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ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
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 ETHICAL SCIENCE 
 
 A MANUAL FOR TEACHING SECULAR MORALITY 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 READING CIRCLES, TEACHERS' INSTITUTES, 
 SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 ■A 
 
 /CP ' BY 
 
 ^ JOHN OGDEN, M. A 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION," "THE ART OF TEACHING, 
 "OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICAL SCIENCE," ETC. 
 
 BISMARCK, N. D.: 
 
 JOHN OGDEN 
 
 1891 
 
 f,V FE3 20 1892 
 

 COPYRIGHTED BY 
 JOHN OGDEN. 
 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages have been prepared rather hur- 
 riedly and without an attempt at completeness, believing 
 that books for study should be rather suggestive than 
 exhaustive. 
 
 The main endeavor of the author has been so to arrange 
 the topics and sub-topics of the book that the student or 
 reader may have the subjects of the book exposed to his 
 view as they exist in the nature of things, rather than that 
 the opinions of the author should constitute the text. 
 
 In this way the student's own conclusions may be drawn, 
 and, from the topics arranged and partially developed, he 
 may construct a system of morality in harmony with his 
 own belief; for it must be conceded, that while we have 
 a body of incontestable truth, constituting the basis of all 
 morality, still the opinions of men upon minor points are 
 so diverse as to make a uniform belief in dogmatical prin- 
 ciples impossible. 
 
 The author maintains that moral truths and moral 
 conduct may be reached from different routes or sources ; 
 all converging, it is true, to the same point : and that it 
 savors somewhat of illiberality to insist upon a uniform 
 belief in the means or doctrines whereby we are to arrive 
 at a perfect knowledge of the truth, in a human sense. 
 
 Reason demands, and the age in which we live demands, 
 that all opinions, all doctrines, all dogmatic philosophy 
 be subjected to the most rigid scrutiny, especially when 
 
4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 these opinions, etc., affect men's lives and conduct- There- 
 fore he claims from an indulgent and scrutinizing public 
 only what he grants, viz. , freedom to think, and freedom to 
 express the truth as he understands it. 
 
 He has also studiously avoided the use of text-books and 
 treatises on morals, moral philosophy, and doctrinal ethics, 
 and whatsoever would in the least prejudice the expression 
 of independent thought. The propositions, definitions, 
 opinions and arguments may, therefore, appear a little 
 crude; but he covets the truth and honest criticism, 
 rather than great renown. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Author's Preface, . . . . . . . .3 
 
 Introduction, .......... 7 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Principles Laid down, ..... .13 
 
 What, Therefore, Is Moral Law ? . ... 17 
 
 Chapter II. 
 The Genesis and Purposes of Science, . . . . .23 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Applications and Uses of Knowledge, ..... 30 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 The True Order of Scientific Development, A Means of Promoting 
 
 Moral Culture, ...... 35 
 
 Chapter V. 
 Study as a Purely Moral Force, ...... 42 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Ethical Attributes, ......... 48 
 
 The Social Sentiments and Qualities, ..... 59 
 
 Ethical Attributes in Human Nature, . . . . .63 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Obedience and the "Will.— Their Proper Incentives Considered, . 64 
 
 II. The Will, . 71 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 Incentives to Voluntary Obedience and Duty, .... 79 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 Incentives to Involuntary Obedience, . . . . .91 
 
 Incentives to Obedience, ....... 103 
 
 5 
 
6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 Chapter X. 
 
 The Value of Science, Art, Literature and Learning, as Instruments of 
 Refinement and Moral Power, . .... 104 
 
 Chapter XI. 
 
 The Value of Methods of Teaching as Instruments for Refining and 
 Elevating Man, ........ Ill 
 
 Chapter XII. 
 The Moral Force of Industrial Education, . . . . .130 
 
 Chapter XIII. 
 Human Obligations and Duties, ...... 137 
 
 Chapter XIV. 
 Social and Commercial Relations and Duties, . . . .156 
 
 Chapter XV. 
 
 Political Relations, Obligations and Duties, .... 184 
 
 Suggestions in Conclusion, . 201 
 
 Synopsis of Human Relations, Obligations and Duties, . . 204 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In order to determine the true province of moral 
 culture, or the best methods for teaching morals in the 
 public schools and other institutions of learning, it is 
 necessary to state clearly the ground to be occupied, and 
 the principles and methods to be pursued. This neces- 
 sity will be conceded by all 
 
 But thoroughly to instruct children and youth in the 
 purest principles of morality, without inculcating religious 
 doctrines and beliefs, requires not only a careful statement 
 of principles and methods, but a still more guarded dis- 
 tinction between those principles and practices designed 
 both for instruction and inculcation and the regulation 
 of human conduct, or morality, and those on the other 
 hand, that relate to what is generally regarded religious 
 doctrine. 
 
 Indeed, religion, in its most comprehensive sense, and 
 as understood by most people, or as a system of broad, cul- 
 ture affecting human conduct, may be said to include all 
 that is claimed for morality, since it presumes to cultivate 
 all those sentiments of honor, purity and truthfulness that 
 enter so largely into a system of pure morality. And 
 while this may not be true of all religions, it is safe to 
 claim thus much at least, for the best systems of religion 
 that have been established in the earth. Hence, the ques- 
 tion to be decided here is " Can pure morality be taught 
 without inculcating religious doctrines, as these are usually 
 interpreted and understood? 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 If religion is defined loyalty to the truth and the right, 
 the cultivation of the best faculties of man, spiritual, 
 ethical and physical, and the exponent of all that is true 
 and lofty in human character and life — which is certainly 
 a liberal and comprehensive view of it — we answer no. 
 But if it is defined to be a system of worship founded upon 
 a popular belief in doctrines more or less miraculous in 
 their origin and infallible in their merits, we answer, yes, 
 since, however plausible this claim may be, absolute truth 
 is unaffected by man's belief or unbelief. 
 
 Principles may be regarded as eternal in their origin 
 and efficacy, and unalterable in their nature ; i. e. right 
 is right as a principle from the beginning and under all 
 circumstances ; and wrong is wrong. Truth is truth and 
 falsehood is falsehood ; and all these exist in the very 
 nature of things, and independent of all religions, at 
 least as last defined. Indeed, no religion and no religious 
 belief can alter them without altering the nature and 
 order of things. And these principles existed doubtless 
 anterior to all known systems of religion and all beliefs 
 and all mere doctrines. And they may be said to be inde- 
 pendent of them ; yet they do not, in the least, interfere 
 with or prevent the teaching of the purest and best relig- 
 ion, as mere doctrine and belief of men, or modes of 
 worship ; but, on the contrary, true morality properly 
 taught is the best possible preparation for the best system 
 of religion. The two can not be antagonistic, neither can 
 the one take the place of or supplant the other. 
 
 These universal principles of morals lie within the 
 scope and comprehension of man's understanding, and 
 therefore they may be taught and enforced, as a system 
 of ethics, in connection with and as a part of the ordinary 
 duties of family and school life. And this places morality 
 both as a system of rules for the regulation of human con- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 duct, and also as a body of doctrine, clearly within the 
 range of possibility. 
 
 This being the case, a fair statement of these principles, 
 and of the means of delivering them and enforcing them 
 so as suitably to affect human conduct, becomes the 
 immediate object of inquiry. 
 
 Among the means to be employed, the methods of 
 instruction hold an important place. For instance, 
 they should be adapted to the capacity of the young, at 
 the various stages of growth ; and still as a system of 
 ethics, not widely different from those employed in the 
 ordinary school work. 
 
 Again, books of instruction and competent teachers 
 will certainly be required ; but greater stress should be 
 placed upon the actual practice of those things that are 
 expected to appear in the lives and characters of those 
 thus instructed. Books should therefore be used as 
 mere guides, both for the instructor and the instructed, 
 but not as the final authority. 
 
 As to the general character of such books, and all books, 
 we may be permitted to say that books of instruction, 
 whether in physics or metaphysics, mathematics or morals, 
 should ahcays be scientific — scientific, not only in the 
 matter of principles and facts, but scientific in the arrange- 
 ment of these: i. e. 3 they should embody principles founded 
 on truth, logically developed, and properly adjusted to the 
 capacity and the natural order of development of mind and 
 body, as well as scientific in the subject matter treated. 
 
 This is especially true of books for children and youth ; 
 so that they themselves become both truthful and truth- 
 loving as well as scientific, while in the pursuit of science 
 or truth; since truth-telling always begins with thinking 
 the truth, studying the truth in a truthful way, and 
 imbuing one's mind with the principles and practice of 
 
10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 truth. Like produces like here, as in all other depart- 
 ments of growth. 
 
 Again, many people suppose (they can hardly be said 
 to believe, since they seldom take the trouble to think), 
 that books and lessons for children, and especially for young 
 children, need not be scientific, should rather be made very 
 easy and simple, should be so diluted that the effort to 
 master them shall be reduced to the minimum. This is 
 a great mistake. There is, perhaps, no greater in this con- 
 nection. Children do not naturally fancy the most diluted 
 nourishment. And if there is any one age of the child in 
 which his knowledge should be scientific, and scientifically 
 arranged, it is when he first approaches his study or work. 
 
 Children should also early learn to think, not so much the 
 thoughts of others as their own thoughts, struck into exist- 
 ence, it may be, by the perusal of the thoughts of others. 
 They should be taught to think vigorously and methodic- 
 ally. It is their natural and inalienable right; for the 
 moment a healthy thought dawns in the mind of a child 
 it affords him a species of joy, sometimes even delight; and 
 these constitute the natural stimuli to moral sentiments 
 and moral growth. 
 
 It is of consequence, therefore, what children think; as 
 much so, certainly, as what they eat, or what they do, as 
 determining their moral character. The characteristics of 
 the mind are built up from the materials that enter into 
 its activities, as essentially and as truly as the body is; or 
 as the strength and beauty of the house are dependent upon 
 the character of the materials that enter into its walls and 
 towers, its floors and doors, and all its ornamentation . 
 
 Children, therefore, should early learn to think, and to 
 think the truth, — and the sooner the better — since if once 
 the habit is established of coming directly to the truth, to 
 the fountain and source of all scientific knowledge, and of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 investigating the truth in its better forms, its purity, its 
 simplicity the sooner the life will conform to the same laws 
 of truth and order. This, therefore, is a moral force. 
 
 There is nothing dangerous or audacious about this, but 
 exactly the reverse. Children often hunger and thirst and 
 sometimes starve for those forms of scientific truth, which 
 we ignorantly suppose to be beyond their capacity or power 
 to understand. The natural condition of children, both 
 as to ordinary environment and their natural inclinations, 
 is altogether favorable for a vigorous and somewhat 
 exhaustive investigation of some of the most important 
 problems of life, as witness their many questions on these 
 subjects. It is true, books for the instruction of the 
 young should be simple and elementary, but not silly and 
 sedimentary, as is apt to be the case. But science is sim- 
 ple. It is simplicity itself when rightly adjusted to 
 mental capacity ; sometimes it is even sublime in its sim- 
 plicity. It is nescience that usually constitutes the com- 
 plexity of a subject of thought or investigation. The 
 supposed complexity and abstruseness of scientific sub- 
 jects often arise from the unscientific arrangement, and 
 the wrong adjustment of principles and elements. This 
 begets the confusion and perplexity among the young, 
 which often accompany the pursuit of science. 
 
 Scientific subjects, rightly unfolded to the youthful 
 mind, become not only inviting and invigorating, but 
 reveal such a wealth of beauty that they become even cap- 
 tivating. And then these elements have that in them that 
 addresses itself to the feeblest intellect, awakening the 
 interest and attention, invigorating and directing the pow- 
 ers of investigation, strengthening and improving the 
 understanding and judgment, and bringing all the latent 
 powers of the will to bear upon some of the best problems 
 of life. And because these subjects are thus elementary 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and simple, they are none the less scientific and practical ; 
 but, on the contrary, the more nearly they are reduced to 
 their elementary forms, the more scientific they become, 
 and the more nearly they are adjusted to the individual 
 wants of childhood, the more practical they become, since 
 they thereby fulfil the scientific conditions of learning. 
 And the moral effects hence arising are two-fold. 
 
 But in all cases of instruction, whether scientific or 
 moral (and the distinctions generically are scarcely dis- 
 cernible), it is necessary that we recognize the following 
 facts and conditions. 
 
 1. A capacity in man for such culture and growth: 
 i. e., a basis upon which to erect a superstructure, 
 either of scientific knowledge, or of moral character. 
 
 2. A pre-existent plan or pattern by which to be 
 guided in the work, both as to ivhat we teach, and how 
 we teach; and 
 
 3. A standard or criterion by which to judge or meas- 
 ure moral actions, and to determine the just proportions 
 of this superstructure, when once erected and completed. 
 All this will require care, and a rigid classification of 
 principles, and a close application of them in a course of 
 instruction and practice, which we now proceed to give. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Principles Laid Down. 
 
 The following propositions may therefore prove helpful, 
 both in planning and prosecuting this work. 
 
 Proposition I. — Man has inherently a moral nature, 
 an innate moral sense or capacity. This is necessary to 
 moral culture, since, without the nature or capacity, its 
 cultivation were impossible. 
 
 Remark 1. This proposition might seem almost like an 
 assumption; but it is warranted both by the best literary 
 authority and by the common consent of the race. 
 
 Remark 2. This moral nature or capacity is what we 
 call Moral Sense* It is the basis of conscience. It exists 
 in man inherently, and, when enlightened, cultivated and 
 improved, it becomes the active conscience itself. 
 
 Remark 3. Conscience,\ therefore, is moral sense plus 
 intelligence. It may be true or false, dependent upon 
 judgment and belief, i. e., the character of the intelli- 
 gence or information may determine the character of the 
 conscience. At the same time, this moral sense naturally 
 inclines to right, as the eye inclines to light and as the ear 
 to sounds; and it as naturally rebels against the wrong as 
 founded in the nature of things, until warped and perverted 
 by wrong treatment. 
 
 Proposition II. — The moral sense is an intuitive sense 
 which develops into moral sentiments and moral obliga- 
 tions, under right treatment. 
 
 1. It is to the moral man what perception, intuition and 
 consciousness are to the other intellectual faculties, or to 
 
 * See Dr. Carpenter's Mental Physiology, pp. 212, 243, 245, and context. 
 + See Webster's unabridged— second definition. 
 
 13 
 
14 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 the intellectual man. It furnishes the basis or the elements 
 for the moral sentiments* and conscience, much in the 
 same manner in which the cognitive faculties furnish the 
 data or elements for thought and reasoning. 
 
 2. It is not a sixth sense, but it is to the moral senti- 
 ments what touch is to the other senses, a base upon which 
 they all are built or founded; a soil into which they are 
 planted and from which they grow; or it is the medium 
 through which all the moral sentiments act and reveal 
 their several qualities. 
 
 3. All the moral sentiments, therefore, are but the con- 
 crete modifications of the moral sense, or the applications 
 of it, in a developed form, to the ordinary duties of life, as 
 a sense of justice, of right and wrong, of obligation, duty, 
 gratitude, love, etc., just as seeing, hearing, tasting and 
 smelling are but modified forms of feeling or touch, the 
 basis of all the senses. And, as judicious exercise improves 
 and enlarges all these senses, so the exercise of the moral 
 sentiments and qualities improves the moral sense, where- 
 by this moral sense develops into conscience. 
 
 4. The moral sense, therefore, when thus developed, 
 becomes the criterion by which to judge of right and 
 wrong, when the understanding is duly exercised and when 
 the judgment approves. Without such a sense, no just 
 judgment could be formed or decisions rendered in matters 
 where absolute right and absolute wrong are at issue, since 
 there would be no tribunal whereby impartial justice could 
 be determined and rendered. 
 
 5. Conscience, therefore, is largely a matter of educa- 
 tion. It is founded upon the basis, moral sense, or that 
 necessary sense of right and wrong, felt in the moral 
 nature and revealed in the judgment after the understand- 
 ing has moved upon it as an informer. 
 
 * See Ethical Attributes, Chapter VI, p. 48. 
 
PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN. 15 
 
 6. This moral sense exists in every one, but varies in 
 degrees of energy and perfectness according to the consti- 
 tution and circumstances of the individual. 
 
 7. It may also be perverted by wrong treatment and 
 false notions engendered through ignorance, fear or super- 
 stition. Therefore, the character of its promptings 
 depends largely upon the character and extent of the 
 information furnished through the intellect. 
 
 8. If this information is truthful, pure and rightly pre- 
 sented, and accepted, the conscience becomes a safe guide 
 in matters of conduct; if perverted, impure and wrongly 
 presented and received or applied, it is not a safe guide. 
 
 9. The perceptions must be clear and well defined, the 
 judgment sound and the reasoning correct, so that the 
 decisions of the will may be justly influenced by the 
 promptings arising from this intuitive moral sense. 
 
 (a.) Morals have reference to the manners and customs of a peo- 
 ple. In a more restricted sense they refer to those acts in the lives 
 and conduct of men that either conform to or antagonize the recog- 
 nized standard of right and wrong. 
 
 (b.) In order to instruct the young in a system of pure morality 
 it is necessary to determine as nearly as possible this uniform 
 standard, and that this be, so far as absolute right and wrong are 
 concerned, without exception. 
 
 (c.) There can be no middle ground between these two extremes; 
 neither can there be any change of one to the other, nor compromise 
 with mere policy, the enemy of truth. It is necessary, therefore, to 
 inquire what constitutes a moral act. 
 
 Proposition III. — A moral act is a worthy act, 
 prompted by a moral motive, and executed voluntarily; 
 or ? more fully, a moral act is one prompted, from within, 
 by an impulse arising from the moral sense, and, from 
 without, by some corresponding worthy object or incentive, 
 whose appeals are commended by the judgment and 
 sanctioned by conscience, duly informed. 
 
16 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 All may be formulated into moral obligation. This 
 latter makes the act voluntary on the part of the doer, 
 and justifies it in the eyes of the law of obedience, which 
 will be considered further on. It also fortifies the act 
 against any selfish or unworthy motive, and lifts it into 
 the plane of pure morality. 
 
 Corollary 1. The quality of human actions, is deter- 
 mined by the motives prompting them, since no other 
 primitive elements can enter, either to vitiate or exalt 
 them, except those ruled by motive. 
 
 Corollary 2. Human actions, therefore, lose their moral 
 qualities in proportion as they are performed merely to 
 conform them to a recognized human standard; since an 
 act, to be pure and good, must be free from any purely 
 selfish or unworthy motive. Therefore 
 
 Corollary 3. The higher and purer the motive, the more 
 exalted the act, since its moral qualities are determined and 
 measured by the motive, plus the incentives [see definition 
 of conscience, page 13 ] ; or the more benevolent the motive 
 the better the quality of the act; and vice versa [see 
 moral sentiments, chapter VI, and moral incentives, chap- 
 ter VIII J. 
 
 Corollary 4- There must, therefore, be a standard by 
 which to judge and determine the merits or demerits of 
 human conduct, since without such standard there can be 
 neither certainty nor satisfaction. What shall that stand- 
 ard be ? 
 
 Proposition IV. — A standard for human conduct, to be 
 effective and reliable, must be good, or wisely chosen, and 
 both uniform and universal, i. e., it must be derived from 
 a confessedly pure source, unvarying in its applications, 
 and recognized and accepted by all. 
 
 Corollary 1. That standard must conform, in its 
 essential features, to the natural promptings of the moral 
 
PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN. 17 
 
 sense, since said moral sense, when duly enlightened and 
 informed, embodies the force and promptings of conscience. 
 
 Corollary 2. This moral sense must be re-enforced by 
 clear perceptions of the truth presented, sound judgment 
 in determining its merits, and correct reasoning in forming 
 conclusions, and in its applications to human conduct. 
 
 Corollary 3. This standard must have sufficient virtue 
 and dignity to command respect and obedience to its 
 requirements; otherwise it is of no binding force. This 
 gives it the character of law. Further propositions may 
 aid us here. 
 
 Proposition V. — When man's ideas of right and wrong 
 are duly formulated, recognized and accepted, they con- 
 stitute what we denominate moral law. * 
 
 Corollary 1. This moral law now becomes a standard 
 by which to determine the quality of human actions, and 
 a moral obligation demanding obedience to its mandates. 
 The truth of this proposition needs no further confirma- 
 tion. 
 
 What, Therefore, is Moral Law? 
 
 Proposition VI.— (Defining Moral Law.) — Moral law 
 is a rule of conduct; or a human code embodying the 
 principles and precepts governing human conduct, sanc- 
 tioning and permitting what may be done and condemning 
 and forbidding what may not be done. This law, of 
 course, may be either obeyed or broken. Its appeals are 
 to the will . 
 
 Corollary 1. Moral law is, therefore, both rational and 
 empirical, subjective and objective. Subjectively consid- 
 ered, it is that which claims an intuitive recognition of 
 
 * Law, however, is not a force, not even an active agent. It is only a rule 
 marking- the limits of force, or a channel through which active agencies 
 may operate. 
 
18 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 moral obligation in man, arising as from an impulse in 
 his nature, to respect and love that which is true, right, 
 good and noble, and to despise and shun that which is 
 false, wrong, evil and mean. It is, therefore, rational 
 intuition applied to problems and principles of right and 
 wrong, which right and wrong must first be distinguished 
 by the understanding and judgment. Hence the neces- 
 sity for instruction and culture. It is a revelation, and, 
 as it were, the incarnation of the moral sense, as we find 
 it implanted in human nature, however perverted that 
 nature may be. It is closely allied to personality and the. 
 possession of property, since it naturally resists encroach- 
 ments and resents indignities offered to the first, and 
 clings to the possession of that which it recognizes as its 
 own. It is the intuitional principle applied to man's 
 individuality, and is therefore rational. It is the "ego" 
 and the "non ego" in another form, the "meum and the 
 tuum" of human nature, and should be respected accord- 
 ingly. Under proper treatment or education, it coincides 
 with conscience, the sovereign monitor of all our acts. 
 
 Objectively considered, moral law is the recognized 
 standard of conduct among men, derived both from the 
 experience and the precepts of mankind in all their most 
 enlightened stages. It is, therefore, empirical also, and 
 adapts itself to human needs. 
 
 Both the foregoing features of this law, viz., the sub- 
 jective and objective, or the rational and empirical, must 
 repose upon the moral sense; and they are interpreted in 
 the just acts of human life. 
 
 This law must also have character, or binding force, in 
 order that it may be obeyed and that it may become infran- 
 gible, i. e. y may not be disobeyed without incurring pen- 
 alties. It must have dignity, probity and potentiality. 
 
PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN. 19 
 
 Whence, then, does it derive its sanctions and binding 
 force ? 
 
 Proposition VII. — A law, to have binding force, must 
 be hedged about by the strongest and highest incentives to 
 obedience. These incentives arise chiefly from three dis- 
 tinct sources, all having their origin in man's original 
 nature, or at least as far back as we are permitted to 
 trace it. 
 
 1. From a simple desire to do right out of respect for 
 right, or for the general good. This is the highest incen- 
 tive inhering in man for man's sake. 
 
 2. From the hope of reward of some kind, inhering in 
 the act either for the act's sake, or for the sake of that 
 which awakened and called forth the desire. This ranks 
 second in the scale of excellence. 
 
 3. From a corresponding fear of punishment, or loss of 
 some kind connected with the non-performance of duty; 
 and this ranks last in the scale of potential excellence. 
 
 But all of these may be blended in the one great incen- 
 tive to volitional acts, viz.: the voluntary acceptance of 
 the conditions imposed by obligation to do or not to do, 
 as directed or impelled by conscience. These sub incen- 
 tives, rewards and punishments, may be so evenly balanced 
 and so blended in their influence, that the evils that might 
 arise from the excess of either would scarcely be percepti- 
 ble or possible. 
 
 The first of these incentives, a love of right, has two 
 principal sources, whence it derives its sanctions and bind- 
 ing force. 
 
 1. Subjectively, from the moral sense, or that innate 
 sense of right and wrong that resides in every human soul, 
 which, when duly informed and educated, becomes con- 
 science . 
 
 2. Objectively, from an innate respect for authority, 
 
20 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 which we find co-extensive with the feelings of obligation. 
 This arises both from the moral sense as a basis, and from 
 a regard to the consentaneous wisdom and experience orf 
 mankind in all the ages of the world ; also from the 
 acknowledged good results that arise from conforming 
 human conduct to these laws. 
 
 3. These two moral forces combined, viz., the moral 
 sense, duly enlightened and led, and the wisdom and 
 experience of mankind, go to make up what we term a 
 moral obligation of binding force ; and the course of con- 
 duct derived therefrom and formulated into a rule or code 
 for the guidance of subsequent acts becomes what we 
 recognize as Moral Law .of Binding Force, a recognized 
 standard of right and wrong, founded upon purely moral 
 principles. But when these are weakened, obstructed or 
 hindered in any way, they may be reinforced or strengthened 
 by the hope of reward or the fear of punishment. [See 
 incentives to obedience, Chapter VIII, p. 79.] 
 
 It now remains to show how man's moral conduct and 
 nature may be affected by the recognition of the claims of 
 this law; for there is such a thing as an intellectual recog- 
 nition of the claims of this law, and an acknowledgment 
 of the binding force thereof, and still a personal neglect of 
 these claims and a departure from their precepts and ordi- 
 nances ; and this gives rise to, and an occasion for, the 
 fear of punishment, since, when man errs knowingly, it is 
 against his better judgment. How could it be otherwise? 
 
 The following propositions may aid in determining 
 these points, and the means of enforcing the claims of 
 moral law. 
 
 Proposition VIII. — Man's ideal standard of right and 
 wrong should determine, in a high degree, the quality of 
 his conduct between himself and his fellow-man. But 
 does this recognized standard so affect him and his con- 
 
PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN. 21 
 
 duct ? Let us examine the subsidiary propositions to 
 determine how far man is governed by this recognized 
 higher law of moral obligation. 
 
 Corollary 1. — Objectively considered man's highest 
 ideals of the true, the beautiful and the good are em- 
 bodied and conserved in his conceptions of the perfect 
 in form, in color, and in number or proportion; and sub- 
 jectively considered, in thought, in will or purpose, and in 
 power and loudness. 
 
 Corollary 2. These conceptions exist in the concrete as 
 well as in the abstract ; whereby they are maintained in a 
 more substantial and practical form, or condition. Other- 
 wise they mightfade into "unsubstantial being.'" 
 
 Corollary 3. These ideals of perfection are what we 
 call the absolute, the infinite in goodness, power, duration. 
 And they may exist in man in a continually augmenting 
 state, i. e., they may constantly approach the absolute or 
 infinite without the possibility of ever reaching it. 
 
 Corollary 4- The absolute — the unlimited — admits of 
 neither increase nor diminution. Nothing can be added 
 thereto, or subtracted therefrom. It admits of no possi- 
 ble change. It is infinite in all possible perfections ; and 
 the finite cannot reach the infinite, not even in conception, 
 fully. And it is doubtful whether or not a true, high 
 moral sense could even exist except in an undeveloped state, 
 without some such approximate conceptions ; for without 
 them the ideals or conceptions must forever be fluctuating, 
 vague, uncertain and evanescent. 
 
 Proposition IX. — The more perfect man's conceptions 
 of the absolute in all perfections, the higher and more bind- 
 ing the force of moral obligation. In other words, the 
 higher man's standard of moral perfections, the purer and 
 more exalted his conduct, other things being equal, since 
 
22 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 this gives more exalted views of life and expands, refines and 
 sublimates his faculties. 
 
 Corollary 1. Man's conduct, as before stated, is relative 
 as to its quality and value. It is patterned more or less 
 after his ideals of moral purity and perfections. After 
 the infinite in all perfections, which is usually embodied 
 in our ideas of God, the Creator, the Upholder of all 
 things, the Giver of all good. Under proper degrees of 
 pressure or stimulus the latent good in man, or capacity 
 for good, is constantly coming to the surface, and when 
 developed, adds so much more to the sum total of stored- 
 up energy to affect future generations. 
 
 Corollary 2. The absolute is actually unattainable, 
 yet ever deepening, widening and improving in man's con- 
 scious conceptions, while in a state of progress or growth; 
 and this state of things may always continue under proper 
 culture. 
 
 Corollary 3. Hence the idea of rewards and punish- 
 ments, present or prospective, personal or relative, are 
 always present as mild incentives in the mind of the doer 
 of good deeds. Even an obligation reluctantly discharged 
 bears with itself the rewards of satisfaction and moral 
 growth. But these ideas of rewards and punishments, by 
 no means, vitiate the quality of the act influenced or educed 
 by them. 
 
 Corollary 4- These considerations make it possible 
 for man to be continually improving in his moral nature 
 through his conceptions of the true, the beautiful and the 
 good, aided by education and the precepts and common 
 experience of mankind, formulated into a code of morals. 
 
 But, in addition to all this, the moral force, resident in 
 science itself and every branch thereof, when properly 
 brought to bear upon man's higher nature, which facts 
 we are about to consider, together with whatever other 
 
THE GENESIS AND PURPOSES OF SCIENCE. 23 
 
 helps are vouchsafed to man, are considerations of the 
 first importance. All these things combined, with the 
 much that is to follow by way of applications, and we 
 shall have a system — a moral lever, so to speak — by which 
 to lift man into a higher plane of thinking and living. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Genesis and Purposes of Science. 
 
 Among the many questions to be considered in this 
 connection, the following may be selected as typical, at 
 least. About these, many others will arrange themselves 
 for the consideration of the thoughtful student. 
 
 1. What is the origin of all knowledge and all science? 
 
 2. What are the general and the specific purposes of 
 each department thereof ? And assuming that such pur- 
 pose or purposes are benevolent, and promotive of mor- 
 ality, which we shall consider further on, we may ask as a 
 more practical question, 
 
 3. What studies in the schools as now organized are 
 most conducive to the cultivation of high moral princi- 
 ples and purity of conduct? [See proposition XIII and 
 remarks 6.] 
 
 This last, of course, admits of conditional answers. 
 Both the nature and the habits of the pupil, together 
 with the peculiar circumstances by which lie may be sur- 
 rounded, must be taken into the account ; for what would 
 suit the tastes and natural inclinations, and the purposes 
 of the one class, might be as distasteful and inappropriate 
 to another; and the different times and tendencies of 
 the age would also affect the general conclusion. The 
 same with slight allowances is true of individuals. Ohil- 
 
24 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 dren differ widely in their environment, and in their pros- 
 pective employments. Each one of these peculiarities, 
 and perhaps many more, all demand a slightly different 
 treatment . 
 
 It will be proper at this point, in answer to the first 
 question, and as a preliminary to answering the last, more 
 fully to inquire into the origin or sources of all knowledge 
 and science as means of man's intellectual and moral eleva- 
 tion, in order also to determine the approximate educa- 
 tional value of each department, as applied to the several 
 grades of school life. 
 
 The following propositions or statements may aid in 
 arriving at just conclusions: 
 
 Proposition X. — All kno vdedge and all science — 
 which latter is only a logically classified condition of the 
 former — bear evidences of having the same objective 
 source. Evidently all spring from the same order of 
 things, and have a unity of plan and a unity of purpose. 
 To assume the contrary of this proposition involves a 
 condition of things not only more difficult of explanation, 
 but contradictory to known facts and plain reasoning. 
 
 Remark 1. Science in its subjective characteristics and 
 sources is the product of mind itself, of thought, and 
 therefore has its origin in the human mind. 
 
 Remark 2. Science in its objective characteristics and 
 sources, has its origin in Ontology or Being, which fur- 
 nishes the occasion for thought and inquiry, whereby 
 knowledge is acquired and science wrought out and form- 
 ulated into its present diversified conditions for the use of 
 mankind. 
 
 Remark 3. Its adaptations to the various purposes of 
 life are the result of long experience and patient study. 
 
 Proposition XI. — There are two great departments of 
 Ontology or Being, that furnish the just occasions for all 
 
THE GENESIS AND PURPOSES OF SCIENCE. 25 
 
 thought and study, and are, therefore, the joint origin of 
 science, considered in an objective sense, viz , Physics and 
 Metaphysics. 
 
 Remark 1. Physics, as the name implies, must represent 
 here, and as subsequently considered, all forms and rela- 
 tions of matter in the universe endowed with latent force 
 and resistence, or any of the qualities attributed to matter. 
 
 Remark 2. Metaphysics, as the name also implies, 
 must represent all forms and conditions of immaterial sub- 
 stances in the universe as thought, emotion, will, etc., and is 
 that which endows matter with force and resistence, and 
 any and all other properties, so that we have material sub- 
 stances *, and immaterial substances in nature, both fur- 
 nishing the occasions and conditions of thought ; and 
 these substances with their conditions and relations logic- 
 ally classified and judiciously arranged, in these two great 
 fields of exploration, constitute our two grand representa- 
 tive sciences, viz . , Physics and Metaphysics. 
 
 To the first belong all those sciences which have, in any 
 manner, to deal with matter in the concrete, or in any of 
 its forms, arranging it and its properties under generic 
 and specific heads ; or that deal with, or are in any way 
 dependent upon, what are known as physical laws, as nat- 
 ural philosophy (called physics), chemistry, physiology, 
 zoology, geology, botany, geography, and so much of 
 astronomy as relates to matter and its movements in masses, 
 in large spaces. Other cognate branches might be named. 
 
 To the second or metaphysics, belong all those sciences 
 that relate in any way to phenomena and causation, the 
 laws of thought and reason, and all those hidden forces 
 that are the prime movers in all phenomena of nature, as 
 growth and decay, life and death, strength and weakness 
 cause and effect, with all their multifarious applications. 
 
 * Substance, that which has existence. 
 
26 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 This class may also include mental and moral philoso- 
 phy, or psychology, and all those sciences bearing upon 
 the laws of thought, emotion and volition; the moral obli- 
 gations growing out of man's relations to his fellow, as 
 sociology, political economy, law and jurisprudence. 
 
 Proposition XII. — These two great families or sources 
 of science, viz., Physics and Metaphysics, occupy the two 
 opposite extremes or poles of nature; and between them 
 lies a vast plane of thought, occupied by two other repre- 
 sentative families or groups of subordinate sciences, viz., 
 Mathematics, and Language or Literature. 
 
 1. Mathematics is the great instrument for delving 
 into physics or nature, and developing the laws of form, 
 number, mechanics, and all computations of quantity and 
 values. It also includes so much of astronomy as relates 
 to the laws of gravitation and motion. 
 
 2. Mathematics has also a metaphysical side, lying as 
 it does between the two poles of nature — physics and 
 metaphysics — by which this branch of science is related to 
 pure reason on the one hand, as in the case of pure mathe- 
 matics, logic and the principles of geometry; and on the 
 other, to the laws of mechanics and physical astronomy, 
 and all material computation. It is one of the links joining 
 the two extremes or opposite poles of nature, entering into 
 both physics and metaphysics, and interpreting the laws 
 of both. 
 
 3. Language, or Literature, as a comprehensive branch 
 of learning, may be regarded both as a means of communi- 
 cation and as a record of man's thoughts, acts and emo- 
 tions; and therefore includes history, biography, law and 
 medical jurisprudence; in fact, a record of all that has 
 been thought, said or done, so far, at least, as these have 
 been expressed. 
 
THE GENESIS AND PURPOSES OF SCIENCE. 27 
 
 4. Like mathematics, it lias also its physical and meta- 
 physical sides, facing each way, bordering in its names and 
 qualities of matter upon the material world, on the one 
 hand, and in its record of tnought and reasoning, and its 
 power of expression, on the other, opening directly upon 
 the immaterial world. It is, therefore, the other link bind- 
 ing the two opposite extremes of nature, and meanwhile 
 recording its phenomena. Thus the two worlds are linked 
 and correlated and made meet for thought and expression. 
 
 As to the characteristics of these groups, and the indi- 
 vidual sciences from which we are to derive their values, 
 intellectual, physical and moral, we may add, in a general 
 way by 
 
 Proposition XIIL — All sciences have about them, both 
 in their individual and associated capacity, the elements 
 of human growth, whereby they become either helpful or 
 hurtful, determined by the manner in which they are 
 developed and applied. This nourishment is not to be 
 found elsewhere; and both the character and extent of 
 growth are determined by proper use. 
 
 Corollary 1. We infer, therefore, that man was made 
 for scientific investigation and discovery, and that science 
 thus discovered and developed becomes a powerful means 
 of his intellectual and moral growth. In this pursuit of 
 science he finds his greatest pleasure and broadest culture. 
 
 Corollary 2. That the true mission of these sciences, 
 individual and associated, is the harmonious development 
 of man's best faculties, in all their lawful relations, and 
 therefore his moral faculties, since these are inseparably 
 associated with man's intellectual and physical nature s 
 The truth of this corollary will appear further on. 
 
 Corollary 3. That while these sciences are growing and 
 maturing under the fostering hand of man, through 
 experiment and study, his faculties are also undergoing a 
 
28 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 corresponding change, are developing and strengthening in 
 a corresponding ratio, keeping pace in their strength and 
 capacity with the general progress of human knowledge 
 and events; and that thus the illimitable improvement of 
 the human race is made not only possible, but morally cer- 
 tain. [See Props. VII and VIII, and Cors.] 
 
 In a more specific sense the characteristics of these 
 groups may be stated as follows: [See Perceptive Knowl- 
 edge, etc., pp. 28-29.] And whatever characteristics appear 
 in the groups themselves may be relied upon for develop- 
 ing corresponding traits in human character and life.. 
 Thus the study of mathematics is noted for the develop- 
 ment of exact reasoning; the study of language and liter- 
 ature, for comprehensive views and ideas of human nature; 
 and all this is quite reasonable, since the first of these 
 sciences is an aggregation of abstract truths and their 
 relations, appealing directly to the reasoning powers, 
 though not in the broadest and most comprehensive way; 
 while the second is exclusively a human production, involv- 
 ing the very use of the human elements they so richly cul- 
 tivate. Similar deductions may be made from the study 
 of the other two groups, physics and metaphysics. 
 
 The specific characteristics of these groups may be 
 stated as follows: 
 
 1 . Perceptive knoiuleclge, or that derived from the obser- 
 vation of and experiment with matter, with or without a 
 view of determining its properties and uses; or exclusively 
 from common observation and use: also, that knowledge 
 derived from the consideration of the relation of things, and 
 from a comprehension of abstract truths, or apperception. 
 
 This implies a two-fold character of perception, both the 
 objective and the subjective, the external and the internal 
 operation of it, the first sometimes called sense perception, 
 
THE GENESIS AND PURPOSES OF SCIENCE. 29 
 
 the second rational perception, the latter corresponding 
 with the apprehension, necessary to good understanding. 
 This class of knowledge, especially the first, is that 
 which is so well adapted to youthful minds. It is usually 
 the first, or that which arises from impressions from 
 without. It is also the nourishment upon which the 
 youthful mind feeds, until sufficient strength is acquired 
 by practice or use to enable it to grapple with the more 
 abstract and difficult forms of knowledge. 
 
 2. Intuitive knowledge, or that obtained through intu- 
 ition, or that power the mind has to grasp all forms of 
 necessary (not in the sense of needful) and axiomatic 
 truths, to be conscious of personal identity, the succession 
 of events, and the necessary conditions of cause and 
 effect, etc. 
 
 3. Rational knoivledge, or that derived from the pro- 
 cesses of investigation and reasoning, which latter, when 
 seduced to the syllogistic formula, employs the well- 
 established axiomatic truths, from which to deduce other 
 dependent truths. This is the highest form of knowledge 
 and may be used even in analogical and inductive pro- 
 cesses. 
 
 Remark 1. Of course, all the powers of the mind are 
 brought into active operation in the judicious pursuit of 
 all these specific kinds of knowledge. But it must not be 
 forgotten that those faculties of the mind most active in 
 the pursuit of the particular knowledge alluded to are 
 those that give character to it, and by which it acquires 
 the greatest strength and discipline, giving character to 
 the faculties themselves — thus, perceptive knowledge 
 improves perception, because perception is principally 
 used in its acquisition. And the same is true of intuition, 
 imagination, judgment and reason, etc. 
 
