Mmiill0mUimmm BNTS £TICE : : ' Class. Book.. AIS Copyright N". CQEnUGHT DEPOSm ELEMENTS —OF— Farm Practice PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR TEACHING ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE A COMPLETE REVISION AND EXTENSION OF "AGRICULTURE FOR YOUNG FOLKS" BY A. D. WILSON DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND FARMERS' INSTITUTES, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA AND E. W. WILSON THIRD EDITION Copyright, 1915, 1919 WKBB PUBLISHING CO. W-5 c,A- A' :^^ ^ liP8 2^ ^u PREFACE This book has been prepared primarily for use in rural schools and for elementary classes in other schools, wherever it is desirable to study the plain and practical problems of the farm and home in their relation to daily life. The book deals largely with common farm practices, rather than with scientific principles. It is intended to throw some light upon and add interest to the things that are done on the farm from day to day. We feel that, if pupils can be interested and enabled to use the farms and the farm homes as laboratories in which to observe and apply the things learned at school, a great step will have been made toward bringing the school in close touch with the home life of the pupils. A study of agriculture in the rural schools elevates, in the minds of the farm youth, the calling of agriculture. A rather close study of a few farm problems impresses one with the great amount of knowledge and skill required to operate a farm successfully; and must convince one that a farm, rightly managed, affords as much opportunity for development as a professional or business career. We do not suggest that the topics shall necessarily be taken up in the order presented, but that each teacher begin with that portion of the book dealing with the parti- cular phase of farm work that is being done on the home farms of the pupils at the time the lesson is given. Each section is a complete reading lesson, followed by questions, examples, and exercises, which relate to the les- son. The questions may be answered orally or in the form of a language paper. The examples will enforce some of the main facts taught in the text. The exercises will require study and observation of local activities and will help to connect up the lesson with the practical things in the com- munity. This manner of presenting the various sub- jects was chosen so that the study of agriculture might replace a part of the regular reading, language and arith- metic lessons, and thus allow a study of agriculture without shortening the time of, or crowding out, any other subject. Many of the complex problems encountered in the management of the farm are discussed here with a view to simplifying them, so that any one may easily understand the principles involved. It may even prove valuable to farm managers, by enabling them to put into practice some of the better methods of soil and live stock manage- ment, and to see clearly the aspects of farming as a busi- ness. The idea of preparing these lessons originated with Mr. D. A. Wallace, editor of The Farmer, and we gratefully acknowledge his suggestions. We have freely used many of the agricultural books and bulletins in the library at the Minnesota Agricultural College, and have obtained much valuable information therefrom. Nearly all photographs used were made by Mr. H. D. Ayer, and the drawings were made by Mr. C. H. Welch and Mr. G. F. Krogh. University Farm, St. Paul, Minn., December, 1918. A. D. WILSON E. W. WILSON CONTENTS Chapter Page I Soils 9 Origin, Classification, Sources of Plant Food, Available Plant P'ood. n Tillage 19 Objects of Plowing, Time to Plow, Dry Farming, The Seed Bed, Planting. ni Fertilizers 31 Need of Fertilizers, Fertilizers and Their Use, Animal Manures. IV Grain Crops 39 Plant Structure, Good Seed, Selection of Good Seed, Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye. V Cultivated Crops 60 Corn, General Features of the Corn Crop, Shapes of Ker- nels of Corn, Sizes of Kernels of Corn, Parts of a Kernel of Corn, Testing Seed Corn for Germination, Corn Culture, Reasons for Cultivating Corn, Methods of Cultivating Corn, Selection of Seed Corn, How to Select Seed Corn, Storing Seed Corn, Methods of Storing Seed Corn, Corn for Silage, The Potato Crop, Planting and Cultivating Potatoes, Root Crops. VI Hay and Pasture Crops 97 Importance of Hay Crop, Clover, Clover Roots and Bacteria, Curing Hay, Alfalfa. Other Common Hay and Pasture Crops. VII Miscellaneous Crops 116 Millet, Rape, Field Peas, The Soy Bean, Cowpeas, Vetch, Rice, Sugar Cane, Fiber Crops, Cotton, Flax, Hemp. Vni Common Weeds and Their Eradication 123 Weeds, Weed Seeds Common in Grain, Weed Seeds Com- mon in Grass and Clover, Classes of Weeds. IX The Garden 134 A Garden. Plan of a Garden. Some Common Vege- tables. X Fruit on the Farm 143 Value of Fruit in the Diet, Strawberries, Raspberries. Apples. Chapter Page XI Plant Diseases and Insect Pests 156 Plant Diseases, Diseases of Potato and Cotton, Insects and Their Control. XII Live Stock 165 Importance, Relation to the Soil, Classes, Care and Management. XIII Feeds and Feeding 173 Source, Requirement, Selection, Kinds, Composition, Balanced Ration, Comparison of Feeds. XIV Horses 177 Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. XV Cattle 192 Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. XVI Dairying 212 Milk and Its Care, Testing Milk, Testing Cows. XVII Sheep ' 220 Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. XVIII Swine 229 Types and Breeds, Care and Management,. Feeding. XIX Poultry, Birds and Bees 244 Poultry on the Farm. Care of Poultry, A 100-Hen Poultry House, Feeding Laying Hens, Birds, Bees. XX Agricultural Engineering 259 The Road Problem, Road Construction, Maintenance of Roads, Drainage, Irrigation, Farm Machinery, Farm Buildings, The Silo, Fencing, Building Fences. XXI Community Activities 284 Boys' and Girls' Clubs, Farmers' Clubs, Co-operation, Marketing Butter, Marketing Eggs, School Gardens, County Agent. XXII The Farm Home 305 What a Desirable Home Should Be, Windbreaks, Sanita- tion, Ventilation, The Farmstead. XXIII Farm Management 318 Standing of the Farmer, Rotation of Crops, Classification of Field Crops, Rotation Maintains Vegetable Matter, Planning Farms, Live Stock Accounts, Account with a Cow, Marketing Dairy Products, Co-operation in Deliv- ering Milk or Cream. Appendix 349 Bibliography, Tables, etc. ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE CHAPTER I SOILS Soil, from the standpoint of the farmer, is that por- tion of the earth's surface in which plants grow. It is composed of small particles of rock, as grains of clay and sand, and decayed and decaying plants. Origin. — We are told that at one time, many, many years ago, the earth's surface was all solid rock, and that the wind and water and frost have been able to break off little pieces of rock to make soil. These little pieces of rock are called clay when very fine, sand when a little coarser than clay, and gravel when quite coarse. In the mountains, or where there are very large stones or boulders, Figure 1. — The action of vegetation, water and the weather gradually causes the disintegration of solid rock. 10 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE large cracks will be seen in the rocks. These cracks are made by frost, by alternate expansion and contrac- tion caused by heat and cooling, or by the force of growing roots. When these cracks are formed little particles of rock are broken off. A strong wind will blow these particles about over the rocks, make them finer and wear off other particles. Rain and water running over the rocks do the same thing. The wind and water tend to gather the soil particles into crevices in the rock and other sheltered places. When several of these little particles fv «>y>j firm Y. ^^. Figure 2. — Soil well filled with Inimiia. have been gathered in one place, there is the beginning of a little patch of soil. When this little patch of soil becomes moist from rain or melting snow, and the warm sun shines on it, some kind of a plant, like moss, will start to grow. At first these little patches are very small and plants can grow only a very little while. When the plants die they are added to the soil. Then other small pieces of rock are added and still other plants grow and die and are added to the little patch of soil. This has been going on for many thousands of years, so that nearly the whole surface of the earth is covered with soil. SOILS 11 Parts of Soil. — All soils are then composed of two parts, the part made up of little particles of rock that we call sand or clay or gravel, and the part made up of decayed or decaying plants. This part is called organic matter, vegetable matter or humus. Wherever crops are to grow it is necessary that the soil have both particles of rock and vegetable matter. In a sand pit there is no vegetable matter in the soil and plants grow very poorly or not at all. In an old drained lake-bed, where the soil is made up almost entirely of vegetable matter (peat), crops do not grow well. In farming it is very important that there be a proper combination of these two parts. The part made up of particles of rock is called mineral matter. The part made up of dead and partly decayed plants is called organic matter. Plants contain both mineral and organic matter. Questions: 1. What is soil? 2. How has soil gradually been formed from solid rock? 3. What are the two important parts of soil? Arithmetic: 1. If there are 2 lbs. of ash in 100 lbs. of dry vegetable matter, how many lbs. of ash in one ton (2,000 lbs.) of vegetable matter? 2. If there is j-i lb. of vegetable matter in 10 lbs. of soil, how many pounds of vegetable matter in 100 lbs. of soil? 3. How many pounds of vegetable matter or manure would be required to cover 12 acres, if six tons were applied to each acre? CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS In the study of soils one finds that there are many different kinds. To enable us to talk and write about soils, and to understand what is meant, it is necessary to classify soils so that everyone will know what is meant when a certain kind of soil is named. The most common names applied to soils are gravel, sand, loam, clay and peat. Gravel is the coarse part of the soil. The particles may vary in size from that of kernels of wheat to stones as large as hen's eggs. Such soil is not as a rule productive. The particles are so coarse that they hold very little moisture or plant food. Soil containing a large percentage of gravel is called very poor or very light. 12 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Sand is the name applied to soil with particles much finer than gravel but still comparatively coarse. The particles may be as large as grains of common granulated sugar or cornmeal. Sandy soil is much more productive than gravelly soils. The particles being finer, they hold moisture better and usually contain more available plant food. Clay is the name applied to the very fine particles of soil. Clay is often as fine or finer than wheat flour. Gen- erally clay soils are the most productive soils, Ijecause the grains are very, very fine. A given quantity of clay will hold much more water than the same quantity of sand or gravel. Clay soil is very sticky when wet, while sandy soil is not. Loam is a name applied to soil that has a liberal amount of vegetable matter mixed with either sand or clay or both. If a soil has a very large proportion of clay, it is called a clayey loam. Nearly all the soils have a mixture of sand with clay, but the proportion of each naturally varies. On this account there are all kinds of mixtures, varying from nearly all sand and very little clay, to nearly all clay and very little sand. Sandy Soils. — Soils containing a large percentage of sand are known as sandy soils, or sandy loam soils. They do not hold as much moisture as clay soils. Such soils, therefore, warm up more quickly in the spring than do clay soils, and crops grow more quickly. If it does not rain for several days or weeks, crops on such soils are likely to be injured for lack of moisture. Sandy soils contain less plant food than clay soils and give it up more readily. On this account clay soils are regarded as better; but, if sandy soils are well handled, they produce good crops and are more easily plowed and cared for than clay soils. Clay Soils. — Soils containing a large percentage of clay are known as clay soils, or as clay loam soils. Because the particles of clay are very small, there is more surface exposed in a given amount of clay soil than in the same amount of sandy soil. Soil holds water on the surface of the particles, on which account a clay soil holds much more water than a sandy soil. The fact that a soil with fine SOILS 13 particles has more surface exposed than soil with coarser particles is illustrated by an apple. The surface of a whole apple is represented by the peeling. If the apple is quartered, or cut into many pieces, each cut increases the exposed surface of the apple by the two newly cut surfaces. The apple is no larger. The exposed surface represented by the peeling is the same. If a grain of sand is pulverized to form many particles of clay, the amount of surface will be greatly increased. Because clay holds moisture better, it warms up more slowly in the spring. Crops start more slowly, but are much less likely to be injured by drouth. Questions: 1. What do you understand by the terms, gravel, sand, clay? 2. Tell the difference between a sandy loam, and a clay loam. 3. Explain why clay soil holds moisture better than sandy soil. Arithmetic : 1. If a cubic foot of sandy soil weighs 90 lbs. and holds 17% of its weight of water, how many pounds of water will it hold? 2. If a cubic foot of clay soil weighs 75 lbs. and holds 30% of its weight of water, how many pounds of water will it hold? SOURCES OF PLANT FOOD Plant Food in the Air. — Plants as well as animals must have food; and it is as important to know what plants need and how to supply their needs as it is to know how to feed animals properly. The greater portion of the plant food comes from the air rather than from the soil. All those substances in a plant called carbohydrates as starch, sugar and fibrous tissue, are made entirely from carbon dioxide gas and water. The plant takes in carl)on dioxide from the air, through its leaves, and water from the soil, through its roots. When the water and the carbon dioxide are brought together in the leaves of the plant, and the sun shines on the leaves, the sun and the green coloring matter (the chlorophyll) in the leaves cause the water and the carbon dioxide to unite. The oxygen and hydrogen in the water unite with the carbon in the carbon dioxide. These three elements form starch. The oxygen in the carbon dioxide is liberated and given off to the air. In this way plants purify the air for animals to breathe and animals exhale air containing carbon dioxide, which furnishes food for 14 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE plants. Some of the starch formed in a plant is slightly modified during the growth of the plant and forms fibrous tissue and sugar. Examine kernels of wheat and corn and a potato to see what a very large part is starch. The white part of them all is very largely starch. It is seen that by far the greater portion of our common plants does not come from the soil, as is usually supposed, but is formed from the poisonous gas, carbon dioxide, from the air, and water from the soil. Plant Food in the Soil. — A small por- tion of every plant comes from the plant food in the soil. A fairly good idea of the proportion of any plant that is taken from Ti -1 • 1 J • 1 1 1 • xu 1 A Figure 3. — The ap- the soil IS obtamed by burnmg the plant, proximate composition The ashes remaining represent nearly the llz]{^ll^,^ I^thl'gtufen whole amount that came from the soil, are composed of min- mi • ,• l^ 1 n- iiii erals taken from the sou. This portion, though small, is absolutely The rest is composed of necessary for plant growth. One may ^r;.\°^d'^wS ^'""^ *^' Hken the plant food taken from the soil to salt eaten by animals. It furnishes a very small part of the food required, but is absolutely necessary. Hence the impor- tance of having a fertile soil that will furnish these sub- stances as needed by the growing crop. Plants are able to get food from the soil only when it is in a soluble form — that is, when the plant food will dissolve in water as sugar dissolves in tea. Soluble Plant Food. — When a soil contains plentj^ of soluble plant food it is said to be fertile. When plant food becomes soluble in the soil it is dissolved in the soil water. This water containing the plant food, surrounds the fine roots and root hairs of the plant, and passes through their thin walls just as nourishment enters the blood vessels in the ani- mal body. In this way plants get their food, soluble organic matter and soluble mineral matter, Figure 4. — A diagram showing the compos- from the Soil. They take t^ono^a potato. From Minnesota Bulletin -^ ^^^ pj^^^ ^^^^ ^j^j^ SOILS 15 large quantities of water. The water is given off from the leaves into the air, leaving the plant food taken from the soil in the plant. To show plainly that liquid passes up through the stem of a plant and into the leaves, set a branch from a house plant into a bottle of red ink or col- ored liquid, and watch results. It is seen that large amounts of water are needed by growing plants. Scientists have shown that to produce one pound of dry product, as hay or corn fodder, a plant takes from the soil and gives off to the air from 200 to 500 pounds of water. Since plants use water from which to make starch and other similar substances, as well as large quantities to take up the other plant food, it is very necessary that they be supplied with sufficient water at all times. Soil Moisture. — There is in most places enough moisture from rainfall or irrigation to produce good crops, but it is not always available at the right time; and often, dur- ing the growing season, there may be a shortage for several weeks. Unless land is in good condition to hold moisture, and well cultivated to prevent evaporation from the sur- face, it may become too dry, and then the plants will not grow well or may die. Farmers can avoid this difficulty largely bj^ keeping vegetable matter in the soil, which holds moisture like a sponge; and by thorough cultivation of the surface, which prevents, to a large extent, the loss of soil water by evaporation. By cultivation the soil is loosened at the surface and the water in the ground cannot rise readily by capillarity, because it is separated from the sun and wind by this layer of loose soil. It is in such times that the skillful farmer, or the man who knows best how to handle his soil, can get good crops, when farmers who do not know or care, but just "trust to luck," fail. Questions: 1. Of what substances are plants largely composed? 2. Tell how these substances are converted into plant tissue. 3. From what source does a plant get a small but essential por- tion of its food? Arithmetic: 1. How many pounds of wheat are produced on an acre yielding 20 bus.? (A bu. of wheat weighs 60 lbs.) 16 ELEMENTR OF FARM PRACTICE 2. How many pounds of corn are produced on an acre yielding 40 bus.? (A bu. of shelled com weighs 56 lbs.) 3. How many pounds of potatoes are produced on an acre yield- ing 150 bu.? (A bu. of potatoes weighs 60 lbs.) AVAILABLE PLANT FOOD Amount of Plant Food. — Most soils contain enough plant food to grow crops for many years, several hundred perhaps, but this plant food is not present in the soil in a soluble form and it is well it is not. If it were soluble it would be dissolved by the water during a heavy ram, and as the water flowed off over tlie fields and into the river it would carry with it the plant food, thus leaving the soil unproductive. This may be better understood if one takes two glasses of water, puts a spoonful of sand into one and a spoonful of sugar into the other, and stirs. Then carefully pour the water out of both glasses. The sugar being soluble has been dissolved and will pass out Fifiure 5. — (1) A piece of sod showing the grass roots. (2) A lump of earth taken from a field that has grown corn continuously for fourteen years and which ia badly depleted of vegetable matter. SOILS 17 of the glass with the water. The sand is not soluble and will remain in the glass. Only a very small amount of soluble plant food is needed to grow a crop; but while the amount is small, it is absolutely necessary to have enough of it to supply the plants. How Plant Food Is Made Soluble. — There are many different ways of making the insoluble plant food in the soil soluble. These are Nature's ways, and the change takes place naturally in soils under favorable conditions. But farmers can do a great many things to assist Nature in this work. One very important condition of soil, which favors mak- ing plant food soluble, is to keep the soil well supplied with vegetable matter as it was when the farmer first broke up the virgin sod. Get a small piece of sod from a new piece of breaking, and a handful of soil from an old field that has grown nothing but corn or grain for a great many years. Notice that the first is tough and is held together by many fine roots interwoven among the soil grains. The handful of earth from the old field contains little except the particles of soil. The plant roots, as well as other parts of plants found in soil, are called vegetable matter. When this vegetable matter is partly decomposed, it is called humus. Decay of Vegetable Matter. — When the weather is warm and the soil moist, the vegetable matter in the soil begins to decay. The vegetable matter is composed of plants, and is made up of the things that growing plants need for food. When the vegetable matter decays, the substances of which it is composed are set free or liberated, thus making plant food soluble. The vegetable matter decaying in the soil not only liberates tl^ plant food of which it is composed, but aids very much in making some of the insoluble plant foods in the mineral particles of soil soluble. It also aids by making the soil warmer, as heat is given off by a decomposing manure pile, and by giving off an acid, called an organic acid, because it is formed from organic matter. This acid acts on the soil grains and dis- solves a small amount of mineral matter off their surfaces. 18 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Plant food is thus made soluble much more rapidly in a soil that contains a good supply of vegetable matter, as new sod land, than in an old soil from which much of the vegetable matter has been used. Many soils that have produced grain and corn a great many years without the addition of manure have become nearly depleted of vegetable matter; and, while they usually contain plenty of plant food, it is in an insoluble form and plants cannot make use of it. Adding Vegetable Matter. — A farmer can add vege- table matter to his soil by growing on it once in every few years such crops as clover, timothy and other grass crops. These crops grow more than one year and consequently have a large root system. These roots add a large supply of vegetable matter; so several crops of corn or grain can be grown successfully following a crop of grass. The application of barnyard manure is another way by which the farmer can put vegetable matter in the soil and thereby increase its producing power. Questions: 1. What do you understand by the term vegetable matter in the soil? 2. In what way does vegetable matter assist in making plant food soluble? 3. In what ways may a farmer add vegetable matter to the soil? Arithmetic: ]. How many lbs. of water in 20 bus. of wheat? (Note: There are 12 lbs. of water in 100 lbs. of wheat.) ?:. If 70% of wheat is starch, how many lbs. of starch in 20 bus.? 3. It requires 500 lbs. of water to produce one pound of hay. How much water is required to produce a ton of hay? Exercises: 1. If possible, find some large rocks and note the cracks in them, and the little depressions where there is a small accumulation of soil. Note the growth of moss or other forms of plant life. Write out a description of what you have seen. 2. Burn some dry plants and note that a small part of them is left. We call it ashes. It is mineral matter. The part that disap- pears in the burning process as smoke and gas is the vegetable matter. 3. Get samples of gravel, sand and clay. Put a very small amount of each on a piece of white paper. Notice how they look and feel. CHAPTER II TILLAGE OBJECTS OF PLOWING Plowing Not Monotonous.— Did you ever wonder as you watched men plowing, why they were doing it? Or did you ever think that plowing must be very monotonous work — going forth and back, forth and back, across the field day after day? Plowing is not unpleasant work. In fact, most men like to plow. It is a quiet, peaceful work, and after the rush and anxiety of harvest time, it really seems restful. It is certainly not monotonous work, if one knows why one is plowing, and how and when to plow. Plowing Mellows the Soil. — One of the chief reasons for plowing is to stir the soil and make it loose and mellow, so the air can circulate through it, and so the moisture can settle down into it. When the soil has settled all sum- mer and had the heavy rains beating on it, it becomes Figure 6. Good plowing done with a breaker. 20 ELEME^'TS OF FARM PRACTICE packed and hard, and must be loosened to prepare it for a new crop, if we desire to meet the conditions of nature. Plowing saves moisture for the next crop. When the ground is packed, as it is when the crops are removed in the fall, it is so hard that when it rains much of the water runs off over the surface instead of settling down into the soil. Plowing overcomes this difficulty, and by loosening the surface, any moisture that may be in the subsoil (the soil below the plowed furrow) is retained, because this water cannot readily pass up through the loose plowed soil. If the ground were not plowed, the soil moisture would rise to the surface by capillarity, just as oil rises in a lampwick, and when it got near the surface the sun and wind would evaporate it. Plowing Destroys Weeds. — It is natural for all good soils to be producing some- thing at all times during the growing season. As soon as the crop is re- moved (and very often before) weeds begin to grow. If no precaution is taken, they will go to seed, and thus cause trouble later. Plowing stops their growth. It also turns up new soil to the light, and weed seeds which have been too deep in the soil to grow, are brought near the surface where they can grow. If the plowing is done in the fall these weeds start to grow, but do not have time to pro- duce seed before they are Figure 7. — First year clover growing in stub- killed by irOSt. ble. Such a crop is better pasture than Plowing DeStTOyS In- many cattle are furnished, and IS a benefit * iv^ »»"*& .^y^^i^vj^ **» to the soil. It would be unwise to plow such SCCtS. jManymsectS, SUCll a field early in the fall, if one has stock i ' j . 4. that can use the feed. aS gl'aSS hopperS and CUt- TILLAGE 21 worms, are checked by plowing in the fall. The mature insects lay their eggs in the ground in the fall, and if the eggs are not disturbed, they hatch out the next spring, and it is the young from these eggs that do the damage. Fall plowing disturbs the eggs and many of them are destroyed. Plowing Helps to Liberate Plant Food. — We learned in another lesson that plants require food in a soluble form; that is, food in such condition that it will dissolve in water. Plowing assists in making portions of the soil soluble, by pulverizing it, breaking up the soil particles, exposing new surfaces, and allowing the sun, wind and water to act on it more freely than they can act on unplowed land. Plowing Covers Manure and Crop Residue. — It is gen- erally regarded as good practice to haul manure directly from the barn to the field before it has rotted, as much of its value is saved in this way. If a rather heavy dressing is applied, it is troublesome in harrowing, sowing and cul- tivating, unless it is plowed under out of reach of the harrow and other tools, but still where the plant roots can reach it. The plowing under of manure or vegetable matter saves much of its value from being lost in various ways as it would be if it were left exposed. Questions: 1. Explain how plowing saves moisture. 2. In what two ways does plowing destroy weeds? 3. How does plowing destroy insects? 4. How does plowing assist in liberating plant food? Arithmetic: 1. A plow turns a furrow 14 inches wide. How many furrows must one plow to plow a strip 8 rods wide? 2. How far will a team travel in plowing with a single 14-in. plow a field 8 rods wide and 40 rods long? 3. How many acres of land in a field 8 rods by 40 rods? TIME TO PLOW Condition of Soil. — The greatest problem that a plow- man has to solve, is to determine the proper time to plovv. Both the season of the year and the condition of the soil must be considered. If a heavj^ clayey soil is plowed when it is too wet, the lumps turned up become, when dry, hard clods, which it is very difficult to pulverize into a good seed bed. This is especially true if plowing is done in the 22 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE spring. Plowing clayey land that is wet is not objection- able, however, if done in the fall and the field is not sown until spring, as the thawing and freezing during whiter aid in pulverizing any clods that may form. Light sandy or loam soil may be plowed when wet without any serious trouble. Time of Year to Plow. — As a rule early fall plowing is preferable, as it allows the ground to become settled before the crop is sown, thus making it less likely to become too dry during the summer. Early fall plowing also destroys weeds by turning up new seeds, which start to grow in the Figure 8. — Rape growing in a stubble field. Such a crop may be raised for fall feed at a very small cost per acre. Rape is excellent feed for any kind of stock but milch cows. One might be justified in neglecting to plow such a field early. fall, and are soon killed by frost, while, if the same seeds were turned up late in the fall, the plants would grow in the spring and trouble the crops. Fall plowing also facili- tates spring work, and, by leaving the soil exposed to the elements, aids in liberating plant food. When Not to Plow in Early Fall. — If some catch crop is growing in the stubble field, as clover, rape or rye, that can be used to advantage for fall pasture, fall plowing — at least early fall plowing— is not always advisable. The green crop and pasturing will prevent largely the growth of weeds, and the green crop checks to some extent the TILLAGE 23 loss of moisture. Thus at least two reasons for early plow- ing are removed. The green crop, whether plowed under or pastured off", would add considerable vegetable matter to the soil, which would be of more value to the next crop than the plant food that would be liberated by the early fall plowing. As the country becomes more thickly settled, and better methods of farming are practiced, farmers will have fewer fields lying idle during the fall. Many farmers now get from 50c to $4.00 worth of feed per acre from their fields after the main crop has been harvested. This in- come is almost entirely net profit, and cannot be over- looked as more intensive systems of farming are made necessary by higher priced land. Fall Feed. — On many farms pastures are very poor dur- ing the fall and cattle must be fed dry feed or, what more often follows, allowed to get poor or to run down in milk flow. Such conditions are very undesirable, and in most years unnecessary. Clover sown with the grain crop in the spring, or rye sown in the stubble as soon as the grain crop is removed, or rape sown at almost any season of the year, will in ordinary years furnish an abundance of fall pasture. Good fall pasture not only furnishes cheap feed during the fall, but gives stock an excellent start for winter. While the old habit of getting all the land plowed in the fall was an excellent one, and necessary when grain was the only crop, there are now many instances where much better results would be obtained were some of the fields made to produce fall pasture rather than left bare during the fall, in which condition more or less plant food is lost by such exposure. If catch crops are grown on the field so that early fall plowing can not be done, it is better to plow late in the fall than to wait until spring. Most crops do better on fall plowing than on spring plowing. Spring plowing, being loose, is likely to become too dry. No Best Time. — There is no best time to plow. The time must be determined by conditions. It is hoped that those who read this lesson will think about the things mentioned, and observe what the best farmers in their neighborhoods are doing. They will then be better able to decide intelligently when to plow. 24 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Questions: 1. What danger is there in plowing a heavy clay soil when wet? 2. What is to be gained by early fall plowing? 3. Give some reasons which may make it advisable to defer plowing until late in the fall. Arithmetic: 1. 4 lbs. of clover seed per acre is sufficient to sow with a grain crop for fall pasture. What is the cost per acre of such pasture if clover seed is worth 15c. per pound? 2. If one acre of such pasture furnishes feed for a cow for 20 days, the cow giving % pounds of butter fat per day, how much butter fat is produced per acre? What is it worth at 28c. per pound? 3. Three pounds of rape seed per acre is sufficient to sow with a grain crop for fall pasture. What is the cost per acre of such a crop if rape seed is worth 18c. per pound? 4. One acre of such rape will feed 10 sheep for 1 week. They will gain 2 lbs. per week each. How many pounds of mutton are pro- duced per acre? What is it worth at 7c. per pound? DRY FARMINQ Dry farming is a term applied to the culture of land where the rainfall is not sufficient to grow crops in the or- dinary way. It consists in deep plowing, packing the lower part of the furrow slice, and the maintenance of a surface mulch by persistent cultivation of the surface soil to pre- vent evaporation. In many sections in the western and central western part of the United States, the rainfall is less than 20 inches per year. Ordinary methods of farm- ing have not proved profitable in such places, because the moisture was not sufficient to ensure a crop. The aim in dry farming is to so handle the soil that every bit of mois- ture that falls will be taken up by the soil, and the loss of moisture by evaporation will be as small as possible. In some sections where the rainfall is fairly plentiful, — that is, from fifteen to twenty inches per year, — a crop is grown every year. In other places, where the rainfall is only ten to fifteen inches, a crop is grown every other year. Deep plowing, or plowing from eight to twelve inches deep, provides a loose mellow soil into which any moisture that falls quickl}^ settles. It provides also much more room for the storage of moisture than is provided by shallow plow- ing, and allows the deep rooting of crops grown so they can better get the moisture stored in the soil. TILLAGE 25 Subsurface packing is another important feature of dry farming. It is done by means of specially made heavy implements that are drawn over the field and pack the lower part of the furrow slice, but leave the surface mellow and loose. This packing increases the capacity of the soil to hold moisture, and packs the furrow slice against the subsoil so that any moisture in the subsoil may be brought up into the furrow slice by capillarity. A surface mulch consists of from two to four inches of loose, fine soil over the surface of the field. It is main- Figure 9. A subsurface packer. tained by persistent disking and harrowing. Every rain packs this surface soil down, and, if left packed down, the moisture in the lower part of the furrow slice or in the subsoil will be raised to the surface by capillarity. If brought to the surface the sun and wind will evaporate it, and it will be lost. Harrowing at once after a rain loosens up this surface soil, making of it a surface mulch through which the moisture cannot rise. Questions: 1. What do you understand by the term, "dry farming"? 2. What is the reason for deep plowing in dry fanning? 3. What do j^ou mean by the term, "surface mulch"? Of what use is it? How is it maintained? 26 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Arithmetic: 1. How many gallons of water fall on an acre when there is a rainfall of 1 inch? (Note: There are 43,560 sq. ft. of surface in an acre. There are 231 cu. in. in a gallon.) 