Langara, with several ships of the line, was 
 captured. Previously to his departure as a prisoner to England, Don 
 Juan visited Admiral Digby ; a circumstance which has furnished an 
 interesting and instructive anecdote. During the conference between 
 the two admirals, the prince retired, and when it was intimated that 
 Don Juan wished to return to his ship, his Royal Highness appeared 
 in the character of a midshipman, and respectfully informed the admiral 
 that the barge was ready. Astonished to see the son of a monarch 
 acting as a warrant officer, the Spaniard could not help exclaiming, 
 " Well, does Great Britain merit the empire of the sea, when the hum- 
 blest stations in her navy are filled by princes of the blood !" 
 
 In everything connected with the situation of a warrant officer, he 
 performed his duty as punctually and cheerfully as his brother mid- 
 shi'pmen ; towards whom, he also behaved in such a manner as gained 
 their entire affection. By the officers, he was beloved, and by the crew 
 adored ; and if he at any time became involved in a quarrel, he con- 
 ducted himself with so much firmness and spirit, that his opponent 
 might afterwards beware of him. 
 
 An offended midshipman, a nephew of Admiral Digby, and son of a 
 gentleman of large estate in Dorsetshire, threw down the gauntlet, 
 which was instantly taken up by the offended prince. This movement 
 was succeeded by several hard-fought rounds, terminating, as was most 
 usual, in a reconciliation. 
 
 Having been twice employed in the relief of Gibraltar, and each 
 time with peculiar glory, in the beginning of September, 1781, Admiral 
 Digby arrived at Sandy Hook, and the landing of Prince William at 
 New York, where he passed the ensuing winter, produced a very 
 general sensation. He is yet borne in lively recollection, by many of 
 the elder inhabitants of that city, as a fine manly boy of sixteen, frank, 
 cheerful, and affable ; and there are anecdotes still related there, of his 
 frolicksome pranks on ship-board. Amongst these, is the story of a 
 rough, though favourite nautical joke, played off by him upon a sailor- 
 boy, in cutting down his hammock, when asleep. The sturdy urchin 
 resented this rude invasion of his repose; and, not knowing the quality 
 of his invader, a regular set-to ensued, in the dark. In this, it is said, 
 the prince showed great vigour ; and he also displayed equal generosity 
 on the following morning, when he made the boy a handsome present 
 of money. 
 
 When the prince was enjoying himself on shore, in the city of New 
 York, a daring plan was formed by Colonel Ogden, aided by some ad- 
 venturous partizans of the revolutionary army, to carry him off, not- 
 withstanding the protection afforded by his numerous friends and 
 guards, which failed, by reason of suspicion having arisen in the mind 
 of the British commander of the garrison. 
 
 The PrincevGeorge vessel of war was soon afterwards attached to 
 Sir Samuel Hood's fleet, with which she sailed to the West Indies, and 
 acted a distinguished part in the great battle of the 12th April, 1782, 
 when Admiral Rodney closed his glorious professional career, by the 
 defeat and capture of the Count de Grasse. 
 
 As an episode in the life of the young British prince, we shall now 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 321 
 
 introduce an adventure foreign to the business of war. At a masquerade 
 in England, in which the Prince of Wales ap{>cared in the character 
 of a Spanish grandee, accompanied by four of his squires, he is said to 
 have paid particular attention to a nun, who was under the protection 
 of a sailor. The assiduities of the Don were evidently unwelcome to 
 the fair Ursuline ; and the gallant tar threatened instantaneous chas- 
 tisement, if any further provocation were given. The grandee, however, 
 was not to be daunted, and he was ably supported by his attendants, 
 who, boasting of the high and noble descent of their master, declared it 
 to be an act of the greatest condescension in him, to hold any parley 
 with a common sailor. High words arose, and some taunting expres- 
 sions were used, tending to imply that the fair devotee possessed no 
 real pretensions to the character she had assumed. At length, allusion 
 being made to the nymphs of Portsmouth Point, the choler of the sailor 
 could no longer brook the indignity, and a general battle ensued. The 
 constables were called in, the whole party of disputants were marched 
 off to the watch-house, the Spanish grandee leading the way, in all his 
 g-orgeous finery. The culprits were now called upon to declare their 
 real characters. The grandee unmasked, and so did the sailor. — " Ah ! 
 William, is it you ?" exclaimed the one ; and " Ah ! George, is it you ?" 
 responded the other. — The constable was astonished, at having two 
 princes of the blood before him; the combatants laughed heartily at the 
 adventure, gave something to the guardians of the night, and retired. 
 
 In the month of December, 1787, the Prince, as post-captain, entered 
 the Cove of Cork. On a former occasion, previously to his having 
 reached this elevation in the service, this young scion of royalty had 
 visited the same port, when a circumstance occurred, strikingly charac- 
 teristic of one of the parties, of whom the transaction is related. The 
 prince, having been as usual rather profuse of his pay and paternal 
 gratuity, is said to have applied to a merchant of the quaker profession 
 for a small pecuniary loan, at the same time disclosing the fact of his 
 being a prince of the royal blood ; but the wary trader refused the ac- 
 commodation, saying, " I know thy father, young man, and believe him 
 to be an honest man; but as for thee, thou art a stranger to me, and 
 thou canst not have my money." 
 
 On the 13th July, 1818, Prince William Henry, who for many years 
 had been elevated to the title of Duke of Clarence, espoused the Princess 
 Adelaide, daughter of George Frederic, Duke of Saxe-Mciningen. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 Dethronement of Charles X. and elevation of Louis Philip to the throne 
 of France. — Disturbances in England. — Earl Grey, Prime Minister. — 
 Agitation in Ireland. — Asiatic Cholera. — Riots in Bristol. — Parlia- 
 mentary Reform. 
 
 1830. FROM the very commencement of his reign, King William 
 continued to acquire additional popularity, and to confirm the attach- 
 ment and affections of the people. Contrary to the habits of privacy- 
 indulged in by his immediate predecessor, he appeared constantly in 
 public, behaved with the most unaffected condescension, and with an 
 unrestrained affability to all who approached him. 
 
 2e 
 
322 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 But while England with complacency enjoyed the acquisition of her 
 patriot king, everything that was fearful in thought, unwise in council, 
 and violent in action, was exhibited in the capital of the French nation. 
 Revolutionary France, which, for half a century, had been the source of 
 sorrow to civilized society, and had inflicted wounds upon the surround- 
 ing nations of Europe, too deep to have yet been completely healed, 
 once more began to arouse herself to commotion, and by her example 
 to produce amongst her neighbours effects which had been before 
 created by her ambition. 
 
 The King of France and his ministers, at the head of whom was the 
 Prince de Polignac, for some time obstinately resisted the eloquence 
 and arguments of the lately elected deputies, until at length the contest 
 was brought to a crisis, by an explicit statement on the part of the 
 ministry, " that the will of the throne should be the law ; that the mo- 
 ment had arrived for having recourse to measures that were beyond 
 the limits of legal order." This unconstitutional declaration was fol- 
 lowed immediately by three memorable ordinances : — the first suspend- 
 ed the liberty of the press ; the second dissolved the new chamber of 
 deputies ; and by the third the law of elections was annulled. The 
 promulgation of these despotic mandates, was succeeded by the thunder 
 of artillery at Vincennes, preparing for the tyrannous work of destruc- 
 tion. The portentous sounds served only to awaken the enemies of the 
 throne, and became the signal to arouse' an indignant people to an 
 assertion of their rights. Paris was soon declared in a state of siege. 
 The duke of Ragusa directed the movements of the king's troops, and 
 the forces of the people were led on to victory by La Fayette ; but it 
 was not until after three days' slaughter, on the 27th, 28th, and 29th 
 of July — in the very streets of the capital, and the fall of two thousand 
 of her citizens, that Paris saw tranquillity restored, and the public 
 offices again opened for the transaction of business. 
 
 On the 31st, Charles X. was deposed by proclamation, and permitted 
 to go into voluntary exile ; and his too faithful ministers, whose misfor- 
 tunes were attributable to their attachment to the most bigoted of 
 kings, were arrested, tried, and sentenced to imprisonment for life ; 
 while the royal exile, having obtained a passport from the provisional 
 government, reached the sea-coast in safety, and thence embarked for 
 the shores of Britain ; and, after some temporary changes of residence, 
 he removed to the palace of Holyrood House, in Edinburgh, where he 
 continued to reside, until his departure for the place of his final abode, 
 on the continent of Europe. 
 
 P'rance was not solitary in an exemplification of anarchy and dissen- 
 sion. Spain was at the same time convulsed in all her members, and 
 the throne of Portugal was filled by a usurper. 
 
 The mantle of peace, however, soon dropped upon the commotions 
 of the French capital. The same people that had shed their dearest 
 blood in the vindication of liberty, and the expulsion of a despot, a few 
 hours afterwards raised a new monarch to the throne, in the person of 
 Louis Philip, son of Philip Egalite (so celebrated in the first revolu- 
 tionary movements), under the modified royal title of " King of the 
 French." 
 
 Immediately before the involuntary abdication of Charles X., the 
 French nation had achieved a conquest, in the capture and occupation 
 of Algiers. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 323 
 
 On the 15th of September, the ceremony took place, of opening the 
 Manchester and Liverpool Rail-way, in the presence of the Duke of 
 Wellington and other eminent individuals ; Mr. Huskisson, a distin- 
 guished member of parliament, in the act of passing from one car into 
 another, having the misfortune to be killed. This rail-way, about tbirty 
 miles in length, was the first road of the kind that had been constructed 
 in any part of the world, for the transportation of merchandize and 
 passengers, by the power of steam; and the experiment has been emi- 
 nently successful. 
 
 The acknowledged hostility of the present administration to parlia- 
 mentary reform, created serious disturbances and alarm throughout 
 the country; and, on the 15th of November, a vote taken in the house 
 of commons, in relation to the amount to be appropriated for the civil 
 list — being a sum designed chiefly to defray the expenses of the royal 
 establishments — which left the ministers in a minority of twenty-seven, 
 caused a dissolution of the cabinet. Thus terminated, at that period, 
 the political ascendency of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert 
 Peel ; and, in a few days afterwards, a new whig ministry was formed, 
 Earl Grey being the premier, with the office of First Lord of the Trea- 
 sury ; Lord Brougham, Lord Chancellor; Lord Althorp, Chancellor of 
 the Exchequer ; Lord Melbourne, Home Secretary ; Lord Palmerston, 
 Foreign Secretary ; Sir James Graham, First Lord of the Admiralty ; 
 Marquis of Landsdowne, President of the Council; Lord Durham, Lord 
 Privy Seal ; Marquis of Anglesea, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ; Mr. 
 Stanley, Chief Secretary of Ireland ; Mr. Denman, Attorney-General; 
 Mr. Horner, Solicitor-General ; Lord Hill, Commander-in-Chief; Lord 
 Plunket, Lord-Chancellor of Ireland. 
 
 New schemes of agitation were at this time almost daily suggested 
 by Daniel O'Connell, the promoter of the opposition to the existing 
 legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland ; but each plan 
 was still met by a prohibitory proclamation from the head of the Irish 
 government; and the chief agitator, and several of his coadjutors, were 
 arrested and held to bail, in order to stand their trials in the King's 
 Bench, Dublin, for this disturbance of the peace. 
 
 In England, an unsettled feeling, chiefly amongst the peasantry, 
 ripened into results most mischievous and destructive. Many counties 
 were kept in continual alarm, by the perpetration of midnight crimes. 
 Houses, cornstacks, barns, and machinery, were burned and destroyed ; 
 the militia embodied, and special commissions for delivering the crowd- 
 ed jails were issued. At length, the troubled waters were allayed, and 
 the minister found an hour of rest, to lay before his country a measure 
 of greater importance to its future domestic welfare, than any that had 
 been submitted to parliament for more than a century. The proceedings 
 adopted by Lord Althorp in the house of commons, corresponded with 
 those of Earl Grey, and resulted in that bold and comprehensive mea- 
 sure, by which all close boroughs throughout Great Britain and Ireland" 
 were disfranchised ; the respresentation of counties and large cities and 
 towns, enlarged ; representatives given to important places, before wholly 
 without delegates in parliament; the right of voting extended to certain 
 householders, paying about ten pounds annual rent ; and also to persons 
 demanding to have their names placed upon the parish books for con- 
 tribution to the poor; the places appointed for voting were also greatly 
 increased, and the period of holding the elections curtailed. 
 
324 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 1831. Strenuous opposition was, however, made to this most salutary 
 measure ; and on the 22d of April, ministers being left in a minority, 
 the king went to the House of Lords, and dissolved the parliament. 
 
 This measure, deemed so expedient, in order to test anew the senti- 
 ments of the people, was followed by the most violently contested elec- 
 tions ever witnessed in the British isles. 
 
 In addition to the calamities of war, the north of Europe was at this 
 time visited by a pestilential scourge, of the most awful description, of 
 a nature hitherto unknown in these regions. While the Russian armies 
 were engaged in the attempt to subjugate Poland, the Asiatic cholera 
 broke out amongst them, and quickly spread, with dreadful effect, into 
 Germany and the neighbouring countries. At length, the contagion 
 made its appearance in Hamburg, passed over to the north of England, 
 nor was the calamity stayed, until it had laid many thousand victims 
 prostrate before its power, not only in Great Britain and Ireland, but 
 also in Canada and the United States. 
 
 On the 14th of June, the new parliament assembled. It was the se- 
 cond that had been caded by the reigning monarch, and its results 
 were such as the ministers desired ; the majority being confessedly in 
 favour of reform. Charles Manners Sutton, afterwards created Lord 
 Canterbury, was unanimously elected speaker; and on the 21st, the 
 king entered the House of Lords, and, in his speech to both houses, 
 dwelt, with emphasis, on the expediency and justice of directing their 
 chief attention to the reform in the representation of the people. 
 
 On the 24th, Lord John Russel, who had then obtained a seat in the 
 cabinet, again brought forward, in the house of commons, in the name 
 of the government, a measure of reform, which, in their opinion, was 
 calculated to maintain unimpaired the prerogatives of the crown, and 
 the rights and liberties of the people. The measure was supported by 
 Sir James Mackintosh, Mr. Macauley, and other enlightened patriots , 
 and opposed by Sir Robert Peel, Sir John Malcolm, Sir George Murray, 
 Sir Charles Wetherell, Sir Robert Inglis, and Mr. Goulbourn. 
 
 On the 19th of September, Lord John Russel moved the third reading 
 of the bill; two days more were occupied in the debate on the question 
 " that the bill do pass ;" and, on the division, there appeared in favour 
 of the measure, 345 ; opposed, 236 ; leaving a majority, out of 581 votes, 
 of 109 for the bill. 
 
 The fate of this important amelioration in the legislative branch of 
 the government, was very different in the House of Lords. In that 
 aristocratic body, when the vote was taken, out of 357 members, the 
 ministers found themselves in a minority of forty-one. 
 
 The rejection of the reform-bill by the Lords, was attended by dis- 
 turbances of an outrageous character, in different parts of England. At 
 Derby, the mob liberated the prisoners from the town jail. On the 
 same day, the rioters set fire to the ancient castle at Nottingham, be- 
 cause its proprietor, the Duke of Newcastle, had exercised his privilege 
 contrary to their wishes. Colwick Hall, the seat of Mr. Musters, was 
 set on fire, and plundered ; and Mr. Somers' factory at Beeston was 
 burned down. Addresses, amounting to one thousand in number, were 
 presented to the king, from all parts of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 The Lord-Mayor and Corporation of London went to St. James's, with 
 an address to the throne, accompanied by an assemblage of nearly 
 sixty thousand persons. The mansions of the Duke of Wellington, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 325 
 
 Earl of Bristol, and Earl of Dudley, were assailed by the mob, and 
 escaped destruction only by the interference of the police. The Marquis 
 of Londonderry was pelted with stones; and the Duke of Cumberland, 
 brother of the king-, was dragged from his horse, but rescued by the 
 timely arrival of the constabulary, who conveyed him to a place of 
 safety, at the Horse Guards. Sir Charles Wethcrcll, Recorder of Bristol, 
 having, by his opposition to the reform-bill, incurred the marked dis- 
 pleasure of the populace, they determined to prevent his opening the 
 court in that city, and commenced a series of outrages, scarcely paralleled 
 by the riots in London, which have attached a celebrity of no enviable 
 character to Lord George Gordon. The windows of the Mansion House 
 were broken to pieces, the building entered, and its contents either 
 plundered or destroyed. Lieutenant-Colonel Brereton, who commanded 
 the fourteenth light dragoons, refused to act; the mob proceeded to 
 Bridewell, liberated the prisoners, burned the building itself, together 
 with the governor's private house ; at the same time, a stronger de- 
 tachment of rioters attacked the new jail, released the prisoners, threw 
 every moveable article into the stream, hoisted a black flag over the 
 gate-way, and shortly afterwards the entire building was completely 
 enveloped in flames ; and Gloucester county prison, the Episcopal Pa- 
 lace, the Mansion House, the Custom House, the Excise Office, and 
 more than forty private dwelling-houses and ware-houses, shared, in 
 succession, the same fate. The soldiers, who had been sent out of the 
 city, were now remanded, the magistrates called out the posse comitates, 
 and, in the course of the day, parties of military, horse, foot, and artil- 
 lery, came in from different places. Of the populace, the total number 
 of killed and wounded was little short of one hundred ; two hundred 
 were made prisoners, eighty-one of whom were afterwards brought to 
 trial, and convicted ; of which number, four suffered the extremity of 
 the law. S A court-martial was convened for the trial of Colonel Brere- 
 ton ; but this unfortunate officer, overpowered by his feelings and the 
 weight of evidence, on the fourth day of the investigation shot himself 
 through the heart. 
 