30 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 4. To this list there might still be added the Descrip- 
 tive, the Didactic, the Discursive, and even the Polemic and 
 Dramatic, all partaking more or less of the properties of 
 the foregoing. And it may be further stated, 
 
 Remark 5. That there is resident in each one of these 
 sciences above named, and in each department of knowl- 
 edge, a force, or nourishment every way suited and evi- 
 dently intended, through its proper acquisition, to develop 
 all the powers of the human mind, even to their best 
 estate. It matters not so much, therefore, what we study 
 as how we study; and further, 
 
 6. There is a moral force resident therein, essential and 
 inseparable from the intellectual characteristics, which, 
 when skillfully managed, is perhaps the strongest, safest 
 and best means of inculcating moral sentiment. 
 
 This is surely the intent of all knowledge, science, all 
 study, all labor. The knowledge or acquisition that leaves 
 its possessor in the same moral condition in which it found 
 him, has surely and sadly failed in its mission. Indeed, this 
 is impossible, viz., to leave him as it finds him. The only 
 question is: Shall it improve him morally or degrade him? 
 It may do either. It can not do both. 
 
 Our next inquiry, therefore, should be: How can we 
 secure it against loss on the one hand, and injury on the 
 other? 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Applications and Uses of Knowledge. 
 
 The foregoing facts lead us to consider, in the next 
 place, the applications and uses of knowledge as designed 
 to administer to human needs, and as a means of moral 
 elevation. 
 
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF KNOWLEDGE. 31 
 
 All the forms and classes of knowledge and science, 
 alluded to in the preceding chapter, are supposed to have 
 grown up under the fostering hand of man, in order to 
 meet his growing necessities, as he advanced in the scale of 
 civilization and intelligence — sometimes to administer to 
 his pleasure, sometimes as a matter of gain, and sometimes 
 through the exercise of those higher henevolences which 
 have ever characterized his career under the higher forms 
 of civilization and refinement. Hence the following 
 classification may aid us in determining these uses: 
 
 1. Hie Selfish and Domestic Uses, or those administering 
 to man's personal wants, as in the cultivation of the earth, 
 and gathering food supplies, the manufacture of clothing, 
 the building of suitable habitations, and the various means 
 employed for communication, and for protection against 
 his enemies, both man and beast. These cover a vast 
 field. 
 
 This selfish use of knowledge must not be confounded 
 with those baser uses, whereby man perverts the knowledge 
 he acquires for purposes of merely selfish or sensual gratifi- 
 cation, or for promoting unworthy objects of any kind. 
 Selfishness here must be understood to refer to self-pro- 
 tection, and that enlightened self-interest that makes the 
 individual good the public good; that will not take 
 advantage of the innocent and the unprotected. 
 
 In the course of time, and when these cruder forms of 
 knowledge had served their purposes in the human fam- 
 ily, they were usually superseded by higher forms, and 
 those that looked more to a community of interests. 
 People felt more and more the necessity of associated 
 effort, as their wants multiplied and their views enlarged . 
 Hence other forms and uses grew up and were cultivated. 
 These we may call 
 
 2. The Semi-Selfish and Social Uses, or those forms of 
 
32 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 knowledge that have been brought to bear upon man's 
 dependence and intercourse with his fellow-man, out of 
 which grow up all social, commercial and political rela- 
 tions, and the laws regulating them (see chapter XV). 
 "It is perhaps needless to more than merely state that 
 man is naturally a social, commercial and political being ; 
 that is, his best estate is always reached in the exercise of 
 those qualities and duties that ally him to his fellow-man ; 
 that his moral nature is necessarily and unalterably asso- 
 ciated with these, and finds its chief delight in the exer- 
 cise of the social and commercial intercourse thus made 
 possible and necessary. Therefore man finds his greatest 
 pleasure and interest in the exercise of those sentiments 
 and qualities that yield the greatest benefit, and whereby 
 his moral nature is cultivated, strengthened and refined in 
 the highest degree. Hence, the best, safest and most 
 reliable methods for moral culture seem to be associated 
 with his ordinary employment and education. And this 
 is as it should be. No other means seem necessary where 
 these have free and unobstructed play. 
 
 There is still another well-defined use to which knowl- 
 edge may be and really is applied, which lifts it into the 
 highest plain of moral excellence, and hence makes it still 
 more forceful, and a still more powerful instrument in 
 man's moral elevation. I mean 
 
 3. The Purely Benevolent and Philanthropic Uses, as 
 in the intelligent provisions made for sanitary and charit- 
 able institutions, schools, colleges, public libraries, etc., 
 in fact, all public enterprises that look to the improvement 
 of the people of all nations, countries and climes. 
 
 The benevolent uses of knowledge are often associated 
 with enterprises not strictly benevolent in their intent, but 
 still highly beneficial ; and this would include all general 
 improvement. Its political uses, however, are more 
 
APPLICATIONS AND USES OF KNOWLEDGE. 33 
 
 intimately associated with man's social nature, since his 
 political relations arise chiefly from his social nature and 
 circumstances in life. [See Political Obligations and 
 Duties, Chapter XV, p. 184.] 
 
 Hence it will be seen that knowledge or science, which 
 is the chief instrument of man's elevation and refinement, 
 may not only be classified as to its origin, characteristics 
 and uses, but may become a means through these uses for 
 his intellectual and moral elevation. And it will be 
 further seen, as we pass to the more immediate acquisi- 
 tion of this knowledge, through well-appointed study and 
 practice, that it imparts its own moral force to those in 
 pursuit of it, at every stage of advancement, much in the 
 ratio of honest endeavor, and a stern purpose to make its 
 acquisition a measure of moral as well as intellectual 
 growth. This last is too frequently overlooked. Every 
 fresh acquisition of truth and every step in intellectual 
 advancement requires a corresponding advancement in 
 moral growth, otherwise it fails in its best purposes. This 
 is education in its truest and highest sense. All else is 
 more or less faulty. And because this feature of constant 
 moral growth is not insisted upon, nor yet fully provided 
 for, scientifically and patiently pursued, is the chief reason 
 it is not secured to a greater extent. Both our plans for 
 educating and our practices, therefore, may need, and 
 probably do need, careful revision. 
 
 Indeed, it is doubtful whether or not morals can be 
 successfully taught in any other way than that alluded to 
 in the foregoing, and which will be still more fully illus- 
 trated as we proceed. It is doubtful, also, whether or not 
 they can be so taught that the moral nature and habits 
 shall be suitably affected by this teaching in the ratio of the 
 knowledge acquired — taught, so that the conduct of the 
 pupil shall in all respects conform to the teaching— by merely 
 
 .•FEB 80 1892 
 
34 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE, 
 
 teaching morals as a separate branch of study, or in a set 
 course of moral lectures or lessons. At least, judging 
 from the results of this perfunctory teaching of morals, 
 by means of text-books in Moral Philosophy, or by any 
 merely theoretical system of morals as such, it does not 
 seem to affect the lives and habits of students in this 
 ratio. 
 
 Two principal causes may be assigned for this seeming 
 failure: First, the period of life favorable to deep and last- 
 ing impressions is usually past before such teaching or 
 instruction (and there is a radical difference) is usually 
 begun; second, it is usually taught more through precept 
 than by example or practice. It is the latter that tells 
 with most marked effect. Morals, like mathematics and 
 language, must be practiced in order to make perfect. 
 This is more than all precepts and all philosophies. 
 
 One has aptly said, in speaking on this point: " Sow an 
 act, and you reap a habit; sow a habit and you reap char- 
 acter; sow character and you reap destiny." And so it 
 would seem. The act, the habit, the character gather up 
 all, or nearly all, the moral forces and project them forcibly 
 into the future, there to work their destiny. 
 
 Therefore we conclude: 
 
 1. That morals, like any other practical subject, can be 
 taught and enforced so as to affect character. 
 
 2. That morals should be taught largely in connection 
 with the ordinary branches of study, they affording just 
 opportunity. 
 
 3. That they should be taught by actual practice 
 rather than by precept and philosophy alone. 
 
 4. That morals should be taught in early childhood, 
 and continued throughout the entire educational career. 
 
 5. That to attempt to force down a dose of morals after 
 teaching the sciences themselves, properly, is too much 
 
TRUE SCIENCE PROMOTES MORAL CULTURE. 35 
 
 like taking a dose of physic after breakfast in order to 
 promote digestion. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The True Order of Scientific Development a 
 Means of Promoting Moral Culture. 
 
 Our next inquiry, therefore, must be what order shall 
 be observed in the schools, or in teaching these sciences, 
 and adjusting their elements to corresponding grades of 
 mind and body, in childhood and youth, in order that the 
 greatest amount of effective moral influence shall be 
 obtained from them? 
 
 This is the great question in teaching. All others are 
 dependent upon this one, to a great extent, since its proper 
 solution involves a course of study that shall harmonize 
 the many conflicting opinions that have been and are still 
 entertained as to the Order of Studies ; and upon its proper 
 solution also depends the success of the whole scheme as 
 here planned. 
 
 Let it be granted, therefore, and we think the matter 
 will not be questioned. [See Chapter II.] 
 
 1. That physics and metaphysics* are the two great 
 sources of scientific research and knowledge; and that they 
 occupy respectively the extremes, or opposite poles, in the 
 realm of nature ; 
 
 2. That mathematics and language (including litera- 
 ture), as representative sciences, border upon each of these 
 two extremes or sources, touching both and occupying the 
 great plane of thought intervening; and as a necessary 
 condition: 
 
 * Used here in their comprehensive sense. 
 
36 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 3. That these four departments or representative 
 sciences contain all the elements or materials, so to speak, 
 upon which the mind of man was made to act, there being 
 no other domain accessible to it, or to mortals; and, 
 
 4. That these elements of nature, material and imma- 
 terial (for they all belong to nature), may, through the 
 action of mind upon them, in accordance with the evident 
 intention and plan, be wrought out and formulated, accord- 
 ing to certain fixed principles, into science; and, 
 
 5. That these sciences, thus disposed, have depart- 
 ments or grades in them exactly suited to corresponding 
 departments or grades in mental and moral development; 
 and, 
 
 6. That these two entities, mind and science, mutually 
 aid each other in their growth and development, when 
 properly adjusted, and duly acted upon; it follows, there- 
 fore, 
 
 1. That mind and science should be so adjusted by the 
 educator, that there shall be mutual attraction and mutual 
 accommodation at every point, and at every stage of 
 growth; 
 
 2. That science, however elementary or however 
 advanced, should be pursued by the learner in such a way 
 that every step in advance shall be regarded in the light 
 of a discovery by the ch ild or learner. 
 
 3. That this spirit of discovery be so managed by the 
 instructor, as to continually excite the. learner to addi- 
 tional research wisely directed; and 
 
 4. That his moral sentiments,* etc., that entwine them- 
 selves about all human interests and every purpose in life 
 be called into continual exercise, and made the principal 
 promptors to duty and fidelity. 
 
 * LSee Chapter V, Sentiments, Qualities and Habits.] 
 
TRUE SCIENCE PROMOTES MORAL CULTURE. 37 
 
 5. That only such helps* should be rendered the pupil 
 or learner as shall stimulate him to self-help, self-activity 
 and original research and discovery. 
 
 6. That all sciences have elementary principles, root- 
 lets, so to speak, reaching down from their exalted heights, 
 to the very substratum of human hearts and human 
 understanding, and that their mission to exalt every 
 faculty of mind and body is hereby revealed and verified; 
 
 7. That these sciences, rightly interpreted and rightly 
 taught, become helpful in the moral development exactly 
 in the ratio of thoroughly well-understood principles and 
 scientifically applied uses; 
 
 8. That these sciences and their just application to 
 human needs, so far from interfering with sound religiousf 
 or soul culture, only promote it in its truest sense; 
 
 9. That these elements of science and of all sciences, are 
 represented and exemplified in the ordinary environment 
 of the child, even in the nursery and the home. His first 
 knowledge, therefore, begins with a conquest of this envi- 
 ronment, which is the beginning and the prophecy of his 
 future career; and with proper treatment continues much 
 in this same order to the end. 
 
 Self-activity, therefore, is a necessity to development; 
 and it remains with the teacher, be it mother, kinder- 
 gartener or school teacher, whether this native activity 
 be utilized in the pursuit of useful knowledge and 
 experience or wasted upon inanity and mischief. The 
 
 *The author believes that "the easy methods ,1 devised by thoughtless 
 teachers and authors, whereby children are relieved from hard thinking; 
 and also the excessive explanations, and super teaching- whereby they are 
 so rapidly advanced in learning, (?) to be one of the most fruitful sources 
 of mental debauchery and laziness, and consequent immorality, now exist- 
 ing. The unoccupied mind, or one overburdened with indigestible knowl- 
 edge, is weakened thereby, and falls an easy prey to temptation and evil. 
 
 + Religion must be understood here in the light of the first definition. 
 See Introduction, p. 7. 
 
38 ELEMENTS OE ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 character of the school and the teacher may hence be 
 inferred. 
 
 The child is a kind of perpetual motion — the only one, 
 indeed, that has ever been discovered (not invented) — and a 
 perpetual annoyance, or at least, source of annoyance to all 
 who do not thoroughly understand him. The self-adjust- 
 ment of environment seems to be the great secret. And 
 this self-adjustment must be made possible by wise pre- 
 vision. If this motion and self -activity can be directed 
 to discovery and to the utilization of the elements of 
 environment, which is really scientific discovery, not only 
 the chances for annoyance are very much diminished, but 
 the prospects for pleasure aud profitable employment and 
 corresponding improvement will be greatly enhanced. 
 
 The child, therefore, becomes both an explorer, which 
 is a natural trait — as all may testify — and a real discoverer, 
 unless, indeed, he is hindered in the one by overconfine- 
 ment, and in the other by overteaching. The one is as 
 bad as the other. What he needs most of all is to be wisely 
 let alojie; alone that he may struggle and exert all his little 
 strength — which is natural again — with his little problems 
 wisely adjusted to his wants by his teacher, that he may 
 conquer for himself. The moral courage and confidence 
 both in his own powers and in his science or discovery are 
 more valuable to him than all the moral precepts in the 
 world . 
 
 The child is confronted at every step, in his true treat- 
 ment and advancement, by things new and strange, with 
 employment and acquisition, with labor and capital, with 
 government and institutions, all in embryo to be sure, but 
 none the less real and important, and if " wisely let alone" 
 (and this is a masterful wisdom) he will soon come to a 
 proper understanding both of himself and his surround- 
 ings. Things and their properties and their relations 
 
TRUE SCIENCE PROMOTES MORAL CULTURE. 39 
 
 will soon become a school of inquiry and experiment to 
 him, that will start more questions as to time, place, man- 
 ner, distance, direction, resemblances and contrasts, mean- 
 ing and use, cause and effect, than can ordinarily be 
 answered in a lifetime. This taxes the best patience, the 
 soundest learning, the profoundest wisdom of the race. 
 
 Here we also have not only the elements of scientific 
 knowledge presented to the child in such a way as to 
 excite his curiosity, but so arranged as to contribute to 
 his stock of useful knowledge of things and of his lan- 
 guage, at a period when most needed. It constitutes the 
 opening chapter to his subsequent researches and the nat- 
 ural stimulant to thought. 
 
 The natural inclination of the child is to see, to hear, 
 to feel or examine, to experiment, accumulate and formu- 
 late, all of which develop both thought and language 
 when duly indulged. This is the favorable period in which 
 to introduce the child to the study of the physics of things, 
 as form, motion, color, number, language, etc.; and, 
 as a healthy and strong bodily organization is acquired 
 mainly by judicious diet and daily and hourly exercise, 
 so the minds and morals of childhood and youth should 
 be daily and hourly fed and exercised in those things and 
 studies and employments most congenial to natural taste 
 and most conducive to mental and moral growth and 
 strength. 
 
 A careful study of the child want will show that the 
 physical sciences stand first in the order of learning, and 
 that these, when properly formulated and adjusted to the 
 child want, as revealed in his natural inclinations, and 
 pursued in the light of " discovery," give ample exercise 
 in language, form and number, and afford also ample 
 opportunity for bodily activity and growth. And these 
 are all represented and included in the ordinary environ^ 
 
40 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 ment of the child, and in which he finds his greatest 
 delight. This is the natural order of science growth, moral 
 growth and mind growth; since these sciences have about 
 them those elements that are necessary both to the child's 
 existence and his best culture ; and they are equally 
 attractive in their nature. They bring into exercise all 
 those useful powers, physical, intellectual and moral, that 
 are so apt, if left unemployed, untrained, to waste in 
 inanity or develop into mischief and vice. 
 
 These physical sciences, when thus adjusted to human 
 wants, become, as to their constituent elements, a kind of 
 natural bridge to span the chasm that sometimes yawns 
 between the known and the unrelated unknown. They 
 lift the mind readily from the concrete to the abstract. 
 And then they are a complete antidote for the evils of that 
 period of idleness that is so apt to supervene the period of 
 early thought and the ordinary school life. They consti- 
 tute a ladder reaching from the lowlier things earthly to 
 the region of the higher departments of learning upon 
 which the thoughts, like angels, are continually ascending 
 and descending in the realm of discovery. They consti- 
 tute a convenient passage from the known to the unknown, 
 from the tangible to the intangible, between observation 
 and investigation, between physics and metaphysics, 
 between perception and pure reasoning. Hence the order 
 of study may be formulated, in a general way, in accord- 
 ance with the following well-accepted principles : 
 
 1 . From the known of environment in infancy, or material 
 things and surroundings, through observation and experi- 
 ment, to the unknown in thought and scientific formulae. 
 
 2. From the simple and concrete in science, through 
 study and investigation, to the more complex and abstract 
 in form number and language or expression. 
 
 3. From the physics, or natural sciences, through the 
 
PURE SCIENCE PROMOTES MORAL CULTURE. 41 
 
 higher mathematics and literature, to the metaphysics and 
 pure reasoning. 
 
 This natural order in the study of the sciences, when 
 duly enlarged and made specific in its application, is as 
 essential to the orderly growth of mind and habits as is 
 the observance of the requirements of the natural law in 
 the cultivation and the growth of plants and animals. 
 Indeed, the higher the organization in the subject of the 
 growth, the more necessary and apparent the law. And 
 if we ever expect a high state of moral development in the 
 children and youth of the country, we must insist upon 
 obedience to these same laws. 
 
 A large part, and perhaps the largest part, of man's intel- 
 lectual and moral blindness and depravity, and his evil 
 tendencies in any direction, arises from the blunders 
 made in the child's early education, leaving so much of 
 man unprovided for in his actual growth. 
 
 The kindergarten in its purity seems to have struck the 
 keynote in the harmony of the child's thought and act; 
 and the training here given is the opening chapter to the 
 harmonious development of all his faculties, without which 
 there can not be a healthy moral development. But there 
 does not seem to be any valid reason why this same scien- 
 tific and orderly method should not be generalized and 
 extended throughout the entire educational career of man. 
 
 The course of study should be planned to suit the child 
 instead of bending and warping the child to suit the course. 
 Moral degeneracies and social and political obliquities and 
 deformities arise as frequently from the neglect or perver- 
 sion of this natural order of studies as from any known 
 inherent cause. 
 
 But the whole force of this matter does not lie exclu- 
 sively either in the particular branches of science, nor in 
 the particular order in which they are taught and 
 
42 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 unfolded to the human mind. As important as these points 
 are, the study itself, or the thinking forces called into 
 action while studying and the consequent vigor and breadth 
 of thought thus acquired, are what secure the chief excel- 
 lence. The study itself is a most powerful agent. It is 
 not only the introduction of the mind into all that is 
 excellent and elevating in these branches themselves, for 
 they may be regarded only as the alphabet or exponents 
 of study, but it is the opening up to the human mind the 
 grand possibilities that lie beyond the immediate region 
 of human vision, the invisible and intangible. 
 
 Thinking is the grand conservator of all human energies, 
 and all human excellence, intellectual and moral. It is 
 the object and aim of all study ; and it is that which 
 refines and elevates man and distinguishes him from all 
 other terrestrial beings. But the discussion of this phase 
 of the subject will be reserved for the following 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Study as a Purely Moral Force. 
 
 The objects and ends of study as a purely moral force 
 may be stated briefly as follows: 
 
 1. The discipline of the powers of the mind to habits 
 of close attention, and to persistent orderly methods in 
 thought and labor: 
 
 2. The acquisition and extension of knowledge 
 together with its orderly classification for the various life 
 purposes, according to the established laws of thought: 
 
 3. The utilitarian and professional objects, or those 
 that relate more particularly to trades, employments, and 
 professions. 
 
STUDY AS A PURELY MORAL FORCE. 43 
 
 This last would afford a splendid field of inquiry; but 
 we shall confine ourselves to the first of these objects, since 
 in the discipline of the powers of the mind, and in the 
 refinement and intensifying of all human forces, native 
 and acquired, we shall find those strong moral influences 
 that are mainly instrumental in man's elevation. 
 
 Jf. Tlie mere acquisition of knowledge — which by the 
 way, is best accomplished in connection with the severest 
 discipline — is secondary as compared with this mental 
 strength, vigor, precision and persistence in the pursuit of 
 knoivledge which the best discipline secures, for, while it 
 secures the best mental strength, it also enables its pos- 
 sessor to discriminate among those finer elements of 
 thought and science, those nicer distinctions in art that 
 adorn the higher walks of learning and refinement; and 
 also to judge more clearly in relation to all the duties of 
 life. 
 
 To think consecutively, vigorously, methodically, con- 
 tinuously, and effectively, ranks, perhaps, among the highest 
 graces of scholarship. It opens all the avenues of science 
 and art, of literature and learning, of discovery and 
 invention, and pours a continuous flood of light upon 
 all the great problems of science and life, social, political 
 and moral. It strengthens and sublimates every power 
 of the human soul, and paves the pathway to universal 
 progress. 
 
 A clear distinction must be made, however, between 
 hard study, or sober well-directed thinking, and the merely 
 acquainting one's self with the thoughts of other thinkers. 
 Second-hand thought is better than no thought at all; but 
 its chief object is to induce original thought. It is 
 borrowed capital and should yield a revenue. Its chief 
 benefit arises from stimulating the mind of the reader or 
 hearer to vigorous activity and broader and more indepen- 
 
44 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 dent, and original thinking. The first is merely borrowed 
 capital; the second is individual stock in trade. The first is 
 reflected light and heat; the second is native, original, 
 vital, forceful; and the moral distinctions are equally 
 apparent. Clear, effective thinking elevates the entire 
 man, and gives stability to all his movements. 
 
 5. In a purely moral sense, however, systematic study, 
 or vigorous, effective thinking, touches man at every available 
 point. It quickens the moral preceptions, enlarges the 
 views of life, enlightens and develops conscience, strength- 
 ens the will and refines and intensifies all the sensibilities; 
 It opens up all the avenues to refined taste, good judg- 
 ment, pure affection and aesthetic culture; and it is death 
 to superstition and bigotry. 
 
 The intellect thus becomes a wholesome guard or check 
 upon supersensibility and a trusty informer of conscience. 
 Without this wholesome check, the moral sense — the basis 
 of conscience — is liable continually to a process of dwarf- 
 ing, on the one hand, by negleet, or to be made morbidly 
 sensitive, on the other, by a superstitious dread of impend- 
 ing evil. Sound, healthy study or thinking, therefore, 
 becomes a regulator and a safeguard to moral conduct. 
 
 Independent thinking, wisely directed, will do more to 
 break up habits of superstition, narrowness and unholy 
 prejudices which have filled the world with sin and conse- 
 quent suffering, and at the same time to establish a broad 
 catholic spirit among the people, than all the creeds and 
 catechisms invented by man. When people begin to think 
 for themselves the true light soon begins to shine. They 
 maybe a little awkward aboutitatfirst,but, since " we learn 
 to think by thinking," man soon learns to think in the 
 right channel, and this sounds the death-knell both to 
 social disorder and political oppression. 
 
 6. Study, ivisely directed, so occupies and absorbs men- 
 
STUDY AS A PURELY MORAL FORCE. 45 
 
 tal energy as to leave no vacant or idle moments to he taken 
 advantage of by evil influences. 
 
 It thus subdues the passions, inordinate appetite and 
 evil desires, that are often only inflamed by mere precept 
 or preaching ; since even to point them out (not to say 
 paint them) by ill-timed, though well intended rebuke is 
 only to awaken their slumbering fires. But to so employ 
 the mind in wholesome thinking, even upon the ordinary 
 topics of science, art and literature, that all these latent 
 energies are aroused and utilized in thought is to close all 
 the avenues of vice, since- temptations to evil practices 
 are greatly diminished and at the same time the moral 
 powers are strengthened to resist the encroachments of 
 vice. This usually gives complete victory, while the good 
 affections and moral sentiments are all refined and im- 
 proved ; and this ranks among the strongest moral forces. 
 Let it be used! 
 
 7. Patient and continuous study, tvisely directed, is a 
 poiverful promoter of self-control. It gives one the mastery 
 of his own powers by exercising them in accordance with 
 their evident designs. Man was most evidently made for 
 study and thinking; and a failure to employ his thinking 
 powers in accordance with the laws of their growth and 
 perpetuity defeats their very purpose and entails decrepi- 
 tude and weakness upon them and upon all associated with 
 them. The moral powers usually suffer most, under these 
 circumstances. 
 
 The ability to order one's own thoughts and emotions, 
 sayings and doings, ranks among the highest excellencies 
 of scholarship. It is the culmination of all excellencies 
 in moral culture. It gives the main advantage in personal 
 conflict, and, in every contest where virtue and vice are at 
 issue: it enables one to escape danger, to rescue the perish- 
 ing and to triumph in every conflict where the odds are 
 
46 Elements of ethical science. 
 
 not too great; and, even then, he who governs himself not 
 only uses all his strength to the best advantage, but he is 
 really the victor, since he overcomes himself by patient 
 endurance. This is the greatest possible moral triumph 
 and can be practiced by any one who, by patient study 
 and will, has learned the great lesson of self-control. 
 
 8. Consistent study harmonizes man's faculties, soul and 
 body, since it fulfills the laws of growth and maturity. 
 There is strength in harmony; and the vigorous exercise 
 given man's higher nature by thus grappling with the 
 great problems of science and the sterner problems of life,, 
 gives the ascendancy to his better nature. It gives the 
 strongest and best moral fibre and prepares for right liv- 
 ing. 
 
 The inharmony or discord among the human faculties 
 constitutes one of the prime sources of weakness and con- 
 sequent immorality; since the friction, so to speak, is so 
 great as to impair the faculties themselves, and thus to 
 mar their work. 
 
 If we wish to secure the best fruits from the growing 
 vine, all the elements of growth must be fu'rnished, and 
 all the lawful conditions of such growth must be complied 
 with. If we wish to secure the best fabrics from the 
 factory, the best articles from the mill or foundry, the best 
 coloring and proportions and shadings in painting, we 
 must furnish the materials in just measure, and fulfill all 
 the conditions of harmony. 
 
 So in moral culture. But some seem to think that 
 that will come even against lawful provision; that it is 
 brought about by some miraculous transformation, and 
 that the laws of the universe are set aside in this trans- 
 formation. But such cannot be the case, since these 
 laws are all perfect from the beginning, every possible con- 
 tingency having been provided from the beginning, which 
 
STUDY AS A PURELY MORAL FORCE. 47 
 
 precludes the possibility of change. Reformations may take 
 place suddenly or gradually; but whatever transformations 
 are wrought in human character and life must conform 
 strictly to these laws. There can be no healthy product, 
 no permanent growth, without complying with these law- 
 ful conditions. All the faculties of the child or youth 
 must be exercised in obedience to law, or we destroy this 
 beautiful balance, and derangement ensues. 
 
 No healthy moral growth can be secured from one whose 
 faculties are weak, deranged or out of repair. Therefore, 
 since growth and harmony demand activity, the faculties 
 of the mind and body must be duly exercised in order to 
 secure them. Harmony is a necessary condition to healthy 
 growth and permanent fruitage. Hence, to teach morals 
 well means to teach everything else well. There can be 
 no other way, since morals touch all and include all. 
 If we strive alone for fruit, thereby forcing it, we shall 
 neglect and spoil the vine. The vine is greater than the 
 fruit; so the child is greater than his work. Make the 
 tree good and the fruit will be good. Make the fountain 
 pure and the waters will be pure. Make the boy good 
 and healthy and strong by exercising him in all lawful 
 ways, and you secure him against wrong and weakness 
 and vice. But if we strive alone for morals we shall miss 
 our mark, impair the faculties, and defeat the best aims 
 of education, because we antagonize the laws of harmony. 
 
 But before proceeding further in this subject it will be 
 necessary to glance at some of the moral sentiments and 
 qualities in human nature, the cultivation of which con- 
 stitutes the leading characteristics in a work like this. 
 
 These faculties or sentiments will be more conveniently 
 treated in a separate chapter, where we shall attempt a 
 close classification of them, both for study and practice in 
 schools and families. Their application to life affairs will 
 
48 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 be shown as we proceed to notice tha "obligations and 
 duties" arising out of human relations. [See chapters 
 XIII, XIV, XV.] 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Ethical Attributes. 
 
 The Ethical Attributes include all those sentiments and 
 qualities of human nature that in any way and manner 
 enter into man's moral feelings, and that in any way con- 
 tribute subjective incentives to conduct. For convenience 
 of study and application they may be classified under the 
 following general heads: 
 
 I. Moral Sentiments. 
 
 II. Moral Qualities and Habits. 
 
 III. Social Qualities and Habits. 
 
 They are intimately associated and blended in all that 
 relates to man's moral nature and conduct, and so similar 
 in character and purjjose that it is difficult to distinguish 
 them, one from the other, in their ordinary applications to 
 human conduct. 
 
 First. The Moral Sentiments. 
 
 The moral sentiments are those feelings and dispositions 
 of the human mind that prompt to moral actions, or that 
 serve as subjective incentives to these actions. They may 
 be classified as follows: 
 
 1. Those implying a species of equality and reciprocal 
 feeling existing between the active agent and the recipient of 
 the act, as, 
 
 (a.) Respect for a worthy object, founded upon a recog- 
 nition of commendable qualities ; for authority, for law, 
 when these are recognized as right. Thus, I may respect 
 my neighbor, teacher and associate, if I discover those 
 
ETHICAL ATTRIBUTES. 49 
 
 worthy qualities in them that shall call forth this sentiment 
 of respect. So I may respect the laws and institutions of 
 my country or any country, if the first are founded in 
 justice, and the second have merits that commend them 
 to my judgment and taste. 
 
 (b.) Esteem for the more excellent qualities in person, 
 in character, in deeds, in value : thus, I may esteem 
 highly or moderately the excellent qualities of either a 
 a friend or an enemy ; I esteem such favors as he may 
 bestow ; I esteem the friendship of the wise and good ; 
 but I respect or love the persons themselves, i. e., I hold in 
 nigh favor and regard all those qualities, sentiments and 
 their products that commend themselves to my judgment 
 and taste ; but I respect and love the agencies that 
 possess these qualities, and that produce these results. 
 
 (c.) Love, or the supreme regard and desire for those per- 
 sons and qualities that please us most, or that have the 
 strongest claims for such regard and desire, is the 
 supreme affection of the human heart. Thus, we may 
 love our parents, children, husbands, wives, friends and 
 benefactors, and even an enemy may be loved with com- 
 passion and pity. We may also love our country, the 
 cause of the oppressed, learning, literature and progress, 
 but not in the sense in which we regard and desire per- 
 sons of our own species. We may love the beautiful, the 
 true, the good, wisdom, virtue, justice, mercy, honesty 
 and the like ; but we usually admire the beautiful in form, 
 color, proportion, as flowers, birds, pictures, statuary and 
 scenery. But we can not love deformity, vice or crime, 
 injustice, impurity, wrong, however much we may be 
 addicted to them. These things do not and can not call 
 forth that supreme regard which is the necessary element 
 in love ; and this shows the inherent nature of these moral 
 sentiments and the moral sense. Neither can we really love 
 
50 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 articles of food, clothing, machinery, brute animals and the 
 like, though these may all possess really worthy qualities 
 in a high degree . We may relish, fancy, admire and really 
 desire many of these objects ; but Love is too exalted a 
 feeling to be called forth and applied to any thing gross or 
 sensual. 
 
 Love is the crowning grace of human character and life 
 It exalts every virtue, sweetens every trial, assuages every 
 sorrow, brightens every joy, binds tighter every bond of 
 true friendship, conquers even a enemy, and lights the 
 pathway of the world's true progress; and with all the 
 evil that may surround it, true love can never be tainted. 
 It is one of those qualities or sentiments of the human 
 heart, so to speak, that escaped the contaminations of the 
 fall, or ruin that comes from disobedience of law. If it 
 exists at all, it exists in its purity, though it may be ever 
 so feeble. 
 
 2. Those moral sentiments and qualities implying some 
 real or supposed superiority on the part of the recipient of 
 the sentiment or act; and, on the part of the agent or actor, a 
 feeling akin to awe, combined with respect and love: as, 
 
 (a). Veneration forage, when it is associated with excel- 
 lent wisdom or virtue: Thus, we may venerate the hoary 
 hairs of the aged, if they are not dishonored by vice or 
 crime. We also venerate the objects of antiquity, if asso- 
 ciated with eminent historic events. 
 
 Children and youth, therefore, should be taught to 
 reverence and venerate their parents and the aged . It is 
 a virtue likely to become extinct unless measures are 
 soon taken to revive and perpetuate this ancient virtue. 
 
 (b.) Reverence for superior qualities and beings, or 
 qualities combined with a species of severe goodness, or 
 that which inspires awe and manly fear or great respect 
 and esteem, as distinguished from a slavish fear on the 
 
ETHICAL ATTRIBUTES. 51 
 
 OQe hand, or cowardice and a too great familiarity, on the 
 other. Thus, we reverence the great and good beings that 
 may have a fatherly care and protection over us, as a 
 parent or ruler, or a supreme being, or the source of all 
 good. 
 
 (c.) Adoration for a supreme power and goodness, 
 intelligence and wisdom. Thus, we adore that which is 
 most exalted in character, virtue, power, goodness; that 
 upon which we are most dependent for the higher enjoy- 
 ments, and for which we are willing to make the greatest 
 sacrifices; that which we love, not as an equal, bat as a 
 superior, and from which we derive the greatest enjoy- 
 ment — the supreme in justice, mercy, purity, power and 
 goodness, God himself. Like love, nothing short of the in- 
 finite in all perfections will call forth this sentimet in all 
 its strength and purity. It may, however, exist in various 
 degrees of perfection . 
 
 3. Those moral sentiments of a more general character, 
 relating to home, country, people and race. 
 
 (a.) Patriotism, or love of country, government and 
 institutions, or loyalty from choice. Thus, we are attached 
 to our native land, or the land of our choice, her laws 
 and institutions, if they are founded in truth and justice ; 
 we may even love liberty because it is the birthright of all 
 intelligent creatures, and the highest expression of man- 
 hood. And we are disposed to defend the rights and 
 privileges of the government, because they are supposed 
 to embody the principles of liberty and the highest good 
 of the governed. 
 
 (b.) Philanthropy, or the love of mankind in general. It 
 is patriotism generalized and broadened, a general expan 
 sion of human sympathies, covering the entire human 
 species. Thus, we love the race of man, because he is the 
 highest expression of earthly intelligence, wisdom and 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 virtue. We love man because he is a part of the great 
 body of which we ourselves are some of the constituent 
 elements. This leads us to espouse the cause of the 
 oppressed in all lands, the cause of the people against their 
 oppressors; and we rejoice in the freedom of our own land, 
 because it is a part of the great family whose sympathies 
 are the common heritage of all. 
 
 (c.) Benevolence, or general well-wishing or good-will to 
 all beings, brute or human. It is based upon generosity 
 and kindness. It is one of the crowning graces or virtues 
 among its group of moral sentiments, as love and adoration 
 are among their respective groups. It is the origin of true 
 beneficence and all charitable movements for benefiting 
 the race. Thus, we bear general good-will to all the fam- 
 ilies of the earth and to all things associated therewith, 
 unless, indeed, we are actuated by the opposite of this sen- 
 timent, general malevolence; and this should be avoided. 
 
 These sentiments all exist inherently in the child, in 
 some form and in various degrees of prominence and activ- 
 ity ; and it is the especial province and duty of education 
 and instruction in their truest and broadest sense to 
 appeal to them as occasion offers, and to exercise them in 
 the ordinary school work. Indeed, true education or 
 growth can not go on in the child nature without appealing 
 to these sentiments at every stage of such growth. These 
 moral sentiments lie in wait at every point, and it is 
 impossible to avoid them without doing violence to the child 
 nature and to every principle of true philosphy. They 
 embody themselves in every virtue, mingle with every duty 
 and every trial, entwine themselves about every joy and 
 every sorrow ; they are a part of every lesson in every 
 branch of learning; and to avoid them is simply to shirk 
 duty and to stultify common sense. 
 
 No especial lessons or exercises are to be devised for the 
 
ETHICAL ATTRIBUTES. 53 
 
 proper appeals to these sentiments, or those that are to 
 follow, since the best teaching of other things calls for 
 just the right measure of these sentiments, in order to 
 render such teaching the most effective. This reveals the 
 true economy of all right methods, since what aids the 
 one aids the other, and what hinders the one hinders the 
 other. 
 
 Take the first in the list of these moral sentiments, for 
 instance — common respect. All will agree that the teacher 
 must secure this from the pupil. Without it, there can 
 be no effective teaching of an}' kind. The teacher, in the 
 first place, must possess those qualities that awaken and 
 command this sentiment or feeling on the part of the 
 pupil; and it is yielded without an order and almost with- 
 out an effort, in response to duties well performed. 
 
 Suppose, then, the lesson is in reading or arithmetic: 
 the teacher is reasonably supposed to -know more about 
 these subjects than the pupil, and to be able to give mas- 
 terly illustrations of the same. This fact alone will win a 
 degree of respect from the pupil, making him more or 
 less dependent and deferential. But suppose she add 
 other excellent qualities, as she goes on from point to 
 point, " from the known to the unknown" in learning, 
 unfolding the hidden mysteries and latent beauties of 
 these branches, and showing their specific applications to 
 human needs and human enjoyments; this sentiment of 
 common respect grows and expands till it overleaps the 
 mere bounds of respect and fills the little heart with gen- 
 uine joy, which may change the respect to esteem and even 
 love. 'Tis thus these sentiments grow. Is there lack of 
 moral groivth here? If so, then we have mistaken our 
 theme. 
 
 But, suppose the teacher fails to enlist the sympathy 
 and confidence of the pupil, the loss is irreparable, first to 
 
54 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 the teacher in the loss of self-respect, and to the pupil, in 
 that he loses confidence in and respect for the teacher, in 
 about the same ratio. This alone shows that the true 
 method of moral teaching resides not in "ordering" the 
 sentiment, but in winning it by the proper discharge of 
 ordinary duty. The other sentiments are awakened and 
 won in a similar manner. Indeed, they will be found 
 more powerful in their manifestations and more fruitful in 
 their results, since these sentiments are higher as we 
 advance, and more powerful in their impressions ; and 
 every branch of science and its proper unfolding furnish 
 the just occasion for the exercise of these sentiments and 
 qualities ; so that with what moral force the sciences them- 
 selves possess, combined with those of the teacher and the 
 methods employed, we shall have a system of moral 
 instruction far surpassing any and all merely perfunctory 
 moral teaching. [See moral incentives and moral duties 
 further on.] 
 
 Our next general list of ethical attributes are included 
 under what we have called, 
 II. Moral Habits and Qualities. 
 The moral habits are those acquired dispositions and 
 traits inclining the human being to acts and practices 
 more or less the result of repetition of the act or thing 
 involved in the habit itself. And the moral qualities are 
 the properties and conditions of the human mind that 
 prompt to moral acts. They are : 
 
 1. Impressions or inclinations of a personal character, 
 since they relate to the person alone in whom they reside, 
 generally causing both the habit and an increased inclination; 
 as, 
 
 (a.) Industry, or that disposition or inclination that 
 prompts to constant employment, both of body and mind. 
 This is the great conservator of human energies aDd of the 
 
ETHICAL ATTRIBUTES. 55 
 
 human faculties. Without industry or labor there can be 
 no real merit and no real progress. Every faculty of man 
 was made for exercise ; and industry is both an inclination 
 and a habit prompting to the exercises necessary for their 
 proper development. Laziness is also largely a habit and 
 a vice, whose insidious encroachments destroy more virtue 
 than war or intemperance, and it is a sure accompaniment 
 of the latter. Strike that foe to human progress and 
 human happiness down and the field is cleared of more 
 than one-half the opposing forces. Allow it to linger, and 
 the contest is prolonged indefinitely. Systematic work is 
 the true preventive of crime, and the cure for laziness. 
 Morality is therefore promoted by work, much in the same 
 manner that legitimate exercise promotes health. The 
 conditions are the same, and the law of compensation is 
 the same. 
 