2. If a cubic foot of soil will hold 3 gallons of water by capillarity, how many gallons will an acre of soil to a depth of 2 feet hold? How many inches of rainfall would this represent? THE SEED BED Yields. — The way in which the seed bed is prepared has much to do with the success of the crop grown. Where farms are large there is a strong tendency to rush through the spring work and get in a large acreage of crops, but often without due preparation of the seed bed. Such hasty work at seeding time is very often the chief cause of a poor harvest. A yield of twenty-five bushels of oats per acre leaves the farmer no profit, as it costs as much to raise them as they are worth. A yield of forty bushels per acre leaves considerable margin for profit. Twenty-five acres of oats yielding forty bushels per acre are much more profitable than forty acres yielding twenty-five bushels per acre, as the same amount of oats is raised with less land and labor. A good seed bed must be moist (not wet), firm enough so that it will not dry out quickly, loose enough to permit air to enter the soil, and warm enough to cause the seed to germinate. The farmer cannot regulate the weather, but he can do many things to assist in regulating these conditions, and such is the object of tillage. Air is needed in the soil to start the seed to germinate and to supply the oxygen necessary in the chemical ac- tion which must take place in the soil, to make the plant food in the seed available for the growing plantlet and to break down plant food in the soil on which the plantlet can feed after it has used up the food stored in the seed. Cultivation with a disk or harrow stirs up the soil and lets the air circulate through it. Moisture is needed in the soil — (1) to dissolve the plant food in the seed planted, so that the little plantlet can make use of it; (2) to supply the growing plant with water; (3) to assist in the chemical action in the soil which liberates plant food; (4) to cany the plant food to the plant. Cul- TILLAGE 27 tivation of the soil helps to retain moisture by checking evaporation from the surface by means of the surface mulch and by loosening up the surface soil so that any rain that falls will settle into it instead of running off over the surface. Need of Heat. — Seed will not germinate, neither will plants grow, unless the soil has a certain amount of heat in it. Heat is necessary before chemical action can begin. One can not make the weather warmer, but cultivation of the soil, keeping it loose on top so as to check evaporation /■ t^ rfgft'^ Ml* ^1^^^^^^^^ ^^fLT ^2s^KK^bmH^^^^^^^^|HHMI| m^^^^ ^I^^^D I^C; ^UUBsB-i It' ^■^^^ ll^.'^K ^^^^^^fe'^"*^^^ Mf^^ ^ - ^jv" ' ^m If^g^^ iffl^^^K "^'■■v '^ ~ •(^'^^HHfci^^^^K^w! t^ "^ ^ ^'^ '-^^S^fli^BSm ■^^•s. '/^" : ^'l^'^i^i!^»sS^v^^^SHBm Figure lu. — Proparing the seed bed by disking. from the surface, helps to warm up the soil. The circu- lation of air, promoted by good tillage, is also quite a factor in warming the soil in the spring. The air at the surface of the ground becomes warmed by the sun, and if it can enter the soil it helps to warm that also. Methods of Preparing the Seed Bed. — The best seed bed is formed by plowing land in the fall, so that the por- tion turned over by the plow will have a chance to settle down upon the soil beneath (the subsoil). Then moisture, which is usually present in the subsoil, may move up into the furrow slice by capillary action, as oil rises in a lampwick. This moisture is often necessary to supply 28 ELEMEXTS OF FARM PRACTICE growing crops during times when it does not rain for several days. Fall plowing, disked and harrowed to loosen the surface, makes an excellent seed bed. In other words, a firm, mellow so^ below, covered by two or three inches of loose, fine soil is the condition desired. If land must be plowed in the spring, very thorough harrowing is necessarj'- to work the soil up fine and to assist in firming the furrow slice so as to form good capillary connection with the subsoil. Questions: 1. What is the principal work of the farmer during April? 2. What are the essential conditions of a good seed bed? 3. Why is air needed in the soil, and how may it be secured? 4. Why is moisture needed in soil? How may it be retained? Arithmetic: 1. If wheat is worth 90c. per bu. and it costs 15c. per acre to harrow land, how many times can one afford to harrow an acre of land to increase the yield two bushels? 2. If wheat is worth 90c. per bu. and it costs 35c. per acre to disk the land, how many times can one afford to disk an acre of land to increase the yield two bushels per acre? 3. Field A yields twenty-five bushels of oats, field B yields forty bushels of oats. How many more dollars' worth of labor can one afford to put on field A than on field B, if oats are worth 35c. per bushel? PLANTING Time to Plant. — Crops that are not easily killed by frost, as wheat and oats, are usually the first crops sown. Seeds of these crops will germinate at a comparatively low temperature, as low as from 41 to 50 degrees F. The soil usually reaches this temperature in the spring about as soon as one can begin disking and harrowing, and land that is well disked and harrowed reaches this temperature earlier, as shown in the preceding lesson. It is usually wise to sow these crops as early as possible and thus avoid the danger from rust, smut and hot winds that are more likely to injure late sown grain crops. Barley may be sown early, but it is more liable to in- jury from frost. Experiments show that the best yields are obtained by sowing barley a week or ten daj^s later than the first seeding of wheat or oats. This is also the most convenient time, as it permits one to sow the other grains TILLAGE 29 first, and then to prepare the barley land. Barley may be sown as late as the last of May, if necessary, in the case of low, wet land; but earlier sowing is better. Depth to Plant. — There are two ways to sow grain. First, by a broadcast seeder, which scatters the seed on top of the ground, where it is covered by cultivating or by harrowing. In this process some seeds are left on the surface uncovered, while others are covered as deep as the land is cultivated. This causes the seeds to germinate unevenly; and, if the land becomes too dry, much of the Figure 11. — Seeding with a drill. The dragging chains cover the seed-!, wliich are placed in the ground at a uniform depth. seed on the surface will not grow, while, if the soil is too wet, much of the deeply sown seed will not grow. The better method of sowing is with a drill which deposits all the seed at a uniform depth and at any depth desired. In early seeding one should plant quite shallow, from one to two inches, as the soil is warmer near the surface and the seed and small plants should have all the heat available. On the other hand, seed sown too shallow will not grow well if the weather remains dry for some time, as the sur- face of the soil dries out too quickly and leaves the plant 30 ELEMENTS OF FAKM PRACTICE improperly supplied with moisture. Later in the season when the soil is warmer and plants grow more quickly, it is well to plant the seed deeper, from two to three inches, thus giving the plants a better chance to get moisture. The depth to plant should vary also with the soil. In light, dry soil one should sow deeper than in heavy, wet soil. Questions: 1. What three conditions must a seed have before it can grow? 2. What can you say of time of planting? 3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of shallow and deep planting? Arithmetic: 1. If the average yield of wlieat in the United States is 14.8 bus. per acre, what is the average value of an acre of at 85c. per bushel? 2. If it costs $13.00 to produce an acre of wheat, what is the average profit per acre? (See example No. 1.) 3. If the average yield of oats in the United States is 30 bus. per acre, what is the value of an average acre of oats at 38c. perbu.? 4. If it costs $13.00 to produce an acre of oats, what is the aver- age profit per acre? Exercises: 1. Visit fields in your neighborhood where plowing is being done and be sure you can answer the following questions: Are the furrows straight? How deep is the land plowed? Are weeds and stuV)ble being covered? Is the land well pulverized or is it lumpy? Is the plowed land higher or lower than the unplowed land? At what time of year is most of the plowing done in your neighborhood? Do some men plow better than others? If, so, in what ways? 2. To see how water moves in the soil by capillarity, put the end of a lump of sugar into water or coffee and notice movement of the liquid through it. Take another cube of sugar and put on top of it all the finely pulverized sugar you can get to stay on. (Granulated sugar will not do.) Touch the bottom of the loaf to the water. Note rise of water through cube and note that it stops when it gets to the pul- verized sugar. This shows you how proper cultivation of the soil may save moisture by preventing it from reaching the surface where it would be evaporated. The water Mill pass up through the pulverized sugar in a few minutes because the sugar will di.ssolve. It would not do this if you had finely pulverized soil in place of sugar because the soil would not dissolve in the water. 3. It will be an interesting experiment to plant short rows of seeds at different times and at different depths and to watch results. Early in the spring plant four short rows of wheat or oats with ten or fifteen good kernels in each row. In the first row plant the seeds one, two, three and four inchas deep respectively in the different rows. Note the time required for the plants to come up, the number of plants that grow, and the strength of the plants. Repeat the experunent later when the soil is •warm. CHAPTER III FERTILIZERS Need of Fertilizers. — If a soil is cropped year after year and no plant food is added, the supply in the soil will be- come exhausted, or there will be such a small amount left that the crops cannot get enough food to grow well and will produce very little or fail entirely. There is a number of different materials that may be applied to the soil to supply the plant food needed. Such materials are called fertilizers. Barnyard manure is the most common fer- tilizer used. Materials that are purchased for fertilizer, Figure 12. — Piistiirintr. T.ivc? slook pan ho kept ordinarily nioro cheaply on past- ures than in any other way. Pasturing also improves the soil. such as lime, ground phosphate rock, sodium nitrate, waste from slaughter houses, etc., are called commercial ferti- lizers, because they are bought and sold. Plant Food. — Plants, like animals, have to be fed, and, like animals, they need more than one kind of food. There is a number of different elements which are needed for the complete growth of plants. The soil, air, and water in the soil furnish most of the elements needed in such great abundance that there is no danger of the supplj'^'s ever becoming exhausted. There are only four elements that are likely to be lacking even in soils that have been cropped ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE for many centuries. So it is necessary to learn only about the ones that are most likely to be required. Names.^The four elements that are most likely to become limited in the soil are nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- sium and calcium. The names of these elements are not hard to pronounce or learn. Every boy and girl should know these names, what part each element plays in the growth of plants, and a practical means of maintaining Figure 13. — A crop of alfalfa, one of the best farm tertilizers. a supply of them in the sgil. Boys and girls who have studied physiology and have learned how to pronounce and to know the meaning of such words as occipital, parietal, cerebellum, etc., or who have learned to pronounce and know the meaning of such words as subtrahend and min- uend in arithmetic will not have difficulty in learning to use the words, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. Nitrogen is needed by all plants. Nearly 80% of the air is nitrogen, and this is the chief source of nitrogen for the soil. The problem of the farmer is to get the nitrogen out of the air and into the soil. It is present in the soil FERTILIZERS 33 chiefly in combination with other elements in the form of vegetable matter. As soon as the vegetable matter in the soil decomposes (rots), the nitrogen is made soluble or goes off into the air as gas, so that it is very easily lost. A soil that is lacking in vegetable matter is likely to be lacking in nitrogen. A good supply of nitrogen in the soil stim- ulates the growth of plants. A dark green color of the growing plants generally indicates plenty of nitrogen. When the foliage turns yellow before it is ripe, there is usually a scarcity of nitrogen. Nitrogen is an essential element of protein. The amount in normal soils varies from 2,000 lbs. to 10,000 lbs. in the upper seven inches. Phosphorus is needed by all plants. It is needed es- pecially in crops like grain and corn that mature seeds. The presence of plenty of phosphorus in the soil aids plants in the production of seed. The kernels of wheat or rye or corn are likely to be plumper and heavier where there is a good supply of phosphorus. A lack of sufficient phos- phorus in the soil results in a smaller yield of grain, and the grain produced is not so good in quality. Selling seeds, such as wheat, barley, rye, or corn from the farm removes from the farm comparatively large amounts of phosphorus. The amount of phosphorus in normal soils varies from 1 ,000 lbs. to 2,000 lbs. per acre. When one considers the compar- atively small amount of this element in the soil, and the amounts removed by ordinary crops, as shown in the fol- lowing table, one is impressed with the need of adding to the supply in the soil before it gets too low. Approximate Amount of Fertility Removed by Crops. Crop Amount bushels Nitrogen pounds Phosphorus pounds Potassium pounds Wheat 20 22 4.1 5.8 Oats 40 28 4.1 6.6 Barley 30 27 5.2 6.1 Corn 50 31 6.1 9.6 Potatoes 150 32 6.3 42.0 Clover hay .... 2 tons 80 8.5 56. 34 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Potassium is needed by all crops. It is especially needed in hay crops, in the straw of grain crops, and in po- tato and root crops. It is potassium that gives stiffness to the straw of grain crops and enables it to stand up and mature a crop. Where there is a scarcity of potassium the sti'aw of grain crops is likely to be weak. Potassium is removed from the farm rapidly by such crops as hay, potatoes and sugar beets. The amount of potassium in ordinary soils varies from 20,000 to 50,000 lbs. per acre. Calcium is used in a very limited extent by plants, as plant food, except by legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, etc. Its most important use in the soil is to overcome acidity or sourness. When a soil is sour, bacteria neces- sary for the liberation of plant food are likely to be lack- ing, especiall}^ those bacteria associated with the accumu- lation of nitrogen in the soils and its conversion into forms available for plants. A sour soil is often indicated by the growth of such weeds as sorrel and horsetail fern, or l)y its failure to produce good crops of legumes. It is also easily detected by several simple tests. Many soils have an abundance of lime, while others are seriously in need of it. The amount of calcium in normal soils varies from a few hundred pounds to a great many tons per acre. Questions: 1. What do you understand by the term fertiUzer? By com- mercial fertihzers? 2. Name the four elements that are likely to be lacking in cul- tivated soils, and tell at least one special purpose for which each is needed. Arithmetic: 1. If a soil contains 1,000 lbs. of phosphorus per acre, how many 100-bu. crops of corn can it produce, without the addition of more phosphorus? If 1 bu. of corn removes 12-100 lbs. of phosphorus? 2. If nitrogen is worth ISc. per lb. as a fertilizer, what is the value of 2 tons of clover hay to plow under? If it contains 2 lbs. of nitrogen per 100 lbs.? 3. If a soil contains 50,000 lbs. of potassium per acre, how many 100-bu. crops of corn can it produce without exhausting the potassium, if 1 bu. of corn removes 2-10 lbs. of potassium? FERTILIZERS AND THEIR USE Costs. — We have learned that there are four elements needed by plants, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and FERTILIZERS 35 calcium, the supply of which is likely to become depleted in ordinary soils unless care is taken to maintain them. In the last lesson we learned that a 20-bushel yield of wheat removed 22 lbs. of nitrogen, 4.1 lbs. of phosphorus and 5.8 lbs. of potassium. Nitrogen costs about 18 cents per pound, phosphorus about 6 cents per pound and potassium about 6 cents per pound, when purchased in the form of com- mercial fertilizers. To replace the elements removed by 20 bushels of wheat would cost at these prices about S4.55 or 22^ cents per bushel of wheat. If it were necessary to purchase all these elements used, it would make a very heavy tax on wheat raising. Nitrogen is present in the air in very large quantities. The farmer has a way at his command by which he can gather this nitrogen and add it to the soil at practically no cost. This is done by growing legumes, such as clover, alfalfa, etc. (See Chapter VI ) A good rotation of crops (See Chapter XXIII) in which clover or some other legume crop is included one or more times in from three to seven .years will provide for the maintenance of a sufficient supply of nitrogen. Barnyard manure also contains liberal amounts of nitrogen and its application to the soil every few years is very helpful in maintaining a supply of nitrogen. It is not necessar}^, therefore, under ordinary farm conditions, to purchase nitrogen. It is verj^ important in connection with the maintenance of nitrogen that a liberal supply of vegetable matter be maintained. When it becomes neces- sary to purchase nitrogen for a fertilizer, it may be secured in the form of sodium nitrate, a product taken from mines, ammonium sulphate, a by-product in the manufacture of gas, dried blood and other by-products from large packing plants or slaughter houses. Phosphorus. — It will l)e noted in the last lesson that phosphorus is present in the soil in comparatively small quantities. It is removed from the farm when either grain or live stock is sold. The addition of manure adds to the supply, especially if mill feed is purchased. Often the elements of fertility may be more economical Ij^ pur- chased in the form of feed to be fed to live stock and the manure applied to the soil than to purchase them in the 36 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE form of commercial fertilizers. Maintaining a supply of vegetable matter in the soil is important in aiding the liberation of phosphorus contained in the soil. Even after one has taken all these precautions to conserve phosphorus, there is almost certain to come a time when the supply of available phosphorus in the soil will be so small as to seri- ously limit the yield of crops. This is one of the elements that will no doubt have to be furnished to the soil in the form of commercial fertilizers. The more important sources of phosphorus fertilizers are ground bones, either steamed or raw from slaughter houses, and mineral phosphate mined Figure 1 !. — Cattle and clover maintain soil fertility. in many places in the United States. This is most com- monly used in a form called acid phosphate. In this form the phosphorus is easily available for plants. Raw, finely ground phosphate rock is now used in quite large quantities. This is a cheaper form of phosphorus, and, where a good supply of vegetable matter is maintained, the decomposi- tion of the vegetable matter in the soil renders the phos- phorus in the raw rock soluble, so that the plants can use it. The finer the raw phosphorus rock is ground the more easily is the phosphorus made soluble. Potassium is much more abundant in most soils than phosphorus or nitrogen. Most of the potassium used by plants is in the stems or straw. Most of the straw and hay produced on farms is used as feed or bedding for live stock FERTILIZERS 37 and returned to the soil in the form of manure. For these reasons there are very few soils that are deficient in potas- sium. In fact, in general farming it is seldom necessary to use fertilizers containing potassium other than barnyard manure especially if a practical rotation of crops is followed. Occasionally it pays a farmer to apply potassium for hay crops, root crops and potatoes, as these crops use very large amounts of this element. When it is necessary to apply potassium fertilizers, the most common kinds sold com- mercially are some of the mineral potassium salts, such as kainit, muriate of potash, a product refined from the mineral potassium salts, and wood ashes. Calcium is generally quite abundant, but occasionally there are soils that have very little or no calcium. Where there is insufficient calcium the soil is sour and crops do not succeed. This condition cannot be corrected by applying manure. Calcium in some form must be supplied. Cal- cium is commonly spoken of as lime. There are several different forms in which calcium may be applied. Com- mon quicklime (the lime used for plastering) may be used, or finely ground limestone or slaked lime or marl will also accomplish the same result. Complete Fertilizers. — There are many companies that prepare fertilizers ready for use on the farm. These fer- tilizers usually contain some calcium, some nitrogen, some phosphorus, and some potassium, also a considerable amount of other material called filler to make up the bulk and weight. Such fertilizers are called complete fertihzers. It is seldom economical to use such fertilizers, because it is seldom necessary to apply all of the elements to a soil and the elements not needed, if applied, are wasted. As stated above, the cheapest and most practical way of adding nit- rogen to the soil is to grow clover and other legume crops. Most soils, in fact nearly all soils, have enough potassium, so that it is not necessary to add more. Phosphorus is the element most likely to be needed and the cheapest way to supply that is to buy a fertilizer containing only phosphorus. Animal Manure. — Except in the case of soils that may be seriously impoverished of some particular element of plant food, it has been found that the total crop products from 38 ELEMENTS OF FARM PKAL'TICE fields that have received animal manure, exceed those from land treated with commercial fertilizers or which were not manured. Animal manure is preferable because (1) it is produced at a mininmm of expense, (2) it adds innnediatcly available plant food to the soil, (3) it provides humus and acid solvents that assist soil decay, (4) it produces effects for years after application. Questions: 1. Describe the most practical means of maintaining a supply of nitrogen in a soil for ordinary fanning? 2. Which of the four elements named in this lesson is most likely to become exhausted? How may it be replenished? 3. Is much potash removed from soil with ordinary crops? Why? 4. What is a complete fertilizer? Is it usually economical? 5. What are the advantages of animal manures? Arithmetic: 1. If 50 bus. of corn remove 31 lbs. of nitrogen, 6.1 lbs. of phos- phorus, and 9.6 lbs. of potassium, how much would it cost to replace these elements at 18c. per lb. for nitrogen, and 6c. per lb. for potas- sium and phosphorus? 2. If an acre of normal soil contains 4,000 lbs. of nitrogen, 2,000 lbs. of phosphorus and 35,000 lbs. of potassium, what is the total value of these elements per acre at prices used in E.xample 1? 3. If acid phosphate contains 6% phosphorus and a .50-bu. crop removes 6.1 lbs. of phosphorus, how many pounds of acid phos- phate would one have to apply to supply the needs of the crop? Exercises: 1. Find some field or fields in the neighborhood to which some kind or kinds of fertilizers have been applied. Make note of the kind of fertilizer used and, if possible, find a field part of which was fertil- ized and part imfertilized. Note the growth of the crop on the fer- tilized and also on the unfertilized part. Compare the color and height of plants, also the thickness of growth and, if possible, find out the yields on both parts of the field. 2. Ascertain the contents of the commercial fertilizers offered in your market and compare their values with prices asked for them. CHAPTER IV GRAIN CROPS PLANT STRUCTURE Parts of Plant. — All the more important plants, in which the farmer is chiefly interested, have four distinct parts, roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Plants, like animals, vary greatly. This fact is true of plants in any one variety, such as wheat plants or pansy plants. This habit of varia- tion has made possible the development of the great variety of plants that are grown to supply the many different needs of man. In some plants one part has been developed for use, in other plants other parts. For example, in the turnips the root is eaten; in asparagus the stems; in lettuce the leaves; and in wheat the seeds. Roots. — There are two kinds of roots, fibrous roots and tap roots Roots grow in the soil and take up moisture and plant food. The moisture in the soil and the plant food with it pass through the thin walls of the roots and very fine root hairs, or branch roots. Roots also hold the plant in place and tend to keep it erect. Stems. — These may grow erect like corn or wheat or may trail along the ground like squash or cucumber vines, or they may climb up some other ol)ject, like peas or beans. The function or work of the stem is to bear the leaves and blossoms and to provide a means for the plant food to go to and from the leaves. Plant food and moisture circulate in the plant somewhat similar to the circulation of blood in the body of an animal. In some cases, like potatoes, for example, some of the stems grow under ground; in fact, the potato (tuber) that we eat is simply an enlarged stem. This fact is indicated by the eyes on the potato, which arc the buds from which branches may grow. Leaves have been called the stomach of the plant, because it is in the leaves that the plant food from the soil and from the air are brought together and changed into the compounds which make up the plant. From 300 to 40 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 500 lbs. of moisture must pass through a plant to produce one pound of dry matter in the plant. This water must all be given off into the air by the leaves, hence the need of so many leaves. A tree, or a plant, usually has a very large leaf area exposed. It is interesting to estimate this leaf area on various plants, by counting the leaves on a part of the plant, measuring the size of an average leaf and then computing the total, remembering that there are two sides to each leaf. Each leaf has many little openings or pores on its under surface through which air is taken into the leaf and moisture and oxj'gen given off. Flowers are borne on the stems of plants. Their func- tion is to start and develop the seed which enables the plant to reproduce itself. In fact, the production of seed seems to be the function of the whole plant, but it is the blossom that starts the seed and as soon as the seed is started the blossom falls. Questions: 1. Name the four principal parts of a plant. 2. Name at least two plants in which the edible part comes from the roots. From the stem? From the leaves? From the seed? 3. Tell the principal uses to plants of roots and leaves. Arithmetic: 1. If 400 ll:)s. of water are given off (transpired) ])y clover plants to produce 1 lb. of dry matter, how many pounds will be transpired from an acre of clover yielding 3 tons of hay containing 85% of dry matter? 2. Count the leavesi on an average sized hill of potatoes Meas- ure an average sized leaf and find the total leaf surface expo.sed per hill. Per acre. If a potato plant is not available, use a geranium plant instead. GOOD SEED Importance. — We must have good kernels of grain from which to raise a good crop, just as we must have good cows from which to raise good calves. One of the laws of Nature which we must consider in raising plants and animals is that "Like produces like." If we want to raise large horses we must have large horses from which to raise them. If we want to raise dairy cows we must keep dairy cows or cows which have the ability to produce large amounts of milk. Likewise, if we wish to produce good plants, we must sow good seed. There are small, GRAIN CROPS 41 large, shrunken and plump grains. It is important to know which we shoukl plant. Test of Good Seed. — Good seed of an}^ kind of grain must have at least three qualities: (1) It must be pure, that is, free from weed and other grain seed. (2) It must be well matured, plump and heavy. (3) It must germinate well so as to produce strong plants. You will notice by examining a small sample of grain (place a small sample on a piece of white paper) that there is a great difference in the size, character and shape of the kernels. (Separate the sample into good and poor lots.) Would you care to plant the poor seed? You might be interested to plant ten of the very best, large, heavy seeds and ten of the poorest, small, light seeds in a box of pure sand. Moisten the sand and keep the box in a warm room. See which seeds produce the larger, stronger plants. Parts of a Seed. — A seed is made up of three parts: (1) A small plantlet or germ, the embryo, inside of each kernel which will, when the seed is placed under favorable conditions as to heat, air and moisture, grow and produce a plant; (2) The food material stored about the embryo, to feed it until it has developed a root system so as to be able to get food from the soil; and (3) The seed coat on the outside for protection. It is evident that a large, plump kernel or seed will have a stronger, larger germ than will a small or shrunken seed, and will also have more food for the little plantlet, so the plantlet will get a better start before it must obtain its food from the soil. Select Seed from Best Plants. — Another reason for selecting the large, plump seeds is because it is reasonable to expect that they grew on good, strong, healthy plants. There are a great many unfavorable conditions with which plants have to contend, such as diseases like smut, rust and blight; unfavorable weather conditions, as cold or wet or drought or heat; also poor soil conditions. It is evident that some plants are better able to withstand such conditions 42 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE ■S**t/g/vtn- than others. Those that do withstand such unfavorable conditions and are best adapted to the soil and climate will be likely to do better and produce better and more perfect seed than will other plants. The heavi- est and plumpest seeds are selected when seeds from the best and most viji;orous plants are se- cured. Hence, when a farmer selects the heavy, plump seeds raised on his own farm, he not only gets good, strong seed, Figure 15.— DiuKriuii of a Fanning Mill, show- but SCcd adapted tO his int; a gooil method of grading seed grain. „^j] n^^A r.lim.itp The blast blows the lighter kernels over the ^Uil ^"<-l tllHlcl A.. end of screen No. 3, in with the market HcaVy SCCd grOWn \X\. grain. The heavy kernels fall on this screen. ,, , f ,-, The smaller of these go through into market SOmC Oilier part 01 tUe grain, leaving only the heavy large kernels (joulltrV is USUallv llCaVV to go into the seed grain. -^ . J "^ i)ecause it grew under favorable conditions rather than ))ccause it came from es- pecially strong jilants. The heaviest home-grown s(hh1 is often better to sow than still heavier seed from other localities. Questions: 1. What law of Nature must be considered in raising plants and animals? 2. What are the three qualities that all good seed must possess? 3. What two kinds of seed can you usually find, if you examine a good, pure sample of grain? 4. What are the three parts of a seed, and the purpose of each? 5. Why is heavy, plump seed better than small or shrunken? Arithmetic: 1. Land at the Minnesota Experiment Station, seeded with heavy, plump seed oats, yielded 9.5 bus. per acre more than similar land seeded to light weight oats. What was the additional income per acre from heavy weight seed if oats are worth 3Sc. per bushel? 2. If 2 bus. of heavy seed oafs (sown on one acre) give an increased yield of 9.5 bus. what would be the increased yield from one bushel of heavy weight seed oats? 3. If one bushel of heavy weight seed oats gives a yield of 4.5 bus. more than is secured from a l)ushcl of light seed, what is the value of one bushel of heavy weight seed when oats are worth 38c. per bushel? Note: If the light weight seed is worth 3Sc. j^er bushel, the heavy gradt^d seed will be worth 3.Sc. plus 4.5 times 3Sc, GRAIN CROPS 43 SELECTION OF GOOD SEED Pure Seed. — It is well worth while for farmers to raise only pure varieties of grain, or grain that contains no other kind or variety of seed. Seed of Blue Stem wheat should be free from oats, rye, and l)arl(\y as w(^ll as from other kinds of wheat. Pure seed grain may be secured by pur- chasing a small amount of pure seed and using care in growing it so that it will not beconu; mixed; or, if one prefers to start with tiu^ seed on the farm, one may go through a small patch of grain when it is headed out in the field and pick out and destroy the other kinds of grain, thus getting a small patch pure, from which a start in pure seed may be made. As a rule the very best seed that one can get for the main crop is from grain that has been grown on the farm for several years and that has given good yields. Such grain, when graded and ck^aned, so that only the very best is saved for seed, usually gives excellent seed. The two general principles by which grain can be gi-aded, separated or cleaned of weed seeds, by the use of the fanning mill, are by size and shape of kernels or by weight. To Remove Weed Seeds.— Most weed seeds may be reinoved from grain by running the grain through a fanning mill. The large weed seeds aie separated from tiie grain by dropping the grain through a sieve that is too fine to let the weed seeds through. The small weed seeds are taken out by running tlie grain over a si(^ve that is too fine to let the grain through but coarse enough to let the small weed seeds through. The weed seeds that are lighten- than the grain may be blown out. Sometimes the light grains, like oats, may be separated from heavy weed seeds by blowing the grain out of the weed seeds. There are some weed seeds, like cockle and wild vc^tch, which are about the same sizc^ and wcMght as wheat, that are very hard to separate from that giain, while such weed seeds as wild oats are very hard' to separate from oats and barley, as the seeds are quite similar in character. When such wcoxl seeds aie present in grain and can not be removed with a fanning mill, a small amount of seed free from such weed seeds may be secured by hand pickin*'- 44 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE or by pulling the weed plants from a small plat of grow- ing grain, thereby getting a start in clean seed. Grading Seed Grain. — Many persons are satisfied when they get pure and clean seed grain; but, if one wishes to get the best results and maintain or improve grain from year to year, it is necessary to grade out and use for seed only the very best individual seeds in the whole amount grown on the farm. This may be cheaply done by grading the grain as shown on page 42. In this way the heavy plump, kernels are separated from the smaller, lighter ones. The former kernels should be used for seed and the latter sold or used for feed. Germination. — It is as important that seed grain ger- minates (starts to grow) well as that seed corn germinates well. It is a very sim- ple matter to test seed grain for germination, and this should always be done before it is planted. A good ger- minator is made as fol- lows : Partly fill a plate Figure 16.— A simple germinator for testing seed with Sawdust Or Saud, grain. The lower plate is partly filled with ^^,.e(l IxmI should he pr(>pai-e(l as eaily in the spring- as [)ossil)lc, and left with a loose mel- low surface w(^ll fii'med a}2;:>inst the subsoil. Diskinj;' or harrovvinfj; will suflice on land just previously cultivatxMl. Otherwise, fall plowing- and sprinst i-esults. Seed and Sowing. It is im|)ortant to ^rade oats before sowing and to select only lar^c and plump kernels of uni- form (!()lor and free from ail imi)uiities. Like wh(>a,t, oats may bc^ treated with formaldehyde tor smut. Oats should be sown early to insure eaily maturity, as rust is likely to develoj) and attack th(> plants with the advent of hot weather, hlarly oats will matuie in from <)() to 100 days. I*'rom two to three bushels of seed should be sown per aciv. Within limits thin seedinji, is likely to produce the most abundant I'oot systcMU. The s(>ed may be sown broad- cast, or with a diill. Th(> drill, as with wheat, is likely to produce the best r(>sults. The s(>(>(l should be c()\'(M-ed moic deeply in loose than in compact soil. l<'rom on(> to two inches is a fair a\'erai;-e. Harvesting. The methods of cuttinjj;, sluxdviufj;, stack- inj>;, threshint; and storing oats are hardly different from those describcMl for wlu>at. If oats are very short, they may be cut, handled, and W^(\ like hay. It is i)refcrable to stack oats, which should not be threshed for two or three weeks afterwards, in order to permit "sweating!;." They should be threshed then when dry so that the , wcinhinK :V2 Ihs. per bushel, how many pounds arc produced jx-r acre? 2. If TjOO ll)s. of water is t^iven off lo produce 1 II). of dry plant matter, how many pounds were f^iveti olT to produce the grain alone imder conditions of above example? 3. When the acre cost of producing oats was I14.0S, the land rental value was estimated at S3.7S. What per cent of the cost was that? ECONOMIC ASPECTS Grades. — -Tho ituu'kot doc^s nol disliiisuish oats as caro- fuUy as wheat. There arc niiinbers 1, 2, 3, 4 in whit(\ mixed, and red, or rust proof oats. White oats usually bring the best price. The lej2;al weight of oats in most states is 82 pounds per busheh Exports and Imports. — Very little oats is either exportcMJ or iniportiMl. 