 In the course of the several trials which ensued, it appeared that the 
 Bristol magistrates were highly culpable. The mayor of the city pur- 
 posely concealed himself when his presence was most wanted ; and the 
 aldermen pleaded, in excuse for not accompanying the soldiers, their 
 inability to ride on horseback ! 
 
 1832. On the 23d of March, after the details of the reform-bill had 
 occupied the attention of the house of commons during the two imme. 
 diately preceding months, the protracted debate was brought to a con- 
 clusion, by a vote, giving ministers a majority of one hundred and six- 
 teen in favour of this most important and salutary measure. 
 
 It was not, however, until the ninth day of April, that Earl Grey 
 again proposed to the Upper House the serious consideration of the 
 bill ; and, after a protracted debate of many days, the ministers were 
 defeated by a majority of thirty-five votes. A temporary suspension of 
 their functions succeeded, and an abortive attempt to form a new ad- 
 ministration, with the Duke of Wellington at its head ; when, at length, 
 the premier having resumed the exercise of his arduous duties, and 
 promulgated some threats of adding to the peerage a sufficient number 
 of new members to create a majority in his favour, a violent and un- 
 constitutional expedient, not acquiesced in, it is supposed, by the king 
 
 2e2 
 
320 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 — on the fourth day of June, the principal opposition lords having 
 absented themselves from the House, the number in favour of the bill 
 was one hundred and six ; against it, twenty-two ; and, on the seventh, 
 this signal and truly glorious triumph of liberal principles, over the 
 contracted and selfish policy of the tory or conservative party, was con- 
 summated by the royal assent. 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 Assault upon the King. — Death of young Napoleon. — Death of Sir Wal- 
 ter Scott. — Blockade of the Scheldt. — Abolition of Slavery. — Trade 
 with the East Indies extended. — Both Houses of Parliament destroyed 
 by Fire. — Lord Melbourne, Prime Minister. — He is succeeded by Sir 
 Robert Peel. — Lord Melbourne reinstated. — Death of William IV. 
 
 THE presence of the King, accompanied by Queen Adelaide, at the 
 races held at Ascot Heath, in the summer of the present year, was at- 
 tended by a vexatious personal injury to himself. At the termination 
 of the first race, his majesty, who was looking from a window of his 
 stand, was observed to start, and heard to exclaim that he was hit ; but, 
 on inquiry, it was found that he had been struck on the forehead by a 
 stone, not by a bullet, thrown by a miscreant, named Collins. The man 
 was instantly seized by Lord Uxbridge, having a much larger missile, 
 which he purposed to discharge, in revenge, as he stated, for the un- 
 satisfactory reply to his petition, addressed to the king. Collins had 
 been a sailor, lost a leg in battle, and had twice been dismissed from 
 Greenwich Hospital, for misconduct. Being brought to trial, he was 
 found guilty of high treason (notwithstanding a plea of insanity set up 
 in his defence), but the king mitigated the capital sentence into impri- 
 sonment for life. 
 
 At the palace of Schoenbrunn, near Vienna, and at the age of twenty- 
 one years, on the twenty-fourth of July, expired Napoleon, Duke of 
 Reichstadt, ex-king of Rome, only son of Napoleon, once Emperor of 
 the French, and Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis I., Emperor of 
 Austria. 
 
 On the 9th day of August, Leopold I., King of the Belgians, and 
 once honoured with the hand and affections of the Princess Charlotte 
 of England, daughter of George IV., led to the hymeneal altar the 
 Princess Louisa, daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French. 
 
 In the ensuing month, on the 21st of September, the greatest genius 
 and the most popular writer of the age, Sir Walter Scott, expired at his 
 seat of Abbotsford, in Scotland ; a man, not more admired for the in- 
 ventive powers of his mind, than beloved and respected for the kindness 
 of his disposition, and the manly simplicity of his character. 
 
 Although not actually at war with any European power, William IV. 
 had entered into a treaty with the King of the French, for the adoption of 
 coercive measures against Holland ; the object of which was to obtain the 
 evacuation of a portion of territory claimed by the Dutch. For its accom- 
 plishment, the combined fleets of England and France assembled at Spit- 
 head, on the 29th of October, and proceeded thence to the blockade of 
 the Scheldt ; an embargo having been laid upon all Dutch vessels in 
 English and French ports. On the 15th of November, a French army 
 entered Belgium, and in a few days fifty-five thousand French troops 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 327 
 
 were stationed before the citadel of Antwerp ; and it was not until the 
 interior of that fortress was laid in ruins, and an indefensible breach 
 made by the besiegers, that the gallant commander, General Cliasse, 
 Was forced to capitulate to Marshal Gerard; and on the 24th of May, 
 in the following year, a preliminary treaty w r as signed, by which the 
 Dutch governor was released from imprisonment in France, and the 
 navigation of the Scheldt thrown open. 
 
 1833. We now approach an event of a more pleasing character in 
 the history of nations. It was reserved for the patriotic and charitable 
 King William IV. to see the blessings of freedom extended to his en- 
 slaved subjects in the western world, and to tell the children of Africa, 
 in the language of an eminent poet of Great Britain, " Free, you were 
 created ; free, you shall remain." The ministerial plan for the extinc- 
 tion of colonial slavery, was formally proposed in the house of com- 
 mons by Mr. Stanley, on the 14th of May. The plan proposed that the 
 slave should be prepared for the enjoyment of entire freedom by an 
 apprenticeship to his master, for a limited period ; during which, he was 
 not to be subjected to vexatious enactments, or any disability likely to 
 degrade him in his own estimation ; he was to be undisturbed in his 
 religious worship and instruction ; not to be exposed to corporal punish- 
 ment ; but to have his evidence received, and his family respected. 
 Tw T enty millions of pounds were to be granted by parliament, as a com- 
 pensation to the West India planters. On the 12th of June, the report 
 was agreed to, and a bill ordered to be brought in, conformably with 
 the resolutions ; on which, Mr. Stanley (afterwards Lord Stanley) form- 
 ed his memorable bill for the total abolition of slavery. 
 
 Reform still proceeded in the institutions of Great Britain, and the 
 long enjoyed monopoly of the East India trade was now to have an 
 end. The government of the vast continent of British India is still 
 committed to the East India Company ; but they no longer retain their 
 commercial character, the trade with China being thrown open to all 
 British merchants, doing business at certain specified ports. 
 
 On the 13th of September, the Marquis Wellesley was appointed 
 Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 
 Immediately after the close of the parliamentary session, the young 
 Queen of Portugal arrived at Portsmouth, attended by the Duchess of 
 Braganza, having been conveyed from Havre by a British ship of war. 
 The royal visiters, by special invitation, proceeded to Windsor, where 
 they were entertained with that hospitality for which the king was so 
 peculiarly distinguished ; and, after a week passed in partaking of the 
 festivities of Windsor Castle, Donna Maria returned to Portsmouth, 
 where she was honoured by a visit from the Princess Victoria and her 
 mother, the Duchess of Kent ; and the next day setting sail for Portugal, 
 arrived at Lisbon on the 22d of September, and ascended the throne of 
 her ancestors. 
 
 1834. In the month of August of the present year, an untoward cir- 
 cumstance occurred in the administration of the government, which 
 led to the resignation of Earl Grey and Lord Althorp ; the former being, 
 after a short interval, succeeded as prime minister by Lord Melbourne. 
 
 On the 16th of October, an event occurred in the metropolis, the de- 
 struction of both houses of parliament, by fire, which may with pro- 
 priety be called a national calamity. Amongst the irreparable losses 
 then sustained, in arts, antiquities, and objects of general interest, were 
 
328 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 the fragments in the painted chamber, the original warrant for the 
 execution of Charles L, and the tapestry representing the defeat of the 
 Spanish Armada. 
 
 The new ministerial arrangement enjoyed only a brief duration. On 
 the 15th of November, the metropolis was astonished by the intelligence 
 that the king had dissolved the administration. On the return of Sir 
 Robert Peel (son of the first baronet of that name) from Rome, whence 
 he had been summoned by an express, by the advice of the Duke of 
 Wellington, who was entrusted by the king with the formation of a 
 new cabinet, that distinguished statesman was placed at the head of a 
 new administration, and the parliament was dissolved. 
 
 1835. The new parliament assembled on the 19th of February ; and, 
 on the 8th of April, after an ineffectual struggle on the part of Sir 
 Robert Peel's administration, the reformers having obtained a most 
 decided majority, the premier stated, " that himself and his colleagues, 
 finding it impossible to carry their measures, had tendered their resig- 
 nation to the throne." 
 
 The retirement of Sir Robert Peel gave William IV. the opportunity 
 of appointing the last administration over which he was destined to 
 preside. On the day following the resignation of the conservatives, 
 Lord Lansdown, Lord Melbourne, and others of their supporters, having 
 waited upon his Majesty by command, the king desired Lord Melbourne 
 to form a new administration, upon a lasting basis. 
 
 In the speech addressed by the king to parliament, on the 8th of 
 September, the day of prorogation, he congratulated the nation on the 
 treaties he had been able to induce Denmark, Sardinia, and Sweden, to 
 enter into with Great Britain, for the extinction of negro slavery ; ex- 
 pressed his approbation of a reform in the municipal corporations of 
 England; and spoke of a happier state of things as existing in Ireland. 
 
 1836. On the 4th of November, Charles X., ex-king of France, better 
 known to the English nation as the Count d'Artois, died in exile, at 
 Gorotz, in Illyria, having attained the advanced age of eighty years ; a 
 prince, who, though he passed the greater, or perhaps the best portion 
 of his life in exile, never profited sufficiently by his intercourse with 
 strangers, so as to acquire the tact of making himself popular. In the 
 spring of the following year, intelligence arrived of the death of an- 
 other, but more amiable ex-king, Gustavus Adolphus IV., formerly of 
 Sweden, who had resided for many years in Germany, under the 
 assumed title of Count Gottorp ; and on the 27th of March, Mrs. Fitz- 
 herbcrt, whose name is so closely associated with the early biography 
 of George IV., passed from this life, in the eighty-first year of her age. 
 
 On the 20th of June, the nation was deprived of the sovereignly of 
 one of the most humane, generous, and liberal of monirchs ; William 
 IV. having, on the morning of that day, expired at Windsor Castle, in 
 the seventy-second year of his age, and the seventh of his reign. 
 
 The profession to which this monarch was attached early in life, 
 seemed to have imbued his character throughout with its proverbial 
 candour, bluntness, and integrity; and he will be remembered, in future 
 times, by the endearing title of the Sailor King. 
 
 Having left no legitimate children, he was succeeded on the throne 
 by his niece, Victoria, daughter and only child of the deceased Duke 
 3t Kent, son of George the Third, now in her nineteenth year. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 329 
 
 The following eminent persons died in the. reign of William IV. 
 
 William Hazlett, 
 
 Sept. 18, 
 
 1830, 
 
 Henry Mackenzie, 
 
 Jan. 14, 
 
 1831, 
 
 John Quick, 
 
 April 4, 
 
 it 
 
 John Abernethy, 
 
 « 20, 
 
 (C 
 
 Mrs. Siddons, 
 
 June 8, 
 
 cc 
 
 William Roscoe, 
 
 " 30, 
 
 It 
 
 R. W. Elliston, 
 
 July 7, 
 
 " 
 
 Lord Norbury, 
 
 « 27, 
 
 It 
 
 Sir Benjamin Hobhouse, 
 
 Aug. 14, 
 
 (( 
 
 Sir Nath. W. Wraxall, 
 
 Nov. 7, 
 
 " 
 
 Joseph S. Munden, 
 
 Feb. 6, 
 
 1832, 
 
 Rev. George Crabb, 
 
 " 8, 
 
 cc 
 
 Caleb Colton, 
 
 April 28, 
 
 It 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh, 
 
 May 30, 
 
 (( 
 
 Jeremy Bentham, 
 
 June 6, 
 
 (C 
 
 Anna Maria Porter, 
 
 " 21, 
 
 » 
 
 Sir John Carr, 
 
 July 17, 
 
 it 
 
 Adam Clarke, 
 
 Aug. 26, 
 
 " 
 
 Sir Everard Home, 
 
 " 31, 
 
 cc 
 
 Lord Tenterden, 
 
 Nov. 4, 
 
 u 
 
 Admiral Sir Thomas Foley, 
 
 Jan. 3, 
 
 1833, 
 
 Charles Dibden, Jun., 
 
 " 12, 
 
 a 
 
 General Sir B. Tarleton, 
 
 « 25, 
 
 it 
 
 John O'Keefe, 
 
 Feb. 4, 
 
 M 
 
 Admiral Lord Exmouth, 
 
 " 6, 
 
 (( 
 
 Earl Fitzwilliam, 
 
 " 8, 
 
 tl 
 
 Rowland Hill, 
 
 April 11, 
 
 IC 
 
 Admiral Lord Gambier, 
 
 " 19, 
 
 " 
 
 Edmund Kean, 
 
 May 15, 
 
 u 
 
 William Wilberforce, 
 
 July 29, 
 
 it 
 
 Hannah More, 
 
 Sept. 7, 
 
 II 
 
 Sir John Stevenson, 
 
 " 14, 
 
 ic 
 
 Lord Grenville, 
 
 Jan. 12, 
 
 1834, 
 
 Richard Lander, 
 
 Feb. 6, 
 
 « 
 
 John Penn, 
 
 June 21, 
 
 " 
 
 Thomas Telford, 
 
 Sept. — 
 
 C( 
 
 Arch'd. Ham. Rowan, 
 
 Nov. 6, 
 
 H 
 
 Colonel Wardle, 
 
 " 30, 
 
 U 
 
 Prince Hoare, 
 
 Dec. 22, 
 
 " 
 
 Charles Lamb, 
 
 " 27, 
 
 (( 
 
 Thomas R. Malthus, 
 
 " 29, 
 
 It 
 
 Henry Hunt, 
 
 Feb. 15, 
 
 1835, 
 
 Francis II., Emperor of Austria 
 
 March 3, 
 
 it 
 
 William H. Ireland, 
 
 April 17, 
 
 u 
 
 Mrs. Elizabeth Cook, widow ) 
 of Capt. James Cook, ^ 
 
 May 13, 
 
 C( 
 
 
 Mrs. Felicia D. Hemans, 
 
 " 16, 
 
 it 
 
 William Cobbctt, 
 
 June 18, 
 
 M 
 
 Charles Mathews, 
 
 « 28, 
 
 it 
 
 aged — 
 
 " 85 
 
 years, 
 ii 
 
 " 
 
 83 
 
 IC 
 
 " 
 
 66 
 
 » 
 
 " 
 
 76 
 
 cc 
 
 " 
 
 79 
 
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 " 
 
 57 
 
 « 
 
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 85 
 
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 73 
 
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 77 
 
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 69 
 
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 11 
 
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 88 
 
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 87 
 
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 61 
 
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 67 
 
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330 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Baker John Sellon, Sergeant ) ^ j~ „ „ ^ u 
 
 at Law, £ s? 1 
 
 James Hogg, Nov. 21, " " 63 " 
 
 Sir John Sinclair, Jan. 21, 1836, » 61 6 
 
 Lord Stowell, " 23, " " 90 " 
 Madame Maria Letitia, mo- ) 
 
 thcr of Napoleon Buona- > Feb. 3, " " 85 " 
 
 parte, 3 
 
 John Gillies, Historian, " 13, « " 89 " 
 
 Mrs. Whitlock, » 27, " " 75 " 
 
 William Godwin, April 7, " " 81 ■ 
 
 Dr. Barry E. O'Meara, June 3, " " — " 
 
 Dr. Charles Henry, Aug. 30, " " 61 " 
 
 General Sir John Hope, "31, " " 71 " 
 
 Madame Malibran, Sept. 23, " " 28 " 
 
 George Colman, Oct. 26, " " 74 " 
 
 John Bannister, Nov. 8, " u 76 " 
 
 Richard Westall, Dec. 4, " " — " 
 
 John de Grenier Fonblanque, Jan. 4, 1837, " 77 " 
 
 John Fawcett, March 13, " " 68 " 
 
 Joseph Grimaldi, May 31, " " 57 ■ 
 
 Population of Great Britain, fyc, in 1821. 
 