 (b.) Sobriety and Temperance or those dispositions and 
 tendencies that prompt to sound judgment and staidness 
 of character, to moderation in the use of all the necessaries 
 of life, temperate in expectations and in pleasures, in 
 enjoyments and labor, in food and raiment, not only avoid- 
 ing that which is hurtful, but the excess of that which is 
 really necessary. This is true temperance. 
 
 These are powerful moral forces, chiefly as restraints 
 against excesses of all kinds, and are largely the results of 
 cultivation. Numberless opportunities will present them- 
 selves in the ordinary school work for the exercise of 
 these virtues. 
 
 (c.) Economy or judicious in the use of time, opportunity, 
 money and goods ; neither parsimonious nor prodigal, but 
 a just balance in the affairs of life ; a companion of 
 industry, a promoter of thrift, and an aid to virtue. 
 Economy can be taught in schools both by a judicious 
 use of property, and a proper division of time, labor and 
 
56 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 amusements, and a strict observance of the duties assigned 
 to these. Industry in the preparation of lessons, modera- 
 tion in plays and pleasures, and economy in the use of all 
 are virtues that should be practiced every day, and in every 
 lesson. 
 
 Here we have an epitome of life, a school of preparation 
 for its duties, its trials, its pleasures and responsibilities ; 
 and the teacher that can not utilize these opportunities for 
 this purpose has not yet learned how to teach, and should 
 be retired until suitable preparation is made. This brings 
 us to the consideration of the 
 
 2 Relative Qualities, or those states and conditions of the 
 human mind that prompt to actions relating to intercourse 
 between man and his fellow-man, both in business and pleas- 
 ure. They may be stated as follows : 
 
 (a.) Integrity, or moral soundness, trustworthiness. 
 It has reference to a balance, or an entirety of motive and 
 purpose; the exercise of the whole group of sentiments, 
 unbiased by any unworthy aims ; stanchness in the 
 maintenance of the right. Moral integrity gives charac- 
 ter and force to every virtuous act. It is the rounding 
 out of moral character; and the school and family are the 
 agencies for its healthy development. 
 
 (b.) Fidelity , or faithfulness in the discharge of duties. 
 This is a soldierly quality, and an active element in integ- 
 rity. It is carefulness in the performance of work assigned, 
 truthfulness applied to trusts, and loyalty in carrying out 
 the details of business. Like integrity, it is subject to 
 cultivation. It is improved by the exercise of those facul- 
 ties that are employed in ordinary school work. 
 
 (c.) Honesty, or uprightness in dealings; ingenuous- 
 ness, frankness, open-heartedness, transparent goodness, 
 that which does not advertise itself. It embodies both 
 the preceding qualities and many shades of kindred sen- 
 
ETHICAL ATTRIBUTES. 57 
 
 timents. It is universal trustworthiness not only in busi- 
 ness, but in thought, purpose and will. Hence a person 
 may be faithful and just in all commercial dealings, and 
 in social relations, and yet a hypocrite at heart. He may 
 be dishonest at heart, since motive determines the merit 
 of the act. [See Prop. Ill, and Cors. 1 and 2. ] 
 
 The last group of moral qualities mentioned under this 
 general head may be presented as follows: 
 
 3. The absolute moral qualities, or those inhering inde- 
 pendently in man, and in his acts, and that stand forth as the 
 true elements and exponents of his moral character. They 
 are of binding force, and their excellence determines the qual- 
 ity of all moral thinking*, speaking and acting. We introduce 
 a few leading ones as 
 
 (a.) Truthfulness in thought, word and act. This quality 
 is absolute, admitting of no admixture of error, though 
 often associated with it. It covers the widest range of 
 human actions and moral character. Its cultivation con- 
 sists largely in its expansion or application to human 
 duties. Being absolute in its essence, it admits of no 
 increase in its essential elements, but enters into every 
 relation in life, where it is invited and honored. Its cul- 
 tivation, therefore, consists in guarding it against any 
 admixture or association with error or falsity. 
 
 It is approached on the objective side through the rela- 
 tive in form, color, number and proportion, involving sim- 
 ilarity and contrast ; and on the subjective side, through 
 abstract thought and the observance of those promptings 
 of the moral sense, and of those rules of conduct that con- 
 form strictly to the Standard of truth, as revealed in 
 judgment. Human actions may, therefore, be conformed 
 to the absolute, through comparisons of the relative. 
 [See also Modes of Culture, Chapter XI, pp. 111.] 
 
 (b.) Purity in thought, word and act. This also is an 
 
58 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 absolute quality, closely allied to truthfulness, but deriving 
 its excellence chiefly from the motive prompting the act. 
 It represents many qualities in excellence and enters into 
 every good motive to human action, giving characteristic 
 shades and tints to all thought, feeling and purpose. It 
 admits of no degrees in actual quality, but invites all com- 
 parisons in word, act and conduct. It is a perfect standard 
 of right, as far as quality is concerned. It commences in 
 thought, and rejects all impurity, and approaches nearer 
 and nearer the perfect in form, color, harmony and number 
 which are but the outer symbols of moral purity. Its cul- 
 tivation is subject to the same rules given for the delop- 
 ment of the preceding. It is strict truthfulness applied 
 to motive, and should be the ruling motive in the develop- 
 ment of all scientific and moral truth. 
 
 (c.) Goodness, another general quality, absolute in 
 character and universal in its applications. It may exist 
 in various degrees of perfection in all human actions, 
 covering all other qualities, composed of all others, and 
 representing the best in all that pertains to moral senti- 
 ment, moral qualities and moral habits. Applied to indi- 
 viduals, it expresses the same ideas and thoughts. 
 
 Simple goodness is not opposed to greatness; but, on the 
 contrary, it is an essential element in all true greatness. 
 It is not a weak quality, nor a negative one. It is positive, 
 implying both strength and aggressiveness. It implies the 
 exercise of all those sentiments and qualities that purify, 
 exalt and embellish human life and character. 
 
 To say that goodness can be taught and cultivated in the 
 young, through the judicious application of all school 
 duties, is only to say that every desirable quality may be 
 cultivated, that every gift and grace may be improved; 
 and that life and its duties afford the full measure of 
 
THE SOCIAL SENTIMENTS AND QUALITIES. 59 
 
 exercise desirable for such culture. The manner of cul- 
 tivation is, therefore, the same as in all other qualities. 
 
 We forbear further comment on these qualities here, 
 believing that their importance in a course of moral train- 
 ing will be readily seen and sufficiently appreciated by the 
 thoughtful teacher and student. Their modes of culture 
 are the principal things to be considered. But, like the 
 preceding qualities, they demand no special time set apart 
 for their formal consideration, nor special means employed 
 for enforcing their claims. They grow as a necessary part 
 of and a result from that culture which gives greatest 
 strength, activity and durability to all the powers of mind 
 and body. 
 
 Their further importance and modes of culture will be 
 seen, when we come to the direct teaching of the common 
 branches of science in the schools. 
 
 The Social Sentiments and Qualities. 
 
 The social sentiments and qualities of human nature, 
 so-called, because they can best be exercised in a commun- 
 ity of interests, are those ethical attributes that arise partly 
 from those innate promptings that dispose to virtue and 
 partly from man's social relations. They are purelybenev- 
 olent in their origin and purpose and are excited mainly 
 by objects more or less needy or unfortunate, indicating 
 man's mutual dependence in a social way. 
 
 They will be readily understood, both as to their nature 
 and importance, without individual descriptions; and their 
 cultivation is not different from others already named. 
 They are given here both to show the position they occupy 
 in a course of moral training and to complete the list of 
 attributes in such a course. They must be studied, how- 
 ever, and woven into the web of common school duties, 
 where they rightfully belong and where they will add 
 
60 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 strength and beauty to the great fabric of human culture 
 and human life. They may be named in pairs for con- 
 venience, both from contrasts and similarities. Let them 
 all be compared and discussed in the school lessons from 
 day to day, pointing out cases or examples where they 
 individually apply. 
 
 1. Generosity and Justice. 
 
 2. Compassion and Pity. 
 
 3. Kindness and Mercy. 
 
 4. Gratitude and Thankfulness. 
 
 5. Sympathy and Friendship, etc. 
 
 Other subordinate qualities may be added to this list, as: 
 
 (a.) Magnanimity and Rectitude. 
 
 (b.) Tenderness and Politeness. 
 
 (c.) Commiseration and Condolence, etc., but they are 
 readily derived from the foregoing. They all occupy 
 important places in the curricula of school duties. They 
 constitute a family of refined graces in social life without 
 which it would be reft of more than half its pleasures, to 
 say nothing of its usefulness. 
 
 The cultivation of these qualities consists in exercising 
 them in connection with the ordinary duties of school life, 
 to which they add its chief charm. No day, no hour should 
 pass without calling some or all of them into practical 
 exercise. Indeed, no good teaching can proceed, in a 
 course of instruction, that does not exercise these graces. 
 That is what the course of study should be planned 
 to secure. Without it, it becomes a burden, and some- 
 times an absolute hindrance to the development of the 
 best that is possible in man. And then the opposites of 
 these qualities and graces are sure to grow unless the former 
 are called into active use. 
 
 This is what constitutes the depravity of man. His 
 moral nature is like a fertile soil. It has possibilities alike 
 
THE SO CIAL SENTIMEN TS AND Q UALITIES. Gl 
 
 for good and evil; if the first is neglected the second is sure 
 to usurp its place. If the good seed is not sown early and 
 well, the weeds will surely occupy the soil; and no such 
 preoccupancy of this soil will ever dispose it to virtue, but 
 to the opposite. And then there is a necessity for con- 
 stant culture, that the evil may be repressed, and the good 
 encouraged. But the conquest of the former adds strength 
 and endurance to the latter. 
 
 Take for example the qualities kindness and mercy, 
 justice and generosity, gratitude and thankfulness, and 
 what day or even what lesson does not afford opportuni- 
 ties for the exercise of some or all these qualities? Kind- 
 ness is universal in its elements of tenderness and 
 compassion. The same is true of justice and generosity, 
 in their relations to property or privileges: and 
 
 " The quality of mercy is not strained," 
 It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven 
 Upon the place beneath: it is twice blest; 
 It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes: 
 'Tis mightiest in the mighty;" 
 
 and it does not require a court at Venice nor a Portia to 
 make mercy felt in a school. 
 
 The quality of kindness as opposed to cruelty may often 
 be rendered effective as a lesson, or in many lessons, by 
 calling attention to the treatment of dumb animals and of 
 little children. Incidents may be named or read, and the 
 children questioned on real kindness as opposed to or 
 distinguished from mere indulgence Kindness never 
 appears more beautiful and lovely than when exercised in 
 the relief of suffering, or in the defense of the weak and 
 helpless. And cruelty never appears more odious than when 
 exercised upon dumb animals or little children. It is not 
 only cruel but cowardly and mean to treat a poor horse, or 
 cow, or even a pig, to kicks and blows because it may have 
 
62 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 offended by even so much and by no more than the 
 exercise of a natural propensity. Is it less cruel aud 
 cowardly to treat a child in a similar manner because, for- 
 sooth, it may have offended from a like cause, and is help- 
 less in the hands of a teacher, parent, or a tyrant? 
 
 It is a question whether, under any circumstances, 
 except in cases of defense, we are justifiable in inflicting 
 pain as a punishment, upon defenseless dumb animals. 
 They scarcely have reason sufficient to apply it as a 
 means of reformation, or in vindication of a broken law. 
 And little children are but slightly removed from the 
 sphere of dumb animals. [See Incentives to Obedience, 
 Chapter VIII. See also the customs among Arabs and 
 some other nations, in the treatment of their horses 
 and other animals; also, the Japanese in the treatment 
 of young children.] 
 
 The teacher, if a good one, is the best text-book and 
 best interpreter of lessons involving these qualities and 
 doctrines, in and by his own acts and words, as indeed, he 
 should be in all doctrines and practices relating to moral- 
 ity, all ethical principles, and all practices in high moral 
 duties. Without such helps, the formal teaching of ethi- 
 cal doctrines, and rules for conduct, fall lifeless to the 
 ground. It is doubtful, indeed, whether any other than 
 the truly moral and good can teach morality, since like 
 produces like in all departments of culture. 
 
 This matter is of sufficient importance to warrant an 
 outline of the whole subject, to enable the teacher and 
 student of morals to study these sentiments, qualities and 
 habits in an independent way, approaching them from 
 whatever standpoint may suit them best. This will con- 
 stitute the most effective study, since it liberates the mind 
 from any and all trammels that may come from an attempt 
 
THE SOCIAL SENTIMENTS AND QUALITIES. 
 
 to master the presentation of the subject in a course of 
 formal lessons in a text-book. 
 
 Text-books, however, should always give this freedom to 
 the student. The perfunctory lesson-getting and the 
 recitation of these have often the effect to narrow the 
 thought down to a small compass and to cut off further 
 investigation of the subject under consideration. 
 
 Let the student or teacher copy the following scheme of 
 ethical attributes, and others in this volume, and present 
 them in a series of lessons and discussions in their classes, 
 at such intervals as may seem most desirable and profitable. 
 
 r 1. Those implying a species of \ Respect, 
 equality among' men, as: ") ^steem, 
 
 Moral Sen- 
 timents. 
 
 2. Those implying degrees of 
 superiority among men, as: 
 
 Those of a more general na- 
 ture and use, as: 
 
 Personal, ( Industry, 
 
 f terminat- -< Sobriety, 
 
 inginself ( Economy. 
 
 II.MoralQual- | 
 
 ities and | Relative to ( Integrity, 
 
 Habits . . ot her \ Fidelity, 
 
 parties. ( Honesty. 
 
 Reverence, 
 Veneration, 
 Adoration, etc. 
 
 Patriotism, 
 
 Philanthropy, 
 
 Benevolence. 
 
 III. Social sen- 
 timents 
 and quali- 
 ties 
 
 Absolute ( Truthfulness, 
 in perfec- < Purity, 
 tions. ( Goodness. 
 
 -. j Generosity and 
 (I Justice. 
 
 j Compassion and 
 * ■ 1 Pity. 
 
 r. j Kindness and 
 I Mercy 
 
 a j Gratitude and 
 *• | Thankfulness. 
 
 f. j Sympathy and 
 °* ( Friendship. 
 
G4 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Obedience and the Will. — Their Proper Incentives 
 Considered. 
 
 Before entering upon a more thorough discussion of 
 the moral forces in Science, Art, Literature and Learning, 
 and of the special methods of teaching these, as the final 
 crowning moral force, it will be necessary to state what is 
 meant by obedience-, how it is related to the voluntary 
 powers, and what are some of the leading incentives that 
 may be employed in cultivating moral power in man. 
 
 Most of the results anticipated from the study and 
 practice of the principles discussed in the foregoing, as 
 well as those anticipated in what follows, are secured 
 through obedience to rightfully constituted authority. Let 
 us, therefore, inquire into its nature and peculiarities, and 
 the best means of securing it. 
 
 1. Obedience, considered from the standpoint of motive 
 may be said to be of two kinds, viz., voluntary and invol- 
 untary. The latter should exist, however, only as a pre- 
 liminary, or a temporary substitute for the former. It 
 may be called mere submission under proper restraints. It 
 possesses little, if any, disciplinary merit, until it is 
 merged into the more genuine obedience, where the will 
 and other moral influences are sufficiently strong to estab- 
 lish its moral character. This, also, establishes the true 
 conditions of all the moral forces associated with true obe- 
 dience. Hence: 
 
 2. Obedience, to be effective in the formation of high 
 moral character, is the willing, loyal, loving acquiescence 
 in, and acceptance of, the ordinary claims of rightly consti- 
 tuted authority, wrought in the higher departments of the 
 souVs faculties; and it always produces the peaceable fruits 
 of righteousness — (right living). 
 
OBEDIENCE AND TEE WILL. 65 
 
 If it lack any of these conditions and qualities, it may 
 at least be questioned as to its genuineness. 
 
 3. The incentives to acts of obedience must therefore 
 be such as not to appeal to any base or unworthy motives, 
 or desires, or to vitiate, in any manner, the claims of 
 moral sense. (See definition Chap. I.) The fear of pun- 
 ishment or the hope of reward, both of which, without 
 doubt, enter into all our moral acts, more or less remotely, 
 must be so tempered by a sense of moral obligation and 
 a love of duty, that all their slavish features on the one 
 hand, and sordid propensities on the other, shall be en- 
 tirely submerged and neutralized by the higher and holier 
 incentives of love and good will. This is not only desirable, 
 but possible to the fullest extent, in true obedience. 
 
 4. A clear distinction must also be made, and contin- 
 ually maintained between mere submission to the claims of 
 authority, and a voluntary acceptance of its requirements, 
 and obedience thereto. The first, if prolonged and prac- 
 tised, breeds cupidity and cowardice, the second, freedom 
 and loyalty. The one degrades, the other ennobles. The 
 one is false, the other is true; and yet they are often con- 
 founded, the one with the other; at least not sufficiently 
 distinguished in practical life . 
 
 For instance: let us suppose it is a school of ordinary 
 merit. An offender is ordered to desist from the act of 
 offense, without appealing to any higher motive for doing 
 so, than the mere convenience, caprice or pleasure of the 
 teacher. Without any particular malicious intent the cul- 
 prit conceals his mischievous acts and intentions, and con- 
 tinues them " on the sly." No one will question his disobedi- 
 ence coupled with the meanness of deception, and the teacher 
 knows it not, until perchance he is again detected, and repri- 
 manded or punished in the ordinary way: and matters again 
 move on, and the mischief ceases; but lias the culprit obeyed 
 
66 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 or merely submitted 1 ? Has the teacher done all in this case 
 that is required? (pupils should be required to answer). 
 
 Another is reprimanded or scolded; and ordered to desist 
 from annoyance. He does so for the time without a reso- 
 lution to reform, or with a mental reservation to resume 
 his mischief when opportunity occurs. Has he obeyed? But 
 suppose he ceases, though unwillingly, and without such 
 mental reservation, has he obeyed? If so, his obedience, as 
 a moral element, is weak and inefficient. 
 
 A third is ordered to perform an unpleasant or disagree- 
 able duty. He acquiesces, or obeys (?) under protest. He 
 fears the consequences of disobedience. Has he obeyed, 
 or only submitted ? What is the difference in these two 
 conditions? Another is ordered to perform a similar duty, 
 and he acquiesces or obeys (?) because he is offered a reward 
 for so doing: has he obeyed or only submitted? What 
 merit, and to whom? What is the difference in these 
 cases, morally? 
 
 The merit in all the above cases of seeming obedience, 
 or of quasi obedience is vitiated by a mean, or at least an 
 unworthy motive, and therefore is without moral force, 
 no reformation is wrought in the higher departments of 
 the soul's faculties. But when such an one or any of the 
 preceding cases, are brought, by any means, to acknowl- 
 edge the wrong, and voluntarily to forsake the same, and 
 as cheerfully to enter upon a course of strict and loyal obe- 
 dience, he has then complied with the conditions of the law, 
 and moral growth is a certain result. 
 
 Another still may be in active rebellion against the 
 rightly constituted authority, and he is compelled by 
 superior force, either physical or mental or both, to sub- 
 mit to control, though unwillingly. He does so, because 
 he cannot do otherwise ; and so is helpless in the hands 
 of the law, or the authority. His obedience is mere sub- 
 
OBEDIENCE AND THE WILL. 67 
 
 mission, and the only merit it has is contained in the faot 
 that he has submitted. It is, however, more hopeful than 
 some of the preceding cases, since the culprit is placed in 
 a position in reference to authority, where reformation 
 may reach him by wise management on the part of the 
 authority. Hence, forced submission may be better than 
 unwilling or partial obedience (?), since the chances for 
 reformation are usually greater. But this forced submis- 
 sion should be resorted to only in cases of willful and 
 flagrant disobedience or active rebellion, and then the 
 compelling force should be strong, severe and certain. 
 Trifling with serious cases of this nature will never answer. 
 It often does more hurt than good. It often prolongs the 
 difficulty and prevents reformation. But the unnatural 
 restraint should be removed as soon as the higher incen- 
 tives can be brought to bear upon the case, and as soon as 
 sufficient moral force can be aroused and strengthened in 
 the offender, to enable him to command the voluntary 
 movements, or until he acquire self-control, since all 
 reformation is wrought through and by the voluntary 
 powers. (Let these problems be discussed.) 
 
 This principle and this practice, in the main, hold good 
 in families, in common schools, reform schools, peniten- 
 tiaries, work-houses, and in all institutions where reforma- 
 tion of offenders is sought as one of the chief objects of 
 punishments, or of the restraint of personal liberty, which is 
 itself one form of punishment; while the maintenance of 
 good order, and the protection and security of society, 
 which are also prime objects of government, are most 
 effectually secured by reforming the elements of society. 
 
 And we might be permitted to suggest that here is just 
 where human laws and human (not humane) institutions 
 are weak and inefficient. In the first place, sufficient 
 care, wisdom and patience are not exercised, first, in 
 
68 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 securing entire submission to the claims of justice, and 
 second, in changing the submission into voluntary 
 obedience; and again, sufficient watchfulness, and care 
 to provide suitable employment for those who are in- 
 carcerated or in a condition to reform, to shield them 
 from the temptations to fall into old vices, are usually 
 wanting. The thorough reformation of offenders, as one 
 of the prime objects of government, is not sought wisely 
 and well: hence the almost universal tendency of crim- 
 inals to relapse into former bad habits on being released 
 from confinement. 
 
 In too many cases in prisons and in reformatory institu- 
 tions, the objects of punishment are overlooked. They 
 are made vindictive rather than reformative. The claims 
 of justice, as we are disposed to call them, are pushed to 
 an extreme, while those of the culprit, equally importu- 
 nate and more important, are lightly put aside, notwith- 
 standing these latter have the stronger claims upon the 
 law. All punitive measures, therefore — municipal or 
 state, public or private — should carry with them a large 
 infusion of the reformative elements, or they fail in their 
 best endeavors and intentions. Hence, 
 
 The objects and aims of all good governments are at least 
 threefold, viz.: 
 
 (a.) Protective, in that the rights of person, property 
 and reputation, and the peaceable pursuit of happiness 
 and standing in community should be secured to all alike. 
 These are the just awards of obedience, and their with- 
 drawal is one of the punishments meted out to dis- 
 obedience. Both may be regarded as incentives for 
 obedience to law. They also act as restraints, whereby 
 protection is secured to all loyal subjects of the govern- 
 ment, while in their lawful pursuits. 
 
 Government should also act as a defense to the weak and 
 
OBEDIENCE AND THE WILL. 69 
 
 unprotected, both in body and in mind, and also in moral 
 habits. It should instruct and strengthen the weak and 
 protect the defenseless. But it often fails to do all this, 
 and even seizes upon these unfortunates as its lawful vic- 
 tims, and punishes for offenses its own folly has prompted. 
 Such governments need reforming. 
 
 (b.) Reformative, in that it assumes the right to punish 
 for offenses, and to restrain from evil practices — or those 
 detrimental to individual and public good — through hope 
 of rewards and fear of punishments. The former comes 
 chiefly in the way of protection to person, property, etc. 
 But punishments should have the same objects in view, 
 though the principal one is the reformation of the offender, 
 whereby society is made doubly secure, both by warding 
 off immediate danger, and by adding elements of strength 
 and durability to it as future protection. 
 
 (c.) Conservative, in that its best elements should always 
 be prominent in directing and conserving public affairs. 
 It should always sympathize with the unfortunate, espe- 
 cially the criminal classes ; not in the way of encouraging 
 crime, but in provisions for the reformation of these 
 classes, recognizing the fact that few, if any, resort to 
 crime from choice. 
 
 The government should provide encouragements to 
 those undergoing punishment, so that it may not be lost 
 as a reformative measure. This encouragement should be 
 in the form of a recognition of restored rights after refor. 
 macion, and in suitable employments to- those who have 
 suffered penalties or reformative measures of any kind. 
 
 By these means the best is conserved and perpetuated, 
 both in individuals and in communities ; and the best of 
 opportunities are afforded for the cultivation of the higher 
 moral qualities : for it must not be forgotten that, even 
 among reformed criminals, we often find the strongest and 
 
70 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 best working elements in society, since the weak and effem- 
 inate seldom are disturbers of the public peace. It is the 
 strong and vigorous ones that are capable of doing much 
 evil, and much good when reformed. 
 
 Of course, much depends upon the form of government, 
 the choice of officers as means for carrying it forward, 
 and the enactment of laws and their prompt execution — all 
 these must be taken into consideration. Governments 
 and Constitutions should be, as far as possible, for the 
 people, of the people and by the people, so far at least as 
 the people are wise and capable ; for majorities should 
 rule only when they are right. This is one of the grand 
 tests of good governments; but the greatest difficulty is in 
 determining the right. One of the weak points in most 
 popular governments is that they are satisfied in exacting 
 the demands of the law in civil suits, and inflicting penal- 
 ties for crimes, by neither of which is the offender neces- 
 sarily reformed, but often made worse. Governments of 
 all sorts thus become vindictive ; and, by antagonizing 
 some of the independent elements in human nature, often 
 make it weaker and worse. And by instituting barriers 
 against wrongs that may happen, they often excite to 
 temptations instead of removing them. The same is true 
 of schools and families, where appeals are made to the 
 lower motives first. The only relief exists in the thorough 
 education of the man — soul and body. 
 
 [See Incentives, next chapter.] 
 
 (d.) The offender, or criminal, after punishment, prop- 
 erly inflicted, is supposed to be conquered. At least he has 
 submitted to the claims of justice; and though it may be 
 an unwilling submission, it is, nevertheless, a condition 
 in which the authority can treat with him more on the 
 terms of equality. As far as the claims of justice are 
 concerned, he has paid the debt, or at least accepted its 
 
THE WILL. 71 
 
 conditions, though it may be unwillingly, and is now 
 more like a free man. It is now the duty of the govern- 
 ment to offer such encouragement as shall lead to a vol- 
 untary acceptance of the claims of justice and the exercise 
 of the still higher motives to voluntary obedience and citi- 
 zenship. 
 
 Punishment has, in the first place, reduced him to sub- 
 mission and a state of comparative helplessness, in order 
 that the government or authority may step in, and, as in 
 the case of young children, substitute and suggest the 
 higher motives to obedience; for, when duly conquered, 
 the rebellious nature ceases; but, unlike the case of a child, 
 it leaves a certain weakness and a tendency to relapse; 
 hence the greater need of care. In this blank or uncer- 
 tain state, the moral powers are subject to easy control, 
 yet equally subject to fall into ways of evil again. 
 
 Hence the subject or offender, thus reduced, becomes an 
 object of human sympathy and human help, instead of an 
 outcast, shunned by those whose help he needs, and thus 
 driven again into ways of vice. Therefore abundance of 
 suitable employment should always be furnished by the 
 government, be it family, school or state; whereby the 
 faculties that, unemployed, promp to evil, may be otherwise 
 employed, and thus restored, and conserved in their best 
 estate. 
 
 II. The Will. 
 
 This power is an important factor in the exercise and 
 production of moral qualities. Hence all appeals made to 
 the moral nature, through or by means of this grand motor 
 to human action, must be made with wise reference to its 
 legitimate functions or natural characteristics, which may 
 be stated, in brief, as follows : 
 
 1. The mind has a passive nature or susceptibility, 
 
72 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 subject to soliciting motives : and these conditions con- 
 stitute the initial steps in all volitional acts. 
 
 2. The mind has elective power : i. e., freedom to choose 
 between alternatives. This power, of course, is influenced 
 by the judgment and reason, as subjective forces. 
 
 3. The mind has, also, executive energy, or power to 
 execute, or to carry into effect what has been decided by 
 judgment and sanctioned by conscience, and even to do 
 those things that conscience and judgment condemn ; but 
 in all such cases it is swayed by overpowering soliciting 
 motives. But the motives or incentives which constitute 
 the objective forces should range so that the appeals to 
 this faculty of the human mind shall be in harmony with 
 the moral sense. 
 
 The will, therefore, is, 1st, that susceptibility the mind 
 has to be effected by motives to acts of volition ; 2d, the 
 power it has to elect, or choose or refuse the acts suggested, 
 aided by judgment and reason ; 3d, the power it has, after 
 choice is made, to execute the acts decided upon ; and in 
 all this, the mind simply exercises its native freedom and 
 volutionary power. 
 
 The final determinations of the mind, in all volitional 
 acts, are reached in somewhat the following order, the 
 conditions being favorable: 
 
 1. Intentions to do or not to do may exist in the mind 
 in various degrees of force. They may be so weak as to 
 amount to nothing more than a mere inclination, in which 
 case they correspond to the passive nature of the will; 
 and then again, owing to the force of impressions, they 
 may arise to something resembling resolutions; but if the 
 matter end here, the ultimate decisions may never be 
 reached; and the will, in such case, is nothing more than 
 a mere passive instrument, subject to continual fluctua- 
 tions, and governed by the soliciting motives alone. We 
 
THE WILL. 73 
 
 call this weakness of will, or want of will power. Hence, 
 many well-meaning people fail to accomplish anything 
 worthy in life — or unworthy either, for that matter — simply 
 because they lack the power to come to conclusions of any 
 kind, or to carry out their convictions, however clear. 
 This failing is usually accompanied by a want of concentra- 
 tion of mind, which keeps them continually striving, but 
 never able to come to a full knowledge of the truth. 
 
 2. Resolution. — This is a step in the moral scale, higher 
 than mere intention, which latter may be both tame and 
 passive. The resolution is more or less positive, and, 
 rightly directed, reinforces the mere intention, which 
 becomes, at once, more of an active agent. The mind, 
 then, in its volitional state, corresponds to the elective 
 power of the will. When a resolution is formed in the 
 mind, it is generally understood that a choice is made 
 between alternatives; and that it is ready to act, and yet, 
 unless this, too, is reinforced and strengthened, invigor- 
 ated and quickened by something more certain and deter- 
 minate, the person may " resolve and re-resolve and die the 
 same." But let the resolution rise as high in the scale of 
 moral force as, 
 
 3. Determination to act, corresponding to the execu- 
 tive energy of the will, then stand aside! Something 
 will be done ! A moral force is then let loose in the 
 world, that " will find a way or make it." The thing in 
 question will be done, if it is not impossible, and seeming 
 impossibilities melt before the determined force of will 
 guided by intelligence and virtue. 
 
 There have been periods in the world's history when 
 this characteristic of the will has come to the rescue just 
 at the right time, changing seeming defeat into victory, and 
 deciding the fate of nations and countries. The same is 
 true in the lives and fortunes of men. The critical 
 
74 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 moment is .when the decision is made between right and 
 wrong, or between action and inaction ; and the determin- 
 ate power, with full force, pronounces Yes or No, which 
 puts an end to all strife, forever. Temptations, however 
 severe, yield before the magic of these words, pronounced 
 from the heart. 
 
 This executive energy is, as it were, the electric shock of 
 the faculties of the soul, that sets all in motion, each one 
 rising to its maximum height in human energy, all follow- 
 ing the leadership of this masterly faculty — the will, ful- 
 filling the behests of the judgment and reason, while the 
 moral sentiments have full play. 
 
 In all these cases, therefore, the appeals should be 
 made in the order of the higher motives first, and 
 should descend in the scale until the effective ones are 
 reached. But it is not always best to make the 
 appeals direct. The motive or incentive may be so well 
 concealed or lost in the appeal itself, as not to excite either 
 curiosity, or concern of any kind. But it should simply 
 set in motion a group of mental powers whose exercise is 
 principally designed to produce the moral effect. This 
 will be shown more fully as we proceed. 
 
 How, then, may we cultivate the best faculties of man, 
 and thereby give them the ascendancy in the affairs of 
 life? Let this question be kept continually in mind ; for 
 its answer will not appear directly, nor in a few words. 
 It must be gathered from the many conditions of human 
 affairs, and from the continual strife to which these powers 
 are subjected, and to the continual tests of loyalty to duty 
 that beset the entire pathway of human existence. 
 
 To illustrate : when we wish to develop and strengthen 
 any particular part of the human body, we direct the phys- 
 ical exercise to that particular part : So, if we wish to 
 develop and strengthen generosity or justice, patriotism or 
 
THE WILL. 75 
 
 patience, honesty or benevolence, we put the child in a 
 position where these faculties or sentiments shall be 
 appealed to and exercised in a lawful way. They will not 
 grow without lawful exercise any more than the intellectual 
 faculties will grow without exercise . The modes of exercise 
 will be determined largely by the conditions in life, and 
 the employments pursued. 
 
 A few general directions may be given here, whereby the 
 best faculties of the human soul may be improved. 
 
 1 . By actual practice of those virtues we ivould have appear 
 prominent in the child, by the children themselves. This is 
 the surest, safest and most economical means of developing 
 them, and of fitting then to bear the burdens of life. The 
 school should be so planned and conducted, as to represent 
 life work. This is its highest function. It is its declared 
 object. Failing in this it fails in all other respects, and 
 falls an easy prey to vice. 
 
 2. The entire work of the school-room can be so 
 arranged, and so practiced that every lesson and every 
 study shall be a lesson in behavior and of high moral cul- 
 ture. And so far from detracting from other objects, as 
 the acquisition of knowledge, and the performance of 
 other duties, as study and recitation, this will only enliven 
 and strengthen, purify and beautify and utilize all others. 
 This will also appear, further on. 
 
 3. By personal example, as in the noble, ingenuous, 
 frank, honest and unselfish acts and words of the teacher. 
 This, perhaps, is one of the most powerful incentives with 
 most children. They are imitative beings, and example gen- 
 erally appeals to them with greater force than mere words. 
 But even example needs practice, or, at least, practical 
 illustration in the duties of the school-room. Noble exam- 
 ple in the lives of living men and in literature may be 
 
76 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 discussed and imitated in connection with the same duties: 
 and 
 
 4. Precept is not without its merit, if it can be taught so 
 as not to make it altogether a perfunctory matter. It then 
 loses its greatest force, both as a stimulant and moral 
 restraint. Indeed, it sometimes leads to its own violation, 
 by calling attention to the evils it is intended to counter- 
 act. But, by instilling into the hearts and minds of the 
 young those noble sentiments and maxims which are the 
 inheritance of the wise and good of all ages, we not only 
 fertilize the human heart, but plant and cultivate some of 
 the purest sentiments of morality. 
 
 But the good we would develop in man is not forth- 
 coming by simply calling for it ; neither is it a spontane- 
 ous growth. It is a matter of careful and wise culture. 
 The good that lasts is of slow and gradual growth. We 
 can not command its instantaneous development, any more 
 than we can command the growth of plant or animal. It, 
 like other things of growth, has its infancy of weakness, 
 its adolescence and growth, and a maturity of strength and 
 endurance. Goodness is a plant of rare growth, and is 
 often dwarfed and weakened by our awkward efforts to 
 promote its growth. It has its laws of activity and lines 
 of movement, that may not be turned aside. It is largely 
 the product of self-activity and patient waiting. 
 
 " Heaven is not reached by a single bound. 
 We build the ladder by which we rise 
 From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies; 
 
 And we mount to its summit roundby round." 
 
 Neither can we secure the desired results of moral 
 instruction by presuming upon it, or by pointing out its 
 excellencies. It were as inconsistent to expect to develop 
 moral character by merely preceptive teaching, as to expect 
 to develop scholarly qualities in a similar way. "Be 
 
» 
 
 TEE WILL. 77 
 
 truthful/' " Be honest," " Be industrious/' "Be good," 
 are about equivalent to saying " Be mathematical/' " Be 
 historical/' " Be rhetorical," " Be learned," "Be wise. 
 Precept will not produce scholarship without the required 
 labor and practice. Neither will it produce moral qual- 
 ities and habits without the necessary labor and practice. 
 The pupil in learning must commence in an orderly way, 
 and work and study and grow into these scholarly states ; 
 so he must, in morals. There is no law of development 
 outside of labor. The common maxim, " We learn to do 
 by doing/' has its counterpart in morals. We learn to be 
 what we desire to be, by being and doing ; by doing the 
 things involved in the conduct and lives of those who 
 possess these virtues, and by being what we seem to be. 
 
 For instance, truth is developed by telling the truth, 
 doing the truth, thinking the truth; for, as before stated, 
 truth resides in science, in forms, colors, proportions or 
 harmony. It is also one of the elements in true beauty, 
 and resides in comparisons, contrasts and relations. The 
 whole realm of nature and of true art abounds in elements 
 of beauty and truth. 
 
 Harmony is truth as well as beauty, harmony of sounds, 
 colors, forms, proportions, movments, etc., and true edu- 
 cation simply liberates and develops and harmonizes man's 
 moral nature to this world of truth and beauty. 
 
 There are also many phenomenal falsehoods in the dis- 
 proportion and want of harmony of these elements, as well as 
 in conduct and words. These must be guarded against, as 
 demoralizing in their effects upon mind and character. 
 They are apt to escape the notice of the uneducated, and 
 even the ordinary observed, yet all the more mischievous 
 on this account. They exist, not only in the too common 
 exaggerations in language and expression, as in the hollow 
 and insincere professions of regard, and the hypocritical 
 
78 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 pretensions to friendship, so common among all classes, but 
 also in overwrought ornamentation in person and attire, 
 the furnishing of apartments, the choice and the hanging 
 of pictures, inharmonious and exaggerated coloring in 
 dress, and the wrong blending of them in drapery, etc. 
 
 The want of harmony anywhere is a, phenomenal false- 
 hood, which predisposes the mind to indulge it elsewhere 
 than in dress, in forms, colors, proportions, etc. No won- 
 der, then, that children go astray from birth, especially 
 where their whole environment is one' monstrous-falsehood 
 or distortion of these elements of beauty and truth; and 
 where their, as yet, untaught ears and eyes are greeted 
 with discord and their first prattlings are in lies. 
 
 Reform this environment; purify this much muddled 
 pool of social disorder. Elevate the moral sentiments by 
 educating them in simple honesty and refined purity, as 
 the faculties of the mind are brought in daily contact with 
 life and its duties; and the set rules and the precepts of 
 morality will then become an easy task, if not an unneces- 
 sary one. 
 
 And what is said of the few moral sentiments that have 
 been noticed, is true also of all of them, as patriotism, 
 kindness, courtesy, modesty, etc., etc. Honesty, pure and 
 untarnished, is perhaps one of the rarest gifts and graces, 
 that adorn human character. Few, if any, in all their social 
 intercourse, or even in their commercial relations and deal- 
 ings, are perfectly honest. Few would be willing to have all 
 their conduct and dealings, their words and thoughts and 
 motives exposed to the pure sunlight of truth, or even to 
 the gaze of their fellow-men. And yet the simple teach- 
 ing of these graces in connection with our ordinary school 
 work will certainly make a vast difference in the conduct 
 and habits of the coming man and woman. The experi- 
 ment were, at least, worth a trial. 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 79 
 
 Much more could be said and written on this part of our 
 present theme; but we leave it to the reader, the thinker 
 and the doer of good deeds, to finish what is really only 
 begun here. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to the consideration 
 of those incentives that may be used in order to secure the 
 results anticipated in the foregoing. 
 
 Much — yea, we may say all depends upon the spirit and 
 purpose of the teacher. He must comedown from his 
 perch of professional pride, and mingle with the common 
 herd — so to speak — if he would lift them up, and light them 
 up with those glorious tints of intelligence and virtue, 
 which are alike the heritage of all, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Incentives to Voluntary Obedience and Duty. 
 
 These incentives, as before stated, may be so adjusted 
 to the child's understanding and educational want as to 
 bring them to bear upon his nature,, somewhat in the 
 order of their excellence, estimated from a purely moral 
 point of view. 
 
 The object is to induce, as far as possible, voluntary 
 action on the part of the child, from the higher motives; 
 and thereby to cultivate the higher moral qualities and 
 sentiments, since the quality of the conduct, in a purely 
 moral sense, is determined from the motive. [See Prop. 
 HI., Cor. 1, page 16.] 
 