'I'he iniportations ai'c principally for seed. Prices.^ — Vov the ten years from 1908 to 1917 the av(M-- age December price of oais was VA.7 c(Mits, lunng HI.!) c(nits in 1912 and ()().9 cents in 1917. On August 1, 1<)1S, Uie country price of oats was 73 cents a busluil. Tlie average acre price; for the United States from 1913 to 1918 was about $15.74. Cost of Production. — It is estimated that in 1909 it had (;ost on a (country-wide average 31 cents a bushel or $10.91 an acn; to produce oats, at the same the price was 40 c(mts a bushel or $14.08 an acre. The items considered I in cost were laud ren(;il, schmI, fertilizers, labor and mis- cellaneous expense. As the piice has incre^ascMl siiic(i this estimate, it is altogether likely that tlu; cost has kept pace with it. When the crop amounts to less than 25 bush(>ls to the acre, it is proba))le that it is produced at a los.s. In Germany the average is 57 bushels and in the United King- dom, 44. Practi(cal agriculture must, theref()r(\ dis(;over ways to increase; the yield in the United Staters. Rotation. — In the corn belt oats generally follow ('orn. They fit in where winter wheat is not grown. Two crops of corn may Ix; raised, followed by oats, which in tinii ai(; suc- ceeded by one or two crops of grass or clover. Where potatoes are raised oats should follow, succeeded by clover. 56 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE If wheat and oats are both raised, oats should follow wheat. Uses. — About two thirds of all oats raised is fed on the farm, mostly to horses. Mixed with other grains they are excellent for dairy cattle and sheep. Oats should be ground if fed to hogs and made into a mash for brood sows. The feeding value of oats is, generally speaking, about the same as of wheat. The straw, however, is l^etter stock feed than wheat straw. As oatmeal or in rolled form oats is a staple article of human diet. It is also used in baking and in war time as a partial substitute for wheat flour. The by-products of milling are used as stock feed. Oats is sometimes cut green for hay. The straw is best for bed- ding. It is worth about $3.00 a ton for manure. Diseases and Insects. — Leaf and stem rust and loose smut are the principal diseases which attack oats. They have effects similar to those they have on wheat. To avoid rust early varieties should l)e planted on fairly fertile soil, well-drained, if drainage is necessary. For smut, seed should be treated with formaldehyde. The hull of oats serves as a protection against insects. The principal enemies are army worm, chinch bug, green bug, grain aphis, and grasshopper. Grain weevils may at- tack oats in storage. Tight bins and fumigation are the remedies. Questions: 1. Why might it l)e that oats are less carefully graded than wheat? 2. What difference is there in the cost of producing oats andwheat? Comparing average cost of production and selling price, which is more profitable to raise? 3. Why should oats be placed after corn in a rotation? 4. How can damage from disease and insects be prevented? Arithmetic: 1. When oats increased in price from 43.7c. to 66.9c. a bushel, what per cent of increase was it? 2. When it cost $14.08 an acre to produce oats, at how much would oats have to sell to make 2.5 bushels an acre unprofitable? 3. If a bushel of oats makes 3 pecks of breakfast food, how much does a dealer get for it if he sells 6 pints for 12c.? BARLEY Barley is not grown in nearly so large quantities as oats or wheat. Russia is the chief barley-producing country. GRAIN CROPS 57 The United States, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, (ler- many, Canada and Spain are other countries that produce barley in large quantities. Barley is used for malting, that is to make beer, and for feed. It yields more pounds per acre than oats, but is not so popular as a feed as oats, and the crop is a little more unpleasant to handle than the other grain crops on account of the beards or awns. Barley, however, is a good feed for all classes of stock, and is used quite generally as a sub- stitute for corn where corn is not easily grown. It is an early maturing, heavy growing crop, and on that account is one of the best spring-sown grain crops for cleaning the Figure 20. — Some good grain stacks. land of weeds. There are several different types of l)arley: the six-row and two-row beai'ded, the hull-less and beardless. By far the most important type is the six-row bearded. Culture. — Barley does best on rather rich soil. On light soils the straw is likely to be so short that it is difficult to cut with a binder. Barley is the most tender to fi'ost of any of the grain crops. Frost in the spring will f|uite seriously injure liarley, wiiile wheat, rye and oats are un- harmed. On this account the crop is usually sown from two to four weeks later in the spring than other grain crops. From seven to eight pecks of seed are sown per acre. 58 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Harvesting. — Barley is cut and shocked in the same manner as wheat. Special care must be taken with barley, if it is to be sold for malting, to protect it from the weather, as bleaching of the kernels materially reduces the value for that purpose. It must, therefore, be cut as soon as it is ripe, carefully shocked in capped shocks, and stacked or threshed as soon as it is dry enough. RYE Rye is the least important cereal crop in the United States, but is more important as a world crop than barley. Russia produces the largest acreage of rye of any country. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Norway, and Sweden, and France are other important rye-producing countries. In these countries it is used to a much greater extent for bread than in the United States. It is used for bread, for the manufacture of alcohol, and as feed for stock. The green crop is often used for pasture, and it will furnish pasture earlier in the spring than most other crops. Rye is an ex- cellent crop to grow in cleaning land of weeds, because it matures early. Culture. — There are two types of rye, spring and winter. Winter rye is the more common in the United States. It is very hardy, and will grow on almost any kind of soil. It is commonly sown on the lighter soils, because it will do bet- ter on such soils than other grain crops. It is usually sown in the fall from August to October, at the rate of five to six pecks per acre. It is harvested in about the same manner as other grain crops are. Questions: 1. Tell what you can about the importance, uses, varieties and culture of barley and of rye. Arithmetic: 1. If rye yields 16 bushels per acre, weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, how many pounds are produced per acre? 2. If barley yields 2.5 bushels per acre, weighing 48 lbs. per bushel, how many pounds are produced per acre? Exercises: 1. Gather samples of seed of all the grain crops grown in your neighborhood and make sure that you can properly name each. Find two or three of the most popular varieties of wheat, oats and barley grown in your community. Can you tell these varieties apart by the seed? GRAIN CUOPIS 59 2. Gather samples of the different kinds and varieties of grain from the field when headed out. Can you tell wheat, oats, and barley apart when growing before they have headed out? Can you tell them apart after they are headed out? How? 3. Write a full tabulated description of wheat plants, oat plants, barley plants, noting roots, stems, leaves, heads, and kernels, and tell how you can tell them apart. Compare the roots of grain plants with the roots of clover and timothy plants. 4. Chew a small sample of wheat and see if you can make gum out of it. Try to make gum from oats, barley, or corn. Can you do it? What is the value of the gluten? 5. Select a small handful of the l)est kernels of wheat, oats, and barley that you can find. Compare these with other samples of seed being planted in your neighborhood. 6. Figure as carefully as possible what it costs on your farm to produce wheat and oats. 7. Germinate a few plump and a few shriveled kernels of wheat or oats side by side between moist blotters and note results. 8. Try to obtain facts from several farms and tabulate results as to amount of wheat and oats produced per acre. CHAPTER V CULTIVATED CROPS CORN GENERAL FEATURES OF THE CORN CROP Corn is an odd but true grass like timothy or wheat. It is native to America and was imported into Europe by- Columbus who found it cultivated by the Indians when he discovered this continent. It is adapted to temperate zones but may be acclimated to the northern regions of the United States. It is grown most in the United States, Austria-Hungary, Argentine, Russia, Egypt and Australasia. Importance. — Corn is more widely cultivated, yields a larger crop than any of the other cereals, and its total value is greater than that of any other crop grown in this country. In 1914 the United States produced its largest crop— 2,672,804,000 bushels, valued at $1,702,599,000. The average acre yield was almost three bushels more than in 1913. The average number of bushels produced in the world for the years 1905-1909 was 3,585,418,600, of which 76% was produced in the United States. The average acre value of corn in the United States is $12.53. The value of the grain alone in this country is greater than that of any other two farm crops produced and greater than that of the wheat, oat, barley, flax, rye and tobacco crops combined. The grain is used in different forms as food for both man and beast, while its many manufactured and by-products have extensive uses. The fodder is also made to serve in various ways as food for stock. Yield of Com. — Average yields of corn in even the best corn-growing states of the Union are very low, much lower in fact than yields secured by the best farmers. It is well worth the time of any one interested in farming to know the methods practiced by the best farmers, that the maximum yields at the least possible expense of labor and fertility may be secured. CULTIVATED CROPS 61 As farmers change from grain raising to a more diver- sified type of agriculture, more live stock will be kept and more corn raised. The average 160-acre farm will then raise from 30 to 50 acres of corn each year. A Young Man's Opportunity. — If a young man begins farming on one of these farms when he is twenty years old, and continues until he is fifty, he will raise during his active life approximately 1,200 acres "of corn. It will make quite a difference to him and his family whether he follows indif- ferent methods of farming and gets an average yield of 30 bushels per acre, or whether he follows good methods and gets 50 bushels per acre. It will pay, and pay well, any boy who expects to raise corn to thoroughly master the subject, so that he will get the extra 20 bushels per acre. Requirements. — Nearly every large business is made up of many details, and corn growing is no exception. The four general requirements for a good crop of corn are. good seed, good soil, good tillage and good climatic conditions. Good seed is easily secured by selecting good ears of corn from good plants, and by carefully curing, storing, testing and grading it. Good soil may be had in almost any part of the United States by properly caring for the land we have. By prac- ticing rotation of crops, by keeping live stock and feeding on the farm most of the field crops raised instead of selling them and thus losing fertility, by draining land that is too wet, and by keeping in check noxious weeds, land may be maintained at a high state of productivity. Good tillage means doing the things which make the soil the best possible place for the crop to grow. This requires a knowledge of the soil, of the movement of water in the soil, of the habits of plants, and of the methods by which plant food is liberated. Climatic Conditions. — Good seed, good soil, and good tillage are within the control of the farmer. Climatic conditions are not, though he may do many things to guard against unfavorable weather. He can drain his land to avoid an excess of moisture and to make his soil warmer. He can regulate his tillage operations to conserve moisture in case of drouth and to aid in warming the soil, if it is too 62 ELEM'ENTS of FARM PRACTICE cold. By manuring land and by growing clover occasion- ally, he can make a soil warmer, more retentive of moisture, and increase its producing power, so that crops will grow more rapidly and thus ripen in a shorter time. Climatic conditions are usually favorable, so that, with good methods of farming, good crops can be grown practically every year. Some farmers in the corn belt have raised more than one hundred bushels of corn per acre. Let us set our stand- ard at that and be satisfied with nothing less. Questions: 1. Why do you think it worth while for a boy to study about corn growing? 2 Name at least four conditions necessary to secure a good crop of corn. 3. What may one do to reduce the bad effects of unfavorable weather? Arithmetic: 1. A and B each grow 40 acres of corn per year for 30 years. How many acres does each grow in the 30 years? 2. If B uses the best known methods of corn growing and secures an average yield of 20 bus. per acre more than A, how many bushels more corn will he raise in 30 years than A raises? How much will his extra corn be worth at an average price of 54c. per l)ushel? SIZES OF KERNELS OF CORN Variation of Corn Kernels. — There is a great variation in the size of kernels of corn; and while this has little to do with the yield — that is, some varieties with compara- tively small kernels may yield more than other varieties with large kernels — it is, nevertheless, important to select ears of corn on which the kernels are about uniform in size. To Compare Kernels. — Shell kernels from the tip, the butt and some from the middle of an ear of corn, keeping the three kinds separate. Lay three of the even sized ker- nels from the middle of the ear together on a sheet of paper and draw a circle about them. Make the circle just large enough so the three kernels will lie flat within. (Circle about the size of a nickel.) See how many of the small tip kernels can be laid in this circle and how many butt kernels. This circle is about the size of a hole in the plate of the corn planter. Notice how much thicker some of the butt kernels are than kernels from the middle of the ear. CULTIVATED CROPS G3 i id i*ai**ffV'l ■^-^^r"'^-' m^w^\ mm. Figure 21. — Good ears of rorn, with straight rows and even kernels. Figura 22. — Poor ears of corn. Note the crooked rows and irregular ker- nels. Examine a corn planter, if possible, to see how it drops the corn. It is very important to the farmer that all his seed corn he uniform in size, because corn is now planted by machines and unless the kernels are about the same size and shape the machine cannot drop the same number in each hill. If uneven sized kernels were used for planting, the number in a hill would vary as the num- ber of kernels you were able to place in the cir- cles 3^ou drew varied. Most farmers like to plant three kernels in a hill, because Figure 23. — Relative size and shape of tip, middle and butt kernels of corn. The circle represents the hole in the plate in a corn planter, with the number of ker- nels of different sizes that a planter would drop. Photo by H. D. Ayer. 64 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE they have found that three stalks to a hill give the best yields. Even Seed. — Farmers can get even corn to plant by selecting even, straight rowed ears of corn, and by shelling off the tip and butt kernels, using this part for feed and sav- ing only the more even kernels from the middle of the ears to plant. The whole crop on an acre of corn depends on a few ears of sceil corn. Questions: 1. Do the size and shai)o of korncls of seed corn make any differ- ence to the farincu-? 2. How can fanners i>;et even sood corn? 3. If the tip kernels were put into a planter, would it drop too many or too few? Arithmetic: 1. After the tip and butt kernels of corn have been shelled off from an ear, count the number of rows of kernels; then count the num- ber of kernels in one row. How many kernels on the (>ar of corn? 2. Find how many hills of corn on an acre when corn is planted in hills 3 ft. 8 in. apart each way. Note. — ^There are 1(50 sq rds. in an acre, and each hill of corn takes up 3 ft. 8 in. x 3 ft. 8 in. or 13 4-9 sq. ft. of space. 3. If three kernels are planted in each hill, liow many ears of corn like the one; you counted are recjuired to plant an acre? PARTS OF A KERNEL OF CORN Examining Kernels. — It is not always easy to believe that there is a quite complete, tliough small, corn plant in (^ach kernel of corn. If you will dissect a few kernels of corn, they will furnish a very good object-lesson. A kernel of corn consists of three parts — an outside shell or seed coat, a little speck of life, or the embryo, and about the embryo a white, starchy sub- stance or food portion. The seed coat may be easily removcMl fiom a kernel of corn that has l)een soaked for a few minutes in hot water. It is hard and tough. Its Figure 24. — Parts of kernel of flint corn. 1. Side on which the em- bryo is found. 2. Side opposite the embryo. 3. Kernel with em- bryo and seed coat removed. 4. The embryo. 5. Seed coat removed from the kernel. CULTIVATED VROPii 65 purpose is to protect the parts within. It protects them from heat, cold, and moisture. The Embryo.— The speck of Hfe, or eml)ryo, may be taken from a soaked kernel of corn by the use of a sharp knife or a needle. It is really a very tiny live corn plant, and is found bedded near the tip of the kernel, in the white starchy part. This embryo has a root and a stem. The stem is not ^I'een, however, because it has been shut up in the dark. If corn is properly ripened and kept dry, the little plant within each kernel will stay alive a long time, and be ready to j^row when the kernel containing it is put into the ground and supplied with heat and moisture. If corn be allowed to freeze, perhaps thaw out and freeze again, the little embryo within a kernel is not likely to live, and the kernel would not grow if planted. It is for this reason that farmers are careful to select for seed well ripened ears of corn, and to store them safely in a dry place. Food Material. — After the seed coat has been removed and the embryo taken out, a large part of the kernel is still left. It is the food part. It makes food for us when the corn is ground into meal; or, when the seed is planted and the embryo begins to grow, it is this part which furnishes the embryo witli food until it has developed roots and can get its food from the soil. The large kernels have more of this food material than the small ones. A stronger plant will grow from a large kernel than from a small one, on account of the greater amount of food material the larger kernel contains for the early growth of the little plant. This is one reason why plump kernels are better for seed. Questions: 1. A kernel of corn consists of what parts? 2. Tell all you can about each part. 3. Where in the kernel did you find the embryo? 4. What would injure or kill the embryo? • 5. How should corn which you mean to plant be kept? 6. From which kernels come the strongest plants? Why? Arithmetic: 1. If corn is planted May 15th and is struck by a frost Sei)t. 1st, how many days will it have in which to mature? 2. A bushel of seed corn will plant s»ven acres in check rows and is worth $2..')() per Imshel. What is the cost of seed corn per acre? 3. A pays Sfj.OO per Inishel for seed corn, B [)ays $2.00 |)er bushel. 3— 66 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Each one plants seven acres with his bushel of seed. How much more corn must A get per acre than B to pay the extra amount for his seed, if corn the following fall is woi'th 54c. per bushel? TESTING SEED CORN FOR GERMINATION Germination. — A seed is said to germinate when it sprouts or begins to grow. Most farmers are careful to use kernels from the middle of the ears of corn, because the kernels are more even in size and shape and the corn planter can, therefore, drop the required number, usually three, to every hill. Suppose one ear of corn which has five hundred kernels has been frozen or otherwise injured so that the embryo in each kernel is dead. If the corn planter drops one of these bad kernels with two good ones in every hill until the five hundred bad kernels are all planted, there will be five hundred hills each with one stalk missing. This fault would reduce a farmer's yield; and the more of such ears he planted, the greater would be the reduction of his yield. If, on the other hand, all the seeds dropped in every hill were seeds that would grow, the farmer could be sure of a good stand of corn. This point is important, because it costs as much to prepare the land, plant and cultivate the crop for a poor stand as for a good one. Will It Grow? — One cannot always tell by looking at an ear of corn whether or not the kernels will grow. A farmer, to make sure he is planting only good seed, must test his corn. He may test one hundred kernels taken at random from a number . , . . . of ears or a sack of corn; Figure 25. — A simple germinator consisting i , •(• i r: i xi j. i of a plate partly filled with sand, a cloth DUt, II he nUClS that Only marked in squares for the corn from each on nay r>ai~,+ r.f liic; rtr^yn ear to be tested, and the cloth and plate OU Per CCni OI ms tOrn with which to cover the corn. will grOW, he mUSt USe thlS poor seed or buy seed. A much safer and a very easy and simple way is to test each ear before it is shelled. One wishes to know if all or most of the kernels on an ear of corn will sprout or CULTIVATED CROPS 67 grow. If he takes ten kernels from one ear, and finds that all of the ten kernels sprout, he can safely assume that the rest of the kernels on that ear will grow. That is a good ear for him to plant. If he takes ten kernels from another ear, and finds that none or less than half of tliem sprout, he rightly assumes that the rest of the kernels on that ear would not be likely to grow. That is not a safe ear to plant. To Test Com. — By testing each ear a person may throw out the poor ones and save the good ones, which enables him to use his own seed and to be sure of planting only good seed. A simple germinator may be made as follows: On a piece of white outing flannel draw with a soft lead pencil a six-inch square, and mark it off into nine two-inch squares, numbering the small squares from one to nine. Place the cloth thus marked over a plate of sand or dirt. The next step is to number nine ears of corn. This is easily done by fastening a small tag to the butt of each ear of corn with a pin, as shown in Figure 26. Take ten Figure 26. — Ears of seed corn numbered tor testing. kernels from ear No. 1, selecting them from different parts of the ear, and place them on square No. 1. Continue until each square is supplied with ten kernels from the ear of the corresponding number. Moisten the material in the plate thoroughly, cover with another cloth and another plate, to prevent too rapid evaporation, and set in a warm place. Put up carefully the nine ears of corn for future comparison. The germinator should be examined fiom time to time to note the germination of the kernels. If kept warm and moist the coi-n should all germinate in five to eight days. 68 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Kernels slow in germinating should be counted as worth- less, as they would probably not grow in the field, if unfavor- able conditions prevailed. For testing a large amount of seed corn, as for ten to forty acres, a box two to four feet square may be used in place of the plates. The Rag Doll Tester. — One of the most popular methods of testing seed corn is by means of the rag doll tester. These testers may be purchased ready-made, or may be made at home or at school. To make one use a good quality of muslin. Tear off a strip about nine inches wide and five feet long. With a soft lead pencil draw a mark lengthwise of the cloth and ex- actly in the center. Then every three inches draw lines crosswise of the cloth. Leave about fifteen inches on each end without crossmarks. Then number the squares, wet the cloth and the tester is ready for the corn. Number the ears of corn to be tested and place six kernels from ear number one in square number one. See Figure 27. Continue placing six kernels from each ear in a square of the same number until the tester is full. Place all kernels with the tips one way and pointing toward one side of the cloth. Then roll the cloth beginning at one end, using care not to displace the kernels. Tie a string about the roll and place it in a pail of warm water for a few hours. Then remove it from the water and place the roll on end in a pail or other dish eight or ten inches deep, and cover with a cloth and keep in a warm room. Place the rag doll in the pail so the tips of the kernels will point down. Several of the rag doll testers may Figure 27. — A "rag doU" seed corn tester. CULTIVATED CROPS 69 be placed in one pail. After from five to seven days the test may be read. Questions: 1. For what reason should a farmer test his seed corn? 2. What are the advantages of testing each ear over testing 100 kernels out of a sack full of shelled corn? 3. How would you proceed to test 200 ears of corn? Arithmetic: 1. If seven of the ten kernels taken from an ear of corn grow, what per cent does the ear germinate? If nine kernels grow, what per cent germinates? 2. If twenty ears of corn will plant one acre, what per cent of the corn in a field will be missing if the corn from one of the twenty ears will not grow? If the corn from three ears will not grow? 3. If a man test 400 ears of corn, and 90% of the ears are good enough to plant, how many acres of corn will the good seed plant? (Assume that twenty ears will plant an acre.) 4. A man can test 400 ears of corn in 6 hours. His time is worth 14c. per hour. If the 400 ears will plant 18 acres, how much does it cost him per acre to test his corn? If corn is worth 54c. per bushel in the fall, how much more corn per acre must a farmer get to pay him for thus testing his seed? COEN CULTURE The Com Field. — In the spring of the year, when most farmers are preparing their fields for corn, will be a good time to study the planting phase of the corn subject. In the first place let us see on what kind of soil our neighbors and fathers and brothers are to plant corn. Land that produced clover or was pastured last year is best, as the clover and grass roots have filled the soil with vegetable matter, a very necessary condition for good crops. It would be better if the land were plowed last fall, as fall plowing gives the soil a chance to settle, so that it will not dry out readily. Fall plowed land should be thoroughly disked in spring, before planting to corn, to insure a fine, mellow seed bed, to destroy weeds and to form a surface mulch to check the evaporation of water. If there is no clover or pasture sod for corn, other well drained land, fall plowed, well manured and the manure thoroughly disked into the surface of the soil before plant- ing, is the next best place for corn. The effort in any case should be to have a rich, firm soil, with about two inches 70 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE of loose soil on top to check the evaporation of moisture. Grade Seed Corn. — Practically all corn is now planted with a machine, and unless the kernels are of uniform size no machine can drop the same number of kernels in each hill, and it is important to do so. As corn is shelled from the ear there is always more or less irregularity in the kernels. This is especially true if tlie tip and butt kernels are shelled with the rest. Even if they are not used, there are some ii'regular kernels in the ^rlt^-2 ^'*'^>^% Figure 28. — (A) Corn as shelled from whole cob. (B) Corn after it has been graded. Note uniformity of kernels. (C) Small and irregular kernels removed by the grader. middle of the ear, owing to imperfect growth. Examine an ear of corn and you will see the irregular kernels at the tip and butt and a few in the middle. Irregular kernels are easily removed from any sample of corn by running it through any of the modern corn graders. Corn graders are fitted with screens with holes of certain sizes and shapes. As the corn is run through, all the small and irregular kernels are separated out, leaving only CULTIVATED CROPS 71 the regular ones and the kind a planter can plant uniformly. A corn grader will cost about $10.00, and is well worth the money to any one who is planting any considerable amount. If one has no corn grader it is advisable to shell off tip and butt kernels and keep them out of the seed corn. Planting. — Corn is, as a rule, planted in the spring at about the time danger of frost is p^st. There is, however, no set date for planting, but a good practice to follow is to plant as early in the spring as the soil can be and is well prepared and is warm enough so that the seed will germinate. There is nothing gained by planting corn in cold, wet, poorly prepared soil; for, in such con- dition, seed, even if good, is very liable to rot in the ground. Probably one very gen- eral mistake is made in planting corn too deep. Corn cannot be made to root deep simply by planting deep. The roots will go wherever the soil conditions are most favorable. On ordinary land it is not wise to plant corn more than from one to two inches deep. Questions: 1. What is a good crop to precede the corn crop? 2. Why prefer fall plowing to spring plowing for com? 3. What is gained by grading seed corn? Arithmetic: 1. It costs 10c. per bushel to grade seed com. What does it cost per acre if a bushel of corn plants 7 acres? 2. If a man were to spend five hours shelling off tip and butt kernels and picking out irregular kernels from a bushel of seed corn, how much would it cost him, if his time is worth 14c. per hour? How much would it cost him per acre? (See E.xample 1.) REASONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF CORN Conservation of Moisture. — One of the main reasons for cultivating corn is to save moisture in the soil. There Figure 29. — Planting Corn. Straight rows indicate good workmanship and are a joy throughout the year. 72 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE are two waj^s by which moisture is taken from the soil; first, by the growing crops and, second, by evaporation from the surface of the soil. The water that is evaporated is worse than wasted. It is lost to the crop and its evapora- tion tends to make the soil cooler. (Demonstrate this by moistening the hand and exposing it to the air.) The hot sun, the moving air, and the wind, greatly hasten evapora- tion; hence it is evident that, if the part of the soil in which the moisture is held can be separated from the sun and wind, much less moisture will be lost by evaporation. Moisture moves in the soil by capillary force. For example, two particles of sand lie close together and one is wetter than the other. The dryer one will attract some of the water from the other until both are equally wet. Experiment. — This capillary movement of water may be seen very plainly by following this plan as suggested: Fill a glass half full of sand and pour in enough water to thoroughly wet the sand, being careful not to wet the sides of the glass. Now fill the glass with dry fine sand and watch the moisture creep upward. The water is moving by capillary attraction. Moisture will move by capillary force in any direction, but always from moist to drier soil. Surface Mulch. — If you will go out in a field, on a bright day, where cultivation is being done, you will notice that very soon after the cultivator has gone over the ground the surface soil begins to look dry, while the surface soil where it has not been cultivated appears more moist. Moist- ure is being evaporated from both surfaces, but where the soil is firm moisture moves up from below to replace that evaporated; and this process will continue if not checked, until the soil is robbed of all available moisture. The cultivated portion is so loose that the moisture cannot readily pass up through it, as the particles of soil are not close together, hence evaporation is checked. Too much attention can hardly be given to maintain- ing this surface mulch, or loose soil on top. A shower of rain just sufficient to pack the surface may be more injurious than beneficial to a crop, by causing a great loss of moisture, unless the soil is cultivated soon after the shower. Destruction of Weeds. — Another reason for cultivating CULTIVATED CROPS Figure 30. — A two-row cultivator at work. Many farmers are now using these larger machines. One man can do nearly twice as much work with such a ma- chine as he can with a one-row cultivator. is to destroy weeds. The smaller the weeds are the easier it is to kill them. On this account it is important that soil be so worked that most of the weeds are destroyed before the corn is planted, as it is difficult to cultivate very young corn and the weeds may get ahead of the corn. It is also cheaper to cultivate with a large harrow than with a cultivator. Of course corn may be harrowed after it is planted or even after it is up, but the less harrowing neces- sary at this time the better, as more or less corn is injured every time the field is harrowed. In fields well prepared before corn is planted, very few weeds will be seen, and those appearing are small and easily killed at the first cultivation. Other Objects. — Cultivation aerates the soil, i. e., opens it and lets air into it, thereby stimulating the decomposition of vegetable matter and liberating more plant food. Cultivation also keeps the soil loose, so that rain which falls may be readily absorbed, thus making a larger supply upon which to draw when a dry season comes. Questions: 1. What is the main reason for cultivating corn? 2. In what two wa.ys is moisture taken from the soil? 3. How does cultivation check evaporation? '^. Give another reason for cultivating corn. 74 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Arithmetic: 1. A team travels 2}4 miles to cultivate an acre of corn planted 3% ft. apart each way. How far must it travel to cultivate 8 acres? 2. If a team travels 18 miles with a harrow 12 ft. wide, how much land would it harrow? 3. How many times can one afford to harrow land to save one cultivation? (See two examples above.) METHODS OF CULTIVATING CORN Depth to Cultivate. — There seems to be an unsettled question among farmers as to how deep to cultivate corn. Apparently there is no rule that one can safely follow, for the conditions vary with soils and seasons, so that it is largely a matter that must be settled by the individual farmer and depends entirely upon the depth of the corn roots. In a dry loose soil corn roots will grow nearly straight down, while in a heavy or more moist soil they will spread out near the surface of the ground. Roots naturally grow where there is available plant food; and that, we have learned, is where there is heat, air and moisture. In wet years they find this condition near the surface, and in dry years or in dry soil they must go deeper down for the plant food. The accompanying cut shows how corn roots usually grow. (Figure 31.) Roots of Com. — A very interesting study of the root system of corn may be made by taking a rather blunt wooden paddle and carefully scraping away the loose soil between two hills of corn, until the roots are exposed. One may then observe the roots, how far they spread out from the hill of corn and how near the surface they grow. As a rule, when the corn is a foot high the roots from the rows will be overlapping and within one to four inches from the sur- face, depending upon how wet the soil is and how recently and how deeply cultivated. Results of Deep Cultivation. — From the above facts it is quite evident that, if the cultivator is run too deep, some of the roots will be cut off. The roots are the feeders of the plants; consequently every one that is cut off decreases the amount of moisture and plant food the plant will get. The effects of too deep cultivation may be seen by cutting down in the soil four inches, with a sharp spade, two to four inches from a hill of corn. Then note Insults. If it CULTIVATED CROPS 75 is a dry, hot day the leaves will soon begin to curl up on the plant thus injured, showing that a portion of its water supply has been cut off. It is necessary, however, to cultivate to kill weeds, to let air into the soil and to form a surface mulch to save moisture; and many times it is necessary to cultivate deep enough to injure corn roots in order to accomplish these various things; but the aim should always be to cultivate no deeper than necessary. If deep cultivation is to be practiced at all it should be done while the corn is small, as it is injured less at this time. Cultivator.