%~# : •iq. . % % \: 'O * %. p.- * V ^ SANDS OF SAHARA BY MAXWELL SOMMERVILLE PROFESSOR OF GLYPTOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA AUTHOR OF " SLAM," " ENGRAVED GEMS," ETC. WITH THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS PHILADELPHIA J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY London : 36, Southampton Street, Covent Garden I 9 O I .0* «v 93049 Library of Co nq rests Two Copies Received DEC 24 1900 SECOND COPY Oaliverod to ORDER DIVISION JAN 10 1901 - \ ^ -C A^ iP n % L* Copyright, 1900 BY Maxwell Sommerville ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA, U.S.A. 0\ CONTENTS * PAGB Sands of Sahara ...... 7 Algeria: Its Mosques IO The Monastery of Staoueli . . 17 The Order of the Trappists 19 The Gardens and Industrial Buildings . 24 The Dormitories and Refectory 27 Ostrich Farm ...... ■ 29 The Seaside City ..... 30 The Gorge of Chiffa: Its Monkeys • 34 Moorish Houses and Bazaars in the Oriental City 38 The Algerian Garden ..... . 40 Kabylia ...... 42 Tizi Ouzou . . . . . . . . 44 Mount Belloua ..... 45 A Bellouan Funeral ..... . 48 Kabylian Scenery ..... 5o Evening at the Village Mosque • 52 Ramadan ...... 54 A Glimpse at the Kabylians and their Country • 56 Off to Souk-el- Arba ..... 57 Souk-el-Arba ...... . 64 Fakirs and Fortune-Tellers 7i Itinerant Aissouai ..... • 74 Snake-Charmers . . * . 75 The Story-Teller ..... . 76 The Enchanter Comes .... 77 En Route for the Sands. .... . 78 Lambessa and Thimgad .... 3 80 CONTENTS The Gate of the Desert . 84 Amulets and Talismans 85 Talismans for Animals .... . 90 Camel Races ..... 90 The Desert ..... • 93 Camels Drinking .... 96 Palm Groves ..... . 98 Touggourt ..... 100 Encampment of Prisoners' Wives . 103 Market- Day at Touggourt 104 Touaregs ...... . 106 The Auctioneers and Blind Dwarf 108 Hooded Falcons ..... 109 Camel, Goat, and Donkey Market 109 The Mosque ..... . in The Supply of Water 112 The Underground City .... • 115 The Cafe Mauresque 117 Bedouin Encampments .... . 119 Nezla ...... 120 Sidi Rachid ..... . 122 Meggerine ..... 128 The Dunes of El Oued .... . 132 Temacin and the Marabout 134 Appendix . . . . . • 153 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS View on the Desert of Sahara . . Frontispiece Greek Theatre, Syracuse ..... 8 Prayer in the Desert: Three Positions . . 31 A Moorish Cafe on the Desert .... 39 The Jardin d'Essai, near Algiers . . . .40 Camel with Natives, ploughing .... 44 Female Water- Carrier . . . . . -47 A Kabylian Village ..... 50 A Group of Kabylians . . . . . .56 The Market of Souk-el-Arba .... 64 Arch of Triumph, Thimgad . . . . .80 View of Thimgad ...... 82 Roman Theatre, Thimgad . . . . 8^ El Kantara, the Gate of the Desert ... 84 El Kantara, Mountain Sources of Water . . .85 Camel-Drivers of the Sahara .... 90 View on the Desert of Sahara . . . -93 Caravan, Usual Manner of transporting Women . 95 Camels drinking at an Oasis . . . . .96 Date-Bearing Palm-Trees ..... 99 Basket-Makers, Touggourt . m . . . .103 5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Nomad Women preparing Cous-cous, a Native Dish in the Sahara ...... 107 A Woman of the Ouled Nails. . . . . 117 Nomads in Camp . . . . . „ 119 A Family spinning and weaving, Sahara . . .120 Women weaving Material for Head-Dresses, — Haiks . 122 The Jerboa ....... 124 Rat A Trompe ...... 124 Caravan of Dates, coming North . . . .127 Halting-Station in the Desert . . . . 132 Goats on the Desert . . . . . .150 On the Desert, Caravan with Women . . . 151 °o +, C° °o SANDS OF SAHARA The work of the Romans was by no means finished with the construction of the edifices and monuments that adorned their city on the Tiber. Wherever they colonized, they took with them the same skill that built Rome, as is demonstrated by the massive ruins that have been unearthed in all places that once were under their rule. Even in the sands of the African desert recent dis- coveries have brought to light remains of ancient cities, obviously important and luxurious, con- structed with enduring solidity. At Syracuse, on the coast of Southern Sicily, while en route for the land of sands and oases, we stood upon the marble slabs in the audito- rium of an ancient Greek theatre, a mute re- minder of the architectural skill of an epoch even more remote than the remains which we are about to visit on the continent to the south of the Mediterranean. The scenic stage of that temple of mirth is still there ; the chiselled seats are in the auditorium. Where the happy throngs 7 SANDS OF SAHARA of by-gone centuries sat in merriment and joy the traveller stands to-day, musing upon their disappearance. No vestige of human beings now remains ; only these ruins of human handiwork remind us of their past greatness. We also deserted its once brilliant proscenium ; and, passing through a narrow street between high walls, we came to an old wooden door with heavy bars, the entrance to a monastery. One of the monks, with whom we soon established friendly intercourse, accompanied us to the catacombs un- derneath the church, where are preserved the lifeless bodies of those of other days, — constant reminders of man's mortality. Through heavily vaulted archways, by massive stone steps, we reached the strange, silent, subterranean city. It has been the custom for centuries to place there, fully dressed in sacerdotal robes, the re- mains of the departed brethren of the monastery, and there they stand attached to the wall and beams, side by side in the order of their demise, on their shrunken forms the robes of priestly office, on their heads birettas or mitres, according to their earthly rank. But no scarlet birettas are seen, for the cardinals are laid in more im- posing sepulchres. Most of the remains of these brethren are dried up and mummified, ghastly 8 V SANDS OF SAHARA into the harbor, we are happily given a few moments in which to view Algiers from the sea, as it lies in its steep hills, the houses on the Kasba rising gradually one above another, so that almosfr every house has a view of the sea from either terrace or balcony. From their roofs, their windows, from gilded towers and minarets, the glistening rays of the declining sun come flash- ing back to us, — mute salutations and assurances of welcome. We have our pilot now ; in the foreground we see the quays thronged with moving men, watch- ing the steamer coming into port. The quays are built of massive stone, some thirty feet above the wharves where one lands from the ship, and the first great avenue along the front of the city, parallel to the sea, is reached by a series of high stone stairways. Behind this are other great stair- ways, rising far up through the mountain city, — Mustapha, and Mustapha Superieur, — with their throngs of human beings passing to and fro, mounting and descending the tortuous thorough- fares of this semi-tropical city. The muezzin's cry vibrates from minarets near and far as we approach the anchorage, and then the faithful, bowed upon their mats, pray to Allah, while from our hearts rise fervent gratitude to Him who SANDS OF SAHARA has brought us happily and in safety to this beau- tiful harbor. There is a proverb among the Kabylians, " Who hath not seen Kabylia hath not seen Algeria ;" so to Kabylia de Djurdjura we journey. But, as we pass through Algeria to Kabylia, the salt lakes, Batna, Biskra, and the desert of Sahara, we may profitably note some matters of interest in this border land, whose shores are lapped by the opalescent sea. Supposing, for the sake of convenience, that we have made our sea journey with friendly Moslems, — for otherwise we could not freely accomplish our intentions,- — we will repair at once to an Algerian mosque ; on the way we may take a glance at this land of perpetual sunshine. We follow our Moslem companions willingly, almost blindly, like sheep, so many strange sights meet the view, and in a maze of sight-seeing we pass through the busy world, which is, in the belief of the Mohammedan Arabs, a foretaste of Paradise. As a race these men are demonstrative in the expression of their happiness : many sing as they pass along the streets, as they weave, or dig, or work at their forges, or drive their camels along the ways. And often at the street corner, or leaning over the balustrade wall of the grand 12 SANDS OF SAHARA relics of a guild of devoted holy men who gave their lives to the service of their divine Master ; and they seem to have been denied even the repose of the grave, that they may thus be more ready to answer the final call. Beyond these catacombs are vast caverns, worn into the cliffs by the action of the sea, and near by, within the Latonia del Paradiso, an ancient quarry, is the cave known as " Dionysius's ear," so called from the tyrant of Syracuse under whose direction it is said to have been constructed. It has the shape of an immense human ear, and its acoustic properties are very great. Tradition says that Dionysius used it for a prison, and that, by virtue of its acoustics, he could hear in remote apartments the slightest word spoken by a prisoner. The man who exhibited and explained the cave to us took a sheet of letter-paper, and, standing within the portal of the ear, struck the edge of the paper with the forefinger of his right hand, — once, twice, thrice ; each light tap was repeated through the deep orifices of that stone ear as though it had been a blow with a heavy sledge-hammer on the roof of an iron house. He then rattled the paper slightly, and that feeble sound from the quivering paper was augmented a million-fold, 9 SANDS OF SAHARA reverberating through the vaults above and be- yond, like the crash and roll of thunder. He whistled, spoke, and called ; thousands of sten- torian voices repeated every sound. Turning to my companion, I said, " We must not longer tarry — Let us embark — Now we shall go to Kabylia — On our way to the desert of Sahara." Myriad lungs of stone caught up the last word of each phrase and answered aloud, "tarry — arry — embark — bark — Kabylia — bylia — Sahara — hara — ara — a — a." ALGERIA: ITS MOSQUES Leaving Syracuse, we continued our journey, taking steamer to Palermo and thence to the port of Algiers, which is one of those exceptionally beautiful ports in countries on both hemispheres, each inhabited by a distinct nationality and each possessing some quality peculiar to itself: the Golden Horn at Stamboul ; the citadel harbor of La Valetta at Malta ; Stockholm, thickly studded with islands ; Lisbon on the Tagus ; Rhodes in Asia Minor, where once the Colossus stood astride the entrance to the haven ; the Golden Gate of San Francisco ; and this port of Al- giers. Now, as our craft trembles in the returning surf, waiting for the pilot who is to take us safely SANDS OF SAHARA quay, may be seen those in whose countenances there is momentarily an exalted expression, an indescribable mien, which gives evidence that they are in converse with the prophet. Nor are these as Pharisees, making a public display of their devotions ; it is rather that a good Islamite is always devotional, even at his work. In fact, on observing closely, one may see at almost any hour of the day the wooden beads of a rosary slowly passing through the fingers of the devout, being counted by the thumb-nail. Other interesting sights claim our attention. In this land all is decorative : men on horseback are everywhere ; here comes a sheik in gay attire riding a richly caparisoned horse ; many of the cavaliers carry long guns across the pommel of their saddles, the stock and frame fairly loaded with arabesque designs in mosaic of ivory, bone, or brass, the barrel also enriched with ornamenta- tion, while the weapons of richer men are inlaid with beautiful metal-work resembling damaskeen- ing. Our time is limited, however, and we go to see what our Arab companions are about to do. Here is the quarter to which all men turn for their devotions, and the multitude hastens across the public square bathed in genial sunshine. Not appearing to observe those about us too closely, 13 SANDS OF SAHARA we enter the mosque of Djama el Kebir, the most ancient of Algiers, as is attested by a Cufic in- scription, which records that it was built in the 409th year of the Hegira, — i.e., 1018 A. D. At all hours of the day many are passing in or out of the Court of the Fountains, an important adjunct to every mosque, and here assembles a large congregation. Streams of water are flowing into reservoirs all around the court or room, for the apartment is covered. As a general rule, in the centre of the court is a large marble fountain, having six, eight, or twelve sides, on each of which is a monumental bronze faucet ; and from these faucets clear water flows at times into a large marble basin, on whose broad polished edge the faithful sit while washing their hands and arms to above the elbows, their faces and heads, their feet and legs to above the knees, performing their ablutions after the manner of their faith, preparatory to entering the holy court for prayers. The stone slab floor is very wet from the num- ber of worshippers passing continually from their ablutions to their devotions on the prayer-mats. Fortunately, they do not seem annoyed by our presence, so long as we do not display undue curiosity ; nor do they hesitate to perform their SANDS OF SAHARA devotions under our scrutiny. They appear, in- deed, to be perfectly willing that we observe their significant ceremonies. In connection with the ablutions, it is an inter- esting fact that Mahomet made a provision where- by his followers, when crossing a desert, may use sand to simulate washing, or may even use a stone, when through any circumstances they find themselves where there is not sufficient water or sand for ablutions. We Christians, or heretics as they consider us, are admitted into the Court of ihe Fountains just as we enter from the street ; but before we can go into the praying-court of the mosque, we must lay off our shoes, or put on special slippers pro- vided by the custodians ; for which accommoda- tion the payment of an established fee is re- quired. After their ablutions, fitted by that cleansing act, emblematic of spiritual purity, they dare to go into the presence of the prophet and of God. As they then, barefooted, enter the court of prayer, they seem to realize the sanctity of the place and its surroundings, which is indeed a house of prayer. Their veneration for Mahomet is so intense that they seem to wonder that the heaven of heavens can contain him ; they attend 15 SANDS OF SAHARA his house, pray and return to their vocations, for the sake of being with his fold on earth. They are earnest ; they are emotional ; were it possible, they would touch the hem of the prophet's robe. Five times daily does the muezzin send forth his shrill and sonorous call to the faithful : " Allahu Akbar— Allahu Akbar— Allahu Akbar— Ashhadu an la ilaha ill* Allah — Ashhadu ana Muhammeda rrasulu 'llah — Ashhadu ana Muhammeda rrasulu 'llah — heyya ala-ssalah — heyya ala-ssalah — heyya ala'l-falah — heyya ala'l-falah — Allahu Akbar — Allahu Akbar — la ilaha ill 'alah," and all who can go to the sanctuary do so. Their day is divided into two periods of twelve hours each, but the five periods of prayer do not correspond exactly to these divisions. The first period is Maghrib, a little after sunset ; the second is Asha, at