 England, 11,261,437 
 
 Wales, 717,438 
 
 Scotland, 2,093,456 
 
 Army, Navy, and Seamen, 319,300 
 
 Ireland, 6,846,949 
 
 British European Isles, 92,122 
 
 Total, 21,330,702 
 
 London contained, 1,274,800 
 
 National debt, eight hundred and forty-eight millions of pounds, 
 subject to an interest of about three per cent. 
 
 Population in 1831. 
 
 England, 13,089,338 
 
 Wales, 805,236 
 
 Scotland, 2,365,807 
 
 Ireland, 7,734,365 
 
 Army, Navy, &c, 277,01 7 
 
 Total, 24,271,763 
 
 London contained, 1,4T4,069 
 
 National debt, in 1833, seven hundred and fifty-four millions. 
 
 THE END. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 331 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 FIRST PART. 
 
 Abolition of Slavery. 1837—1850. 
 
 On the seventeenth day of July, Alexandrina Victoria, who ascended 
 the throne of Great Britain on the death of her uncle, William the 
 Fourth, went in state to the House of Lords, for the purpose of closing 
 the session. The age and sex of the youthful sovereign, as may he 
 supposed, gave a very singular and touching interest to the scene. 
 The royal assent was then given, in the usual form, to a number of 
 public and private bills; after which, the queen proceeded to read, 
 in a clear and unfaltering tone, her speech, addressed to*the members 
 of both houses; of which the following is an abstract: — 
 
 "I have been anxious to seize the first opportunity of meeting you, 
 in order that I might repeat, in person, my cordial thanks for your 
 condolence on the death of his late majesty, and for the expressions 
 of attachment and affection with which you congratulated me on my 
 accession to the throne. I am very desirous of renewing the assurance 
 of my determination to maintain the protestant religion, as established 
 by law, to secure to all the free exercise of their rights of conscience, 
 to protect the liberties, and to promote the welfare, of all classes of 
 the community. 
 
 "I rejoice that, on ascending the throne, I find the country in amity 
 with all foreign powers; and while I faithfully perform the duties of 
 the crown, and carefully watch over the interests of my subjects, it 
 will be the constant object of my solicitude to maintain the blessings 
 of peace. 
 
 "Educated in England, under the tender and enlightened care of 
 an affectionate mother, I have learned, from my infancy, to love the 
 constitution of my country.'' 
 
 The cabinet ministers, appointed by Victoria, were, Viscount Mel- 
 bourne, First Lord of the Treasury (premier) ; Right Hon. Thomas 
 Spring Rice, Chancellor of the Exchequer; Lord Cottenham, Lord 
 Chancellor; Marquis of Lansdowne, President of the Council; Lord 
 Duncannon, Lord Privy Seal ; Lord John Russell, Secretary of State for 
 the Home Department; Viscount Palmerston, Secretary for Foreign 
 Affairs ; Lord Glenelg, Secretary for the Colonies ; Earl of Minto, 
 First Lord of the Admiralty; Sir John Cam Hobhouse, President of 
 the Board of Control; Lord Holland, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lan- 
 caster; Viscount Howick, Secretary at War; Right Hon. Charles Poulett 
 Thompson, President of the Board of Trade. For Ireland, Earl of 
 Mulgrave, Lord Lieutenant; Lord Plunket, Lord Chancellor; Major- 
 Gen. Sir Edward Blakeney, Commander of the Forces; Stephen 
 Woulfe, Esq., Attorney-General; Mazier Brady, Esq., Solicitor-General. 
 
 Two statutes, enacted in the present year, are worthy of notice ; 
 particularly as exhibiting the salutary spirit of reform, by which the 
 
332 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 government of England continued to be administered. The obliga- 
 tion, on the part of the judges, to direct that persons found guilty of 
 murder should be executed the day but one after conviction (unl-ess 
 the day happened to be Sunday) was repealed: and the same discre- 
 tion was now given with regard to the day of execution, as in other 
 cases of conviction ; and persons charged with felony were allowed 
 the advantage of counsel to address the jury in their defence ; a pri- 
 vilege which, previously, had been confined to cases of high treason 
 and misdemeanor. 
 
 By the accession of Victoria to the British throne, the kingdom of 
 Hanover, which is governed on the principle of the saiique law, 
 which excludes females from exercising the sovereign power, was 
 separated from the crown of England ; and Ernest Augustus, fifth 
 son of George III., and uncle of Victoria, became king of that country. 
 
 1838. An event, worthy of notice, in the year 1838, was the com- 
 mencement given to transatlantic steam-navigation, by the sailing, for 
 New York, from Bristol, England, in the month of April, of the steam- 
 ships Sirius and Great Western. The voyages, in the beginning, oc- 
 cupied about fifteen days ; but they have subsequently been accom- 
 plished, to Halifax, in Nova Scotia, to Boston, and to New York, an 
 average distance of three thousand miles, in less than eleven days. 
 
 An outbreak, which, about this time, occurred in the British pro- 
 vinces of Upper and Lower Canada, seemed seriously to threaten a 
 disturbance of the amicable relations which then happily subsisted 
 between Great Britain and the United States. Previously to the year 
 1828, the Canadians, if not entirely free from a factious spirit, were 
 not, in the main, unreasonable, either in their pretensions, or their 
 behaviour. In that year, the whole subject of their grievances was 
 brought before the British House of Commons. Several petitions 
 came under their consideration, and the committee, to whom these 
 grievances were referred, made their celebrated report. The most 
 important petition, signed by about 87,000 inhabitants of Lower 
 Canada, principally of French descent, residing in what are called 
 the Seigniories, complained of arbitrary conduct on the part of the 
 governor ; of the appointment of none but creatures of the executive 
 government, to the legislative council ; of the illegal appropriation of 
 public money; of violent prorogations and dissolutions of the provin- 
 cial parliament; of the connivance of the governor at the insolvency 
 of the receiver-general; and of certain acts of the imperial parliament, 
 particularly the Canada Trade Act, and the Canada Tenures' Act. 
 Another petition, signed by about ten thousand inhabitants of the 
 townships, enumerated the grievances of the British portion of the 
 community. Amongst these, the most prominent were, the inconve- 
 niences to which they were exposed, by being made subject to French 
 law and procedure, and the inequality of their share of the repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 It may be mentioned that, throughout these unfortunate differences, 
 no question ever existed with respect to the imposition of duties, or 
 the levying of money. The claims of either party were limited to 
 the appropriating, what must, under any circumstances, be collected, 
 and if not disposed of, must accumulate, from year to year, in the 
 public chest. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 333 
 
 The famous resolutions of March, 1837, brought affairs to a crisis ; 
 and the habitans, or French population of Lower Canada, a virtuous 
 and well-disposed people, but whose extreme ignorance makes them 
 apt tools for any demagogue, soon afterwards committed acts of open 
 rebellion. The revolt was rapidly spreading, on all sides, when the 
 authorities came to the determination of arresting Mr. Papineau, and 
 some of his confederates, who were supposed to have taken up their 
 quarters at the villages of St. Denis and St. Charles, both on the right 
 bank of the river Richelieu, and about seven miles distant from each 
 other. To detail the numerous actions which ensued, between the 
 British forces and the Canadian insurgents, is foreign to the legitimate 
 design of tliis history. After several engagements, in which the latter 
 were occasionally successful, they were, in a few weeks, nearly sub- 
 dued. On the sixteenth of December, Sir John Colborne, the com- 
 mander of the royal troops, returned to Montreal, and a single regi- 
 ment sufficed to accomplish the reduction, or rather to receive the 
 submission of what remained of the insurgents. 
 
 "Thus," says Lord Gosford, the governor of Canada, in the despatch 
 which detailed these events, " have the measures adopted for putting 
 down this reckless revolt been crowned with success. Wherever an 
 armed body has shown itself, it has been completely dispersed ; the 
 principal leaders and instigators have been killed, taken, or forced 
 into exile; there is no longer a head, concert, or organization, amongst 
 the deluded and betrayed habitans; none of the newspaper organs of 
 revolt in the province are any longer in existence ; and, in the short 
 space of a month, a rebellion, which wore so threatening an aspect, 
 has. with much less loss of life than could have been expected, been 
 effectually put down." 
 
 Of the principal leaders in this unhappy outbreak, four were killed, 
 eight taken, and nine escaped. For some time, considerable uncer- 
 tainty prevailed, as to the fate of Mr. Papineau; but, it at length ap- 
 peared, that he was safely settled in the state of New York ; whither 
 he had withdrawn, on the first appearance of the war. 
 
 It was natural, that this insurrection in Canada should have excited 
 a good deal of sympathy, amongst a large class of the people of the 
 United States. But, unfortunately, a much less excusable sentiment 
 prevailed on that side of the border ; and there were few, if any, to 
 be found amongst the large bodies of men who were organized at dif- 
 ferent points, with a view to the invasion of Canada, who could plead 
 a higher motive than was suggested by their rapacity, and a desire to 
 repeat, at the expense of the hardy Britons of Canada, the experiment 
 go successfully made in Texas. 
 
 The news of the rising in Lower Canada, was the signal for action 
 on the part of the malcontents in the Upper Province. On the seventh 
 of December, the loyalists, under the command of Col. Allen McNab, 
 speaker of the House of Assembly, marching from Toronto, made an 
 attack upon W. L. Mackenzie's band, in its position at Montgomery's 
 Tavern; when a total rout of the rebels ensued, and their commander, 
 in a state of the greatest agitation, ran away. 
 
 After the dispersion of his associates, he fled, in disguise, to Buffalo, 
 in the state of New York. Here, he succeeded in animating the in- 
 habitants with a strong desire to become the possessors of Upper 
 
 2f 
 
334 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Canada. Great numbers of men enlisted, with the avowed object of 
 invading that province, and establishing a provincial government. 
 Public meetings were convened, volunteers invited, and arms, ammu- 
 nition, and provisions, openly contributed. Nor did the so-styled 
 sympathizers rely entirely on the resources and Hberality of private 
 individuals. The state arsenals were laid under contribution ; and, 
 whether obtained by stealth or by violence, artillery and munitions 
 of war, belonging to the United States' government, were, in the most 
 public manner, and in the face of the American authorities, employed, 
 for the purpose of invading the provincial territory of Great Britain. 
 
 The president of the United States, and the governor of New York, 
 did, indeed, by proclamations, and a certain military demonstration, 
 affect to discountenance these lawless proceedings. But these dis- 
 plays produced no effect, nor were any real impediments, at this 
 time, offered to the movements of these piratical marauders. 
 
 On the thirteenth of December, several hundred American citizens, 
 under the command of Mr. Van Renssellaer, took possession of a small 
 wooded island, in the Niagara river, about two miles above the Falls, 
 called Navy Island, and forming part of Canada. They were sup- 
 plied, from Buffalo and the neighbouring country, with stores and 
 provisions ; and transported artillery, the property of the state, with- 
 out interruption. Handbills, called proclamations of the provincial 
 government, were circulated, whereby three hundred acres of the 
 most valuable land in Canada, and one hundred dollars in silver, 
 were promised to every volunteer who would join the patriot forces 
 on Navy Island ; and five hundred pounds were offered for the appre- 
 hension of Sir Francis Head. 
 
 Their number rapidly increased, and was variously stated at from 
 five hundred to fifteen hundred ; of whom, only a small proportion 
 were Canadians ; and, proceeding to throw up intrenchments, they 
 continually menaced the opposite bank of the river. 
 
 A body of militia was posted on the Canadian side, under the com- 
 mand of Col. McNab ; who received orders to confine his operations 
 to the defensive, and to be especially careful to avoid any violation 
 of the American territory. It was not long before the marauders on 
 Navy Island opened a fire of artillery upon the Canada shore, which, 
 in that part, is thickly peopled; the distance from the island being 
 about six hundred yards, and the populous village of Chippewa within 
 sight. 
 
 The banditti drew the greater part of their supplies from a landing- 
 place on the American shore, called Fort Schlosser, nearly opposite, 
 but which consisted merely of a solitary tavern, with a wharf. This 
 house was a rendezvous for the "sympathizers,'' and a place of con- 
 stant resort to the adventurers on Navy Island. On the twenth-eighth 
 of December, Col. McNab received information that a small steamer, 
 called the Caroline, had been hired by them, for their communication 
 with the main land. This vessel he resolved to destroy, should he 
 find her so engaged. 
 
 Ilaving ascertained that she made repeated passages to the island, 
 and had even transported a piece of artillery from the shore, he des- 
 patched a party of militia, in boats, to take or sink her. They found 
 the vessel moored to the wharf, opposite the tavern, and strongly 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 335 
 
 guarded by parties, both on deck and on shore. The militia boarded, 
 and overpowered her defenders, after a desperate struggle, in which 
 one of the Americans was killed, and several of the militia wounded ; 
 and then setting her on fire, suffered her to drift, in flames, down the 
 falls of Niagara. 
 
 This transaction caused considerable excitement in the United 
 States, where the most exaggerated versions of it were at first circu- 
 lated ; and it was generally believed that the passengers and crew of 
 the Caroline, a peaceable and unarmed party, men, women, and chil- 
 dren, had been butchered, under circumstances of the most unpro- 
 voked aggression. But, after a short time, the real nature of the affair 
 could not be disguised. The Caroline seems to have been considered, 
 on all sides, as a piratical vessel, and the only question that remained 
 would have turned upon the alleged violation of the American ter- 
 ritory; but this, the governor of New York wisely abstained from 
 seriously agitating. 
 
 A sufficient force was at length collected, in Canada, to dislodge 
 the freebooters on Navy Island; but they declined to wait an assault; 
 and, on the night of the fourteenth of January, decamped. On reach- 
 ing the United States' territory, Van Rensellaer was arrested, and held 
 to bail by the American authorities; who, at the same time, gained 
 possession of the ammunition and stores, of which they had per- 
 mitted the arsenals to be despoiled. 
 
 The "patriots" now changed the theatre of war, and, while some 
 parties at Detroit, and other places in the vicinity, menaced the west- 
 ern extremity of the British possessions, others made a demonstration 
 of attacking Kingston ; but, terrified by the approach of a small body 
 of militia, they fled, without any affectation of resistance. Nor did 
 those confederates at Detroit display more heroism. Sharp conflicts, 
 however, ensued, in various places, with inconsiderable loss on 
 either side ; by far the greater part of the marauders being American 
 citizens. 
 
 Amongst the more prominent of the citizens, against whom prose- 
 cutions had been instituted, in Upper Canada, were Samuel Lount, 
 James Morrow, and Peter Mathers: the first two, natives of the 
 United States. Being brought to trial, they plead guilty, and were 
 sentenced to death, and executed ; and many others, Canadians as 
 well as American citizens, were transported to the penal colonies of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 But tranquillity was not finally restored by these salutary measures. 
 The marauders on the American side of the border were actively 
 preparing for a renewal of hostilities; and on the thirtieth of May, a 
 band of these outlaws, headed by one Johnson, boarded a British 
 steamer, the " Sir Robert Peel," lying alongside of a wharf at Wells' 
 Island, in the river St. Lawrence, and belonging to the United States. 
 The passengers having been robbed of their money and other valuable 
 effects, were forced on shore; and the vessel was then set on fire, and 
 abandoned. Lord Durham, the governor of the Canadas, who had 
 just arrived from England, offered one thousand pounds reward for 
 the discovery and conviction of the offenders. Johnson, however, 
 set the authorities, British as well as American, at defiance, retreated 
 to the cluster of isles known as the Thousand Islands, became the 
 
336 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 terror of the coast, and executed his schemes of plunder and violence 
 with equal impunity and success. 
 
 About the middle of October, the rebellion was renewed in Lower 
 Canada, and in the early part of November about fourteen thousand 
 insurgents were collected at Napierville, in La Prairie, under the 
 command of Dr. Robert Nelson, Dr. Cote, and one Gagnon ; but, by 
 the active exertions of the military and civil power, the insurgents 
 were easily dispersed. 
 