— The kind of cultivator used has much to tlo with the depth of cultivation. If a cultivator with two large shovels on a side is used, it must be run deeper to cover all the space between the rows, than one which has three, four or five shov- els on a side. The small shovels and more of them do finer, shallow- er work than the large shovels; but where cwn has been neglected until the weeds are large, the larger shovels are bet- ter, because they do not clog up so easily and because they plow out the weeds instead of cultivating them. Surface Cultivators. — At present many far- mers are using what are called surface cultiva- tors. In place of shov- els there are two or more knives or blades that run an inch or so below the surface of the ground, separating the surface soil from the soil below and cutting off just Figure 31. — The root system of corn, sas Bulletin No. 147 Kan- 76 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE below the surface all weeds growing between the rows. If possible, examine cultivators with these different kinds of shovels and note the work they do. Check vs. Drills. — Many farmers drill in their corn, i. e., plant it in rows only one way. It can then be cul- tivated only one way and the weeds growing between the hills cannot be reached with the cultivator. If these weeds cannot be covered by having the cultivator throw earth against the rows, they must be pulled by hand or let grow. Other farmers plant their corn in check rows. As they can then cultivate it both ways, they can get all the weeds with the cultivator, excepting an occasional one growing in the hills. Try to look over fields of corn planted each of these ways, at different times during the summer, and see which fields are the cleaner. If you can find corn planted each way in the same field or on the same farm, and receiving the same number of cultivations, it will be a better comparison. As one of the main objects in growing corn is to clean the land of weeds, it is better on weedy land to plant corn so that it can be cultivated both ways. If corn is cultivated both ways, it is easier to keep the sur- face smooth and level, a condition which is desirable, as a ridged surface is hard to work down, and more surface is exposed, causing more evaporation. Questions: 1. Why is it not wise to cultivate corn too deeply? 2. What can you say about different types of cultivators? 3. What is said of planting corn in drills or in check rows? Arithmetic: 1. If the time of a man and team is worth $4.00 per day, what is the cost per acre to cultivate, if they cultivate 8 acres per day? How much does it cost to cultivate an acre of corn six times? 2. How many bushels of com at 54c per bushel must a farmer get to pay for cultivating his corn six times? 3. If the time of a man and three horses is worth $5.00. What is the cost per acre, if they cultivate 14 acres per day? (Three horses can draw a two row cultivator.) SELECTION OF SEED CORN Selection Neglected. — A comparatively small amount of seed corn is needed each year, on the average farm, as one bushel will plant from six to eight acres. On this ac- CULTIVATED CROPS count the matter of saving seed corn is likely to be neg- lected, as farmers are very busy in the fall with other duties. Were the saving of the price of seed the only advantage gained in selecting seed corn on the home farm, one might be justified in neglecting it; but this is by no means the case. Adapted to Localities. — Corn in some respects is a ten- der plant, very easily affected unfavorably by cold weather conditions or cold wet soil, and favora])ly by warm weather and warm soil. On this account corn grown under one condition for several years becomes adapted to those conditions and is not well suited to other conditions. No locality is suited to produce seed corn for any very large ter- ritory. Corn that does well in the north will grow and do well far- ther south, but as a rule a larger corn can be produced on most of the well drained soils of the south, and will yield more than the comparatively small corn grown farther north. Corn suited to Indiana conditions will grow if planted in northern Minnesota, but in average years it will not mature well, as the season is too short. The same varied condi- tions may be found on different farms in the same locality. Farms with a light warm soil, or well-drained farms on which the soil is kept highly productive by good methods of cropping, manuring, etc., can grow and mature a larger variety of corn than farms in the same neigh- borhood with heavy, and poorly drained soil or soils in poor condition. Figure 32. — Two varieties of Dent Corn growing side b.v side and given similar treatment. That on the right is mature, as shown by the drooping ears; that on the left is still quite green, as shown by the erect ears. Both are Yellow Dent Corn, but one later than the other by being grown under different c mditions. 78 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE If a person wishes to get the best results from growing corn, he cannot afford to neglect selecting his own seed from his own farm. By selecting the best ears of corn from the best stalks one gets seed from the plants that are best adapted to the conditions of the farm, as shown by their superior development the previous year. Large Varieties. — A mistake very commonly made is to select too large or too late a variety of corn. Every one likes to grow large ears of corn, and on this account, when seed is secured from some other community or from seedsmen, a larger variety than is suited to the conditions is likely to be chosen. Large ears of corn are not neces- sary to large yields, and it is far better to be sure of a good crop, by using a variety that will mature, than to attempt to grow too large a variety and have a partial or complete failure occasionally. Varieties May Be Made Larger. — It is well to select a variety of corn that will be quite sure to mature in your locality. If the soil is well drained, well cultivated and kept at a high state of productivity by growing clover occasionally and by keeping live stock and manuring it, and if the climate will permit the growing of a larger variety, one can in a few years make the variety larger by selecting the larger ears. Such conditions will practically insure a good crop of corn each year, unless one selects too large ears and thus makes his variety too late. If in a few years you can not improve the corn to the size you wish it, it is likely that your conditions are not favorable for a larger variety; and, were you to get a larger variety from some other locality, you would be very likely to lose your crop or have soft corn, in the ordinary years. To Make a Variety Early. — If one wishes to make a variety of corn one is growing earlier, one can do so by selecting the ears that ripen first. Such a selection cannot be made after all the corn is ripened. If one can not select the seed when the corn is ripening one can make some progress toward earliness by selecting the small ears of corn with comparatively shallow kernels. Large ears with deep ker- nels are very seldom found in an early variety of corn. CULTIVATED CROPS 79 Questions: 1. Give two reasons why it is advisable for a farmer to select his own seed corn from his own farm. 2. Why is it better to have a variety of com that is a httle too small rather than one that is too large? 3. Give two ways by which a variety of corn may be made larger. 4. To get com that will ripen earlier, how and when would yovi select it in the field? How select it from a large number of husked ears? Arithmetic: 1. A plants 7 acres of corn with 1 bu. of seed and it yields 40 bus. per acre. How many bushels of corn docs he get? Extra good seed would have increased the yield 20%. How many more bushels of corn would he have received had he used good seed? How much would the increased yield be worth at 54c. per bushel? How much would a bushel of extra good seed corn have been worth to that farmer? 2. There are 3,240 hills of corn on an acre when planted 44 inches apart each way. If a farmer gets 3 10-oz. ears from each hill, how many bushels of corn will he produce? HOW TO SELECT SEED CORN Kind to Select. — If one is to get the best seed ears from a field of corn, one must have well in mind what a really good ear of corn looks like, and select only such ears. A great advantage of selecting seed corn in the field over se- lecting it from a load of husked corn is that the stalks may be considered as well as the ears. No matter how good an ear of corn may be, it should not be taken from a poor plant. Usually good ears come from good plants, but there are exceptions. It is well to select more seed corn than is needed. Then another and more careful selection may be made in the spring before planting. Time to Select Seed Corn.^ — In order that seed corn may be sure to keep over winter and still germinate readily it must be taken from the husk and placed where it can dry out before freezing weather. If one weighs an ear of freshly husked ripe corn, then leaves it in a living room for a month and weighs it again, it will be found that it has lost in weight. The loss in weight is from the evaporation of moisture. Moisture is detrimental to seed corn. Select and husk seed corn before there is danger of a killing frost so that the seed will not be injured by frost and so it will have time to dry out before freezing weather. Condition. — The first thing to consider in an ear of corn for seed is condition. It must be firm and solid to the 80 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE touch and heavy, not light and chaffy. Loose or soft ker- nels indicate immature ears, which must be avoided, as corn from such ears is not likely to germinate and, if the kernels do germinate, the plants are likely to be weak. The kernels should be bright in color and free from mold or inj ury . Shape of Ear. — Ears should be uniform in shape and size, and each ear should be as nearly the same size at tip and butt as possible. The tips should be well filled out, as this indicates hardiness and well matured corn. Large butts should be avoided as they indicate coarseness and are hard to dry out. There are, also, more irregular kernels on these large butts than on properly formed butts. Size of Ear.— The size of ears will depend upon the variety and the locality. But do not select too large ears, as they will have a tendency to make the variety later, which may result in considerable loss in unfavorable sea- sons. Select the medium sized, well matured ears as nearly uniform in size as possible. Kernels. — Ears with kernels as nearly uniform in type as possible should ])e selected. There are good ears of corn with (lifferent types of kernels, but for any one variety it is important that the ker- nels be uniform, as only such kernels can be plant- ed uniformly by machin- ery. The most desirable kernels are deep, indicat- ing a large amount of corn in proportion to cob, but t he point can be overdone, as deep kerneled varieties are usually late in ripening. Figure 33.— The ear on the left represents SpaCe bctweeil KemelS. a good type to select for seed It has J^ Jc^ dcsirablc tO have even, regular rows and kernels and a . , good proportion of corn to cob. The ear jUSt aS mUCh COm arOUUCl Zd'^'^^J^"'""^'' '"'''"''''''"'' the cob as possible; con- i>j|JHW CULTIVATED CROPS 81 sequently any space between the kernels is to be avoided. These spaces are caused by rounded kernels, and are more common and larger in flint than in dent varieties. Selecting. — It is a comparatively small task to go through the field with a sack and select the desired ears, or when the corn is husked from the standing stalks the ears may be selected as the husking is being done and the seed ears thrown into a sack or small box on the side of the wagon. This manner is preferable to selecting the best ears from the load or crib after it is husked, as the stalks may be considered in the selection. Judging. — For judging seed corn in schools and at fairs, a score card is used. The following one, adopted by the Iowa Corn Growers' Association, is characteristic. The method of scoring varies somewhat in the different states. I. General Appearance ... 25 1. Size and shape of ear. ... 10 2. Filling of butts and tips.. 5 3. Straightness of rows 5 4. Uniformity of kernels.. . . 5 III. Breed Type 15 1. Size and shape of ear. ... 5 2. Size, shape, and dent of kernel .5 3. Color of grain 2 4. Color of cob 2 5. Arrangement of rows. ... 1 Total 100 II. Productiveness 60 1. Maturity 25 2. Vitality 25 3. Shelling percentage 10 Questions: 1. When should seed corn he selected, and why? 2. What are some of the advantages of selecting seed corn in the field from the standing stalk over selecting from the load or crib? 3. For what reasons would you select ears that are sound, with kernels tight on the cob? Arithmetic: 1. A bushel of seed corn is worth S3.00 and will plant six acres. What is the cost of seed i)er acre? 2. A fair sized ear of corn will weigh about 10 ozs. What part of a pound does it weigh? How many such ears of corn in a bushel? (A bushel of ear corn weighs 72 lbs.) 3. A l)oy selects 200 10-oz. ears of seed corn in one day. How many bushels does he save? How much is it worth at $3.00 per bushel? STORING SEED CORN To Keep Germ Uninjured. — We have learned (page 57) that every kernel of corn contains an embyro or germ, which is a very small, live corn plant. If the kernel is to be of any value as seed, this germ must be kept alive and strong. 82 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE This little plantlet, or germ, is very similar to any plant. Freezing, under certain conditions of moisture, will kill it. This germ can stand freezing only when quite dry, as when in this condition it is dormant. Trees and other plants that live from year to year are very liable to be killed by cold winter weather, if kept growing until late in the fall. Under normal conditions such plants stop growing several weeks before cold weather sets in ; which gives them a chance to "harden up" or, as we might say, "ripen." It is evident, then, that, if we would keep our seed corn in good condi- tion, it must be so handled as to prevent injury to the germ in each kernel. Keep Dry. — The first essential is to select the seed ears before they have a chance to freeze in the field, for many times the corn may not become sufficiently ripe to be thor- oughly dry; and if not dry, freezing injures the germ. After the husk has been removed, the ear will dry out rapidly, if placed where it has an opportunity to do so. Seedsmen appreciate the necessity of drying seed corn immediately, and they store it in a room in such a way that air can circu- late about it freely and thus carry off the moisture. They very often use artificial heat, as stove or furnace heat, to assist in this drying operation. Storing. — A farmer, as a rule, saves only a small amount of corn and cannot afford a special storehouse for it. Probably the most satisfactory way of drying corn and keeping it dry, on the farm, is to store it in the attic over the kitchen. Here ventilation can be supplied by opening windows, and the heat from the kitchen stove assists in drying out the corn and in keeping it dry. A basement in which there is a furnace, so that the corn will be kept dry and so that there will be good ventilation is also a very good place for seed corn. Where one does not have these facilities or has more corn than one can store in an attic or dry basement satisfactoi'il}^, it may be placed on a barn floor or in a vacant room in the house or other building. It should not be piled over eight to ten inches deep, as it may heat or sweat, if piled deeper. Good circulation of air should be supplied, as this aids in drying the corn, and it is very essential that it be thoroughly dried before cold CULTIVATED CROPS 83 weather. If corn is thoroughly dried and kept dry it will stand freezing; but it is much better if it can be kept where the temperature is slightly al)ove freezing. Seed corn should never be placed above a stable in which animals are kept, or over a bin of grain, as the steam and breath from the animals, or the steam that may rise from a bin of grain, if it heats even slightly, will keep corn moist enough to greatly reduce the vitality of the germ. Good Seed Essential. — A kernel of corn is a very little thing, but it is a very important factor in the production of good yields. Very little time is necessary to select and care for all the seed corn needed on the average farm and few farmers can afford to neglect this part of the business. Neglecting to save and properly care for seed corn may save one or two days' time in the fall, but it may also mean that poor seed corn or corn not well adapted to one's condi- tions will have to be planted the next year. Poor seed corn means a partial or total loss of the corn crop, which may result in a very great financial loss. Questions: 1. What will injure the germ in a kernel of corn? 2. Why should one take seed corn in from the field before frost? 3. How do seedsmen store corn, and why? 4. How may farmers store their seed corn? Arithmetic: k .. 1. If it requires 20 ears of corn tc plant an acre, how many ears are required to plant 40 acres? 2. If a man can select 800 ears of corn in 2 days, how much will it cost him to gather the 800 ears, if his time is worth $2.00 per day? 3. How many bushels of corn in 800 ears of corn weighing 10 oz. each (72 lbs. per bushel)? How much is it worth at $3.00 per bushel? METHODS OF STORING SEED CORN Drying. — Free circulation of air about seed corn is neces- sary to dry it out, consequently many devices have been used for storing it easily, quickly and in such a way that this end will be accomplished. The old practice, of braiding several ears together by the husks and hanging them up, is a satisfactory way to keep the corn, but requires a great deal of unnecessary labor. A Simple Device. — A very simple and practical device for putting up seed corn is illustrated in Figure 34. This 84 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE device is called a "corn tree." Any boy who can use a saw and hammer can make one in a short time. To make it, saw a 2 X 4, or better, a 4 x 4 off five or six feet long. To the bottom end of this spike a plank about 12 inches square, to form a base sufficiently large so the tree will stand firmly erect on the floor. It is well to put some short braces from the edges of the plank up to the 4 x 4 to stiffen it. A row of finishing nails, nails with small heads, are driven in each side, of the 4x4 and about 23^ inches apart. An ear of corn is easily stuck on each nail by jamming it on butt first. The nail sticks into the pith of the corn cob. This tree may be placed in the attic or any other convenient place where the corn will be kept dry. If the tree is six feet high, it will hold about 100 ears, or enough to plant about five acres. If one wishes to put more corn on the tree, the corners of the 4x4 may be beveled off, making it eight-sided. There will then l)e room for eight rows of corn. Thus a tree six feet high will hold 200 ears. It is well to plane the 4x4 smooth, so that numbers may be placed at the base of each nail, thus making it easy to number the ears, if one wishes to test each ear for germination. The double string method is like- wise a very practical means of putting up seed corn. Take a piece of bind- ing twine about fourteen feet long. Tie the two ends together. Then string up the corn as indicated in Figure 35. The strings with from ten to fourteen ears of corn in each are easily handled and may be hung from the rafters or other convenient places. Figure 34. — A simple device for putting up seed corn to dry. CULTIVATED CROPS 85 Slatted Shelves. — Strips of timber 1 x 4 or 2x4 stood on end with lath nailed on either side to form shelves make a very good means of put- ting up seed corn. This method is often used by- seedsmen and permits of storing in good condition a large amount of seed corn in a comparatively small space. Patented Corn Hang- ers. — There are numerous patented seed corn hangers on the market. Most of them are good and afford a very satisfactory means of putting up seed corn. The only objection to them is the cost. Very Figure 33. Showing the double string method gOOd wirC SCCd COm haUg- of storing seed corn. ^^.^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^.^^ electric weld woven wire fencing. Your state Experiment Station will furnish you more complete information about making any of these seed corn hangers. Wire Baskets. — Long, slender wire baskets are very easily made of poultry netting or other closely woven fenc- ing. The two ends of a strip of fencing three to five feet long are fastened together, and a board or another piece of the netting put in for the bottom. Such a basket will hold considerable corn, and hold it in such a way as to allow it to dry readily. These baskets are preferable to the other methods given above only when a large amount of seed corn is to be stored. Questions: 1. Why is a good circulation of air about seed corn necessary? 2. Describe a com tree. 3. What can you say of wire baskets for storing seed corn? 86 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Arithmetic: 1. How many feet of lumber in a piece of 4x1 six feet long? How much is it worth at $30 per thousand feet. 2. If it takes about 2 hours to make a corn tree, how much does it cost for labor, if the boy's time is worth 6c per hour? 3. If it takes 14 ft. of twine to hang up 10 ears of corn, by the double string method, how many feet will it take to hang up 200 ears of corn? How much will it cost, if twine is worth 8c per pound? (500 feet per pound.) CORN FOR SILAGE Corn silage is l^eing used throughout, the Corn Belt in ever increasing amounts. This is due to the fact that corn is the surest crop that is grown in that section of the country. The corn crop is more nearly controlled by the farmer, and less likely to be injured by drouth, hot wind, insect pests, diseases and hail than such crops as grass or grain. This advantage is due to the fact that the corn crop is cultivated and may be kept growing well when the dry weather or hot winds destroy or greatly reduce the hay or grain crop. Live stock can not be profitably kept without an assured supply of suitable feed. Where silage is not available it is often necessary to sell off a large part of the stock in dry years, because the pastures are short or because not enough hay was produced to winter them. AVith a silo full of good corn silage one can be reasonably sure of feed for stock either winter or summer. Feeding Value of Silage. — In silage all the nutrients produced in the corn crop, both in the ear and in the stalk, are saved. Dry corn stalks make fairly good feed, but usually half of the stalks are left uneaten by the stock. These stalks are not only wasted but are troublesome in the yard or barn. Good silage is much more palatable and relished more by cattle than dry stalks. Not only are more of the stalks eaten in the form of silage, but, because the silage is relished better, a larger part of that eaten is digested. There is no way known by which a large part of the whole corn plant can be made more palatable for live stock than in silage. Silage, because it is succulent (juicy), comes more nearly furnishing summer conditions for stock in the winter than any other farm feed. CULTIVATED CROPS 87 Com for Silage. — When silos were first used corn was put into them quite green. It was found that this silage was very sour, and sometimes animals did not like it, or, if they did eat much of it, it did not agree with them. It has been found, since silage came into more common use, that corn must be really ripe or mature when it is cut and put into the silo, if first-class silage is to result. Now farmers usually grow for silage just the same variety of corn that Figure 36. — A good stand of corn for silage. they grow for ears. They plant it at about the same time in the spring, and cultivate it in the usual way. Corn for silage is generally planted about 50 per cent more thickly than for ears. It is more commonly planted in drills than in check rows. It may be planted in check rows, if desired. Time to Cut. — The most important thing about getting good silage is the time of cutting the corn. There are no reliable rules to go by, because in wet years conditions are quite different than in dry years. In wet years the ears of corn may be entirely ripe, while the stalks and leaves are still green. In dry years the stalks and leaves may be quite dry before the ears mature. A crop of corn increases in feeding value up until the time it is mature. It is, there- fore, desirable to have the corn mature when cut for silage; 88 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE but it must he cut while the stalks are still green enough and have enough sap in them so the silage will pack down well in the silo. The ideal condition in which to cut corn for the silo is when the ears are nicely ripe and the stalks and leaves are still green. Cutting Silage.^ — Corn for silage is usually cut in the field with a corn binder, loaded at once on wagons and hauled to the silage cutter. Here it is cut into short lengths, from ^/g to ^ inch in length, and elevated into the silo. One or two men are kept in the silo while it is being filled, to keep the silage well packed. It is important to pack the silage thoroughly so as to crowd out as much air as possible. Air in silage causes it to spoil. Silage is kept in a silo l^ecause the silo keeps the air out. The machinery for cutting silage is quite expensive, so it is advisable, whenever possible, for several farmers to co-operate in buying an outfit. Questions: 1. Why is silage and especially corn silage important on live stock farms? 2. By what means may the largest proportion of the corn crop be saved for feed? Why? 3. How should corn be grown for silage, and when cut? Arithmetic: 1. If it costs $20 per acre to grow and store silage, how much does it cost per ton, if there is a yield of 9 tons per acre? 2. Compared with bran at $25 per ton, silage is worth $3.75 in feeding value. How much is an acre of silage yielding 9 tons worth? 3. If a silage-cutting outfit can cut 75 tons of silage per day, how many days would be required to fill six 100-ton silos? THE POTATO CROP IMPORTANCE, VARIETIES, SEED Importance.— Since potatoes are a side issue on many farms they are often grown without receiving the care necessary to insure a successful crop. A great deal of work is required to grow an acre of potatoes, hence the importance of fitting the soil and caring for the crop, so that a good yield may be expected. A fair crop of potatoes is worth $40 per acre. A fair crop of grain is worth $10.00 per acre. Care in preparing the soil so as to increase the yield 10 per cent means an increase in value of $4.00 in the potato crop and but $1.00 in the grain crop. Thus, when a crop that brings CULTIVATED CROPS 89 a comparatively large income per acre is raised, one can afford to put more expense on fertilizing: or preparing the soil or on other operations, as cultivating, etc, than when crops yielding less in money value are gi'own. Varieties. — The United States Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin 176 (William Stuart), classifies the varieties as follows: Early : ('obl)ler. Triumph, Early Michigan, Rose, Early Ohio, Hebron. Late: Burbank, Green Mountain, Rural, Pearl, Peachblow. Seed. — About ten bushels of seed potatoes are required to plant an acre. The best seed potatoes are secured by selecting them from hills in which there are large numbers of uniform and desiraljle potatoes, rather than from hills with some large and some small ones. See Figure 39. Of course such selection cannot be made in the spring. So, if one did not make the selection in the fall at digging time, ■.k Figure 37. — A potato fiuld. Note weedlcss, straight rows. the next best thing is to select good, smooth, uniform, shallow-eyed potatoes from the stock at hand. Prevent Seed from Sprouting. — Potatoes are likely to begin to sprout as soon as the weather gets warm. This sprouting is undesirable, as the sprouts take nourishment which should be saved to nourish the young plant when started in the field. Keep the seed in as cool a place as 90 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE possible without freezing it, and where it is dry. It is a good plan to keep seed potatoes in baskets or slatted boxes piled up in a cool cellar so that the air can circulate freely about them. Scab. — The rough blotches on the surface of potatoes are called scab. The disease is caused by certain spores or seeds, just the same as diphtheria or other contagious dis- eases are caused by germs. To prevent scab the spores of the disease must be destroyed. The spores may live over winter in the soil on which scabby potatoes were grown the year before. They may get into the soil with manure from animals that have been fed scabby potatoes, or they may Figure 38. — A manure spreader. be on the seed planted. The latter is the most common way of spreading the disease, and, as the seed is very easily treated to prevent scab, there is very little excuse for getting scabby potatoes in this way. Formalin is a liquid which may be purchased at any drug store for from twenty-five to fifty cents per pint. A pint mixed with thirty-five gal- lons of water makes a solution which will destroy the scab spores on seed potatoes, if they are soaked in it for two hours. Treat for scab before cutting the potatoes. If cut first, some of the pieces may stick together and the spores in between will not be reached by the solution. CULTIVATED CROPS 91 There are several other common diseases affecting pota- toes. These are quite easily controlled, if one is familiar with them. Every potato grower should be thoroughly informed regarding potato diseases and their control. Write to your experiment station for full information. Cutting Seed Potatoes. — Experiments have proved that rather good sized pieces give larger yields than small pieces. It is well to cut the pieces to about 1 oz. in size, being sure to get at least one good eye in each piece. The large pieces furnish more food for the plants until they get their roots started than do the smaller pieces. Sometimes whole halves arc planted, and often pieces having at least two eyes. Questions: 1. Why can a farmer afford to spend more time preparing an acre of soil for potatoes than for grain? 2. How should seed potatoes be kept during the winter? 3. How does sprouting injure seed potatoes? 4. How is the disease known as scab spread? How is it treated? Arithmetic: 1. If potatoes are planted in rows 36 in. apart, with hills 16 in. apart in the row, how many sq. ft. of space will each hill occupy? How many hills will there be on an acre? (There are 43,560 sq. ft. in an acre.) 2. If there are 10,890 hills of potatoes on an acre and one 1 oz. piece is planted in each hill, how many bushels of seed will be required to plant an acre? 3. If there are 10,890 hills of potatoes on an acre, how many pounds must each hill yield to produce 300 bushels per acre? PLANTING AND CULTIVATING POTATOES The Soil and Its Preparation. — Potatoes require rich, moist, mellow soil; and, as the tubers must grow under ground to protect them from the sun, it is well to have the soil mellow to quite a depth, six or eight inches. It is evident that the land must be plowed to a good depth. Fall plowing is preferable, as it gives the soil a chance to become firm and settled and be acted upon by the weather. Spring plowing, unless very thoroughly disked and harrowed, is likely to be too loose and to dry out. It is also more likely to be lumpy. Clover sod, or land that has grown clover the previous year, and was plowed in the fall, is the ideal soil for pota- toes, especially if the land was top-dressed with manure 92 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE before it was plowed. A very excellent way to prepare such land is to top-dress it with good stable manure in the fall on the clover sod before it is plowed. Then disk it to cut up the sod and mix the manure with it. Then plow in the fall. This treatment gets the clover sod and the manure well pulverized and mixed together and turned un- der where the tubers are to grow. It insures them a rich, mellow place. If soil is very- light and sandy, it would be better to plow the land in the fall without manuring it. Manure it during the winter or spring and disk the manure in, thus keeping it near the sur- face. If land has been treat- ed as suggested above, disking and harrowing it a few times in the spring will put it in excel- lent condition for plant- ing. If the land has not been prepared in the fall, then the same manur- ing and disking should be done before the land is plowed. Then plow, harrow and disk until the soil is well packed down. It is important that spring plowing be well harrow- ed to assist in firming it, that it may not be so loose as to dry out too quickly. Planting.— Potatoes may be planted from early spring to early summer. Early planting is usually preferable so Figure 39. — Types of potatoes. 1 is a rough, deep-eyed type, not desirable for any purpose. 2. A good type of Bur- bank. 3. A good type of Carmen No. 3. 4. A good type of early Ohio. Note smooth surface and shallow eyes of Nos. 2, 3 and 4. CULTIVATED CROPS 93 that they will have a chance to make their p;rowth l)efore the dry, hot weather comes. Potatoes grow better in rather cool weather when the soil is reasonably moist. They are usually planted in rows about 36 inches apart and the pieces are dropped from 14 to 18 inches apart in the row. About 4 inches is a good depth to plant them. If one has a horse planter it is a very easy matter to plant potatoes. There are also satisfactory hand planters. If but one half an acre to an acre is raised, as is the case on most farms, they may be easily and well planted by marking the land with a corn marker, then plowing a furrow, for each row, with a common walking plow or a shovel plow, dropping the seed in these furrows by hand, then covering with a plow or by harrowing crosswise. Blind Cultivation. — If potatoes are planted with a hand planter or by dropping into furrows as suggested above, it is a good plan to go into the field with a cultivator after they have been planted a few days and give the plot a good cultivation. This is called bhnd cultivation. Set the shovels so as to throw the dirt on the row, thus making a ridge over each row. Follow this every few days by harrowing. Throwing the dirt in a ridge over the rows, then later leveling it off with the harrow, keeps the soil mellow over the rows and prevents weeds from starting, making it much easier to keep the rows clean. Cultivation of potatoes should continue at frequent intervals, from the time they are planted until the vines cover the ground, to keep down weeds and to check the evaporation of moisture. Potatoes require a great deal of moisture, and a lack of moisture at any time reduces the yield. As in cultivating corn, care must be taken not to cultivate deep enough to injure the roots. Except when the soil is cold and wet, level cultivation is preferable to hilling. Spraying. — It is now quite impossible to grow potatoes successfully without spraying the vines one or more times while they are growing. They must be sprayed both for bugs and diseases. A spray containing Paris green or other poison to kill the bugs and Bordeaux mixture or other 94 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE fungicide to check the blight is commonly used. This saves time, as the combined spray is as easily applied as a single purpose spray, and is quite as effective. For full particulars write to your State Experiment Station. Questions: 1. For what reasons would you prefer fall plowing for potatoes!" 2. Describe a good method of preparing clover sod for potatoes. 3. How are potatoes planted? How cultivated? Arithmetic: 1. It costs 35c. per acre to disk land. A farmer disks his potato field twice after manuring and before plowing. What must be the increased yield to pay for the extra work of disking twice, if potatoes are worth 35c. per bushel? 2. It costs 50c. per acre more to plow 6 in. deep than to plow 4 in. deep. How much does one get for his extra labor, if land plowed 6 in. deep yields 10 bus. more than land plowed only 4 in. deep, if pota- toes are worth 35c. per bu.? 3. If it costs 50c. per acre to cultivate potatoes, how much must each cultivation increase the yield to pay for the cultivation, if pota- toes are worth 35c. per bushel? ROOT CROPS Importance. — Root crops, such as mangels, rutabagas, turnips, stock carrots and sugar beets, are grown quite generally as feed for stock. They are especially important on farms not supplied with ensilage. On farms where stock equivalent to ten cows or less is kept, it is seldom practical to use silage. Good stock feeding requires that some sort of succulent feed be provided. Root crops may be grown with the machinery ordinarily found on the farm, and do not require an expensive building for storage. For these reasons it is decidedly practical to grow root crops on farms keeping only a small amount of stock, if the stock is an important factor on the farm. Other Uses. — Sugar beets are grown much more exten- sively for the manufacture of sugar than for stock feed. Rutabagas and turnips are grown quite extensively as vegetables for human food. Culture. — Root crops require a great deal of hand labor. On this account it is important that they be planted on very rich land that will produce a heavy yield. Ten tons per acre is a common yield. It is more practical to have the soil so rich by manuring it, and in such fine condition CULTIVATED CROPS 95 by thorough cultivation, that yields of from 20 to 40 tons may be secured. Deep plowing, preferably in the fall, to the depth of from 8 to 12 inches is desirable for roots. This should be followed by very thorough disking the following spring. The land may and should be disked several times be- fore the roots are plant- ed. Soon after corn- planting is best time to sow roots but rutabagas and turnips may be sown as late as midsum- mer. Root crops are usually planted in drills from 24 to 30 inches apart, with 6 or 8 seeds per foot of drill. Then later the plants are thinned so that they stand from 6 to 8 inches apart in the drill. The cultivation may be done by wheel hand hoes when the plants are small and later by horse cultivators. Some hand weeding, thin- ning and hoeing must always be done. Clean and thorough cultivation is necessary. Harvesting. — Root crops must be harvested before there is danger of freezing weather. Ordinary white frost does not injure root crops. Root diggers may be used, or a furrow plowed with a common plow beside a row of roots greatly reduces the labor of pulling. Roots nmst be topped usually by hand and stored where they will not freeze but where the temperature is comparatively low. Questions: 1. Tell if you can why the crops mentioned in this lesson are called root crops. 