nightfall, about one and a half hours after sunset ; the third, Subh, at daybreak ; the fourth, Duhr, at mid-day ; and the fifth, Asr, in the afternoon, about one and a half hours be- fore sunset. These periods of prayer also serve the people to mark the divisions of the day. If, for example, you engage an Arab for an early excursion on the morrow, he will assure you with, " Efifendi, I will come at Subh," — that is, he will be 16 SANDS OF SAHARA there at daybreak ; or if it is for the afternoon, he will say, " Effendi, I will come at Asr." THE MONASTERY OF STAOUELI So on the morrow at Subh the Arab, the horses, and the conveyance were promptly before the door. When one is where a glimpse at least of all that is interesting in a land should be seen, the rule of early rising is imperative and must be obeyed. Early rising with short hours of sleep enables us to repose during the hours of excessive heat, and thus to go greater distances and to en- joy better the itinerary of the day. Our destina- tion on this occasion was the Trappist monastery on the plain of Staoueli. For some kilometres we were uncertain which went most willingly, we or the horses ; for with the invigorating sea- breeze, tempered by the early morning air, the horses sped along, reaching out their nostrils and turning their heads in every direction, as though they, too, enjoyed each view. The Tchagra shrike and the dusky ixos, too, were already alert, singing as they stepped from twig to twig and mounted from branch to branch, as though from the highest tree-tops they also would take a retrospective view. The scene changed ; trees became less frequent, a 17 SANDS OF SAHARA though the species varied and added interest to our investigation of all that was beautiful. Al- ready at Pointe Pescade, when daybreak overtook us, the shadows of the old Moorish fort faded upon our road. The placid sea near which it stands gave back as from an undulatirfg mirror a picture of its brine-washed battlements, all gilded by the morning light. Each knoll, each rocky terrace, is studded with hamlet or villa. From all points of view, whence we looked back upon the glittering windows of the Arab city surmounted by Kasba and crowned by Mustapha Superieur, came the morning light ; for there, seated midst luxuriant trees, the white hostelries of the northern guests reflected the flashing rays of an Algerian sun. Then to Cape Caxines ; its light-tower, the Roman dolmens and quarries. Beyond Sidi- Feruch, a barren course on sterile sands served as a foil for the peaceful picture we soon enjoyed. The neighing of our horses, by this time am- bling in willing gait, announced that we were nearing our destination. Under the umbrageous branches of a group of low palm-trees by the road-side, while our horses rested, I recited to my companion an account of the origin and history of the order of the Trap- pists, of which in Italy I had already made an iS SANDS OF SAHARA especial study. A book of which I am the publisher has enabled me correctly to note many of the following facts. THE ORDER OF THE TRAPPISTS The order of the Trappists was founded in 1 1 40 by Rotrou, Count of Perch e, at Soligny in France. There it was known as La Trappe, so named from the fact that the original first monas- tery was erected at the narrow entrance of a gorge which was known as " the trap-door/' The fervor of the monastic orders of the middle of the twelfth century declined, and La Trappe formed no exception to the general decadency. The trouble was that secular ecclesiastics were empowered to hold monastic benefices, with neither residence in the cloister nor conformity to the rule of the society in which they thus ranked as heads. This wrought mischief; and though the Trappists endeavored to resist, their efforts were fruitless. After continuing under a series of these titular abbots, the estates of the abbey were impoverished, the buildings were suffered to fall into nearly total ruin, and for want of exem- plary leaders, and without the good example of pious rulers, the conduct of the monks became notoriously scandalous. 19 SANDS OF SAHARA Such was the condition of things when a re- former appeared in the person of Armand Jean Bouthillier de Ranee, born in Paris, January 9, 1626. His family was wealthy and titled, holding prominent positions in the courts of justice, the army, and the church. Showing, even as a child, evidences of considerable ability, he was placed under tutors of the highest accomplishments. He made remarkable progress, and was tonsured in 1635, when not quite ten years of age, and on the death of his elder brother, two years later, was at once made the possessor of the benefices which had been intended for the deceased. Thus, at a little over ten years of age he found himself to be Canon of Notre Dame de Paris and Abbot of La Trappe, to say nothing of priories and other high appointments. He was ordained deacon in 1648, and being in vigorous youth, well educated, and of refined and noble mien, he appeared indeed to have been made to govern. Though for a time he indulged in the dissipations of his day and class, he never failed to command the respect of those who had built their hopes on him. He was ordained priest in 1651. When examined in 1652 for his license as bachelor in theology, he was ahead of all his competitors, while the famous Bossuet SANDS OF SAHARA ranked third. In 1653 he lost his father, who bequeathed to him property which largely in- creased his already ample fortune. In 1654 he graduated as doctor of divinity, yet still he lived a life inconsistent with his sacred profession. The sudden death of the Duchess of Rohan- Montbazon (with whom he was intimate, and whose relations with him caused much unfavor- able comment) is said to have been the first great shock which began the career of change in his opinions of life and duty. The story which made known to his associates his conversion and his determination to live nearer to God is romantic. It was said that De Ranee arrived at the Duchess's house un- aware of her death, and went directly to her apartment without being warned by the servants, only to find her head lying apart from her body, having been cut off because the coffin was too short and there was no time to procure another. This terrible event certainly made a great im- pression upon him. But whether his conversion was due to it or not, the change in his habits was at least coincidental with the fatal end of Madame de Montbazon's career. The three years follow- ing her demise were largely spent in solitary studies or in visits to the monasteries of which 21 SANDS OF SAHARA he was chief. Then came the death of the Duke of Orleans, whose chief almoner he was, which appears to have caused his final decision. After making provision for family claims and retaining a comparatively small sum for the repair of the Abbey of Boulogne and the Monastery of La Trappe, he distributed the remainder of his prop- erty to the poor. He finally decided to enter the monastic life, and began his novitiate at the Cistercian Abbey of Perseigne, assuming on his profession in 1664 the actual headship of the Abbey of La Trappe, whose nominal abbot he had been for nearly thirty years. Though De Ranee judged some details of the original rule unsuited to his own day, he was so far from diminishing its general austerity that he added to the protracted fasts, the total abstinence from meat, fish, eggs, and wine, the laborious manual occupations, the hard beds, and the obli- gation of perpetual silence, save at prayers. These austerities, though cheerfully embraced by the monks of La Trappe and attracting enthusi- asts from without, were far from being approved generally ; but De Ranee, thinking it possible that an attempt might be made to mitigate the severities he had introduced, induced the monks of La SANDS OF SAHARA Trappe to renew their vows and to pledge them- selves against the admission of any relaxations. Advancing years and unremitting asceticism told even on the strong constitution of De Ranee, and eventually he found himself unable to take his share of the manual labors of the house or even to be present in chapter, so that in 1695 he felt obliged to resign the abbacy, procuring the nomination of the prior, Zosimus, to be his suc- cessor. Little success attended a number of ap- pointments until De Ranee had a sympathetic friend, Jacques de la Tour, nominated by the king. It was during the abbacy of De la Tour that De Ranee died, October, 1700, in his seventy- fifth year. Nothing remarkable concerning La Trappe has been recorded until the order was included in the general suppression of monastic fraternities during the French Revolution in 1 790. This mon- astery was compelled to close and the order emi- grated to Switzerland, although great efforts were made to save La Trappe from the provisions of the decree because of its high character. During several succeeding years the Trappists knew little rest ; they were suppressed, and driven from one country to another ; so that they planted many monasteries, only to find them con- 23 SANDS OF SAHARA fiscated as soon as they were comfortably estab- lished. They tried Spain, Germany, England, Switzerland, Italy, Canada, and even Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Iowa, until in 1843 tne French government granted to the Trappists twenty-five hundred acres of desert land on the plain of Staoueli, where they founded the establishment which we are about to visit and whose prosperity is so unprecedented. THE GARDENS AND INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS Monastic orders throughout Europe usually erect their asylums on rocks, eminences overlook- ing some valley, or at least on a site commanding a fine view ; but the Trappists, as though hoping to realize the promise in Isaiah xxxv. 1, — "The desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose," — have built their sanctuary and cloisters on this desert plain. To these in the half-century of their occupation they have added their store- houses, granaries, vintage-halls, flour-mills, cattle- stalls, and machine-shops. Beyond the monastery enclosure are their orchards, groves of date-palms, vineyards, and fields of rare roses, so that in very truth the prophecy has been more than literally fulfilled, and so diligently have the Trappists toiled and tilled this desert tract of Staoueli during 24 SANDS OF SAHARA half a century, that to-day the barren plain, once a stopping-place for vultures, has been supplanted by rich gardens and cultivated fields. Many nations now send here their weary, feeble ones to be refreshed. Thousands of strangers speed their way from the north each winter to taste the fruits and wine and milk and honey in these pasture-monuments of silent Trappists' toil, of which all who wish may come and partake freely and without price. The way to the monastery gate is by an avenue of shade-trees. There is a pretentious arched porte cochere, but we passed in through a less im- posing portal on the west of the main entrance. The custodian, accompanying us into a reception room, announced our arrival by pulling the bell- cord in the archway, so momentarily breaking the silence. We were soon ushered into the visitors' refectory, where we partook of a very generous and appetizing repast. As no meat is allowed within the monastery, the lunch consisted of several kinds of stewed vegetables, bread, fresh oranges from the cloister gardens, and excellent wine, both white and red, the vintage of which is now the principal industry of the monks. In fact, it is only in the monastery that one can enjoy the delicious flavor of this wine. Quantities of it are 25 SANDS OF SAHARA sold, but transportation, even to Algiers, robs it of its bouquet, its finest quality. Although the Trappists are pledged not to speak, except to remind one another each morn- ing, " Memento mori," the abbot is exempted from this rule, as are those appointed for the guidance and entertainment of visitors, with whom they may speak, and of course all the brethren may use their voices when at prayer, to which duty they now devote eight hours ; De Ranee ordered eleven. These are indeed hours of prayer- ful devotion to their divine Maker, the Creator of all things, the decorator of every little flower, the giver of all that we enjoy or need or know. No women are allowed to enter farther than the strangers' refectory ; but men may be conducted by one of the monks over the principal depart- ments of the domain, — to the repository of the cereals, the cattle, the horses, the wine-presses and vaults, and the stills where the brothers ex- tract the aromatic principle from the eucalyptus and manufacture a cordial similar to the liqueur made by the monks at the Grand Chartreuse in the mountains above Grenoble, France. They also extract a volatile resinous alcohol from the eucalyptus, the inhalation of which is wonderfully 26 SANDS OF SAHARA efficacious in the relief of the respiratory organs when oppressed. THE DORMITORIES AND REFECTORY The refectory and the dormitories are particu- larly interesting to those unaccustomed to self- denial, and who not only have enough, but who are satisfied with nothing less than dainties. The dormitories are rigidly plain, each monk having allotted to him a narrow cheerless cell, with a bench and bed. The refectory is equally unin- viting : narrow board tables, hard benches, the plainest table furniture, yet all scrupulously clean. They have learned that cleanliness is akin to godliness. A majority of Trappists in the muni- cipal councils of some great cities might tidy them up and improve their salubrity. Under a succession of abbots the rules have been changed, both in regard to the abstinence from certain aliments and the quality of the beds, which are generally of hard wood. De Ranee ordered that each monk should sleep on straw in his own coffin, and even commanded that every monk should spend part of each evening in digging his own grave. One could suppose that, should this function be diligently fulfilled, the graves might become caverns in the bowels, of the earth. 