 While the war was thus easily suppressed in Lower Canada, the 
 American Sympathizers were not idle on their side. On the evening 
 of the twelfth of November, they effected a landing, at a place called 
 Prescott, on the St. Lawrence, in Upper Canada, to the number of five 
 hundred ; carrying with them several field-pieces. An arrangement 
 for attacking this banditti was concerted between Captain Sandon, of 
 the Royal Navy, and Colonel Young. The former of these officers, 
 with three armed steamers, moved along the shore ; while the other, 
 at the head of a small body of militia, supported by parties of regulars 
 and marines, advanced against the enemy, who were drawn up to 
 receive them, to the number of three or four hundred ; when, after a 
 short combat, a part of the sympathizers were routed, and the remain- 
 der threw themselves into a large stone building, and a circular wind- 
 mill ; and it was not until after the arrival of large reinforcements, 
 and a considerable loss of life on the part of the British and Canadians, 
 that the besieged, in number one hundred and fifty-nine, were com- 
 pelled to surrender ; when they were conveyed to Kingston, to be 
 tried by court-martial. 
 
 These lawless bands continued, during the remainder of the year, 
 a system of desultory menaces and aggression, on various points of 
 the American territory. On the fourth of December, at day-break, 
 about four hundred brigands landed, near Sedgwick, at the western 
 extremity of Upper Canada. After burning a steamboat, they set fire 
 to the barracks, in which two militia-men perished, shot the sentry 
 and an individual who refused to join them, and, in the most barba- 
 rous manner, murdered Dr. Hume, a military surgeon; who, having 
 mistaken them for provincial militia, approached their ranks, and fell 
 unarmed into their hands; when, having been attacked by a body of 
 militia, they were dispersed, with the loss of twenty-six killed and as 
 many captured. 
 
 On the twenty-eight of June, in conformity with the ancient, but 
 seemingly puerile and unnecessary custom, the ceremony of the 
 coronation of the youthful sovereign was performed. A resolution to 
 discontinue this relic of barbarism had been unsuccessfully offered, in 
 the House of Peers, by Earl Fitzwilliam. The only novel feature of 
 importance, exhibited on this occasion, consisted in the substitution 
 of a procession through the metropolis, instead of a banquet in West- 
 minster Hall ; during which, the behaviour of the community, which 
 lined the streets, amounting, in number, to more than a million, was 
 beyond all praise. 
 
 Not the least remarkable incident of the season, was the cordial 
 reception which the populace invariably bestowed upon Marshal 
 Soult, Duke of Dalmatia ; who appeared at the English court as am- 
 bassador extraordinary of the French king. 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 337 
 
 The coronation of George the Fourth cost .£243,000: the expenses 
 incurred for that of his immediate successor did not exceed .£50,000. 
 The charges on the present occasion amounted to about £70,000; the 
 excess having been incurred with a view of enabling the great mass 
 of the people to participate in this interesting national festival. The 
 public had voluntarily paid for seats, commanding a view of the 
 procession, not less than £200,000 ; and four hundred thousand indi- 
 viduals had, on that occasion, been added to the metropolitan popu- 
 lation of a million and a half. 
 
 The justly objectionable, though ancient practice of supporting the 
 clergy of the established church by an annual levy upon the grain 
 produced by the farmers, called tythes, had been abolished, as re- 
 garded Ireland, in the year 1837; when there was substituted a cer- 
 tain rent-charge, to which few of the inhabitants were opposed. In 
 the first session of the parliament, held in the present reign, several 
 other laws were passed, designed for the benefit of that turbulent and 
 discontented people; a remark, which more properly applies to the 
 Roman Catholic population of the south and west. On the ninth day 
 of July, a bill, previously introduced in the House of Commons, passed 
 the House of Lords, which extended, in a modified form, the "poor- 
 law" to Ireland ; a measure which eventuated in the most ruinous 
 and distressing consequences, by encouraging nearly the whole rural 
 population of the southern and western counties to take refuge in the 
 numerous poor-houses, then erected, bearing the name of " Unions," 
 and support themselves upon the incomes of the land-owners and in- 
 dustrious farmers. 
 
 Soon afterwards, a bill was passed, abolishing, throughout Great 
 Britain and Ireland, imprisonment for debt, on what is denominated, 
 in law, " mesne process ;" the defendant being still liable to be 
 arrested on execution, after judgment : the bill, moreover, authorized 
 a judge, on application by a creditor, to issue a warrant, to restrain a 
 fraudulent debtor from leaving the county, before he had surrendered 
 his property to assignees. 
 
 In 1833, the ministerial plan for the extinction of colonial slavery 
 was formally brought forward, in the House of Commons, by Mr. 
 Stanley. The plan proposed, which subsequently became a law, 
 was, that the slave should be prepared for entire freedom, by an 
 apprenticeship to his master, for a limited period. In the month of 
 August, of die present year, the negro population of Jamaica came 
 into the enjoyment of the promised freedom; and, shortly afterwards, 
 the African race, in every colony belonging to the British empire. 
 
 In the autumn, a very uneasy spirit began to display itself amongst 
 the working classes in England. In the manufacturing districts, im- 
 mense meetings were convened; and the language of the demagogues 
 who addressed the multitude on these occasions, was of the most in- 
 flammatory character. The dissatisfaction of the people was, doubt- 
 less, connected with the new poor-law; but it is probable thai the 
 more immediate cause was the high price of bread ; caused by the 
 absurd law, long existing, which laid a tax, (amounting, in most 
 years, to an entire exclusion,) upon foreign breadstuff's, in order to 
 enable the farmers to pay exorbitant fixed rents to their landlords. 
 The populace were taught to demand "universal suffrage," annual 
 2f2 
 
338 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 parliaments, and voting by ballot; and a document, called "the 
 people's charter," was framed and circulated; the articles of which, as 
 may be supposed, were of rather an extravagant description. 
 
 1839. A vote having been taken in the House of Commons, on an 
 important question in relation to some of the colonies, the ministry, 
 in a full house, found themselves with a majority of only five ; and 
 on the re-assembling of the house, on the following day, Lord Mel- 
 bourne announced their resignation of office. On the eighth day of 
 May, Sir Robert Peel, (of the tory or conservative party.) waited upon 
 the queen, in answer to her summons. He afterwards, with great 
 candor, avowed to the house, that the queen (who has adopted the 
 whig principles) greeted him with a spontaneous intimation that it 
 grieved her to part with her late ministers, whose conduct she en- 
 tirely approved. A new ministry, however, was not at that time 
 formed. On referring to what is denominated the Red Book, he 
 found that the two lad'es in the closest attendance upon the queen, 
 were the wife of Lord Normanby and the sister of Lord Morpeth, 
 both noblemen being prominent members of the whig party. Sir 
 Robert Peel, therefore, refused to accept of the office of premier, un- 
 less the queen would permit him to remove those ladies, and any 
 others whom he feared might embarrass him in conducting the 
 government. But the queen refused to accede to this condition ; say- 
 ing, in a letter to Sir Robert, that " having considered the proposition 
 made to her yesterday, by Sir Robert Peel, to remove the ladies of 
 her bed-chamber, she cannot consent to adopt a course which she 
 conceives to be contrary to usage, and which is repugnant to her 
 feelings." 
 
 The Melbourne ministry were, therefore, enabled to return to office. 
 
 On the twenty-third of November, the queen communicated to her 
 privy-council her intention of allying herself in marriage with Prince 
 Albert, of Saxe Coburg and Gotha. It would have been desirable, 
 that her intended husband should have been five or six years the 
 senior of Victoria, instead of three months younger, and also her 
 cousin-german ; but there was everything in the reputation of the 
 prince, and in the character of his thoughtful and well-informed mind, 
 to encourage the hope (in the event so fully realized) that the con- 
 nexion would be one of permanent satisfaction to the nation ; and on 
 ■iQAn the tenth day of February, in the following year, the young 
 queen became a wife. 
 
 On the seventeenth day of August, a bill, introduced into the House 
 of Commons by Mr. Rowland Hill, became a law; by which a most 
 surprising experiment was tried in the operations of letter-carrying, 
 resulting in complete success. The postage on a pre-paid letter, not 
 exceeding in weight half an ounce, passing through the post-offices of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, was thenceforth reduced, from an average 
 of about one shilling, to a single penny! 
 
 While the destruction, by fire, of both houses of parliament was 
 fresh in the people's minds, the Royal Exchange was burned to the 
 ground (January 10, 1838). Serious as were the consequences to the 
 merchants of London, the loss which was most mourned, was that of 
 the old statue of its founder, Sir Thomas Gresbam. which had escaped 
 the great fire of London; and in the month of March, of the same 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 339 
 
 year, eighty chambers of the Inner Temple were consumed, together 
 with a mass of deeds and other documents, some of which will be 
 missed for centuries to come. In May, 1840, York Minster was again 
 on fire ; and in June, Astley's Amphitheatre was burned. 
 
 SECOND PART. 
 
 War with China. 
 
 The general election for members of the House of Commons, in 
 1841, was of extraordinary importance. The result exhibited a whig 
 majority of nine in Scotland, and nineteen in Ireland ; and a conser- 
 vative, or tory, majority of one hundred and four in England and 
 Wales; leaving the government in a minority of seventy-six. On the 
 night of August the thirtieth, Lord Melbourne, in the House of Lords, 
 and Lord John Russel, in the House of Commons, declared that, in 
 consequence of the votes in both houses on the Address, in answer to 
 the queen's speech, the ministry had resigned their offices. The 
 queen having consented to the removal of the ladies of the bed- 
 chamber, Sir Robert Peel became prime minister, with the office of 
 First Lord of the Treasury; having associated with him in the cabinet, 
 Lord Aberdeen, Sir James Graham, Lord Stanley, Lord Wharncliffe, 
 and others, of the same political party; Lord Lyndhurst being ap- 
 pointed Lord Chancellor. 
 
 By the census, taken in 1841, it appears that the population of Great 
 Britain and Ireland was more than twenty-seven millions. The re- 
 turn for the three kingdoms, the Channel Islands, and the Isle of Man, 
 shows that the population of England and Wales was 15,901, 9S1 ; of 
 Scotland, 2,624.586; Ireland, 8,205,382; Guernsey, Jersey, and Man, 
 124,079 ; giving a total of 26,856,028. This is exclusive of the army 
 and navy, of merchant seamen afloat, and of all persons travelling 
 abroad, or not under a roof on the fifth day of June ; exhibiting an 
 increase of two millions since 1831. 
 
 That stupendous means of communication between the people re- 
 siding at opposite sides of the river, in London, called the Thames 
 Tunnel, was opened for the first time in the present year. 
 
 On the ninth day of November, the queen gave birth to her second 
 child, the Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the crown ; who, on the 
 twenty-eight of January, in the following year, was baptized, at Wind- 
 sor, by the name of Albert Edward; the king of Prussia acting as 
 sponsor. 
 
 One of the great branches of the trade of the East India Company, 
 was in opium, with China ; and when the charter of the company 
 expired, in 1834, the trade was vigorously prosecuted by private mer- 
 chants, who purchased the article from the company. The Chinese 
 government had long endeavoured to stop the opium trade, as highly 
 mischievous to the people. This opium traffic seems to have pro- 
 ceeded under the eyes of the superintendent sent out by the British 
 government to manage the commercial affairs of British subjects in 
 China, after the general trade had been thrown open, in 1834. The 
 first superintendent sent out, was Lord Napier ; who was instructed 
 
340 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 not to pass the Boca Tigris, at the entrance of the Canton river, in a 
 ship of war ; as the Chinese authorities have invariably made a 
 marked distinction between ships of war and merchant vessels, in 
 regard to the privilege of intercourse. He went up the river, how- 
 ever, in an armed vessel. From that moment, everything went wrong. 
 He was ordered to return ; but instead of complying, he summoned 
 two men-of-war into the river. The alarmed and perplexed autho- 
 rities declared trade to be suspended, and Lord Napier replied by a 
 proclamation, addressed to the Chinese merchants; in which he com- 
 plained of the ignorance and obstinacy of the viceroy. As Lord Na- 
 pier would not depart, as desired, they placed around his residence a 
 guard, who prevented his native servants from carrying in provisions. 
 Meantime, the two frigates were working their way up the river, 
 fired upon by the batteries from the shore, losing two or three men, 
 but doing more damage than they received. The situation of Lord 
 Napier was so embarrassing, his nerves were so fretted by anxiety, 
 and his frame so fevered by heat and excitement, that he sunk under 
 his sufferings. 
 
 In the meantime, the viceroy requested the British to appoint a 
 commercial superintendent, who should control the smuggling of 
 opium, (a duty, which the author of this history conceives should 
 have been performed by the Chinese themselves,) nearly forty vessels, 
 with opium, being then anchored at Linton; but no notice was taken 
 of this demand. 
 
 Captain Elliott, of the Royal Navy, who had been secretary to Lord 
 Napier, was at length appointed superintendent. In 1S38, the smug- 
 gling of opium was carried to so great an extent, that the government 
 at Pekin evinced an intention of abolishing the traffic by force. The 
 British government, therefore, very properly resolved to leave the 
 opium smugglers to meet the consequences of their ventures, in the 
 loss of their property, if the Chinese government chose to decree its 
 forfeiture. Before the end of the year, a seizure was made, at Canton, 
 of opium, the property of a British trader; the person, and the ship 
 that brought the article, were ordered out of the river; and in the 
 following year, (1839.) the Chinese Commissioner, Lin, issued his 
 edict, requiring the foreigners to deliver up to him, all the opium on 
 the coast, in order that it might be destroyed by burning; and de- 
 claring, that if any more were brought, it should be forfeited, and the 
 importers should be put to death. On the same night, the factories 
 (meaning the warehouses) were blockaded, by boats on the river, 
 and by soldiers at the front and rear; and Captain Elliott seeing no 
 alternative but to deliver up all the opium on the coast, more than 
 twenty thousand chests were landed, and delivered to the Chinese 
 authorities. 
 
 In the month of June, 1840, an imposing array of British men-of- 
 war was s~een off the coast of China. The first conquest by the Bri- 
 tish, was the island of Chusan, with little damage to the invaders. 
 On the twenty-fou rth of May, in the following year, Canton was 
 attacked, and in two days the city was almost taken. On the ninth 
 of August, Captain Elliott was superseded by Sir Henry Pottinger ; 
 who made a spirited announcement of closing the war at once, regard- 
 Jess of mercantile and other retarding consequences. No time, indeed, 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 341 
 
 was lost. Before the end of the month, the city of Amoy was taken, 
 and a garrison was left on an island in the harbour. When the man- 
 darin who was second in command saw that all was over, he rushed 
 into the sea, and drowned himself; and another cut his throat on the 
 field. Early in September, Chusan, which had been evacuated by 
 treaty, was again taken ; also, the large city of Ningpo; and wherever 
 the English now appeared, they met little or no resistance. 
 
 Matters were at last settled, by the appearance of the troops before 
 Nankin, in the summer of 1842; and on the twenty-sixth of August, 
 in about a year after the arrival of Sir Henry Pottinger, a treaty of 
 peace was concluded. 
 
 By this treaty, the British were authorized to trade at four ports be- 
 sides Canton, and to establish a consul in each. The island of Hong 
 Kong was ceded to them. The Chinese were to pay to the British 
 twenty-one millions of dollars, by instalments, in addition to six mil- 
 lions already paid by the authorities at Canton, as compensation for 
 the opium destroyed. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, Sir Henry Pottinger sailed for England. In the 
 manufacturing districts, and elsewhere, public dinners, given in his 
 honour, afforded him an opportunity of declaring his views. He bore 
 the most emphatic testimony to the high qualities of the Chinese: 
 some of whose statesmen, he declared, could not be surpassed by any 
 in the world. He plainly told the English that they knew nothing 
 about the Chinese; and were never more wrong than in despising 
 them, or in being careless with regard to violating their customs, or 
 hurting their feelings. 
 
 In 1837, the frontier of British India was terminated by the great 
 sandy desert, extending from the jungles on the Gorra, in the hill- 
 states of Ghurwol, to the sea. Beyond this desert, to the north-east, 
 lay the Punjaub, with its five great rivers ; of which, Runjeet Singh 
 was the sovereign. Beyond the Punjaub, and west of it, lay the re- 
 gion, perhaps the most interesting in Asia, which has, through all 
 known time, served as the highway between western and eastern 
 Asia. The region in question, now called Caubool, or Affganistan, 
 lies directly between the Punjaub and Paran ; and all the great 
 conquerors who have penetrated to India, from the Caspian, the Black 
 Sea, or the Mediterranean, have accomplished their object by crossing 
 the plains and practicable mountain passes of the Caubool. There is 
 an ancient proverb, that no one can be king of Hindostan, without 
 being first lord of Caubool. Alexander the Great went by those 
 plains into India, after taking Herat, at the foot of the mountains, near 
 the borders of Persia. Tamerlane conquered the region on his way 
 to the Ganges; and so did Baber, the founder of the Mogul dynasty, 
 before setting up his empire at Delhi. 
 