2. Under what conditions is it advisable to grow roots for stock feed? Figure 40. — Cutting field roots for feed. 96 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 3. Describe a good method of growing root crops. Arithmetic: 1. If a farmer has ten cows and wants to provide each cow 20 lbs. of roots per day for 200 days, how many tons of roots must he produce? 2. If a farmer keeps 40 mature sheep and wishes to feed each 2 lbs. of roots per day for 200 days, how many tons will he need? 3. If roots are planted in rows 24 inches apart and a 2-lb. root produced every 8 inches in the row, how many tons would be produced per acre? Exercises: 1. Visit several farms. Observe how and where seed corn is stored. Ob- serve methods used to shell seed corn, to grade it, and to test it for germi- nation. 2. Soak a few kernels of corn and separate each mto the three parts (1) seed coat; (2) embryo or germ; (3) food material. See lesson "Parts of a ker- nel of corn," pages 56 and 57. 3. Examine carefully several ears of corn and see how many rows of kernels on each ear. Do they all have the same number of rows? Do the ears have an odd numljer of rows or an even number? Examine carefully several ears of corn to see if the kernels are alike. Are all kernels on an ear of corn the same shape? On what part of the ear are the kernels most uniform? Are tip, butt, and middle kernels ahke? 4. Examine a corn planter and see if there is any advantage in having seed corn graded so that all kernels are of equal size. 5. Arrange either at home or at school to test a number of eai's of corn. Which method do you like best for testing seed corn, the rag doll, or the box tester? 6. Go into a field of corn where the plants are two or more feet high and with your hands dig carefully around a hill of corn to find out vvhich way the roots grow. Whether straight downward or out sidewise. Do you think corn might be injured by deep cultivation? If so, how? 7. Try at least four different ways of hanging up seed corn to dry. Figure 41. — Sugar beets CHAPTER VI HAY AND PASTURE CROPS HAY CROP Importance. — According to the Bureau of Statistics, the annual production of hay in the United States from 1902 to 1911 averaged 60,737,000 tons, grown on 42,557,000 acres, and valued at $624,664,000, an average of $10.28 per ton. The total amount was slightly in excess of the average annual value of cotton or wheat for the same years. The average acre value was $14.72. In addition to its money value, the hay crop bears such an important relation to soil productivity and to live stock enterprises that at least some of the principles of its growth and value should be thoroughly understood by every tiller of the soil. Advantages. — The value and advantage of the hay crop is often underestimated. Probably you have noticed that it is not necessary to plow and prepare the land for a hay crop as is done for other crops. The grass seed is sown with some preceding grain crop. So seeding of hay costs nothing but for the seed. If you go out into a good meadow of tame hay at hay- ing time, you will find very few, if any, weeds; and if there are weeds, they will be cut with the hay crop before they produce seed, as hay is usually cut before most of the com- mon weeds produce seed. For this reason the hay crop helps to clean the land of weeds. Another advantage is that a hay crop makes the soil better for succeeding crops, which is not true of grain or corn crops. If there is clover in the hay, it adds nitrogen to the soil; and any hay crop increases the amount of vege- table matter in the soil, because it has a heavier root system than have any of the other classes of crops. You can prove this by trying to pull a handful of grass in the meadow and a handful of grain in the grain field. Cost. — There is no other kind of winter feed grown on the farm that can be produced so cheaply in proportion 4 — t)B ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE. to its feeding value as hay. Some farmers hesitate to devote much of their land to growing hay, because it seems to bring in less money per acre than other crops appear to produce. The fact that it costs much less per acre to raise hay than to raise corn or any of the grain crops, is often overlooked. The following table shows the comparative cost of growing an oat crop and a hay crop. The figures are averages of accurate records on eight farms covering a period of five years. Cost per Acre, Exclusive of Rent, of Producing Hay and Oats on Eight Farms. Average for Five Years.* Hay — Timothy and Clover. First Crop. Seed $ -410 Mowing 432 Raking 165 Tedding 142 Cocking and Spreading 177 Hauling in 1-097 Machinery Cost 1-171 General Expense . . . ' -623 Second Crop. 4.217 Mowing 405 Raking 156 Cocking and Spreading 218 Hauling in 738 General Expense 2.004 Total Cost 7,738 Oats Seed 1-319 Cleaning Seed 037 Plowing 1-618 Disking 397 Dragging 340 Seeding «*!<* Cutting 473 Twine 189 Shocking 193 Stacking 772 Threshing (labor) 389 Threshing (cash) 720 Machinery cost 1.006 Genera! Expense -804 Total Cost f8.570 *Miunesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 145. HAY AXD PASTURE CROPS 99 The previous table shows that there is approximately twice as much labor and expense in growing an oat crop as in growing a hay crop, even when two cuttings of hay are made. So it is not necessary to get so nnich from the hay crop as from the grain crop to make as large profits. Rotation of Crops.- — If you can find in your neighbor- hood a timothy and clover meadow seeded last year, and one on similar land that has been seeded down — that is, raising hay for several years — ^you will see that the new FigTire 42.— Breaking sod with a traction plow. meadow, if a good stand has been secured, will give a larger yield than the old. Likewise a meadow or pasture plowed up will usually raise a larger crop of corn or grain than will a field that has not been in grass for several years. These facts show that both the meadow and the grain and corn crops will yield more if new meadows are seeded each year and old ones plowed for other crops. This means rotation of crops, and illustrates an advantage of the practice. Questions: 1. Name some of the advantages of the hay crop. 2. How does the cost of raising oats and hay compare? 3. How does the yield of hay from an old meadow compare with the yield from a newly seeded meadow. 4. What can j'ou say of the rotation of crops? 100 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Arithmetic: 1. One acre of clover and timothy will produce 2 tons of ha,y. How much does it cost per ton, if it cost $6.22 per acre to raise it? How much does it cost per ton, if $4.00 per acre is added for land rent? 2. If hay yields hut one and one half tons per acre, how much does it cost i>er ton, if it costs $6.22 per acre to raise it? How much does it cost per ton if $4.00 per acre is added for land rent? 3. If clover hay is worth $8.00 per ton compared with bran at $20.00 per ton, how much is bran worth when clover hay is worth simply the cost of growing it? CLOVER As clover is one of the most valuable field crops, it is important that every one know something of its habits and of the conditions favorable to its growth. Varieties. — There are several varieties of clover, but only four of the varieties are important in the Central West. These are Mammoth, Medium Red, Alsike and White. Mammoth Clover is very much like medium red. In fact, it is very hard to distinguish one from the other. The Mammoth is much coarser than the medium red, and on that account does not make so good a quality of hay. Its chief value is as a green crop to plow under, though it is often used for hay, pasture or seed. Medium Red is easily distinguished from alsike and white clover, as it is larger and each leaflet is marked by a V shaped, lighter colored streak near its center. The red blossoms aid, , also, in distinguishing this variety of clover. It will be noticed that nearly or quite all the stems of this clover are covered with fine hair. These hairs are objectionable, as they have a tendency to gather dust, thus making dusty hay, unless very carefully cured. It is usually a biennial, that is, as a rule, it lives but two years. It is usually sown with some grain crop, called a nurse crop. The clover plants are very small during the early part of summer, and do not grow much until the grain crop is cut. During the fall the clover grows very rapidly; but it does not produce a crop until the next year, the second year of its growth, when it produces two crops — two hay crops or a hay and a seed crop. The second crop is the one usually saved for seed. After the two crops are cut, the plants usually die, as they have lived their life. An occasional plant may live over, and considerable clover HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 101 may appear in the field the third year; but this is largely due to seeds formed the first or second year of the clover's growth, or to clover seeds starting that failed to grow the first year. This variety of clover is especially adapted to rotation pastures and nieadows. Considerable trouble is experienced in curing this variety of hay, as the thick stems contain so much juice that in trying to dry them the leaves, which are very thin, are liable to become too dry and shatter off when the hay is handled. Alsike Clover is small- er than medium red clo- ver, has smaller, more oblong leaves without white markings, and there are no hairs on its stems. The blossoms are smaller and lighter col- ored, nearly white at first and later pink. The seed is much smaller and darker colored than the seed of medium red. Alsike clover makes a better quality of hay than the red clover, because it is free of hairs and finer; but, as a rule, it does not yield so much on upland. It is a perennial, that is, it lives for several years unless some unfavorable conditions kill it. On this account it is more valuable for permanent pasture or meadow than the medium red. It is quite well adapted for low wet places, as it will stand more water than the red clover. White Clover is a very small, low growing plant with a tendency to trail along on the ground. It has small, nearly round, smooth leaves and smooth stems. The seed is a little smaller than alsike clover seed and is yellowish in color. It is a perennial. The stems creep along on the ground and take root at the joints, thus starting new plants. It spreads in this way as well as by the seeds. The blossoms Figure 43. — Leaves and stems of clover. 1. Medium red. (Note markings on leaf- lets, also hairs on stems.) 2. White. (Note smooth stem and small leaflets.) 3 Alsike. (Note smooth stem and smooth leaflets with prominent midrib.) 102 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE are white, and they can usually be seen at any time during the summer from June 1st until it freezes up in the fall. The white clover is of very little value as a hay crop, as it grows too short. It is common on lawns and in old pas- tures and is a valuable plant for such places. Getting a Catch of Clover. • — Difficulty is sometimes experienced in getting a good catch of clover. As clover grows slowly the first year it is sown, the grain crop with which it grows is liable to crowd it pretty hard; and when the grain is cut the hot sun is pretty hard on the small plants, especially if the weather is dry. Clover seed should be sown only on a fine, mel- low rich, well- prepared seed bed. Land well manured, planted to corn and well cultivated, then well disked the following spring, and sown to grain, is in fine condition for clover seed. If clover seed is sown on poor land the chances of get- ting a catch are greatly increased if a light dressing of man- ure can be applied soon after the seed is sown. Questions: 1. Name the four vai'ieties of clover common in the Middle West. 2. Which two are very much ahke? 3. Describe the leaf, stem and blossom of each of the last three. 4. What are annual, biennial and perennial plants? Figure 44. — Root systems of alsike and white clover plants. 1. Alsike. (Note small taproot and comparatively large laterals.) 2. White. (Note creeping stem rooted at different places, and fine fibrous roots.) HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 103 Arithmetic: 1. If an acre of clover yields 3,500 lbs. of hay at the first crop, and a bushel of seed at the second crop, what is the value of the entire crop, hay $10 per ton and clover seed $8 per bushel? 2. If an acre of clover yields 200 lbs. of seed, what is its value at .i;8 per bushel? (60 lbs. per bu.) 3. If clover seed is worth IS per l)ushel, what is its value per hundred weight? CLOVER ROOTS AND BACTESIA Medium Red Clover Root. — An examination of the roots of medium red, alsike and white clover will show con- siderable difference in them. The medium red clover has a large taproot (a root running straight down in the soil). This root is much larger and longer than the root of either of the other clovers. If a plant is dug carefully from a well drained soil, this taproot will be found to extend down two, and often more, feet; which shows that this clover gets part of its food from the subsoil. It has also many lateral roots running out from the taproot. In fact, if roots are carefully taken up, it will be seen that there is nearly as much plant l^elow as above ground. On this account medium red clover is one of the very best crops to grow to add vegetable matter to the soil. Alsike clover roots are considerably smaller than those of medium red clover. In many plants t he tapi'oot is not plainly Figure 4,'). — Root Kvslem of incilium red • , i i clover. (Note large taproot, lateral roots SCCn Or IS UOt mUCU largCl bScterift "'''^ '"'"''^'^ ^^ nitrogen-gathering ^J^j^^ ^j^^j fibrOUS rQOtS, l^y — ! ^H ^^m ^fl £ i^^msm ^m |,^/' FARM ritAVTlVE 'Plio soil is kopl woll cullivnlod and froo from woods. Whon Iho plnnls nro nboul two indues liifi;li, ihoy arc (hiniiod to lojivp about ono planl about oviMy (wo inches. WIumi th(^ tops weaken just above tlie onion and die down, the onions are pulled, dried, topped and stored. Quite small onions are soinetini(>s pulled nnd dri(>d ;in(i kepi over winter, then set out in the spiin^. 'Tluw ji;r()w (juiekly and ruinish green onions e.'iily. I'hey are called sets. Finiu'o 02. — A liolil of oniona. H;ulish(>s :\vc i;rown I'roni scimI. They require rich, moist soil. ;ind unl(\ss j^rown r;ipidly are very inha'ior in (piMlily. 'riu* seed is sown (>;ii"ly in the sprinj;- for an eMi'ly (■rt)p. Sevi>r;d pl!intin,ii;s twc usually made ;it intiM'VJils of two or ihwc w(H>ks for latiM- use. Radislu^s should be largo (Miough to us(> in four to six weeks Mft(>r the s(>i>d is [)lanted. l\»;is ;ire sown ejirly in spring; (>arly v;irietii*s for early use, liiier vaii(>lit>s for iatiM' use. Thtw iwo sown in drills fi'om (wi) Mud a half to four fet^t apart, d(>pi>nding upon the \;iii(My. 11 is desiiMbl(> in small gardens to furnish sonuMhing on which (he \im>s niay climb, as (lu\v are n(.)( s(rong enough (o staml tMec( alone. Hwarf varieties neeil no suppor(. liCduce, carrots and Swiss cliard are grown in about A GAUDIJN 141 ihc s;im(> \v:iy ;is i;i dishes. ( ';il)l)Mji;(> ;iih1 (•.•lulidowcr arc usii;illy li;ms|)l;mlc(l; tli;it is, llu> sihmI is sown in !)()X(*s ill lh(> house or iihous(> for viivly VMriclics, or in IxmIs in the {»jir(l(Mi I'oi' later v;iri(>li('s. TIumi (ho small plants arc later set out in the field wluM-e tlu\v tiw. to grow. C^elery is not conunonly }i;ro\vn, hut it should he, and may he fiiown on any good corn soil. It requires rich, moist soil. The S(H'd is first sown in hoxes, or heds, and (ians|)laii(('(l. It is often ti"aiisi)l;inted twice, first from the small IxmIs or hox(>s to larti;cr heds, (hen Ijilcr to I he field. I*\)r CMrly varieties the seed is sown ;i month or more hefore the soil outside can he worked. For l:iie v.'iricfics it, is sown after the soil outside is in good condition. The plants are set in well j)repared, ri(^h soil, in lows three to four feet apart, and the plants ahout six inches apjirt. in the row. Celery is kept cultivated as any crop. Somelimes a mulch of njanure or str;iw is placed helween the lows to check the growth of wcM'ds, :m(l regain moisture. It^ is necessary to keep soil pa('k(>d against the plants on either side to keep them fiom spi(>a(ling. Celery is always hl(>ach(>(l hefore it. is us(>(l. This may he done hy pl;icing honids on either side of the rows, or hy hanking u|) the I'ows with soil from hetween the rows. If the celery is to he us{^(lintho wint<>r, it is put into the c(^llar gre(>n, then hleac^luMl as needed. Bl(>a(!hing is nuMH^ly growing c(»lei'y away from the light. Celery is stored in the c(>llar hy piicking the plants tightly in hoxes with s.-md in the hottom into which the roots are {)laced. It is kept as cool as possihk^ without ficezing. To hl(\ich in the celkir, k(>ep the pkints moist, and warm enough so that they will grow. Tender Vegetables. R(vins are i)lan(,ed in the spring after all danger of fiost is |)a.st, in rows two to two and a half feet apart,, a,nd with from three to six scmmIs |)ei' foot in the row. (lood clean cultivation is all that is i-eciuiicd. String h(vins are s(>cured from variet,i(^s planted esp(>cially for that purpose". Shellcul heans, the navy varieties, are usually planted. Sweet (rorn is planted and cultivated the same as field corn, except usually in a much smaller way. 142 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Tomatoes are grown from seed planted, usually in boxes in the house, in gi-eenliouses, or in sheltered places. When all danger of frost is past, the plants are transplanted to the field or garden. A very few plants will supply the needs of the family. Melons, cucumbers and squash are very tender and easily killed by frost. They are planted usually in hills fi'om six to nine feet apart each way, on rich well prepared land. They require cultivation and plenty of moisture. Questions: 1. Name three classes of vegetables and several common vege- tables to be found under each class. 2. Describe briefly the methods you would use in growing a crop of onions; a crop of celery. 3. Tell all you can about marketing vegetables. Arithmetic: 1. If one applies 25 tons of manure per acre, how much does it cost at $2.50 per ton? 2. If an acre of onions yields 600 bushels, what is the value of the crop at 85c. per bushel? 3. How many celery plants can one produce on an acre with rows 3 ft. apart and plants 6 in. aoart in the row? (There are 43,560 s you to get a garden club started. CHAPTER X FRUIT ON THE FARM ADVANTAGES OF FRUIT Succulent Food. — That fruit is a h(>althful form of food is roco}i;iiiz('(l by all, yet there are many persons liv- ing on farms wiio seldom have as much fruit as is neces- sary for the health and comfort of tlu^ family. The need Figure G3. — An exhibit ot fine apples of succulent food for animals is met by sui)i)lyin}>; ensilage or roots, yet in many homes the need of succulence in the family diet, though as necessary and easily supplied, is apparently not recognized. Although the juices of fruits help to supply tiie body witli li(iuid and furnish it with 144 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE needful mineral substances, these products are especially acceptable and suitable items of diet during the warmer months, when we do not desire so much food of a heat- producing nature. Home Products. — The home-grown fruits surpass any that can be purchased; for during the summer they may be had clean and fresh, and are very different from the dusty and inferior ones which are often all that the markets have to offer. Such fresh fruit is equally as much better than the market product when canned. Another great advantage in raising fruit is that the family will then be well supplied, while there are few farm families that will pay the necessary price to secure the amount needed, if it must be purchased. Every housekeeper knows the value of a good supply of fresh fruit during the summer and fall and the pleasure that is derived from the canned fruit stored away for winter use. The jellies and preserves form a healthful and pala- table dessert at any time, and are always ready. Canned fruit juice, which may be had in large quanti- ties where fruit is plentiful, is perhaps the most appetizing and healthful drink for the sick, and is equally as refreshing for those who are well. Ease of Supply. — It is neither laborious nor expensive to provide an abundance of both large and small fruits. A small patch of strawberries will produce more than plenty for an ordinary family. Raspberries, gooseberries and cur- rants may be grown at little loss of space along the garden fence. A small orchard, also, will more than suffice for fam- ily needs. Ordinary cultivation and occasional spraying are the only demands upon labor. With this attention, however, the results from every point of view will be bene- ficial and delightful. Questions: 1. What kind of food do we need in addition to the protein, earbohydrates and fats? 2. What class of foods supply bulk and succulence? 3. What are the advantages of raising fruit for home use? Arithmetic: 1. If a family of six uses 1 qt. of canned fruit per day, how many quarts will they use in 6 months? 2. If a family of six uses the equivalent of lyz quarts of fresh FRUIT ON THE FARM 145 fruit per day, how many quarts would be required to supply them a year? How much are these berries worth at 10c. per quart? 3. If a man spends 5 hours per week for 12 weeks caring for fruit, to produ(;e enough fruit for a family of six as given in example 2, how many hours would he spend? What is his time worth at 15c. per hour? STRAWBERRIES Adaptability. — The strawberry may be grown in almost any locality, from the far north to the extreme south. It is the most widely distributed of the cultivated fruits, and perhaps the most universally popular. Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of straw- berries listed. Some varieties are particularly adapted to the cooler summers and to the soil conditions of the northern districts, while others are adapted more partic- ularly to the southern conditions. At least one or more varieties may be selected for any district. There are varieties of strawberries that have imper- fect or pistillate flowers, and varieties that have perfect flowers, or flowers containing both stamens and pistils. The perfect may be distinguished from the imperfect only by the flower. When buying plants, one must depend upon the knowledge and honesty of the dealer to secure either plants with perfect flowers or a sufficient number of them to properly fertilize the pistillate flowers. The pis- tillate varieties are often the best bearers, and are not ob- jectionable when planted with staminate varieties, but are fruitless when planted alone. However, to simplify matters it is wise for the amateur to select the perfect varieties. Soil. — It is generally conceded that strawberries are most successfully raised on sandy or gravelly loam. New clover sod makes a desirable soil, but it is not safe to use old sod land, on account of the larvae of many injurious insects which are likely to be in the soil and feed upon the young plants. To guard against such, it is well to have the strawberry crop follow some cultivated crop, as potatoes, beans or corn, for the cultivation is quite likely to kill the larvae. Preparation of the Soil. — The land should be well fer- tilized. For four rows one hundred feet long, about what would supply the ordinary family, a load of well decomposed 146 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE stable manure is needed. It is preferable to plow this under in the fall. The surface should be kept pulverized in the spring, until it is ready for the plants. The Plants.^ — Strawberries are propagated by runners. The runners grow out from the old plants, and at the joints take root and form new plants. It is these new plants "'*» ffcjjiJeMjMfc ^^ ■ Mm M IS ^jjf-AtS^ ^g^B| £jw ) ^"^^t'WMEH^Hb 1 m 1 1 i ^^S^^^^^HHli^^ HB BHa^r ~i ^^s. w^^p ''^^^i^SB BHUi^^-^^^HHi H g^^^_ .,\-,-' m H tJjUila v^^SH H^S ^^M ^i, '' *■ ' '^^^ ImK tSIMSllSt ict^jifi^&K.'^si jB^BBMsMH|^g^H f^,- '^^ ^ ^S! ^^^^^^ m Hiil. ^m m w '^Samoi ^l"f>^^ Figure G4. — A strawberry bed with straw raked between the rows for winter pro- tection. It holds moisture and checks the growth of weeds. which should be set out. They are distinguished from the old by their white roots. Old plants have dark roots. The plants, when taken up to be transplanted, should be trimmed of dead leaves or of too large a growth of leaves, and of all pieces of runners. Many roots are desirable; but, as they may make planting difficult, the large roots are usually trimmed. If the plants purchased seem weak or wilted, or if the field at the time is exceedingly dry, they should not be set immediately. It is much safer to shake them out well and put them close together in a row, where they may be easily protected from the wind and kept well watered. Here they will freshen, perhaps start to grow, and be ready for the field when conditions there are more favorable. FRUIT ON THE FARM 147 Setting of Plants. — Strawberry plants may be set out at any time, from early spring until midsummer, provided the plants are strong and the ground moist. The earlier they are set, however, the better, as they then have a longer growing season and the roots seem to form more abundantly in the cooler weather of spring. In setting the plants, the roots should be shaken or spread out as naturally as possible and the dirt firmly packed about them. Care must be taken to set the plants the right depth. The terminal bud should not be hidden, yet the upper portion of the root should be well covered. The safe rule is to set the plants as nearly as possible the depth they were before. System of Planting. — Strawberries are either set in hills three by three feet apart, or in matted rows. When set in matted rows, the common practice is to set out single rows four feet apart, plants twelve inches apart in the rows. The runners are then allowed to cover a space of from six to nine inches on either side of the plants, making a matted row from twelve to eighteen inches wide and leaving a space of from thirty to thirty-six inches between the rows for cultivation and convenience in harvesting. This space may be reduced, and there is one advantage in the narrower space — i. e., the runners may be allowed to occupy it and the old row be plowed up. This saves resetting. Cultivation. — Cultivation should be shallow, yet deep enough to destroy weeds and frequent enough to keep the surface well pulverized and to maintain a surface mulch. Moisture is then more readily admitted and evaporation is checked to a considerable extent. Care must be taken to keep the plants from getting too thick in the row. If too thick, they are less vigorous and produce smaller and poorer berries. When set in rows, enough new plants may be set to make a continuous row 12 to 18 inches wide, with plants not nearer together than 6 inches. To protect the plants from frequent freezing and thaw- ing, a mulch is applied. It is usually of coarse material, as hay, corn stalks, or straw, and is applied late in autumn or in the early winter. It should protect the plants, yet not smother them. Ordinarily it should be about three 148 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE inches thick and extend over the entire bed. In the spring most of the mulch is taken from over the row and put in the spaces between, where it preserves moisture and keeps down weeds. The portion left on the row aids in keeping the fruit off the ground. Questions: 1. What is the best soil for strawberries? 2. How should the soil be prepared? 3. What can you say of the plants to be set? 4. When and how should plants be set? 5. What care should the strawberry bed receive? Arithmetic: 1. If strawberry plants are set in rows 4 ft. apart and plants 2 ft. apart in the row, how long will four rows need to be to accommo- date 200 plants? How much space will they occupy? 2. If strawberries yield 3,000 quarts per acre, how much is the crop worth at 10c. per quart? 3. If strawberries yield 3,000 quarts per acre, how many quarts should 4 rows 100 ft. long and 4 ft. apart yield? RASPBERRIES Adaptability. — The raspberry, like the strawberry, has some species which are adapted to almost every localit}^ One type of the red raspberry extends over a territory from Arizona to Alaska. There seems, however, to be no variety adapted to conditions in the western Dakotas, eastern Montana and Wyoming, or for parts of California, New Mexico and Texas. Varieties. — The name raspberry, as we use the term to-day, embraces four species of plants, the European, a foreign species, the Native Red, the Black Cap and the Purple Cane, a cross between Black Cap and Red Rasp- berry. Soil. — In their wild state, raspberries are frequently found growing upon a variety of soils, but, like other crops, they thrive better and yield more abundantly upon moderate- ly rich soil. The varieties of red raspberries seem to require for best production a richer soil than most of the varieties of black raspberries, the former giving larger yields on moist clay loam and the latter on sandy loam. Preferably rasp- berries should follow a cultivated crop. Beans, peas, and potatoes are good preparatory crops. Propagation. — The red raspberries are propagated by FRUIT ON THE FARM 149 root sprouts. Young succulent plants may be transplanted, if a part of the parent root is taken with them; but one- year-old root sprouts are better. The purple raspberries may be propagated by sprouts or by tip layering, according to variety. The black raspberries are propagated by stolons or layers. To secure new plants, the branches are bent over some time during the summer and their tips covered lightly with earth. They then root quickly. These new plants Figure 65. — Uncovering raspberries in the spring. They are laid down in the fall and covered with earth to protect them from thawing and freezing. are left attached to the old plant until the following spring, when the old stem or branch is cut about eight inches above the new roots. The plants are then ready for transplanting. Setting of Plants. — The red raspberries may be set out during either spring or fall, fall setting perhaps being more generally favored, as sprouts come out very early in the spring and are very liable to be broken off, if transplanting is attempted at this season. The black raspberries, tip rooters, should be trans- planted in the spring, as they are almost sure to winter- kill if disturbed in the fall. 150 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Plants of either kind are usually set two in a hill, hills three feet apart and rows seven feet apart. If the rows extend north and south, the fruit during ripening time will be somewhat shaded by the new growth, which is an advan- age. The spacing may be reduced, but wide spacing has some advantages, chief among which is the fact that it admits plenty of sunshine and makes cultivation possible even when the branches are bearing fruit. When the new plants are set, they are cut off close to the ground, and are not allowed to bear fruit the first year. The red raspberries, propagated by root, sprouts, should be set a little deeper than they were originally. The black raspberries, propagated by stolons or layers, should be set about their original depth. Cultivation. — Clean cultivation is especially necessary for the red raspberry, as it spreads rapidly if not checked, soon exhausting its vitality. The spaces between the hedges should be plowed at least once a year, and perhaps less in- jury is done to the roots if spring plowing is practiced. The subsequent cultivating should loosen the soil only to a depth of two or three inches. Pruning. — Raspberries require summer and winter prun- ing. The summer pruning consists in stopping the young shoots when they are about eighteen inches high. This tends to produce branches and root sprouts and so increase the wood growth. In the winter cut out all stems that have produced fruit, and dead and diseased ones. Winter Protection. — In some severe climates raspber- ries need winter protection. The roots are loosened at one side of each plant, and the top is bent over and covered with earth. A layer of corn fodder or straw may be added later, if more protection seems warranted. This covering should be removed in the spring, and the plants raised as soon as danger of freezing and thawing is past. Questions: 1. How general is raspberry culture? 2. How many types of raspberries are there? 3. What soil does each type require? 4. How is each type propagated? 5. Tell what you can of time and manner of setting each type? 6. Describe cultivation and pruning of each type. FRVIT ON THE FARM 151 Arithmetic: 1. If one plants 4 rows of raspberries 100 ft. long, with 2 plants per hill 2 ft. apart in the row, how many plants are required? 2. If one has four 100-ft. rows of raspberries, rows 7 ft. apart, how much space do they occupy'? 3. If raspberries yield 2,500 qts. per acre, how many quarts should one get from a patch 28 ft. by 100 ft.? APPLES Adaptability. — By selection and grafting, varieties of apples have been obtained which are very hardy and adapt themselves to wide ranges of territory and vast differences in temperature. Apple-growing is no longer confined to the warmer portions of the South, but is a possibility in the colder sections of the North. Some very choice apples are raised in districts of short summers and cold winters. Soil.— The chief re- quirement of soil for apple production seems to be that it contains an abund- ance of plant food. The poorer the soil, the more careful man- agement becomes nec- essary. The best con- dition for apples seems to be a rich, well-drained soil that will retain moisture. Preparation of the Soil. — Some prefer to raise apples in a sod- ded tract. Where such is the case, good clover or prairie sod need not be broken up. Holes should be dug large enough to accommo- date the tree without Figure 66. — Picking anples?. Note care ]• „ •, , ,.