27 SANDS OF SAHARA There are numerous inscriptions on the walls, against the arches, and over the doors, such as " S'il est dur de vivre a La Trappe, Qu'il est doux d'y mourir," — ''Though it is hard to live at La Trappe, how sweet it is to die there !" This retreat of men practising asceticism roused in me reflections : involuntarily I spoke aloud as I stood there, separated only for a few days from all the luxuries of civilization, yet be- lieving in God, and hoping to come finally to His right hand without any fasting or works of super- erogation, but simply through the merits of Christ. And these reflections were strengthened when one of the Trappist guides, whom I had previously known at Trei Fontani, Rome, said to me, " I have always believed that I am securing the sal- vation of my soul by making this sacrifice, but when I hear you expressing such beautiful senti- ments of faith and trust in the mediation of Christ, the thought comes to me, * What shall be my lot, what my disappointment, if, after faithfully per- forming these works and this penance of holding no intercourse with my fellow-men, I should after all fall short of the prize and be forever lost ?' ' But whether or not we believe in the asceti- cism of the Trappists, one can truthfully and freely say that their refuge is a worthy enterprise, 28 SANDS OF SAHARA in that it contributes to both the spiritual and temporal nourishment of man. It is a house where God is honored. OSTRICH FARM Leaving the monastery, we journeyed to Zeralda, where a visit was made to the farm for the breed- ing and rearing of ostriches. Here we saw an undertaking which caters to fashion and which is altogether of this world, worldly. The prince of vanity smiles when he sees fair women bedecked with the feathers of this bird of the desert. Most commodities prepared for exportation are either for alimentation, for the necessary costume, or for the general comfort of the human race. This article of commerce, though such an important feature in a financial sense, may justly be termed a luxury. In fact, the only object in hunting and rearing these birds is to secure their beautiful feathers for decoration. The hunt is very exciting. When chased, the ostriches, about six or seven together, run in large circles, and the only way of overtaking them, on very fleet horses, is for a portion of their mounted pursuers to make a flank movement. Even then their long strides often enable them to outrun the fleetest horses. 29 SANDS OF SAHARA No detailed description of these farms will be given. In the cages and enclosures may be seen hundreds of ostriches, of all ages, — one day, a week, a month, and on up to maturity. Those of several years are kept to pluck as often as their renewed plumage warrants stripping them. The feathers of the ostrich are carefully laid, one on the other, in peppered packages. A pound of selected pure white plumes will command seven hundred and fifty francs ($150.00), while some very fine single feathers are worth about twenty- five francs ($5.00) each. Their eggs are often curiously engraved with talismanic decoration by the natives of the Fayum, Khartum, and the country adjacent to Abyssinia. Specimens of these engraved talismanic shells may be seen in my collection in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. THE SEASIDE CITY Our day was waning, and the horses willingly turned towards the hillside city, from the minarets of which, even before we entered, we were met by that melodious appeal, — the call to evening prayer. The muezzin's voice still penetrates even the inner courts, when with our Moslem companions we enter the court of prayer. Already more 30 SANDS OF SAHARA than a hundred earnest men are engaged at their devotions. Each new-comer moves noiselessly- through the assembled congregation until he selects a carpet or mat suited to his convenience. Visitors naturally remain standing ; their place is beneath an arch just within the inner court. While reciting portions of the Koran the devout worshipper, standing facing the east because Mecca is there, begins by placing his open hands to the lobes of his ears, then lets them fall below his waist at either side. Placing his hands on his knees, he inclines his head far forward, bending at the waist. Then falling upon his knees, keep- ing his hands in the same position, he sits for a few moments on his heels ; and lastly, extending his hands on the floor in front of him, he bows until his forehead rests upon the prayer-carpet or mat. His prayer in this posture is from the first surah of the Koran. It is called " el fatha" and corresponds somewhat to our Lord's Prayer : "In the name of God, the merciful and gracious. Praise be to God, the Lord of Creatures, the merciful and gracious, the Prince of the day of judgment. We serve Thee, and we pray to Thee for help. Lead us in the right way of those to whom Thou hast shown mercy, upon whom no wrath resteth and who go not astray." 31 SANDS OF SAHARA These earnest men bowed there, though sincere, are bigoted. They believe what their faith teaches them, — that they are certainly the elect. They seldom attempt to convert others to their faith because they are taught that at the foundation of the world the destiny of each soul was already determined. Now the prayer is finished and the men retire from the shrine. Their hearts thus comforted, they return to the outer courts, where assemble the gossipers, dealers in rosaries, — without crosses, — talismans, amulets of red, green, and yellow leather, containing portions of surahs of the Koran. A simple, straightforward purchase is seldom made. The transaction of buying and selling is always accomplished after considera- ble bargaining and diminution of demands, even within the sacred enclosure of the mosque. Then the Moslems put on their shoes and wait while we remain to view the interior of the mosque. The most prominent object before us, at the extreme eastern wall, is the mimbar, a tall pulpit in the form of a narrow tower reached by a very steep stairway. It is for the Imam, the priest of the daily prayers. The painted decora- tions of the wall are unique, consisting of ara- besques of interlaced, broad, flat lines. Some of 32 SANDS OF SAHARA them resemble Oriental carpet designs, a species of ornamentation peculiar to the sanctuaries of the prophet. They are names of their four principal Moslem archangels, — Asrayl, Jebrayl, Israfyl, and Mikayl, — and pious ascriptions : " God is unique ; He is the God eternal ; He has not had offspring, nor was He created, nor is there any one equal to Him." Among the most interesting and valuable pos- sessions of the mosques are their manuscript copies of the Koran. These manuscripts are hand- somely and richly illuminated, that in Djama el Djedid being superbly decorated. Of an afternoon one sees a Hezzabin seated cross-legged on a mat in a corner of the mosque with a score or more of the faithful sitting about him in the form of three sides of a hollow square, listening to his reading of the Koran, while on rugs in another corner, on the floor, are as many more learning the interpretation of the law from a Mufti. Mosques in all Mohammedan countries have certain similar features. The general plan is that of a vast parallelogram, the architecture is that of a people accustomed to live out of doors ; of a people who as Islamites were nomadic, and who, even now, when journeying, often carry their 3 33 SANDS OF SAHARA prayer-mats with them ; so that they can, and do, find their temples in the desert or wherever they may wander. It is very natural, therefore, that the interiors of most of such edifices are not ornate, though at certain times at night the effect of many lamps and lanterns hanging from chains is very fine. From the outside they are very beautiful, in the picturesqueness of their minaret, dome, and twisted column. From the centre rises the larger cupola or dome, while from the corners apertures in other domes add to the dim religious light which pervades the interior. There is a quality of grandeur peculiar to the shrines where Islam lifts up its heart to God. At noontide there, as though enticed by the impres- sive silence, the sun's golden rays, mellowed by blending with the hazy atmosphere of the sacred precinct, cast down those kindly beams of light symbolic of the divine presence and in recognition of the pious aspirations and earnest prayers there ascending through the prophet to God. THE GORGE OF CHIFFA: ITS MONKEYS Now, having fully observed this congregation and its place of worship, we left it, to visit on the morrow a country scene, greatly in contrast with what had there engaged our attention. 34 SANDS OF SAHARA The horses were neighing and snorting as, leav- ing the cultivated fields, the way became more and more confined by rocks and trees on either side. The air was fresher, cooler. The ascent, though gradual, was marked, and soon the Gorge of Chiffa was reached. In tropical climates or in countries bordering on the parching sands one can fully appreciate the shade and freshness of a wood-protected way. The morning air was redolent with the odors given out by plants and flowers fully, matured by an African sun. It was a privilege to be that day in the Gorge of Chiffa. We stood spell-bound in the grandest of sanctuaries. There were no stone walls, no spire, no organ. The monarchs of the forest with their lofty branches canopied this natural shrine ; the windows were the vast expanse of the heavens ; the light coming within to cheer the worshippers was softened by the intervening foliage. And within this sanctuary all things living in the forest found expression for their adoration. The assemblage was of the strangest. Looking up into the galleries of that superb forest temple we beheld a congregation of monkeys joining with all nature in rendering praise to the divine Giver of all good things. The interest in their services was heightened by 35 SANDS OF SAHARA the music of their choir, in which the choristers were the birds of the forest, whose songs charmed all ears and awakened emotions in the souls of those who, though strangers, now joined in the general anthem of praise. How dignified they were in their assembly ! The broad outreaching branches of those virgin trees were the temple seats ; the monkeys sat in rows in parties of two, three, or four together, with occasionally a single fellow sitting all alone, a bachelor perhaps. While most of them sat decorously, evidently in worship, there were cer- tain patriarchal monkeys that passed from one part of the area occupied by the assembly and who sat down for a few minutes on the branches beside the different families of the parish, and seemed to give them counsel or good advice. Some of these visits appeared to be of condolence and sympathy, for the old fellows evidently were trying to administer consolation to those who had never married. The ceremonies were conducted with the great- est propriety. The monkeys not only sat there sedately, but seemed to be taking part in a ser- vice in which they were deeply interested. There were certain important, serious-looking fellows who appeared to exhort, and who certainly 36 SANDS OF SAHARA addressed the multitude. One beautiful feature was that no contribution was demanded for the support of other communities of their race on distant islands, nor did they recommend sending any one to look after the monkeys of other climes ; they seemed satisfied to remain in the Gorge of Chiffa, realizing that their most important duty was to be kind to one another. As they were about to close and go out into the world the ruling elders could clearly be seen run- ing about, passing from tree to tree, the branches being interlaced ; nor did the assembly break up until those evidently respected officials had visited and saluted the entire convocation. Even when they left, their departure was not made hastily, but most decorously. With one consent they seemed to say, "We go to gather the food pro- vided for us." After that serious council had adjourned it was fun to see the monkeys enjoying themselves, scampering from tree to tree and swinging from branch to branch, some hanging by their tails, others in little coteries hand in hand enjoying their mid-air frolic ; but the old bachelor did not clasp hands with anybody. He was more to be pitied than those maidens who had never contem- plated matrimony ; they at least had that pleasure 37 SANDS OF SAHARA in anticipation. But he, that celibate, was es- tranged from the world ; he had left hope forever behind him. Though only a monkey, he should be a warning to all men who wish to do the right thing. The custodian of a neighboring subterranean grotto who had shown us its stalactites and stalagmites, after coming out of the cavern ex- pressed himself earnestly on the wonderful cere- mony of the monkeys, stating that, although he was a native of that gorge, he thought it an ex- ceptional occurrence. He had often seen them thus assembled, though rarely had he observed them perform so thoroughly exercises so appar- ently devotional. Carrying with us a vivid and lasting memory of this curious lesson of brotherly love in the forest, we rode back and re-entered the great Oriental city. MOORISH HOUSES AND BAZAARS IN THE ORIENTAL CITY Here we see ancient Moorish houses, — palaces indeed, — with their chiselled iron gates, their carved doors, their artistic knockers, finely carved banisters, twisted marble columns and arches, porticos, and curiously decorated tiles. In the thoroughfares we encounter men of many 38 SANDS OF SAHARA nations and of diverse complexions, red, brown, white and black, of all ranks and conditions, of whom the poor seem the merriest : many sing, while others beat the tam-tam. Here, too, are dealers in everything that pertains to the gaudy costumes of this picturesque people ; and here are the sellers of sweet pastes and candied fruits. The air vibrates with their mercantile cries, and is heavy with the odor of parching coffee and the smoke of chibouques and nargilehs. Among that merry throng pass those that are blind, some of them young, yet contented with their lot, for through their affliction they are exonerated from military duty. Nor need they ask for charity, for here all men are sympathetic. The blind do not want ; they sit at the doors of the Moorish cafes, enjoying their frugal fare ; they listen to the tam- tam, and dream. Behold a picture of content- ment ! Above the bazaars, fountains, and endless street scenes in the lower city is an almost inter- minable stone stairway leading by a circuitous way to the upper town. We lost count of these steps as we climbed ; the figures crowded each other from memory and still we climbed, realizing by experience how the houses do really mount one above the other during that climb from Djama el 39 SANDS OF SAHARA Djedid on the government square to the Mosque of Side aba el Rohmen el Talebi, by the way of the Marche de la Lyre and the Kasba, the old citadel and palace of the Deys of Algiers. We reached our destination at last, and the memory of the struggle quickly faded into oblivion, leaving only the thought of the pleasure gained. May it be so with all who make this ascent ! THE ALGERIAN GARDEN At the Gorge of Chiffa we admired the forest trees on whose branches the monkeys sat ; some miles to the north near the sea-coast in the sub- urbs of the principal city is a municipal garden where one can see specimens of many of the rarest trees of tropical or semi-tropical countries. Many of these unique plants and trees may perhaps be more interesting to some minds than the gaudy attire of the people of the desert. The avenues are shaded by palm-trees from Africa, Java, India, and Japan ; and throughout the garden may be seen fine specimens of mag- nolias, plane-trees, Madagascar cypresses, eu- calypti, bananas, dates, india-rubber trees, the dwarf and larger white cocoa-trees, etc. The india-rubber trees have grown so luxuri- antly that those shoots which hang down from 40 Jardin d'Essai, near Algiers. SANDS OF SAHARA the branches until they reach the ground have taken root and multiplied, — actually threatening to bar the carriage-way like the banyan-trees in India, Burmah, and Siam. The bamboos are especially beautiful. The trunks of these reeds grow in long tubular sections or joints from two to five inches in diameter, but do not equal in size or vigor those of India and Burmah. The Madagascar ravenala has the peculiarity of always guarding a supply of water at its base. This precious tree is of inestimable value in hot