 There were endless quarrels amongst the rulers of the different 
 cities and districts of the Caubool territory, either of the same or of 
 different families. The rulers of Caubool and Candahar were usurpers. 
 It at length appeared as if everything conspired to bring Persia, Rus- 
 sia, and the rulers of Affganistan, at once in avowed resistance to the 
 Indo-Britannic frontier. While professions of peaceful counsels were 
 made at St. Petersburg, British officers, in the interior of Asia, made 
 reports of the appearance of Russian agents, who made large promises 
 
342 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 of support against Herat, and sent news of a great Russian army being 
 on its march. 
 
 The ruler of Caubool, Dost Mohammed, in his fear of attack from 
 the Punjaub, applied for aid, not only to Russia and Persia, but to the 
 governor-general of India. The governor, Lord Auckland, at length 
 declared war against Mohammed, with a design of placing Shah 
 Soojah on the throne. 
 
 At the end of November, 183S, Runjeet Singh and Lord Auckland 
 met at Feroze Poore ; the last of the British settlements in the north- 
 west, and of course the nearest to the Punjaub. The meeting of the 
 rulers, their retinues and armies, was a splendid sight. It was believed 
 that, in the present state of affairs, a very easy task lay before the Bri- 
 tish forces. The plan arranged was, that the British, Runjeet Singh, 
 and Shah Soojah, should co-operate, for the objects of all three. Sir 
 Alexander Burnes was sent forward, in advance of the expedition ; 
 and the army that followed was much reduced, in consequence of 
 news having arrived of the retreat of the Shah of Persia to his own 
 dominions; indeed, from other causes, its numbers were already more 
 reduced, than from the effects of a great battle. It was March, and 
 the heat in the jungles was overpowering ; while in the mountain- 
 passes the soldiers were almost blinded by the drifting snow. The 
 Belooches were always like a whirlwind in flank and rear, never in 
 front ; catching up every straggler, and sweeping off camels, provi- 
 sions, and baggage. The enemy dammed up rivers, so as to flood the 
 plains ; and the troops had to wade, for miles together, between one 
 dyke and another, with only the variation of the jungle. The tents, 
 left amongst the rocks and in the caves, the camels and their loads, 
 became the booty of the Beloochees; and the troops emerged from the 
 Bolan pass, hungry and destitute ; the soldiers put upon half rations, 
 and the camp-followers fighting for the remainder of the horses, that 
 fell dead upon the road. Shah Soojah's force was reduced from six 
 thousand to fifteen hundred men; and the British officers wrote home 
 that the march had no parallel, except in the retreat of the French 
 from Moscow. 
 
 Candahar was undefended ; its prince having repaired to his bro- 
 ther, Dost Mohammed. The aged Shah Soojah entered that city on 
 the twenty-fourth of April, and was there crowned, in May, amidst 
 loud expressions of joy. Sir I. Keane proceeded to attack Ghuznee ; 
 one of the strongest fortresses of this strongly fortified country. The 
 journey was difficult and tedious, but the siege and storming of 
 Ghuznee was admirably arranged. The son of Dost Mohammed was 
 taken prisoner, and the Dost himself, on hearing the news, dispersed 
 his force, and left Caubool to Shah Soojah, who entered it on the 
 seventh of August. 
 
 The British bow supposed that all was accomplished. Dost Mo- 
 hammed was supposed to have fled into Bokhara ; and the bandit for- 
 tress of Khelat was taken by General Wiltshire. Honours were 
 lavishly decreed. Mr. McNaghten and Colonel Pottinger were made 
 baronets ; Sir I. Keane was raised to the peerage ; Lord Viscount 
 Auckland was made an earl ; and the troops were to bear on their 
 regimental colours the word ' Aftganistan !' 
 
 In October, the main body of the army returned to India. The very 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 343 
 
 insufficient force, left behind, was placed under two commanders; 
 General Nott having charge of Candahar and the southern region, as 
 far as the Bolan pass ; and Colonel Sale of the northern, from Ghuznee 
 to Caubool and Jellabad. 
 
 In April, 1841, Major-General Elphinstone assumed the command 
 of the troops in Aflganistan. This officer had won reputation in the 
 Peninsular war. but he was now old, in bad health, and, as it soon 
 appeared, so weakened in mind, as to be unfit for any military duty 
 whatever. In May, Major Eldred Pottinger (a younger brother of Sir 
 Henry) arrived from Calcutta ; having been appointed political agent 
 for Cohistan. The moment he arrived, he perceived, and declared 
 in proper quarters, that the force left was altogether insufficient for the 
 occasion, and that it was necessary to prepare for the resistance of the 
 Ghilzee chiefs at any moment. It was an anxious summer for the 
 British at Caubool. There were rumours of battles, with great slaughter 
 of the British, on the road to Jellabad ; but no letters arrived, to remove 
 the anxiety of their friends in India. On the second of November, a 
 rising of the natives occurred at Caubool ; when Sir Alexander Burnes, 
 his brother, and Captain Broadfoot, were murdered. 
 
 For two months after that, all was unmitigated wretchedness. 
 Ammunition failed, and what was, if possible, worse, food also failed. 
 Sir W. M'Naghten went out to treat, was seized by Akber Khan, and 
 murdered. 
 
 The British were now advised, by the enemy, to return to India. 
 Four thousand five hundred fighting men, and twelve hundred camp 
 followers, besides women and children, set forth from Caubool, on 
 the sixth of January, 1842. On the fourth day, only two hundred and 
 seventy soldiers were left. On the fifth, the loss, altogether, was 
 twelve thousand, out of seventeen thousand men. On the sixth day, 
 there were only twenty, to make a stand, against the still-tormenting 
 foe: twelve escaped from a barrier; and of these twelve, six dropped 
 before reaching the last town that was to be passed. Two were im- 
 mediately cut down, the other four fled, as men will do who have 
 death at their heels, and safety almost within sight; but three of the 
 four were overtaken, and slaughtered, within four miles of Jellabad ; 
 and Dr. Brydon arrived alone. 
 
 Except the burying of Cambyses' army, in the African desert, such 
 a destruction has, perhaps, never been heard of in the world. 
 
 There were more saved, however, than were known to Dr. Brydon. 
 The omnipresent Akber Khan, who had proposed to escort the force 
 to Jellabad, and then declared that he would not protect them, offered 
 to save the ladies and children, if the married and wounded officers 
 were delivered, with their families, into his hands. These persons 
 were carried about from fort to fort, until the next summer, when they 
 were released, in consequence of the advance of fresh British troops. 
 General Elphinstone, who was amongst the prisoners, died in 
 captivity. 
 
 Up to thfe moment of General Elphinstone's arrival, in February, 
 Lord Auckland had done every thing in his power for the rescue of 
 the force so rashly left in Affganistan. Troops were sent in abundance, 
 but the difficulty was to get them through the defiles, by which the 
 country must be entered. General Pollock now achieved it with ex- 
 
344 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 treme difficulty and risk, and by means of a strong excitement of the 
 valour of his troops. 
 
 Major Pottinger. after bis return to India, had set out to visit bis 
 brother, at Hong Kong, in China ; and, shortly after his arrival, this 
 gallant soldier died there of his wounds. 
 
 In the parliament, which sat in May, 1842, Sir Robert Peel accom- 
 plished an almost entire revolution in the revenue system of the 
 country. He proposed and carried a tax of three per cent, upon all 
 incomes under the yearly sum of one hundred and fifty pounds ; per- 
 sons who resided on their estates in Ireland, who did not fall under 
 the denomination of * absentees,'' to be exempt. What was to be 
 done with the surplus revenue? It was to be applied to the largest 
 reduction of commercial taxation ever contemplated by a cabinet or 
 parliament. Out of twelve hundred articles, subject to customs' duty, 
 seven hundred and fifty were to be either wholly exempted, or 
 reduced to a very low per-centage. Almost every article used in 
 manufactures, was to be admitted free; also, colonial timber, and 
 all woods used in ornamental cabinet-ware; and the duty on sugar, 
 which had become an article of prime necessity with the poor, was to 
 be much reduced. 
 
 Soon afterwards, a law was passed, awarding to authors the sole 
 property in their works for life, and to their heirs for seven years 
 more ; and if those seven years should expire before the end of forty- 
 two years, then the right was to be be continued to the end of the 
 forty-two years. 
 
 In September, 1S43, the Queen and Prince Albert visited the King 
 and Queen of the French, at their country-seat, the Chateau d'Eu. The 
 visit was returned, in the autumn of the following year, when Louis 
 Philip was received with a welcome as hearty as his people had 
 extended to the Queen. 
 
 Daniel O'Connell, whose name has already appeared in this his- 
 tory, as the great Agitator of Ireland, having, for years past, kept the 
 country in continual turmoil, at length issued his proclamation, that a 
 "monster meeting" was to be held at Clontarf, a village situated 
 about three miles from Dublin, on Sunday the eighth of October, 
 1843. The preparations assumed such a military air, that the govern- 
 ment thought it time to interfere. On the seventh, a proclamation by 
 the viceroy and privy council, was issued, which declared the public 
 peace to be endangered by such practices as had occurred at the 
 repeal meetings, and were contemplated now ; warned all persons to 
 abstain from attending the Clontarf meeting, and enjoined all official 
 persons to aid in its suppression. The Agitator called together his 
 counsel, spoke with marked calmness, and announced that, in conse- 
 quence of the proceedings of the government, there would be no 
 meeting the next day. The association issued a proclamation, desiring 
 all persons to stay at home; and a large number stationed themselves, 
 on Sunday, on the approaches to Clontarf, to turn back all vomers. 
 Ea:iy in the morning, the main strength of the garrison of Dublin 
 was so placed in the field, as that all who arrived found themselves 
 in a narrow lane, between soldiers, and were compelled to pass on 
 by the pressure from behind. No one could find out where the 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 345 
 
 hustings were: they had been removed during the previous night. 
 No one could see OConnell. He stayed away! 
 
 On the fourteenth of October, O'Connell, his son, John Morgan 
 O'Connell, and eight others, were arrested, on charges of conspiracy, 
 sedition, and unlawful assembling. They were admitted to bail, 
 Their trials commenced on the fifteenth of January, 1844, in the 
 Court of Queen's Bench, Dublin. When the attorney-general made 
 his statement, it left the impression, on all minds, that a rebellion, 
 like that of 1798, was impending. On the twenty-fourth day of the 
 trial, the chief justice closed his charge to the jury. There were 
 eleven counts in the indictment. O'Connell was found guilty on them 
 all ; and, with the exception of some clauses, so were six of his 
 associates, — John Morgan OConnell, John Gray, Thomas Steel, R. 
 Barrett, C. G, Duffy, and J. M. Ray. Daniel O'Connell was sentenced 
 to undergo an imprisonment, in the Richmond Penitentiary, for the 
 period of twelve months, and pay a fine of two thousand pounds. 
 His associates were sentenced, each, to pay a fine of fifty pounds, and 
 to an imprisonment of nine months: the whole to give securities to 
 keep the peace for seven years — the lenity of which sentence probably 
 took every one by surprise. 
 
 Proceedings were promptly taken to have the sentence reversed by 
 the House of Lords. All the "lay peers" (those who were not 
 lawyers) retired from the house. Four peers remained — Lords Den- 
 «mn, Cottenhain, Campbell, and Brougham ; all of whom, except the 
 last-named peer, voted that the indictment was informal and insuffi- 
 cient, and that the judgment of the court below be reversed. 
 
 A severe blow was struck at O'Connell, towards the close of the 
 year 1845 — and his extreme violence showed how it told upon his 
 heart — by an exposure of his deficiencies as a landlord. It became 
 known, by means of a full and authorized investigation, that this 
 Liberator, whose heart was wrung by the woes of Ireland — by the 
 wrongs, during seven centuries, of " the finest peasantry in Europe," 
 whose life was devoted to her redemption, was what is known as a 
 middle-man, pocketing three times as much rent, drawn from a 
 squalid peasantry, as he himself paid to the head landord ; while, also, 
 his own tenantry, in the county of Kerry, were in a lost, wretched, 
 and neglected condition. While holding forth, patriotically, against 
 oppression, hundreds of miles from home, and drawing the peasantry 
 .from honest industry, to hear his va pourings about freedom and 
 prosperity, and pay their only shilling in an imaginary cause, he was 
 receiving rent from squalid wretches, who wallowed with the pig, 
 were chilled, under his roof, by the wintry wind, and would fain have 
 shared the food of his beagles. He was furious at this exposure. He 
 went abroad, hoping to reach Rome, and die under the blessings of 
 the Pope. But he sank too rapidly for this. He was carried to Paris, 
 Marseilles, and Genoa, and died, at the last-mentioned place, on the 
 fifteenth of May, 1847, in the seventy-second year of his age; be- 
 queathing his heart to Rome, and his body to his native land. 
 
 On the third of April, 1845, Sir Robert Peel proposed that the 
 annual grant for the support of the Roman Catholic College, at May- 
 nooth, near Dublin, be raised, from nine thousand to twenty-six 
 thousand pounds ; a measure which, after extreme opposition, both in 
 
 2a 
 
346 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 and out of parliament, at length became a law. At the same time, 
 the ministry proposed the establishment of three institutions, to be 
 named Queen's Colleges, in the north, west, and south of Ireland ; in 
 which a liberal and comprehensive academical education should be 
 open to young men of every religious denomination, without distinc- 
 tion. After much debate, not less earnest, but less violent than that 
 on the Maynooth question, the masure was carried, by a vote of one 
 hundred and seventy-seven to twenty-six, in the House of Commons, 
 and without a division in the House of Lords. 
 
 But the Roman Catholic priesthood at length obtained, from the 
 weak and vasciliaring Pius IX., a rescript against these colleges, as fit 
 places for the education of the Roman Catholic youth of Ireland. 
 
 THIRD PART. 
 
 System of Free Trade. 
 
 Before the end of the year 1845 it became evident that the potatoe 
 crop in Ireland was likely to be utterly destroyed by blight. For 
 several years afterwards in close succession, there was an almost 
 total failure of that root, most essential as the chief food of the 
 majority of the Irish people. Unparalleled privation and destitution 
 prevailed ; lessened, in some degree, by the paternal care of the 
 government; large quantities of Indian corn having been imported, 
 by the ministry, from the United States, and ten millions of pounds 
 sterling voted by parliament, to lessen the distress. 
 
 An act passed for relieving the Jews from municipal disabilities, 
 was promotive of justice and social peace. The Lord Chancellor 
 brought in a bill for repealing certain tests, by which Jews were ex- 
 cluded from some municipal offices, whilst others remained open to 
 them. Five Jewish gentlemen were at that time magistrates ; some 
 were deputy-lieutenants of counties ; and all might exercise the office 
 of high-sheriff. If they refused to accept of the office of Sheriff of 
 London, they were subjected to a fine; yet they were excluded from 
 acting as aldermen, by a clause in the declaration which could be 
 subscribed only by a Christian. 
 
 At the opening of the session of parliament, in 1845, there seemed 
 to be only one troublesome controversy which agitated the com- 
 munity — the question respecting the repealing of the corn-laws. 
 
 It was evident, though the truth was admitted with reluctance, that 
 Sir Robert Peel was gaining in popularity, with the manufacturing 
 and commercial classes; by whom, he was regarded as so decidedly 
 in favour of free trade, that every thing might be expected from him, 
 as time afforded opportunities for carrying out his principles. 
 
 What is known as the " sliding scale" of duties on foreign bread- 
 stuffs — the duty decreasing in an inverse ratio with the price of grain 
 in England — had been tried, for a period of two years, without giving 
 satisfaction to any party. Sir Robert Peel now proposed that all 
 produce which serves for food for cattle, such as buckwheat and 
 Indian corn, should be admitted dutyfree: that all colonial grain, 
 salted provisions, and cheese, should be subject to a merely nominal 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 347 
 
 charge ; and, as regarded other grains, all prohibition was to cease in 
 three years; and, in the interim, the duties were to be considerably 
 reduced. A bill, embodying these principles, after encountering most 
 strenuous opposition, passed a third reading in the House of Commons 
 on the sixteenth of May, 1846; and, on the twenty-second of June, 
 passed the House of Lords. 
 