„, + ., taken to prevent bruising, as bruised "Owduig itS rOOtS apples do not keep well. Where CUltlVatlOU 01 152 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE the orchard is planned the soil should be brought into a til- lable condition before trees are set. The latter is undoubt- edly the more successful method. The Trees. — In selecting trees to set, perhaps more attention should be paid to the roots than to the shape of the top. The essentials are a good root system and a thrifty top. Apple trees do not come true from seed. That is, seed from Ben Davis apples will not produce Ben Davis apple trees. Trees true to variety are secured by grafting branches of trees of desired varieties on roots secured by planting apple seeds. In severe climates it is very essential that these roots be hardy. To be sure of getting suitable stock, it is wise to order trees for planting only from dealers in whom you have confidence. Trees should not be more than four years or less than one year old. Trees for northern growers should be taken from the nursery in the fall, and kept through the winter in a cool cellar or be buried in trenches in the field. Setting the Trees. — In sections of severe winters, apple trees should be set in the spring, as they are almost sure to winter-kill, if set in the fall. In sections particularly adapted to apple culture, the trees may be taken from the nursery in the spring and set out. They may also be set in the fall. The spring planting, however, is likely to be more successful than the fall planting. The depth to set apple trees will vary according to the slope of the land and the quality of the soil. On steep hillsides they must be set deeply enough to prevent the roots from coming to the surface. In rich soil, four or five inches deeper than they were set originally is adequate. Sandy light soil will require deeper setting. In sections where apple trees grow large, they should be set from thirty-five to forty feet apart. In sections where trees do not attain so large a size, they may be set from twenty-five to thirty feet apart, and trees in one row alternate with those in the next. As a protection against sun scald, trees should lean a little to the southwest. Cultivation. — If the orchard is to be cultivated, some crop which requires cultivation in early summer but none FRUIT ON THE FARM 153 in the fall, may be grown. Corn and early potatoes are often planted; and in some eastern states, where there is a great demand for tomatoes for the canneries, this crop is profitable, and the cultivation beneficial to the orchard. Mulching. — There are arguments for and against mulch- ing. Where cultivation is impossible, a mulch of straw, hay or any coarse material, should be maintained. A mulch Figure 67. — A well kept apple orchard. of stable manure is beneficial to young trees, but should not touch them. Where mulching is practiced, it should be renewed when grass begins to grow up through it, and should cover as large or a larger space than the roots are likely to permeate. Each spring the mulching should be removed, the ground around the tree well spaded, and a mulch replaced. The chief objections to mulching are that it tends to encourage growth of roots towards the surface, and fur- nishes a home for injurious insects. These objections may be oversome by removing the mulch in the spring and replacing it in the fall. Pruning. — The objects in pruning are to direct the growth of the tree, to admit sunlight, and to maintain the vigor and vitality of the tree. Trees well exposed to sun and wind 154 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE will need less pruning or thinning of branches than trees in more sheltered places. Old, neglected trees may be bene- fited by pruning, as the remaining branches will receive more of the sap gathered by the roots as the foliage area is reduced. If the trees are badly in need of pruning, it is well to remove only a portion of the surplus branches the first year, and continue the pruning the following years. A limb that crosses another, or is too near another, should be removed as well as all diseased portions. Pruning may be done on warm days in early spring. It is safer not to prune when the twigs are frozen, yet the pruning should be done before the sprouts start. A branch or twig should be cut off close to the trunk or the branch, as such cuts heal more quickly than if a stub is left. The scars made should be covered with grafting wax or some similar substance. Pure linseed oil and white lead are successfully used. Spraying. — Apples of the best quality, size and color cannot be grown on trees "Ihat are diseased or infested by insects. All parts of the apple tree — roots, branches, leaves and fruit — are liable to be attacked by pests of many kinds. Each kind of insect as, for example, the codling worm, and each kind of disease as, for instance, apple scab, may be warded off or killed by spraying. Apple pests are referred to briefly in Chapter XI. Write to your state experiment station for further information. Thinning. — As soon in their development as the apples begin to show imperfections, or about the time that the June fall occurs, approximately half of the crop may be removed with profit. Every apple that shows disease or injury should be picked, observing to thin the fruit in pro- portion throughout the tree. The vigor of the tree is thus maintained and its strength is expended on the smaller part of the crop that remains. It naturally, therefore, attains a greater size and better color. The tree is also likely to Ijecome a more regular bearer, and insects and diseases are destroyed. Picking. — Fruit should l^e jiicked from an orchard step- ladder and placed in a cloth-lined basket or a galvanized iron pail. Generally speaking, when apples are to be shipped, FRUIT ON THE FARM 155 they should be picked before they are fully ripe. Ripeness can be judged by the color of the fruit and the ease with which the stem is separated from the tree. In picking the stem should be allowed to remain attached to the apple. Storage. — Apples keep best when stored in a uniform temperature of from 30 to 32 degrees F. The air also should be moist, saturated to about 80 per cent. If the temperature is too high, the apples will decay, and if the atmosphere is dry, they will shrivel. Commercial fruit is generally placed in rooms that are cooled artificially. That which is stored at home should be kept in frost-proof buildings or dugouts. Questions: 1. How has apple-growing been made possible in districts not originally adapted to it? 2. What kind of soil do apple trees require? 3. How are different soils or sods prepared for apple trees? 4. Tell what you can of trees suitable for setting. 5. How and when should trees be set? 6. What cultivation is necessary? 7. What mulching and pruning are necessary? Arithmetic: 1. If trees are set 25 ft. apart each way, how much space does each tree occupy? How many trees can be set on an acre? 2. If trees are set 2.5 ft. apart each way and each tree produces 4 bus. of apples, how many bushels will be produced per acre? How much are they worth at $1.00 per bushel? 3. If one has 10 apple trees, each producing 4 bus. of apples, how much wiU the apples be worth at 90c. per bushel? Exercises: 1. Make a list of all the different kinds of fruit you have eaten and tell where each came from. 2. Who raises the finest strawberries in your neighborhood? Visit this place and get the owner to tell you just how to raise straw- berries. Then write a story about what you have learned. 3. Make a list of all the kinds of fruit that are grown in your neigh- borhood. How many of these grow wild? 4. Ask your mother or your teacher to show you how to can fruit. Then write a story telling just how to do it. 5. Ask some fruit grower in the neighborhood to show you how to prune an apple tree. 6. Visit some orchard in the fall and hunt until you fmd a per- fect apple. Find out, if you can, why some of the apples are not per- fect. Why do some have bad spots and worm holes? What could have been done to i)revcnt them? 7. Of two equally sound apples place one in a cool place and the other in a warm place and see how much longer one will remain good than the other. CHAPTER XI PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS PLANT DISEASES Prevalence. — Plants are affected by diseases just as animals are, and one of the very serious problems of the farmer is to learn to know the diseases of the crops he grows, and the most practical means of combating them. Many volumes have been written about plant diseases, and there is much that is still unknown about them. Plant diseases are caused by parasitic plants that grow in or on the useful farm crops and steal their living from them. Only a few of the more common diseases of the principal farm crops can be mentioned in a book of this kind. Loss. — An immense loss is sustained every year from plant diseases. The loss on every farm from this cause is very great, much greater, we believe, than most farmers realize. Every year there is some loss from disease in nearly every crop grown, but as a rule the disease is not noticed unless it is quite bad. For example, one can very seldom, if ever, find a field of wheat entirely free from rust; yet the rust is usually unnoticed until a season occurs which is very favorable to it, and a great loss is sustained. Such a season occurred in Minnesota in 1914, and wheat rust caused a loss of at least 30 per cent in the wheat crop, or a money loss of over S15,000,000 in one state in one year. Rust affects a great many of the common fai'm crops, such as wheat, oats, barley, alfalfa, and rye. As indicated above, the loss is often enormous. At present there is no known remedy except to select varieties of crops that are capable of resisting the disease, and selecting early-maturing varieties that are likely to ripen before the rust becomes prevalent enough to seriously injure the crop. Winter grain crops, because they ripen earlier, are less subject to rust than spring-sown crops. Grain smuts are diseases that affect barley, oats and wheat. The black or naked heads of grain, commonly seen PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 157 I IfS CALi.aVS /rUMAJJOfVOC. on close examination of a field, are caused by smut. There are several different kinds of smut, all of which are quite common. All the smuts may be controlled by proper treatment. Some of them are easily controlled, while others are more difficult to handle. Every farmer or farm boy may easily know the different smuts and the best means of controlling them. It is very common for smuts to cause a loss of 10 per cent in a grain crop. This means a loss of from $1 to $2 per acre. This loss may be prevented at a cost of only a few cents per acre. Loose smut of oats, and covered smut of wheat and barley are very easily controlled by treating the seed grain. The smut spores, or seeds of the smut plant, live over winter on the kernels of grain. If the kernels of grain are brought in contact with a solution of formalin, the smut spores are killed. Forty per cent formaldehyde may be purchased at any drug store, — a pint bot- Figure 68 —Material and equipment for treat- tie will COSt frOm thirty mg certain kinds of gram smuts. , • , i i to Sixty cents, — and when mixed with 45 gallons of water will make enough solution to treat 60 or 80 bushels of seed grain. There are ma- chines on the market for treating seed grain for smut, or the grain may be spread on the floor and the solution sprinkled over it with a sprinkling can. The grain must be shoveled over so that all kernels come in contact with the solution. It is well to cover the grain after it is treated with sacks or blankets so that the gas from the formalin will help in killing the smut spores. We give con- siderable space to these smuts, because they attack very important crops, are very common, almost universal, and are so very easily and simply treated. Loose smut of wheat and barley causes the whole heads of the plants to fail to produce s(!ed, and instead of the usual head of grain there is nothing left but the bare naked stalk. 158 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE A careful examination of a field of wheat or barley after it is well headed out will usually show a considerable number of these naked heads. The spores of this smut are found on the inside of the kernels of grain, and on this account they are hard to destroy. Formalin has no affect on them. The only practical treatment is what is called the hot water treatment and this is very hard to employ. Another method is to get enough clean seed to plant a small plot, and raise the seed grain from that. Write to your State Experiment Station for full information about smuts. Com smut may attack any part of the corn plant. It usually ap- pears in black, soft masses on the ears, stalks or tassels. Each black ball is made up of thousands of spores. These spores live over win- ter in the soil; so seed treatment is not effective. The only method of control is to pick the smut balls from the corn and burn them, or rotation of crops, or both. Flax wilt is a disease that affects flax. It attacks the young plants and kills them so they wilt and fall over; hence the name. The spores of this disease live over winter in the soil and on the seed. It is 'of whe^atTBl^ead ^affected coutrollcd by sowiug flax no oftcncr ruacfe^°by°1ooTe"am'u't"'''^ ^^an oucc in six or scvcu _ ycars on the same sou, and by usmg clean seed. If seed from an infected field must be used, it may be treated with formalin the same as oats are treated for smut. In treating flax seed, do not get the seeds too wet or they will stick together and be difficult to sow. Apple blight, or fire blight, is a disease that attacks the limbs or trunks of apple trees, also other trees. The leaves on the affected parts look as if they had been scorched by fire. The disease also shows on the bark, which turns darker in color. The only remedy is to cut out the parts affected and burn them. PLA^'T DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 159 Apple scab is a fungous disease which attacks tlie blossoms and other parts of the tree, finallj^ manifesting its effect on the fruit, which becomes scabby and shriveled and drops. Extensive losses arc suffered in this way. The disease is thought to be more prevalent in wet seasons. The remedy is to spray with Bordeaux mixture once before blossoming, Figure 70. — Spraying fruit trees. immediately after the petals fall and again in a few days. Formula for Bordeaux Mixture Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 5 lbs. Quicklime (not slaked), 5 lbs. Water, 50 gallons. Dis.solve the copper sulphate in 25 or 35 gallons of water. Slake the lime in the remaining part of the water, and mix. To this amoimt of Bordeaux mixture J 3 lb. of Paris green may be added to form a general insecticide to be used on fruit-bearing bushes and trees. Scab and scale diseases may be similarly treated with the lime-sulphur solution. To control the codling-moth, there should be a midsummer spraying with two j^ounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water. Questions: 1. \\'hat can you say of the nature of plant diseases? 2. Learn to write down, without looking, the names of the diseases discussed in this lesson and the plants they attack. 160 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 3. Describe the formalin treatment of seed grain, and name the diseases that may iSe prevented by it. Arithmetic: 1. If the yield of grain is reduced 10% by smut, how much does a farmer lose who grows 100 acres of wheat with a normal yield of 15 bus. per acre? How many dollars does he lose, if wheat is worth 90c. per bushel? 2. If a farmer pays 50c. for a pint of formaldehyde and uses it and four hours of time to treat 60 bus. of wheat for smut, how much does it cost him per bushel, if his time is worth 15c. per hour? 3. How many acres can one seed at the rate of IJ^ bus. per acre, with 60 bus. of wheat? DISEASES OF POTATO AND COTTON Potato diseases are very numerous and cause more loss to the crop than is caused to most other crops by disease. Although the potato crop is very common, and the diseases are very general, comparatively little is widely known or done to prevent the losses. Potato scab is very common. It attacks the tubers and leaves them with rough unsightly blotches. This scab greatly reduces the value of the crop, though it does not, as a rule, materially reduce the yield. The spores of the disease live over both on the tubers and in the soil. The spores on the tubers are destroyed by soaking the tubers for one and a half hours in a solution of formalin made by mixing one pint of 40 per cent formaldehyde in 35 gal- lons of water. The seed tubers should be treated before they are cut, then planted on clean land, that is, land that has not produced potatoes for four or five years. Four ounces of corrosive sublimate dissolved in hot water, then mixed with thirty gallons of water, is also effective in de- stroying scab. The tubers are soaked in it 1^ hours. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous and must be handled with care. Rhizoctonia is another serious potato disease, which in many sections seriously affects the crop. It affects the vines, the stems and the tubers. It is controlled by treat- ing the seed with corrosive sublimate, as indicated above for scab, and by planting clean seed on clean land. Potato wilt, or lirown rot, is one of the very injurious potato diseases, though it has never been recognized as a disease by a great many potato growers. It affects both PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 161 the vines and roots, and often causes serious loss in the tubers by causing them to rot. A thin sHce cut across the stem end of tubers affected usually shows a dark ring or diseased portion just under the skin. This disease causes a great loss in yield and from tubers rotting. It may be entirely controlled by selecting clean seed and by rotation of crops. Clip off the stem ends of tubers to be used for seed, and discard all that show the disease, or at least cut off all the diseased part. Select for seed only disease-free tubers, and then treat with corrosive sublimate solution the same as for scab. Plant only clean seed on clean land. Potato blight causes serious losses in the potato crop nearly every year. There are two distinct blights that affect potatoes. They are called early and late blight. Both diseases affect the leaves of the growing plants, and reduce the crop of tubers by partially or completely destroy- ing the leaves. Late blight also causes the tubers to rot; so it is more serious than early blight. Both of these blights are controlled by spraying the vines with Bordeaux mix- ture. See page 149. The potato vines must be sprayed from three to five times. Begin spraying when the plants are six to eight inches high, and repeat every ten to fifteen days until the potatoes are ripe. Cotton Diseases. — There are two serious common diseases of the cotton plant : wilt and root rot. Cotton wilt is some- what similar to flax wilt. Some plants and some varieties of cotton seem to resist the disease better than others. The selection of resistant varieties and the rotation of crops are the most effective means of control. Root rot affects cotton quite seriously on heavy soils. Deep plowing, drain- age and rotation of crops help to control this disease. Questions: 1. Name some important diseases that affect potatoes. 2. How are the potato blights controlled? 3. Describe the making of Bordeaux mixture? 4. Name two diseases of cotton and remedies for them. Arithmetic: 1. If an acre of potatoes yields 160 bus., how much is the loss per acre, if the value of each bushel is reduced 5c. on account of scab? 2. If a normal yield of potatoes is 160 bus. and the yield is re- duced 2.5% on account of wilt, what is the loss per acre, if potatoes are worth 4Qc. per bushel? 6 — 162 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 3. If five hours of time are required to select and treat enough seed potatoes for an acre, and 30c. worth of material is required for the treatment, what will the total cost of treatment be, if one's time is worth 15c. per hour? INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL Loss to farm crops caused by insects represents a very heavy tax, and increases greatly the cost of producing crops. Many injurious insects, in fact most of them, are always present, and there seems to be little prospect of ever getting rid of them. The problem of the farmer is to know the habits and methods of control of the insects affecting his crops, and to wage continuous war against them. Habits. — Insects have certain characteristics that dis- tinguish them from other animals. There are three distinct sections to their bodies: head, trunk and abdomen. They also change in character as they develop. There are four quite distinct changes: first, the egg stage; second, the larval or worm stage, — this is the stage at which they do most of the damage to crops; third, the pupal or resting stage, during which time the insect changes to the fourth stage, that of the mature insect. Two Classes. — Insects may be divided into two classes by their methods of eating. Some insects chew their food. These insects can be poisoned by spraying poison on the plants they are eating. Other insects force their sharp mouth parts into the skin or bark of the plant and suck out the juices. Poison sprayed on plants will not affect these insects, because they do not get it. They must be killed by spraying with something that will kill them simply by coming in contact with their bodies, such as soap solution or tobacco extracts. Among the most common biting insects that can be poisoned are potato bugs, cutworms, army worms, currant worms, cabbage worms, grasshoppers, plum curculio, and codling moth. The most common sucking insects are plant lice, squash bugs, chinch bugs, and scale insects. Remedies. — There are several ways of combating in- sects, the most generally effective way being good farming; that is, the rotation of crops, fall plowing, clean fence corners, keeping all rubbish picked up about the fields, and maintaining about the place a good grove or other PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 163 suitable place for birds. Rotation aids in reducing the loss from insects, because it provides for moving each crop to a different field every year or two, and by the time the insects get a start in one field the crop they are attacking is moved to another field and largely escapes. Fall plowing destroys many insects by destroying their winter quarters, or by exposing the eggs or insects so that the weather kills them. Cleaning up fence corners and rubbish destroys good hiding places and winter quarters for many insects. Birds eat great quantities of insects, and anything done to protect or shelter them aids in controlling insects. Poisons for the biting insects are either sprayed or dusted on the plants. The liquid spray is most common and gen- erally most satisfactory. Paris green mixed in water in the proportion of one pound of Paris green to fifty gallons of water is one of the most common poisons. Arsenate of lead mixed, three pounds to fifty gallons of water, is also generally used. Bordeaux mixture, which is used as a spray to destroy some of the plant diseases, see page 149, may be used with either of these poisons in place of water. So one may often spray for insects, like potato bugs, and plant diseases, like potato blight, at one operation. Contact sprays for sucking insects may be made at home or purchased. A very simple and satisfactory spray for plant lice is soap solution, made by dissolving one pound of laundry soap in fifteen gallons of boiling water. This solution may be used any time, but is more effective when warm. Tobacco extracts are sold commercially by druggists in serveral different forms. From half a pint to a pint is used in fifty gallons of water. The cotton boll weevil has done great damage to the cotton crop. When this insect first appeared it was feared it would completely destroy the cotton industry; but it has become less destructive since cotton growers have learned how to control it. Rotation of crops, thorough cultivation of the cotton crop, and early planting of early varieties have been found quite effective in controlling it. Questions: 1 . Can you tell some of the characteristics of insects? What are the four stages or changes that insects go through? 164 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 2. Why is a farmer interested in knowing whether an insect gets its food by biting or sucking? 3. What can you say of the cotton boll weevil? Arithmetic: 1. If corn on fall-plowed land yields 50 bus. per acre and on spring plowed land 25% less on account of the damage done by cut- worms, how much is gained per acre by fall-plowing, if corn is worth 50c. per bushel? 2. A sprayed his cabbage with Paris green to kill cabbage worms, and raised 15 tons of cabbage per acre; B did not spray his cabbage and raised only 12 tons per acre. How much did A make by spray- ing, if cabbage is worth 3^c. per pound? Exercises: 1. Gather some specimens of wheat, oats, and corn that are afflicted with smut. What has the disease done to the grain? 2. If you can find a crop that is afflicted with smut, estimate the loss. Show how it might have been prevented and at what expense. 3. Make a comparative study of apple blight and potato blight and apple scab and potato scab. How are they aUke and how unlike? 4. Make a collection of a few insects in their various stages of development. 5. Get specimens of insects that eat and that suck and parts of plants attacked. Also spray against each kind and note results. 6. Try to estimate the loss that insects may cause to crops either on your own farm or in the community. CHAPTER XII LIVE STOCK Importance. — Farmers in the United States own almost six billion dollars' worth of live stock, principally as follows: 20,737,000 head of dairy cattle, worth $1,118,487,000; 35,855,000 head of beef cattle worth $1,116,333,000; 20,- 962,000 head of horses worth $2,291,638,000; 58,935,000 head of hogs worth $612,951,000; 49,719,000 head of sheep worth $200,803,000; and $202,506,372 worth of poultry. With these vast sums invested in live stock it is very important that the boys and girls who are to handle this vast wealth should know something about animals, their habits and needs. In 1909 the total value of live stock sold and slaughtered and of live stock products sold from the farmers of the United States was nearly three billion dollars. Live Stock and the Soil. — Aside from the vast invest- ment in live stock and the annual value of live stock pro- ducts is the great importance of live stock to the farm and to the productivity of the soil. It is a generally recog- nized fact that farms on which a considerable number of live stock is kept produce larger yields of crops than farms without live stock. This result is true, because, when animals eat a crop of grass or hay or corn, a large part of the plant food contained in the crop is returned to the farm; while on farms without live stock the whole crop is sold from the farm and all the plant food it contained, with it. It is well worth while for anyone who expects to operate a farm to study very carcfull}^ the relation of live stock to the farm. Classes of Stock. — There are several different ways of classifying live stock. First, they may be classified accord- ing to the character of the animals, as. Cattle, Horses, Mules, Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. Second, they may be classi- fied on the basis of the uses to which thej' are put, thus: 166 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Horses and Mules are used chiefly for power or for driv- ing and riding. In some countries in times of famine horse meat is eaten, but such cases are rare. Horse hides or skins are used to make gloves and shoes. Cattle are kept chiefly for meat and milk. Oxen are sometimes used for work and driving. When animals are slaughtered, their skins are used for making shoes, gloves, harnesses and other leather goods. Their hair is used for plastering. The bones are used for refining sugar, and the bones, blood, hair and other waste is used for fertilizer or for feed for hogs and poultry, and the tallow is used in oleomargarine, for making soap and various kinds of oils and grease. Hogs are kept for the production of meat and lard, but the waste products are used for fertilizers. Sheep are kept for their wool from which clothing is made and for meat. Poultry is kept for meat and eggs. Questions: 1. Tell what you can about the importance of live stock in the United States. In your community. 2. Why do live stock farms usually produce larger yields of gi-ain and corn than farms without live stock? 3. What can you say of the uses of the different kinds of live stock? Arithmetic: 1. Figiu-e as nearly as you can the value of all of the live stock on your home farm, or on some other farm where you know conditions. 2. Ten bushels of corn contains 10 lbs. of nitrogen 1.7 lbs. of phosphorus, and 1.9 lbs. of potash. If 10 bushels of corn will produce 100 lbs. of pork which contams 1.8 lbs. of nitrogen, .3 lb. of phosphorus and .1 lb. of pota.sh, what is the value of the fertility saved by feeding the 10 bushels of corn and selling the 100 lbs. of pork? If nitrogen is worth 18 cents per lb. and phosphorus and potassium are worth 6 cents per lb. CARE AND MANAGEMENT GENERAL Chores. — Farm boys are, as a rule, occupied a con- siderable portion of the time, mornings and evenings, car- ing for the stock. As the profits derived from the five stock depend to a great extent on the care they receive, it is worth while to spend a little time considering how the "chores" may be done more quickly, more easily and better. LIVE STOCK 167 The amount of live stock kept on the average farm must increase as more intensive systems of farming be- come necessary. The proper care and management of live stock is a matter of increasing importance. System. — System in doing the chores is fully as effec- tive as system in studying. A carefully thought out plan that will enable one to get a certain amount of work done with the fewest steps and least possible delay will often change TTTffi ri/i^ <-^~* anl ^•fvy/'itvrr rfi/?t/ ffMjpM Figure 71. -A well arranged barn in which the "chores" may be done in a mini- mum amount of time. a tedious and unpleasant chore time into pleasant pastime. To lead four or six horses to water, and then clean the stable with them in their stalls, requires much more time than is necessary, if yards and watering trough are so arranged that the horses can be turned out to drink by themselves, and the stable cleaned while they are out. If horses are turned out to drink before they are fed their grain, as they should be, they will, as a rule, return to the barn promptly. If you are not caring for your horses in this manner, do so and notice the saving of time; or if you are doing so, notice the time it takes to care for your horses, and compare notes with some neighbor who is still leading his horses out to water. Value of Time. — INIany men who work in factories and at other occupations are paid by the hour on the basis 168 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE of the amount of work they can do, and every minute of their time must be made to count. Such rules are not possible on a farm, but a young man who expects to farm can and should make himself just as proficient as possible, not with the idea of learning to do twice as much in a day as an ordinary man can do, but to so direct his efforts and utihze his time as to be able to do a good day's work as easily Figure 72. — Hereford calves out for exercise in a protected yard. Stock should be left out in winter only so long aa comfortable. and in as short a time as is consistent with good work. Some men have a system of harnessing and hitching a team, and can do these things better and in much less time than the man who has no system and, consequently, does them in a different way each time. Milking ten or twelve cows twice each day is a com- paratively easy task for a man who can milk them in an hour, while to milk the same cows would be almost drudgery to the man who can milk but five or six in an hour. Men can make themselves very proficient and learn to do things LIVE STOCK 169 rapidly and well by application and practice, as is illustrated in corn husking. Twenty-five bushels of corn is a fair day's husking for a beginner, but many men by practice can husk from sixty to over one hundred bushels in a da3^ Make Animals Comfortable. — One of the first essentials in caring for animals is to make them comfortable. Hogs cannot fatten, hens cannot lay, cows cannot give a good flow of milk and horses cannot continue to do a good full day's work, unless they are made comfortable. Every time an animal is made uncomfortable, either by being left hungry, thirsty or cold, by lying on a hard bed or by being dogged or pounded, the owner losses money by getting less returns from the animal. Exercise. — Exercise is of the same value to animals as to men. It gives firmness and strength of muscle, pro- motes good circulation and improves the tone of the vital organs.' These conditions all tend to increase the vigor and productivity of live stock. Outside Feeding.— For those animals that are fed in winter outside the stable proper feed boxes, forage racks and water troughs should be constructed. The first two should be situated so that feed can be hauled close to them, and around all gravel should be spread or a plank platform made. Water ought not to be allowed to freeze. If tanks are used, they may be surrounded with a framework and covered with lids. The space between the frame and the tank may be filled in with sawdust or manure. Care in these particulars is well worth while. Questions: 1. Why should we plan to save time? 2. What is the most important thing in caring for animals? 3. What is the value of exercise to live stock? 4. Describe outside arrangements for feeding. Arithmetic: 1. A man by having a handy barn may save 20 minutes per day in doing chores. How many hours may he save in a year? How much is this time worth at 18c. per hour? 2. It requires A 60 minutes to milk 5 cows. If by application and practice he learns to milk 5 cows in 40 minutes, how much time is saved in a week? In a year? 3. From the above, at 20c. an hour what is the time saved in one year worth? How much in 5 years? 170 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE SHELTER Shelter. — To make live stock comfortable in the north- ern part of the United States and Canada, good shelter must be provided. Expensive shelter is not necessary, but build- ings should be so constructed as to keep the animals warm. If they are not kept warm by shelter, some of the food they eat will be used to warm them, and it is cheaper to provide good shelter. Besides, if animals are not comfortable, they cannot do well. This is especially true of milch cows and young stock. Steers do not require very warm quarters so long as they are protected from the storms and the wind. Light. — Plenty of windows should be provided, so that the sunlight can reach just as much of the inter- ior of the building as pos- sible. Sunlight is a deadly enemy of bacteria and disease germs. There is no better disinfectant than sunlight, and it is so cheap that every building should be amply supplied. Tub- erculosis is very common among domestic animals, and it is generally believed that it may be transmitted from animals to man, especially in milk. So it is not alone for the com- fort of the animals and the profit we derive, that we provide healthful quar- ters, but to guard the health of the family as well. Ventilation. — By good ventilation we mean such a system as will remove the foul air from the stable. Leaving a door or a window open is not good ventilation, as it causes a draught and lets out the warm air. A better way is to have one or more flues built in the barn, that will carry the foul Figure 73. — A good system of ventilation for a barn. Fresh air comes in near the ceiling. Foul air is taken out from near the floor. After King. LITE STOCK 171 air out. Warm air is lighter than cold air, hence it rises. A stable is warmer near the ceiling, if the ceiling is tight, than near the jfloor. Hence the ventilator flue should open near the floor so as not to take out the warm air. The carbon dioxide exhaled by animals is heavier than air, hence it settles to the floor and will be taken out by such a venti- lator. Air should be let into the stable near the ceiling, whence it will gradually settle and become partially warmed before it reaches the animals. The illustration in Figure 73 shows how a ventilator should work. Notice the barns in the neighborhood and make a note of the number of windows and ventilators. How is your barn lighted and ventilated? Conveniences. — Since chores are so frequent, just a few minutes lost each time they are done amounts to many hours in a year, probably several days; hence it is well to plan to have the barns handy. Feed, both hay and grain, should be stored close to the feeding alleys, which should be sufficiently large. Cleaning the stables is probably the heaviest part of the chores, and should be made as easy as possible. If stalls are so arranged that a team can be driven through the barn and the manure loaded in a spreader, wagon or sled, and hauled directly to the field, it will be much easier than where it is necessary to throw it to one end or side of the barn, then throw it out of a door or a window and pitch it into a wagon outside. This last method is common on many farms, and results in a great loss of labor and time, besides a loss in the value of the manure. The sooner manure can be put on the field after it is taken from the stable the better. A manure pile lying under the eaves of a barn for a few months may lose one half of its value. If a new barn is being built, or the old one changed, a great deal of thought and study should be put on it to make it as convenient as possible. A day spent in planning the alleys, stalls, etc., may save many days' work each year. Cost. — A feature that must not be overlooked is the cost of a barn. A barn is built to shelter stock, and stock is kept for profit. When a barn is built, it must earn for the farmer enough each year to pay interest on the invest- ment, cost of insurance, taxes, repairs and yearly deprecia- tion. If a barn costs $1,000 and lasts 25 years, the yearly 172 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE depreciation is $40. Good barns are desirable; but some- times barns are built on farms where live stock is so poorly managed that it fails to bring in even the yearly cost of the building; and in such cases the investment results in a loss. Care should be taken that the yearly cost of shelter is not so high as to take all profit from the animals kept. By careful attention to the conditions given above, one will get an idea of how to solve such problems. Questions: 1. Why should buildings be warm? Why light? Why well ventilated? 2. Why should buildings be made convenient? 3. Is there any danger of investing too much money in farm buildings? Arithmetic: 1. (a) How much is the interest charge per year on $1,000 at 4 per cent? (b) How much is the yearly cost of insurance on the barn at 50c. per $100? (c) Such a barn will cost about $10 per year for repairs. What is the total yearly cost of the barn? (Note: It is the sum of the yearly depreciation, interest, insur- ance and repair charges.) 2. If such a barn will shelter 20 head of stock, what will be the yearly cost per head for shelter? 