countries, and when punctured or tapped with a knife, frequently serves as a source or spring of water from which man may slake his thirst. There is in some desert regions of Syria a species of thistle with thick stalk, which performs much the same function as the ravenala. One of the Persian servants attached to my private caravan, on passing through this portion of Syria, when no source of water was to be found, would occasionally step aside and cut a stalk of this plant. The flower having been removed and the stalk being stripped, it was found to be an agree- able substitute for a refreshing, cooling draught. True it is that each land has the vegetation best adapted to its climate and best suited to its needs : 41 SANDS OF SAHARA cooling fruits in the tropical zone ; in colder lati- tudes cereals that warm the blood. Those who are gourmets of fruits may imagine the delight of plucking bananas, cocoanuts, mandarins, etc., fresh from the trees just at the moment they are ripe and luscious with perfect juice. We returned again to the city, where, from the terrace of a hotel on the brow of the heights of Mustapha Superieur, we enjoyed a restful view of the harbor far beneath us. Ships were arriving and departing ; lesser craft were passing to and fro ; and over each object on the curving coast the twilight cast a many-tinted sheen. The day- light fades ; the ships lie quiet at their anchorage and neither come nor go ; those who go in them down to the sea rest from their labors. So we leave the view, and go to record the incidents of the day, and to dream of this wonderland. Then to rest, for to-morrow we start for Kabylia. KABYLIA The next morning found us again en route, leaving the denizens of the Moorish hillside city to indulge in a little more folding together of the arms. The sea-breeze whistled through the long, sharp 42 SANDS OF SAHARA leaves of the royal palms. The upper branches of the higher trees already caught the dawning rays of generous sunlight. The chaffinch and the blue titmouse with one accord gave forth the matinal oratorio of their tuneful species. The bamboos, refreshed by the moisture of an Alge- rian night, waved their dew-laden branches as we registered the second kilometre of our way. Acres of oranges gilded Oued Smar, lemon groves embossed Rouiba, and blossomless fig-trees al- ready laden with fruit tempted us to stop and taste at Reghaia, while at either side, at Alma and Corso, almonds in bloom delighted our eyes. The direction of the route was well defined by the plane-trees that skirt the road to Menerville. In every direction, hedging every lane and by-way, were the peculiar sanitary trees of the Eucalyptus family. These trees were umbrella-shaped, and loaded with flowers of deep saffron-colored droop- ing leaves with dark garnet-hued petals, forming a button in the centre. Our way for many kilometres beyond Blod Guitoun passed through farm lands and villages, until beyond Camp Marechal the road was sur- rounded in all directions by snow-clad mountains and peaks, rising from the plain, one behind and above the other. Dark forest clumps in places 43 SANDS OF SAHARA stood boldly out against their white bases, height- ening their picturesqueness. At a greater eleva- tion were glaciers and fields of snow, which seemed to the eye to roll off into obscure gorges, leading back into still wilder and more mysterious chasms. Imagine those dazzling sunlit snow-towers, and you have a picture of the white battlements and the icy gate- ways of Kabylia, — Kabylia in Africa, whose December ripens fruits that would perish under a temperate summer sun. Over well-tilled fields and hills studded with grazing cattle, where by primitive ploughs and intense human toil deep furrows are turned, we passed to reach the higher mountain range, mount- ing plateaus and ridges. TIZI OUZOU Finally, after passing through a great valley, we found ourselves at Tizi Ouzou, where we sat down to eat the fruits and drink the wine of the country. And here we spent the night, knowing that in such a country as Kabylia there are times when to find any resting-place at all is good fortune. So we gratefully accepted such poor accommodations as were to be had, and appreciated greatly what rest we found. When we were ready to retire for the night we were conducted across the stable- 44 SANDS OF SAHARA yard and up an almost perpendicular outside stairway to our apartment in an annex above the quarters of camels, horses, and goats. Calling to aid our ingenuity, we proceeded to arrange the room by spreading newspapers about the floor, and thus improvised substitutes for hooks on which to place our clothes and articles of toilet, all of which objects were literally hung up upon the floor. A dozen gimlets are recommended as part of the equipment of any one going to Kabylia. MOUNT BELLOUA The following day, after a breakfast consisting chiefly of dates, figs, bread, and wine, we started out on saddled burros (donkeys), accompanied by a guide and two boy drivers, to make the ascent of Mount Belloua. The fertile plain between Tizi Ouzou and the mountain was quickly passed ; the ascent soon seemed almost impossible, so narrow, crooked, and rugged was the way, much of it up the winding course of a mountain rivulet, the overflow from the most important of the many springs. This water was crossed and recrossed until the ascent became very steep. One meets many picturesque girls — water- carriers — going to and returning from the fountains in the precipitous stone walls of the mountain. 45 SANDS OF SAHARA These sources of water are in alcoves forming deep recesses whose natural vaulted entrances are draped with dark juicy-stemmed vines, with green and succulent leaves and flowers always fair and fragrant. The sideways leading to the fountains are walled up with loose stones ; in the crevices are the dwelling-places of various little animals ; sprightly lizards, running and climb- ing from stone to stone, in occasional rays of sunlight display the changing tints of their coats of emerald, sapphire, jacinth, and maculation of saffron. A throng of girls en route for the fountains passed on the road. They were perfectly dignified and modest in their demeanor, yet coy and be- witching in their gestures, casting sly glances at our sober physiognomies and plainer costumes, as they stood at the fountains, filling their amphorae with water. We were conscious that it was our dress which excited their curiosity, for never a man in any of their tribes is so plainly clothed as we were ; no matter how poor or worn or soiled their attire, the men of Kabylia are always picturesque in their loose garments. As there are always many of these girls at the fountain, they aid each other to place on their backs the amphorae, which are carried by a very 4 6 Female Water-Carriei SANDS OF SAHARA ingenious device : a long scarf is thrown from behind the neck over the shoulders and crossed over the breast, thence it is passed down and around to the back of the waist, where a tie is so made that it forms a socket into which the oval cone point of the amphora is placed, while the handle or the neck of the vase is held back of the neck alternately by the right or left hand, changing as either arm is fatigued. Occasional villages, or groups of twelve, fifteen, or twenty-odd huts, rudely built of stone, in a measure barricaded the already difficult route ; yet we clambered onward and upward, the animals frequently passing over the very threshold stones of habitations, from which the amiable tenants would recede without anger, inspecting us curi- ously, and always — as is the custom of the country — giving a smiling welcome to the passing stranger. Their too numerous dogs, more de- monstrative and assiduous in their attentions, occasionally placed us in embarrassing and pre- carious situations as they almost ran beneath the donkeys' feet, seeking to escort us on our way in a path where there really was not room for donkeys, guides, drivers, and dogs ; in fact, so closely did they keep in the path that our guides were compelled to signify to them forcibly our 47 SANDS OF SAHARA entire willingness to dispense with their com- pany. Often, when really ascending, the rugged way was interrupted by little ravines cut by the spring water, into which the animals would descend ; their heads would go down, pulling the bridle into a direct line towards the centre of the earth, while the rider's legs and feet assumed a similar direc- tion in front of the donkey's ears, his head and the animal's tail pointing skyward. To remain tranquilly on a donkey's back while his nostrils are turned to the bowels of the earth and his heels to the zenith requires some power as an equilibrist, but such experiences enable one the better to keep his balance on less trying occasions. A BELLOUAN FUNERAL On reaching the summit the fatiguing journey was rewarded by an opportunity to witness on the mountain-top the curious ceremony of Mahom- etan prayers for the dead. Two score of mourn- ing friends, after patiently climbing, had just ar- rived at the sacred summit of Belloua with the remains of a brother whose soul had gone to the prophet. With tenderness they laid his lifeless form before the Marabout, — or reputed lineal descendant of a saint, — whom the authorities have 4 8 SANDS OF SAHARA set apart and ordained to perform this touching office. The Marabout prayed with them, and told them in consoling words, " The spirit of our brother hath quitted this earthly frame ; that which remains to us is but the forsaken, ruined tenement, which, ere it shall come again to Mahomet, shall resolve itself into dust and ashes. ' Ashhadu an la ilaha ill' Allah,' " etc. — " There is but one God, and Mahomet is His prophet." "To him he hath gone, which is far better. How great is God's mercy in having given us Mahomet to bring us nearer to Him ! Let us not forget Him. 1 Allah il illahu ashhadu ana Muhammeda rrasulu 'llah,'" etc. Each of those assembled inclined his head, and then his body, to the earth several times in the direction of the holy councillor, or Marabout, and to the Orient where Mecca is. They then pressed their closed hands alternately to their lips and to their foreheads, exchanging grips or conventional pressures of the hand. After lingering a reason- able time on the sacred spot, speaking with one an- other of the departed one and his virtues, at a given signal they moved in quiet groups a short distance to a ledge of rocks on the same Belloua summit, where others of their community were performing 4 49 SANDS OF SAHARA the functions delegated to them. On heavy wooden cross-beams they had hung up two large bullocks, which they were cutting into pieces to be shared equally with those who had attended the solemn rites just described. For in that village it is the custom for every man during life to make provision so that the meat of one or more sheep, or calves, or bullocks, according to his fortune, shall be cut up and distributed on that moun- tain-top, share and share alike, to those who attend his funeral. KABYLIAN SCENERY We now turned from the motley throng of picturesque Kabylians to observe the grandeur of the wild natural scenery on this pinnacle in the Atlas Mountains. It was powerfully impressive. Whichever way one turned the view was suddenly obscured by almost impenetrable walls of fog. The mist all about hung upon the gnarled trees, which there reach out their wind-shaken branches to within this Kabylian shrine ; and drops of moisture like tears fell from the withered twigs and leaves of the cork-trees, as though their sympathy prompted them thus to sprinkle the rest- ing-place of the departed. In every direction a turbulent sea of clouds was being driven from 50 ¥ SANDS OF SAHARA crag to crag past our stand-point by alternating gusts of wind, with occasional moments of calm. Long swelling waves of fog rushed onward to Tamghout Lalla Khadidja. To south and east, billows of mist bathed the rocks of our foothold. The lofty hills to the north occasionally showed themselves, evincing no compunction for obstruct- ing our view of Bougie and Setif; on our left was the village of Dra-el-Mizan, playing hide- and-seek among the clouds. On the precipices across the gorge to the west splashed masses of cloud in giant form ; but at moments during the lull of the driving wind, or on account of the suddenly changing direction of the masses of moisture, they were rent asunder, when kind nature treated us to most charming views of rocky heights, sunlit slopes, dark chasms, verdant valleys, hillside hamlets, groves of cork- trees, and streams of water plashing and falling among the hills. And softly, through the rifts in the clouds that obscured the hearing as well as the sight, came to our ears sounds of water gurgling from running brooks, the tinkling of bells in the herds of goats, and the melodious call from the minarets, harmonizing with the fleeting view and with the atmosphere of this last resting-place of man. 5i SANDS OF SAHARA It would be incorrect to say that the panorama unrolled before us. Rather the vast veil was rent here and there, ever in a new direction, ever giving unlooked-for glimpses of nature, grandly severe, and of scenes gilded by the sunlight. But the views — ephemeral like life itself, alas ! — too soon vanished, though always to dissolve and blend into some other and newer beauty. And so, bit by bit, we peeped at Tamghout Lalla Khadidja in the Djurdjura range, the Col des Beni-Aicha, and many of the rounder knobs of the Atlas Moun- tains. Far beyond, in the extreme northwest, a city by the sea appeared ever and anon in vague glimpses ; and from its sunlit towers and minarets, in answer to our glances, seemed to come back the assurance, "There is but one God, and Mahomet is His prophet." Now that city, Algiers, in which we had occasionally lived for a short time, seemed like home to us as we caught hasty glimpses of its sun-gilded turrets, so much is the idea of home modified in the heart of the cosmopolite. EVENING AT THE VILLAGE MOSQUE Thus myriad objects met our vision and vanished, but of all this wondrous sight we scarce had taken our fill when the guide suggested that 52 SANDS OF SAHARA as night was coming apace it might be well to repair to scenes more congenial to that organ whose replenishment comforts the hungry, nour- ishes the soul and body, restores life, and fits man again to go abroad where he may anew study the wonders of the wide, wide world and the tribes that dwell therein. We descended in the evening without joining in the funeral feast, although in Kabylia all who assist by their presence at the last obsequies are entitled to partake. At twilight again came the cry of the muez- zin from the minaret of the mosque of Tizi Ouzou : " Allahu Akbar— Ashhadu an la ilaha ill* Allah— Ashhadu ana Muhammeda rrasulu 'llah" — " Oh, come ye, oh, come ye to the house of prayer, for the prophet hath declared it to be the gate of Paradise." As the guide wished to attend to his devotions before starting to-morrow on our intended journey to the interior of Kabylia, we availed ourselves of the opportunity, and, followed by a score of the fellahin and ragamuffins of the village, who proved more officious than the dogs on the ascent of Belloua, went with him to the outskirts of the village, where, on a natural terrace at the