 Obedience is the great central source and object in 
 moral culture. Through it we reach all the moral senti- 
 ments and qualities. Obedience, not in outward act 
 alone; - but obedience in thought, spirit and purpose 
 (intellect, sensibility and will) — the submissive blending of 
 
80 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 all the incentives, in harmony with the laAvs of growth, 
 and of the standard of right — the subordination of the 
 will-power to the demands of conscience and enlightened 
 judgment. 
 
 Obedience, as already stated, is of two kinds, viz., the 
 voluntary, or the willing, loyal, loving acquiescence in 
 and acceptance of the demands of rightly constituted 
 authority: and the involuntary or the unwilling sub- 
 mission to these claims, forcibly presented, as a temporary 
 means of securing the voluntary obedience with all its 
 higher incentives, as a means of perpetuating it. We. 
 shall devote this chapter to the claims of voluntary obedi- 
 ence and the means of securing it. 
 
 The means or appeals made use of in order to secure 
 this higher form of obedience, may be arranged in the 
 following order, and their application to the ordinary 
 pupil should follow the same order, as far as circum- 
 stances will permit. 
 
 1. The appeals to the purely benevolent impulses of tbe 
 human mind : those that find their highest gratification out- 
 side of mere self or selfish desires. They arise from the home 
 and home environment ; hence their name. They may be sub- 
 divided in brief as follows: 
 
 (a.) Tlie Home or Domestic Impulses* are those that 
 appeal to a disposition implanted in childhood to please, 
 and to be profited by pleasure in the social circle. The 
 object of the affection and the act may be parent, brother 
 or sister, playmate, teacher or friend. This impulse is 
 strong in childhood, both because of pleasure derived 
 from conferring favors, and because of the dependent 
 character of childhood. Parental and filial affection are 
 based largely upon this feeling. Its existence in childhood 
 
 * It is thought by some, that unless these home benevolent feelings are 
 duly exercised, hence cultivated, that the malevolent feelings are sure to 
 usurp their places. The thought is worth considering. 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 81 
 
 in such a dependent state, offers the skillful teacher the 
 desired opportunity to develop it into a purely moral 
 principle, which not only includes many moral sentiments 
 and qualities, as respect, esteem, love, etc., but gives rise, 
 also, to other sentiments of a kindred character. The 
 opposite of this disposition is a perversion of moral 
 nature, and can not exist where these feelings are encour- 
 aged and cultivated. Hence its ingredients need not be 
 named, much less cultivated. 
 
 (b.) Appeals to a disposition or willingness to suffer 
 inconvenience, and to sacrifice self for the good of others: 
 a spirit more of beneficence than benevolence, which 
 rightly cultivated develops into patriotism or love of 
 country, laws and institutions. This, too, is a natural 
 impulse in childhood, existing in various degrees of 
 activity. It lies very near the home feeling spoken of 
 above, and it may be developed in the home, school and 
 country. It is active benevolence. It is opposed to 
 selfishness . Its cultivation leads directly to 
 
 (c.) A desire to do good to all mankind, or general benev- 
 olence. It exists in an embryonic state in early childhood; 
 and its cultivation and development into this higher form 
 of activity is but the legitimate outcome of right modes of 
 culture or teaching, as will be shown further on. It also 
 leads to a still more marked characteristic, not infrequently 
 witnessed among men of high moral sentiment and cul- 
 ture; viz. : 
 
 (d.) A willingness to suffer, not only for friejid and 
 country, but for the cause of truth and justice, and for 
 the oppressed of all lands and nations . This is not an 
 uncommon exhibition of human sympathy, where the mind 
 is broadened in the principles of the universal brotherhood 
 of the races. History abounds in examples of this kind; 
 and the exercise of this feeling gives us examples of the 
 
82 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 most exalted love of truth and right. But its full exercise 
 leads to a still higher, perhaps the highest and most 
 unselfish, patriotic, and benevolent feeling of which the 
 human heart is capable; viz.: 
 
 (e.) A willingness to suffer for the good of enemies. This 
 accords with the highest conceptions of unselfish love. 
 The highest precepts of morality can scarcely reach this 
 point, it is divine and yet it is possible and compatible 
 with man's moral nature spiritualized to the highest degree. 
 Indeed it is the legitimate product of the human mind 
 under right culture and must be sought only through the 
 superior exercise of the moral and spiritual powers in har- 
 mony with the laws of their growth. To this maybe added, 
 lastly, 
 
 (/. ) A desire to do good or right for the sake of right, 
 or for the mere pleasure of it. This also is a legitimate 
 outcome of the foregoing principles, fully tested in high 
 culture. It perhaps does not rank as high in the scale of 
 pure morality as some of those preceding it, since the 
 pleasure derived from doing good may be regarded some- 
 what in the light of a reward. But it stands in striking- 
 contrast with that doubtful adage, "Honesty is the best 
 policy," etc. 
 
 It should be the daily endeavor of the teacher or parent 
 to keep the matter of mere policy as far in the background 
 as possible. The common intercourse of teacher and 
 pupil, of parent and child, of citizen and state or govern- 
 ment, will usually afford just opportunity for the exercise 
 and development of all these traits of human character. 
 Where these are wanting, they should be supplied from some 
 quarter. History abounds in examples. The following 
 incentives are not entirely benevolent, but occupy an inter- 
 mediate ground, as it were, between the purely benevolent 
 and the selfish; or between those that look entirely beyond 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 83 
 
 self-interest for their gratification, and those that look 
 mainly to personal gratification. They may be briefly 
 stated as follows: 
 
 2. Appeals to the semi-social feelings and desires as distin- 
 guished from the purely benevolent moral impulses and desires, 
 discernible in the preceding*. 
 
 They afford ample opportunity for the cultivation of the 
 moral character of the pupil. As intimated above, this 
 class of appeals is not intended alone for the social qual- 
 ities, but rather as a convenient transition from the home 
 to the world outside; and for the exercises of those ethical 
 attributes that belong chiefly to the school and to school 
 etiquette — one remove from the family and kindergarten, 
 and bordering upon the world life as represented in the 
 school: among which may be named: 
 
 (a.) A desire for happiness through the exercise of 
 such social qualities, and the performance of such duties 
 as are usually required in school work and school recitations. 
 
 The motive is not entirely unselfish, since the gratifi- 
 cation of the desire leads to personal enjoyment and 
 improvement, and yet these objects are so commendable in 
 themselves, as to redeem them entirely from any taint -of 
 un worthiness. 
 
 Happiness is the universal aim of the human family. 
 No one exists, perhaps, that seeks misery and suffering. All 
 our efforts may be said to be directed toward enjoyment. 
 The difference in men in this regard is only in the manner 
 of seeking it. The school and the refinements of educa- 
 tion, rightly directed, open up directly upon these avenues 
 of enjoyment. Hence the refinement and the means of 
 attaining it, both conspire to the same end, the moral 
 elevation of the pupil. 
 
 (b.) A desire for mutual gains and benefits, or a desire 
 to accommodate others as a means of promoting one's own 
 
84 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 interest and enjoyment. This, it will be seen, is a kind of 
 semi-social quality bearing strongly upon the commercial 
 side of society; and it corresponds to the period of culture 
 in which that group of sciences, representing these inter- 
 ests, are brought into prominence. 
 
 In this age of the world, this feature of human, activity 
 is an important one. It has become a chief interest. It 
 is business: but all business, and all pleasure, and all 
 employments of whatever kind should cultivate, not kill. 
 They should cultivate the better qualities of human nature, 
 rather than to dwarf and deform them. Those that do 
 not thus cultivate should be discontinued as soon as pos- 
 sible, either as needless or harmful. Society can never 
 grow much better so long as these violations of its social 
 and commercial laws are continued with such flagrant 
 disregard. 
 
 No pains should be spared in the school and in the 
 family, to chasten and refine these propensities, as a means 
 of preparation for life duties, and as a means also of 
 removing these desires as far as possible from the shameful 
 abuse of them. Dishonest dealing has become, not only a 
 habit, but a legalized trade, whereby a man may cheat his 
 neighbor with impunity, provided he do it according to 
 prescribed rules. Instances may be given further on. 
 
 This is a feature in our commercial relations upon which 
 cupidity feeds, and dishonesty finds ready protection. [See 
 Chapter XIV.] 
 
 (c.) A desire for personal improvement, or intellectual 
 culture and refinement of manners. This is not only a 
 commendable desire, but a source of mutual benefit; for it 
 will not be difficult to impress all the members of a school, 
 or of a community, with the belief that the improvement 
 of one member is, by reflection, the improvement of every 
 other member. This is a powerful impulse to scholarship 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 85 
 
 as well as conduct in school life, and everywhere, where 
 this sentiment prevails. 
 
 The acquisition of knowledge, and the mutual improve- 
 ment of the members of a school, are some of those latent 
 forces, of which we can take but little account, but of 
 whose moral influence there can be but little doubt. 
 Once let this sentiment obtain a prominent place among 
 incentives in a school, and moral growth is certain ; 
 unless, indeed, this sentiment is stimulated and kept alive 
 by an impure and unholy desire to improve oneself or his 
 condition at the expense of a rival. Political life offers 
 the greatest temptations to abuse this sentiment, or desire. 
 
 (d.) A desire for place and standing, therefore, is closely 
 allied to the foregoing. This desire in society and busi- 
 ness has its origin and counterpart in school life, amid 
 the strivings and struggles for mastery. But it is a 
 legitimate feeling or desire, since no progress could be 
 made without efforts that partake more or less of these 
 peculiarities. It is not only allowable when properly 
 tempered by a benevolent desire for others, but really 
 a commendable trait, both because it urges to higher 
 attainment, and enlarges our sphere of usefulness. 
 
 It is closely allied to all the preceding incentives and 
 desires, and is therefore cultivated and refined by the 
 same or similar means. A proper division and use of 
 time and opportunities will be demanded here so that the 
 waste of energies may be prevented, and that study and 
 improvement may become a necessity from habit. But 
 an overweening desire for place and power must be 
 checked at every point, by all proper restraints, and all 
 wholesome discipline. Abnormal growth is sometimes 
 worse than no growth at all. And again — 
 
 (e) The desire for material gain may be utilized in moral 
 culture, since it is one of the chief prompters to effort 
 
8G ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 and duty. It is at the foundation of all industries and 
 all progress. When this desire is properly indulged, it 
 closes the door against most of the prevailing vices of the 
 age. And then there is nothing in the legitimate gratifi- 
 cations of this desire in any way antagonistic to the purest 
 morals and soundest growth, both of individuals and 
 communities. 
 
 Remark 1. The foregoing list of desires and their ap- 
 propriate appeals may seem tedious to some ; but it must 
 not be forgotten that moral growth is generally slow in its 
 processes, and a product of common, unobtrusive, and, to 
 a large extent silent influences, making their appeals in 
 the ordinary affairs of life. But it is the silent forces of 
 nature that work the most beneficent results. The temp- 
 est, the earthquake and the fire are mighty forces in their 
 way, but they are mostly destructive in their energies ; 
 and, fortunately, limited in their action. But the sun- 
 shine, the dews and the showers, are so common, universal 
 and so quiet as scarcely to excite attention; yet their 
 results in the great ongoing changes in nature are always 
 beneficent and beyond calculation, good. 
 
 Remark 2. Nothing in all the foregoing list of semi- 
 selfish desires and appeals, must be used in any manner to 
 stimulate unholy ambition of any kind, or to pamper 
 selfishness. These incentives must, therefore, be used 
 with great caution. They occupy a kind of intermediate 
 ground, between the purely benevolent appeals, and those 
 of a purely selfish character — which we now propose to con- 
 sider — and therefore more liable to abuse, since they may 
 be mistaken the one for the other. 
 
 (3) Appeals to Self-love, Pride, and to Personal Satisfaction. 
 
 This may bo regarded as purely selfish ; but it must 
 be remembered that enlightened selfishness is a commenda- 
 ble trait in human nature. It will lead every man to kind 
 treatment of his fellow-man, because love begets love; 
 and a desire for the good opinion of others will lead a 
 man to strive for it, and to be worthy of it, to earn it. 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 87 
 
 It will lead a man even to the practice of the " Golden 
 Rule/' since it measures that love which we owe to others 
 by the love we bear to ourselves. Every man's interest, 
 therefore, stands upon a common basis. 
 
 This group of appeals stands among the strongest of 
 incentives to human action. This again, arises, proba- 
 bly, from their direct and personal character. They ad- 
 dress one's enlightened selfishness in such a manner as 
 to increase self-respect and ivorthy conduct. The char- 
 acteristics of this group may be presented as follows : 
 
 {a) Self-respect, or a manly dignity based on merit: 
 a desire to appear well in one's own estimation, as well 
 as in that of others. Self-respect is the base of true gen- 
 tility. It is the proper medium between self-importance 
 or vanity on the one hand, and servility, cowardice, a 
 morbid sense of inferiority and want of confidence, on 
 the other. A man who has a too exalted opinion of him- 
 self, or one who lacks confidence in his own just ability, 
 always appears at a disadvantage. He can never com- 
 mand the respect or esteem of his fellows. 
 
 (b) Respect for others is only an application of the 
 same sentiment to others that we entertain for ourselves, 
 with slight differences. It is reciprocal in most cases, 
 and measured by merit. It leads to such treatment of 
 equals or inferiors as shall best comport with their inter- 
 ests and happiness. And then it also implies a feeling 
 of regard for the good opinion of our fellows, whether 
 in the same, or in different stations. This feeling is 
 subject to the same limitations as that of self-respect. 
 It acts as a powerful restraint upon human conduct, and 
 •hence should have a place among all worthy objects. Its 
 cultivation is secured by a proper regard for the rights 
 of person and reputation of those with whom we associate. 
 
 (c) Ambitious rivalry in class, grade, or in society, is 
 
88 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 another strong human incentive to duty or effort. It 
 is somewhat dangerous, however, because a little too much 
 is worse than none at all. It needs all those wise restraints 
 which ? while nourishing a healthy rivalry, shall prevent 
 any undue advantage by those who strive for excellence. 
 When men are moved by this ambition, and become heated 
 in the eager pursuit, they are apt to overlook those nicer 
 distinctions and deferences that should govern rivals. 
 When this happens, the rivalry then becomes odious, and 
 should be restrained or abandoned. The school is espe- 
 cially liable to this abuse, since it becomes necessary, some-' 
 times, to appeal to the most available impulse. Great 
 care, therefore, must be exercised in class and in grade, 
 to the end that no unfair advantage be taken by con- 
 testants for places of distinction. The school should 
 hold out no inducements to such distinctions that, when 
 won, would either stimulate vanity on the part of the 
 winner, or discouragement to the loser. If honors are 
 offered they should be distributed to the most worthy 
 and deserving, irrespective of any apparent success. In 
 other words, " they should be placed where they will do 
 the most good." 
 
 (d) A love of approbation or praise is another delicate 
 desire in the human make-up, requiring the utmost care 
 as to incentives, etc. This desire for praise exists ab- 
 normally in some natures, and hence needs wise restraints ; 
 and, in others, it is scarcely perceptible, and needs stimu- 
 lating. The first condition is the more general. Judicious 
 praise, judiciously administered, is a* healthy stimulant to 
 some natures, while to others, praise is but the food for 
 vanity and self-importance. The former natures should 
 be exalted, while the latter should be humbled. In both, 
 a just meed of praise, or approbation, should be awarded 
 for noble effort rather than for success, since the latter 
 
VOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE AND DUTY. 89 
 
 may be either accidental or unworthy ; the former never 
 can be either. And then again, success is usually its own 
 reward, while failure, if following laudable effort, may 
 need the stimulant of praise — not the failure — but the 
 effort. This may also disappoint the morbid expectations 
 of the proud — a wholesome rebuke — and encourage the 
 modest desires of the weak and timid — a wholesome 
 stimulant. 
 
 (e) The use and abuse of percentages and periodical 
 reports of scholarship and conduct. There is, perhaps no 
 school incentive, now in general use, about which there is 
 greater diversity 'of opinion ; or one concerning which the 
 moral effects are more doubtful, if not dangerous. And 
 perhaps there is no motive or incentive held out to pupils 
 in the school, subject to greater abuse, especially if the 
 reports are based upon the self-reporting system, which in 
 itself is all right if properly guarded. It is powerful both for 
 good or evil. The objections to percentages and other sim- 
 ilar devices arise chiefly from two sources. The one consists 
 in the great difficulty, and in fact the impossibility of 
 making fair and just estimates of merit, or indeed of 
 whatever criterion upon which the report may be based. 
 The other is the great danger of exciting animosity and ill 
 will among the pupils. These, aside from the great tempta- 
 tions offered for deceit, fraud and falsehood in the reports, 
 where these are depended upon for merit, or for grade, 
 would be sufficient to warrant the rejection, or the discon- 
 tinuance of an incentive so dangerous to the morals of the 
 pupils. And yet, with some teachers — a very few — the 
 self-reporting system, though not a necessary part of 
 '■the percentage and reporting system/' may be used for 
 the cultivation of truthfulness and honesty. Let the 
 teacher study this. 
 
 (/) Rewards and prizes. These are closely allied to 
 
90 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 the foregoing, and are perhaps of still more doubtful pro- 
 priety. They are usually given either for excellence in 
 scholarship, or for conduct, and sometimes for both ; and 
 both or all, are subject to great abuse. 
 
 In the first place it is offering a reward for doing that 
 which ought to be considered a sufficient reward in and 
 of itself. It is tantamount to paying a man for benefit- 
 ing himself, or rewarding him for success. It is also 
 placing a material value upon efforts whose real merits 
 can never be known. This lowers it as a moral force, if it 
 does not rob it completely of all merit in a moral sense. 
 
 In the second place the after-influences are usually bad, 
 especially upon the successful candidate for prizes or 
 honors. He is too apt, either from conceit, or from over- 
 exertion, to cease from further effort or exertion and 
 to relapse into indifference, relying for success upon his 
 honors, which soon fade away. Hence, our first prize 
 men, and first honor men are seldom heard of after their 
 great effort. They sink out of sight, or are supplanted in 
 business or scholarship by the plodders — the no honor 
 men. 
 
 Therefore, unless prizes and honors, and such like 
 incentives can be relieved from these dangerous features 
 and guarded against the above-named abuses, it were 
 better never to resort to them. Rewards of merit are less 
 objectionable, if indeed the merit can really be deter- 
 mined. There are other incentives, free from these objec- 
 tions, healthy in their tone, wise in their provisions, and 
 of far greater moral and intellectual value, that may be 
 used with safety. 
 
 But if excellence, intellectual, physical or moral, must 
 be bought, it is vitiated in the very act, because of the 
 impure motive. And if the candidate for scholarship or 
 for excellence of any kind, cannot be induced to put forth 
 
INVOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE. 91 
 
 his best efforts (which by the way is not usually the case 
 under the highest pressure), without resort to such doubt- 
 ful and dangerous incentives, it is doubtful whether or 
 not he is worth the trial. But if rewards can be given 
 where they are most deserved, and where they are likely 
 to be free from the objections above mentioned, then let 
 the teacher be free to give, but not otherwise. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Incentives to Involuntaky Obedience. 
 
 Involuntary obedience, or submission under restraints, 
 requires a different class of incentives. It pre-supposes 
 disobedience or offense on the part of the subject of it. 
 It is that form requiring, or which has required, interfer- 
 ence with personal rights, and liberty of a certain kind. 
 These rights are, by virtue of disobedience or crime, sup- 
 posed to be forfeited on the part of the offenders. They 
 are naturally and rationally forfeited by supposed abuse of 
 privileges, and a refusal to accept the terms upon which 
 they are conferred in the first place, and upon which they 
 may be regained when lost. They are the natural inherit- 
 ance of all good citizens. 
 
 The first class of these incentives to this incipient obe- 
 dience and duty may be stated under the following 
 
 1. Restraints. 
 
 These may be regarded the milder forms of interference 
 with personal liberty, and those that possess a degree 
 of leniency which allows the offender time and opportun- 
 ity for reflection and reformation, usually removing him 
 from associates, and the temptations that may have 
 caused the disobedience in the first place. They may 
 consist of 
 
92 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 (a) A denial of the natural rights and privileges, or 
 those that come to him by virtue of birth, society and edu- 
 cation, such as home, friends, and the right to pursue the 
 ordinary avocations of life. 
 
 With these may be classed the political rights, or the 
 right to participate in the management of affairs. And 
 while these conditions seem to point to a period in the life 
 of the offender, when he has come into the full possession 
 of rights, social, political and otherwise, or in the full 
 enjoyment of citizenship ; yet the school and the family 
 contain all these conditions and elements of culture, 
 necessary to bring him into the full exercise of these priv- 
 ileges. The child should take his first lessons in obe- 
 dience, and industry, and citizenship, in the family and 
 in the school, which constitute the community for prac- 
 tice. This is the great mission of these institutions. 
 They are culpable if they fail in this matter. 
 
 Another class of restraints may be called 
 
 (b) A denial or withdrawal of acquired rights and priv- 
 ileges, such as those that come to good citizens by virtue 
 of industry, good management, and by inheritance. 
 And while, according to the laws of most countries, 
 crimes do not work forfeiture of inheritance, yet the com- 
 mon sentiment of the people is such that the full enjoy- 
 ment of these by the culprit is denied, in that he is 
 usually cut off from ordinary pursuits. The law has a 
 right to inflict fines and penalties for misdemeanors. 
 
 These conditions also exist in the school and in the 
 family, though not precisely in the same form, and their 
 proper improvement would greatly diminish the violations 
 of common law in the subsequent life. 
 
 (c) Confinement and separation from all that can 
 minister to the personal comfort of the offender, socially, 
 
INCENTIVES TO INVOL UNTART OBEDIENCE. 03 
 
 politically and otherwise, except the mere necessaries of 
 life and means of reformation. 
 
 On this principle the common or statutory law lays its 
 Lands upon criminals and places them in situations where 
 they can at least face their crimes in a quiet way, and hold 
 such self examination as may lead to reformation. This 
 opportunity, however, is not always improved ; neither 
 are the chances for such reformation always the most 
 favorable, in consequence of the careless manner in which 
 they are usually extended to the culprit. But if schools 
 and families would more frequently resort to this mode of 
 punishment or restraint, instead of the too common 
 vindictive and retaliatory measures, it would offer both the 
 offender and the offended more time to consider both the 
 nature of the offense and the means of treatment. Coolness 
 and consideration are always necessary to the ends of jus- 
 tice, and to carrying out any reformatory measures. 
 
 The last class of appeals to which attention will be called 
 here, those looking directly towards the reformation of 
 offenders, the protection of society, and the conservation 
 and perpetuation of the best there is in government and 
 people, may be classed under the following general heads, 
 viz. : 
 
 2. Punishments, direct and personal. 
 
 These should conform both to the nature and enormity 
 of the offense, and the objects to be attained by punish- 
 ments. These objects are the chief considerations in all 
 good government. They may include — 
 
 (a) The protection to all good citizens, to which they are 
 entitled. 
 
 (b) The conservation of the best elements in society, 
 and 
 
 (c) The reformation of those elements, that for any 
 cause, have become deranged. 
 
94 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 The last one of these objects is an important one, and is 
 the prime object of all punishments. It also ranks high, 
 since through reformation both protection and conservation 
 are secured. Indeed the main purposes of punishments 
 are merged in this one supreme object, viz., the reformation 
 of offenders, since without such reformation, where offenses 
 abound, no healthy government can exist. Hence, the 
 safety and security of society, the vindication of authority 
 and the conservation of all that is best in human nature, 
 and in human compacts, are hereby most effectually met 
 by the reformation of deranged elements. Its accomplish- 
 ment is a guarantee for all others. 
 
 Again : All punishments should, as far as possible, con- 
 form to nature's laws : i. e., the offender should be met by 
 the natural consequences of his offense, as in the case of 
 trespass upon property, restitution should be made in kind 
 and measure proportionate to nature and enormity of the 
 offense, i. e.. he should not only restore that which he has 
 destroyed, or appropriated ; but he should add something 
 for the breach of trust, and the damage sustained to 
 society at large. But in cases of personal injury, or injury 
 to reputation and opportunity, it is not always convenient, 
 right or possible to inflict a similar injury upon the 
 offender, as " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, etc., 
 or to exchange a reputation for a reputation ; yet the law 
 should exact an equivalent, either by depriving of personal 
 liberty, or by the loss of property, the one to satisfy justice, 
 the other to compensate, as far as possible, the injured party, 
 and sometimes both should be exacted as a reformatory 
 measure. 
 
 But that part of government relating to the administra- 
 tion of punishments may be treated under the following 
 heads, viz. : 
 
 (a) Reprimands, public or private, according to the 
 
INCENTIVES TO IN VOL UN TART OBEDIENCE. 95 
 
 nature of the offense. If the particular violation is mainly 
 against the peace and good order of the school, or the 
 community of which the offender is a member, it may be 
 best to vindicate the authority that has been abused, which 
 is a common interest and inheritance, by a public punish- 
 ment of the offender, keeping in mind, however, the 
 main objects of punishment, as heretofore explained. But 
 if the offense is a private one, one in which personal habits 
 or private interests and character are alone or chiefly con- 
 cerned, the punishment should be private, or alone between 
 the offender and the party offended, or the representative 
 of such party. 
 
 The additional reasons for private punishment are, 1st: 
 The offender is more susceptible to reformatory influences. 
 He is more readily reached and subdued, since the sym- 
 patny and support of wicked companions are removed and 
 his pride or stubbornness is more readily subdued. 2d. 
 He is also saved the disgrace and mortification of suffering 
 in the presence of companions, which often hardens more 
 than it chastens and subdues; and 3d, in cases where counsel 
 and advice, and even sympathy, are necessary, as it cer- 
 tainly will be in all cases, they are more easily given and 
 more readily received . 
 
 The danger to be avoided in reprimands, public or pri- 
 vate, is a querulous, fault-finding spirit on the part of the 
 teacher or parent, which often amounts to scolding, threat- 
 ening or gratuitous and vindictive abuse of the offender. 
 No teacher or parent has any moral or even legal right to 
 take advantage of his position to vent his spite or anger 
 upon a comparatively defenseless child . It is both cowardly 
 and mean, and, hence, devoid of all reformatory influence. 
 Many a spirited child has been driven into ways of wicked- 
 ness by this abuse of authority on the part of the minister 
 of justice (?) 
 
96 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 No indignities or insults, or base allusions to parent- 
 age or position in life, should be offered childhood; and the 
 appeals should be made, as in all other cases, to the higher 
 moral motives first . To insult a man under any circum- 
 stances, is mean and inexcusable; but to insult a child has 
 a species of cowardly meanness about it which excels all 
 ordinary offenses. 
 
 (b) Corporal Punishment may be resorted to in cases 
 of willful stubbornness, or of active rebellion, and in cases 
 where the milder measures seem to fail. The infliction of 
 bodily pain for purposes of reform, or as a check upon the- 
 nrogressof social disorder, is justifiable; and when admin- 
 istered in the proper spirit, it involves no indignity that 
 may not itself be used as a moral reformer. It should 
 never be used, therefore, while either party is under the 
 influence of anger or any undue excitement, unless in case 
 of assault or active rebellion. Both parties should be as 
 calm and considerate as possible. Neither should corporal 
 or any other punishment be administered from motives of 
 malice, revenge or in a spirit of retaliation. The same spirit 
 should prevail in the performance of this duty that should 
 govern us in any other serious matter. The greater the 
 wisdom and patience the greater the success. 
 
 But many suppose that when the rod is invoked, reason 
 and moral sense may be laid aside; and in the heat of pas- 
 sion that often prevails, both the voice of conscience and 
 of common sense are stifled. It is practically a vulgar 
 fight, in which the stronger party wins, and is permitted 
 to glut his vengeance upon a helpless child — shame ! This 
 is fatal to all moral reform, and breeds either cringing 
 cowardice, or a spirit of rebellion that sometimes takes 
 vengeance upon the offending party after many days. 
 
 There is no duty the teacher or parent will ever be 
 called upon to perform, that demands greater care, wisdom, 
 
INCENTIVES TO INVOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE. 97 
 
 patience and self-control, than the infliction of corporal 
 punishment. Talk about moral suasion, there is as much 
 moral suasion in a switch wisely wielded, as in any other 
 mere means of correction, and much more than in the 
 poisonous vituperations of an unruly tongue, even though 
 the former may not be ts wisely wielded/' 
 
 But the rod of correction should be used in the same 
 spirit in which the skillful surgeon uses his knife in the 
 amputation of a limb, or the removal of a tumor. The 
 moral evils inflicted by the indiscriminate and promiscuous 
 use of the rod, are greater by far than in a similar use of 
 the surgeon's knife. The one may destroy animal tissue 
 and human life, the other the moral sentiments and human 
 character. The greatest consideration, candor and sym- 
 pathy, as to time, place, amount and manner, in the use 
 of the rod, must be exercised in order to make it effective 
 as a moral reformer, and to guard it against abi se, or else 
 let it be abandoned altogether. 
 
 There are other forms of corporal punishment that are 
 resorted to by some who are anxious to escape the supposed 
 odium of the use of the rod, that are far more objection- 
 able . Some of these are full of indignity and others are 
 both cruel and dangerous. They should all be avoided. 
 Their moral influences are without merit ; and some are 
 absolutely hurtful both to mind and body. 
 
 Again, the infliction of pain as a means of moral reform 
 can not be consistently controverted. It is nature's method, 
 and is very ancient. It is simply following out the law of 
 consequences, or cause and effect. Suffering is nature's 
 penalty for infraction of her laws, that she guards so jeal- 
 ously. It is the result of disobedience everywhere, and 
 its lessons are salutary, if heeded. 
 
 Pain is a natural reformer: it is also a moral reformer; 
 and there are cases of natural disorder and of moral cor- 
 
98 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 raption so deep seated and dangerous, that nothing but 
 the surgeon's knife — to use a figure — can remove them. 
 The suffering therefore must be accepted, both as a 
 penalty for violated law, and as a means of cure and 
 reformation. 
 
 The infliction of pain as a means of moral reform and 
 growth has the sanction not only of nature, but of custom 
 and law. The whole scheme of government is based upon 
 the theory of rewards for obedience, and punishments for 
 disobedience ; and no amount of tinkering can ever change 
 the fixed principles upon which the custom is founded. 
 The different kinds of punishments must, therefore, be 
 studied, and their peculiarities adjusted to the nature and 
 demands of the disorders to be removed, and the growth 
 required. 
 
 The main objection to the use of the rod seems to be in 
 the wrong spirit in which it is used ; and we might add in 
 the excess, or the deficiency. It should always be thorough 
 and as infrequent as possible ; but in cases of protracted 
 and deep-seated evils, it may be continued at intervals 
 from day to day, scientifically applied, not excessively, 
 until the cure is effected. 
 
 The last class of punishments appropriate to school life 
 considered in this connection, may be stated as follows : 
 
 (c.) Dismissals, including suspensions and expulsions. 
 They are both doubtful as means of individual reformative 
 measures, and should be resorted to only when the danger 
 or damage incurred by continuing the offender in his 
 connection with the school, is greater than the separation 
 would prove to either the offender or the school. The 
 individual or member should be sacrificed rather than that 
 the whole body perish. And when the danger of the 
 offender's doing more injury to the school or himself is 
 greater than would probably result from his separation 
 
INCENTIVES TO INVOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE. 99 
 
 from it, then the safety of the community or the school 
 and tne sanctity of the law, all demand that the offending 
 portion of said community be removed, on the same prin- 
 ciple that a cancer or a gangrened limb should be removed, 
 iu order to preserve the body, and restore wonted sound- 
 ness. 
 
 As for the reformation of the offender, in this case, the 
 chances are not great ; but no less perphaps than would 
 exist were he left in undisturbed possession of his place and 
 opportunities ; but greater perhaps in suspension than in 
 expulsion, since the opportunity to return is held out in 
 the former, and denied in the latter. The return, of 
 course, is dependent upon, at least, a promise of reforma- 
 tion. It amounts to a simple trial, in which the offender 
 is put upon his good behavior for a time. But expulsion 
 is considered final separation without a hope of return. 
 The chances for reformation in such case are very much 
 diminished. In some cases, however, the shock has been 
 so great as to awaken manhood, and to start the offender 
 on a career of reformation; but the general tendency is to 
 drive him farther and farther from such a course. 
 
 The foregoing embody the main appeals that may be 
 used for preserving order, and for reforming offenders. 
 They may all be- regarded as strictly moral if properly ap- 
 plied, i. e., their influence upon the mind and heart is such 
 as to improve the morals, unless, indeed, they are per- 
 verted and turned aside by awkwardness, or by w T rong ap- 
 plication of some kind. 
 
 There are other forms, of punishments and other incen- 
 tives, perhaps, but they partake more or less of the fore- 
 going lists. 
 
 The moral effects of punishments must not be lost sight 
 of, nor yet confounded w r ith merely vindictive measures. 
 They should be simple aids to what are termed milder 
 
100 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 means, or those made use of for mere purposes of protec- 
 tion and conservation. If punishments are used in con- 
 nection with other rational means for correction, reproof 
 and reformation, their salutary effects will be more than 
 doubled. But if used as mere retaliation or even to 
 satisfy the demands of a broken law (but more fre- 
 quently to gratify ill temper), they are not only useless 
 as moral means, but hurtful. Let them be wisely con- 
 sidered. 
 
 The following are a few conclusions drawn from the 
 foregoing, and may be helpful to the student of morals, 
 especially to teachers who have not had time to study the 
 whole subject. 
 
 1. Never give a command or make an order that will 
 likely be disobeyed ; for the breaking of a law both weak- 
 ens its force, and degrades the source of authority. 
 
 2. Say as little as possible about some particular vices, 
 for often they would never be thought of, were they not 
 mentioned either to condemn or to prohibit. 
 
 3. Let all orders be given in the form of requests ; for 
 true politeness always wins respect, even against the will 
 of an enemy. Every man can afford to be a gentleman. 
 
 4. Do not make a code of rules prohibiting certain 
 vices, and attaching penalties for infraction, for there is a 
 tendency in human nature to venture on forbidden ground, 
 to test and experiment with vice, and to resist that which 
 hampers it. 
 
 5. Treat every child as though he were honest, and 
 pure, and good, until he proves himself otherwise, which 
 is not likely to happen, unless his conditions are bad ; for 
 children are apt to be what we take them to be, good or 
 bad. 
 
 6. Improve the surroundings of children as much as 
 
INCENTIVES TO INVOLUNTARY OBEDIENCE. 101 
 
 possible ; for much of their early thought and act and 
 habit arises from environment. 
 
 ?. Win the confidence, respect, esteem and love of every 
 child, if possible (and it is); for love wins where everything 
 else fails ; and instruction, however excellent, fails to find 
 a healthy lodgment in a mind filled with hate, or closed to 
 the impulses of kindness. 
 
 8. Do not openly suspect evil when good is possible ; 
 and then be slow to believe evil reports, or any evidences 
 of evil. Look for good and it will come ; search for evil, 
 and it will be found — sometimes where least expected. 
 
 9. Always appeal to the higher motives first, and resort 
 to punishments only when other appeals to moral sense 
 have all failed. 
 
 10. .Never punish in anger ; for he who loses his tem- 
 per, loses his moral force, and must needs re-inforce him- 
 self with doubtful expedients in order to win. It is base 
 and cowardly to inflict pain to gratify resentment or to 
 intimidate the weak. v 
 
 11. Always have some employment planned to keep 
 children busy — the pleasanter the better — for while "an 
 empty head is the devil's workshop, idle brains and idle 
 fingers are the tools he works with. 
 
 12. Cultivate the virtues, and the vices will die for 
 want of nourishment. Fight them with hatred or malice, 
 and they will grow from affinity to native forces. 
 
 13. Say but little, and let example tell the whole story 
 of moral instruction ; for example is stronger than pre- 
 cept, and the force of instruction is improved by loving 
 works. 
 
 Hence little is said in the following pages concerning 
 morals or immorals, directly or indirectly, outside the 
 ordinary instruction and teaching; or about the vices and 
 extravagances of human life and weakness, believing the 
 
102 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 human mind can best be disposed to virtue by employing 
 all its energies in the pursuit of good, and in the presen- 
 tation and investigation of the truths of science and liter- 
 ature, the study of noble lives and labors, and in the doing 
 of those things that go to make up the great book of 
 human life. 
 
 Hence again, in the teaching of the sciences themselves, 
 and in those intimate relations begotten between teacher 
 and pupil while in the pursuit of a common object, and 
 the enthusiasm arising therefrom, we shall seek for those 
 strong and enduring moral forces that must elevate the, 
 human mind and heart. 
 
 To aid in the further study of the foregoing topics, or 
 those treated in the last two chapters, we present a brief 
 outline or analysis of the incentives to obedience. These 
 may be taken up by the school, seriatim, and discussed by 
 teacher and pupils, allowing the full play of thought and 
 deduction to both. 
 
 The chief business of a book of instruction is not to do 
 the thinking for the pupils, but to set them thinking for 
 themselves. Original thoughts are always better for edu- 
 cational purposes than borrowed ones, even though they 
 may not be quite so complete. 
 
INCENTIVES TO OBEDIENCE. 
 
 1013 
 
 
 and Impulses. 
 
 Appeals to Social 
 Feelings and Im- 
 pulses 
 
 f 1. A disposition in children to please par- 
 ents, teachers, etc. 
 
 f ADneals to purely I ^. A willingness to sacrifice self-interest for 
 „ ,. „ ,. public good. 
 
 Domestic Feelings H s 
 
 J 3. A desire to do good to all mankind. 
 
 4. A willingness to suffer for the good of 
 enemies. 
 
 5. A desire to do right for right's sake. 
 
 [ Note.— While these reach out to the world, 
 they ah have their origin in the home. 
 
 1. A desire for happiness through inter- 
 course and affection. 
 
 2. A desire for uaterial advantages, gains, 
 etc. 
 
 -{ 3. A desire for mutual improvement, re- 
 finement, culture, etc. 
 
 4. A desire for place and standing, useful- 
 ness. 
 
 5. A desire for mutual gains, possessions, 
 
 etc. 
 
 r 1. Self-respect, manly dignity, regard for 
 character. 
 
 2. Respect for others; the good opinion of 
 others . 
 
 Appeals to Self-love 3 - Am ^ t ™ rivalry in claSS ' grade ° r 
 *• —Personal Pride. \ 
 
 ! 4. A love of approbation or praise in school; 
 in society. 
 
 5. The use and abuse of percentages and 
 monthly reports, etc . 
 
 { 6. Rewards of merit and prizes . 
 
 r Natural rights and privileges. 
 
 Denials and Re- Acquired rights and privileges. 
 
 straints j 
 
 Confinement. 
 
 I Separation. 
 
 ' Reprimands, private and public. 
 Corporal pnnishments. 
 Direct Punishments j Suspensions. 
 
 t Expulsions, etc. 
 
 Note.— Let the list be extended by the learner. 
 
104 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 The Value of Science, Art, Literature and 
 
 Learning, as Instruments of Kefine- 
 
 ment and moral power. 
 
 This subject has already been alluded to under " The 
 Genesis and Classification of Sciences," Chapter II, r.nd 
 it only remains now to state a few propositions in sup- 
 port of the theories there advanced, and to point out 
 some other relations in the order and manner in which 
 these sciences may be used. The value of methods will 
 be reserved for another chapter. 
 
 Proposition I. — In science itself, ex a body of truth, 
 there resides a refining and elevating power, which beyond 
 doubt or question., is intended for the moral as well as 
 intellectual elevation of man. 
 
 But we are met with this objection at the outset of 
 this argument, namely, that neither individuals nor nations 
 renowned for scientific research and intellectual refinement, 
 have always excelled in moral elevation, and that morals 
 have not uniformly kept pace with learning. This, doubt 
 less, is true, but not to the extent claimed by some ; and 
 in all instances where the discrepancies between intel- 
 lectual refinement and moral culture are great, they may 
 be accounted for on the ground of derangement instead 
 of harmony in the systems of instruction, and consequently 
 in minds and in morals. Nothing different or better could 
 be expected in accordance with the existing laws of cause 
 and effect. Indeed, the greater wonder is that man has 
 escaped as untarnished as he is. Imperfection or want 
 of harmony and adaptation in the machinery — to use a 
 figure — must produce imperfection in the product or 
 result, however good and pure the raw material may be. 
 