3. In a similar manner figure the yearly cost per head for shelter in a $4,000 barn that will shelter 40 head of stock. (Note: Find de- preciation, interest, insurance and repairs at same rate as in example No. 1.) Exercises: 1. Make a complete list of all live stock on the home farm, showing approximate value of all stock and of each kind, also numbers and value of any pure-bred animals. 2. Make a list of the different uses for which each class of stock is kept. 3. Visit one or more of the best stock farms in the community and make a report in writing as to what was observed. Some of the more important things to note and describe are kind or kinds of stock kept, breed or breeds, uses for which they are kept, kind of pastures provided, kind of buildings, whether or not a silo is used, kinds of feed raised for both summer and winter Use. how the products are marketed, and whether or not the boys and girls of the farm are interested. CHAPTER XIII FEEDS AND FEEDING Source. — We have learned that the carbon dioxide exhaled by animals is used by growing plants; that this carbon dioxide in the air unites with water and other ele- ments taken by the roots of the plants from the soil, and forms starch and other compounds of which plants are com- posed. The heat or energy given off by the sun is used to build up these compounds in the plant. Animals are de- pendent, then, upon plants for all their feed. Requirement. — The act of living involves energy and the necessary consumption of nourishment, as a fuel, to supply the vital force. As the heart works to send supplies to the various parts of the body, it must itself undergo a constant repair, and hence it has its own blood vessels. To think and to walk are at the expense of energy created by the consumi^tion of parts of the body. To run requires more energy and, therefore, causes more waste than to walk. So, then, the harder animals work the more nourish- ment, or feed, thoy must have. How Made Available. — When plants, such as grass, hay or grain, are eaten by animals and digested, the compounds they contain are broken down and used by the animal body, and the energy required to build up the compounds in the plants furnishes energy to the animal. Selection. — By chemical analysis men have been able to determine the exact constituent elements of plants, that is, how much hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phos- phorus, etc., has entered into their composition. They know, also, the proportion of these elements that is found in animal bodies. With these facts before us, therefore, it is easy to select the proper feeds for each kind of animal according to its composition and peculiar physical adapt- ability to get the most benefit from this or that kind of feed. Different kinds of animals, and animals doing dif- ferent classes and amounts of work, require different kinds 174 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE and amounts of feed. So the intelligent feeding of animals requires a knowledge of the composition of different feeds and of the requirements of the various classes of animals doing different kinds and amounts of work. Kinds. — Feeds are of two general classes, roughage and concentrates. Roughage includes all bulky feeds as hay, fodder, straw and silage. Concentrates include all the grains and mill feeds, such as oats, bran, corn and oil meal. Composition. — Feeds are generally divided, according to the elements they contain, into the following classes: Protein is a term applied to a group of compounds con- taining nitrogen. Protein is used by animals to make muscle or lean flesh, bone, hair or wool, tendons, nerves, casein and albumin in milk, etc. No other compound can take the place of protein; consequently it is very important that enough be fed, or the animal cannot keep up in flesh and production or work. If too much protein is fed, it can replace the other elements; but as these feeds are usually expensive, it is not wise to feed more than is needed. Feeds containing a large proportion of protein, as bran, oil meal, clover, etc., are called nitrogenous feeds. Carbohydrates are those substances in feed that are com- posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but have no nitro- gen. Sugar, starch, fibre, etc., are carbohydrates. They are used in the body to produce fat, or are burned in the body to produce heat or energy. They cannot be used in place of protein. Fat. — The oils, wax and fats contained in feeds are called fat. It is used in the animal body for the same pur- pose as carbohydrates. One pound of fat is worth as much as 2.2 pounds of carbohydrates. Feeds containing a large proportion of carbohydrates and fat, as timothy or wild hay, corn, barley, etc., are called non-nitrogenous feeds. Ash. — Plants contain some mineral matter, a small amount of which is necessary in animal bodies, as iron in the blood and calcium in the bones. All the common feeds contain protein, carbohydrates, fat and ash, and hence might be classed in different groups. Those containing a proportionatelyjarge amount of protein FEEDS AND FEEDING 175 are called nitrogenous, and those containing proportionately large amounts of carbohydrates and fat, non-nitrogenous. Sometimes feeds are classed as grains or concentrates and roughage. The following table shows the composition or digestible nutrients of common feeds: Digestible Nutrients in One Pound of Feed (1) Nitrogenous Grain Feeds. Carbohy- Protein drates Fat Oats 107 .50 .038 Shorts 13 .46 .045 Bran 119 .42 .025 Oil meal 302 .32 .069 (2) Non-Nitrogenous Grain Feeds. Carbohy- Protein drates Fat Com 079 .67 .043 Barley 084 .65 .016 Emmer (Speltz) 10 .70 .021 Rye 095 .694 .012 (3) Nitrogenous Roughage. Carbohy- Protein drates Fat Alfalfa 117 .41 .012 Red Clover 071 .38 .018 Mangels 010 .05 .002 (4) Non-Nitrogenous Roughage. Carbohy- Protein drates Fat Com Silage 012 .14 .007 Corn Stover 014 .31 .007 Corn Fodder 037 .41 .015 Slough Hay 026 .42 .011 Timothv Hay 028 .43 .014 Prairie Hay 030 .42 .014 Oat Straw 013 .39 .008 Balanced Ration. — Very few plants contain, in the right proportion, the elements required by animals; so a combination of two or more kinds of feed is found necessary to supply the animal with needed feed. When one gives just the right kinds and amounts of feed to supply the needs of the animal, he is feeding a balanced ration. Such a ration is most satisfactory and economical, because it supplies all the elements needed, with no surplus of any one. All animals require feed that contains in the proper proportion, protein, carbohydrates, fat and ash. Balanced rations will be given for each class of animals as it is discussed. 176 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Feeds Compared. — In comparing the grain feeds or concentrates with the roughage, one will see that a pound of grain usually contains more nutrients than a pound of roughage. As a rule there is much unsalable roughage on the farm, while grain is salable; hence there is a tendency to feed more roughage and less grain. A reasonable amount of roughage is desirable, but an animal that is working can- not eat and digest enough of it to supply its needs. It should have some grain. To feed only grain is not de- sirable, as it is expensive and does not supply enough bulk. A proper balance must be maintained. Questions: 1. What is a "balanced ration"? 2. What is protein, and for what is it used in the animal body? 3. What are carbohydrates, and for what are they used in the animal body? 4. What substances are known as fat, and for what are they used in the animal body? 5. What classes of feeds are called nitrogenous feeds? What classes are non-nitrogenous? 6. Why do animals need food? Arithmetic: 1. Bran, oil meal, and clover are feeds rich in protein. How much is each worth per pound when oil meal is worth $35.00 per ton, bran $24.00 per ton, and clover hay $5.00 per ton? 2. Corn, barley and timothy hay are feeds rich in carbohydrates. How much is each worth per pound when corn is worth 54c. per bushel (56 lbs.), barley 56c. per bu.shel (48 lbs.), and timothy hay $5.00 per ton? 3. There is 7.1% of protein in clover hay. How many pounds of protein in one ton? How much does the protein cost per pound, if clover hay is worth $5.00 per ton? Exercises: 1. Report in writing the number of acres of pasture provided on .some farm for each head of horses, colts, cows, young cattle, hogs, sheep. 2. Find out how many pounds of hay, corn, fodder, silage and grain feed is required for one animal during the winter season, also for one day for each of the kinds of animals mentioned above. 3. Report the number of farms in the community that raise alfalfa hay for feed and that have silos and use silage. CHAPTER XIV HORSES TYPES AND BREEDS Breeds.— There are many different breeds of horses, just as there are many breeds of cattle. People in different countries or communities have wanted horses for diherent purposes and have kept them under different conditions Figure 74. — A Percheron stallion, a draft type. until they have developed distinct breeds. We are told that our many different breeds of horses have all been 178 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE developed from the prehistoric horse, skeletons of which have been found in different parts of the world. T3rpes of Horses. — There are four general types of horses, ponies, light horses, coach horses, and draft horses. In ^P 'M-' ^^"^E^hI^^^^' k ^ t ! 1 ^St' ■H |P>;.i -40 4^ Figure 145. — An 80-acre farm divided into five fields in three different ways. Fig- ure the amount of fencing required to enclose the fields in each case. may mean quite a saving in fencing and in operating the fields. The three plans, a b, and c, in Figure 145, illustrate three ways of dividing an 80-acre farm into five equal sized fields. An 80-acre farm is usually 80 rods wide and 160 rods long. If it is divided as shown in (a), 640 rods of fencing would be required for the inside fences. If divided as shown in (b), 448 rods would be required, and if divided as shown in (c) only 426 rods would be required. Questions: 1. What are the advantages of having fields uniform in size, if one practices a rotation of crops? 2. Can a farm be so divided as to make any difference in the average distance of fields from the farmstead? 3. What effect does the shape of fields have on the amount of fencing required per acre to encdo-se them? Arithmetic: 1. How many acres of land in a field 1 rod wide and 160 rods 332 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE long? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? (l60 square rods in an acre.) 2. How many acres in a piece of land 16 rods by 10 rods? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? 3. How many acres of land in a field 40 rods square? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods of fencing are required per acre? 4. How many acres in a field 80 rods square? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods of fencing per acre? A PRACTICAL ROTATION Application. — To apply the principles of crop rotation and farm planning to an actual farm, we will study one on which a good system of rotation has been prac- ticed for several years. The farm we will take is a 160-acrefarm, one and a half miles from a good town. The soil is light, sandy loam. The owner specializes in growing po- tatoes and live stock. He is a very careful farmer, a study of whose methods and farm will be valuable. The accompanying chart. Figure M6, shows the lay of the farm and arrangement of the fields. Nearly half of the farm, the back part, is broken up by a river and bluffs so that it is not tillable and can be used only for pasture. The remainder, or 90 acres, is all well drained, reasonably level and easily worked. The Rotation.— The 90 acres of tillable land is divided into three 30-acre fields, or rather two 30-acre fields and a 10 and a 20-acre field. These two smaller fields are farmed as though they were only one field; so they make the third 30-acre field. One field raises grain, one field raises clover and one field raises corn and potatoes each year, but no field grows the same kind of a crop two years in succession. PtKMANenT PASTURf ^^ ^ eo * 30 A A y 10 A 30 A 'M-OATS ■«7-ciavcK Aivs mAtrtm ■— ■ conn ■0*-ClO»eRA(ID(«' 107 . eO«n AMD POTATOe* 'OS - OATS t POTATOCS "07 -OATS 'OS-CLOI^e'K ANO OATS CLOVCl POTA- PAKM* STEAD. Figure 146. — A 160-acre farm on which three-year rotation has been successfully -j-Kp followed for a number of years. FARM MANAGEMENT 333 The Potato Crop. — The chief field crop that is raised for sale is potatoes; so the whole farm is planned to give good crops of potatoes. The first crop of clover is cut for hay. Sometimes the second crop is cut for seed, but more often it is plowed under to add plant food for the potato crop which is to follow. All the manure made on the farm is also applied to the clover land. The clover and manure have made the land rich and the clover crop has aided in cleaning it of weeds. The potatoes have a clean, rich soil in which to grow. Com. — Only a part of the clover sod plowed up is planted to potatoes. The remainder is planted to corn. The corn and potatoes are regarded as one crop in the rotation, since they are both cultivated crops and have about the same effect on the soil. He gives his corn land the same careful preparation that he gives his potato land, and consequently gets good crops. Oats. — After he has grown his crop of corn and potatoes he wishes to seed his land to clover again, because he has found that it is the best crop he can raise to put his land in good condition for corn and potatoes again; besides, he needs the clover hay for his cows. As clover must be sown with a grain crop, he seeds this corn and potato land the following spring to oats. With oats he sows clover and timothy seed for a crop the year after the oats are harvested. Clover. — Getting a catch of clover is the key to his success as a farmer; so he takes every precaution to be sure of a stand. The cultivation given the corn and potatos saves moisture, and the manure and clover in the soil give up plant food, so that there is more moisture and plant food in such land the following year than there would be if the field had been pastured or had grown a crop of grain. This extra moisture and plant food help to start the clover seed sown with the oats the year after the land grows corn and potatoes. Results. — That this kind of farming pays is shown by results. Besides good crops of clover, corn and oats, the potato crop on this farm brings from $60.00 to $100.00 per acre annually. As it costs about $30.00 per acre to raise potatoes, it is plain that there is a profit on these crops. 334 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Questions: 1. What is the rotation practiced on the farm discussed above? 2. How is the land prepared for potatoes? 3. What crop follows potatoes and corn in this rotation? 4. What crop follows the oat crop, and when is it seeded? Arithmetic: 1. If a farmer raises 15 acres of potatoes each year, how many bushels will he have, if the yield is 165 bus. per acre? 2. If Mr. Brown raises 15 acres of corn each year, how many bush- els will he have, if the yield is 50 bus. per acre? 3. If oats yield 48 bus. per acre, how many bushels will 30 acres produce? A FIVE-TEAR ROTATION Rearrangement of a Farm. — A 160-acre farm in south- eastern Minnesota, four miles from a good milk market was cropped in 1904 as shown in Figure 147. This farmer was carrying on general diversified farming, and without changing the type of farming in the least, his farm was replanned and a systematic rotation of crops arranged that would certainly make the farm more attractive, more easily worked, and more productive, if put in practice. In Figure 147 note the small and irregular fields, the distance some of them are from the farmstead, and the lack of system in cropping. Without materially changing the amount of land de- voted to each kind of crop this farm may be rearranged in five uniform fields of convenient shape and size (27 acres each) and one end of each field be as near to the farmstead as is easily possil)le on such a farm. See Figure 148. The 12-acre field in the southwest corner is too wet to cultivate; so it is left as permanent meadow. Rotation. — A five-year rotation would be well adapted to such a farm, as it would provide about the same amount of hay and pasturage as was formerly used. This rotation would be corn, grain, meadow and pasture. That is, one field would produce corn, two fields would produce grain, one would produce hay and one would produce pasture each year. The field that grows corn the first year would produce grain the second and third years, meadow the fourth year, and pasture the fifth year. The Grain Crops. — The first grain crop after the corn would be sown on the corn land, usually without plowing FARM MAXAGEMEXT 335 but simply disking it well so as to make a good seed bed. After this grain crop was harvested the land ^\•ould be plowed in the fall, so that it would have time to settle down and become compact by spring. The next spring it would be sown to grain a'gain, but, with the grain, grass seed, timothy and clover would be sown to make the crop for the two years following. Meadow. — We have learned that grass crops as meadow and pasture are beneficial to the soil, as they clean it of Cats Oats /9 0-* a ■^ Cftjin >0^ass x\ ^^ 3 0ra.l.n. J C/-at.rl h i Orut-n yCr Qratn, aT' a Permanent /Veadotti J^9rd. \ J-*9ni Figure 147. — A 160-acre farm in southeastern Minnesota, cropped in 1904. Com- pare witli the reorganization plan in Figure 14S. Figure 148. — The lOO-acre farm reorganized for a five-year rotation. Note con- venient shape and arrangement of field.s, and that there is little change in the acreage of crops grown. The fields are simply arranged better and a systematic rotation planned. weeds and add vegetable matter. This rotation provides lor having each field in grass two years out of five. The first year the grass would be cut for hay and the second year it would be pastured. Pasture. — Pasturing land occasionally, as provided in this rotation, is beneficial to the soil, as practically all the crop grown during the year is left on the field as manure, and the development of the roots adds vegetable matter also. Pasturing usually puts land in good condition for other crops. One can haul manure upon it during the sunmier, when the other fields are growing crops. This manur(> plow(Hl under with tiie pasture sod makes a good seed bed for com. 336 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Com. — In this rotation corn is planted on manured pasture sod each year. This is a very desirable place for corn, and usually results in good yields. Study the accompanying charts and, if possible, draw them and put in the crop that would be grown on each field each year. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th years of the rotation. Each crop is produced each year. This five-year rotation is a good one for many farms, and every farm boy ten years old and over should thoroughly understand it and its advantages over no rotation. Such a rotation tends to keep the fields clean of weeds, productive, and to economize labor. Each field is plowed but twice in five years and seeded but three times in the five 3'ears. Still it is kept in good condition for the crop it is to grow, because the crops are so arranged that each crop helps to fit the soil for the one that follows. Questions: 1. What is the five-year rotation described above? 2. If one had five 20-acre fields cropped to the above 5-year rotation, how many acres of grain would one raise each year? How many acres of corn? Of pasture? .3. In what Avays does the five-year rotation described above aid in cleaning the land of weeds? Arithmetic: 1. If a farmer on the above 160-acre farm kept 1.5 cows, 8 two- year-olds, 10 yearlings and 12 calves, how many head of cattle would he have? 2. If each cow required 1 acre of pasture for the summer, each two-year-old ^4 acre, and each yearling ^ acre, how many acres of pasture would be needed? 3. If each cow required, during the winter, 2i/^ tons of hay, each two-year-old 2 tons, each yearling 1 ton, and each calf J^ of a ton, how many tons of hay would be needed? 4. If the 27 acres of rotation meadow produced two tons per acre, and the 12 acres of permanent meadow produced 13^ tons per acre, how many tons of hay would the farm produce? FARM ACCOUNTS Bookkeeping. — One of the first essentials of successful farm management is a set of accounts that will show which enterprises are paying and which are not. To keep a com- plete set of liooks for all the enterprises on a farm requires considerable time and training, but most any farmer or FARM MANAGEMENT 337 boy or girl can, with little effort, keep a reasonably accurate account of one or more of the leading enterprises on his own farm. We will not try to give a complete system of farm bookkeeping, as too much space and study would be required, but we do wish to study with our readers some of the problems of farm management affecting a few of the more general enterprises of the average farm, and to show the application of accounts and figures to farming as a business, and the value of their use. Enterprises. — Some of the main enterprises on the gen- eral farm arc: Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, Poultry, Fruit, Grain, Hay, or, in short, any of the various classes of prod- ucts produced. If a farmer keeps only a cash account showing the receipts from products sold and the amount spent, while he might make a profit on the whole farm, he might lose on sheep, hogs or some of the other enterprises, and not know it. If he had an account with each enter- prise, he would know on which he was losing and on which he was making a profit, and could plan his future work so as to increase the profitable lines and decrease or improve the unprofitable ones. The Farmer as a Merchant. — The farmer buys and sells products just as truly as the merchant. The way he buys most of the products he sells is somewhat complicated. He seldom knows, without accounts, just how much any particular thing, as a hog or bushel of grain, has cost him. The cost of a product of the field to a farmer includes rent on land, seed, man and horse labor in preparing th(; land, seeding, cultivating, harvesting, machinery cost; also any cash expenditure, as for twine, oil or threshing. The cost of a live stock product includes labor, feed, shelter, interest on investment and depreciation. It is not difficult to keep a fairly accurate account of some leading enterprises, and it gives a much better grasp of business than can be gotten in an}' other way. Land Rent. — Land rent is one of the items of cost in crop production that must be considered. This cost is very evident if one does not own the land, but paj^s rent for the use of it. If the farmer owns land himself he must charge a fair rent per acre against each crop, because he 338 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE expects his money invested to be worth a certain, rate of interest. That is, he could loan his money at a fair rate of interest, if it were not invested in the farm. If he did not consider rent as an item of cost against each crop, he might apparently make a profit in his farming operations while in reality he was losing — that is, growing crops at a loss, but making more than wages on his laljor on account of the income on his investment. In such case, he had better sell his farm and loan his money at 5% or Q% interest. Questions: 1. For what reasons should a farmer keep accounts? 2. In what way does a farmer l)uy the hogs, milk, etc., that he sells from the farm? 3. Why is land rent one of the items in the cost of production, even though a man may own his land? Arithmetic: 1. If a farmer feeds a cow each day for 200 days 25 lljs. of hay worth $.5.00 per ton and 6 lbs. of ^ci 1 mm,- Figure 149. — A fine bunch of hogs. The questions one should be able to an.swor after producinfi a lot of hogs are: How much did they cost per pound? How many pounds of corn or other feed did it take per pound of pork, etc. which must be accounted for in the charges against the stock. Likewise there may be a gain in the value of the stock for a given period. If so, it must be credited to the enterprise. This loss or gain is most easily accounted for by taking an inventory at the beginning of the year — that is, making an estimate of the value of the stock on hand and charging the enterprise with this amount, then credit- ing the enterprise with the inventory value at the close of the year. Interest on the investments must also be charged against an enterprise, if an accurate knowledge of loss or gain is to be had; because, if the money invested in stock were loaned, it would earn a certain rate of interest. One would not care 340 ELEMENTS OF FAIi3I PRACTICE to invest money in stock if one could not get as much in- terest on it as if it were invested in some other enterprise. A very common rate of interest is 6%. Thus, if one had $400 invested in Uve stock for a year, one of the charges against the stock would be an interest charge of $24, as that is the amount $400 would earn, if loaned at 6%. Feed. — The value of all feed consumed must be charged to the stock. This is usually the only charge considered, but it is evident that the other items mentioned are as legitimate charges. It seems at first thought that it would be difficult to keep account of the amount of feed fed to each cow or to all the cows, but very little time is required to get ap- proximately the amount fed for a month. If one carefully weighs, for a few days, the hay and grain that are fed, one can soon learn to feed about the desired amount without weighing, but simply by using the same measure for grain and giving about the same sized forkful of hay or the same number of bundles of fodder. When one knows about the amount of feed fed per day, the amount fed per month can be ascertained by multiplying it by the number of days in the month. Labor or any work done in caring for any class of live* stock or marketing the product must be charged against the enterprise; because, if a man hires labor, he must pay Figure 150. — -Weighing hay. If one weighs hay a few times when feeding one will soon be able to tell approximately how much one is feeding without weighing it every time. FARM MANAGEMENT 311 for it, or, if he does the work himself, he is entitled to wages. With a little thought, one can determine about the amount of time required each day to care for any class of live stock; and, by multiplying the amount by the number of days in the month, can get the amount of work done in the month. Cost of shelter is not so easy to determine; yet it is an actual cost against the live stock. An easy way to get the approximate cost for shelter, is to find out the value of the building or part of the building in which the stock is kept, then figure 8% of this value as the annual cost of shelter. The 8% will allow for interest, insurance, taxes, repairs and depreciation. Questions: 1. What will add an interest to caring for stock? 2. What are the main charges to be made against live stock? 3. Explain each charge. Arithmetic: 1. On Jan. 1st, 1914, a barn is worth $1,000. On Jan. 1st, 1915, it is worth $950. How much has it depreciated in value? How long will it last, if it depreciates the same amount each year? 2. If a $50 cow lives ten years, what is her annual depreciation? 3. If a barn that shelters 40 head of stock costs $2,000, how much is the annual cost of shelter, if one figures 8% on value of barn? How much is the annual cost of shelter per animal? AN ACCOUNT WITH A COW Actual Figures. — To simphfy the account with the dairy stock and to illustrate what any boy may do at home with some cow he is milking and caring for, we will use a record which shows the average results per cow for a year in a herd of 14 cows of which an accurate record was kept. A Business Statement Showing the Cost and Income of One Cow for the Year 1908. Dr. Cr. Int. on investment at 6% $ 2.40 Value of grain fed 10.46 Value of roughage fed 12.29 Value of pasturage 5.00 Cost of labor 23.28 Cost of shelter 3.20 Miscellaneous expense 1.50 Net profit 43 Income for year $58.56 $58.56 $58.56 (Note. — The 43c. net profit was obtained by deducting the sum of the seven items of expense, $58.13, from the $58.56 income.) 342 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE The foregoing is a complete business statement except the opening and closing inventory. These were left out to simplify the account. To put them in, one would simply put in the debit column the value of the cow at the begin- ning of the year and in the credit column her value at the close of the year. Interest on Investment. — To get this item we simply assumed the cow to be worth $40.00 and figured 6% on this amount. Feed. — The cow was fed in the stall for seven months, during which time she ate 301 lbs. of farm grain and 442 lbs. of mill feed, worth $10.46, and 1,496 lbs. of hay and 3,330 lbs. of fodder, worth $12.29. She was pastured for five months and was charged for this at the rate of $1.00 per month, which is the ordinary charge for pasturing. Labor. — The laljor includes all time spent in milking and caring for the cow and in marketing the product. As the milk was shipped, it had to be delivered to the sta- tion every day, which work re- cjuired considerable time for both man and team, all of which must be accounted for. Miscellaneous Expenses. — The item for miscellaneous expense is the actual wear and tear on dairy equipment, cost of medicine, etc. Profit. — The net profit appears very low; but in reality it is not bad at all, since every bit of work done and feed fed was, paid for in full and a fair rate of interest has been paid on money invested in the cow and in the buildings. There is an additional profit to the farm by keeping live stock, as most of the fertilizing value of feeds fed is retained on the farm in the form of manure. The manure produced by a cow in one year is worth several dollars to the farm. Figure 151. — Weighing feed. FARM MANAGEMENT 343 The COW also had a calf which is worth something; and, had the butter-fat been sold to the creamery instead of shipping the whole milk, about 5,000 lbs. of skimmed milk would have been available for feed; which is worth, at 15c. per hundred pounds, $7.50. We hope some of our readers will begin at once to weigh the milk produced and feed consumed by some or all of their cows. Also, keep a record of the amount of time spent in caring for them. It is very interesting to foot up such accounts each month and to know whether one is making or losing by keeping stock. Questions: 1. What do you understand by the terms Inventory, Deprecia- tion, and Profit? 2. How can you determine the number of hours of labor required to care for a cow a year? 3. What advantages are there in keeping cows besides the profit shown in an account similar to the one given above? Arithmetic: 1. If a cow gives 18 lbs. of milk per day, how much will she give in 300 days? How much butter-fat does she give each day, if her milk tests 4% fat? How much butter-fat will she give in 300 days? How much is the butter-fat worth at 30c. per pound? 2. If a cow is fed each day 4 lbs. of corn worth 56c. per bushel (56) lbs.), 2 lbs. of bran worth $25 per ton, 12 lbs. clover hay Avorth $5 per ton, and 10 lbs. of fodder corn worth $4 per ton, how much does it cost to keep her one day? To keep her 200 days? 3. How much does it cost to pasture a cow 165 days at $1 per month? MARKETING DAIRY PRODUCTS Item of Expense. — Getting dairy products to market is an item often overlooked in considering the cost of produc- tion and the profits in dairying. This item is much larger than one would believe at first thought. It is, however, a necessary item of expense, but often a little consideration and planning will greatly reduce the cost and add a corres- ponding amount to the profits. Making Butter on the Farm. — A few cling to the old method of making butter on the farm, and there are prob- ably places where it may be necessary to do so ; but, where it can be avoided and the cream or milk sold at a reasonable price, it is preferable to sell it. In churning by hand, more of the butter-fat is lost than when cream is churned in a large 344 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE churn at the creamery. Butter makers in creameries do nothing but make butter. They make a study of it; and, having better facilities than are usually found in the home, make a better quality of butter. Overrun. — Milk usually contains from 3% to 5% butter- fat, and cream from 20% to 40% butter-fat. A pound of butter-fat will make more than a pound of butter, because butter contains from 12 to 15% water; also some salt and casein. This increase in weight is called by butter makers the overrun. A good butter maker with mod- ern creamery equipment can get an overrun of from 18% to 24%. If he buys 100 lbs. of but- ter-fat he can make from 118 to 124 lbs. of butter from it. It is very sel- dom that one can get as large an overrun, when churn- ing a small amount of butter on the farm, as can a good butter maker in a modern creamery. While a farmer can get more pounds of butter by churning his cream himself than he had pounds of butter-fat in the cream, yet he can- not as a rule get as many pounds of butter as could a butter maker by churning the same cream in a modern creamery. This fact, together with the fact that home dairy butter is not quite so marketable as creamery butter, makes it the part of wisdom, on most farms, to sell the cream or milk at the local creamery; or, if no creamery is convenient, to ship either the milk or the cream, rather than to make butter on the farm. Exceptions. — There are times when it may be wise to make butter on the farm, but at present such conditions are exceptional. In deciding which method to follow one should not overlook the fact that butter making on the farm usually falls to the housekeeper, who, as a rule, has too much to do without this unnecessary work. Figure 152. — Home manufacture of butter. FARM MANAGEMENT 34 K Selling Whole Milk or Cream. — The majority of farmers now separate their milk, keep the skimmed milk at home for their calves and pigs, and sell their cream. A few, however, who live within reasonable shipping distances from large cities, ship the whole milk to retail dealers who retail to the consumers. When milk is shipped in this way- it is usually sold by the hundred pounds, and it is often a problem to determine which is more profitable — to ship whole milk or to sell the cream. A specific problem will illustrate how any one must decide which is the better method. A farmer living three miles from town, and the same distance from a creamery, has ten cows, each giving daily 20 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent butter-fat. Whole Milk. — If this farmer ships whole milk to the city, he must deliver it every day, seven days each week. It will take a man and team two hours each day to take the milk to the station. This time is worth about 30c. per hours. Thus the cost of marketing will be 60c. per day or $4.20 per week. Cream. — If he separates his milk and sells the cream, he wiU need to deliver it but three times a week, which labor at 60c. a trip will cost $1.80. He will have to separate 100 lbs. of milk and wash the separator fourteen times dur- ing the week. Allowing half an hour for this, it amounts, in a week, to seven hours. Man labor is worth about 15c. per hour, which will make the separating cost $1.05. The cost for interest, depreciation and repair on the separator will be about 25c. per week. Thus the separating and delivering will cost $3.10 per week. In addition to a saving in the cost of marketing, if the cream is sold in place of the whole milk, this farmer will have about 1,175 pounds of skimmed milk, which at 15 cents per hundred is worth $1.76. Questions: 1. What item of expense is often overlooked in the cost of dairy products? 2. Give at least three reasons why it is usually not wise to make butter at home. 3. What do you understand by the creamery man's term "the overrun"? 4. Compare the items of expense in selling whole milk with selling cream. 346 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Arithmetic: 1. If a butter maker gets an overrun of 20%, how much butter will he make from 986 lbs. of cream? 