base of the mountain, was a little mosque, unpretentious, in keeping with the condition of the people. Its 53 SANDS OF SAHARA fountain-court was supplied by a brook from the mountain, whose rocks returned an echo of the muezzin's voice. Generally, the Moslems engage so devoutly in their prayers that they seem to see no one coming near them ; on this occa- sion quite a number of those assembled were re- clining on their straw mats looking listlessly around, until they saw strangers approaching, when they suddenly changed their attitudes and performed more earnestly their genuflections. This listlessness was in marked contrast to the general devout demeanor of the sons of Islam, whose faithful performance of their daily religious duties is worthy of all emulation, and sets an example to many Christians. . RAMADAN Dinner was now ready for the guests ; it was the season of Ramadan, — that is, the ninth month of the Mohammedan year, when the faith- ful Islamite neither eats, drinks, nor smokes from sunrise until sunset. It is said that there are Mos- lems so devout that they would even conscien- tiously extend the period of fasting, if it were possible. Some seem to endure the sacrifice without visible suffering, but men of nervous temperament evince great exhaustion. Scores 54 SANDS OF SAHARA oi fasters sit on the ground with cups of water all ready beside them and cigarettes rolled ready to light, awaiting the evening gun that announces the sunset. Almost before the report of the cannon has died away the fasters have drunk the water ; the more inveterate smokers, not waiting to quench their thirst, first light their cigarettes, even before the smoke of the cannon has blown over their heads. Though they fast strictly, they are hardly consistent, for from sunset until the break of day they eat, drink, and smoke, often to excess. The appearance of the new moon announces the commencement of the fast, and the eve of the twenty-seventh day is most revered because it commemorates the night on which it is believed that the Koran came down to Mahomet. There was nothing of Ramadan about the entertainment prepared for us that evening by our French hostess ; fond recollections of that meal cling to us yet. Nor should the timid, stut- tering, amiable fellow who served the repast at that auberge be forgotten. He was a treasure, that waiter, though an ungainly treasure ; few gems are without flaws, and this one, with all his imperfections, was still a treasure of char- acter. 55 SANDS OF SAHARA A GLIMPSE AT THE KABYLIANS AND THEIR COUNTRY After dinner, the landlord, who was very atten- tive, showed me the premises, including the accom- modation for the caravans, and then in the smoking divan, the best room in the house, introduced a French resident of Kabylia, with whom I had hours of interesting conversation, which added much to my information concerning Kabylia. The section of Northern Africa east of Morocco, formerly ancient Numidia, Massinissa, Massyli, Kabylia, and part of the Mauritanian Kingdoms, during the last six or seven centuries has been the scene of many struggles and conquests. Moors, Spaniards, Turks, and Sardinians in turn con- quered it, and derived tribute from it; in 1830 the French acquired the northern district. The Kabylians are descended from the people of the territory mentioned above. They are Mohammedans, that religion having been in- stilled by their Arab conquerors in the seventh century. The Arabs called them Berbers, mean- ing a people whose language no other men could understand, and even to-day, though they all speak and worship in the Arab tongue, the Kaby- lians are so exclusive that they employ idiomatic conventional phrases when Arabs or other 56 SANDS OF SAHARA strangers are among them, from whom they wish to conceal what they are saying. Throughout the length and breadth of the mountain fastnesses of Kabylia these provincialisms are local, so that, although a stranger knowing the Arab language can always make known his wants and can traffic with them, to understand their language thoroughly is almost impossible. Though in external appearance — in their features and costumes, and to some extent in their mode of living — the Kabylians resemble the Algerian Arabs, they are really a distinct race and are unquestionably a peculiar people. It should be remembered that these people have been, and are still being, subjugated by the French, certainly much to the benefit and civiliza- tion of the Kabylians. The French wisely allow the adults to follow their vocations in the primitive way, but they are fitting the boys to be useful men. The girls as much as possible are taught and in- fluenced by kind, untiring Sisters of Charity. OFF TO SOUK-EL-ARBA The hours passed quickly that evening ; yet night, and with it rest after the fatigues of the day, was welcome. But all too early in the morning we were roused by a furious thunder- 57 SANDS OF SAHARA storm in the mountains that encircle Tizi Ouzou, — nature's own pyrotechnic display, with her own cannonading, as a good set-off to market-day or the fair at Souk-el-Arba, whither we were bound. Thunder piled upon thunder, peal upon peal, crashing as the electric explosion on one precipice was reverberated by the deeply fissured rocks of the many mountain-sides, until each in turn re- peated its awful assurance of an Infinite Majesty. And it did rain ! It seemed as though the clouds had said, " Let us convince visiting humanity that we have water, too, in Kabylia." And they convinced us, amply ; for such torrents came down that the large drops, uniting and striking the flood of water on the ground, rebounded vertically, forming shafts of water. My companion remarked that we had had abundance of water ; my impres- sion still is that we had a surfeit of it. But nature eventually seemed satisfied ; the volleys subsided, and quiet came again with the gray morning light. It was hardly necessary for our stuttering friend to knock upon the door and say, " C-c-c'est c-c-c-cin-cinque heures, m-m-m'sieur," for we were thoroughly awake. Leaving as sou- venirs for the natives the newspapers on which we had spread our clothes and toilet articles, we descended the ladder, to breakfast by candle-light. 58 SANDS OF SAHARA Then, with renewed kind wishes from our hosts, we started for Souk-el-Arba. After driving through the village, we soon came to the Sebaou River, where we had cause to re- joice that the government had completed the two iron bridges, for the torrential rain of the night before had caused the river to overflow its banks. The bridges shortened the distance by six miles ; before they were constructed an even longer detour was often needed in passing the swollen Sebaou. But, as in all undulating sandy countries, the water soon ran off that morning and the roads were in good condition ; in fact, cleaned up for the journey. One who has made many such expeditions discovers the different dispositions of both men and horses. When we were making a day's ex- cursion to Staoueli, for instance, the horses went willingly ; they were not driven, there was no whip, they simply wanted to go, and go they did. This morning all the go-ahead was in the driver. He was a terror to the horses ; the three faithful beasts quivered beneath the stinging lashes of his ready whip, and leaped forward as though sired by Pegasus. Yet after he had the horses well under way his tongue went more merrily than his whip-lash, so that by noon he had rattled off a 59 SANDS OF SAHARA mixture of Arabic and French, giving a history of much that was interesting concerning the entire route ; and the more animated he became with his story the better the horses fared, and by the time we took our relay at the village of Taza he became so engrossed in relating the folk-lore of the country that he let the horses do as they liked. The road over which we travelled mounted rapidly, the grade continuing for seventeen miles, at times over high rocks, often beside deep ravines, and we had constant views of snow-clad mountains interspersed with dark gorges. Nor was this the only interest, for the ethnological phase of our journey was fascinating. We encountered people of every rank in Kabylian life : the scale of society cannot be very varied or extensive. There are the very poor, the poor, the rich poor, the poor rich, and a few said to be rich. The repre- sentative of the class last named will possess two or three costumes, silver-mounted spurs with curb chains, an inlaid pipe, a Damascus blade, and three wives, — these last being enough to impoverish any man. Only sheiks, army officers, and those in author- ity are gorgeously arrayed, the multitude being clad in the ordinary bernouse, usually woven of a common wool, though the more fortunate possess 60 SANDS OF SAHARA those of fine white wool, which when clean are beautiful. This loose garment is supposed to be similar to those worn by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob in ancient Syria. It has a hood which drapes the head, being bound thereon by a coarse cord of brown camel's hair ; it hangs from the shoulders in graceful plaits to the ankles, while the folds that cover the breast are sometimes caught in at the waist by a band varying in quality according to the taste or fortune of the wearer. The costume of the women resembles that of Algerian women, except that the greater freedom accorded to Kabylian females is evident from the absence of those black, or white, appendages which mask the faces of the Arab women in other parts of the North and East. The Kabylian women do not cover their faces with gauze. They regard us curiously, but modestly and calmly ; nor do they feel ashamed if we return their gaze of inspec- tion. The children also manifest much curiosity, peeping out from behind all imaginable hiding- places. We passed through the village of Tamazirt, which is interesting with its school of industrial arts and trades, where the Kabylian boys are being trained to work in iron, steel, and brass in the shops generously erected by the government. 61 SANDS OF SAHARA The boys are apt at the work and many have already become skilled mechanics. As we slowly ascended a section of the road, cut in the rocks, we overtook some eight or nine young girls, of from sixteen to eighteen years of age, who had just filled their water amphorae at a spring in a fissure among the rocks. They had left the grotto and were walking leisurely, bending forward with the weight of their burdens, until they saw our wagon, when — being evidently less accustomed to see strangers than were those in the villages below — they immediately scampered up the rocky path leading to the ledge on which their village was perched. They were so anx- ious to get out of the way that, though they were laden with the amphorae, they sprang so nimbly from point to point that the water splashed out on their backs. As soon as they reached the first mud walls of their hamlet, about forty feet above, they stopped short and, hiding them- selves partially behind low barricades, looked down upon us inquiringly, laughing merrily. From where we were we could hear their voices as they made remarks to one another about our appearance. Many of the black children came lower down the rocks and fearlessly scanned the pale complexions, while older heads, men and 62 SANDS OF SAHARA women, stood under a clump of cork-trees looking at the passing strangers. These trees are worthy of notice as being of great commercial importance. After the tree has reached maturity (fifteen or sixteen years of age) the natives begin to remove the bark, which of not of the best quality, however, until the tree has attained its twentieth year. After that the bark is removed in July and August once every ten years, the trees surviving the operation for about a century. The bark of the first and second harvests is burned to supply its fine black color to that branch of industry which produces material for staining or painting wood. The trees are not ruthlessly stripped, the bark being taken off in sections. The bark of several trees in Kabylia is impor- tant for tanning skins of animals, but that from the cork-tree is commercially the most valuable. This bark is used in corking the wines of North- ern Africa. In response to a demand for wines suited to all tastes and adapted to every climate, the production during the last fifty years has become so enormous that millions of corks are needed for the trade. Farther on, we passed the village of Azouza, on the greensward about which were primitive $3 SANDS OF SAHARA shepherds, some sleeping resignedly while their dogs attended to the herds of goats and sheep, others consoling themselves and the goats with plaintive strains upon their double reed-pipes. Still ascending precipitously, we passed many pedestrians both ascending and descending, evi- dently intent upon some central attraction, and, finally, having reached the top of another steep hill, we saw before us the wonderful living pano- rama of the market of Souk-el-Arba. SOUK-EL-ARBA Just outside the town, now called " Fort Na- tional," which is surrounded by a wall fourteen feet high, nature has made within the hills a de- pression of irregular elliptical form, as though that amphitheatre had been especially created for the fair whose meetings are held on its hill-sides, which are shaded by friendly trees. The de- clivities are modified by ledges or terraces which not only break the descent, but serve as good stands for the booths and stalls. We hastened to join the heterogeneous throng, multiform in its types of humanity, motley in its masses of unique costume, and busy, in that every man has something to do, either in seeking the profits of trade, or perhaps only in standing by and watch- 6 4 SANDS OF SAHARA ing the dickering between buyer and seller, oc- casionally sliding in some suggestions. Under open tents with gray and brown stripes, or sheets of coarse camel' s-hair cloth, several arti- sans display the Kabylian jewelry, always in silver : head-dresses, forehead pieces, necklaces, ear- and finger-rings, pins similar to Roman fibulae, compli- cated breastplates, arm-bands, bracelets, spoons, and knives, all inlaid, enamelled, or decorated with pieces of coral. The blades and handles of the knives are inlaid with ornamentation in fine lines of brass ; this work is unique and so en- tirely unlike that of any other people that it forms an interesting contrast when compared with the productions of more civilized nations. Some of the tribes make very curious bronze and silver jugs, with grotesque animal decorations, to which is generally added in raised letters some quotation from the Koran. Scattered about are gray-green olive-trees, whose branches have given shelter in centuries gone by to other generations of traders ; many of these olive-trees are seven hundred years old. Some of them now give their umbrage to mer- chants in wooden utensils, more or less colored, lacquered, and otherwise ornamented. A grand old tree with denser foliage, better inviting to 5 65 SANDS OF SAHARA repose, keeps off the noonday rays from drowsy smokers of nargilehs, some sleeping sweetly, others heavily, for the entrancing hasheesh in their smouldering pipes has deepened their dreams. Where several of these monarch olives stand firmly on the slope, a group together, the dealers in animal skins have stretched from tree to tree the cords on which their merchandise is hung for sale. Here as we come up an infidel stranger and a Kabylian are bartering over a dozen goat-skins ; one can with difficulty approach and see the quality of the skins, because of the crowd of idlers whose curiosity holds them there keeping all others out of the shade. And, as is their custom, each idler volunteers his opinion and ad- vice, sometimes in the interest of the seller and sometimes in favor of the buyer. This custom is exceedingly annoying to a European. I myself have often been exasperated almost to the point of driving off the interferers. Time after time I have almost accomplished a transaction with an antiquary, securing upon ad- vantageous terms good specimens for my Uni- versity collection, when some busybody would drop in with his advice, and the merchant would break off all negotiations, unless I would consent to pay the higher price suggested by the lounger. 