THE VALUE OF SCIENCE. 105 
 
 As far as ancient nations are concerned, the sciences 
 themselves, many of them, and of the most important 
 ones, too, were as yet imperfectly known ; and those well 
 known were pushed both in improper directions, and to 
 an unwonted extent, as pure science, while their just 
 applications to human needs, or as aids to man's moral 
 elevation, either as supplying his common wants or higher 
 culture, were neglected entirely ; instance the science of 
 astronomy as imperfectly known, and chemistry, geogra- 
 phy and geology, botany, natural philosophy and the 
 more useful laws of mechanics ; and as sciences and arts 
 comparatively useless, instance geometry as then known, 
 and the art of embalming, etc. ; and of misdirected sciences, 
 as in architecture, sculpture, the one devoted to the erec- 
 tion of monstrous pyramids, the other to colossal images 
 instead of railways and bridge building, and the more use- 
 ful arts of agriculture and manufactures, etc. 
 
 Man, therefore, in his moral nature suffered, because 
 of the neglect, or the perversion of his better nature, and 
 that too, just in the ratio of his departure from the true 
 purposes of knowledge ; while, under the more rational 
 applications of modern science and art, witness the many 
 improvements in modes of living, the important discover- 
 ies and useful inventions of modern times compared with 
 the boasted arts of the ancients. 
 
 And the individual discrepancies may be accounted for 
 in a similar manner. Men's physical and intellectual 
 natures were developed in a disproportionate way, as com- 
 pared with his moral nature, hence* the latter suffered in 
 a corresponding degree. But this must not be attributed 
 to the sciences themselves or to great learning, but to their 
 improper use, from which use the nations, in this age, have 
 hardly yet escaped. Nothing better can be expected where 
 science is pursued for so unworthy purposes, even at the 
 
106 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCLENCE. 
 
 present time. The purposes were not only misjudged, 
 bat misused. 
 
 To illustrate: (1) Great virtue may reside in medicine, 
 rightly compounded and skillfully used; but, wrongly com- 
 pounded and unskillf ully applied, it becomes a curse instead 
 of a blessing. (2) That great nourishment may reside in 
 food, but that it may not only be lost, but rendered pois- 
 onous by improper preparations, or by injudicious eating; 
 yet no one would condemn the medicine or eschew the 
 food, because of wanton abuse. (3) Great fertility may 
 reside in the soil ; yet ignorance of this property, or want 
 of skill to cultivate it to produce crops, must not be taken 
 as evidence of utter poverty. 
 
 It is precisely so in the acquisition of useful knowledge. 
 It may serve a grand and noble purpose, or it may prove a 
 source of moral corruption and degeneracy. But the integ- 
 rity of the proposition is still maintained, since we know 
 that the legitimate use of knowledge, and the uniform 
 tendency of science and learning, rightly applied, are to 
 elevate the mind and body alike, and hence the moral 
 nature, else why pursue these sciences at all ? 
 
 Proposition II. — The functions of the mind are to 
 think, to feel, to will, through its faculties. These are so 
 balanced in man's normal state, that they mutually aid 
 one another in all the departments of thinking, feeling and 
 willing. 
 
 This scarcely needs a proposition, and certainly no 
 demonstration, to make it apparent, since common experi- 
 ence and all processes of thinking attest its truthful-* 
 ness. It is about equivalent to saying the function of the 
 eye is to see, the ear to hear, or the wind to blow, the light 
 to shine, etc. But this balance in the mind is, neverthe- 
 less, overlooked in our courses of study; and hence we 
 realize but a partial result in the education of the child. 
 
THE VALUE OF SCIENCE. 107 
 
 Proposition III. — Through functional activity the 
 mind grows and acquires its greatest strength and purity. 
 
 This also is a generally accepted truth. Whatever exer- 
 cises in a lawful way, strengthens and improves. This is 
 a law of growth. But the question might arise, does it 
 grow in all proper directions, unless special pains are taken 
 in these several directions? We reply: 
 
 Proposition IV. — That the sciences themselves and 
 the problems of life to which they all apply, furnish the 
 subjects of thought and activity of body and mind in the 
 proper degree and quality. The proper adjustment of 
 these problems, with due opportunities, furnish man with 
 the best conditions for his education. 
 
 Proposition V. — The higher, purer, and the more 
 practical these problems to which the sciences apply, the 
 more exalted, pure and practical become the mind and 
 body of man. These sciences and problems of life are set 
 for man's exaltation; and to attempt to exalt one part of 
 man, to the neglect or at the expense of another, injures 
 the whole man. Hence, to bring him to his best estate is 
 to educate him as a unit, in unity; and exercise educates. 
 
 Proposition VI. — Whatever improves the mind intel- 
 lectually in the highest degree healthily, also improves it 
 morally in the same manner and degree. The connec- 
 tions are so close and inseparable in their natural relations, 
 that the moral and intellectual powers grow as it were 
 from sympathy with each other. The one can not grow 
 lawfully, and to its best estate, without calling forth cor- 
 responding growth in the other; otherwise man becomes 
 a contradiction in himself, and his true education is 
 thwarted. 
 
 This may not be apparent until we take into considera- 
 tion the kind or quality of the growth or improvement. 
 The mind is created with susceptibilities and capacities. 
 
108 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 These are capable of receiving certain impressions, and of 
 acquiring certain growth and enlargement. These again 
 become, as it were, secondary or acquired faculties, inter- 
 changeable in their relations. The mind thinks, feels and 
 wills as a whole, not as parts. It is a unit making use of 
 these faculties or powers, as the organist makes use of the 
 several keys and stops, in order to produce harmony. 
 A discord in one sets all ajar; while the harmony of 
 the whole depends upon the strength and purity of each 
 individual tone. 
 
 The three grand faculties of the mind, as a thinking, 
 feeling and willing agent, must all be put in motion at the 
 same time, but not necessarily in the same degree. Owing 
 to the character of the united movement, sometimes 
 thought, sometimes feeling or emotion, and sometimes 
 volition prevails in force or activity. This produces the 
 harmony required, with characteristic predominance of 
 quality, both unity and variety, all of which produces the 
 required growth. 
 
 These faculties and their appropriate functions exist 
 as interdependent; and any derangement or lack of har- 
 monious accord in the one is readily transmitted to all the 
 others. Right education, which is the result of legitimate 
 exercise of these powers, gives greatest tone and most per- 
 fect harmony to the whole. It may also restore lost 
 harmony and power, since the growth of these powers may 
 throw off temporary derangement, and develop strength. 
 The moral powers therefore grow correspondingly, since 
 they sympathize with the intellectual and physical, at 
 every stage of growth. 
 
 Proposition VII. — Science or knowledge is that upon 
 which the powers of the mind are legitimately exercised. 
 It has all the elements of refinement and growth in its 
 several departments; therefore, science in its broadest 
 
THE VALUE OF SCIENCE. 109 
 
 sense, and art, literature and learning stand as the great 
 instruments of culture,, and for the elevation of mind and 
 morals. The higher, therefore, the departments, the 
 higher the mind ascends; and the broader the culture, 
 the more unselfish the soul; and this process may go on 
 until that broad charity which must eventually end all 
 diiferences that now divide and distract mortals, shall 
 cover all man's moral and spiritual defects with that great 
 mantel of universal love. 
 
 Proposition VIII. — Education, therefore, in its 
 broadest sense, includes all growth both of soul and body, 
 the development of power from the capacities resident in 
 man. [See Moral Sense, Chap. I, p. 13.] 
 
 This education must, therefore, necessarily reach man's 
 moral nature, or it is defective in some of its phases, since 
 this moral nature is an inseparable part of man, consid- 
 ered physically, organically and historically. All instruc- 
 tion and teaching, from the earliest period of man's growth 
 until the latest, must conform to these laws of growth, 
 or derangements of various kinds ensue at some or all 
 these points of development. 
 
 Proposition IX. — All instances of failure to develop 
 man's moral nature in harmony with his intellectual and 
 physical nature, in this large and liberal sense, can be 
 accounted for on the principle of some departure from these 
 laws of growth, at some point in his present or past history. 
 And the departure from this true course, or the infringe- 
 ment of the law in one department, involves all the others, 
 directly or indirectly: and this is precisely the state in 
 which we find man to day : i. e. Whatever weakness or 
 derangement we find in him, and the consequent working 
 out of evil of any kind, are all accounted for on the ground 
 of disobedience to law; therefore, 
 
 Proposition X. — Harmonize man's educational pro- 
 
110 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 cesses, conforming them strictly to law, and you counteract 
 the evils from their sources, and secure the healthiest 
 growth possible, in all his powers, intellectually, physi- 
 cally, morally. This gives the healthiest and highest cul- 
 ture possible to man in every relation in life, and is 
 unparalleled in its moral force; i. e , 
 
 Proposition XL — Liberalize education ; make it broad 
 enough to cover man all over, soul and body; make it deep 
 enough to reach the uttermost depths of his depravity and 
 derangement, and high enough to invite his loftiest aspira- 
 tions, and you harmonize all antagonisms, and exalt him 
 to his highest station in life as a man. Leave out any 
 element or force, and you cripple him, andheMAY become 
 a monster that no merely moral or physical force can- 
 grapple with successfully. His destiny must then be 
 determined by forces beyond mere human control. Hence, 
 in conclusion. 
 
 Proposition XII. — This broad, true, thorough educa- 
 tion, that implies all mental, moral, physical and spiritual 
 growth, invokes all instruments of instruction and teaching 
 (for teaching means more than mere instruction) all mental, 
 moral and spiritual forces vouchsafed to man in his pres- 
 ent state of existence. 
 
 Man has always suffered in his three-fold nature, from 
 the abuse of either one or two, or all three of these depart- 
 ments of the great machinery of human life : At least this 
 may be said of him as far back as we are acquainted with 
 his history. And if w r e assume that his primal state was 
 one of purity and perfection, and that he lost these by 
 disobedience and sin, may we not assume with equal 
 security, that this primal state, or its equivalent, may be 
 restored by obedience and the helps vouchsafed man in 
 his present state? Let us at least restore the original and 
 intended order, as we understand it, in the working of this 
 
THE VALUE OF METHODS. Ill 
 
 complex machinery man, and we shall introduce health and 
 harmony in all his movements, and growth in all his lawful 
 directions. This a matter of experience and history as 
 well as of learning and philosophy. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Value of Methods of Teaching as Instruments 
 for Refining and Elevating Man. 
 
 However much may be done in the way of moral 
 culture, and moral elevation of man by scientific associa- 
 tion, and the refinements growing out of knowledge and 
 general culture, yet the strongest, safest and most econom- 
 ical methods for teaching morals in the schools, or for 
 developing and strengthening moral qualities and senti- 
 ments in childhood and youth, in connection with the 
 foregoing, are through the orderly and systematic teaching 
 of the ordinary sciences, as we find them used in our best 
 schools. It both saves much valuable time, and secures 
 greater success. But why? The main reasons are the 
 following: 
 
 1. It is the spirit of the teacher that evokes those moral 
 forces from the sciences, or brandies of study, and makes 
 them effective in building substantial moral character in the 
 pupil. Without this spirit of the teacher, it were impos- 
 sible to reach the highest culture. Mr. Emerson must 
 have had this truth in mind when he said: " The spirit 
 only can teach. Not any profane man, not any sensual, 
 not any liar, not any slave can teach: but only he can 
 give who has; he only can create who is. The man on 
 whom the soul descends, through whom the soul speaks, 
 alone can teach. Courage, piety, love, wisdom can teach; 
 
112 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 and every man may open door to these angels, and they 
 shall bring him the gift of tongues. But the man who 
 aims to speak as books enable, as synods use, as fashion 
 guides, and as interest commands, babbles. Let him 
 hush." 
 
 Here we have the spirit of true teaching. It is no 
 uncommon occurrence, in the experience of the learner, 
 to be suddenly awakened to some remarkable facts, or 
 extraordinary beauties in learning by the apt illustrations, 
 or the great earnestness of the teacher while under the 
 rapt influence of the spirit of prophecy or teaching — for 
 they are much the same . 
 
 Aside from the constant companionship, and intimate 
 communion with pupils while dealing with the truths of 
 science, and thus opening up to their expanding minds, 
 the wonders that lie hidden in them, and in the refine- 
 ments of learning, which are like the gentle dews and 
 warm sunshine to the opening flowers; the very fact that 
 the teacher can watch this growth, and direct it, and 
 shape it into proper forms, are considerations of the first 
 importance. And then again, the process of imparting 
 truth, as we find it recorded in scientific knowledge, is in 
 itself a moral force of no mean proportions. In fact it 
 can be made one of the strongest in the whole category of 
 moral influences. • 
 
 But mark: these truths must be so imparted as to be 
 understood and felt by the learner. They must address 
 the understanding and sensibilities as ivell as the perception 
 and memory, or like seed scattered upon the unprepared 
 soil, they fail to germinate and grow. Their moral, and 
 much of their intellectual force are lost if they fail to be 
 thoroughly comprehended and felt. [See Apprehension 
 and Comprehension, p. 115.] 
 
 We venture the assertion — and it may appear a little 
 
THE VALUE OF METHODS. 113 
 
 extravagant — that more deception, fraud, hypocrisy and 
 absolute falsehood, distorted and inefficient thinking that 
 breeds contempt for truth and authority, and indifference 
 to the true, the beautiful and the good, are engendered in 
 the minds of children by careless and inefficient teaching, 
 superficial study and recitation than by any other influence 
 that belongs to the mere school. Indeed the above faults 
 constitute the main difference between good teaching, and 
 that which distorts truth, belittles science and fills the 
 world with inefficiency and fraud; and this applies to 
 families and churches as well as to schools. In fact, it 
 applies to teaching everywhere. 
 
 2. There must be a clear and comprehensive understand- 
 ing of the subject matter of the science taught, both by the 
 teacher and pupil, and the teacher first, in order to derive 
 all the moral forces from it. Often this moral force is 
 crippled or killed by awkwardness and inefficiency. Is it 
 any wonder then, that we have awkward and inefficient 
 scholarship, and inefficient morals? They exist, too, in 
 about the same degree. They have a common origin and 
 a common end: And we may add, a common cure: for 
 he who teaches science well, because of the necessary, and 
 inherent moral force in the clear and thorough comprehen- 
 sion of truth, teaches morals well. It feeds the moral 
 nature as bread feeds the body. It revives the drooping 
 plants of virtue, as sunlight and shower revive the face of 
 nature. 
 
 But mark: both the nature of the truth, and the force 
 with which it is applied,. must be taken into the account. 
 There are some truths that have comparatively slight bear- 
 ing upon human conduct and life; and others , again, of 
 startling importance. Those that relate to our intercourse 
 with our fellow men, and to our spiritual growth and well- 
 fare, are among the latter: and the force with which their 
 
114 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 obligations may be brought to bear upon the mind and 
 heart of the learner, must be measured by their importance. 
 An earnest belief in these truths by one's self, and a life 
 conforming thereto, will add the greater force and value 
 to them. 
 
 To illustrate: The real nourishment of the plant may 
 reside in the soil, and yet the plant may wither and die for 
 the want of it. It needs the moisture to dissolve, and the 
 sunlight to absorb, before healthy growth can go on. The 
 one represents sympathy, the other love. They are living, 
 moral forces in and of themselves. It is the giving out of 
 these, through the channels of truth, that warms and vivi- 
 fies the moral nature. The living presence and soul of 
 the teacher, filled with a knowledge of the truth, are the 
 awakening forces. 
 
 The real nourishment of the soul may reside in the truth, 
 undissolved (not understood in its special bearings), unpre- 
 pared to give out its nourishment and strength, until dis- 
 solved by the understanding and skill of the teacher 
 through sympathy, and absorbed by the love of the truth, 
 and deposited in the body, intellectual and moral, of the 
 pupil, as the plant appropriates its nourishment. 
 
 But many subjects of science are so superficially taught 
 that both the moral and intellectual forces are lost ; and 
 the losing of the one implies, at least, the impairing of 
 the other. Undigested food is certain, not only to be lost, 
 as a means of growth, but actually to impair and weaken 
 the organism, infect its surroundings, and produce disease 
 instead of growth ; so undigested knowledge, or that 
 which is imperfectly understood, especially if left too long 
 in that condition, is sure, not only to lose its vitalizing 
 forces, its nourishment for building up sound moral char- 
 acter, but is also liable continually to impair the mechan- 
 ism of the mind, and to infect other contiguous knowledge. 
 
THE VALUE OF METHODS. 115 
 
 The memory acts with the greatest vigor and tenacity 
 upon those things that are well understood, since they 
 make the deepest impression upon the mind ; and to 
 remember well, in most cases, is only to have under- 
 stood well. The office of memory, therefore, is at least 
 twofold ; first, to receive and retain those things that are 
 well understood, or, to receive them by understanding 
 them ; arid, second, to hold in trust those things that are 
 imperfectly understood, until the understanding has had 
 time to master them thoroughly and the mind to absorb 
 them ; but if still not understood, still undigested, unap- 
 propriated, then they are removed, like other encum- 
 brances, as useless matter ; they are forgotten, that room 
 may exist for things that may receive better treatment from 
 this digestive and assimilating apparatus — the memory, 
 understanding and judgment. 
 
 The difference between mere apprehension, as a mental 
 act, and its more profound associate, comprehension, is 
 simply this : the former merely sees a fact or principle 
 more or less clearly ; while the latter understands it more 
 or less perfectly. The one may glide into the other, the 
 one is necessarily the complement of the other, in complete 
 thinking. 
 
 To illustrate further : the former merely seizes (appre- 
 hends) the fact, or principle as the eagle seizes the prey, 
 and conveys it to a convenient place of safety (the mem- 
 ory); the latter, after seizing it, and transporting it to its 
 convenient place, proceeds at once to devour it (compre- 
 hends it), surrounds it, as it were, by himself, that it may 
 enter into, and become a part of himself. So, the mind, 
 when it thoroughly comprehends, not only receives and 
 retains the impression, but proceeds to appropriate the 
 facts and principles, making them a part of the intellect- 
 ual furniture and moral power. 
 
116 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 Now, many pupils are satisfied with mere apprehension 
 — seizing the prey — and holding it, as it were on the claw 
 of memory, without appropriating it to its intended uses, 
 until the impression decays or fades away, and the thing 
 is forgotten. No nourishment is derived therefrom till 
 the mind devours it, comprehends it, assimilates it ; and 
 until it becomes a part of the intellectual and moral fibre. 
 
 Hence, let these two mental operations, apprehension 
 and comprehension, proceed in their logical order, and 
 the intellect, sensibility and will shall all be strengthened 
 thereby, and this harmony will produce the strongest and. 
 safest moral growth ; "but the moral growth from mere ap- 
 prension as an act, and mere memory as an act, can never 
 be sound and healthy. 
 
 3. All learning begets pleasure in proportion to the 
 quality and guantity of the knoicledge acquired ; provided 
 always the mind and body are in a healthy condition. The 
 pleasure is also in the ratio of sound thinking and thorough 
 comprehension ; since these operations produce growth in 
 a legitimate way, for growth of this kind is always accom- 
 panied by pleasure. Displeasure arises from derangement 
 either in the faculties themselves, or in the conditions 
 whereby action is induced ; sometimes in over-action — 
 though seldom — but more frequently in want of action — 
 from misdirected study, from want of understanding, and 
 sometimes from a confusion of thought incident upon a 
 wrong presentation of facts ; and again from a too great 
 accumulation of facts without coherency. But it may 
 always be assumed that sound study and sound acquisition 
 go hand in hand, and are always sources of pleasure when 
 rightly conducted. 
 
 This fact has been questioned by some who have con- 
 founded study or thinking with mere memorizing, or 
 excessive apprehension without comprehension. This is 
 
THE VALUE OF METHODS. 117 
 
 mere drudgery, both mental and physical, and the powers, 
 without their proper stimuli, soon tire, and sometimes 
 give out entirely. Sound thinking is always invigorating, 
 since it involves the healthy activity and growth of the 
 faculties . Hence all study and all acquisition that do not 
 involve this harmonious and healthy activity, and conse- 
 quent sound growth, may be set down as spurious, and it 
 should be avoided. 
 
 4. All true moral growth is accompanied by a pleasing 
 elevation of thought andpurpose, even though accompanied by 
 physical suffering; and it maybe assumed that, no pleasure, 
 no growth or elevation. The pleasure may not be imme- 
 diate, however ; neither is it always of an exhilarating 
 character ; and sometimes the growth is the result of deep 
 affliction and sorrow. But these are the sources of growth, 
 and not the growth itself ; but the moral elevation is the 
 same, and is sure to follow, and is sometimes of the 
 purest and most exalted character. Virtue will prove its 
 own reward, whether it require sacrifice and suffering, or 
 prosperity and rejoicing. 
 
 5. Growth and elevation in all departments of nature, 
 are accompanied by a degree of pleasure, proportionate to 
 the nature of the -object, and the kind of growth. Even 
 vegetation shows signs of enjoyment, and even delight. 
 All true groiuth is upivard and outward from a common 
 center, where rest the life forces, and whence springs the 
 pleasure. 
 
 Witness the springing grass, the swelling bud and 
 opening flower ; they seem to laugh with delight, as they 
 lift themselves to the sunlight, and shed their sweet 
 odors to the breeze. And the nodding grain and bending 
 boughs lift their great glad burdens of wealth to man, 
 with a pleasing joy. 
 
 Much more, then, does animal life and growth give 
 
118 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 evidences of pleasure. Witness the joy and delight of 
 the animal world, in its gambols over the meadows and 
 through the vales, the merry song of birds, and the still 
 more hilarious shout of childhood. And the higher we 
 ascend in the scale of being, the greater the manifesta- 
 tions of pleasure accompanying the growth. Hence, men- 
 tal enjoyments are greater than the merely animal, and 
 the moral more than the merely intellectual and physical. 
 " All growth is upward/' and approximates the perfect in 
 form, proportion, strength, utility and beauty. 
 
 But some will doubtless remind us here, as in the cases. 
 of deep affliction alluded to, that "There is no excellence 
 without great labor/' True, bat does it follow that labor 
 is not a pleasure ? On the contrary, it is one of the high- 
 est enjoyments to all, except to the sick, feeble, or incor- 
 rigibly lazy; and even to such it may become a remedy for 
 the disease. 
 
 Man was made to labor, intellectually, physically, mor- 
 ally; and his highest happiness depends upon his following 
 in the line of his appointed work. But we must distin- 
 guish, as before hinted, between legitimate work for man 
 and mere drudgery. And then there is a just balance to 
 be observed between the merely physical labor and the 
 purely mental and moral. If these distinctions are prop- 
 erly observed, the pleasure is proportionately enhanced 
 and the growth correspondingly great. 
 
 But the true excellence spoken of in our maxim usually 
 comes after the labor, and as a reward for labor ; and this 
 comes also more surely as the result of growth. It is the 
 ripening of the grain, the full fruitage preparatory to the 
 harvest. It may be the ingathering after a life of toil 
 and thought, the full exercise of all the united powers of 
 body and mind. 
 
 Many of us can testify that the pleasures of the pursuit 
 
THE VALUE OF METHODS. 119 
 
 of knowledge are as great, if not greater, than the posses 
 sion of it. The excellence and exalted pleasure of devel- 
 oping power sometimes even exceeds the mere joy of pos- 
 session. 
 
 But human knowledge has not fulfilled its earthly mis- 
 sion, and teaching or imparting it, its full cup of pleasure, 
 until it is applied to its wonted uses, in the arts and indus- 
 tries of the human family. This use is in perfect harmony 
 with its mission as a refiner of the affections and senti- 
 ments of the human heart. The one is utilitarian, the 
 other aesthetic ; and for all human purposes the one is 
 incomplete without the other. 
 
 Man himself is elevated and refined even while intelli- 
 gently supplying his own personal wants, since this also is 
 more fully done by working for the good of others. This, 
 too, is a law of nature that always compensates her intel- 
 ligent laborers; and the chief reason that neither the 
 purely utilitarian idea of knowledge, nor yet the purely 
 aesthetic, accomplishes its entire mission in elevating man, 
 is because these two uses have been hitherto so widely 
 separated. 
 
 But just how much of the utilitarian features of knowl- 
 ldgecanbe illustrated and practiced in the schools depends 
 upon the opportunities, and upon the wisdom and skill 
 of the teacher. Most schools, however, are supplied with 
 a sufficient amount of apparatus and other appliances, to 
 show how knowledge of the physical sciences and many of 
 the mechanic arts, may be applied to the industries of the 
 age. But the main thing is the skill and tact of the 
 teacher. These will do more than mere apparatus and 
 laboratories, in supplying this need. If the teacher's heart 
 is really imbued with a genuine, love for his work, his 
 hand will soon acquire skill ; and if he have even an 
 ordinary genius he will soon arouse a corresponding 
 
120 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 enthusiasm among his pupils. And this is the sum of all 
 excellence in teaching, or in any work. He who believes 
 in his work is most likely to succeed; and he who sets the 
 world a-thinking is greater than a king: for mind once 
 awakened, once disenthralled and put upon the highway of 
 thought, is sure to throttle some ancient error or to develop 
 some new truth, whereby the world is helped on in its 
 moral and intellectual progress. 
 
 Here is moral elevation that will last. It is a natural 
 growth. It gives strength and durability. It stops not 
 with mere precepts, creeds and catechisms, leaving the. 
 heart and life untouched, unaltered, unimproved. It 
 enters into the very feeling and fibre of human nature 
 and human conduct, growing with their growth, broaden- 
 ing, deepening, refining and sublimating them, instead of 
 narrowing them down to the mere formulae of human 
 doctrines. 
 
 CHAPTEK XII. 
 
 The Mokal Force of Industrial Education. 
 
 But one of the most direct and practical ways in which 
 to illustrate and enforce the uses of human knowledge as a 
 means of moral elevation, and to conserve the wasting 
 energies of human nature, and at the same time to acquire 
 a practical acquaintance with the arts and common indus- 
 tries, is through the "Manual Training Srfwols" that 
 have recently grown up to meet this evident want in our 
 present system of popular education. And although this 
 feature has but recently been brought into prominence, 
 and consequently has not yet had time to find its true form 
 and place in our schools, it nevertheless has acquired such 
 
MORAL FORGE OF INB USTRIAL ED UCA TION. 121 
 
 a firm hold upon the good sense of the people that we may 
 safely predict that " it has come to stay," in some form. 
 
 Its clear logical necessity, and its evident adaptability to 
 the present condition of our industrial affairs, give clear 
 and indubitable indications of final success : and I look 
 upon it as a highly probable solution to the much vexed 
 problem of labor and capital. Their true relations have 
 never yet been practically and satisfactorily determined and 
 maintained, probably never will be until we reorganize our 
 entire system of popular education. They certainly never 
 can be until we educate both on the same plane, and from the 
 same basis of social standing, looking to the mutual bene- 
 fits of each. Educate labor, and you not only make it 
 more efficient, but more honorable. Neglect this, and you 
 not only weaken and degrade it, but place it at such 
 evident disadvantage that capital will impose upon it, 
 making such demands upon it, that it cannot comply with, 
 and live. Educate * capital, and you take away its arro-"~ 
 gant and dishonest characteristics, and reveal to it its true 
 mission, which is, as far as possible, to distribute labor and 
 its just rewards, among the entire population, without 
 regard to cast or any condition whatever, except as a 
 matter of fitness and probable choice. 
 
 Labor of different kinds, as has been shown, is a clear 
 necessity, not only that one class of man's wants may be 
 supplied, but that all may be better supplied, and not only 
 that all these wants may be better supplied, but that man 
 may grow into the very image and being of what he was 
 intended to be in the first place ; and into that relation to 
 environment, most favorable to growth and perfection. 
 
 * What we mean by the word " Educate " in this connection is not mere 
 enlightenment and enlargement of its scope, but the turning of it in its 
 proper channels. 
 
122 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 These things he can not do without the exercise of all the 
 native powers he possesses, physical and mental. 
 
 The reasons for these conclusions are founded in the 
 very nature of things. Man was evidently planned for 
 labor with hand, head and heart. These representing his 
 three distinct natures : and in this he most assuredly finds 
 his highest development and greatest happiness. All 
 conspire to this end . Labor is the grand conservator of 
 all human energy and human progress. The neglect of it 
 as certainly entails decrepitude and deterioration and final 
 destruction, as obedience to the laws of labor produces- 
 strength and refinement ; and these blessings or curses fall 
 first upon those particular parts of man's nature neglected: 
 i. e. physical neglect begets physical weakness, and intel- 
 lectual neglect begets intellectual weakness and imbecility, 
 and moral neglect, moral weakness and degeneracy; but the 
 neglect and consequent degeneracy of any one reflects upon 
 both the others, and aggravates all the evils of the whole. 
 
 This is also a law of Nature; and she is ever jealous of 
 the rights of her children, and of the good things they 
 inherit at her hands. If they are abused, they are either 
 taken from them or allowed to perish with them. She 
 does her best to remove all obstructions from the path of 
 progress. -If the hand or foot is injured slightly, for 
 instance, she immediately sets about repairing the damage, 
 if permanently, or if so confined as to prevent legitimate 
 use, nature not only mercifully withholds nourishment 
 from these parts, but does her best to remove the useless 
 member, little by little, because it is in the way. She 
 tolerates no nuisances, but encourages all useful growth. 
 Her forces are all friendly, permanent and true to the 
 best interests of the individual and the race. When either 
 vegetable or animal matter has served its purposes, it 
 decays and crumbles back to its original form or condi- 
 
MORAL FORCE OF IND US TRIAL ED UOA TION. 123 
 
 tion, as food for the oncoming life of other growth. As 
 soon as it ceases to work in its appointed way, it ceases 
 to live and grow, and when it ceases to live and grow, it 
 is kindly removed to another sphere of existence. 
 
 The same is true of the human species in all relations 
 of life. When man ceases to work, he ceases to be useful 
 as a member of the body politic and social, and he at once 
 commences a series of downward steps, that land him 
 e'er long, at the bottom of the scale where his substance, 
 if he have any, is absorbed by a new and better growth 
 Nature, true to her best instincts, removes him as an 
 incumbrance or common nuisance, that others may have 
 his room and opportunities. The world is one vast cycle; 
 but every movement is generated by force and governed 
 by law, and the tendency is always to a higher and better 
 life. But nothing is accomplished without labor, or pro- 
 duced without an adequate force, or cause. 
 
 The same law prevails in man's commercial relations, 
 and in the accumulation of wealth. When he or his pos- 
 terity ceases to use his accumulations, or when he com- 
 mences to abuse them, they are generally removed. For- 
 tunately for us, however, in this country, our laws of 
 inheritance, or the descent of property from father to son, 
 are such as to prevent large accumulations of property, to 
 remain long in the same family, idle, where it naturally 
 breeds laziness, vice and imbecility. But even these 
 would soon remove it, for they open channels for its dis- 
 integration, and absorption somewhere else. Large for- 
 tunes are always detrimental to morals, not only because 
 they afford so many avenues of indulgence, but because 
 they relieve man from that active exertion, necessary to 
 the proper developement, unless indeed, he is well forti- 
 fied by moral character. 
 
 It is, therefore, clear that man was made to labor in all 
 
124 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 those directions in which he should grow; and it is equally- 
 clear that without this labor, this exertion, he can not 
 grow into that harmonious, well-balanced being that 
 nature designed he should be, and to which his necessities 
 call him. The very fact that man is now, and perhaps 
 always has been disposed to shirk duty, and thus escape 
 his alloted work in the world, may acconnt largely, not 
 only for his past degeneracy, but in large measure for his 
 present dereliction to duty; and these, together with his 
 ambition and natural cupidity, will account largely for 
 the deranged state of affairs in respect to labor and capital, - 
 and the like. And the only remedy at hand seems to be 
 the restoration of these wonted relations, whereby man 
 himself may be restored. In other words, we must edu- 
 cate by labor as well as for labor, as a means of man's 
 moral restoration. And for the upbuilding of a healthy 
 social status. This is an important matter. 
 
 When man learns, practically, that he can not thus 
 shirk duty and live a healthy, happy and successful life; 
 that labor develops, and that the development of any one 
 department of his being requires a corresponding activity 
 and development of every other part; and that to neglect 
 one injures all the others, he will then have placed him- 
 self, theoretically, at least, in a position to reap the bene- 
 fits of an education in harmony with his present and pros- 
 pective interest. 
 
 The question now arises, is the present effort to establish 
 "manual Training Schools," and other industrial features 
 of education, in connection with our present system, a 
 practical one? 
 
 We have shown that this industrial feature is in har- 
 mony with the law of man's nature and growth, aye, with 
 his largest and best growth, soul and body: but is the 
 present popular movement in this direction a practical 
 
MORAL FORCE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 125 
 
 one? One which with such changes from time to time as 
 experience and wisdom may suggest, shall meet the grow- 
 ing demands for a larger scope of education — one that 
 shall better fit man for the constantly enlarged sphere in 
 which he is destined to move? 
 
 Without attempting a full discussion of these questions 
 or of the main one — for we think the present awakening 
 of the public mind and interest upon this subject is suffi- 
 cient to warrant sound conclusions in the end, without 
 such discussion here — we answer yes, the project is emi- 
 nently practical with such modifications of our present 
 system and practices, as they will most readily and profit- 
 ably admit, and with such additional expenditure of money 
 as shall provide the necessary improvements in our build- 
 ings and other conveniences, to enable our people to carry 
 on the experiment on a liberal scale. And this additional 
 expenditure is also in harmony with our present progress 
 in almost all other departments of labor. Witness the 
 millions now expended in enterprises that only required 
 thousands but a few years ago. And if these enterprises 
 pay so liberally for the increased expenditure, why not try 
 education on a larger scale? There is no other human 
 interest that demands as much, or that promises larger 
 returns, and I was about to add, there is no other in 
 which men are so penurious. If education is the prin- 
 cipal thing, then give it a fair chance. Let it be on a 
 scale at least as liberal as any other, and as all others com- 
 bined, and then we shall begin to realize liberal returns, 
 for if the ends proposed by such a system are such as are 
 claimed, and such as clearly appear, both from the nature 
 of the improvement, and from the results already obtained 
 from the limited experiments thus far, the merely 
 increased expenditure will be as nothing in comparison. 
 
126 ELEMENTS OB 1 ETHICAL SCIEXCE. 
 
 Some of the reasons for the introduction of this new 
 feature into our present system may be stated as follows: 
 
 1. Our present system, with all its excellencies, is not 
 yet perfect, but, on the contrary, it is " behind the times," 
 so to speak. By many it is claimed to be radically defect- 
 ive and unsatisfactory in many of its features and results. 
 It is not up with the demands of the age. It was good in 
 its time, and has brought the people to the opening of a 
 new era of improvements, demanding something more than 
 it now offers. 
 
 2. Our present system is not "ironclad." It is suscep- 
 tible of improvements, such as are offered in the foregoing. 
 As we now find it, it is the result of much thought, count- 
 less experiments and many improvements, some of which 
 were, at the time of their first introduction, considered 
 unwise innovations, but which time has shown to be both 
 wise and necessary. Others have been found unnecessary, 
 and have disappeared altogether, as witness the efforts in 
 ancient times to make certain languages the only means of 
 communication, etc. . 
 
 3. Because, true to the instincts and customs of prog- 
 r ss, a remedy for many existing defects and shortcomings 
 has been discovered, or rather, has grown up under the 
 necessities thrust upon us, in the industrial features of 
 education alluded to, and whose results, as already shown, 
 by limited, yet somewhat liberal experience, have seemed 
 to meet these defects in a manner clearly to indicate final 
 success. 
 
 Other reasons might be adduced ; but we think they 
 will readily occur to the learner. It will be necessary here, 
 however, to notice two leading points clearly, in order to 
 avoid confusion and mistake. 
 
 1. The kinds of work that can be most conveniently and 
 profitably associated with our present system, courses of 
 
MORAL FORGE OF IND US TRIAL EI) JIG A TION. 127 
 
 study and customs in the schools with such alterations as 
 shall rather improve than impair them, must be care- 
 fully considered. 
 
 2. A clear understanding of the objects to be secured, 
 and the real intent of what some are pleased to call 
 "A modern innovation/' must be secured at all hazards. 
 
 First, then, as to the hinds of labor best adapted to the 
 present and prospective wants of our people or of any people. 
 A slight difference, therefore, may be made to suit the 
 varieties of nations and peoples. 
 
 It will be seen, by reference to Chapter II, " The Gen- 
 esis and Purposes of Kuowledge and Science," and the 
 classifications following, that the departments of science 
 there given, are admirably adapted to the development of 
 corresponding mental and moral qualities and habits in 
 human nature; and that these, again, readily adapt them- 
 selves to the various degrees of advancement, and other 
 peculiarities of the human mind. 
 
 It will be found also, on comparison, that the several 
 departments of the industries and arts, arising from man's 
 necessities and from the pursuit of these several branches 
 of science, that they are equally diversified, and well 
 adapted to human needs at the present time, and that by 
 a wise forecast, they may meet every emergency and every 
 want in the line of popular industries, and at the same 
 time serve as educators of the race. 
 
 Now the school, if it really fulfills its mission, affords 
 just opportunity for life preparation. Failing to do this, 
 it fails in its main object. The work of the school-room, 
 under these just opportunities, should be such as to best 
 prepare for this life work. This is but imperfectly done 
 under present circumstances and opportunities, owing to 
 the largely theoretical character of the instruction in these 
 schools and colleges. 
 
128 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 True, this instruction has answered the purposes thus 
 far, by its constantly improving character, bringing, so far 
 as the schools have been efficient, the race up to a fair 
 degree of development, on the part of many. But this 
 constantly improving condition of the people demands 
 correspondingly improved opportunities and processes, that 
 the people, in the present and in the future also may be 
 accommodated in their demands. 
 
 Now the continual complaint coming up from the peo- 
 ple, on a survey of the ranks of school life, are that this 
 life preparation is but meagre and impractical, under 
 our present system; and that pupils are obliged not only 
 to learn a business after leaving school, but, in many 
 instances, to learn their school lessons over again, in order 
 to make them serviceable in their business; i. e., the prac- 
 tical application of them to their work. These are evi- 
 dences of defects and weaknesses somewhere in their line 
 of learning. And while it is sometimes true that these com- 
 plaints are ill-founded, and not to be taken as indications 
 of real distress, or of defect, yet the circumstances, and 
 the well-attested facts in these complaints, are of suffi- 
 cient importance to warrant a suspicion, and to justify an 
 examination into them. 
 
 The kinds of labor, therefore, should be such as to 
 meet, as far as possible, the present and prospective wants 
 of the pupil, not necessarily in the way of a trade, profes- 
 sion or employment, to be sure, but such as shall best fit 
 him for entering upon any trade or profession or employ- 
 ment that may with care and judgment be selected for 
 life. Some of this special work in the way of applications 
 of learning to life duties, may be named here, as merely 
 illustrative, but not necessarily exhaustive nor in the order 
 in which they should be taught. 
 
 1. The training of the eye and the hand in their 
 
MORAL FORCE OF IND USTRIAL ED UCA TION. 129 
 
 mutual relations and adaptedness, as in moulding, draw- 
 ing, drafting, carving in wood, metals, etc. 
 
 2. Exercises in those employments that look more to 
 the useful trades and mechanic arts, as sawing, boring, 
 planing, morticing, matching, cutting, nailing, etc. 
 
 3. Those relating to textile fabrics, as the manufacture 
 or mending of clothing, cutting, fitting, sewing, cleaning, 
 ironing, pressing, etc. 
 
 4. Those relating to the preparation and cooking of 
 foods, as dressing, mixing, baking, boiling, roasting, fry- 
 ing, broiling, etc. 
 
 5. Those that relate to agriculture and gardening, 
 where grounds and other conveniences may be had for 
 illustrations or otherwise, as the preparation of soils, 
 planting and raising grains, grasses, fruits, flowers, trees, 
 garden plants, etc. 
 
 6. The rearing of stock, as sheep, cattle, horses, mules, 
 pigs and poultry, etc. 
 
 7. Those employments relating to lands and tenements, 
 as surveying, plotting, building, railroading, etc. 
 
 8. Manufacturing in wood, as furniture; in iron, as 
 farm and household utensils; in brass, as machinery, 
 ornamentation, etc.; in silver and gold, the same; in 
 leather, as shoes, harness, etc . 
 