 In the course of the debates on this truly humane measure, Sir 
 Robert Peel paid a high and well-deserved compliment to Mr. 
 Richard Cobden, a member from Manchester, for his untiring zeal and 
 personal sacrifices in its accomplishment. 
 
 On the twenty-ninth of June, the Duke of Wellington, in the House 
 of Lords, and Sir Robert Peel, in the House of Commons, announced 
 their intention of retiring from the ministry. 
 
 In the conclusion of his retirement speech, Sir Robert Peel said : 
 " I shall leave a name, execrated by every monopolist, who from less 
 honourable motives, clamours for protection, because it conduces to his 
 own individual benefit; but it may be that 1 shall leave a name, 
 sometimes remembered with expressions of good will, in the abodes 
 of those whose lot it is to labour, and to earn their daily bread by the 
 sweat of their brow, when they shall recruit their exhausted strength 
 with abundant and untaxed food, the sweeter because it is no longer 
 leavened with a sense of injustice." 
 
 As Sir Robert Peel left the House, on the night of the twenty-ninth, 
 leaning on the arm of Sir George Clerk, he was awaited by a quiet 
 multitude outside, who bared their heads at the sight of him, and 
 escorted him to his house. 
 
 FOURTH PART. 
 O'Brien's Insurrection. 
 
 An often-attempted, but long-deferred measure, received the royal 
 assent, before the close of the session, — the establishment of local 
 tribunals in every district in England, for the recovery of small 
 debts, and the trial of actions of tort, under a certain amount. It pro- 
 vided for the appointment of about sixty local judges; who were 
 directed to make periodical circuits through their respective districts, 
 and to hold courts in all the principal towns twice in every month. 
 
 On the twenty-eighth day of August, parliament was prorogued by 
 commissioners ; who read, from the throne, the royal speech. 
 
 A few days afterwards, a new administration was formed, having, 
 for its head, Lord John Russel, the leader of the whig party in the 
 House of Commons. 
 
 1 o . „ The question of limiting, by law, the labour of young per- 
 ' sons, in factories, which, of late years, had excited much 
 interest and discussion, was brought before parliament, in a practical 
 shape, early in the next session, by Mr. Fielden ; and, after much op- 
 position, became a law. He proposed to limit the labour of young 
 persons, between the ages of thirteen and eighteen, to twelve hours 
 each day, allowing two hours out of the twelve for meals; that is, to 
 ten hours of actual work, each day, for five days in the week, and 
 
348 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 eight hours on Saturday ; and further, that the same restrictions should 
 apply to females above the age of eighteen, to enable them to assist in 
 domestic duties. 
 
 1848. The securit > r which Great Britain derives from her free and 
 popular constitution, was never more signally exemplified, than 
 during this year of political agitation and disorder. While almost 
 every throne on the continent of Europe was either emptied or shaken 
 by revolution, the English monarchy, strong in the loyal attachment 
 of the people, not only stood firm in the tempest, but appeared even 
 to derive increased stability from the events by which foreign king- 
 doms Avere convulsed. 
 
 The tenth of April was the day which the disciples of physical 
 force, organized under the banner of Chartism, announced for a grand 
 display of their strength and numbers ; a demonstration by which it 
 was intended to overawe the government into a concession of their 
 demands, as the only means of averting a violent revolution. But the 
 day which was to have been signalized by the jubilee of Jacobinical 
 license, terminated in the most decisive triumph of the throne and 
 constitution. 
 
 The pretence for assembling, was the presenting to parliament of 
 the great national petition, the signatures to which were declared, by 
 one of the Irish members of the House of Commons, to number 
 nearly five millions; whereas, on a scrutiny, it appeared, that, even 
 reckoning fictitious names, they amounted to only twenty-three 
 thousand. 
 
 The five points of the charter were, annual parliaments, universal 
 suffrage, equal election districts, no property qualification, and pay- 
 ment of members. 
 
 The meeting was appointed to take place on Kennington Common, 
 by the general assembling of all the chartists in the kingdom ; not by 
 delegation, but by their actual individual presence. The numbers to 
 be collected together, were reported at one hundred and fifty 
 thousand ; but, by an estimate made on the ground, they did not 
 amount to more than eight thousand. The government were resolved 
 to check this great danger; and, by the firm and resolute arrange- 
 ment of the military and police, superintended by the Duke of Wel- 
 lington, they were prevented from entering the city, and before the 
 evening, quietly dispersed. 
 
 The seditious principles which had been instilled into the minds 
 of the populace of the South of Ireland, by the long-continued 
 agitation of O'Connell and his coadjutors, were not entirely eradicated 
 by his death. A number of individuals, quite respectable in society, 
 seemed to determine that the smouldering flames of rebellion should 
 be rekindled and kept alive. At the head of these, perhaps well- 
 meaning, but, like Robert Emmett, rash and unthinking individuals, 
 was William Smith O'Brien, of the county of Clare, a brother of Sir 
 Lucius O'Brien, both members of the imperial parliament, and 
 descended from the ancient chieftains of the country; with whom 
 were associated, Thomas Francis Meagher, a gentleman of small 
 yearly income, John B. Dillon, Michael Doheny, and Richard 
 Gorman, the younger, members of the bar ; also Thomas D'Arcy 
 '""See, editor of a political journal, entitled the "Nation," and 
 
HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 349 
 
 Thomas Devin Reilly. sub-editor of the " Felon ;" Terence Bellew 
 M'Manus, Denis Tighe, and Patrick 0*Donnell. Having, on the 
 twenty-ninth of July, with about three hundred and fifty associates, 
 made an attack upon a small body of the police, thirty-five in number, 
 at Boulagh, in the county of Tipperary, O'Brien, M'Manus, O'Donaghue, 
 and Meagher, were arrested, and brought to trial, for high treason, at 
 a special commission, held at Clonmel, on the twenty-first of Sep- 
 tember ; and, after a long-protracted trial, found guilty, and sentenced 
 to be hung. Having, however, been recommended by the jury to the 
 mercy of the crown, and zealous interest having been enlisted in their 
 behalf, by a large number of highly respectable individuals, they were 
 pardoned the capital punishment, and sentenced to be transported to 
 one of the penal colonies for life. 
 
 One of the most important measures of the session of 1849 was the 
 bill, introduced by government, for a repeal of the navigation laws; 
 which, after very strenuous opposition, became a law. 
 
 Parliament was prorogued on the first of August, by a speech from 
 the throne. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 2o2 
 

 TO TEACHERS AND SCHOOL COMMITTEES 
 
 NEW AND POPULAR 
 SCHOOL-BOOKS, 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO,, 
 
 (SUCCESSORS TO GRIGG, ELLIOT & CO.,) 
 
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 Whoever presents to the public a new book, is expected to give, with it, 
 his reasons for the act. 
 
 Within a few years, g*eat advance has been made in the science and the 
 art of teaching. In reading-books, there has not been a corresponding 
 improvement. This is admitted by ail ; and practical educators everywhere 
 are dissatisfied. 
 
 Most of the books we have, are the same that were in use before the 
 public mind was aroused to the necessity of reform in this department of 
 education, and before criticism was directed against the books ; or, if we 
 have some new books, they are such as are chiefly formed to the old, defect- 
 ive models; or are encumbered with useless, because impracticable, techni- 
 calities, definitions, and rules as to the "science of reading" — a mass of 
 arbitrary and needless distinctions and directions, altogether incomprehen- 
 sible to the learner of the art of reading — books, of course, which derive 
 little advantage from having been prepared and published in the midst of 
 progressive improvement. Hence, it is a common remark among teachers, 
 that our " reading-books are decidedly behind the times." 
 
 To remedy some of the existing evils, by supplying some of the acknow- 
 ledged deficiencies, in this department of instruction, is the object of the 
 Natural Series of Readers. 
 
 It is believed that these books, as mere reading books, will be found better arranged 
 as to the extent of the pieces, for the exercise of thought and feeling, and the modula- 
 tions and discipline of the voice, than any other books now before the public. 
 
 1. In the Primer, the learner is taught one letter at a time, as a lesson — the sound or 
 sounds of the letter being learned in connection with its name ; though instructors pre- 
 ferring to do so, can teach the Alphabet in the usual manner. 
 
 2. By this scries, the child is taught how to pronounce each syllable of the words in 
 the reading lesson ; and this, by a very simple key of twenty-two words, which a child 
 can learn in two hours, and which having learned, he requires no more assistance in 
 pronunciation. 
 
 3. By the peculiar method here adopted, the learner is instructed to pronounce each 
 syllable of a word as though it was the part of a word; and not, as taught by other 
 orthoepists, as though each syllable was an entire word. 
 
 4. By this system, too, the pupil is instructed in what are really the sounds which 
 make the spoken words, and is taught (more than by any other system he can be taught) 
 to speak with perfect distinctness the sounds of the words he utters, and in the manner 
 in which he should utter them, to make his elocution clear and easy. 
 
 5. By the arrangement of the pronouncing and spelling lessons, in the first four books 
 of the series, the learner is put on his guard against relying on the sounds of the spoken 
 words, in giving the letters of the printed words ; the great cause of all the bad spelling 
 of the language. 
 
 6 In other reading books, the lessons and "stories*' are alike short — too short to 
 excite and keep up an interest in the minds of learners. 
 
 7. In this series, the subjects are continued through several lessons; while each lesson 
 has its peculiar point. Besides, the whole tenor and varying styles of the differed 
 pieces are such as to kindle the intellect, and prolong its healthful excitement ; to arouse 
 the social and moral feelings; to throw a charm around the common incidents of every, 
 day life; and to impress the student with the truth that rectitude, industry and useful- 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 The books are commended to the attention of the friends of educational improve- 
 ment, in the full belief that they will secure a free, easy, and natural style of elocution 
 in the progressive tyro, and will naturalize the constrained, stiff, and artificial reader; 
 and with the full conviction, also, that they are better graduated in their intellectual 
 character than other books in common use, and simpler, clearer, higher, and more 
 attractive and impressive in their moral tone ; that to the old as well as young, they 
 will be found "playful without being coarse, humorous without irreverence, if witty 
 not profane — instructive, though not prosy or dictatorial, severe, yet not repulsive, and 
 sentimental without being dull." 
 
 OLIVER B. PEIRCE. 
 
 Rome, N. ., January 25, 1851. 
 
 OCT The above books are obtaining a general introduction into most of 
 the best schools in the country ; and teachers, by writing the publishers, 
 (post-paid,) can obtain a copy for examination. 
 
 GRIGG & ELLIOT'S 
 
 NEW SERIES OF 
 
 COMMON SCHOOL READERS, 
 
 NUMBER'S FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, FOURTH, AND FIFTH, 
 
 These books are particularly adapted for an introduction into the Schools 
 generally in the South and West. 
 
 HAZEN'S NEW SPELLER AND DEFINER. 
 
 VERY MUCH ENLARGED. 
 
 THE NEW SPELLER AND DEFINER. 
 
 312 Pages, 12mo. 
 
 SIT EDWA&D ESAZEK", A. M. 
 
 This work was prepared for the press by the author of "The Speller 
 and Definer ;" a book generally known throughout the country. The 
 words are classified according to the number of letters or syllables, and 
 according to the parts of speech. Experience of twenty years in the origi- 
 nal work just mentioned, has proved beyond doubt that these classifications 
 greatly diminish the labour of committing the definitions to memory, and 
 equally increase the certainty of recollecting them. By the same classifi- 
 cations, pupils are prepared to learn with facility the analysis of words, as 
 the primitives commonly occur, in the various classes of words, before the 
 derivatives. The work contains about ten thousand words, more than half 
 of which are primitives, which serve as the foundations of others formed by 
 the help of prefixes and suffixes. A sufficient number of derivatives are 
 explained to guide in defining others. The form of definition generally cor- 
 responds with the meaning of the suffix or the prefix. 
 
 Unwearied pains were taken to give correct, unequivocal definitions. 
 Mere synonyms were, therefore, avoided as much as possible ; and circum- 
 i«„„t;™ vL-sa nrofprrpH with the view to indicate, with some certainty, the 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 precise applications of the words. On this account, the definitions are 
 longer than they are in School Dictionaries, which contain so many words 
 on each page, that, in most cases, they have no point. 
 
 The best definitions, however, seldom give a complete knowledge of a 
 word ; hence, in all large and complete dictionaries, sentences or parts of 
 sentences are given to show how the words are applied. In this way the 
 author has illustrated many words, to show how pupils are to associate them 
 in regular exercises. 
 
 By the time pupils are competent to commit to memory the definitions of 
 words, and to illustrate their applications, they are able to learn the theory 
 of grammar. The outlines of English Grammar have, therefore, been 
 introduced at the bottom of the pages. The space thus occupied amounts 
 to thirty-three pages; yet the definitions of etymology, the rules of syntax, 
 the formulas of parsing, and the structures of the language, together with 
 numerous examples of illustration, are systematically presented. English 
 Grammar is to be applied by pupils in the construction of sentences, and is 
 thus to be rendered a subjec of practical utility. 
 
 The book which has thus been described, can be depended upon as a 
 correct and highly finished work. No recommendations are presented in 
 its support, not because those of a high character could not be obtained, but 
 because its author is sufficiently known to command the confidence of the 
 teachers and the public at large. 
 
 $Cr Teachers, in ordering, will be careful to say, " Hazen's New Speller 
 and Definer; Lippincott, Grambo &. Co.'s edition." 
 
 WALKER'S SCHOOL AND FAMILY DICTIONARY. 
 NEW EDITION. 
 
 FROM NEW STEREOTYPE PLATES. 
 GREATLY IMPROVED, AND PRINTED ON WHITE PAPER. 
 
 A CRITICAL PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY 
 
 AND EXPOSITOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 IN WHICH THE MEANING OP EVERY WORD IS EXPLAINED, AND THE 
 
 SOUND OF EVERY SYLLABLE DISTINCTLY SHOWN. 
 To which are prefixed an Abstract of English Pronunciation, and Direc- 
 tions to Foreigners for acquiring a Knowledge of the 
 Use of this Dictionary. 
 
 BY JOHN WALKER, 
 
 Author of "Elements of Elocution," " Rhyming Dictionary," &c. 
 
 ABRIDGED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, BY AN AMERICAN CITIZEN, 
 
 € Chamber of the Controllers of Public Schools, 
 
 (First School Drst. of Pennsylvania, Philada., March 15, 1848. 
 At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, First School District 
 of Pennsylvania, held at the Controllers' Chamber, on Tuesday, March 
 14th, the following resolution was adopted : 
 
 Resolved, That "Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary," published 
 by Grigg, Elliot & Co., be adopted for use in the Public Schools. 
 
 [Certified from the Minutes.] Thomas B. Florence, Secretary. 
 
 28 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 TRACY'S NEW SERIES OF ARITHMETICS: 
 
 AN ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 EXTENSIVE EXERCISES FOR THE SIATE. 
 12mo. 
 
 A SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 NEW AND IMPROVED RULES 
 FOR THE APPLICATION OF NUMBERS, 
 
 12mo. 
 
 BIT C. TaACY,A.M., 
 
 PRINCIPAL OP CLASSICAL INSTITUTE, NEW YORK. 
 
 Tracy's Elementary Arithmetic, and Tracy's Scientific and Prac- 
 tical Arithmetic, constitute a part of our educational series. These 
 works are from the pen of a thorough, practical teacher, of long experience 
 and eminent success, especially in the mathematical department. We 
 therefore invite a critical investigation of their peculiar merits, with the 
 fullest assurance that the result will be, their extensive introduction into the 
 schools of our country. Space will not allow us, in this connection, to pre- 
 sent all we desire ; we therefore refer the inquirer to the works themselves, 
 simply stating that we shall be happy to furnish teachers with copies for 
 examination. 
 
 The design of the more elementary treatise is to lay a broad and deep 
 foundation, on which may be reared a substantial superstructure. The 
 exercises are therefore of an elementary character, but extensive and prac- 
 tical. A thorough investigation of the varied examples in Simple Arith- 
 metic, presented in this book, must secure for the scholar of ordinary 
 capacity a thorough acquaintance, not only with the nature of numbers in 
 their elementary capacity, but with their application to the practical pur- 
 poses of life. + 
 
 The Scientific and Practical Arithmetic, although a work complete in itself, 
 in every respect, lias peculiarities not noticeable to any great extent in the 
 primary work ; its object being to apply the elementary principles therein 
 developed, so as to secure, in all cases, the required result by the most direct 
 course. The mode of dealing with figures here inculcated, inspires the 
 scholar with activity of thought and execution, and consequently ready and 
 accurate results. Instead of presenting full illustrations of what we here 
 state, we refer the inquirer to the work of analysis by cancellation, as exhi- 
 bited at page 81, and applied throughout tl e body of the work to all solu- 
 tions naturally effected by the combined .pplication of multiplication and 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 division ; and especially to the computation of exchanges in the money, weight, 
 or measure of different countries, as exhibited at pages 241-2-3-7, &c. 
 The principle of cancellation, in itself considered, is of course no new thing ; 
 but its application as here presented, important though it is, we are confi- 
 dent, cannot be found in any other system of Arithmetic extant. 
 