2. If a man has 10 cows, each giving 20 lbs. of milk per day, how many pounds of milk will he get per day? How many pounds of butter-fat will he get, if there are 4 lbs. of fat in each 100 lbs. of milk? 3. What is the value of 1,175 lbs. of skim milk at 15c. per hun- dred poimds? CO-OPERATION IN DELIVERING MILK OR CREAM Co-operation Reduces Cost. — We have found that the farmer who hauled his cream to the creamery three times each week spent 6 hours of time for himself and team; which, at 30c. per hour, costs him $1.80 per week or $93.60 per year, simply for marketing the cream from ten cows, each giving daily 20 lbs. of milk testing 4% fat. This is certainly quite an item, especially at a time when farm help is as scarce as it is at present. If three such farmers would co-operate in hauling cream, so that each would haul but one day each week, the cost would be very little more than one third as much as when each markets his own cream. There would be a saving each year of about $60 per farm or $6 per cow. We have found (page 333) that it cost a farmer, with ten cows, $4.20 per week or $218.40 per year to market whole milk, because he was obliged to go to market every day. If three such farmers, living near each other, were to co-operate in marketing their milk, about % of this cost, or $155, would be saved to each farm; which is over $15 per cow per year. An increased profit of $15 per cow is worth consideration. Creamery Company Hauls Cream. — It has been sug- gested that instead of each farmer's hauling milk or cream to a creamery, the creamery company employ teams to haul the cream or milk from all the farms. It would cer- tainly seem that there might be a very great saving realized, if this suggestion were followed. One man and team thus employed could haul all the cream from twenty to sixty farms, depending on the condition of roads, distance to haul and size of herds. Consider. — Spend a few moments figuring on these prob- lems as they may apply in your particular locality. If FARM MANAGEMENT 347 j'^ou can answer the following questions, you can figure the problems easily: How often per week do you deliver milk or cream? How much time, on the average, is required? How many hours will a man spend in a year to deliver your milk or cream? What is the total cost of this labor at 15c. per hour? How many hours of horse labor will be required in a year to deliver your milk or cream? What is the total cost of this labor at 8c. per hour per horse? These figures will enable you to find the total cost of marketing the product of your dairy when you do it yourself. Figure, also, what it would cost you, if you were to exchange with two or three of your neighbors, so that you will have to go but every third or fourth time. Still another valuable problem will be to find out how many farms could be reached by one team circling around so as to reach the greatest possible number of farms and get back to the creamery by traveling from 10 to 14 miles. To make such a trip one half day's time for man and team would be required, at a cost of $1.50 to $2.00. Figure whether or not this would be a saving over the common practice of each farmer's delivering his own cream. Questions: 1. In what manner are the dairy products of your farm marketed? 2. Are there two or more of your neighbors Uving near your place, so that you might co-operate with them in hauhng your milk or cream to the creamery or to the station? 3. Would it not be practical for the creamery company to em- ploy one or more teams to collect milk or cream, instead of having each farmer deliver it? Arithmetic: 1. If 100 lbs. of milk were run through a separator and 4 lbs. of butter-fat taken out, and with the butter-fat 12 lbs. of milk, how many pounds of skimmed milk would be left? (Note. 4 lbs. of butter-fat in 12 lbs. of milk would make 16 lbs. of cream testing 25% fat, which is about the average for cream.) 2. If the 4 Uxs. of butter-fat taken from the 100 lbs. of milk were sold for 33c. per pountl, and the skimmed milk were worth 15c. per hundred, what would l)e the income from the 100 ll)s. of milk? 3. If it costs 10c. per 100 Ib.s. more to market whole milk than to separate and market cream, at what i)rice per 100 lbs. must 4% milk be sold to be as profitable as cream at 33c. per pound for butter-fat? 348 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Exercises: 1. Write out the rotations practiced on your farm or on some other farm close by. 2. Of the three classes of crops which one occupies the greater acreage in your community this year? 3. Plan an ideal farmstead with complete arrangements. 4. Pupils should select one branch of the farm business and be allowed to keep an accurate account of all moneys expended and re- ceived. 5. How are the farmers of the vicinity marketing their milk? What is done with the by-products? Out in the Fields with God. The httle cares that fretted me, I lost them yesterday Among the fields, above the sea, Among the winds at play, Among the lowing of the herds. Among the rusthng of the trees, Among the singmg of the birds The humming of the bees. The foolish fears of what may happen, I cast them all away Among the clover-scented grass, Among the new-mown hay, Among the rustling of the corn, Where the drowsy poppies nod, Where ill thoughts die and good are born. Out in the fields with God. — Anonymous. APPENDIX 350 ELE ME NTS OF FAR M PRA C TI CE BIBLIOGRAPHY Soil Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. First Principles of Soil Fertility, A. Vivian. Physics of Agriculture, F. H. King. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, C. G. Hopkins. Soil Management, F. H. King. The Soil, A. D. Hall. The Soil, F. H. King. Soils: TheirPreparation and Management, Lyon, Fippen and Buckman. Soils and Plant Life, Cunningham and Lancelot. Fertilizers Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. Manures and Manuring, C. W. Aikman. Fertilizers, E. B. Voorhees. Manures and Fertilizers, H. J. Wheeler. Grains Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. Small Grains, M. A. Carleton. The Book of Wheat, P. T. Dondlinger. Productive Farm Crops, E. G. Montgomery. Field Crop Production, G. Livingston. Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt. Corn Crops, E. G. Montgomery. Corn, Bowman and Crossley. Farm Crops, C. W. Burkett. Grasses and Clovers Alfalfa, Wing. Grasses and How to Grow Them, Thomas Shaw. Clovers and How to Grow Them, Thomas Shaw. The Book of Alfalfa, F. D. Colburn. Meadows and Pastures, J. E. Wing. Text Book of Grasses, A. S. Hitchcock. Farm Grasses of United States, W. J. Spillman. Forage Crops Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees. Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt. Forage Plants, C. W. Piper. Forage Crops, Thomas Shaw. Grasses and Forage Crops, C. R. Flint. Fruit Growing Popular Fruit Growing, S. B. Green. Productive Orcharding, F. C. Sears. Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailov- Bush Fruits, F. W. Card. American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh. Principles and Practice of Pruning, M. J. Kains. The Nursery Book, L. H. Bailey. BIBLIOGRAPHY 351 Vegetable Growing Vegetable Gardening, S. B. Green. Garden Farming, L. C. Corbett. Garden Making, L. H. Bailey. Principles of Vegetable Gardening, L. H. Bailey. Productive Vegetable Gardening, J. W. Lloyd. Vegetable Gardening, R. L. Watts. The Potato, A. W. Gilbert. The Potato, Grubb and Guilford. The A B C of Potato Culture, T. B. Terry. Scientific Potato Culture, A. J. Young. Vegetable Forcing, R. L. Watts. Insects and Plant Diseases Insects Injurious to Vegetables, F. H. Chittenden. Manual of Vegetable Gardening Insects, Crosby and Leonard Manual of Fruit Diseases, Hester and Wetzel. Manual of Fruit Insects, Slingerland and Crosby. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard, Sanderson. Insects Injurious to Fruits, W. Saunders. Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Duggar. Injurious Insects and Useful Birds, F. L. Washt>urn. Farm Animals Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, C. S. Pluml). Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. Judging Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. Judging Live Stock, C. R. Craig. Judging Live Stock, C. W. Gay. Manual of Farm Animals, M. W. Harper. Management and Breeding of Horses, M. W. Harper. Productive Horse Husbandry, C. W. Gray. Productive Sheep Husbandry, W. C. Coffey. Productive Swine Husbandry, George E. Day The Hog Book, H. C. Dawson. Swine, William Dietrich. Swine in America, F. D. Col)urn. Sheep Farming in America, Jo.seph E. Wing. Sheep Management, Frank Kleinheinz. Common Diseases of Farm Animals, R. A. Craig. Feeds and Feeding Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. Profitable Stock Feeding, H. R. Smith. Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan. Dairying Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles. Dairy Farming, John Michels. Dairy Farming, Eckles and Warren. Farm Dairy, H. B. Gurler. Market Dairying and Milk Products, John Michels Milk and Its Products, H. H. Wing. 352 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Productive Dairying, R. M. Washburn. Dairy Laboratory Guide, G. L. Martin. Poultry Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, J. H. Robinson. Productive Poultry Culture, H. R. Lewis. Poultry Production, W. A. Lippincott. Miscellaneous Farm Boys and Girls, W. A. McKeever. How to Live in the Country, E. P. Powell. Rural Improvement, F. A. Waugh. Work of the Rural School, Eggleston and Briere Rural Hygiene, H. W. Ogden. School Hygiene, F. B. Dressier. Farmer's Law, L. V. Koos. Home and Community Hygiene, J. Broadhurst. How to Co-operate, Herbert Myrick. Poems of Coimtry Life, Collection by G. S. Bryan. DIRECTIONS FOR BABCOCK TEST. Milk-Testing Outfit. 2 pipettes with capacity of 17.6 c.c. 1 tin cup with spout 12 Babcock milk test bottles 1 twelve-bottle tester 2 skimmed milk test bottles 1 gallon sulphuric acid 2 acid measures with capacity of 17.5 c.c. Where the milk of only one or two cows is to be tested, the four- Ijottle tester is sufficient, but the covered twelve-bottle tester is safer and its temperature is more easily maintained. Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring and fill pipette to the grad- uation, holding the finger over the upper opening. With the ves.sels at a slant, and releasing the finger, allow all the milk to flow into the bottle. It should not l)e warmer than 60-70 degrees Fahrenheit. Fill the measuring cylinder to the graduation with sulphuric acid testing 1.82 (special for this test) and pour into the bottle. Shake the mixture vigorously about one minute after all the curd has disappeared. The bottle will get hot. Use caution, as the acid is corrosive and dangerous. And do not use pipette for acid. Place the bottles in the centrifuge, or tester, cover and, after heating it on the stove or by adding a few quarts of boiling water, whirl for five minutes at the rate of eighty revolutions a minute. If the tester is not full, the bottles should be balanced in opposite positions. With the tin cup fill the bottles nearly to the base of the neck with water that is nearly lioiling hot and whirl again for one minute. Fill with hot water to 7 or 8 on the neck and whirl one minute. Take the readings at once. Subtract the reading on the scale at the bottom of the fat column from the reading at the top of it. The difference is the percentage of fat in the milk. APPENDIX 353 Planting Information for Vegetables PLANT Soil Depth Plants Apart Rows Ajjart Days to Germi- nate Days to Mature Cabbage. . Cauliflower Celery .... Rich loam Rich loam Light rich Rich Rich sandy loam 3" 3" 3" 3" 0" 2' 2' 8" 3" 3' 3' 15" 3' 100-110 105-115 84 Onion sets. Tomatoes . 90-100 SEEDS Seeds to Foot Beans Beets Carrots Celery Corn Cucumbers . . Lettuce Onion seeds.. Parsley Parsnips ... Peas Radishes. . . . Salsify Spinach. . . . Turnips ... Loamy Sandy loam. Light Light rich Rich loam Rich Rich loam Good Rich loam Light Light Fertile san- dy clay Light Rich sandy loam Open soil 2" 1" M" VA' 1" H" M" M" J 2" 1" 1" 4 to hill 10 6-12 12 5 to hill 4 to hill 15 15 6 15 8 20 S 12 15 24-30" IS" 15' 15" 3' 6' 15" 15" 18" 15" 3' IS- IS" IS- IS" 5-10 7-10 12-18 10-20 5- 8 6-10 6- 8 7-10 20-30 10-20 6-10 3- 6 7-12 6-10 4- S 43- 60 00- 70 95-100 160-175 55-75 50-75 60- 65 100-110 98 125-140 60- SO 21- 35 130-140 21- 30 60 Distances Apart for Planting Fruits Trees Distance Bush or Vine Distance Apples 30-40 ft. Apricots 15-20 ft. Cherries 15-25 ft. Oranges 25-30 ft. Peaches 15-20 ft. Pears 20-30 ft. Plums 15-20 ft. Quinces 10-12 ft. Blackberries 4^-7 ft. Cranberries 1-2 ft. Currants 4-4 J^ ft. Gooseberries 4-4 J/^ ft. Grapes 6-12 ft. Ra.spberries, black 3,^-5 ft. Raspberries, red 3^-4 ft. Strawberries 1 } 2-3 ft. 354 ELEMENTS OF FAR2I PRACTICE Haecker's Feeding Standard for the Dairy Cow For support of the 1,000-Ib. cow To the allowance for support add : For each lb. of 3.0 per cent milk For each lb. of 3.5 per cent milk For each lb. of 4.0 per cent milk For each lb. of 4.5 per cent milk For each lb. of 5.0 per cent milk For each lb. of 5.5 per cent milk For each lb. of 6.0 per cent milk Daily allowance of digestible nutrients Crude Carbohy- Protein drates Lbs. Lbs. 0.7 7.0 0.040 0.19 0.042 0.21 0.047 0.23 0.049 0.26 0.051 0.27 0.054 0.29 0.057 0.31 Fat Lbs. 0.1 0.01.-) O.OIG O.OIS 0.020 0.021 0.022 0.024 Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre Name Quantity of Seed Name Quantity of Seed Alfalfa 6-12 lbs. Alsike 8-20 lbs. Barley 13^-2i'2 bu. Beans 1-2 bu. Blue grass 10-15 lbs. Broom corn 1-1/^ bu. Buckwheat M-^}i bu. Carrots 4-5 lbs. Corn 1^-1 bu. Flax 1^-2 bu. Hemp 1-1 ^^2 bu. Millet 1-1 3^2 bu. Orchard grass 20-30 lbs. Oats 2-4 bu. Pansnips 6-8 lbs. Peas 2^-31^^ bu. Potatoes 5-10 bu. Rice 2-21^ lbs. Red Clover 10-16 lbs. Rye 1-2 bu. Timothy 12-24 qts. Turnips 2-3 lbs. Wheat lM-2bu. White Clover 3-4 lbs. NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZERS 355 Average Nutrient and Fertilizer Values of Some Common Feeds* Digestible Nutrients in 100 lbs. Fertili ents sing Constitu- in 1,000 lbs. Crude Pro- tein Carbo- hy- drates Fat Nitro- gen Phos- phoric Acid Potash Alfalfa hav 10.6 9.0 7.9 9.7 7.6 10.9 7.5 7.7 6.9 1.1 2.2 33.4 19.4 13.1 30.2 0.8 3.3 3.6 5.0 9.7 1.0 1.1 9.9 30.7 30.0 66.8 36.9 36.8 39.3 38.2 67.8 66.1 69.0 15.0 47.8 24.3 54.5 33.7 43.9 6.4 4.9 5.1 46.0 52.1 42.6 15.8 68.4 22.8 0.9 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.8 0.7 4.6 4.6 3.5 0.7 1.0 7.9 1.1 1.0 4.4 0.1 4.3 0.2 1.8 3.8 0.9 0.1 1.2 14.4 23.8 18.4 20.5 22.6 20.5 23.2 16.2 16.6 14.9 3.4 9.4 63.7 37.8 30.9 56. S 2.2 5.6 6.1 13.3 19.8 5.8 3.5 18.9 58.4 5.4 8.5 7.0 6.1 3.9 6.6 6.9 6.8 6.1 1.6 4.5 26.6 10.1 9.6 5.5 0.4 1.9 2.2 3.6 8.1 2.1 1.2 7.3 13.7 22.3 Barley 7.4 Clover hay, alsike Clover hay, crimson Clover hay, red Clover hay, sweet, white. . Corn, dent 17.4 22.4 16.3 12.6 4.0 Corn, flint 3.9 Cornmeal Corn silage, mature Corn stover (ears removed very dry) Cotton seed meal, prime. . Cowpeas 3.7 4.4 12.9 18.0 14.9 Cowpea hav 41.3 Gluten meal . . . 1.2 Mangels 2.2 Milk, cows, whole 1.7 Milk, skimmed Millet haj', common Oats 1.7 21.5 5.6 Oat straw Potatoes 15.0 5.3 Rve 5.7 Sov beans 24.7 Sugar beets 1 imothv hay 3.0 9.2 12.5 0.8 42.8 67.5 41.6 4.7 1.2 1.5 3.0 0.3 9.9 19.8 25.6 1.6 3.1 8.6 29.5 1.2 13.6 Wheat 5.3 Wheat bran 16.2 Whey 2.6 ♦Complied from Feeds and Feeding, by Henry and Morrison. The Composition and Amounts of Manure Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals is Shown in the Following Table: Analysis Amount per 1,000 lbs. Live Weight Kind of Animal and Kinds of Food Fed eg 3 PhCm Q a it. Cattle. Fed hay, silage, beets, wheat, bran, cornmeal, cottonseed 75.25 48.G9 59.52 74.13 .4:? .49 .77 .84 .127 .114 4.10 17 ,44 .48 .5",) .32 74.1 4S.S 34.1 83-0 27,040 17,812 12,440 30,514 15.0 Horses. Fed hay, oats, cornmeal. 10.5 Sheep. Fed hay, corn, oats or hay, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, lin- 8.7 Swine. Fed skim milk, cornmeal, meat scraps; or cornmeal, wheat bran, linseed meal 17.7 The data in the above table are taken from the Cornell Experiment Station. INDEX Acid phosphate, 36 Accounts: With a cow, 341 With a garden, 135 With live stock, 33S Agricultural engineering, 25!) Air: Needed in soil, 26 Plant food in, 13 Alfalfa: Advantages of, 108 Curing, 1 1 1 Cutting, 111 Feeding value of. 109 Inoculation of, 110 Pasturing, lOU Seed, 109 Soil for, 110 Sowing, 110 Apple blight, 158 Apples: Adaptability of, 151 Culture of, 152 Mulching, 153 Picking, 154 Planting of trees, 152 Pruning of trees, 153 Soil for, 151 Spraying, 134 Storage, 165 Thinning, 154 Apple scab, 159 Array worm, 162 Arsenate of lead, 159 Ash, 174, 212 Asparagrie, 139 Babcoek test, 214 Bacteria: Care against, 311 In milk, 213 On clover roots, 104 Balaneed ration, 175 Barley: Culture ©f, 57 Harvesting, 57 Use of, 57 Barns. 273 Beans. 141. Bedding, 200 Bees, 25fi Birds, 255 Blue grass, 1 15 Boll weevil, 163 Bookkeeping, 336 Bordeaux mixture, 159 Boys' and Girls' Club, 2S4 Breeds: Of cattle, 192 Of horses, 177 Of poultry, 246 Of sheep, 216 Of swine, 229 llrome grass, 114 Brood sow, 233 Buildings: Convenience of, 111. 274 Cost of. 171. 272 Importance of, 272 Light. 170 Maintenance of, 274 Planning of. 273 Ventilation of. 170. ISl, 312 Bull thistle, 130 Bulletins, 132. 256. 25S Burdock, 130 Butter: Making, 343 Marketing, 295 Butter-fat, 212, 215 Cabbage worm, 162 Calcium: Use of in plants, 34 Supply of, 37 Canada thistle, 132 Carbohydrates, 174, 212 Carbon dioxide, 13 Carrots, 94 Cattle: Breeds of, 192 Care and management of, 199 Classes of, 192 Disease of, 199 Feeding of, 201 Pure-bred. 192 Shelter for, 199 Types of. 192 Celery. 141 Chickens. 244. 311 Chinch bugs, 162 Chlorophyll, 13 Chores, 166 35S ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Churning, 344 Clay, 11 Clover: Adds nitrogen to soil, 104 Alsike, 101 Curing, 100 Getting a catch of, 102, 333 In rotation, 333 Mammoth, 100 Medium red, 100 Roots and bacteria, 103 Varieties of, 100 White, 101 Clubs: Boys' and Girls', 284 Farmers', 288 Cockle, 120 Codling moth, 162 Comfort of animals, 236 Community activities, 272-284 Concentrates, 174 Co-operation, 291, 293, 346 Corn: Climate for, 61. 77 Culture of, 69, 74 Depth to cultivate, 74 Embryo of, G.'i For silage, 86 Grading seed, 70 Importance, 60 In rotation, 333, 336 Parts of kernels of, 64 Planting, 71 Kag doll tester, 68 Selection of seed, 76, 79 Shape of ear, 80 Size of ear, 80 Size of kernels, 62 Smut, 158 Storing, 81 Testing seed, 66, 67 V^arieties of, 78 Yield of, 60 Corn hangers, 85 Corrosive sublimate, 160 Cot for hogs, 235 C:"otton: Diseases of, 161 Picking and ginning, 120 Planting and culture, 120 Soil for, 120 County agents, 302 Cowpea, 117 Cows: Account with, 341 Culling, 216 Nutrient requirements for, 201 Cows; Cont'd Rations for, 203 Succulent feed for, 207 Testing of, 216 Types of, 192 et seq. Water for, 199 Cream, 215, 345 Creamery, 295 Creep, 235 Cucumbers, 142 Cultivated crops. 60, 324, 326 Cultivation: Depth of for corn, 74 Of apple trees, 152 Of corn, 69 Of fiber crops, 120 Of potatoes, 93 Of rasplit'rries. 150 Of strawberries, 147 Reasons for, 71 Results of deep, 74 Cultivator, 75 Curing hay, 106 Curled dock, 132 Cutworms, 162 Dairy products, 295 Dandelions, 132 Digestible nutrients, 175 Diseases: Of cattle, 199 Of cotton, 161 Of grains, 50, 56, 156 Of potatoes, 90, 160 Disking, 28 Drainage: Of fields, 266 Of home grounds, 310 Of roads, 262 Surface, 267 Tile, 267 Drill, 29 Dry farming, 24 Drying seed corn, 83 Educational advantages, 289 Eggs, 298 Ensilage, 208 Eradication of weeds. X'M) Ewes, 222, 226 Exercise for stock, 200 Farmer, standing of. 3 is Farm home, 305 Farm management, 318 Farmstead: Arrangement of, 315 INDEX 359 Farnistoad: Cont'd Location of, 315 Size of, 315 Fat, 174 Feed: Change of, 188 _ Comparison of, 176 Composition of, 174,'209 Fall, 23, 238 Kinds of, 174 Requirements, 173 Selection of, 173 Source of, 173 Succulent, 207 Summer, 241 Value of, 340, 342 Fencing: Building of, 280 Cost of, 282, 328, 331 For sheep, 224 For swine, 236 Investment in, 279 Kinds of, 277 Posts for, 278 Fertilizers: Animal manure, 37 Amounts produced, 38 Complete, 37 Composition of, 38 Need of, 31 Plant food in, 31 Uses of, 34 ii'iber crops, 120 Field crops, 322 Field peas, 117, 238 Fields, 327, 329 Flax: Harvesting, 121 Planting, 121 Soil for, 121 Flax wilt, 158 Flies, 200, 311 Formaldehyde, 157 Forage crops, 116 Garden: Account with, 135 Income from, 134 Plan and preparation of, 136 Value of, 134 Ocrmination, 44, 66 Grain crops, 39. 322, 334 Grass crops, 97, 322 Grasshoppers, 162 Gravel, 11 Hay and pasture crops: Advantages of, 97 Hay and pasture crops: Cot'd Cleaning crop, 128 Cock covers for, 107, 112 Cost, 97 Curing, 106 Cutting, 105, 113 Importance of, 97 Harrowing, 28 Harvesting: Barley, 57 Flax, 121 Oats, 54 Root crops, 95 Sugar cane, 119 Wheat, 48 Healthfulness of the home, 310 Heat in the soil, 27 Hemp: Culture of, 121 Soil for, 121 Hog cholera, 232 Hogging off crops, 237, 239 Hogs. (See swine) Home, the, 305 Honey, 257 Horses: Breeds of, 177 Care and management of, 181 Cost of labor of, 182 • Feeding of, 184 et seq. Shoeing. 182 Types of, 178 Horse-radisli, 139 Humus, 10 • Hydrogen, 13 income of American farmers, 319 Insect pests, 162 Insects: Classes of, 162 Control of. 162 Destroyed by plowing, 20 Habits of, 162 Kemedies for, 102 Interest, 339 Iron sulphate, 132 Irrigation. 268 .lolinson grass, 115 Kernels, 02, ct seq. Kinghead, 126 Labor: General, 340 In dairying, 342 With sheep, 242 With swine, 237 360 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Land rent, 337 Lawns, 306 Legumes, 104 Lettuce, 140 Light, 170 Lime, 34, 37 Lime-sulpliur mixture, 157 Live stock: Care and management of, 166 Classes of, 166 Importance of, 165 In relation to soil, 165 Shelter for, 170 Loam, 1 1 jSIachinery: Investment in, 270 Shelter for, 271 Use of, 271 Mangels, 94 Manure: Amounts produced, 38 Composition of, 38 Manure spreader, 92 Marketing: Butter, 295 Eggs, 298 Milk, 345 Meadow, 335 Melons, 142 Milk: As human food, 212 Care of, 213 Composition of, 212 Sampling, 217 Selling, 345 Sterilizing, 212 Testing, 214, 217, 352 Weighing, 216, 352 Millet, 116 Miscellanous crops, 116 Moisture, 20, 71 Morning-glory, 132 Mulch, 72, 153 Mules. 166 Mustard seed, 128 Nests, 252 Nitrogen: Added to soil, 104 Need of in plants, 32 Sources of, 33 Nodules, 104 Nutrients, 175, 201 Oats: Cost of production, 5K Disease and insects, 58 Harvesting, 54 Importance of, 53 In rotation, 55, 333 Kinds, 53 Smut of, 50, 56, 157 Soil for, 53 Threshing, 54 Uses of, 56 Oils, 174 Onions, 139 Orchard, 151 Orchard grass, 115 Outside feeding, 169 Overrun, 344 Oxygen, 13 Paris green, 163 Parsnips, 139 Pasteurizing milk, 313 Pasture: Alfalfa, 109 Benefit to soil, 335 Blue grass, 242 Brome grass, 114, 242 Field peas, 242 Meadow, 97, 335 Rape, 242 Red clover, 242 Rye, 242 Timothy, 113 White clover. 242 Peas, 138, 140 Phosphate rock, 36 Phosphorus: Need of in plants, 33 Sources of. 35 Pigeon grass seed, 128 Pigweed, 129 Planning: Buildings, 273 Farms, 327 Plant food: Amount of, 15 Available, 15 In fertilizers, 31 In the air, 13 In the soil, 13 Liberated by plowing, 21 Soluble, 14, 16 Plant diseases: Loss from, 156 Prevalence of, 156 Remedies, for, 15S et seq. INDEX 361 Planting: Depth to plant, 29 Time to plant, 28 Plant structure, 39 Plant lice, 162 Plowing: Condition of soil for, 21 Deep, 24 Fall, 22 Objects of, 19 Time for. 21 Plum curculio, 162 Pork production, 231 Posts, 278 Potassium: Need of in plants, 34 Sources of, 36 Potatoes : Cultirating, 93 Cutting seed, 91 Diseases of, 90, 160 Importance of, 88 Planting, 92 Seed, 89 Soil for, 91 Spraying, 93 Sprouting, 89 Potato blight, 161 Potato bugs. 162, Potato scab. 160 Potato wilt, 160 Poultry: Breeds of, 246 Care of, 248 Feeding, 253 Houses, 250 Imporlance of, 244 Price of land, 318 Prizes, 286 Protein, 174, 212 Pruning: Apple irees, 153 Raspberry bushes, 150 Quack grass, 129 Radish«s, 140 Rag doll tester, 68 Ragweed, 126, 132 Rape, 116, 242 Raspberries: Adaptability of, 148 CultlTatisB of, 150 Planting, 149 Propagation of, 148 Pruning of, 150 Soil f»r, 148 Raspberries: Cont'd Varieties of, 148 Winter protection of, 150 Ration: A good, 206 A poor, 205 Feeding a, 205 To compound a, 203 Rations. (See feeds, etc.) Redtop, 115 Rent, 337 Rhizoctonia, 160 Rhubarb, 139 Rice, 118 Roads: Construction of, 261 Cost of, 259 Earth, 262 Gravel, 263 Maintenance of, 264 Sandy, 266 Use of, 259 Roosts, 251 Root crops: Culture of, 94 Harvesting, 95 Importance of, 94 Roots, 13, 17, 18, 74, 209 Rotation of crops, 99, 163, 320, 324, 329, 332, 335 Roughage, 174, 185, 203 Rust, 50, 56, 156 Rutabagas, 94 Rye: Culture of, 58 Importance of, 58 Rye grass, 115 Salt, 199 Sand, 11 Sanitation: In the care of milk, 213 In the home, 310 Scale insects, 162 School gardens, 301 Schools, 284 Seed: Grading, 44 Importance of good, 40 Parts of a, 41 Pure, 43 Selection of. 41 Test of good. 41 To remove weed, 43 Seed bed, 26 Seed corn: Selection of, 76 362 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE Seed corn: Cont'd Storing, 82 Testing, 61 Shade, 199 Shade trees, 307 Sheep: Care and management of, 22:? Feeding of, 225 Fencing for, 224 For fattening, 225 Slielter for, 224 Types of, 220 Shelter: Cost of, 341 For live stock, 170, 224, 234, 250 For machinery, 271 Shocking: Oats, 54 Wheat, 48 Silage: Corn, 86 Cutting, 88 Silo: Advantages of, 275 Cost of, 276 Importance of, 275 Kinds of, 276 Size of, 277 Slatted shelves, 85 Smut: Corn, 158 Wheat, 50, 157 Barley, 156 Oats, 56, 157 Social advantages, 288 Soil moisture, 14 Soils: Classes of, 10 Clay, 12 Loam, 11 Origin of, 9 Parts of, 9 Sandy, 12 Soy bean, 117 Sow, brood, 233 Sow thistle, 132 Split-log drag, 264 Spraying: Fruits, 163 Potatoes, 93 Weeds, 132 Squash, 142 Squash bugs, 162 Stacking: Oats, 54 Wheat, 48 Starch, 174 Sterilizing milk, 213 Storing: Apples, 155 Seed corn, 82 Wheat, 49 Straw, 36, 55 Strawberries: Adaptability of, 145 Culture of, 147 Planting, 147 Soil for, 145 Varieties of, 145 Subsurface packing, 25 Succulent feed, 207 Succulent food, 143 Sugar, 174 Sugar beets, 94 Sugar cane, 119 Surface mulch, 25, 72 Sweet corn, 141 Swine: Care and management of, 231 Feeding of, 237 Fencing for, 236 Shelter for, 234 Types of, 229 System in work, 167 Teachers, 284 Testing cows, 216 Testing milk, 214, 217, 3.52 Threshing, 49, 54 Tile, 207 Tillage: Objects of, 19 Time for, 21 Timothy: Cutting, 113 Feed value of, 113 Tobacco extracts, 163 Tomatoes, 142 Tuberculosis, 200 Turnips, 94 Vegetable matter: Adding to soil, 17 Decay of, 17 Vegetables: Insect pests, 162 Varieties of, 138 Marketing of, 139 Ventilation, 170, 181, 312 Vetch, 118 Waste land, 317, 328 Water for cattle, 169, 199 INDEX 363 Wax, 174 Weaning pigs, 235 Weeds : Classes of, 129 Destroyed by plowing, 20, 72 Habits of, 129 jNIounting, 124 Seeds, 43, 125. 127 Specimens of, 124 Spraying, 132 To eradicate annual, 130 To eradicate biennial, 130 To eradicate perennial, 132 Weed seeds, 43, 125, 127 Wheat: Cost of production, 50 Diseases and insects, 50 Exports and imports, 49 Fertilizers, 46 Grades, 49 Harvesting, 48 Importance, 45 Kinds, 46 Place of, 45 Prices, 49 Rotation, 50 Wheat: Cont'd Seed, 47 Shocking, 48 Soil for, 46 Sowing, 47 Stacking, 48 Storing, 49 Threshing, 49 Uses, 50 Wild buckwheat, 127 Wild oats, 126 Wild pea, 127 Windbreaks: Planning of, 308 Trees for, 308 Value of, 308 Wool, 220 Yield: Dependent on seed bed, Of corn, 60 Of hay, 97 Of oats, 53 Of potatoes, 88 Of wheat, 45 Agricultural Text Books FOR HIGH SCHOOLS Published by WEBB PUBLISHING CO.. ST. PAUL. MINN. FIELD CROPS By A. D. WILSON, Sup't of Farmers' Institutes and Extension, Minnesota College of Agriculture, and C. W, WAR- BURTON, Agronomist, U. S. D. A. 544 pages, 162 illustrations, cloth, $1 50 net This book discusses the peculiarities of each of the various classes and varieties of farm crops, the handling of the soil, selections of seed, and general crop management. It covers the cereals, including corn, ■wheat, oats, rye, barley, etc.; forage crops, including hay grasses, clo- ver, alfalfa, cowpeas and other legumes; how to make good meadows and pastures, and the art of hay making, etc.; root crops; sugar crops; fiber crops, including cotton, flax, hemp; tobacco, potatoes, in fact every farm crop of any importance is discussed. The introductory chapters give the general classification of farm crops and their uses and relative importance, and review the subject of how plants grow. The concluding chapters di.scuss the theory and practice of crop rotation and weeds and their eradication. A list of supplementary references is giv- en at the close of each chapter. The style is easy, subject matter well arranged and vital, and the book is of excellent mechanical makeup throughout. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING By J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engiaeerkig, Iowa State College 554 pages, 342 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. A volume intended primarily as a text for secondary schools of agri- culture, and for colleges where only a general course can be offered. The subjects discussed are so applicable to the every-day work of the farm that the book will also prove of great interest and vaJue to those engaged in practical agriculture. The following subjects are given space according to their importance: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irri- gation, Road Construction, Farm Machinery, Farm Motors, Farm Structures, Farm Sanitation, and Rope Work. Each chapter is fol- lowed by a set of questions for review and for thought promotion. Lists of references to best books and bulletins are included. Complete index. A splendid text in every detail. BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY By CHARLES S. PLUMB, Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, Ohio State University. 395 pages, 217 illustrations, cloth, $1.25 net. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry is the only book published that is specially designed to meet the needs of students in Animal Husbandry courses in secondary schools. Among the subjects discussed are; The Importance of Animal Husbandry; Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine; Animal Type and Its Importance; Reasons and Methods in Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine, etc.; Heredity: Its Meaning and Influence; Selection and Its Importance; Pedigrees and Their Values; Suggestions to Young Breeders; Composition of Plants and Animals; Influence of Foods on the Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a Ration; Coarse Feeds and Their Values; Concentrated Feeds and Their Value; Care of Farm Animals; Poultry: Types and Breeds, Judging, Feeding; Eggs and Incubation; Poultry Houses. Topics for discus- sion and suggestions for observation and application are included at the close of each chapter. SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY By A. R. WHITSON, Professor of Soils and Drainage, and H. L. WALSTER, Instructor in Soils, of the LTniversity of Wisconsin. 315 pages, well ill ustrated , cloth, $1.25 net. No other book on Soils presents the relation of the soil to the production of crops in so clear and agreeable a manner as this. There are chapters on the following: Conditions Essential to Plant Growth, Origin and Classification* of Soils; Primary Relations of Soil and Plant; Nitrogen; Phosphorus and Potash; Soil Analysis; Farm Manure; Com- mercial Fertilizers; Physical Properties of Soils; Water Supply; Tem- perature and Ventilation of Soils; Drainage; Erosion; Tillage; Humus; Relation of Crops to Climate and Soil; Soils of the United States; Management of Important Types of Soil; Dry Farming. Explicit language and the avoidance of technical matter make the book ideal for beginners in this subject. A well-chosen set of fundamental labora- tory exercises and demonstrations, with complete directions, is included. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota. 300 pages, 120 illustrations, cloth, $1.00 This book covers the factors of successful Fruit Growing, with Usts of fruits adapted to each state; Orchard Protection; Injurious Insects and Diseases; Spraying; Harvesting and Marketing Methods; Propagation of Fruits; etc. A very popular book for schools and col- leges. A new, revised edition by Le Roy Cady, Professor of Horticul- ture, University of Minnesota, is just out. VEGETABLE GARDENING By SAMUEL B, GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota. 252 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth, $1.00, A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and for the market. The immense sale of this book to farmers and gardeners, and its wide adoption for class-room work in agricultural schools and col- leges, prove it to be the standard work published on this subject. This is the 12th revised edition. We have a paper covered edition of this book which sells for 50c. DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE By G. L. MARTIN, Professor of Dairying, North Dakota Agricultural College. 140 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c. This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer- cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugges- tions for their practical application. It covers the Production and Care, Testing, Manufacture, and Marketing, of Dairy Products. An indis- pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamerymen. SILOS: CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE By M.L. KING, formerly Silo Expert, Iowa State College, and Orig- inator of the Iowa Silo. 100 pages, well illustrated, cloth, 50c. There is no recent American book on silo building, and none of any date that covers the many types of silos now in use and gives details of their construction. Mr. King here presents to the intended builder the principles of silo construction, and the advantages and dis- advantages of each tyi)e; but more particularly he gives the actual method of construction, with the main points of silo management. RULES OF ORDER FOR EVERY DAY USE AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT MADE PLAIN By HENRY SLADE GOFF, Author of the Goff'*. Historical Maps. 113 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c., There has long been a demand for an accurate Rules of Order text that was brief yet sufficiently complete for all practical needs. This is such a book. The matter is so clear, so well arranged, and so suc- cinct that those interested in social centers, clubs, societies, etc., wiJl be dehghted with it. The book also presents the main points of civil government that everyone ought to know. INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS A NEW TYPE OF TEXTBOOK By A. E. PICKARD CONTENT This new volume contains all the industrial outlines found in Rural Education, but a number of new ones has been included, introductor}- paragraphs were inserted under each title, how to make the booklets is explained, and one of the outlines — that on poultry — has been fully expanded and illustrated to serve as a model and a stimulus for similar work. PURPOSE Industrial Booklets helps the busy teacher to do her work and to do it better than she could have done it alone. It also saves her hours of search and tedious copying. Art and order are included in these exercises. And, while the content of them is industrial, the form of them is literary. The fact is that they are usually assigned as language work, which the booklet idea has \ital- ized by supplying a wealth of interesting material for discussion and composition. Different important purposes are, therefore, secured by the use of these outlines. PRACTICAL There is no more practical method of teaching than TEACHING to give pupils such a guide to study and investigation and to assemble in orderly fashion the results of. their research and conclusion. RESULTS The results also are worth the time and effort. Topics of \'ital interest are impressed with their bearing on modern activities of general concern, and pupils, under proper direc- tion, acquire the habit of effective expression. In addition to literary improvement and the acquisition of industrial knowledge, the general character of the school work is elevated to a new plane. COMPETITION The booklets made as suggested become a matter of rivalry and pride. They are always subjects of exhibit at school and fair and the winning ones usually are given prizes. Few things in school make the same appeal or insure so far- reaching and satisfactory results. The sample booklet prepared by the author contains sufficient subject matter and illustration for a brief course in poultrv. The whole text is copiously illustrated with reproductions of many excellent photographs. A copy of Industrial Booklets should be in the hands of every pupil. The price is insignificant. The advantages are many and marvelous. 12 mo. Illustrated. Price, postpaid, 40 cents. Webb Publishing Company, st. p.\ul, minn. pilllllllillllllllllllllllllllllil|l|lllltlllllllllll!lllllll!lllllll!lllllllilll!lllllllltllllllllll^^ I Rural Education I I A. E. PICKARD I I AN AID TO PRODUCTIVE TEACHING 1 1 FOR NORMAL CLASSES, READING CIR- m 1 CLES, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS and m 1 RURAL TEACHERS I = Adopted in Several States and Many Counties ^ M Industrial subjects are disputing place with academic = = even in the rural school. What shall be eliminated? What M ^ shall be taught? How? With what result? ^ 1 Rural Education Tells What to Teach g ^ Aside from the excellent arrangement of the program of p M academic subjects and the full treatment of methods for ^ M teaching the same, Rural Education presents practical plans M M for including the required industrial work, viz: agriculture, ^ ^ manual training and domestic science. In addition it fully ^ ^ discusses the outside activities which enlarge the scope of the ^ M school and the community life and form a vita! part of real p M rural education. ^ ^ Rural Education Tells How to Teach m M The co-ordination and arrangement of all these con- p ^ flicting courses is a problem which this book solves with M M satisfaction and success. Complete instruction is given for ^ ^ the carrying out of the plans suggested and for the teaching ^ = of each subject in detail. In the industrial subjects the actual M ^ work to be pursued is supplied. ^ M Rural Education Increases Teaching Efficiency J g The definite outlines and methods which have been ^ M thoroly tested and found to be most successful, together with ^ M the enlarged outlook and inspiration which come with a view M M of new and greater possibilities, tend to increase efficiency in ^ M the schoolroom and to direct and elevate all rural life. ^ M 12mo., 430 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.00 net ^ 1 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, | = SAINT PAUL, MINN. =