 9. Commerce and the professions might also receive 
 attention if opportunity and necessity required. 
 
 And so every industry might receive such attention as 
 shall constitute a preparation for entering upon any 
 department thereof, where taste, interest or inclination 
 may lead; and no arbitrary distinctions should be made 
 in favor of, or in disfavor of, any employment for women; 
 believing their good sense of the fitness of things will 
 always lead them to choose employments in which they 
 
130 ELEMENTS OE ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 can at least succeed, if not excel. The whole field of 
 employments should be. open to all alike. 
 
 Second : as to the objects and intent of the work. Much 
 misapprehension, and consequently much irrelevant talk 
 and writing, have been expended on this part of our sub- 
 ject. Some maintain that the main object and intention 
 of the industrial school are to enable the pupil to learn a 
 trade, and to graduate as an expert in some art or profes- 
 sion ; some maintain that the object is to make money to 
 enable the pupil to defray his expenses while attending 
 school ; others, again, maintain that the only object is to 
 develop muscle, and to maintain good physical health, etc. 
 
 Now, while all these objects may be secured to a limited 
 extent, and this, too, as a natural result of right methods 
 and of obedience to law ; yet they are not the main objects 
 to be attained, nor the main intentions of the industrial 
 school. But the main objects are the intellectual, moral 
 and physical development of the pupil, in harmony with the 
 laws of sound growth, which thing can not be done to the 
 full extent, or even to a safe extent, without scientific 
 attention to these same laws of health and growth. These 
 laws demand a reasonable share of physical labor during 
 the periods of study and school training : And to say that 
 this demand is satisfied outside of school life is simply 
 saying what has never yet been done in one case in five 
 hundred, and probably never will be done until intelligent 
 provisions are made for this work in the schools them- 
 selves. And we have already shown that physical health 
 and growth, as well as moral and intellectual well-being, 
 all depend upon a united, harmonious and simultaneous 
 action of all the faculties of the human being; and at a 
 period or periods in the life of the child when his health 
 is in the most delicate condition, and when his habits and 
 character are forming. 
 
. MORAL FORCE OF IND US TRIAL ED UCA TION. 131 
 
 This is the most critical time in all the life of the stu- 
 dent ; hence it should be subjected to the most careful 
 surveillance and the most rigid discipline. A false step 
 here, a little neglect, a wrong combination of forces, will 
 as surely tell in the general make-up of character, as mis- 
 takes anywhere in the complications and combinations of 
 forces. 
 
 To illustrate by the use of a common figure : All the 
 parts of a machine must move in harmony, under a full 
 head of power, in order that it may do the best work, may 
 endure the heaviest strain and last the longest. So in this 
 complex machine we call man : in order that the best 
 results may be obtained, the heaviest strain endured, and 
 the greatest longevity attained, each part must move in 
 harmony with every other part. And this does not pre- 
 clude intervals of rest, change and recreation. These also 
 are necessary, and are subject to law. . They may become 
 n blessing or a curse. They are parts, and necessary parts, 
 of these educational forces. But the working forces are 
 the main ones, and the others are mere fertilizers. And 
 the increased health and vigor, the sharpening up, as it 
 were, of all the physical, intellectual and moral appetites 
 and powers, by this mutual interchange of life forces, 
 begotten of obedience to law, will be such as to more than 
 compensate for the supposed loss of time, either from 
 work or play, which time, under other circumstances, is 
 often spent in absolute idleness, or in dawdling with les- 
 sons that have become a mental drudgery, irksome and 
 tasteless, and correspondingly useless as moral or intellec- 
 tual food or inspiration to thought ; and all because of 
 these violations of the laws of growth. 
 
 When man shall have learned how to work — to work 
 advantageously, intellectually, physically, morally, his 
 proper education will have begun; and when this becomes 
 
132 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 a fixed habit — a law governing all his conduct — that edu- 
 cation will be assured. It will be, not only a matter of 
 pleasure, but one of absolute certainty; for there is just 
 work enough in the world, and of the proper kind, too, 
 to educate every man, woman and child in it, this being 
 the evident intention of work. Beyond this, and less 
 than this, work becomes odious, disproportionate, dis- 
 reputable and a drudgery. Under the inspiration of work, 
 associated with thought, both are exalted, and man's 
 environment will improve in the same ratio of his faculties; 
 whereby both man and his environment, or the whole 
 face of nature, animate and inanimate, shall be continually 
 approximating that state of absolute perfection mentioned 
 in Chapter I, Proposition VII and Corollaries 3 and 4, 
 also Proposition VIII and Corollaries. 
 
 Education hy work is the true doctrine. . . Hence the 
 intention of industrial education is not that labor shall 
 usurp learning; but that it shall aid it; that it shall not 
 degrade it, but exalt it, even to its own intelligent exalta- 
 tion. In short, that the highest intellectual and moral 
 development can be reached only through so much 
 plrysical labor as shall give the soundest bodily health, 
 and the safest industrial habits. 
 
 Experience has also demonstrated, according to papers 
 and reports from the manual training schools, already 
 established in this country and in Europe, which represent, 
 for the most part, only a few forms of general industry, 
 that the purely intellectual education of the pupil is 
 promoted every way by judicious exercise of the physical 
 powers, in a scientific way, while pursuing the ordinary 
 course of study. And why should it not be so promoted? 
 It is not necessary that the physical energies of the young 
 should be either weakened or wasted in inanity, or dissi- 
 pated in debauchery, while pursuing a course of study. 
 
MORAL FOR CE OF IND US TRIAL ED UCA TION. 133 
 
 This increase of power, where studies are associated with 
 manual labor, is the natural result of obedience to the 
 laws governing all growth; while the neglect of such 
 exercise is disobedience; and each has its reward, the one 
 in lawful growth, the other in suffering, to say nothing 
 about the entailed inferiority, and ultimate death of 
 faculties. 
 
 These reports tell us, also, that the pupils, where tests 
 have been fairly made, not only keep up with their com- 
 panions — those who do not work in the shops or elsewhere 
 — in the class work, but often excel them; while, in addi- 
 tion, they escape the many temptations to idleness and 
 dissipation so common in schools where all the time is not 
 farmed out to useful employments and recreations of some 
 kind. 
 
 Now, the moral effects of manual labor associated with 
 study must be apparent to all. If there were no other 
 benefits arising from physical culture, as developed in 
 the manual training schools, or from the introduction of 
 the industrial features of education in all our schools, 
 from the kindergarten to the high school and college, than 
 the mere acquisition of manual skill, it would be a valid 
 argument in its favor. But when we consider that it not 
 only utilizes physical energies in the production of useful 
 labor and skill, but it cuts off a large share of that mis- 
 chief, to counteract which constitutes a still larger share 
 of the drudgery of modern teaching, and also establishes 
 habits of industry and sobriety, it would seem that no 
 further argument were necessary to bring about this much 
 needed reform. 
 
 And then again: much of the dissipation and crime in 
 society at large results directly or indirectly from a want 
 of power or habit among young people to employ their 
 time and energies pleasantly and profitably, after leaving 
 
134 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE, 
 
 school. They either fall into ways of idleness and dissi- 
 pation, because they find most places of profitable employ- 
 ment closed against them; or else they are obliged to 
 commence a course of preparation for business after leav- 
 ing school. Both of these alternatives are discouraging. 
 The industrial schools would remedy these defects. 
 
 But when we add to all these moral and intellectual 
 advantages of a philosophical and profitable system of 
 physical training of this sort, the fact that man's avail- 
 able capital as a factor in society is increased from 50 to 
 100 per cent, or more, by thus developing all his available 
 power in the right direction, and that the public weal is 
 thereby improved correspondingly, there would again 
 seem to be no doubt of the propriety of such measures, 
 even at a largely increased expenditure of money for pub- 
 lic education. It would simply be rendering more avail- 
 able and profitable the present expenditure, to say noth- 
 ing of the immense moral advantages accruing. In fact, 
 the industrial feature of education seems to be the "miss- 
 ing link" in man's moral and intellectual education and 
 elevation. Restore this "missing link," and we not only 
 solve the whole intellectual problem, but many other 
 social and political issues which now seem hopelessly 
 stranded upon the shoals and rocks of our civil polity. 
 Among these could be named the capital and labor issue, 
 our whole revenue system, which, together with our polit- 
 ical and commercial dishonesty, seem to pile up barriers 
 to our national prosperity enough to appall any one. 
 
 And }'et all these can be removed — removed peacefully 
 and effectually. Educate man all over — hand, head and 
 heart — and the thing is done. Does that seem too simple 
 a solution? Try it. It will cost something, to be sure; 
 but the expense will not be a tithe of that bitter loss 
 
MORAL FORGE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 135 
 
 incurred from blindness to this solution and neglect of 
 these simple claims of justice. 
 
 "Educate man all over/' and no part will go to Avaste — 
 no part will be disposed to prey upon any other, personal 
 or political. "We simply restore the lost balance, and man 
 is reconciled in himself and to himself as a unit of power; 
 and society, being composed of these units, is itself also 
 reconciled in its various social and political interests, and 
 built into a stronger and more enduring superstructure. 
 
 But some will tell i^s, this is impossible. Man will not 
 work with his hands so long as he can make a living by 
 his wits; and that others are improvident and lazy, con- 
 stantly disposed to shirk duty, and ail that. This may all 
 be true; and some one has wittily remarked, that "man 
 is naturally a lazy animal." But this is a mistake — a 
 slander not only upon man, but upon his maker. The God 
 of nature never made a mistake, and a lazy man is a woeful 
 blunder; therefore, he never made a lazy man, nor a lazy 
 animal of any kind. All the lower animals, as we call 
 them, work in their appointed sphere, and to an extent 
 commensurate to their natural wants, and, therefore, are 
 not naturally lazy. They may have contracted some of 
 man's lazy habits, and this, too, by his unwarrantable 
 interference with the laws of production and heredity. All 
 this may be true, I say. 
 
 But some men are lazy. This we can not deny, and we 
 can account for this only on the supposition of violation 
 of law, somewhere in his past or present history. Lazi- 
 ness may also be inherited; and the disease, in some cases, 
 we know is chronic. We know, also, that when habit is of 
 long standing, it may be transmitted from generation to 
 generation; and this will account for man's laziness, and 
 for the same trait in other animals, just as we know other 
 diseases may be transmitted. But nature, which always 
 
136 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 produces the best she can under the circumstances — often 
 mending man's mistakes, where she is properly encouraged — 
 must not be charged with such a monstrosity as aiding in 
 making a lazy man or woman. 
 
 But laziness, like most other diseases, may be corrected 
 and cured. I suppose it is safe to say that all diseases 
 have their remedies somewhere within the range of possi- 
 ble discovery. Laziness certainly has; for the trial of cure 
 has frequently been made, and succeeded. As well may 
 we say that man is weak, and therefore can not be made 
 strong; because he is sick, he can not be made well; because 
 he is ignorant, he can never be made wise, as to say because 
 he is lazy he can not be cured. The simple remedy lies in 
 his training, in his education by work, education to work, 
 and education for work; and this continued from gener- 
 ation to generation will work the soundest cure m the 
 worst cases. 
 
 Everybody, therefore, must labor with hand, head and 
 heart, as a means of education, until industrious habits 
 and inclinations shall have become fixed. This shall act 
 both as prevention and cure of laziness, and other bad 
 habits. And there is no other cure. The law is inexorable. 
 Obedience to its mandates will restore, in time, that which 
 has been lost by disobedience. Let the experiment be 
 made on a scale ample enough to meet the demands of the 
 case, and improvement will be certain. Let work become 
 a necessary, an indispensable part of man's education, and 
 the cure is certain. 
 
 In order, therefore, to promote morality among men, 
 this constitutional balance among all the faculties must be 
 restored, and that balance maintained through life as 
 nearly as circumstances will permit; for morality is noth- 
 ing more nor less than the normal activity of man's native 
 faculties. 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 137 
 
 Is this impossible? Then education is impossible, im- 
 provement impossible, and man a practical failure; a con- 
 clusion which no one in his wits is willing to grant. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Human - Obligations and Duties. 
 
 The foregoing statements show clearly, not only the 
 nature and extent of man's true growth and probable des- 
 tiny, but the necessity for a thorough revision of popular 
 ideas and systems of education, basing them upon natural 
 law as revealed in man's faculties; and enforcing strict 
 obedience to these laws of learning and growth. And all 
 this, in turn, demands obligations and duties covering a 
 larger area than is usually assigned under our present 
 system. 
 
 These arise from a just consideration of the conditions 
 and responsibilities involed in the foregoing. And they 
 may be regarded as the final issues in a work on morals: 
 i. e. y the success of the system depends upon the enforce- 
 ment of these laws respecting man's growth. They are 
 fundamental as they relate to this subject, and give direc- 
 tion and stability and point to all the principles and 
 maxims that have been developed in the preceding dis- 
 cussions. 
 
 These obligations and duties may be regarded as the 
 summing up of all the relations and responsibilities of life. 
 They cover all the ground out of which grow moral rela- 
 tions and moral acts, constituting a system of training 
 that, at least, approximates perfection. 
 
 The exercise of the faculties of man in the discharge of 
 these obligations and duties constitutes the functional, the 
 
138 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 vital part of this system. The methods are the machinery 
 by which the system is worked. 
 
 These duties and obligations may be classified under the 
 following heads, as also shown in the summary at the close 
 of this volume. 
 
 I. Domestic Obligations and Duties. 
 
 II. Social and Commercial Obligations and 
 Duties. 
 
 III. Civil and Political Obligations and Duties. 
 These cover about all the moral relations among men. 
 
 Each class will claim the prominence of a separate chap- 
 ter; and each should be carefully studied, expanded, if 
 need be, and studiously applied in the moral training of 
 children and youth; for, while many of these obligations 
 and duties relate to adults, they nevertheless have their 
 incipiency in childhood and youth. The last two chapters, 
 especially, have reference to conduct among adults. The 
 entire list may be studied in the following order: 
 
 I. The Domestic Obligations and Duties arising 
 from them. These, as the name implies, relate to the 
 home — the natural nurse of the virtues — and its immedi- 
 ate surroundings. 
 
 1. The Home or the Family is the Foundation of our 
 social order. Mark "The Foundation " and not the super- 
 structure of social order itself; but that upon which the social 
 order is built, as the house is built upon its foundation. If, 
 therefore, the foundation is broad, and firm, the house is 
 comparatively commodious and safe. Or, to use a little 
 different figure, the home and its influences are the soil 
 or seed bed, out of which grow all those plants of virtue 
 or vice, which go to make up the great harvest of human 
 life. The home is also the source of nearly all those 
 social and incipient political relations that constitute the 
 bond of human brotherhood, industrial enterprises, and 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 139 
 
 human governments; and the influences surrounding this 
 home are the sunshine or the shadows, that nourish and 
 invigorate, or the frosts and mildew that blast and pollute 
 the young plants that spring up by virtue of home and 
 family. 
 
 Again; the home is a fountain whose purity or impurity 
 aifects all those other streams that flow from its sources. 
 Its influence is largely in the ratio of the freedom and 
 force in which these relations are established, and its 
 duties enforced. 
 
 The origin of the home and family with, all their obliga- 
 tions and duties, as well as the foundation elements com- 
 posing them, 
 
 (a.) Are found first in the conjugal or marital relations, 
 and the obligations and duties arising therefrom. 
 
 The family implies the union of two important elements 
 or factors, and only tivo, viz., the man and the woman; 
 and, we may add, but one of each. This is evidently 
 nature's law; and its violation always breeds disorder of 
 some kind. The relation itself implies the unity of 
 hitherto independent elements of equal force and import- 
 ance, the increase or diminution of either of which not 
 only destroys the nature of the compound, but multiplies 
 perplexities beyond human control. 
 
 The twain in original condition become one in new con- 
 dition, one in sentiment, purpose and act, if the union is 
 a perfect one. Each original element or factor changes 
 its natural and premarital relations, entering into a new 
 compound, thereby assuming new obligations and duties, 
 which give rise to the Home. The parties become hus- 
 band and wife, with all that these terms imply; and they 
 are no more Ci twain," but " one flesh/' And whether this 
 union is regarded sacred or secular, whether indissoluble 
 or merely conventional and thereby subject to dissolution 
 
140 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 for any just cause — but not, certainly, for any slight one 
 — the "obligations" assumed and the "duties" arising 
 therefrom are the same. They, at least, are sacred, and 
 the infidelity of either party should be regarded equally 
 reprehensible. 
 
 There can be no more sacred relations established among 
 human creatures, and the results are in strict conformity 
 to the manner in which these relations are observed. No 
 penalty or opprobrium attaching to one party of this 
 union, for violation of obligation, should fail to attach to 
 the other. And this is equally true and binding with the 
 parties before the union takes place. Virtue is virtue, 
 and vice is vice, wherever it appears, and by whomsoever 
 the act is performed; and the rewards and penalties should 
 be the same in all cases. 
 
 Marriage among all civilized nations, in all ages of the 
 world, has been regarded more or less sacred or binding; 
 and the purity of the relation, when properly guarded, is 
 such as to leave no question as to its rightfulness. But 
 no one can fail to see that it involves some of the gravest 
 responsibilities and the most sacred obligations that can 
 possibly arise in all man's career. It stands at the natural 
 and legitimate gateway to the perpetuation of the human 
 species, and the perpetual guard to social purity. I say 
 natural, because unperverted nature protests and even 
 rebels against any other means of perpetuating the species. 
 And yet, even this relation is often abused in the spirit of 
 it, if not in the letter, both because of ignorance and 
 inattention — more frequently — to the laws of mutua 1 
 adaptation. The parties, therefore, seeking this relation 
 should be so well mated as to age and temperament, as to 
 produce the best, and, I may say, an improved progeny, 
 from generation to generation, until human weakness, in 
 all forms, shall be reduced to the minimum; while the 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 141 
 
 best qualities of the race shall be constantly improved, 
 and brought to their maximum strength and purity. 
 
 But it is doubtful, I think, whether or not the human 
 species shall ever reap the whole benefits of the marriage 
 relation, until either by a vastly improved education, or 
 by legislative enactments, the proper checks shall have 
 been placed upon the choice of marital companionship. 
 The laws of heredity must be consulted in preference to 
 those of animal affinity; and not only consulted, but 
 obeyed, before the human race shall reap the full benefits 
 of the marriage relation. 
 
 This subject should receive careful attention and study 
 in a system of morals looking to the fullest benefits of 
 social reform. But its further consideration here would, 
 perhaps, be irrelevant, since so much has already been 
 said and written on this subject by medical men and social 
 reformers; and since it is one of those reforms that must 
 come through general intelligence, which requires time. 
 
 This brings us to notice, in the next place 
 
 (b.) The Parental Relations and Duties. These, of 
 course, have their origin in the marital relation, and 
 assume additional importance threrefrom. The parties to 
 this relation now become father and mother, out of which 
 new relations spring, and new duties arise. 
 
 Before assuming these responsible relations and duties. 
 due preparation should be made, not only in the way of 
 general knowledge and culture, but in special information, 
 and an abounding fund of practical wisdom; so that the 
 offspring may reap the full benefit of this parental culture 
 and wisdom. 
 
 By virtue of his being and relations, every child has a 
 natural right, not only " to be born well," but to be well 
 cared for afterwards. The training of the infant and 
 child should be such as to secure the very best results, 
 
142 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 physically and mentally, since the early impressions 
 and habits are those that weigh most in the subsequent 
 career. [See chapter on Obedience and Will.] 
 
 In discussing the obligations and duties of the parental 
 relation, it will not be expected that we attempt an 
 exhaustive list, since they are both so numerous and pop- 
 ular that most persons can study them in connection with 
 the ordinary affairs of life, and from the much that has 
 been both said and written in our common literature. 
 Among the many and most important, the following may 
 be named: 
 
 (a.) The Proper Exercise of Parental Affection and 
 Parental Authority. These two things have a peculiar 
 bearing upon each other. They may serve both as mutual 
 checks and mutual prompters to' vigorous and healthy 
 growth; or they may lead to directly the opposite of 
 these. The affection is necessary to prompt protection 
 on the part of the parent; and this gives him a right not 
 only to protect, but to control, to protect the innocence 
 and helplessness of the child, and to direct it in the 
 untried paths of duty. Under this wise protection, the 
 innocence is preserved, the hel]3lessness changed to help- 
 fulness, and the right of authority conferred and perpet- 
 uated. [See Blackstone on Nat. Law.] 
 
 The love of offspring is a natural impulse or affection, 
 and strong in human beings, and in all animals. This, as 
 ha« been intimated above, is necessary for the protection 
 of the young, during their periods of helplessness. In the 
 lower animal, this feeling is classed with the instincts; but 
 in man, it is clear, this instinctive feeling must be con- 
 trolled, and directed by human reason; so that a consis- 
 tent family government may be established and maintained 
 for the proper training of the youn-g, whose natural condi- 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 143 
 
 • 
 tion and inclinations are those of dependence, rendering 
 them favorable to ready cultivation. 
 
 This natural affection, without such restraints as reason 
 and culture may institute, like most other strong impulses, 
 is also one of the most dangerous elements in family gov- 
 ernment. Without proper judgment this feeling is apt 
 to blind the eyes of the parent to the faults and weaknesses 
 of the offspring. It is also subject to great abuse from an 
 opposite direction, as when a parent, by virtue of inherent 
 right to govern the acts of the child, loses all self-control, 
 and gives full vent to passion and cruel treatment. And, 
 to show that this is only perverted affection, we often see 
 this unholy exercise of it followed by the keenest remorse. 
 
 But as this subject has been treated at some length 
 under "Incentives," etc. [see Chapters VIII and IX], 
 we forbear any further notice of it here, more than to say- 
 that this matter should receive the most careful study 
 in this connection also. The strongest force in family 
 government is self-control. It prepares the way for a 
 judicious exercise of all other gifts and graces. Without 
 it, the most brilliant talents are not only rendered help- 
 less, but often hurtful. And this brings us to notice 
 
 (b.) Patience and Forbearance in the management of 
 children, virtues of kindred significance and importance to 
 the foregoing, and necessary in all the affairs of life, espe- 
 cially in school life. 
 
 The natural inclinations of childhood, both in the home 
 and in the school, lead to many outbreaks of passion, 
 peevishness, petulance, and perversities of various sorts; 
 and not unfrequently laziness and stupidity are superadded. 
 But patience and forbearance, coupled with wise manage- 
 ment in other respects, are the sure antidotes for these ills, 
 and a " thousand others that flesh is heir to." 
 
 " Let patience have her perfect work," not alone in 
 
144 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 9 
 
 waiting — though this were a queenly grace — but in devis- 
 ing ways and means for managing these pervading evils. 
 
 One of the great secrets in the management of children 
 is in the prompt employment of ready means for engaging 
 all their spare energies, that otherwise take the form of 
 mischief. There is, or ought to be, no natural waste about 
 a child. Every impulse has its meaning ; and, if teachers 
 only have the wisdom and patience to give proper direction 
 to all this superabundance of unregulated force, it may all 
 be utilized. It is usually the natural fertility of the soil 
 which becomes fruitful for evil, if not employed in good. 
 
 Example and precept, of course, are all necessary, but 
 nothing tones down the untamed nature of childhood like 
 work of some kind; and the more inviting it can be made, 
 the better. Much of this untamed force of youth will be 
 found, upon close inspection, to be the breaking away 
 from the natural channels of life, of that which is inher- 
 ently good, but only evil because wrongly applied. 
 
 It, therefore, is the legitimate result of mistaken manage- 
 ment. The moral nature in particular is often perverted and 
 poisoned by these ebullitions and overflowing of a fertile 
 nature. These ebullitions, otherwise harmless, become hurt- 
 ful simply from the direction they may have taken. Out 
 of these natural impulses, as from the natural fertility of 
 the soil, when under proper cultivation, will grow the 
 healthiest plants of virtue and wisdom, if time, patience 
 and perseverance are allowed to do their wonted work in 
 early childhood. 
 
 To patience and perseverance let kindness and firmness, 
 sympathy and justice be joined, with judgment and discre- 
 tion as helmsmen, and the little bark of infancy and child- 
 hood, freighted with so much of human concern, may be 
 safely moored in the harbor of security, and at least a 
 measure of success. 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 145 
 
 Again: the proper exercise of parental affection gives 
 rise to a corresponding feeling on the part of the child as, 
 
 (c.) Filial affections, which, in time, give rise to still 
 another class of obligations and duties. These affections 
 include the impulses and desires in the heart of child- 
 hood to respond to the parental affection, or to reach 
 towards the parent or supporters for natural protection 
 and support. These latter arise both from brother and 
 sister alike, called fraternal affection in the first ; but, 
 unfortunately, we have no generic word in English by 
 which to express the latter. But sisterly is a good house- 
 hold word, strong and loving : for a sister's love or hate, 
 may make or mar a brother's peace, when won or lost in 
 the family's sacred precincts. 
 
 These filial affections constitute the basis of voluntary 
 obedience ; since the affectionate regard of the child for 
 the parent, leads to the voluntary acceptance of the just 
 claims of authority, as wrought in the higher departments 
 of the soul's faculties. [See definition of obedience, Chap. 
 VIII. ] 
 
 And then again, the home affections may be so broadened, 
 as in the case of the fraternal affections, as to embrace the 
 whole human family — a universal brotherhood ; and the 
 latter assumes the same, and even stronger benevolent 
 characteristics, when subjected to the world influences. 
 
 The obligations and duties arising from the development 
 of these home affections, are diversified and important ; 
 among which may be named obedience to parents, respect 
 to rightly constituted authority, love of home and country, 
 and kindred, general benevolence, thankfulness, gratitude, 
 and indeed, the exercise, under proper restraints, of all the 
 moral sentiments treated under the first and second divis- 
 ions of ethical attributes [see outline, p. 63] except adora- 
 
146 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 tion ; and the duties of the parent are such as to give rise 
 to these sentiments, also. 
 
 (d) The" Sacredkess of Motherhood can scarcely be 
 estimated, much less over-estimated. It is safe to say that 
 no more solemn and responsible relation or duty exists 
 among human beings than that of ushering into world 
 life, and caring for little children, freighted with the 
 immense interests and responsibilities attaching to them. 
 Men and women may be excused for many of the mistakes 
 that they make in life, on the ground of mere ignorance ; 
 but, with the vast experience of the human family staring 
 them in the face, it would seem that ignorance here is a 
 feeble excuse. Judgment and wisdom should be heeded; 
 but such is not the case as yet, and it is presumable, at 
 least, that this state of things will continue until measures 
 are adopted to check this reckless disregard of the teachings 
 of natural law. And since this matter seems to be beyond 
 the ordinary limits of legal enactments, there seems to be 
 no safer or more direct way of reaching this end than to 
 early instruct the young respecting the operations of these 
 laws . 
 
 To say nothing of the future destiny of the child, his 
 present life is one of such importance, not to say doubt 
 and uncertainty; as to naturally make one hesitate and 
 tremble for the issues of human existence. But then, the 
 immense moral influence the mother, by reason of her 
 relations, exerts on the child, has no parallel in all the life 
 career. The very first impressions are made by her. The 
 very first impulse to voluntary activity, the first feeble 
 flutter of thought, the dawning of intelligence, and the 
 first lisping in language or expression, are all more or less 
 shaped by the mothers act, or look, or word. 
 
 Take from the world a mother's influence for good, and 
 the whole face of nature is changed. Remove her delicate 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 147 
 
 hand from the trembling, tottering superstructure of 
 morality, and the whole fabric will tumble into promis- 
 cuous ruin. But let her stand firm, and our temple is 
 safe. Let her be true to her sacred trusts, and our hope in 
 the future is strong and abiding. 
 
 But the further discussion of the home influences, obli- 
 gations and duties are reserved for another part of this 
 volume. Our second topic under Domestic Obligations 
 and Duties refers to the 
 
 2. School, as the one nearest the home. The school has 
 a wide, an almost limitless influence, especially in our own 
 country. Standing, as it does, next the home, it should be 
 planned as nearly as possible after the similitude of a good 
 home. The kindergarten, however, where established, 
 forms the connecting link between the home and the 
 school proper, and makes the latter a welcome companion 
 and adjunct, provided it is organized on a similar scientific 
 plan : i. e., all its exercises and duties based upon, and 
 adjusted to, the evident wants of childhood and youth. 
 
 The primary school, therefore, should be a home for the 
 little ones, fresh from the mother home. As stated above, 
 it should be planned and conducted, as far as possible, 
 after the manner of a real home, provided with as many 
 things as possible to remind the child of his real home, 
 if that home is a worthy one ; so that the transition 
 from the one to the other shall not be so great as to jar 
 upon the tender sensibilities of the child, or make him long 
 and fret for his real mother and home; and if the child's 
 real home is not what it should be, the primary school should 
 supply the missing parts as far as possible. 
 
 Here, then, appears the great moral influence of the 
 good school. At this, the very gateway of childhood into 
 a miniature world, he should be met by another mother — not 
 necessarily a step-mother — but a teacher mother, having 
 
148 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 all the tender sympathies, affections and tastes of the wise, 
 refined and affectionate mother of his real home. Allow- 
 ance, of course, must be made for those homes that are not 
 homes, but merely lodging places for destitute childhood 
 and youth. But even for such, the home influences of 
 the good school will be all the more grateful to the outcasts 
 from the real home. No other moral influence like the 
 home; and no other intellectual stimulus like this ; and let 
 me add that this is the one great moral influence which our 
 schools need. It is better than all books ; and better than 
 all precepts and preaching. Let the world awake to the im- 
 portance of this, and the major part of our moral teaching 
 is done, and effectually done. 
 
 This the child finds or should find in his 
 ""' (a.) Teacher. She* is the ruling spirit of the school- 
 house, as the real mother is of the home. In her large 
 heart of sympathy and love, she — if a true teacher — has 
 room for every urchin, however unkempt, every waif wan- 
 dering for the first time away from his mother and his first 
 home. 
 
 The teacher's influence is thus second only to the 
 mother's; but when these motherly instincts have been 
 dulled or dwarfed, or left even in an undeveloped state in 
 the real home, then the teacher's moral influence may far 
 transcend that of the mother. In such case the teacher 
 becomes the real mother to the mind and morals of the 
 child, imparting that genuine moral nourishment for 
 which the pupil may be perishing at home: and these are 
 not always the homes of poverty either. More frequently 
 the homes of opulence, of fashion and folly, homes 
 where the mother has relegated the duties she owes her 
 children to ignorant and careless servants and nurses; 
 
 * We use this form of the pronoun here to indicate the real teacher of 
 young- children. 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 149 
 
 homes where all the holier ties of motherhood and father- 
 hood have been smothered by fashionable folly, or by the 
 unnatural greed for gain, or merely sensual pleasure. 
 These are more distressing than the homes of poverty and 
 want; for often in these humbler abodes dwell the true 
 hearts and true virtues. 
 
 Let the teacher, therefore, be faithful to all those 
 higher instincts of maternity, that she may supply what is 
 lacking at the homes. Let her be true to all those sacred 
 obligations and duties; and the school will be only a 
 second home to the child from the loving home, and the 
 real home to the unfortunates, whether from wealth or 
 poverty (two extremes about equally disastrous to true 
 morals), that have never known a true home. 
 
 But another strong moral influence resides in the asso- 
 ciations of the school. These must not be overlooked. 
 I mean the moral influences arising from 
 
 {p.) The Pupils and Associates. It is a well-established 
 fact that childhood and youth are greatly influenced by 
 associates of like habits, kindred studies and employ- 
 ments. Aside from "the esprit de corps " of associates 
 in school or in class, the moral influence arising from 
 numbers, from the popular thought, belief, custom and 
 general sentiment and talk is very great. This is neces- 
 sary as a preparatory step from the home to the business 
 and pleasures of the world. Children are imitative and 
 formative; and many of their moral and intellectual traits 
 are more or less the results of early associates. 
 
 The pupils' obligations and duties to the teacher and to 
 each other, are much the same as those of the children of 
 a family. The brotherly and sisterly affections of the 
 family are only broadened, and generalized in the school . 
 It therefore affords, through these channels, its appoint- 
 ments and duties — the best opportunities for the cultiva- 
 
150 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 tion of good manners, politeness and gentility, which are 
 the charm of good society; and these virtues and moral 
 sentiments find ample room for exercise in the ordinary 
 intercourse of school work. And this gives rise to another 
 moral force, viz. : 
 
 (a.) Tlie General Cooperation of teacher and pupils, and 
 teacher and parent. This is only typical of the duties and 
 responsibilities of the world life, further on; but it bears 
 with great weight upon the general success of all plans for 
 moral progress. Without this general cooperation, both in 
 school and business, the best projects may be defeated. A 
 question frequently arises in schools, as to the extent of 
 parental influence and authority in the management of 
 school affairs. It is partially answered by citing the legal 
 relations of teacher and parent, and child and teacher. 
 The "in loco parentis" of the teacher is only temporary; 
 but it should cease only when the pupil is beyond the 
 teacher's immediate control; and it may be assumed that 
 where the teacher's control ends, after ordinary school 
 hours, be it gradual or sudden, there the parent's begins, 
 and vice versa, before such hours commence. 
 
 But the greater moral influence arises from the hearty 
 cooperation of parents and teachers in the joint manage- 
 ment of the child. Let it be understood that the wise 
 measures of the teacher are heartily seconded by the parent; 
 and that there is a general cooperation in all school mat- 
 ters, and the moral effects are manifold greater. But let 
 these measures be disputed, and the general management 
 discredited by open force, or by silent neglect, and the 
 very flood-gates of vice are wide open. 
 
 This cooperation must also be mutual. The teacher 
 should consult the parent's wishes in matters relating to 
 the child, but only so far as they are not personal or sel- 
 fish; for the parent has no more right legally, or other- 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 151 
 
 wise, to interfere with the special affairs of the school, 
 than the teacher has to interfere with similar affairs of the 
 family. The fact that the parent is represented in the 
 school by his child, and therefore has a greater interest, 
 and right to interfere wilh the management of the school, 
 is offset by this other fact, that the teacher has almost an 
 identical interest and right in every family of the neigh- 
 borhood; and the additional fact that the order and suc- 
 cess of the school depend almost entirely upon non-inter- 
 ference of parents in the special management of the school. 
 Each party to the school compact has its sphere of action; 
 and when these spheres seem to cut into each other, both 
 must alike be guarded. 
 
 The parent, therefore, should be free and candid in 
 accepting the advice of the teacher, and both should yield 
 so much of private opinion and preference, as to make all 
 lawful measures for the management of the school the 
 most popular and the most binding. And from the home 
 and the school, which are largely preparatory in their 
 influence and character, there arises another relation, look- 
 ing largely to the world life, which may be considered 
 fairly opened in our next chapter, viz. : The obligations 
 and duties arising from certain necessary conditions which 
 may be called 
 
 3. Neighborhood Acquaintance. This is stated as a 
 necessary relation in all communities where the members 
 are more or less dependent upon one another for society 
 and support. This relation has its peculiar laws and duties, 
 and therefore maybe made peculiarly useful in bettering 
 the condition of the parties concerned. 
 
 Man is asocial being, dependent upon his environment 
 for both happiness and for full development . As a social 
 being, he has native desires that reach beyond the mere 
 boundary of home . The neighbor, therefore, is a necessary 
 
152 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE, 
 
 factor in completing and rounding out his relations; and 
 therefore these must be reckoned among those out of which 
 grow moral obligations and duties in all civilized communi- 
 ties. Among these we find the 
 
 (a.) Social intercourse, not included in the family and 
 the home. If the members of a community are such as we 
 usually find in ordinary society, the refinements arising 
 from this source are very great, and very desirable. The 
 whole social compact, outside the family and school, rest 
 upon this neighborly relation, out of which just occasions 
 arise for the exercise of those social amenities named in our 
 list, as integrity and honesty, fidelity and truthfulness, 
 justice and generosity, compassion and kindness, gratitude 
 and thankfulness, sympathy and friendship, mercy and 
 forgiving patience, without all of which, the world would 
 present one great barren waste, where not a single plant of 
 virtue might safely abide. 
 
 To show the eminent need of these relations, and their 
 great force in forming the character of society, and to show 
 the salutary influences arising from neighborly refinement, 
 and the consequent moral culture thereby begotten, we have 
 only to compare the rough, uncouth, and often criminal 
 tendencies of children reared away from the refinements 
 of polite society, with those having all the advantages of 
 the best society. And by polite society we do not mean 
 necessarily the most luxuriant nor the most learned, but 
 that healthy product that comes alike from labor and 
 learning. And then, again, nearly all the duties of life 
 pass this intermediate point, between the home on the one 
 side, and the world beyond the mere neighborhood, on the 
 other. Hence, lei these beneficent influences enter largely 
 into our account of means for the cultivation of morals in 
 childhood and youth, bearing in mind always that the 
 silent influences are the greater. 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 153 
 
 The foregoing feeling and sentiments indulged in a 
 legitimate way, give rise to what me may call 
 
 (b.) Friendly Confidences. Here we have a still higher 
 and stronger sentiment, and a greater moral incentive. 
 True friendship is one of the strongest ties that bind 
 human hearts and human interests. It is one of the 
 world's greatest blessings. It calls forth and develops 
 some of the loveliest traits of human character . It rests 
 upon a just appreciation of those nobler qualities in 
 human nature that win oar regard, esteem and confidence, 
 and that constitute a ready passport to the more refined 
 enjoyments of social life. Its chief characteristic is a 
 mutual confidence and trust in the recipients; and where 
 the feelings are genuine, they grow stronger and stronger, 
 and time, and suffering and trial only increase the strength 
 of the bond. It refines and cultivates, enriches and 
 ennobles whatever it -embraces, and enables its possessor 
 to endure hardship, to suffer privations and to overcome 
 difficulties, where the unaided efforts might perish in 
 oblivion . It sacrifices self for the good of its objects, and 
 builds up a lofty sentiment of moral worth. It may, there- 
 fore, enter into all business and pleasure, and should give 
 shape and character to all of that part of our social inter- 
 course where mutual obligations and relationships arise, 
 And then again, the proper exercise of these higher quali- 
 ties of human nature will lead to the establishment of » 
 
 (c.) True Business Relations, the most desirable 
 object in life. Indeed there is scarcely a relation in life 
 that suffers so much, to-day, as these same business rela- 
 tions. The reason is, they are usually based entirely upon 
 self-interest, which, unrelieved by the higher sentiments, 
 is sure to lead to misunderstandings and a corruption of 
 morals. It eats like a canker into the very vitals of busi- 
 ness, and poisons and corrupts the entire social circula- 
 
154 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 tion; because children themselves readily imbibe the loose 
 sentiments on this subject, so common among merely busi- 
 ness relations, from their elders; and because it is so com- 
 mon it is all the more dangerous. It calls policy, honesty; 
 selfishness, human right; deceit and lying, shrewdness; 
 oppression of the poor, prosperity to the oppressor; and 
 even open fraud and secret theft, excusable thrift. It 
 calls loudly for redress. 
 
 Business enterprises established upon purely selfish 
 principles are unworthy the name they bear. But those 
 established upon the higher claims of mutual benefit, 
 guaranteed and guarded by the higher principles of mor- 
 ality and i^ure friendship will go far toward checking these 
 evil tendencies; for friendship leads not only to honest 
 dealing, but even to self-sacrifice; and it discourages all 
 self-seeking that interferes with the rights and welfare of 
 our fellow-men. 
 
 The home, school and neighborhood, therefore, stand 
 as the open doors to the larger space for the exercise of 
 man's faculties, or that which we call his world life, into 
 which he enters, and carries with him whatever habits and 
 character these domestic and semi-domestic relations and 
 duties have cultivated. The buds and blossoms that clothe 
 the plants and trees are no surer prophesies of the coming 
 harvest and fruits, than the opening of these early charac- 
 teristics are of the coming man or woman. And what the 
 warm sunshine and showers are to the springing grass and 
 opening flowers, these healthy home influences, tempered 
 by the wisdom and patience of mothers, fathers and 
 teachers, of neighbors and friends, are to the moral senti- 
 ments and to the life of coming society. 
 