66 SANDS OF SAHARA The maxim of the Kabylians — in fact, of all Ori- entals — is that dickering is the soul of traffic. They spread out their wares on the ground, where others offer the same commodities, and practise dickering, because it holds out the great- est promise of profit to either side, seller or buyer. Time is a commodity whose value is slightly estimated, and two hours are frequently spent in bargaining over the sale of a kufieyah,* or an old flintlock whose stock and breech are ornamented with inlaid brass. On a ledge beneath the brow of the southern slope near the entrance to the fair, where all that walk must pass, are huddled together the shoe- makers and dealers ; though these, after all, make no shoes, only slippers — red, green, and yellow — for such of the fellahin that can afford them or have learned to wear them ; for, strange to relate, the ancient Kabylian custom, still much in vogue, is to wrap the feet in cloths and bind them over with bands of plaited camel's hair. Near by are those who make boots, — showy high boots, quite harlequin, of sunflower-yellow, with pointed toes, red legs, and green or blue morocco bands at the tops ; spurs are attached to these boots with a * A kerchief used on the turban or on the shoulders. 67 SANDS OF SAHARA silver curb-chain passing over the instep for an effendi, sheik, or military officer, any one of whom makes a fine display thus booted, in contrast with the fine white camel' s-hair cloth divided skirts or pantaloons which rest gracefully within the tops of the boots. Thus all the guilds have their individual or trade stations in the Souk-el-Arba : makers of fez, tar- bouch, and turban, harness and horse-trappings ; there are only a few saddlers, for the Kabylians are not prone to sit astride an animal's back. Those who have the more delicate goods, such as haiks, bernouses, and gandouras, costumes of the country, are to be found in tents. Scattered everywhere are those who sell grain, oil, honey, leather, cattle, asses, mules, pottery, water-sacks, — made by sewing up the body skins of calves, the neck serving for the pouring out of the water, — and others beyond enumeration. Many of these tradesmen are accommodated under rudely con- structed arbors, made by driving long sticks into the ground, the frame being thatched with branches and leaves. Numerous are the primitive coffee merchants, whose whole stock in trade consists of a hempen sack of charcoal, a water-jug, a few cans, a bronze tray with little metallic cups, a bag of roasted 68 SANDS OF SAHARA coffee, and a coffee-mill. Such a man is literally an itinerant merchant, moving about on the hill- sides of the fair and quickly setting up his cafe wherever he finds a prospect of selling his bever- age. There he kindles a fire on the ground and proceeds to ply his vocation. In one of his cans he makes a paste of coffee-grounds, in such quan- tity as his prospective business may warrant ; it is then mixed with more water, poured into little pots with long metallic handles, and placed over the coals for a few minutes only. After being stirred, it is poured out, grounds and all, into cups about the size of chicken's eggs. This whole performance is amusing to one accus- tomed to drink only a decoction of the roasted bean. The men who squat on the ground dream- ily sipping the coffee, and swallowing it along with the smoke from their chibouques, contribute the most interesting feature to the picture. They lounge, half sitting, half reclining, leaning on their elbows for hours together, dreaming away life, listlessly oblivious to the pleasures of energy, industry, or the cultivation of the mind. Those who have listened from St. Elmo or San Martino to the clang of the surging Neapolitan throng, or who from the Acropolis have heard the sweeter tones of modern Greek, rising even at 6 9 SANDS OF SAHARA this day from the theatre of Dionysius on the Athenian plain, would be impressed with the subdued, plaintive, guttural strain coming up from that Kabylian assemblage, and pervading the resonant air like the muffled chorus of an ora- torio. It emanates from men emotional in their speech, gesticulators, more impassioned in their actions than in their tones. Their manner is peculiar to the race : with the motions of their heads, hands, arms, and feet they express feelings of surprise, dislike, approval, denial, satisfaction, hunger, satiety, solicitude, indifference. In a group of traders before a tent you may see one, Zerack, who is disappointed at not having made a purchase of a goat, throwing his arms about and with the fingers of his right and left hands showing how he had offered sev- enteen francs ; and when he comes to relate that the hard-hearted trader had not relented, but had said he would rather let the goat graze on snow- covered rocks, Zerack vigorously pulls his hair and passes the palm of his right hand quickly over the left, signifying by that motion that he has had enough of that man. The common custom in a gathering of Kaby- lians is for many of them to be speaking at the same time ; so that, to those not conversant with 70 SANDS OF SAHARA their language, a general conversation in Souk-el- Arba might lead to the inference that the Kaby- lians may after all be the lineal descendants of those who built the tower of Babel. In the crowd are many remarkable physiog- nomies, especially those of the old Kabylians who in times of invasion intrenched themselves and their families in their strongholds in the crags of almost inaccessible mountain rocks. Haughty, sullen men these are, who even now fraternize only with those whom they know to be of their caste and tribes. Near by the Souk-el- Arba are a few scattered huts whose low roofs afford a closer view of their heavy terra-cotta tiles. From their great abun- dance one might remark that in Kabylia they have a generous crop of tiles. These huts only afford temporary shelter for those who weekly arrange the premises for the celebrated Wednesday market-day. FAKIRS AND FORTUNE-TELLERS The Kabylian villages are built on the rugged crests of rocks, because such positions serve as strongholds in case of invasion, and because all the available soil must be utilized for the cultiva- tion of crops. From these villages those who 71 SANDS OF SAHARA make their livelihood by entertaining others — for- tune-tellers, jugglers, etc. — come down and con- gregate in the vicinity of the approach to the fair. At the highest point among the red tiles of these hamlets stands the village mosque, from whose roof rises a minaret with stone gallery, the white tower being crowned with green and brown tiles, these forms and colors heightening the pictu- resqueness of the scene. Though women do not frequent the interior of the fair, there are many booths for side hangers- on where women may be seen. Their garments are very simple, little more than a white — or some- times partly blue — muslin haik, similar to the dress of an ancient Roman, and, like it, fastened on the breast near the left shoulder by some of the many Kabylian silver brooches. The unattractiveness of this costume is compensated for by the mass of silver jewelry, rings, ear-rings, head-bands, breast- pieces, bracelets, ankle-bands and ankle-bracelets they wear. Their heads are covered with ker- chiefs in black and yellow or black and red. Many young girls are married, some even at twelve years of age ; others at thirteen and four- teen years are mothers with their children in their arms. Most of them are tattooed : the unmarried 72 SANDS OF SAHARA have an ornamental cross on the chin, while those who are married have a similar cross on the upper lip or between the eyes. Kabylian women fortune-tellers are here also. They decide many questions for clients who come oftentimes from within the upper valleys of the Atlas mountains to consult these soothsayers ere they venture to undertake some enterprise. They decide whether the conditions promise to be prosperous for the enterprise ; whether a girl shall accept her wooer, who has never seen her ; whether a stranger from the interior is bewitched, or whether his or her spirit is inimical to the tribe in which he is visiting ; whether a man shall sell his heifer or shall keep it until it put on the stature and comeliness of a cow. Many other problems of life are solved by these seers. With very wise looks one of these women plucks the downy feathers from a white chicken, tearing them into fragments. After an incantation she casts the shreds into the air, with both hands up- lifted over two vessels placed before her, one containing salt water, the other colored with chicken's blood ; should a major part of the down fall into the red fluid the omen is favorable. This result is generally desired by the cunning sor- ceress. 73 SANDS OF SAHARA ITINERANT AISSOUAI At dusk may also be seen fanatic performances by itinerant Aissouai ; these performances are somewhat similar to those of the dervishes, but are far more sensational. A company of five or six Aissouai choose a spot and are soon sur- rounded by a curious multitude, for those who are assiduous in the pursuit of money during business hours on the fair-grounds are just as intent upon pleasure when the time for recreation comes. Drums are beaten until one of the performers (for such they should be called) becomes inspired, rushing frantically about shriek- ing and dancing, and assuming every uncomfort- able posture possible to a contortionist. Then they brand themselves with hot irons, press out their eyeballs, swallow all imaginable reptiles and such fragments of hard material as only ostriches have been known to employ to assist digestion. Only when exhaustion compels them do they close the performance. Our old friends, the tam-tam men, are here, tam-tamming vigorously. And through the rum- bling din and clatter come monotonous whining strains, which is all they know of singing or songs. But to the dreaming multitude it is opera, and when some vigorous whiner gives forth a pro- 74 SANDS OF SAHARA longed shriller intonation, or hums a soothing lul- laby, the crowd expresses its appreciation by cry- ing, " Tieeb ; tieeb kateer" — " Beautiful ; very beautiful." SNAKE-CHARMERS Here too are snake-charmers, who make their reptiles stand up and bow, and put out and draw in their fangs. And the magician, stooping to the ground, shows his wonderful dove, twisting off its head without any compunction, for he knows full well what to do with it ; and before the lookers-on have fully expressed their sym- pathy for the gentle beheaded, the fakir places the head under the wing of the quivering bird, passes his hand gently over it, and lo, there are two doves to comfort one another, while the tears of the spectators are dried. New-comers join the throng, just in time to see both the birds decapitated, but the two heads are placed under the wings, that swarthy magic hand completes its spell, and the doves look complacently around, saying, "Kounna fie Zouche ;* delouakte rana fie arba" — "We were two ; now we are four." They strut about on the ground, picking up the seeds their master has thrown down for their reward, * In Oriental Arabic it would be ' ' etneen. " " Zouche' ' is the Arabic of the desert. 75 SANDS OF SAHARA while he makes little shrubs and trees to grow and flowers to blossom before the eyes of the tam-tammers, who have halted in their vocation to feast their wondering gaze on his magic, and as their admiration is that of professionals, the fakir appreciates it. THE STORY-TELLER All fantasias are as chaff beside the charms of the story-teller, who absorbs everybody's atten- tion, and gives his audience something to take back to their hamlets in the wilderness. The story-teller commands the largest audiences, for he knows how to entertain the imagination by the most grotesquely impossible incidents. The tales of the ''Arabian Nights" form a good specimen of part of the stock in trade of these Anatireh, though as popular superstition considers them to be unlucky, they invent their own stories, weaving in facts from the history of the Sultan Ez-Zahir-Bebars, of the thirteenth century in Egypt, drawing copiously from the history of Abu-Zed and of Antar, a Bedouin demigod. These stories reach English eyes and ears only in a thoroughly expurgated form, for many of them are grossly immoral, — so much so, that it would be almost impossible to write anything 76 SANDS OF SAHARA that could faithfully exemplify the tales related by these mountebank romancers. Furthermore, the numerous dialects of Kabylic render it al- most impossible to give verbatim one of these strange stories. THE ENCHANTER COMES The story-teller must be coming, for the Ka- bylians are falling into their places on the ground, very much in the order in which the devout arrange themselves in the mosque. Gradually yet quickly all available space is occupied, the audience sitting in rows on either side and in front of the speaker, occupying three sides of a hollow square, which bears the impress of his strides. For he does not entertain his audience by tamely reciting, but by both speech and action. No bell or trumpet announces the enchanter. The expectant hearers anticipate his coming, crossing their legs at ease, and lighting their chibouques, when midst their curling smoke Aleca, the story-teller, stands forth as an appari- tion, passing a mandil (handkerchief) — for he is warm — over his temples ; but not to brush away his hair, for his head, like those of his brethren, is shorn, save the lock reserved for the day when 77 SANDS OF SAHARA all that sleep in the faith shall be borne on high by the prophet's own hand. Aleca scans his audience, boys and men, for a few moments, as though to divine their wishes, and to decide how he shall entertain them ; then he recites his stirring narrative with the power and frenzy of an eloquent Arab. The boys of the assemblage are to be the men of another generation, and it is the ambition of many of them to prepare themselves for filling some day the honored position of story-teller. They listen attentively, studying his every gesture, and at play they rehearse among themselves, striving to imitate him as closely as possible ; for the man is an actor, an impersonator of every character in his narrative. Even we foreigners find him interesting, for though we may not en- tirely understand his language, we do compre- hend his gestures. Willingly would we linger that we might some day relate a few of his stories at home. EN ROUTE FOR THE SANDS Other and more important work — the search for evidences of superstition — calls us to the sands of Sahara, so we turn our backs upon the romance and on Souk-el-Arba, returning to 78 SANDS OF SAHARA Menerville Junction ; our route thence lies through Beni-Mancour to the east and south. The evidences of superstition in Northern Africa are exemplified by the amulets, talis- mans, and other objects, placed on the houses or worn and used by the nomadic and resident tribes of the villages and towns of the desert of Sahara. To do justice to some of the features of this subject, to give to Lambessa, Thimgad, El Kan- tara, Biskra, M'Raier, Touggourt, Nezla, Sidi Rachid, Meggerine, the Dunes of El Oued, Temacin, and the temporary resting-places of the Bedouins, the notice they merit is beyond our power, as each might well fill many pages. So we shall not do more than glance at the people and the emblems of their superstitions. In these days of railways, when English enter- prise is constructing an iron road from Cairo to Omdurman, and is projecting its extension to Cape Town, five thousand miles to the south, it is not astonishing that the French are prospecting a like service in their African possessions. Their railway at present extends from Algiers to Beni- Mancour, thence to Setif, to El-Guera, through the salt lakes to Batna, to El Kantara, and is completed as far as Biskra. 