 In the application of the roots to business purposes, other new features in 
 arithmetical science, which both abbreviate and shorten the ordinary pro- 
 cess, are presented. We say "new features;" by this we simply mean, 
 new applications of principles previously well known. In conclusion, we 
 would simply invite attention to the following notices of the works from 
 those who have tested their merits ; most of whom are practical teachers, 
 of eminent success. 
 
 The third number of the series will be issued soon. It will contain much 
 that is new and important, relative to commercial and other business trans- 
 actions of life. 
 
 Dear Sir: — I have examined your Arithmetics, and am free to say I 
 know of no better works extant. I am particularly pleased with the clear- 
 ness with which principles are stated, and with the general arrangement of 
 
 the work. 
 
 SAMUEL GLEN, 
 
 Principal of Parochial School in Twelfth street, N. Y. 
 
 Having examined the series of Arithmetics by C. Tract, A. M., I think 
 them in many respects superior to any others I have seen. The exercises 
 of tne "elementary" work are well calculated to make expert and ready 
 arithmeticians; while its whole plan renders it a fit substitute for a more 
 expensive work. The " Practical Arithmetic" contains much original mat- 
 ter, aspecially on the subject of cancellation. Its rules and principles are 
 clearly expressed ; its examples are copious, appropriate, and well arranged. 
 The excellence of these works renders them worthy of extensive patronage. 
 
 HENRY KIDDLE, 
 Principal of Public School No. 2, New York. 
 
 By the application of the principle of cancellation throughout the 
 
 series, the shortest way will be the ordinary method of the learner. The 
 system is well adapted to make rapid and accurate arithmeticians, and emi- 
 nently practical. 
 
 M. C. TRACY, 
 Principal of Mechanics 1 Institute, New York. 
 
 From the " Teachers' Advocate." 
 Mr. Tkacy considers that the simple rules are most used, and urges the 
 necessity of acquiring great familiarity and expertness in their use and 
 application. His "elementary" work, therefore, contains extensive exer- 
 cises for the slate. It is systematic and analytic ; and many of the examples 
 are made up from statistics occur ring in commerce, practical economy, and 
 science. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Of the "Scientific and Practical Arithmetic," the new and marked fea- 
 tures are — a free and rational use of cancellation, an explanation of Propor- 
 tion by agencies and results, and the application of the principle that the 
 product of the roots of several numbers is equal to the root of the product 
 of the same numbers. 
 
 These works are written by a skilful and eminently practical man, and 
 are sufficiently extensive for all ordinary business purposes. 
 
 From Rev. Isaac Ferris, D. D., President of Rutgers Female Institute, N. Y. 
 It gives me pleasure to state that I have examined the New Series of 
 Arithmetics by Mr. Calvin Tracy, with attention and interest. His larger 
 work, professing to be an improvement of a former edition, is worthy of the 
 name. His plan is lucid, comprehensive, and practical; and the whole 
 shows the successful teacher, of long experience. The results of years in 
 teaching Arithmetic are here very hafJpily presented. 
 
 From Professor A. Rand, Principal of Boys' Select School, No. 16 Thirteenth 
 
 street, New York. 
 Mr. Tract: 
 
 Sir — I have for some time used your system of Arithmetic with much 
 satisfaction. I give it the preference on account of its general application 
 of the principle of cancellation. When your former edition was out of print, 
 or rather when I was erroneously informed that it was so, I was so unwill- 
 ing to relinquish its use, that I sent to my former pupils, and bought up old 
 copies to supply my classes. 
 
 $Cr The testimony of Prof. Rand respecting the purchase of old copies, 
 is not a solitary case ; others testify to having done the same. 
 
 SMITH'S NEW COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES. 
 
 THE CHILD'S 
 FIRST BOOK IN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 DESIGNED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO 
 
 E. M. SMITH'S COMMON SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 A small Quarto, illustrated by numerous Maps, on a new and improved 
 
 plan, and over one hundred beautiful and original Cuts, forming the 
 
 most complete and attractive Primary Geography yet 
 
 published in this country. 
 
 This elementary work, as also the larger School Geography named below, 
 contains as much or more geographical information, and better arranged, 
 than any other Geographies now used in the schools of this country; for 
 the truth of which, the publishers particularly request all teachers to exa- 
 mine for themselves. Copies for examination will be furnished gratis. 
 
mrruNUUTT, UKAMBO & C O.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 SMITH'S 
 NEW COMMON SGHOOL GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 ELUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS, 
 
 AND PARTICULARLY ADAPTED FOR ALL COMNON SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, & C . 
 
 This is a new work; and all persons ordering will please say — Lippin- 
 cott, Grambo & Co.'s edition of Smith's Geography. 
 
 There is no School- Book ever issued from the° American press that is more 
 highly recommended than this invaluable elementary work ; and it will be 
 universally introduced into all the Public and Private Schools in the United 
 States, if real merit is taken into consideration. All Teachers are particu- 
 larly requested to give it a candid examination. 
 
 We subjoin testimonials from numerous distinguished Teachers and 
 others, who have practically tested thUr value as school-books. 
 
 From John M'Clusky, D. D., Principal of the Academy and Normal School, 
 West Alexandria, Pennsylvania. 
 
 Ti/f ^ . JuNE 23d > 1849. 
 
 Messrs. Grtgg, Elliot <J. Co. -Having used R. M. Smith's Quarto Geo- 
 graphy m the Academy of West Alexandria for some time, it gives me 
 pleasure to recommend it to the attention of all Common District Schools 
 Academies, and even Colleges, as decidedly a work of great merit. 
 
 JOHN M'CLUSKY. 
 
 „ . T , Richmond, November 13th, 1848. 
 
 Dear Sir, -I have devoted all my leisure to the books left with me. 
 Smith s Common School Geography is the best system 1 have ever examined. 
 I know of no book so well adapted as the American, to aid the instructor 
 in teaching boys to think- without which there can be, in truth no 
 education. ' 
 
 Very truly yours, 
 
 R. N. FOX, 
 Teacher of Classical and Mathematical School, S. E. comer Capitol Square. 
 
 The following teachers in Richmond, Virginia, have also recommended 
 and introduced R. M. Smith's Geography in their Schools and Academies. 
 
 a PORTERFIELD TAYLOR, 
 
 Principal of Union Academy. 
 JUDITH A. BREEDEN, 
 
 Miss AUSTIS MAGEE, SUSANNAH H. BURTON^ 
 
 E. G. STARKE, CAROLINE H. GAY 
 
 A. B. SMITH, ELIZABETH L. READ, 
 
 ABIAH S. HILLER, C. A. STANFIELD 
 
 M. H. SMITH, A. LYON, 
 
 MARY F. ANDERSON, WILLIAM S. FISHER 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Norfolk, Virginia, Jan. 9th, 1849. 
 We have carefully and critically examined R. M. Smith's Geography, 
 and give it a decided preference over all other works of the kind, and have 
 introduced it into our schools. 
 
 H. HUTCHINSON, HOPE BAIN, 
 
 W. S. FORREST, ELIZA M. RAMSAY, 
 
 WILLIAM WHITE, A. E. BROWN, 
 
 E. G. NEWSUND, LAURA L. DANIEL, 
 
 ANN DORER, Teachers. 
 
 Petersburg, Va., Nov. 3d, 1849. 
 We have introduced R. M. Smith's Geography into our schools. 
 S. PARRISH, . ABIGAIL ROCKWELL, 
 
 W. W. CAMPBELL G. M. F. BASS, 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 We have introduced R. M, Smith's Geography into our schools. 
 JAMES CHARLTON, Newberry, Pa. 
 JOHN TOBIN, Boydstown, Bedford co., Pa. 
 JACOB LANDIS, York, Pa. 
 JOSEPH H. THOMPSON, York, Pa. 
 W. G. MITCHELL, York, Pa. 
 A. IRWIN, M'Connellsburg, Pa. 
 
 SAMUEL ARTHUR, Olney Clas. School, Phil, co., Pa. 
 S. SHIRLEY, Fayetteville, Pa. 
 M. J. BOYD, Lancaster, Pa. 
 PHffiBE PAINE, Carlisle, Pa. 
 W. H. BLAIR, Orrsburg, Pa. 
 JAMES M. ALEXANDER, Bedford, Pa. 
 M. J. LAVERTY, Shippensburg, Pa. 
 THOMAS W. MORRIS, Plainfield. Pa. 
 
 THE COLUMBIAN ORATOR, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 A VARIETY OF ORIGINAL AND SELECTED PIECES, 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 RULES CALCULATED TO IMPROVE YOUTH AND OTHERS IN THE 
 ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL ART OF ELOQUENCE. 
 
 B"5T CAXiBB BX2TG-HJLM, A. Tfl,, 
 
 Author of " The American Preceptor," " Young Lady's Accidence," &c. 
 
 One volume, t2mo. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MANUAL; 
 
 A COMMENTARY ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 WITH QUESTIONS, DEFINITIONS, AND MARGINAL EXERCISES, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BIT J. BAETLETT BUaLEIGH, LL.D. 
 
 Twelfth Edition ; 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
 The Publishers ask the particular attention of all Teachers and School 
 Directors to the following notices of this popular School-Book : 
 
 Certificate of Correctness, from the Department of State. 
 
 Department of State, ) 
 
 Washington, Oct. 1, 1850. 5 
 This is to certify, that Joseph Bartlett Burleigh's Script Edition of the 
 U. S. Constitution, with the Amendments, has been carefully collated with 
 the originals in the Archives of this Department, and proved to be accurate 
 in the capitals, orthography, text, and pu?ictuation. 
 
 Dan. Webstek, Secretary of State. 
 W. S. Derrick, Chief Clerk. 
 
 J Office of the Controllers of Public Schools, 
 
 t First School Dist. of Pennsylvania, Philada., Dec. 11, 1850. 
 At a meeting of the Controllers of Public Schools, First District of Penn- 
 sylvania, held at the Controllers' Chamber, on Tuesday, December 10th, 
 1850, the following resolution was adopted : 
 
 Besolved, That the American Manual, by J. Bartlett Burleigh, be intro- 
 duced as a class-book into the Grammar Schools of this District. 
 
 Robert J. Hemphill, Secretary. 
 
 This book has also just been introduced into the Public Schools of Wash- 
 ington, D. C. 
 
 Alleghany City, May 31, 1849. 
 Having examined the American Manual, by J. B. Burleigh, and having 
 used it as a text-book in our classes in the Public Schools of this city, we 
 think it a work of superior merit. The subject, the style, the marginal 
 exercises, the questions at the foot of each page, the appendix, and the 
 statistical tables, are such as to make the work complete. In the hands of 
 the judicious teacher, it will be found the very book needed. 
 
 J. A. COVELL, A. T. DOUTHETT, 
 
 E. FRAZIER, JNO. STERRITT, 
 
 M. WILSON, WM. M. HASTINGS, 
 
 JAS. B. D. MEEDS, LEONARD H. EATON, 
 
 Principal of 2d Ward Boys' School, Pittsburg. 
 JAMES ANDERSON, Principal of Pittsburg Academy, and many 
 
 other Principals of Schools and Academies. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS, 
 
 (COPY.) 
 
 At a meeting of the Board of School Commissioners of the city of Wheel- 
 ing, Va., held at the court-house, June 14th, 1849, the following resolution 
 was adopted unanimously : 
 
 Resolved, That the American Manual, by Jos. Bartlett Burleigh, be and 
 the same is hereby adopted as a text-book, to be used in the Public Schools 
 of this city. 
 
 Attest, GEORGE W. SIGHTS, 
 
 Clerk of Board of School Commissioners. 
 
 Pittsburg, June 5th, 1849. 
 We, the undersigned, Teachers in the Public Schools of Pittsburg, have 
 used Burleigh's American Manual with great satisfaction and delight. The 
 p-lan of the work is in all respects judicious. The marginal exercises are a 
 novel and original feature. They are arranged with great accuracy and dis- 
 crimination. Their use not only excites the liveliest interest among the 
 pupils, but produces great, salutary and lasting effects in arousing the men- 
 tal powers, and leading the scholars constantly to investigate, reason, and 
 judge for themselves. The Manual is elegantly written, and must have the 
 effect to give a taste for what is pure and lofty in English literature. 
 Throughout the entire work, the strictest regard is inculcated for the purest 
 morality. 
 
 B. M. KERR, SAMUEL C. HARPER, 
 
 J. WHITTIER, M. H. EATON, 
 
 N. VERNON, 
 Prof, of Mathematics and English Literature in Frederick College. And 
 many other Principals of Schools and Academies . 
 
 Extract of a Letter from Wm. Roberts, Esq., President of the Board of School 
 Commissioners of Princess Anne county, Virginia. 
 
 Newtown, Princess Anne Co., Va., July 27, 1849. 
 The Board of School Commissioners, of this county, held a meeting 
 about three weeks ago, and passed a resolution that the American Manual 
 be introduced into our schools. The popularity of the Manual, upon exa- 
 mination by so large a number of our citizens, almost surprises me ; for not 
 only the School Commissioners have read it, but a great number of our 
 citizens. I consider it the best book for training the young mind, in the 
 earlier stages of its education, I have ever seen." 
 
 (COPY.) 
 
 Baltimore, October 5th, 1848. 
 The American Manual, by Joseph Bartlett Burleigh, A. M., has been 
 introduced by the Commissioners of the Public Schools into the Central 
 High School, and the two Female High Schools of Baltimore. 
 
 J. W. TILYARD, 
 Clerk of Commissioners of Public Schools 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Baltimore, March 14th, 1849. 
 This is to certify, that the Board of Commissioners of the Public Schools 
 for Baltimore county have adopted the American Manual, by J. B. Bur- 
 leigh, as a text-book, to be used in the schools under their direction. This 
 Board has under its control over sixty schools located throughout Baltimore 
 
 county. • 
 
 WILSON C. N. CARR, 
 ClerJc to the Board of School Commissioners for Baltimore county. 
 
 Extract of a Letter from Leroy G.Edwards, Esq., President of the Board of 
 Public School Commissioners for Norfolk county, Virginia. 
 I consider the American Manual a desideratum which had not before been 
 supplied, and respectfully recommend that it be used generally in every 
 District Free School in this county. 
 
 Extract of a Letter from John B. Strange, A. M., and R. B. Tschudi, A. 31., 
 Principals of the Norfolk Academy, Virginia. 
 We do not hesitate to pronounce it (the American Manual) one of the 
 best School-Books we have ever examined, not only as regards the matter, 
 but also the maimer of communicating it. The Manual is adapted to the 
 capacity of the youngest, and must prove highly interesting and instructive 
 to the oldest pupils. It communicates information which every American 
 should possess, in a style so clear, and by a plan so admirable, that the work 
 must commend itself to all ,vho become acquainted with its merits. We 
 shall introduce it into this institution, and hope that the schools throughout 
 the country will not fail to appreciate its worth, and adopt it at the earliest 
 moment as one of their text-books. 
 
 Extract of a Letter from Hon. Colman Yellot. 
 I sincerely hope that the American Manual may become a standard text- 
 book in all our schools. But it is a work designed not merely for the perusal 
 of the young. Its peculiar beauty of style, and the great amount of useful 
 information collected in so convenient a form, should render it a favourite 
 book of reference for the legislator, the politician, and the general reader. 
 
 Extract of a Letter from Alexander Campbell, D. D., LL. D., President of 
 Bethany College, Virginia. 
 The American Manual is an admirable text-book for teacher and pupil, 
 on the various important subjects so essential to the American scholar and 
 statesman. 
 
 (copy.) 
 
 Steubenville, Ohio, May 17th, 1849. 
 Messrs. Grig k - Elliott # Co. — We, the undersigned, Teachers of the 
 Public Schools in the city of Steubenville, find, on trial, that Burleigh's 
 American Manual is the best book with which we are acquainted for waking 
 up the mind of youth, for training them to understand what they read, for 
 leading them to investigate and reason for themselves ; thereby thoroughly 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 fitting them for the duties of after life. The school, the infallible test of 
 the merils of a class-book, proves that its proper use need only be witnessed 
 to receive the approbation of every friend of thorough education. 
 M. A. WALKER, WM. M'CAY, 
 
 M. K1DDO, FRANCIS TURNER, 
 
 M. HULL, I. B. BUTLER, 
 
 J. BROWN, E. KELL, 
 
 M. ALLEN, M. ORR. 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the Hon. B. Everitt Smith. 
 I doubt whether the ingenuity of man can ever devise a work better 
 adapted to the purpose avowed by the author. I arose from the perusal of 
 the American Manual, more deeply impressed than ever with my responsi- 
 bility as a citizen, and with the absolute importance of fostering sound 
 virtue and political morality. 
 