 Cause and effect are just as intimately related here, and 
 as sure in their results, as in any other department of 
 nature. And when education as a system shall have been 
 
HUMAN OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. . 155 
 
 reduced to that exact science, which its principles and 
 methods demand, and of which it is eminently susceptible, 
 we shall then begin to realize something of the grand 
 results treasured in them, and thus made possible and 
 potential in our modes of culture. 
 
 This open door leads directly to the practical recognition 
 of these possibilities, and paves the way to their realization, 
 by the adoption of such measures as shall ultimately exer- 
 cise all man's better faculties in all those life relations and 
 duties. Nothing short of a full and complete recognition 
 of them will ever meet a tithe of the demands of a com- 
 munity whose controlling interests pass through these 
 intermediate stages of growth and refinement. But, like 
 most common things and opportunities, they are apt to be 
 overlooked. 
 
 Here, too, appear the workings of the great natural law, 
 which is nothing more nor less than the moral law, or law 
 applied to moral growth, that runs through every depart- 
 ment of the world life and relations, viz., the proper dis- 
 charge of the various duties and responsibilities of any and 
 of all stations man is required to occupy; even these will 
 educate him to the highest degree of his nature, intellect- 
 ual, physical and moral. 
 
 Man is not required to turn aside from his necessary 
 work, in order to educate himself. His work educates him ; 
 and the school is work ; and that system of morals that 
 adds or superadds anything outside of these, simply burdens 
 him with tasks whose tedious performance rather weakens 
 than strengthens his moral nature . Let him simply walk 
 in the plain path of duty; and, like the healthy plant in 
 the fertile soil, he fulfills his mission; he grows to his full 
 measure of manhood; and in no other way can it be done 
 in this world. 
 
 Here, then, is the secret of moral culture. Its sim- 
 
156 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 plicity is almost sublime; and yet men will seek it in doc- 
 trines and schemes whose operations are complex and 
 complicated, and necessarily more or less defective, simply 
 because they are unnatural. 
 
 CHAPTEE XIV. 
 Social and Commercial Eelations and Duties. 
 
 These may be considered a continuation of those relations 
 and duties in the preceding chapter. Their differences is 
 chiefly in their circumstances, and in their application. 
 
 The closing thought of the last chapter carried out on a 
 somewhat larger scale, that it may enter into all the rami- 
 fications of business and pleasure, will give us a theme 
 worthy the most profound thought and contemplation, 
 and every way appropriate for completing a system of 
 moral culture, covering all the relations in the entire 
 period of human life. The pleasure, however, is not the 
 direct object, but is more the result of the right applica- 
 tion of true principles of education and business; since, in 
 all right methods, the influences bearing upon education 
 or growth, are reflected in all legitimate directions, in the 
 exact ratio of social needs. 
 
 Among the first of these relations and duties may be 
 mentioned the common matters of 
 
 1. Contracts and Agreements. These are of dif- 
 ferent varieties, arising out of the nature of the business 
 and circumstances governing it, together with the circum- 
 stances and relations of the contracting parties, such as 
 those existing between 
 
 (a.) . Employers and Laborers.— This relation, and con- 
 sequent obligations and duties, arise from the mutual de- 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 157 
 
 pendence of man upon his fellow, both for support and 
 progress, each affording its modicum of needed opportu- 
 nities for mutual benefits and pleasures, and for the exer- 
 cise and cultivation of all those moral qualities and prin- 
 ciples treated under " Ethical Attributes," Chapter 
 VI, as honesty, truthfulness, fidelity, industry, integrity, 
 etc. 
 
 On the part of the employer there must be a proper 
 appreciation of merit and a just consideration for services 
 rendered, which require a due exercise of generosity and 
 justice ; and on the part of the employed, a corresponding 
 regard for the character and purposes of the employer, 
 giving rise to faithfulness in the discharge of duty, hon- 
 esty, industry, integrity, and a proper regard for the inter- 
 ests of the employer, all of which, on the part of both 
 parties, would be a complete guard against selfishness or 
 neglect. 
 
 These conditions and principles, properly observed, for- 
 ever excludes the possibility of human slavery as it existed 
 in the United States, a few years since. This system of 
 labor is such a gross violation of the laws of labor, and of 
 equality among men and nations, as to render a discussion 
 of it entirely unnecessary here. An attempt to justify it 
 in any form would be looked upon, among enlightened peo- 
 ple, in about the same light as an attempt to justify theft 
 or homicide. 
 
 Of course the obligations existing between the employer 
 and the employed, are mutual and interchangeable in their 
 relations, and self-perpetuating in their nature since what 
 is for the benefit of the one party, must, from necessity, 
 reflect a similar benefit upon the other. But often, owing 
 to undue selfishness, associated with short-sightedness — its 
 usual accompaniment — this mutual relationship, or bal- 
 ance of benefits, is not seen, much less is it acted upon. 
 
158 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 It must, therefore, be taught in the schools and in the 
 practical affairs of life; for, where these considerations 
 have due weight with contracting parties, it is a practical 
 ending of all strife, where it may exist; and it is im- 
 • possible for business troubles to arise, except in cases of 
 mere misunderstanding. And even in all such cases the 
 difficulties are all the more readily adjusted, since the 
 parties are more easily brought to view such misunder- 
 standings from the same standpoint; especially is this 
 true where strict integrity and a due allowance for casual 
 errors prevail. 
 
 But to show that man is naturally disposed to look after 
 self first, which may be, after all, only a slight perversion 
 of commendable traits, — self-interest and self-protection. — 
 we have only to refer to the many misunderstandings and 
 contentions among men, all arising out of real or supposed 
 violations of contracts, and these again always having, at 
 least, one selfish side, and more frequently two. 
 
 To be sure, it is but natural and right, that each party to 
 a contract should look after his own interest. But if each 
 party can only be led to see — which we think can be done, 
 if proper care and pains are taken in training the children 
 — that the true interest of one party always involves that 
 of the other, the trouble will usually be of short duration : 
 for when one's own interest, or even supposed interest, is 
 invaded, or when it encroaches upon that of one's neigh- 
 bor, then the law of mutual interest, the law of labor, the 
 law of the universe is assailed, as well as that of moral 
 rectitude ; and trouble is sure to ensue. There is no 
 release from the dominion of this law, and its penalties are 
 sure to follow, sooner or later. 
 
 But where the interests of contracting parties are shown 
 and believed to be identical, these troubles and contentions 
 end from the natural want of nourishment from both sides. 
 
SO CIAL AND COMMERCIA L RELA TIONS. 159 
 
 The man who takes advantage of his neighbor is always 
 the injured party in the end. Moral rectitude is a law 
 whose demands are always exacted, to the utmost farthing, 
 somewhere in the history of every individual who violates it. 
 As well expect to evade the penalties of bruises and burns, 
 as to escape the possibly remotest penalties of a broken 
 moral law. 
 
 All contentions, therefore, are not only selfish but short- 
 sighted and silly, since they injure no one so much as the 
 offending party or parties. Seldom, indeed, do we find 
 trouble or contention between neighbors, arising from an 
 attempt of either party to confer favors upon the other. 
 This would virtually be an error in benevolence, but it 
 would make a better showing than its opposite. It would 
 most likely put an end to all contentions and strifes among 
 men, greatly to the peace and harmony of neighborhoods 
 and states : and yet all contentions among men, all litiga- 
 tions and personal quarrels, all wars and national disa- 
 greements are subject to these same laws. How much 
 more easily and economically could they be settled, if men 
 would only consent to be ruled by reason and common- 
 sense, rather than by selfishness, and unholy ambition! 
 and how much of this selfishness and this unholy ambition 
 could be checked, if taken in time, and if only the early 
 opportunities in families and schools were improved for the 
 cultivation of these moral sentiments, and for confirming 
 them, ere children are thrust out into society, to become 
 an easy prey to these infirmities ! And that they can and 
 will be thus improved and confirmed, are surely within the 
 possible and highly probable scope of human progress, else 
 education is a failure, and morals and religion mere myths. 
 
 But the trouble usually arises from an attempt of one 
 party, and sometimes both, to take advantage of the other 
 in a bargain or contract ; and this too is taught by exam- 
 
160 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 pie at a very early age, showing not only great ignorance 
 of this law of righteous compensation, but a total disregard 
 of the equally righteous laws of heredity. As the fathers 
 do, so do the children ; showing also that natural selfish- 
 ness, however commendable as a basis of culture, in most 
 natures, needs the common restraints arising from well 
 ordered schools and society. Xational and international 
 difficulties usually have the same origin as those of the 
 family and school, and the same remedies for their cure, 
 though often much more expensive. But the broad mantle 
 of charity must, under present circumstances, cover a multi- 
 tude of national as well as individual sins. 
 
 But the law of contracts requires a large admixture of 
 benevolence. The employer, for instauce, should not only 
 be willing and ready to meet all legal obligations, but 
 willing and ready, at all proper times, to transcend them 
 in some slight degree, to grant favors to the employed, as 
 for instance, an occasional holiday — often a much-needed 
 respite from continuous toil — and even additional pay, in 
 case of faithful service, though never as a bribe, or to 
 impose additional obligation upon the laborer. 
 
 True, there may be no business rules authorizing this, 
 not even a moral obligation; but it should be simply an act 
 of kindness, an overflow of generous sentiment, which 
 acts like oil upon machinery, which would soon consume 
 itself — much in the same way human obligations do — with- 
 out the lubricating oil of kindness. Like begets like 
 here, as in all cases of cause and effect. So, on the part 
 of the employed, an occasional extra hour, a voluntary 
 " helping hand " in a pinch, a stroke or two quietly given 
 in secret, would affect both laborer and employer — chiefly 
 the former — as nothing else can or will. " Let not thy 
 left hand know what thy right hand doeth" is the briefest 
 and best expression of this law, on record. It is an illus- 
 
SO CIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELA TIONS. 161 
 
 tration of the law of kindness examplified in the common 
 intercourse of life. It lifts the giver and receiver into an 
 atmosphere of higher moral sentiment by the mere pleasure 
 of confering secret favors. It is the holy oil of "alms in 
 secret" whose promised rewards are "not of the earth 
 earthy." How different this from the selfish desire to 
 publish our benevolences to the world! And how different 
 from the continual effort of both parties, in most cases, 
 to take advantage of the most trivial circumstances, either 
 to impose additional duties, or to shirk or avoid duty, to 
 slight the work, to use inferior material in manufactured 
 articles, to conceal defects, to make the most of the 
 failures of others, and the least of our own ! In a word, to 
 he dishonest. This is a human weakness for which there 
 is no remedy outside the simple requirement of the law of 
 "Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto 
 you." ^ 
 
 Again : " The grinding of the poor" by those employers 
 who have them in their power, as we find it in many large 
 manufacturing establishments, and by wholesale merchants 
 and others, whose wealth is coined, as it were, from the 
 lives of the laborer, is the prevailing sin of the age. The 
 exacting of the most labor for the least pay on the plea of 
 "supply and demand," a law as vicious in its tendencies 
 as it is false in theory, is crushing the life, moral and 
 physical, out of thousands of our laborers. Poor women, 
 for instance, by reason of misfortune and pressing needs, are 
 either compelled to ceaseless toil, day and night, in order to 
 live, on wages the most meagre, or else resort to the most 
 debasing crimes. . . And this is the practical outgrowth 
 of the law of "supply and demand." All this is no better, 
 morally, than open robbery and secret murder. And yet, to 
 such a low state is the public conscience reduced by this 
 unnatural strain for wealth, that no one in particular feels 
 
162 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 called upon to expose this refined meanness. How long 
 shall the people groan under this worse, in some respects, 
 than African slavery, so recently abolished ? Yet there is 
 a remedy at hand, if we have the courage and consistency 
 to apply it. A high degree of moral culture, such as can 
 most readily be incorporated in our present system — yea, 
 for which this very system ^is showing marked defects — 
 will in the end accomplish it all. Our families and 
 schools are suffering, and require it in order to meet the 
 public demands of the age. Let it be enforced in these 
 elementary institutions and it will soon sound a death- 
 knell to these grosser abuses in social and commercial life. 
 For instance, let these things be frequently brought to 
 the notice of the pupils, both in a formal and an informal 
 way. Let topics be assigned certain members for discus- 
 sion and composition. Let problems in arithmetic like 
 the following be given at certain intervals : 
 
 1. A widow lady had five children to support, aged four- 
 teen, twelve, ten, six> and four years. She found by hiring 
 the first two out to a paper manufacturer for 20c. and 15c. 
 per day, respectively; and, working ten hours per day her- 
 self, making shirts at 12c. apiece, and buying fuel and 
 provisions at 52c. per day, she was able to save $1.10 per 
 week for rent and clothing for herself and the three 
 younger children: how many shirts did she make per week 
 of six days? How many per day? The elder children 
 gave 16c. per day of their earnings to help clothe the fam- 
 ily: what did they save per week ? Could this mother 
 send her children to school? Why? What do you sup- 
 pose these two elder children did with their savings ? 
 
 2. How much does the merchant make on these shirts, 
 who furnished the material for them and sold them for 
 75c. apiece ? What per cent ? Is this a right distribution 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 163 
 
 of the profits of labor and material ? How can we pre- 
 vent this abuse, etc., etc. 
 
 Or let some such problems as the following be given, to 
 be worked out and reported a week hence : 
 
 Forty laborers are employed in a flouring mill at $1.50 
 per day; but they find that the business of their employer 
 will be very much embarrassed by closing the mill. They 
 therefore quit work, or strike for $1 . 75 per day. They 
 remain out of work twenty working days, and then are 
 re-employed at $1.60 per day. The employer's net income 
 during the first contract averaged $12 per day. Who were 
 the greater losers during this strike ? How much, and 
 why ? Suppose the workmen return to work after twenty 
 days at the same wages, how will the matter stand all 
 round ? Suppose new men are employed after ten days at 
 $1.30 per day, and the old hands remain without work for 
 three months, of twenty-four days each, how much do they 
 lose ? Can you calculate the loss in character and morals 
 of these men ? Who is chiefly to blame in any and all 
 these cases ? 
 
 Let other business and other conditions be substituted 
 for these, and encourage pupils to make original questions 
 involving moral and financial interests, until they learn to 
 think and act for themselves. Let the whole range of 
 business be subjected to these practical inquiries, and you 
 not only relieve the exercises of the school from stupid 
 uniformity, but you make your children practical thinkers, 
 which goes, in itself, a great way in cultivating morals. 
 
 Again, it is doubtful whether or not there is any moral 
 elevation of sentiment or character, in simply living up to 
 the letter of the law, in matters of contracts, etc. The 
 simple payment of a debt, for instance, when due, benefits 
 neither the creditor nor debtor, in a moral sense. It 
 simply leaves both parties just where they were before the 
 
164 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 contract and its fulfillment were entered into, save that it 
 is the exercise of honesty and fidelity. "An eye for 
 an eye, and a tooth for a tooth " may have a species of 
 rude justice in it, but it is far below the law of kindness 
 and mercy, or even "Forgive as ye would be forgiven/' 
 And "Do unto others as ye would that they should 
 do unto you," while it is purely ethical doctrine, is far 
 surpassed in moral beauty and grandeur by that other 
 injunction, "If a man sue thee at the law and take away 
 thy coat, let him have thy cloak also; or, if he compel thee 
 to go a mile with him, to go with him twain." This is that 
 simple overflow of goodness that becomes aggressive; but 
 it effects more in moral elevation than simple justice and 
 fidelity. 
 
 It is the law of kindness practically illustrated. It 
 is above justice; and it teaches a lesson that merely 
 human understanding can scarcely fathom; for it is the 
 spirit that quickeneth, and the life that elevates human 
 character. It is the "altar that sanctifieth the gift," and 
 not the gift the altar. [See Proposition III., Corollaries 
 1, 2 and 3, Chapter I.] 
 
 The moral law is founded upon principles as unalterable 
 as the throne of truth itself; and man's happiness and 
 highest development consist in strict obedience thereto. 
 Its requirements are all benevolent and far-reaching in 
 their results; but some of these requirements concern 
 simple justice, while others look more to kindness and 
 mercy and forgiveness; while no one of these require- 
 ments, nor the laws embodyingthem, interfere in the least 
 with man's highest development, and greatest prosperity, 
 real or supposed. 
 
 In all man's obligations and duties the motto should be, 
 "Not how little may be done to fulfill the requirements, 
 but how much. Not how slightingly, but how well can 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELA TIONS. 165 
 
 I do my work." This would prevent a thousand mistakes, 
 and would end a thousand strifes; yea, and would 'add 
 immeasurably to the real enjoyments of both employer 
 and employed, by elevating the moral sentiments of both. 
 
 Another relation of kindred character and significance 
 is that involved in the intercourse of the 
 
 (b.) Seller and buyer. This, also, is a relation growing 
 out of man's conventional necessities. It is a matter of 
 mutual benefit if rightly understood and practiced, one 
 that is based upon the laws of the division of labor and 
 profits, i. e. : one man's labor can be more profitably 
 employed in the production of a certain commodity, in 
 certain localities, as in mining or manufacturing; and his 
 neighbor can do the same with some other commodity in 
 another locality, as in agriculture, lumbering or herding. 
 Hence the laws of trade or barter are invoked; and both 
 are alike benefited, if these laws are rightly interpreted 
 and wisely followed. This is a lawful relation, and as 
 such, not only confers mutual benefits, but when carried 
 out in the spirit of economy and kindness, is a power- 
 ful means of man's moral elevation; since it offers just 
 opportunity for the practice of moral precepts; and since 
 it is "practice that makes perfect." 
 
 But when any of these relations and employments are 
 sought merely for purposes of selfish gain, or without 
 regard to other and higher obligations, the highest and 
 best ends of these relations are defeated. When the 
 seller is disposed to take advantage of the necessities of 
 the buyer, and vice versa; and when the necessities and 
 even the distress of either party are invoked to gratify 
 the greed of the other, then this relation is degraded, and 
 the parties both suffer the natural consequences; for he 
 who cakes advantage of his neighbor in such matters not 
 only inflicts a personal injury upon him but a moral injury 
 
166 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 upon himself, which his blind selfishness will not permit 
 him to see. But he is nevertheless the greater sufferer, 
 since moral degradation is a greater injury than personal 
 inconvenience or even suffering. But the world says not, 
 since it only judges from outward appearance, even if any 
 notice at all is taken of it. The offender is usually com- 
 mended for his shrewd business (?) qualities by this same 
 world. But the world is wrong here, as in most other 
 cases of this nature; and the moral law, however just and 
 right and good, is left to take care of itself. But it will 
 surely right itself some day, and in some manner. Its 
 penalties are always exacted, though the prosperity of the 
 wicked blinds the eyes of worldly judgment; for when 
 Justice lingers long, her reckonings are most fearful when 
 they are finally exacted. There is no release from these 
 penalties. They fall somewhere, and on some one, or 
 many; so that even-handed justice is never slackened, but 
 falls where the greatest good can be wrought by it. It 
 punishes the perpetrator of wrong by destroying his moral 
 sentiments and lowering his moral standing and self- 
 respect. And there can scarcely be a greater penalty. 
 The great world of injustice and wrong is a standing 
 illustration of this truth; and the great world of suffering 
 and want and degradation is the penalty. When the for- 
 mer ceases, the latter will also; and the long suffering of 
 the moral law is a standing rebuke to both. The existence 
 of evil in this world can proba bly never be satisf actoril 
 accounted for to human reason; but the study of these 
 righteous laws will probably lead to a better understand- 
 ing of this perplexing problem. The injured party, in 
 the eyes of the world, may suffer the inconvenience of the 
 other party's wrong; and this may seem severe. But even 
 this, when received in the spirit of meekness and submis- 
 sion, may work a good, since it is better to suffer wrong 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 167 
 
 than to inflict wrong. The latter degrades; the former 
 may elevate and refine through discipline. 
 
 Another form of dishonesty is practiced by the seller and 
 buyer. It is a common, a little thing, to be sure, in 
 human eyes ; but, like a cancer in the human body, it 
 eats into the very heart of private and public morals. 
 Its ordinary indulgence simply prepares the way for higher 
 crimes. 
 
 (c.) Concealing the Truth. — We allude to the common 
 practice between sellers and buyers, the former to magnify 
 the excellencies of his wares, and to conceal their defects ; 
 and the latter to depreciate these excellencies, and to 
 magnify the defects. Both practices are dishonest, and 
 amounts to downright lying, on a small scale, to be sure, 
 but all the meaner on that account. 
 
 " 'Tis naught, 'tis naught, saith the buyer, but when 
 he goeth his way, he boasteth himself." And the same 
 rebuke is applicable to the seller, since his efforts to 
 overreach, generally excel those of the buyer. Both are 
 equally reprehensible, and are equally destructive to the 
 moral sentiments and the peace of society. Both may be 
 corrected ; or, what is still better, both may be prevented 
 by a proper care for the lessons of morality, contained in 
 ordinary school work, and in all learning and relations in 
 early life. Indeed, all forms of dishonesty have a cure. 
 The main object is to find these cures, and to be able to 
 apply them. But by a careful inculcation of the moral pre- 
 cepts and practices involved in the ordinary teaching and 
 study of the common branches of learning, coupled with a 
 frequent application of these to the common duties of 
 school life, as it proceeds over the path of preparation for 
 world life, as in the practice of truthfulness, honesty and 
 strict integrity in study and recitation, with justice and 
 generosity in such business transactions as may be intro- 
 
1G8 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 duced into school life, with patience and politeness in social 
 intercourse, and much, if not all, of this moral elevation of 
 sentiment and character may be effected. Mathematics, 
 Language, History, Geography, Astronomy and every other 
 branch of learning abounds both in moral truth, and the 
 teaching of it in opportunities for its inculcation. Why 
 not use them thus ? 
 
 The family, the school, and the community of interests 
 into which these earliest institutions lead, are the three 
 distinct factors of relation, requiring the exercise of the 
 best qualities and faculties of human nature — all necessary, 
 all convenient, all leading to the highest expression of 
 manhood and womanhood, all combining to build the 
 soundest and most enduring moral character. 
 
 (d.) Ignorance, and Inability of Seller or Buyer. — The 
 question might also arise here : Is it strictly honest for 
 either the seller or buyer, under any circumstances, to take 
 advantage of the ignorance or inability of the other party 
 in trade, as in the case of a "corner" in grain, stocks, or 
 commodities of any kind in the market ? or to conceal 
 anything pertaining to values, as in the case of hidden 
 treasures, or undiscovered wealth, as minerals, unknown 
 to the seller, or of any sudden change in market prices, or 
 great scarcity, or unusual demands for commodities of any 
 kind, as the buying and selling of lands or other property 
 known by either party to possess values not known to the 
 other ? 
 
 We answer, unhesitatingly and emphatically, that all 
 transactions in which either party is greatly profited by a 
 corresponding loss of the other, are wrong, and conse- 
 quently immoral in their tendencies, hence should be dis- 
 countenanced in teaching, and prohibited, if possible — not 
 so much, probably, by legal enactments (except in cases of 
 absolute fraud), for legal enactments are proverbially 
 
SO CIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELA TIONS. 169 
 
 weak, when applied to pure morals, frequently leading to 
 violating, instead of obeying the law, and suggesting vice 
 and crime, rather than deterring from their commission — 
 but by a careful inculcation of strict honesty and fairness 
 on the part of buyer and seller; by an elevation of moral 
 sentiment in school and family life, that shall scorn to take 
 advantage in trade, or in any dealings, that would violate 
 the spirit of that rule which all moralists accept, and 
 which so happily accords with all true moral sense, viz. : 
 " Do unto others as ye would they should do unto you " in 
 the same or similar circumstances. 
 
 This would put an end, not only to all stock and real- 
 estate gambling, but gambling of every kind — to all lot- 
 teries and mere games of chance or cheating, where money 
 or property exchanges hands without an equivalent, not in 
 risks, but in real values. No other exchanges should be 
 tolerated, or even winked at, which latter is often the most 
 effectual way of inculcating dishonesty. This open fair- 
 dealing would be simply placing strict justice on the 
 throne of equity and conscience as guardian of conduct, 
 subordinating selfishness to the higher claims of judgment 
 and reason. 
 
 And it is doubtful whether or not the present system of 
 insurance, in all its phases, would stand this test of strict 
 equity and fair dealing, even if it would that of moral 
 honesty. The declared objects of insurance, however, are 
 benevolent — systematized benevolence, for instance — but 
 whether these boasted benevolences fall where they are 
 usually most needed, may be a question. Indeed, we think 
 they do not, even in a majority of cases. True, we have 
 instances — a few — where, it would seem, a real benefit is 
 bestowed — for a consideration — upon worthy and deserving 
 objects. And these are the cases that are usually pub- 
 lished — with some extra flourishes, to be sure — but still 
 
170 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 published ; for the public eye should not be blind to those 
 benefices, whose heralding will certainly be no detriment 
 to a business that lives largely by advertising. But this 
 same heralding, according to Prop. Ill, Cor. 2, vitiates 
 the act of benevolence, as such, even if the heralding is 
 thorough and generally true; for hundreds of cases occur, 
 doubtless, in which the insurance is an absolute financial 
 loss, instead of a benefit, to the insured. 
 
 Take, for instance, the few cases in which the sum of 
 the premiums, with ordinary interest from dateof payment, 
 would exceed the amount of insurance, and the many, in 
 which the insured, by reason of inability to pay the dues, 
 lose both the premiums paid, and the amount of the 
 policy; and the losses will equal, if not exceed, the finan- 
 cial gains. The writer happens to know a case of life 
 insurance in which the policy- — $5,000 — was cancelled 
 because the holder went, by order of his commanding 
 officer in the army, beyond the parallel of 33° South Lati- 
 tude, though in defense of the rights and liberties of his 
 country; and this company who insured this party, realized 
 about $600 in premiums from this soldier, who lost both 
 premiums and policy by defending his country, and with 
 it, the insurance companies thereof. And this case was 
 not published, as the writer ever knew. And the writer 
 happens to know, that the same person insured again for 
 the same amount in another company, after losing in the 
 first, and lost a second time, because of reverses he could 
 not avoid, being reduced in means, and unable to pay 
 dues. And this was not published in the insurance reports, 
 as he is aware of. Thus, many cases, I suppose, might be 
 cited both of life and property insurance, which, if reported, 
 woc.ld not add anything to the credit of insurance, as then 
 conducted, at least. It may be better now. 
 
 And then the beneficences, when they do occur, are 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELA TIONS. 171 
 
 neither uniform nor fair, if measured by the actual needs 
 of the insured. They fall mostly to the fortunate, and of 
 these not always to the most needy. I mean by "fortunate," 
 those who have been able to pay the required dues. The 
 most unfortunate are left without help. But pure benev- 
 olence falls only where the needs are greatest. It does 
 not ask, " have you paid your dues, but are you needy?" 
 It does not make misfortune an occasion for withholding 
 help, nor patriotism an excuse for robbery. 
 
 Again, it requires an army of well-paid agents to carry 
 on this business, whose united salaries would go far towards 
 relieving want and suffering, if they were so applied. This 
 sum is simply enormous; and then the companies themselves 
 grow rich and plot against the poor; for, who pays these 
 immense salaries of agents? Whence arises this vast accumu- 
 lation of property by which the individual members of insur- 
 ance and trust companies enrich themselves? Does the 
 increase come from original sources, or does it not rather 
 arise from a tax — voluntary, to be sure — upon the earnings 
 of other employments? In a word, are not these immense 
 fortunes, in most instances, built from the broken frag- 
 ments of despoiled labor, and from the hard earnings of 
 the poor? 
 
 We are told that it arises from the legitimate profits of the 
 business — from the premiums of the insured. But let it be 
 remembered that these very insured often deny themselves 
 even the necessaries and comforts of life, defrauding their 
 own children of an education sometimes, at a period in 
 their lives when help is most needed, that their small earn- 
 ings may be added to the sum necessary to meet payments 
 on premiums, etc., and that they may reap the spoils when 
 death or accident occurs, all for a simple risk, which may 
 or may not be necessary in the case; and you, my friend, 
 may be sure that this policy will not be paid, however 
 
172 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 needy you may be from loss, if a possible loop-hole can be 
 found in your contract. 
 
 And then again, the temptations to crime, or at least to 
 criminal neglect, both in life insurance and property, are 
 such as to form a serious objection to the present methods 
 of insurance. The same amount invested in some safe 
 bank or legitimate business is a surer provision against 
 coming want than the building up of monopolies in 
 trusts and insurance. Nevertheless, for the present 
 necessities, or until some system of active benevolence 
 can be started that shall look only after the needy, and 
 not after the building up of immense fortunes from the 
 hard earnings of the poor, or well-to-do, or even from the 
 speculations of the rich, it may be suffered to continue as 
 a means of suggesting a better; for it is not always the 
 fault of the system. It is in the manner in which it is 
 carried out — the advantage that is taken of it. And it is 
 doubtful whether or not any legalized system of benevo- 
 lence can be instituted that may not be abused. There- 
 fore all moral reforms should seek to make men better in 
 heart and character; to suppress selfishness in the hearts 
 of men rather than in measures or business relations. 
 Insurance then and many other similar organizations, 
 may become a real blessing to mankind — to the many and 
 not the few, to the needy, indeed, and not to the million- 
 aire. 
 
 This brings us to consider in the next place, 
 
 Productions and Laborers. 
 
 The former, of course, relates to both what is raised 
 from the earth, dug from the mines, manufactured in the 
 mills, or gathered from the ocean, forests and streams; 
 the latter to those who manage or manipulate these indus- 
 tries. The productions, therefore, concern both 
 
 (a.) The Producer and the Consumer. The relations and 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 173 
 
 obligations inhering in these parties are much the same 
 as those of the seller and buyer; and the same principles 
 and laws prevail here as in the former relations. They 
 are mutually dependent, the one upon the other, except 
 in cases where the producer and consumer are identical. 
 This denotes an independent condition, and obtains largely 
 in the simplest forms of society, as in an original or 
 unorganized state; or before the arts of civilization multi- 
 plied man's wants to such an extent as to make him more 
 dependent upon his fellow-creatures. This phase of our 
 subject has important lessons for the student of sociology. 
 The history of civilization should be studied far enough, 
 at least, to enable him to form safe conclusions as to the 
 true relations of the several elements of refined society. 
 
 But without attempting a strict analysis of these rela- 
 tions, we wish to say that pure economy would teach that 
 within given limits, determined largely by experiment, 
 the more intimate these relations the better for both 
 parties. But it is seldom that the producers either of agri- 
 cultural products, or those of the mines, forests or fisheries, 
 or of shops, mills or factories, can make direct sales of 
 their several commodities. And this gives rise to another, 
 or second class of laborers, whose services can not well be 
 dispensed with, called 
 
 (b.) Middle Men or Merchants. As just stated, this 
 relation seems to be a necessary one in all advanced stages 
 of society; but like many other necessary and even good 
 things, it is liable to great abuse. As in the case of 
 employer and employed, when it comes to be a sub-con- 
 tract and a sub-sub-contract, and even this last redupli- 
 cated, the profits to sub-contractors and actual laborers 
 grow less and less: so when we multiply middle men and 
 agents and sub-agents, the profits to actual producers are 
 reduced to the minimum, while to consumers the expense 
 
174 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 is correspondingly great. Hence attempts have been made, 
 from time to time, to dispense with some of the middle 
 men in business, making the exchange more direct; but 
 from some cause, the efforts have not proved entirely sat- 
 isfactory, notwithstanding the true policy is evidently in 
 the direction of reducing the agents and sub-agents to 
 the minimum in number or quantity — while it might be 
 worth while to attempt an improvement in quality, also — 
 so that profits might be mutual and fair to all parties. This 
 would be upon the same principle as an economical division 
 of labor, in the department of manufacturing. 
 
 But competition, arising from attempts to build up one's 
 lawful business, as well as unnatural greed for gain, car- 
 rying that business into the confines of speculation, or 
 beyond the limits of wholesome rivalry, have added much 
 to the perplexities of these relations. Ic has called into 
 the field a class of agents called 
 
 (c. ) Traveling men for the various business houses, whose 
 activity constitutes a large share of the exchange of com- 
 modities. And while this may be necessary in order to 
 carry on trade on this somewhat unnatural high-pressure 
 plan, yet it is frought with so many evils that it is worthy 
 of notice here. It savors too much of that species of rob- 
 bery, in which every man in trade is permitted to take 
 every possible advantage of his neighbor, especially if he 
 happen to be engaged in the same or similar business. 
 This is entirely opposed to the rules of morality, and to the 
 greatest prosperity of a people. And it may be fairly pre- 
 sumed that the additional expense of keeping up such a 
 system of agency — which expense is simply enormous — 
 must be added to the cost price of the respective articles 
 thus vended, thereby increasing their cost to the con- 
 sumer. This, again, is in direct conflict with the laws of 
 strict economy in business, and unfair to both the pro- 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. \r, 
 
 ducer and the consumer, since it lessens the profits of -the 
 one, and increases the expense to the other, in order to 
 support in luxury and high living, a class of men that neither 
 produce, on the one hand, nor encourage production on 
 the other, since the profits of the commodities are con- 
 sumed, or appropriated by the middlemen. The only class 
 of persons that seem to realize financial benefits from this 
 feature of trade is the first-class hotel keeper; but even 
 this, it must be remembered, is somewhat prejudicial to 
 the ordinary laborer, since it fosters a select class at the 
 expense of some of the most worthy elements of society, to 
 say nothing about the increase in the price of goods thus 
 burdened with an amount equal to the enormous expenses 
 of these traveling agents. 
 
 All this seems to be a needless burden on trade, since, 
 with the present facilities for communication and com- 
 merce, an order sent direct from the merchant — which is 
 really the only middle man needed in trade — to the manu- 
 facturer, or wholesale dealer, who is only another grade of 
 merchant, could, and would be honored without the inter- 
 vention of traveling men. The postofnce, the telegraph, 
 and the conveniences in banking and exchange, readily 
 supply the means for communication, and make the con- 
 nections between merchant and manufacturer, between 
 the producer of the raw material and the manufacturer, 
 and back again to the consumer^ etc., all that could be 
 desired. 
 
 There is still another serious objection to the system of 
 trade, as carried on by excessive agency, which is again 
 repeated by the salesmen, both among retail and some whole- 
 sale dealers, viz., in order to make abundant sales, and 
 thus to increase the business of their respective houses, and 
 make themselves solid — as the term goes — with their 
 employers, these agents often force their goods, by overper- 
 
176 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 suasion and other mild stimulants ( ?) upon the retail mer- 
 chants who, in turn, must use all their persuasive arts in 
 order to find sale for their ' ' splendid stock of goods, always 
 the best in the market and the cheapest." (?) And thus 
 families and other customers, and whole communities, by 
 reason of this pampered desire to excel one another, are 
 induced to purchase goods beyond their means, and many 
 things they do not need. This to be sure is a voluntary 
 matter on the part of the purchaser; but the temptation to 
 purchase is great, and the sequel too often shows that it is 
 too great for the unaided human power to resist. 
 
 Now all these things and many more that will readily 
 occur to the thinking student, have a direct tendency not 
 only to add unnecessary and expensive conditions to trade, 
 but to corrupt public morals, weaken public confidence, 
 and create public discontent, which finds ready complaints 
 against heavy taxes and hard times. This unnatural and 
 unnecessary separation of the producer and the consumer, of 
 the merchant and the manufacturer, also prevents and 
 destroys that natural sympathy among parties so intimately 
 dependent upon each other, so necessary also to successful 
 business operations. It damages the body politic in a corres- 
 ponding ratio. It is a source of perpetual annoyance that 
 should be checked by such restraints as moral training can 
 command in early life, and by the enforcement of such 
 rules and regulations ;n civil society as strict economy in 
 public affairs would suggest, and that strict honesty can 
 justify. 
 
 There is still another feature of this general subject which 
 we shall call 
 
 (d.) TJie division of labor, intimately associated with 
 the foregoing, and leading to the consideration of labor and 
 capital. It may be presented briefly thus: 
 
 In order to carry on the affairs of trade, on a larger scale 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELA TIONS. 177 
 
 than usual, and to acquire wealth through labor, more 
 rapidly (a thing not always desirable or safe), men have 
 found it necessary to associate both labor and capital in 
 such a way as to derive greater returns from both. It has 
 been found that man's labor is more profitable when it is 
 so distributed among persons, that each one shall have but 
 a certain part to do, and to devote all his energies to this 
 cne thing from day to day. By so doing he acquires greater 
 skill and speed; so that ordinarily, he can produce at least 
 twenty per cent, more than he can by dividing his time and 
 attention among many different parts of the same article, 
 or on many different things. This is especially true when 
 skilled labor is required, as in factories, mills, shops, etc.: 
 so that in the manufacture of a certain article that has — 
 say ten different parts or pieces — ten men, each one devot- 
 ing his entire time and attention to one part, say in ten of 
 these same articles, as a plow, a wagon, or an overcoat, he 
 can make his ten parts, on an average, in about four-fifths 
 of the time required, working alone, to make the whole of 
 one article. This is a saving of one-fifth or twenty per 
 cent, on every article manufactured; or, on ten of these 
 articles at $10 each, a saving of $20 which usually goes to 
 the firm, and not to the man or men who produce it. 
 
 This much, then, for what is known or called a "Divis- 
 ion of Labor/' And in some cases the gain per cent, is 
 still greater, amounting, in some instances, to more than 
 50 per cent., i. e., a man can double his usual amount of 
 work by this division of labor. We may be permitted to 
 say just here, however, that this division is not so good for 
 the man, since his skill and energies are trained only in 
 one channel, thus narrowing him down to a mere machine. 
 But it enables the manufacturer, sometimes/to double his 
 money invested in a very short time; and this has led to 
 the founding of large establishments for the production, 
 
its Elements of ethical science. 
 
 and the varied manufacture of the necessaries and luxuries 
 of life. And as the ordinary wealth of one man is not 
 usually sufficient to carry on the business on a scale of 
 magnificence sufficient to render it the most profitable; 
 for — let it be borne in mind — the rate of profits to the 
 establishment, up to a certain limit, are in a direct ratio 
 to the extent of the business; i. e., a larger per cent, is 
 realized from an extensive trade, than from a more limited 
 one; and this is by reason of a more extensive division of 
 labor; so it becomes necessary, in order to carry on this 
 business, to associate capital in a similar manner; and 
 this, again, gives rise to what is known as 
 
 3 . Associated Capital, controlling labor and production: 
 for it is a fact beyond disputation, that it, in effect, does 
 both . It assumes to regulate the price of labor on a larger 
 scale, by fixing the rate of wages for those whom it 
 employs, — the producer both of the raw material, as in 
 the case of farm and mine products, dictating market 
 values thereof — and also of manufactured articles produced 
 both by labor by the day and also by what is called job 
 work, or so much per piece. It also assumes to regulate 
 the price of said articles, sold in the common market, so 
 that the actual producer, and day laborer have but little, 
 if anything at all to say, either in regulating the price of 
 their own commodities, or of their labor. And to say that 
 this is regulated by demand and supply, is only shifting 
 the question, and the responsibility also, to another part 
 of the same business; for it is this very feature of the 
 business that enables capital to take advantage of the pro- 
 ducer and laborer. By timely and extensive purchases .it 
 is able to control market prices to suit its own convenience; 
 and millions of money is literally filched from the pockets 
 of the poor, generally by what is known as a "corner on 
 produce." 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 179 
 
 Demand and supply, themselves, therefore, are largely 
 the products of speculation. They are artificial to the 
 extent that they are controlled by the money market. In 
 cases where they are real they always regulate themselves, 
 so that labor and capital shall be mutual sharers of gains 
 and losses, especially if labor is not oppressed by capital, 
 and if it is sufficiently enlightened to take care of itself. 
 But of this, further on. 
 
 Let us now consider the main question. In order to 
 make business on a large scale safer, and more convenient, 
 and to enable it to conduct its affairs as a responsible 
 party or as a person, having rights and privileges, powers 
 and duties, as well as responsibilities, it is found necessary 
 to secure them legal enactments, general and special. 
 These we call 
 
 (a.) Corporations, authorized and protected by the 
 government, conferring corporate powers. Thus the 
 larger business establishments, almost without exception, 
 have these advantages extended to them; and the gains of 
 these establishments are so manifest and great, the facili- 
 ties for production so improved, varied and extensive, 
 through modern invention and machinery, that private or 
 even smaller enterprises are unable to compete with them, 
 either in quantity or quality, nor yet in price of goods; so 
 that the government, protecting these institutions of 
 industry is entitled, by virtue of advantages extended, to 
 a tax from them, equal or nearly equal to the advantages 
 conferred upon them. 
 