79 SANDS OF SAHARA LAMBESSA AND THIMGAD From Batna one can in a day visit the ruins of ancient Lambessa, a Roman city, in which exca- vations have unearthed interesting buildings and other relics. The Praetorium, the most imposing building, has been partially restored and serves as a Museum for a collection of statues and other objects of antiquity which have been found in the debris of the old city, though the best material has been removed to France and is in the Museum of the Louvre at Paris. The finest statue at Lambessa is one of the beloved physician ^Esculapius. About a mile to the southeast stands a great part of an arch of Septimus Severus. Near by are the remains of the Forum, a column con- structed by Marcus Aurelius, the Temple of Jupiter, and remarkable public latrines, whose seats in white marble, artistically finished, were arranged in a semi-circle, the floor before them being decorated with fine mosaics representing animals. Twenty-three miles to the south is the recently excavated Roman city of Thimgad, with its spa- cious streets, theatre, forum, market, shops, and sumptuous public baths with almost all the con- 80 SANDS OF SAHARA veniences common to the present day. The sewers of massive stone are still in perfect preservation. Openings carefully constructed at intervals in the centre of the streets, paved with irregular flag-stones, communicate with the sewers. These vents are closed with well-chis- elled round stones, which are sufficiently perfo- rated to allow the water to pass. In the principal paved streets are deep ruts, worn by the chariot wheels. Among these ruins one might indeed almost fancy himself in Pompeii. And like Pompeii, Thimgad seems to have been laid out as was the custom of the 'Romans, who, when they had chosen the site of a city, traced two lines at right angles to each other, one from north to south, and the other from east to west. These were called Cardo Maximus, and Decumanus Maximus, and became the principal streets of the city ; the site at this point of inter- section was usually selected for the Forum. The Forum at Thimgad has recently been unearthed. Numerous monuments and pedestals, with a great variety of inscriptions, are scattered through it. Adjoining the Forum were shops, and a neighboring building has been identified as a Temple of Victory. Traces of fastenings for doors are found everywhere. The north facade 6 81 SANDS OF SAHARA of the Decumanus M? :imus had a colonnade its entire length, where the inhabitants prom- enaded when at leisure, and from which they must have enjoyed one of the most charming views imaginable. In another quarter of the city were numerous private residences, and sufficient indications are found in these ruins to give an idea of the man- ner in which the inhabitants lived in this Roman city of the third century. No evidences of Christian worship are found, nor is there an altar to the living God, although Thimgad flourished long after the coming of our Saviour and more than two centuries after His religion had been promulgated. Everywhere are the relics of idol- atry, places of animal sacrifice, altars to the un- known gods, statues of the various mythological deities of the age, of whom ^Esculapius and Telesphorus, the god of convalescence, were ap- parently the most revered. Among the debris of the private residences are broken and time-worn Lares and Penates, interesting relics of the superstition which led the people of Thimgad to put their trust in those toy-like talismans, which they reverently guarded in their apartments, even honoring them with ever-burning fire. Few enterprises of impor- 82 V---'**t\?V$fr£ SANDS OF SAHARA tance were undertaken until the revered influence and protection of these objects of superstitious veneration had been implored. The Lares rep- resented the spirits of the ancestors of each family, which in a measure accounts for the hope that they should guard and protect their descend- ants ; while the Penates were supposed to have a supervision over the store of provisions and the kitchen of the household. There are several tribunes, from which it is supposed orations were made ; some of the pedestals bear the names of Antoninus Pius and Caracalla ; also inscriptions intended to perpetu- ate the memory of senators and others of local importance. Indications of national games are rudely engraved on the floors. A passage from the Forum gives access to the theatre, which was built on the side of a hill ; it is larger than that at Pompeii, and would accommo- date four thousand people. Near the theatre are thermae, or public baths, the mosaic floors of which are perfectly preserved. The stone pipes which conveyed the water from a spring two kilometres distant are still in place. Statuary and inscriptions fix the date about the end of the second century. Outside of the Arch of Triumph, in the Market 83 SANDS OF SAHARA Place, is an edifice founded in the third century by a Roman lady, a statue of whom, with a dedicatory inscription on the pedestal, was recently found entirely uninjured. THE GATE OF THE DESERT Leaving Thimgad, we proceed on our journey. From Batna the railway continues to El Kantara, a charming village nestled in the rocks of the natural gate of the Desert of Sahara, a pictu- resque flume between the rugged forms of the barren tract on the north, and the great expanse of golden sand beyond, where, with patient labor, man has created oases, on which are groves of date-palms, fragrant shrubs, and luscious fruit- trees, an enchanting scene which bursts on the vision of travellers as they emerge from the gorge of El Kantara in going south. From El Kantara, after passing numerous fertile oases, the railway finally extends as far south as Biskra ; and a powerful company has already proposed to the French government to construct a further road passing through many districts, Saada, Bir Djefair, Chegga, Setil, M'Raier, Sidi-Khetil, Ourlana, Tamerna Kedima, Touggourt, El Hadjira, and even as far south as Ngouca and Ouargla, but the company has demanded such 8 4 El-Kantara, Mountain Sources of Water. SANDS OF SAHARA concessions of territory, with hot springs and other valuable property, that no charter has been granted. And, although we fully appreciate the great importance of railways, we must say that they rob the country through which they pass of ethnological interest for students. The iron rails and their attendants bring with them a taste for practical, plain European garments, and pictu- resque costumes, curious implements, and primi- tive habits are gradually laid aside. With this conviction we will leave progress behind, and go east, west, and south, into the Desert of Sahara, where, in many cases, we shall mingle with men who have never heard the whistle of the locomo- tive, or seen the iron way, and who, in fact, possess iron only in the form of stilettos, and the hammers and anvils with which they form them. AMULETS AND TALISMANS With our ideas of the importance of religion, we view with significance the fact that no nation or tribe has been found without some creed or form of religion, whether it be the supplication or adoration of some deity, or merely the super- stitious trust in objects which we denominate amu- lets or talismans. An amulet is a natural object, 85 SANDS OF SAHARA either vegetable, such as the horse-chestnut, certain hard beans, and so on ; or mineral, as hematite, maculated agate, agalmatolite (Chinese figure-stone, of which sixty-four specimens may- be seen in my collection in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania,) ; or some metal, such as gold, silver, iron, or copper. Talismans, on the other hand, are formed by man, generally of metal, with an inscription, or little cases of leather, in which are placed prayers and cabalistic words. Specimens of such are found in the Abraxas tokens or talismans, made nineteen centuries ago by the Gnostics. They borrowed and appro- priated from the Egyptians, Hebrews, Persians, and other nations the chimeras and innumerable other characters and figures with which they had for centuries charged their engraved gems ; these they adopted and used as emblems of deity and of hope in the future life. Many of their talis- mans contain on the obverse a Roman, or Greek, or Egyptian subject, — such as Jupiter, Serapis, Isis, Horus, Phcebus, Pallas, Chnubis, and so on, — while on the reverse is found the purely mystic Abraxas inscription. The talismans of the deni- zens of the desert, who are more or less Mahometan, contain generally only the religious 86 SANDS OF SAHARA sentiments and tenets of Mahomet, or reminders of legends concerning the life of the prophet. Of these legends they have many, such as the protection of Mahomet's head by the miraculous intervention of a great flock of birds which hovered in the air between the sun and the sacred form of their revered mediator. But the legend of the hand of Fatma seems to have given artisans in brass, copper, and silver the most constant occupation during several cen- turies. The legend says that Mahomet found it difficult at times to control the angry passions of his followers, and that on one occasion the dis- content of his hosts was so great that they rose in rebellion, approaching his tent with menacing gestures and cries. But Fatma, his favorite wife, seeing the danger, stepped forth ; and, stretching forth her hand, she earnestly addressed the multitude : " What ! would you attack the prophet of God ! would you incur the Father's wrath !" The mob stood spell-bound, wavered, and then quietly retired, overawed. From that day and with that incident in memory, the hand of Fatma has always been a favorite talisman, and so it is that the artisans sitting on the ground in their hovels, with their wooden anvils between their knees, are constantly busy forming the 87 SANDS OF SAHARA hand of Fatma. On the door or front wall of many houses, the occupants of which cannot afford the expense of the metallic talisman, a painter makes an imprint of his hand smeared with reddish-brown paint. Rudely painted hands are found on the lintels of some of the doors at " Old Biskra," the ancient Ad Piscinam, the Roman origin of which is attested by its blocks of stone and high columns. Objects which have long served their owners in desert journeys, such as the finger-shaped ornamented green stones on which men sharpen their knives to cut the tent pins, come to be regarded as amulets where their owners have had success, and as such are con- stantly worn. The knowledge of the supposed virtues of the various amulets and talismans is not intuitive. The people obtain these objects from their priests, marabouts, and astrologers, whose tradi- tions and knowledge have been handed down from generation to generation, from the time of Pliny, in the middle of the first century. Pliny created a code or pharmacopoeia of amulets, prescribing a variety of stones for the cure of as many diseases, for protection against accidents, for defence against evil spirits ; and his suc- cessors are even now discoursing upon the 88 SANDS OF SAHARA various materials and elements calculated to protect from accident and disease, to ward off the attacks of the devil and his evil spirits, and to counteract the influence of what is known among all Oriental and African nations as " the evil eye." The Gnostics before the time of Christ went to their mentors, or priests, reciting their fears and necessities, and obtained from them cabalistic engraved tokens on hematite, serpentine, and other stones ; and all the tribes I have visited in the Sahara pursue the same course. And all these people, men, women, and children, again like the Gnostics, once in possession of their cabalistic tokens, go to their daily pursuits of life with such confidence in their talismans that they fear neither disease, accident, nor the devil. These people are of many classes : those resi- dent in oases, who plant, cultivate, and sell dates ; the Nomads, itinerant tribesmen ; merchants from Timbuctoo ; and a number of tribes from the vicinity of Ouargla. They regard the marabouts with sacred respect, if not with adoration. It is an interesting fact that, as many of these mentors are astrologers, they inculcate a belief in stars and in constellations. There are certain fossils which are a conglomeration of little stars, and 8 9 SANDS OF SAHARA specimens of these are eagerly sought for as amulets, being usually bound or mounted in silver frames, with a ring for attachment to the neck. (See my collection in the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania.) TALISMANS FOR ANIMALS Nor do they think only of themselves, — their beasts of burden, their camels, their milk-giving goats, are also protected by small leather pouches, in which are enclosed sacred or cabalistic words, so attached to the animals by a coarse leather band, that they are not likely to be lost while their wearers are grazing on the sage and other sparse growth of the desert. CAMEL RACES It may be seen from the curious objects in my collection made in that country, that I have generally been fortunate, but I have not always been so successful, as, for instance, in efforts to obtain the talisman of a camel which had won several races. Before daylight one morning we drove out to the village of Cora, on the M'Raier route to the south of Biskra, where we awaited the result of the annual camel race. The camels had started some thirty-six hours before, from 9 o SANDS OF SAHARA Touggourt. A little while after we had halted we espied on the southern horizon two or three specks, evidently moving towards us, and twenty- minutes later the leading camel passed us, far in advance of the others, becoming the winner of the first and largest prize. We immediately whipped up our mules, which were already turned in the direction of the goal, to