 From L. T. Cornell, Esq., late Teacher of Mathematics, Ypsilanti Seminary, 
 
 Michigan. 
 Having carefully examined the American Manual, by President Burleigh, 
 A. M., and having used it as a text-book (the best test of its merits), I deem 
 it a work of superior merit. As a Commentary on the Constitution of the 
 United States, it is of high intrinsic worth. The directions upon the method 
 of instruction — the subject, the style, the marginal exercises, the appendix 
 (a key to the whole work), the statistical tables, and the questions at the 
 foot of each page, fully meet the wants of the pupil and teacher. The 
 points treated of, the language, and the plan of the work, make it complete. 
 It is of the highest order. Its merits commend it to universal approbation. 
 
 SMILE Y'S ARITHMETIC; 
 
 Or, The New Federal Calculator, in Dollars and Cents. 
 
 This work contains, among other very important improvements, Questions on the Rules and 
 Theory of Arithmetic, which are considered, by Teachers generally, very conducive to the im- 
 provement of the pupil. Although a prejudice exists among some Teachers in favour of 
 the old works on Arithmetic, yet the very liberal patronage which this work has 
 received, must be considered as decisive evidence of the high estimation in 
 which it is held by most of the instructors of youth. Upwards of 
 
 FIVE XXUXTDXIED THQUSii^E COPIES 
 
 have been printed and sold. The sums being altogether in Dollars and Cents, gives it a decided 
 preference over any other Arithmetic in use. The most distinguished Teachers in our city 
 pronounce it superior to any other similar work ; therefore the publishers sincerely 
 hope this useful improvement will overcome the prejudice that many teach- 
 ers have to introducing new works — particularly those preceptors 
 who wish to discharge their duty faithfully to parent 
 and child. 
 
 A KEY TO THE ABOVE ARITHMETIC, 
 
 In which all the examples necessary for a learner are wrought at large, and also solutions given 
 of all the various rules. Designed principally to facilitate the labour of Teachers, and assist 
 such as have not '.he opportmiity of a tnbrr's aid. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GKAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 SMILEY'S 
 
 ARITHMETICAL RULES AND TABLES, 
 
 FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS. 
 
 This is the best work of the kind now in print ; but teachers are parti- 
 cularly requested to examine for themselves. 
 
 PRACTICAL QUESTIONS, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE USE OF ANY ARITHMETIC 
 B"5T J. BARTXiXSTT BUSXiEZGH, 1.1.. D. 
 
 This little volume should be in every school. It is unlike any other work 
 before the public ; pupils engage in its exercises with the enthusiasm of 
 play, and are thoroughly fitted by it for the active duties of life. 
 
 A Valuable and Necessary Assistant to the Study of Natural 
 Philosophy in Schools and Academies. 
 
 MAYO'S 
 MECHANICS AND NATUBAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 
 IN SIX LARGE PLATES, 
 
 MOUNTED ON PASTEBOARD, AND CONTAINING NEARLY 100 FIGURES. 
 
 ARRANGED AND EDITED 
 
 A well-selected and well-engraved set of illustrations. They may not 
 supersede an apparatus, when an apparatus can be had ; but in all ordinary 
 cases, and in all schools where the elements of natural philosophy are taught 
 by the aid of nothing but the little, miserable illustrations in the books, 
 these plates will unquestionably prove of the greatest service to the pupil, 
 and very much facilitate the labor of the teacher. 
 
 C. W. HACKLEY, D. D., 
 Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in Columbia College. 
 
 I have examined a set of plates about to be published by Lippincott, 
 Grambo & Co., and believe that they may be very useful in illustrating the 
 elementary principles of Natural Philosophy. 
 
 JAMES RENWICK, 
 Prof, of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in Columbia College. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 I have examined the Philosophical Diagrams prepared by Dr. Mayo. 
 They are, in my opinion, very accurate and well arranged, and cannot but 
 prove highly useful for elementary instruction in the various branches of 
 Natural Philosophy. It affords me pleasure to recommend them. 
 
 HORACE WEBSTER, LL. D., 
 President of the New York Free Academy. 
 
 GRIMSHAW'S 
 LAPSES' LEXIGGN AND PARLOR COMPANION: 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 NEARLY EVERY WORD IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 AND EXHIBITING THE PLURALS OF NOUNS AND THE PARTI 
 CIPLES OF VERBS: 
 
 BEING ALSO PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 USE or ACADEXSISS AJSfD schools. 
 BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW, Esq. 
 
 One volume, 18mo. 
 
 THE GENTLEMAN'S LEXICON, 
 
 OR POCKET DICTIONARY. 
 BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW, Esq. 
 
 One volume, 18mo. 
 
 "They differ from all preceding works of the kind in this, that they 
 exhibit the plurals of all nouns which are not formed by the mere addition 
 of the letter s, and also the participles of every verb now generally used ; 
 and, unless accompanied by a particular caution, no word has been admitted 
 which is not now of polite or popular use ; and no word has been excluded 
 which is required either in epistolary composition or conversation." 
 
 In giving the above extract, we take occasion to say, that Teachers will 
 find the "Ladies' and Gentleman's Lexicons" admirably adapted to take 
 the place, with advantage to their pupils, of the different works recently 
 put into their hands under the name of Expositors, &c. 
 
 {£T The above work has been introduced as a class-book into many of 
 our academies and schools, with great approbation. 
 
 MURRAY'S EXERCISES AND KEY 
 
 ADAPTED TO HIS GRAMMAR. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 THE BEAUTIES OF HISTORY; 
 
 OR, 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE OPPOSITE EFFECTS OF VIRTUE AND VICE. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES. 
 
 1 vol. 12mo., with Plates. 
 
 "There are here collected, within a narrow compass, the most striking 
 examples of individual virtue and vice which are spread forth on the pages 
 of history, or are recorded in personal biography. The noblest precepts 
 are recommended for the guidance of youth, and in the most impressive 
 manner is he taught to conquer the degrading impulses which lower the 
 standard of the human character." 
 
 CONVERSATIONS ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; 
 
 [N WHICH THE ELEMENTS OF THAT SCIENCE ARE FAMILIARLY 
 EXPLAINED. 
 
 II^USTRATED WITH PLATES. 
 
 By the Author of " Conversations on Chemistry," &c. 
 
 With considerable Additions, Corrections, and Improvements in the body 
 of the work, Appropriate Questions, and a Glossary. . 
 
 . BY DR. THOMAS P, JONES, 
 Prof, of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS ON CHEMISTRY; 
 
 IN WHICH THE ELEMENTS OF THAT SCIENCE ARE FAMILIARLY EX- 
 PLAINED, AND 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY EXPERIMENTS AND ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. 
 
 ? rom the last London Edition; in which all the late Discoveries and Im- 
 provements are brought up to the present time. 
 
 BY DR. THOMAS F. JONES, 
 
 *rofessor of Mechanics in the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsyl- 
 vania, &c. 
 
 ANSLEY'S 
 ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE: 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF RHETORIC AND BELLES-LETTRES. 
 
 BY E* A. ANSLEY, A. M, 
 
 Half cloth; 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 CLEVELAND'S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION. 
 
 A 
 
 COMPENDIUM OF GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 BY CHARLES D. CLEVELAND. 
 
 A NEW EDITION, REVISED. 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
 RUSCHENBERGER'S 
 
 FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY. 
 
 TOR SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES. 
 
 1. ELEMENTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, for 
 
 Beginners; 45 cuts. 
 
 2. ELEMENTS OF MAMMALOGY, THE NATURAL HIS- 
 
 TORY OF QUADRUPEDS, for Beginners; 75 cuts. 
 3. ELEMENTS OF ORNITHOLOGY, THE NATURAL 
 HISTORY OF BIRDS, for Beginners; 81 cuts. 
 4. ELEMENTS OF HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLO- 
 GY, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES 
 AND FISHES, for Beginners; 66 cuts. 
 
 5. ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY, THE NATURAL 
 
 HISTORY OF SHELLS AND MOLLUSCA, 
 for Beginners; 119 cuts. 
 
 6. ELEMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY, THE NATURAL 
 
 HISTORY OF INSECTS, for Beginners; 91 cuts. 
 7. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY, THE NATURAL HISTORY 
 OF PLANTS, for Beginners; 194 cuts. 
 8. ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY, THE NATURAL HIS- 
 TORY OF THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE, 
 for Beginners; with 300 cuts. 
 
 ALSO, THE WHOLE SERIES, COMPLETE; 
 
 Bound in 2 vols., half Turkey morocco. 
 
 WITH A NEW GLOSSARY. 
 
 %* The above series is considered one of the most valuable contributions 
 to the cause of Education which has ever been published in this country, 
 and should be found in the library of every farmer and intelligent man, and 
 particularly in all our School Libraries. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 GRIMSHAW'S HISTORY OF FRANCE, 
 
 WITH KEY AND QUESTIONS. 
 
 GKIMSHAW'S 
 HISTORY AND LIFE OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 In one volume, 12mo. 
 
 GRIMSHAW'S SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 THE 
 
 HISTOKY OF SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 FROM 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD DY COLUMBUS, 
 
 TO THE 
 
 CONQUEST OF PERU BY PIZARRO. 
 
 Interspersed with Amusing Anecdotes, and containing a Minute Descrip- 
 tion of the Manners and Customs, Dress, Ornaments and 
 Mode of Warfare, of the Indians. 
 
 BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW. 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
 The Editor of the North American Review, speaking of these Histories, 
 observes : — 
 
 " Among the Elementary Books of American History, we do not remem- 
 ber to have seen any one more deserving approbation than Mr. Grimshaw's 
 History of the United States. It is a small volume, and a great deal of 
 matter is brought into a narrow space ; but the author has succeeded so 
 well in the construction of his periods, and the arrangement of his mate- 
 rials, that perspicuity is rarely sacrificed to brevity. 
 
 " The chain of narrative is skilfully preserved ; and the author's reflections 
 are frequently such as to make the facts more impressive, and lead the 
 youthful mind to observe causes and consequences which might otherwise 
 have been overlooked. As a school-book, it may justly be recommended. 
 
 "What has been said of this volume, will apply generally to his other 
 historical works. They are each nearly of the same size as the one just no- 
 ticed, and designed for the same object ; that is, the use of classes in schools. 
 
 " The History of England is an original composition ; but the Grecian and 
 Roman Histories are Goldsmith's, improved by Grimshaw, in which he has 
 corrected the typographical errors with which the later editions of Gold- 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 tmith's Abridgements so much abound ; and removed any grossness in lan- 
 guage, which, in some few instances, render these valuable compends less 
 lseful in the schools to which youth of both sexes resort. He has also added 
 i Vocabulary of Proper Names, accentuated, in order to show their right 
 Denunciation, which is a valuable appendage to the History. 
 
 "All these books are accompanied with very full and well-digested Tables 
 )f Questions, for the benefit of pupils, and also with Keys to the same, for 
 the convenience of Teachers." 
 
 AN ETYMOLOGICAL 
 
 DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY WILLIAM GRIMSHAW. 
 Third Edition ; 1 vol. 12mo. 
 
 MOODEY'S BOOK-KEEPING. 
 A PRACTICAL PLAN OF BOOK-KEEPING BY DOUBLE ENTRY. 
 
 BIGLAND'S NATURAL HISTORY 
 
 Of Animals, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, and Insects. 
 
 Illustrated with Numerous and Beautiful Engravings. 
 BIT JOim EIGIiil^TD. 
 
 Complete in one volume, 12mo. With QUESTIONS. 
 
 This work is particularly adapted for the use of Schools and Families, 
 forming the most elegantly written and complete work on the subject of 
 Natural History ever published, and is worthy of the special attention of the 
 teachers of all our schools and academies. 
 
 KUNST'S GERMAN AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY. 
 AN AMERICAN DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES; 
 
 CONTAINING ALL THE WORDS IN GENERAL JSE. 
 
 B"5T P. T. KUNST. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
LIPPLNCOTT, GRAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 VIRGIL DELPHINI, 
 
 WITH ENGLISH NOTES AND KEY. 
 
 One volume, 8vo. 
 
 HORACE DELPHINI, 
 
 WITH ENGLISH NOTES AND KEY. 
 
 One volume, 8vo. 
 
 HUTCHINSON'S XENOPHON. 
 
 One volume, 8vo. 
 
 Neuman and Baretti's Spanish and English Dictionary. 
 
 A POCKET DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 SPANISH AND ENGLISH LANGUAGES: 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE LAST IMPROVED EDITIONS OF 
 
 NEUMAN AND BARETTI. 
 
 In Two Parts: 
 SPANISH-ENGLISH, and ENGLISH- SPANISH. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
 DIAMOND POCKET DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE: 
 
 CAREFULLY REVISED, 
 
 AND THE 
 
 Pronunciation of all the Difficult Words added. 
 
 ETT J. SOWBOTHAU. 
 
 One volume, 18mo. 
 
LIPPINCOTT, GEAMBO & CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 BALDWIN'S PRONOUNCING GAZETTEER 
 
 A. Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer ; containing topographical, statistical, and 
 other information, of all the more important places in the known world, from 
 the most recent and authentic sources. By THOMAS BALDWIN, assisted 
 by several other gentlemen. To which is added an Appendix, containing 
 more than ten thousand additional names, chiefly of the small towns and 
 villages, &c, of the United States and of Mexico. Eighth edition, with A 
 SUPPLEMENT, giving the pronunciation of near two thousand names, 
 besides those pronounced in the original work : forming in itself a complete 
 Vocabulary of Geographical Pronunciation. 
 
 From Professor Anthon. 
 " The subscriber has examined Baldwin's ' Universal Pronouncing Gazet- 
 teer' with considerable care, having consulted it almost daily for at least a 
 month past, and takes great pleasure in recommending it as a very superior 
 work." CHAS. ANTHON. 
 
 From G. C. Verplanck. 
 " Baldwin's Pronouncing Gazetteer— A work of great accuracy, learning, and 
 taste." Note to " Antony and Cleopatra," Harpers' 1 Illustrated Shakspeare. 
 Extract of a Letter from Professor Lieber, Editor of the Encyclopedia 
 Americana. 
 " A Pronouncing Gazetteer is not only a necessary work in the literature of 
 every nation, but it is particularly wanted in the present age." * * * 
 
 " It seems to me the teachers of whatever schools can scarcely do without 
 naving this book of reference near them." 
 
 From the Hon. John Pickering. 
 " This work cannot fail to be highly useful, not only to instructors and pupils, 
 but also to general readers." 
 
 From the Princeton Review for Octoher 1845. 
 "We have no hesitation in pronouncing this one of the most echolarlik© 
 productions of our native press. The authors show not on.y a familiar know- 
 ledge of the modern languages, but a highly respectable acquaintance with 
 general philology." * * * " We look upon this work as full of entertain- 
 ment and instruction to all who take an interest in orthoepy." 
 
 From Professor Hart, Principal of Philadelphia High School. 
 " This is a book that has been very much needed, both in families and in 
 schools. Its general introduction would greatly facilitate the study of geogra- 
 phy, by preventing the present confusion in regard to the pronunciation of 
 foreign names. ' It ought to be in the hands of every teacher, and of all pupils 
 who can afford it.' " 
 
 From the Christian Examiner (Boston) for January 1846. 
 
 " This is a good book in two ways. It was much wanted, and it is exceed- 
 ingly well done." 
 
 From the North American Review for January 1846. 
 
 " The practical value of a work of this sort depends entirely on the fulnass 
 and accuracy with which it is executed ; and in these respects we can commend 
 this volume in the strongest terms." 
 
 From Dr. A. T. W. Wright, Principal of the Philadelphia Normal School. 
 
 " Baldwin's Pronouncing Gazetteer was adopted as a text-book at the organization of the 
 Normal School, and has since been used as such, every pupil being furnished with a copy. 
 Besides its use as a geographical work, it is made the standard of orthoepy and orthography 
 m this department of instruction." 
 
 The Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer has been adopted as a book of reference for teacn- 
 ers by the Public Schools of Philadelphia, New York, Detroit, Cincinnati, and several other 
 of our principal cities. 
 
* 199? 
 

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