 This arrangement, therefore, with proper encourage- 
 ments and restraints, either legal or otherwise, such as a 
 strict regard for moral principles would suggest, would 
 seem to be the wisest way of disposing both capital and 
 labor, in that it economizes in the use of the former, and 
 reduces the latter to the minimum in amount, thus giving 
 
180 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 more time to the laborer for oft-needed recreation and 
 improvement, instead of additional labor; and at the same 
 time reducing the cost of the articles manufactured to the 
 minimum price, both to the producer and all others. And 
 in this, as in all other cases of labor, or invention, the 
 laborer or inventor should be a sharer of the benefits aris- 
 ing from production and sale, equal to the intrinsic value 
 of such labor and. invention. This might be difficult to 
 estimate, yet an approximate could, be made and agreed 
 upon, subject to such changes as circumstances should 
 warrant. 
 
 Again, the employment of improved machinery has also 
 had much to do in cheapening labor and the price of man- 
 ufactured articles, but not always in the same ratio; since, 
 as before stated, corporations and associated capital have 
 combined, both to regulate labor and to control prices. 
 And this is what constitutes monopoly, both in trade and 
 in labor. It is wrong, as any one may see. It is a species 
 of slavery. Man should not only own himself, but should 
 be free to dispose of his labor and its products to the best 
 advantage to himself and others. The monopoly prevents 
 this. It grinds the poor, and breeds disturbance where 
 harmony and good will should prevail. It gives too much 
 power into the hands of irresponsible and often unscrup- 
 ulous men, and soulless corporations whose greed for gain 
 is practically without limit; and the power to control both 
 the price of the labor and the commodity should never 
 exist without due restraints. The temptations for the 
 abuse of such power is greater than ordinary human 
 nature can resist, especially so long as men are selfish, 
 tyrannical, and unscrupulous. 
 
 Against this monopoly both the producer and the con- 
 sumer alike rebel; especially when these two factors are 
 one and the same, since it not only gives capital an undue 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 181 
 
 advantage, but puts this advantage into the haDds of those 
 who are not, in reality, producers themselves. And this 
 is precisely the advantage that capital takes, of labor in its 
 unprotected state, out of which advantage, or supposed 
 advantage (for it is not, in every case, real oppression), 
 grow our labor strikes and such like disorders, of which 
 we have already spoken. And it is questionable whether 
 or not any amount of legislation can reconcile these two 
 seemingly antagonistic elements in our public industrial 
 affairs, viz., Labor and Capital. 
 
 But these two indispensable factors in our civil polity are 
 not necessarily antagonistic. Indeed, they are two natural 
 allies, thrown into disorder by the unnatural greed of gain 
 incident to unregulated human energy and en terprize. But 
 legislation can scarcely reach that in our affairs which is 
 even largely organic. At least it can not reconcile these 
 friendly enemies without removing the cause; for, recon- 
 ciled without removing the tendency to disorder, they are 
 liable, at any moment, to rush to the renewed conflict 
 with more vigor than ever. It is rather a social disorder, 
 reached only by education. Educate both capital and labor, 
 and you render the conflict practically impossible, since 
 you make the interests identical. You show each its true 
 sphere of operation, and their mutual dependence, whereby 
 their relations become mutually helpful; and in the edu- 
 cation of labor we do not mean simply informing it as to 
 its rights and duties, but training it in its moral features: 
 teaching it that the true dignity of manhood arises from 
 labor. [See Industrial Education, Chap. XII.] 
 
 The moral issues here are not less apparent since the 
 disorder, is more a social and commercial than a political 
 affair. It is continually breeding lesser disorders in our 
 body politic, which stand, to day, as the great barriers to 
 any successful moral reforms. The social heart must 
 
182 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE, 
 
 move, before political progress is possible. Any measures, 
 therefore, that will check these evil tendencies, whose 
 chief instigator is an inordinate desire for money getting, 
 and reconcile these contending parties; and above all, that 
 will make it impossible for either capital or labor to become 
 fractious, and thereby antagonistic to the true interests of 
 the people, must be hailed with peculiar delight by every 
 lover of "law and order." But I can see no solution to 
 this vexed question outside of a consistent system of public 
 education, backed by legal enactments, sanctioned by 
 public sentiment, and conscientiously carried out in our 
 dailv affairs of life. 
 
 Let me repeat it! This truth is worthy a thousand repeti- 
 tions. Educate both labor and capital and you make 
 conflict between the two impossible. Neglect this, and you 
 prolong their struggle indeffinitely, and imperial the national 
 existence. The interests of both parties — capital and labor — 
 must be made identical. Labor must be educated, and 
 thereby elevated to a respectable standing. It must stand 
 side by side, socially and politically, with capital, however 
 offensive it may appear to a foolish and false aristocracy. 
 It must be educated at whatever cost, or we perish by this 
 unnatural estrangement and contention of these two 
 essential factors in the government. The urgency of this 
 matter is our only apology for this oft-recurring senti- 
 ment. 
 
 This unnatural estrangement breeds a thousand other 
 ills, all clamorous for the life and peace of society. 
 Anarchy finds its ready tools in the ignorant and discon- 
 tented laborer ; and capital in its present greedy state, is 
 ready to take advantage of any weakness it finds in ignor- 
 ant labor. Capital is arrogant, and labor is stubborn. 
 The one is sharp-sighted, the other is blind. The one is 
 cool and calculating ; the other is hot and impulsive . The 
 
SOCIAL AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS. 183 
 
 one would rob, the other would murder; and it is not diffi- 
 cult to see the end, if such a state of affairs is permitted 
 to remain long, in a free country, especially where license 
 is mistaken, oft times, for liberty. 
 
 Indeed the strongest monarchies are powerless in the 
 grasp of this monster ignorance, enraged and clamoring for 
 bread, or blood. Its ravages are most where the power to 
 suppress seems strongest. Civil authority is set at defiance, 
 and the wholesome restraints of law are as nought where 
 the passions of evil men are set upon by oppression. Even 
 the military are powerless to control, though fear may for 
 a time prevent open rebellion. Eevolution must eventually 
 ensue, when the elements are beyond restraint; and blood 
 and treasure are the price paid for unrestrained folly. 
 
 Let good men and governments look to this in time, for 
 delays are dangerous, when the people cry for bread, or 
 through oppression; and it may not be quieted in a day. 
 Nothing but a change in the manner of men and measures 
 can effect the needed reform. Legislation has tried, and 
 failed. Standing armies may smother the flame in one 
 country, but it will again burst forth in some new and 
 unforeseen quarter; and woe to kings and crowns when the 
 insulted people rise to set right their long and patiently 
 endured wrongs. 
 
 But a remedy is at hand. Let it be applied. It is the 
 ever recurring remedy, but stronger at each repetition. 
 "Educate labor and you elevate it." You make it not 
 only equal to capital, but identical with it ; because brain 
 will soon win its way to wealth in a free country — and we 
 want no other. The hand that represents labor must be 
 in close partnership with the head that represents capital. 
 There must be no schism. They must be wedded and 
 welded by moral obligations taught in our schools. They 
 must belong to the same person, and then they can not 
 
184 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 rebel, the one against the other. And what is true of the 
 individual is true of the mass. 
 
 This is the only possible solution to this question; and 
 the sooner our people, and all peoples, and legislators, and 
 rulers, learn the lesson, and set about proper reforms, the 
 better. "We may not defer these reforms until the ele- 
 ments are ripe for revolution. Let good men and true 
 stand guard until these reforms are reached ; for the cost 
 of one revolution would educate every laborer and his 
 children, and erect alms-houses for all the poor and 
 disabled. Yea, in addition to all this, it would plant 
 colonies in all the waste places on the earth, and build 
 school houses with their needed work-shops and miniature 
 farms, in every district in the land, and in all lands. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Political Relations, Obligations and Duties. 
 We finally approach what may be regarded the widest 
 range of human relations, obligations and duties that 
 belong to man in his present stage of existence. We mean 
 those he owes to the state, government, nation and race. 
 They are those for which all others should prepare him. 
 They are the culmination, so to speak, of all that con- 
 stitutes him a man, a neighbor and a citizen. These rela- 
 tions etc., we call political, since they involve 
 
 1. The obligations and duties of the citizen to the state 
 and government, invoking the highest preparation, and the 
 most loyal attachment. 
 
 2. The obligations, etc., of the state and government to 
 the citizen, invoking a similar attachment and protection. 
 
 3. The obligations, etc., of the agents and officers of the 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 185 
 
 government to the citizen, the people, and the reciprocal 
 of these : and lastly, 
 
 4. The obligations and duties that governments, officers 
 and people of one country or nation owe those of another. 
 
 This latter feature of the subject approaches what is 
 known as International Law, and may be more advantage- 
 ously studied, in detail, from special treatises on this sub- 
 ject. An allusion to it in this connection i^ all that is 
 necessary. These obligations, relations etc., may be dis- 
 cussed here in the same connection, and in connection 
 with the ordinary branches of learning, since they all have 
 the same moral bearing; and since the introduction of this 
 feature of learning in the schools will not only enhance 
 the interest attaching to common branches, but will render 
 them much more practical. 
 
 Public Morals grow from private and personal sources. 
 Indeed, all human relations and duties have their origin 
 in the family, the school, and the contiguous range of 
 social life. And political morality, while its reality, as to 
 existence, may be questioned by some, and ignored in 
 practice by others, has, nevertheless, a real existence, and a 
 prominent place in history, and in all good governments. 
 And while, at present, an honest politician may be regarded 
 a "rara avis," in the estimation of some, it should be remem- 
 bered that circumstances often give coloring to the char- 
 acters of men and measures, that obscure the real truth. 
 Actions are often niisjudged, measured more from appear- 
 ance than from reality. And then these same circumstances 
 are often such as to try men's moral courage, beyond a 
 point of ordinary endurance. Men, honest in their own 
 eyes, and even honest in the eyes of their neighbors, when 
 put to the severer tests of practical experience, and the still 
 severer tests of party politics, have fallen an easy prey to 
 
186 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 the wiles of the wicked. Such men should be pitied as 
 well as censured. 
 
 Honesty, therefore, in the eyes of the world, is a relative 
 term; and is too often a matter of custom and convenience. 
 But to be honest in the face of opposition, and the severest 
 temptations, means more than to be apparently good and 
 honest, where there is no apparent evil to be combated. 
 But real goodness is not merely a negative state; but it is 
 intensely positive and aggressive. And it often appears in 
 disguise, and in persons and measures, and in places where 
 least expected. But if there is any one place in all the' 
 affairs of men, requiring stern integrity and severe honesty, 
 it is where the people's interests seem to clash with personal 
 opinion and personal welfare, and where the agent or 
 representative is free to choose either. And if these inter- 
 ests are so sacred, and important, and trying, when viewed 
 from the representative stand -point, it is equally import- 
 ant and incumbent upon the people to be careful in the 
 selection of these representatives or agents of the govern- 
 ment. And this brings us to notice in the next place. 
 
 I. Those Civil rights and privileges inhering in 
 the relationship of the people to the Government 
 and its institutions. 
 
 And first, those pertaining to 
 
 1. Tlie citizen. To be a citizen of a good government 
 is no mean privilege. Indeed it is in a certain sense the 
 highest. It is that station in which all obligations and r 
 duties center: and the sacredness of this relation is increased 
 when the responsibilities are increased: and the responsi- 
 bilities are increased when the citizen is free to choose his 
 own form of government, and the agencies for carrying it 
 forward. 
 
 But the dangers that beset this relation are also very 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 187 
 
 great, and generally in a direct ratio to the responsibilities. 
 A few of these might be named as 
 
 (a.) Indifference to the claims of the government. These 
 claims are mainly set forth, not only in the general support 
 of the government, required at the hands of the loyal citi- 
 zen, as in obedience to the laws, the payment of taxes and 
 other dues, but in the faithful discharge of the duties of 
 the franchise, where the form of government requires this 
 duty, as in the representative form. In this relation, or 
 where people choose their rulers and law-makers, it is the 
 duty as well as privilege of every citizen to vote; and a neg- 
 lect of this duty is a reprehensible act, since an opportunity 
 is here offered both for preventing or suppressing evil, and 
 promoting virtue, and this offer is shunned or neglected. 
 It is as though we saw our neighbors' property endangered, 
 and failed to give the alarm; or, worse still, since his life 
 and happiness are threatened and we are conspired to aid 
 in the mischief. 
 
 Another danger to be guarded againt by the faithful 
 citizen is 
 
 (b.) Ignorance of the nature, and of the affairs of the 
 government. It is no uncommon thing for the people to 
 excuse themselves from voting on the plea of a want of 
 sufficient knowledge of the men and measures at issue. 
 And another class, not so modest, insist upon the right to 
 vote, chiefly because they are ignorant, or rather because 
 of ignorance of men and measures. This is the more dan- 
 gerous class, since they become the ready tools of unprin- 
 cipled demagogues. But it is the duty of every citizen of 
 a republic in particular — or of any form of government in 
 which the voice of the citizen is required to enact laws, or 
 to enforce them — to inform himself, not only as to the 
 machinery of the government, but also as to its actual 
 manner of working; so that when needed changes are to be 
 
188 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 made, they may take place without danger, or interruption 
 to the regularity of the movement. To be sure, evils may 
 right themselves, if left to their natural forces, but it is 
 generally much more expensive. Instances may be cited 
 in the recent rebellion in the United States. They may 
 have many parallels. 
 
 Another form of danger arises from 
 
 (c.) Recklessness in the choice of officers. This is a griev- 
 ous offense, and a growing evil in most forms of represen- 
 tative governments, where every man is expected to do his 
 best in the selection of the agents of the government. But 
 the political management is too often intrusted to a few 
 party leaders, who generally have the self-assurance to 
 manipulate the machinery, and to direct all in their own 
 interest, or that of their political friends. But political 
 friendships are not usually of the highest order. They are 
 usually based upon self interest alone, and therefore, not 
 subject to any moral principles or restraints. They mean 
 politically this, "You help me and then I will help you," 
 but me first and you afterwards, or — not at all. But woe 
 to the unfortunate helper, if he fail "in a pinch." That 
 usually puts an end to all friendship, such as it is, and 
 inaugurates a species of political warfare as bitter as the 
 friendship may have been false and hollow ; and these be- 
 come great disturbers of the public peace. And lastly, 
 
 (d.) Political parties themselves, while probably necessary 
 in the present management of most forms of governments, 
 are, nevertheless, a source of immense corruption and 
 abuse of power. And while the severe political contentions 
 that ensue to distract the country from year to year, or at 
 such times as may be agreed upon for choosing officers of 
 the government, may serve as mutual checks upon the too 
 ultra measures, or wrong policies that may be advocated 
 by the opposing parties ; and while these political contests 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 189 
 
 may also serve as a means of general information to the 
 people ; yet the party strifes are usually so intense and 
 bitter, that the truth is more frequently distorted than 
 expounded, and concealed than promulgated. And then, 
 political demagogues are continually thrusting themselves 
 forward for offices for which they are usually eminently 
 unfitted: that it is seldom, indeed, that the humbler citizen 
 has an opportunity to vote for the man of his choice, or 
 for one honest and capable. 
 
 (e.) Political conventions are another source of evil, 
 though in themselves necessary and intended for good. It 
 is customary for political parties, in the choice of candi- 
 dates for office in a representative form of government, and 
 in order to concentrate their votes upon the same individ- 
 ual, to meet in convention at some convenient time before 
 the political campaign opens, and put in nomination such 
 persons as are most likely to command the votes of the 
 people, and to win. Unfortunately this winning property 
 generally has more weight with party delegates in conven- 
 tion than ability to discharge the duties of the office. This, 
 however, is not always the case, for it is not an uncommon 
 thing that good men and true are chosen. 
 
 Another custom, growing out of the latter feature of 
 political conventions, and detrimental to good government 
 deserves notice here. It is customary for delegates chosen 
 professedly by the people, on assembling in convention, or 
 even before, to enter into 
 
 (/.) Combinations, pledging themselves to certain meas- 
 ures and candidates, for the purpose of securing such help 
 from other counties and districts as may be secured by these 
 combinations — sometimes the strong combining with the 
 weak — in order to bring otherwise weak candidates into 
 prominent notice, and it seldom fails to effect the purpose; 
 so that the sharpest management, however unworthy the 
 
190 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 motive, often defeats the most worthy. This shrewd 
 management obtains every where from the municipal to the 
 state and national elections. 
 
 Any one may see that this policy carried out as it usually 
 is, has a direct tendency to defeat the will of the people, 
 and even of a majority of the delegates themselves; for 
 they are not at liberty to exercise a free choice of candi- 
 dates, but being literally handicapped and pledged, the 
 most undesirable are thus foisted into places they are the 
 least fitted to fill. Hence persons chosen at primary 
 meetings, or at county and state conventions, should be 
 pledged not to enter into any combinations whereby the 
 will of the people shall be defeated, or their own convic- 
 tions compromised. 
 
 This may sound a little Utopian, or at least impractical 
 to the average politician; but these same persons are some- 
 times loudest in their complaints against political corrup- 
 tion, especially if this same corruption happens to be on 
 the other side. They will admit, at least, that the most 
 worthy men and measures are often defeated by mere 
 trickery. Can these same complainers suggest any means 
 by which this evil may be corrected? We shall be glad to 
 join with them in any measures whereby corruption either 
 in high or low places may be abated; but we suggest that 
 the surest way to cure corruption is to remove the causes. 
 Kill the roots of the tree and the branches will all die. 
 Lop off but the evil branches, and others are apt to grow, 
 and sometimes worse ones than the first. 
 
 This evil is chronic, and it threatens the peace and pros- 
 perity of our country. And like most evils of this nature, 
 its effective remedy exists in the more thorough and con- 
 sistent education of the children. Patriotism, pure and 
 simple, should be taught in every family, in every school, 
 yea, in every lesson. In must be ingrained in the very 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 191 
 
 life and habits of these children, or oar boasted education, 
 which consists too much in the mere acquisition of a little 
 second-hand knowledge, and patent nostrums for money- 
 making, will prove a lamentable failure. It must reach 
 and renovate the very character and lives of our children, 
 or these evils will continue as they have been, if indeed 
 they do not grow worse and worse. 
 
 (g.) "Measures rather than Men" — a dangerous fallacy. 
 
 Party measures, however plausible, are not more import- 
 ant than the men employed to carry them out. But party 
 measures are usually magnified beyond their merits, by 
 one party, while they are correspondingly disparaged by 
 the other. The good of the country is too frequently lost 
 sight of, in this unseemly rage for party measures, when, 
 in fact, they may be of small importance, or may not 
 be unlike those of the opposing party. It is often a 
 distinction without a difference. Not men, but measures, 
 has become a party watchword with some; but it should 
 be reversed in most cases, especially if the men are such as 
 they should be to represent the people. I will trust more 
 to a good man, left to untrammeled choice, to carry out good 
 measures, in government, than to a bad man to carry out 
 good measures, though he pledge himself a thousand times. 
 Good men should bear rule in government, is a far better 
 and safer rule than " measures rather than men." 
 
 Again: as humiliating as the admission may seem, the 
 fact nevertheless remains as a matter of history, that a 
 republican form of government is subject to great abuse 
 from the 
 
 (h.) Corruption of the Ballot, both in the election of 
 officers, and in the enactment of laws. This, perhaps, 
 will always remain so, until men and measures are made 
 better, which latter is the great problem, not only of gov- 
 ernments, but of peoples. It is susceptible of solution only 
 
192 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 on the supposition that the means for refinement and 
 moral elevation placed within the reach of man are ade- 
 quate to the occasion. To argue that they are not, involves 
 a monstrous absurdity, too gross to be tolerated where law 
 reigns, and Divine beneficence is everywhere observable. 
 
 But too many, on the occasion of an election of any 
 importance, are weak enough and wicked enough to sell 
 their votes for a consideration more or less unworthy, and 
 not infrequently for money itself. And there are not 
 wanting those infinitely meaner, who, like harpies seek- 
 ing their prey, stand ready to pounce upon any weakling, 
 likely to serve their purposes. This were a charge too 
 serious, were it not known to be true. So that " selling 
 offices to the least deserving," has become a proverb, and 
 is equalled in depravity only by that other satirical senti- 
 ment — " Every man has his price." 
 
 This form of corruption has scarcely a parallel in mean- 
 ness, since it not only barters the liberties of a people, 
 making crime a partner in government, but degrades the 
 participants in this crime far below ordinary theft and 
 robbery, since its detection is almost impossible, allowing 
 criminals to go " un whipped of justice," and to prac- 
 tice their infamy. But among all the offices, within the 
 gift of the people, few are ever obtained without some 
 departure from the principles of strict honor and morality; 
 and among the many legal enactments, emanating from 
 legislatures and other law-making bodies, few are not 
 tainted with a bargain of some sort. And what is said of 
 legislatures may apply with equal force to other seats of 
 power. But woe to the man who accepts a bribe to per- 
 vert the ways of justice; and woe to the government that 
 becomes a party to crime, that the innocent may fall, and 
 the ignorant may be ensnared! . . . Again, 
 
 (i.) Tlie lolyist is looked upon, at least as a suspicious 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 193 
 
 character, and often his work and character are anything 
 but honest. But the man who will sell his vote on import- 
 ant, or even unimportant political measures, discovers a lit- 
 tleness and a rottenness that deserve the execration of all 
 honest people. There are no more fitting comparisons for 
 these two, the lobyist and his pliant tools, than the thief 
 and his accomplice. But the buying and selling of patron- 
 age, the pledging to support certain personal measures at 
 the expense of the government, the enacting of laws as 
 mere party measures, without consulting the interests of 
 the people, the receiving of bribes for supporting certain 
 measures, or yielding to any faction for any consideration 
 save that of conscientious convictions, are moral corrup- 
 tions that should be pointed out and held up to public 
 scorn by every teacher in our public schools, and by every 
 man and woman, every lover of good honest government. 
 We all agree that these evils in the administration of 
 our public affairs should not exist; but are we as ready to 
 enter upon measures for their suppression? I see no rem- 
 edy involving the thorough uprooting of these evils and 
 vices, peculiar to every age and all forms of government, 
 other than that which has already been urged for other evils 
 of similar character — as those, for instance, in the improper 
 relations of capital and labor, viz., a thorough, consistent, 
 practical education of all the people; an education that not 
 only informs, but trains and reforms that which is 
 deformed. But formation is even better than reformation ; 
 therefore, let it not only be thorough and practical, bear- 
 ing directly upon the great questions of life, but an educa- 
 tion based upon the honest and scientific administration of 
 home, school and social affairs; an education that affects 
 men's hearts, their lives and habits, as well as their 
 theories and beliefs — call this religion or morality, or both, 
 it matters not — so that the child grows better and wiser 
 
194 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCLENCE. 
 
 and happier, or at least capable of greater happiness as he 
 grows in strength and years. 
 
 The citizen must therefore be intelligent, virtuous, vigi- 
 lant, conscientious, faithful and independent— -free in the 
 choice of officers of the government; and if party affilia- 
 tions and restraints interfere with the free exercise of these 
 gifts and graces, they must be thrust aside. Our country 
 is greater than any party: conscience is more than policy; 
 and honest administration of the affairs of the govern- 
 ment, greater than office or official emoluments. 
 
 II. The Purpose and Nature of Government 
 briefly noticed. 
 
 Governments were instituted for man. They are of the 
 people, for the people and therefore should be by the 
 people ; and when occasion offers and requires they may 
 be changed by the people for the greater convenience and 
 happiness of the people. And this leads us to remark, 
 
 2. That Political Government is the highest expression 
 of human power. It should therefore be the highest 
 human authority and the greatest conservator of human 
 liberty and human rights. 
 
 (a.) All Human Rights, social, political and otherwise, 
 are derived from and vested in the people. This deriva- 
 tion is either direct or indirect, either with or without the 
 consent of the people; either by act or word, acknowledg- 
 ing this right, or by implication, as in the case of the 
 family, or the tribe, or by the natural allegiance and 
 dependence of the inferior upon the superior ; and the 
 investiture is correspondingly direct and sacred. As 
 in the case of the producer and the consumer, in the rela- 
 tionship of capital and labor, the more direct the union, 
 or source of control, within given limits, to be sure, the 
 better both for people and government; i. e., the nearer 
 the people come to the source of control, the greater the 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 195 
 
 sympathy, and the stronger the government, other things 
 being equal. Hence, to trace this feature of government 
 to its ultimate human source, through all variety of 
 agents, until, growing stronger and stronger, as we elimi- 
 nate all agents, we shall find it centering in self, or self-con- 
 trol, the strongest and best of all governments : and to 
 develop this quality or power in man, is also considered the 
 highest function of government, whether family, school or 
 state. This quality constitutes one of the leading elements 
 in all good government, as it certainly is one of its principal 
 objects. All governments, therefore, are based originally 
 upon rights conferred by superior powers, the consent of 
 the governed. 
 
 Tracing the analogy of the producer and the consumer 
 still further, we find that, in order to carry out and to 
 utilize the principle of the division of labor, middle men, 
 or merchants, were instituted, in order to conduct the 
 matters between the two sections, viz., the producer and 
 the consumer; so, in matters of government, certain parts 
 of these governmental affairs are committed, for con- 
 venience, to chosen classes. 
 
 In past ages these classes — for there were as many of 
 them as there were main functions of government — were 
 sometimes selected by the people themselves; sometimes it 
 was a matter of common consent; sometimes by violence 
 and usurpation. But, without attempting an exhaustive 
 history, or an analysis of the origin of government, we 
 may assume here that the division of the affairs of the 
 government, in this and similar ways, was chiefly for con- 
 venience and greater thoroughness. Hence, the different 
 forms of government, yet all possessing essentially its 
 three great functions, viz., the legislative, the judicial, 
 and the executive; sometimes all vested in the same person 
 or body, sometimes in two or three. The latter would 
 
196 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 certainly seem wisest and best; hence, the monarchy in 
 different forms, the oligarchy, the aristocracy, and the 
 various forms of democracy, pure and representative, in 
 which latter, public affairs are committed to select agents 
 or representatives. This may be called the republican 
 form of government. 
 
 (b.) But the object of all good governments is the good of 
 the governed. For this purpose they are, and were, created. 
 They are human institutions, ordained for wise and benev- 
 olent purposes; and, as such, should be studied, honored 
 and obeyed, except in cases where they are clearly wrong, 
 and hurtful; in which cases they may be altered to suit 
 human needs. The means resorted to in order to effect 
 any needed changes should be peaceable, if possible. 
 
 (c.) Hie divine right of kings to rule simply because they 
 are kings, has no foundation in reason, and but little in the 
 belief of the people, the true origin of poiuer in governments. 
 Just as the highest objects of labor are first to benefit 
 others (and this is the true view of labor), second, to ben- 
 efit the laborer himself, so, good government seeks first to 
 benefit the governed; second, to benefit the government 
 itself. When these objects are reversed, selfishness is at 
 the helm, and suffering ensues. But these objects, when 
 pursued in their logical order are mutually beneficial : i. e. s 
 what benefits the people most, reacts favorably upon the 
 government that protects the rights of the people or the 
 citizen; and it will always enhance its own interests in the 
 highest degree possible, since this is the legitimate func- 
 tion of government. And this is the philosophical and 
 practical view of both labor and government. 
 
 This may also be said to be the moral view of these sub- 
 jects, which, if carried out in all departments of govern- 
 ment, as in the industries, would soon put an end to all 
 contention and strife among men, and erect a barrier 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 197 
 
 about the rights of the people and the principles of gov- 
 ernment, that time itself would not and could not break 
 down. Hence, it may be inferred that that government 
 is the best that comes nearest the people, and distributes 
 the rights and duties, the emoluments and labors, most 
 evenly, economically and justly among all the citizens, 
 legislators, rulers and people. 
 
 This brings us to notice, in the next place 
 
 3. TJie delegated obligations and duties: for in this par- 
 ticular feature of government rest both the greater moral 
 obligation and the greatest difficulties and dangers; since, 
 upon the choice of delegates or representatives of the gov- 
 ernment, depends the entire responsibility for the right 
 discharge of the duties. 
 
 These agents of the government assume different names, 
 according to the nature of the duties entrusted to them in 
 the different forms of government, differing also in the 
 same form, according to the duties assigned. Thus, there 
 are different departments of the same government, as the 
 legislative, or law-making, department; the judicial, or 
 law-expounding, department ; and the executive, or law- 
 enforcing, department: and these, in a republican form 
 of government, are repeated in the several sub-divisions of 
 the general government, as state, province, principality, 
 canton, county, township, and even to the smaller sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 In some forms of government, all the above-named func- 
 tions are vested in one man, as in the case of the unlimited 
 monarchy; but more frequently these powers are limited 
 in various ways, sometimes to a select few, chosen to 
 administer the same general powers, as in the oligarchy 
 and the aristocracy; and in the republic, where it is sought 
 to equalize and balance the powers in the several depart- 
 ments in such a way that any one or more shall act as 
 
198 ELEMENTS, OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 mutual checks upon any or all others, and that the respon- 
 sibilities and duties of the government may also be dis- 
 tributed among the people and the governing agents, where 
 we usually find the most popular government. No one 
 department, therefore, may usurp the prerogatives, respon- 
 sibilities and duties of another. 
 
 In this last form of government, the people are respon- 
 sible for the choice of the agents or representatives; and 
 the agent or representative, on the other hand, is respon- 
 sible to the people: i. e., he is responsible for the proper 
 discharge of the duties assigned him by the laws, which 
 are, in turn, the expressed will of the people, through 
 similar agencies. 
 
 All agents or representatives are expected to carry out 
 the expressed will of the principal or the people — for the 
 people stand in lieu of the principal here — when such will 
 or wish is expressed in a legalized form; provided, also, 
 that these wishes do not, according to the best judgment 
 of the agent, who is also one of the people to be consulted, 
 interfere with or antagonize the public good. When this 
 can not be done, the agent or representative should resign. 
 Hence the supreme importance of choosing wise and honest 
 legislators and rulers, since both are servants of the people, 
 and not their masters. 
 
 But when the people are ignorant or indifferent, or when 
 enslaved or impoverished by oppression or any other cause, 
 it is scarcely possible for them to do this, especially when 
 they become the mere tools of designing and unscrupulous 
 party leaders: or where their deliberate choice is in any 
 way interfered with . Hence the objects and aims of good 
 popular government can be carried out only when the 
 people are intelligent and virtuous. And the people can 
 be intelligent and virtuous only when suitable provisions 
 are made for instructing them in all matters pertaining to 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 199 
 
 good government. And again, this desirable state of the 
 people can be realized only when the several departments 
 of the government are filled by persons equally well 
 informed, or better— if any difference — truly patriotic, 
 wise and virtuous. But the dangers and difficulties of our 
 form of government have been considered in another place. 
 The usual mechanism has been presented here. 
 
 4. And as for the principles of International Law con- 
 stituting any part of morality, or entering into a system 
 of moral culture, we have only to say that the same rules 
 of conduct should govern nations that govern states, com- 
 munities and individuals; for what is right or wrong 
 inherently in the individual, is right or wrong in the gov- 
 ernment, and nation composed of individuals, with this 
 special difference, which is one of application, and not of 
 principle; viz., that any wrong or violation of right by a 
 government against a government, does not taint individ- 
 ual morality. It only affects the government, or the 
 machinery: and it is difficult to say just in whom, or where 
 the particular blame rests. If, indeed, upon any one or 
 more individuals of the offending government, it must be 
 upon that one or those who originated, or caused the 
 wrong to exist: and yet the nation, not only in its individ- 
 ual capacity, but as individuals must suffer, because of 
 connection or sympathy, just as in the case of a wound 
 upon the human body, all the associated tissues sympathize 
 and suffer with the part wounded. And so if an individ- 
 ual of one nation or government wrong one of another, 
 the whole nation or government feels it and resents it, as 
 a nation or government. And if the wrong is committed 
 by the government against an individual of another gov- 
 ernment, not only the individual of the nation feels it, 
 but the whole nation or government. Hence, every nation 
 feels called upon by the laws of honor and of justice to 
 
200 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 protect every individual or member of its own government, 
 let the violation of right occur wheresoever it may. 
 
 The following condensed view of this subject may be 
 serviceable to those who wish to study this matter still 
 further. 
 
 I. The offense of one government against another of 
 equal, superior or inferior standing. 
 
 II. The offense of an individual against another govern- 
 ment. 
 
 III. The offense of the government against the individ- 
 ual of another government. 
 
 IV. The offense of one individual of a government 
 against an individual of another government. 
 
 Of course, the individual in the above cases may repre- 
 sent any number of individuals not including the nation- 
 ality. And the fact that the nationalities and allegiances 
 may or may not be on equal standing, does not in the 
 east affect the laws of obligation or justice. Let these be 
 discussed in class. 
 
 These cases of national difficulties arising between gov- 
 ernments are all provided for in what is known as "inter- 
 national law," or those common agreements that have 
 been entered into by all enlightened nations, one with 
 another. They are expressed usually in what are known 
 as treaties; and these, again, are known under different 
 names, according to the subjects treated, the principal of 
 which are those of 
 
 1. Reciprocity, conferring equal privileges mutually 
 upon the parties concerned, as regards duties, imports, 
 customs, etc., concerning foreign commerce, regulating 
 these by agreement. 
 
 2. Extradition, or the yielding up of criminal offenders 
 by one government to the just demands of another. 
 
 3. Citizenship, or the general agreements that may be 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 201 
 
 entered into between different nations, as to political 
 rights, duties, and treatment of foreigners, when coming 
 and going into another country with intention of citizen- 
 ship or trade. 
 
 4. Special treaties may also exist, relating to territories, 
 boundaries, commerce, labor, finance, shipping, war, land 
 and naval forces, etc., etc.; but all have about the same 
 general object and bearing, viz., not only an adjustment 
 of misunderstandings and other difficulties, but the peace- 
 able enjoyment of those natural rights and privileges that, 
 belong to all nations and governments in common. 
 
 Those relating to ' f War" are of special importance, 
 since they bear upon one of the great questions now agi- 
 tating the minds of philanthropists and reformers of the 
 present day, viz., the proposition to submit, for peaceable 
 adjustment, all national and inter-national disputes and 
 disagreements, to a national or international council of 
 arbitration. 
 
 Without so much as offering an argument, either for or 
 against this measure, we submit it to the candid consider- 
 ation of all who are laboring for a more humane, rational 
 and economical method of settling national and inter- 
 national disputes. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS IN CONCLUSION". 
 
 These questions may be submitted to the more advanced 
 pupils and classes, and free discussion, both formal and 
 informal, encouraged among them, and even among all 
 the pupils where circumstances are favorable ; thus train- 
 ing them to grapple with these questions before they are 
 called upon to discharge the duties of citizens. 
 
 Moral training, therefore, to be effective must take hold 
 of character and duty; must touch all points affecting 
 man's life and labor. His education from the very first 
 
202 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 must be shaped so as to embrace the largest range of 
 human obligation and duty, for what can we reasonably 
 expect of him if he is left in ignorance of these life-issues ? 
 From the earliest impressions and their feeble expression, 
 to his profoundest thought and reasoning, both in private 
 and in public, the whole tenor of his life must conform to 
 the law of God, which is the highest expression of human 
 liberty — the law as revealed by the Creator, and testified to 
 in nature and science. 
 
 As child, citizen, law-maker and ruler, as individual or 
 government, as laborer and capitalist, principal or factor, 
 owner or agent, as producer or consumer; in all these, 
 and in whatever station or grade, his highest ambition 
 and greatest glory is To be a Man, rounded out in all 
 his faculties, in all his relations a full-orbed man. There 
 is no higher station, no higher honor in this life, and per- 
 haps none in the next, more exalted or dignified. It 
 expresses all that is just, benevolent, wise, truthful, good ; 
 all that is loving, pure, honest, brave, noble, God-like. 
 To be more were unnecessary and impossible. 
 
 To recapitulate the last few thoughts 
 
 1. The liome and family are the legitimate sources, both of 
 life and its duties, its sympathies and sorrows, its privileges 
 and its restraints, its Law of Liberty and its Liberty of Law. 
 
 2. The school, in all its departments and grades, must 
 take up and carry forward these duties and sympathies, 
 this liberty in law, while in actual scholastic work, adding 
 the accomplishments of learning and discipline, necessary 
 for encountering and conquering. 
 
 3. Tlie environment with all its inequalities as the 
 associated relations of neighborhood and incipient society, 
 and those intermediate steps outside the school, into 
 
 4. The business world of thought, and purpose, and 
 act — the social, commercial, and political world life—the 
 
POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 203 
 
 national and international relations, and all those indus- 
 tries and enterprises that so distinguish man from all 
 other terrestrial beings. 
 
 The three stages preceding this last, viz., Business, 
 are all more or less preparatory, ending in this higher, if 
 not highest expression of manhood and womanhood (for 
 they are generically identical and their rights and destiny, 
 lie in the same plain) of responsibility and duty. And to 
 determine which of these antecedent stages is most impor- 
 tant, or whether or not the last is not equally so — as child- 
 hood, youth, early manhood, or maturity, where the strug- 
 gle with the world life really begins, would be difficult. 
 Enough that we know the responsibilities and duties of 
 each. But to determine the one most fraught with deter- 
 mining causes, were not so difficult. The first and second 
 in this regard, have no parallels in this life. 
 
 And to determine which department of this preparation 
 period is most favorable for moral culture, it is only 
 necessary to refer the reader to the impressible nature of 
 childhood and youth, the seed time of human life, the 
 certain precursor of the future career, and to the imperish. 
 able nature of these early impressions. 
 
 "The Child is Father to the Man." The home is the 
 birthplace of morality: the school, the foster mother to 
 the home: the neighborhood, the stepping stone from the 
 threshhold of home and school, into the wider world — 
 the battle-field for life and victory. 
 
 Note. — The following synopsis of the last three chapters may be 
 useful in review, and for independent study. It is hoped also that 
 frequent abstracts -will be made by the learner, from time to time, 
 and that many additions may be made to the topics named through- 
 out the entire volume. Independent thought and study are the life 
 and safeguard of learning; and the man who reads a good book and 
 leaves it before he is able to reproduce it, in some form and always 
 improved, and made practical, has read to a poor purpose. There- 
 
204 
 
 ELEMENTS OF ETHICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 fore, for the sake of convenience in study and application, the topics 
 of the last two chapters are here briefly arranged in a somewhat logi- 
 cal order. Let them be carefully studied, from an independent 
 standpoint. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 ■3 
 
 CO 
 
 Home and Family 
 
 Kindergarten and 
 School. 
 
 r Marital J Man and Woman. 
 
 Mantal 1 Husband and Wife. 
 
 Parental. \ Maternal. 
 
 ] Paternal. 
 
 Filial iFraternal. 
 
 I Sisterly. 
 
 Teacher = A mother in sympathy. 
 Pupil = Child and associate. 
 Parent = Provider and guardian. 
 
 ° 
 
 Neighborh'd and 
 
 Society, 
 
 Social intercourse. 
 Friendly confidences, etc. 
 Industries and business. 
 
 s ( Contracts 
 .2 Agreements. 
 
 © ! 
 s I 
 
 S J Productions and 
 o 1 Commodities. 
 
 ( Employer and Laborer, 
 and X 
 
 Labor and Capital. 
 { Sellers and Buyers. 
 
 Producers and Consumers. 
 Merchants and Middlemen. 
 Insurance and Games of chance. 
 
 Associated Capital 
 
 ^orations j g£j££ etc!* 
 
 Machinery j \ £* 
 
 I Monopoiyeontroung.] ^Xo a dme P s r . i0eS - 
 
 Inherent and Civil 
 
 People— Citizen. 
 State and Nation. 
 
 General and 
 tional. 
 
 Na- 
 
 ( T 
 \ E: 
 ( K 
 
 The origin of power. 
 Ends of government. 
 Kinds and departments. 
 
 f Agents, Officers— Dutips. 
 
 ( Reciprocity. 
 < Extradition. 
 ( Citizenship. 
 
 a^rfnternational \ Laws and Treaties 
 
 I War and Arbitration. 
 
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