follow the winner. The camel did not seem to be going very rapidly when he passed us, but we soon found that we were mistaken, for despite the efforts of our driver he distanced us, and we barely arrived in time to see his rider dismount at the winning- post. On the neck of the winner, a handsome light-colored camel, hung a leather-bound talis- man, and I immediately sent my Arab servant to purchase it if possible. But the camel driver an- swered, " This is the sixth year that this talisman has won the race for me, and no money will tempt me to part with it" I made every effort through his personal friends during two or three days, and just as I thought I was about to succeed by tempting him with money, his woman appeared, and would not for a moment allow him to risk the consequences. The woman was right, perhaps, but I wished her out of the way. This was fre- 91 SANDS OF SAHARA quently my experience when dickering with men who needed money, and who might otherwise have yielded. Camels appear to delight in the excitement of racing ; it is about the only amusement they ever enjoy. These faithful, laborious animals begin their daily occupation very early in life, and know very little rest. Even when young they must follow the caravan from morning to night, though sometimes a youngster a day or two old is roped up in a basket and carried on its mother's back, — an interesting subject for an artist. Among these people of the desert there evi- dently prevails a belief that the spirit or soul (call it what you will) of a faithful animal on its death has only gone before, that these voiceless companions await a reunion in the mysterious beyond, for one constantly sees skulls or other bones of such beasts fastened on the corner walls or over the entrances of their hovels of baked mud. The skulls most frequently thus attached to the walls of every hamlet in the oasis, are those of favorite camels, and of goats and jackals. It is said that the skulls of the jackals are placed on the walls as a warning to that predatory prowler of the night, so we must sup- pose that the jackals recognize the bones as 92 . SANDS OF SAHARA those of their species that have been entrapped, and that they keep out of the way, for fear of a like fate. THE DESERT We are now about to penetrate into the actual Desert of Sahara. We do not remain long in modern Biskra ; it is well known that this city can be reached by rail. Its newly acquired civilization will account for our going farther south in search of more primitive men and manners. Leaving Biskra, with its beautiful gardens, bazaars, etc., long before the break of day, we proceeded with mules and horses, six in all, on our way through the Desert of Sahara, to visit numerous points in the south, already indicated. Our way was over an undulating, sandy plateau, interspersed with beds of gypsum, and sparsely covered with a thin, gray vegetation, in scattered low plots, the ordinary type of the Saharan steppes. The route was monotonous, and was enlivened only by the caravans and stragglers which we met from time to time, and by what- ever animals came in view. Occasionally, when the grade was somewhat lower, we traversed what are known as " chotts," shallow tracts of salt water (many of them almost entirely dried up), which at a distance appear to be beautiful 93 SANDS OF SAHARA lakes, the beauty often being enhanced by mirage. In the journey south of Biskra, the heat of the day was avoided for the sake of the horses and mules. During nine months of the year, cara- vans and travelling conveyances leave their stopping-places about five o'clock in the evening, and travel during the night, stopping about an hour after sunrise the next morning. During the so-called winter, a period of about three months, travellers sleep until about two o'clock in the morning, when they resume their journey until about sunset, for at this season, notwithstanding the heat of the day, the hours before sunrise are bitterly cold. In our progress during the early morning, it was very interesting to see to the right and left and ahead of us, various caravans of laden camels, the owners of which, with women and children, drivers and servants, were breaking up camp, and gathering around their camp-fires to heat the goat's milk with which they prepared their first meal for the day. Observing that each man poured into his bowl of heated milk two heaping handfuls of coarse raw meal, cous-cous, crushed lentils, or a species of maize, I inquired why they did not cook the crushed grain and 94 / SANDS OF SAHARA make a mush of it. My Arab companion replied, " Oh, those men have a long day's journey before them, and we have learned by experience that it is better to take breakfast raw, so that it may cook in our stomachs while digesting, and stand by us and sustain us longer." In some of the caravans, especially those conveying women, camel's milk is served. The flickering shapes of the attendants as they moved about in the dark, misty morning, while others were fixing the loaded racks on the camels' backs, was a sight that memory places before me as vividly as though it had been photographed. After the caravan has been thus arranged, it is an impressive sight to see the men fall upon their knees, extend their arms, and lower their heads until their faces are buried in the sand in the act of devotion. If they are encamped where there is no water for ablutions before their morning devotions, they employ the flat polished stone, already alluded to. It is about three-fourths of an inch thick, oblong, and of such dimensions that- it can be grasped in the hand ; with this each man performs his symbolic ablutions, rubbing his lower extremities from his toes to his knees, and his arms from his fingers to his shoulders, after which he is supposed to be purified as by wash- 95 SANDS OF SAHARA ing. These stones are also regarded as talis- manic, as through their agency the man is pre- pared to come into the presence of the prophet by prayer. When every one of the throng has seen that his amulet or talisman is in place about his neck, his girdle, or on his arm, the fires are extinguished, and with confidence they renew their journey. At noon one day, when we halted for a relay of animals, as far as we could see in every direction, were caravans approaching or leaving the wells where our animals were drinking. The caravans were so numerous that we calculated there were ten thousand camels in sight, estimating each cara- van to contain from seventy-five to one hundred. CAMELS DRINKING A great deal of time is consumed by halts at the wells, which in some sections occur only at long distances, for a camel requires an average of at least fifteen minutes to take a satisfactory drink. In cool weather these animals will go twenty days without water, and many goats pass ten days without drinking. When the camel's thirst is thus slaked he can travel days without actually needing any water, but not without complaining, for camels exceed all other creatures for growling. Their 9 6 SANDS OF SAHARA cry is very sonorous, and is one of the character- istic features of a traveller's halt in any oasis where a number of them are being loaded. Some- times they complain reasonably, and I have fre- quently heard them grunting and have seen them refuse to rise until their attendants had removed the saddle-rack and sufficiently lessened the bur- den. They are laden with cuffins (matting sacks), boxes, and bales made of goat skins, principally containing dates. Fully as interesting as the caravans were the towns and villages that now and then relieved the monotony of our journey, in the various oases or at relay stations. The road on the first day out was diversified by palm groves, undulating sand, scrub sage, and turpentine bushes ; the little branches of the lat- ter never grow too high for the goats, which we found in great numbers browsing upon them. After passing the halting-station of Saada, we lunched at Am Chegga. To the south, after Am Chegga, there is an extensive view of the plain of Oued Gheir, broken here and there by little mounds ; one of which, at Kef-el- Akhdar, is called the green mound. We now follow, for nearly a hundred kilometres, the valley (as its name indicates) of Oued Gheir. 7 97 SANDS OF SAHARA Farther on, we perceived and soon passed the Chott Melgigh, which is, in fact, a lake three hun- dred kilometres (about one hundred and eighty- six miles) long. Then came M'Raier, with walls of mud and huts of large sun-dried bricks. Rest was found here for the night ; we will again visit and describe M'Raier on our return to the north. Fifty-five kilometres (thirty-four miles) farther on is Tamerna, another baked-mud village, on an eminence, in which we saw an old building con- structed of stone, resembling a round tower. After a half-day's journey we reached Gamrha, where the district is favored with the sweetest water on this route. PALM GROVES We were in the midst of a desert where storms of sand sweep over, blinding and suffocating man and beast, and where the camels bury their heads when they see such a storm coming. Yet in this domain of barrenness the ingenuity of man has by labor created these oases, in which gardens and fruit-bearing trees exist only in perfection under the kindly shade of the great palm groves. There figs, oranges, lemons, etc., thrive all the year round, and one can pluck delicious, aromatic man- darines from the little trees, not much taller than a man, the roots of which are constantly refreshed SANDS OF SAHARA by water served to them through trenches. From December to March wheat and barley are grown under the same trees, as is also fragrant tobacco, pale in color but of pungent flavor. In the district of L'Oued Rir there are nearly seven hundred thousand palm-trees, of which about one hundred thousand bear fruit. The female palm-trees are by far the more numerous ; they bear enormous bunches of dates, but their fruit is properly formed and developed only when the pollen of the male palm is served to them. To render the crop more sure the natives supply and apply this fecundation by hand in April. One male palm-tree, a real Arab polygamist, serves thus about four hundred female fruit-bearing palms. The best trees are planted from shoots. The Arab proverb says : "If the palm-tree shall pros- per, it must have its head in the fire of the skies and its feet in the water ;" and the natives pay constant attention that the water is supplied to the trenches from the wells. They begin — that is, the female trees begin — to bear at about eight or nine years of age, but the best fruit comes about fifteen years later. The trees continue to bear until after they have passed the century mark, when the sap is made into a beverage ; the inte- SANDS OF SAHARA rior of the trunk is often eaten, and the wood is used in building and for fuel. There are about as many varieties of date- palms as we have of pear- and apple-trees. Un- der the most favorable conditions of climate and irrigation, a translucent date known as the Deglet Nour is produced, this is the finest grown in the Sahara. It commands a high price, is eagerly sought and purchased by merchants from Tunisia and other countries in the north of Africa. These dates are largely exported to England and the United States. TOUGGOURT Though at times, in such a journey on the sand, the day seems interminable and the route weary- ing, time and the hour bring us from ravine to plain, from barren places to verdant oases, and present tempting views of villas, terraces, domes, and forests, that often exist only in mirage. But it was not always mirage, and one day just before the sun declined, we were told that the towers, minarets, fair palm groves, and dome before us belonged to Touggourt. It was picturesque as we approached — more so, indeed, than when we came within the town — for the light of the setting sun gave a beautiful effect to its dome and towers, and to the groves of palm-trees, IOO SANDS OF SAHARA which stood out in fine relief upon the horizon. The road for about a kilometre before reaching Touggourt has been rendered more solid by wood and stone paving. The moat which for- merly protected the town is now partially filled with dry sand, but we soon passed that and found ourselves in the unique market-place, sitting down to make cosmopolitan friendship, which afterwards proved to be agreeable and profitable. Since comparatively few travellers, other than the denizens of the desert, enter Touggourt, when fair-faced Anglo-Saxons arrive, the natives gather around them regarding with interest the Northern clothing, so strongly in contrast with their cos- tumes, the creamy white bernouse, decorated here and there with kufieyahs or scarfs in brilliant colors. The inhabitants of this town (about five thousand in number) were originally from so many villages and oases in the desert that several tribes are represented, living in their various quarters. Among these tribes are Beni-Mancour negro Arabs, Israelites who have adopted Islam- ism, Almees, and representatives of the dark tribes of the southern desert ; even some Toua- regs may be seen here. The men of nearly all the tribes sit upon the IOI SANDS OF SAHARA ground to perform their various avocations. Some of them have between their knees large bowls in which they are chopping up the aromatic green leaves of the Sakerja and Indian hemp (Cannabis indica) plants, which they mix with their smoking tobacco, on account of the well-known effect of exaltation or infatuation. The Indian hemp came originally from Asia ; its active principle, correctly called hasheesh in the Arabic, is called kiffhy the Arabs of the desert. As is generally the case in towns, the principal open space not occupied by houses is used as a public square, which, in Touggourt, is known as the "market-place." It is irregular in shape, like a long leg of mutton, the ankle or shin being curved. Here is held a market every day in the week, the attendance being greater on Friday than on any other day. On either side stand the public and commercial buildings, few of which are more than eighteen feet high. At the entrance and to the left are groves of palm trees, where barbers with benches, and the necessary utensils, are occupied all day in shav- ing faces and heads, leaving only at the back of the head the invariable lock by which the prophet shall pull its owner up to Paradise at the last day. Under a long arched arcade on the right Baskkt-Makers, Touggouri SANDS OF SAHARA are the bazaars, a row of tradesmen's small shops, in which shoemakers, tailors, silversmiths, jewellers, knife- and stilletto-makers, leather- sheath-makers, etc., transact business. On the west side, opposite, is the Kasba of the Agha, a native ruler ; beyond that, the Arab bureau, the house of the Commandant, and bar- racks of the zouaves and cavalry, for this is a military station. On the east side is a large de- pot and agency of the company known as Oued Rir, which has date groves in many oases through- out the Oued Gheiir. ENCAMPMENT OF PRISONERS' WIVES Near by is a very curious encampment, gener- ally thickly inhabited, which is installed there un- der an act of government. There beneath the usual coarse, striped, camel' s-hair tents, lodge the wives, sisters, daughters, and minor children of culprits who are imprisoned for brigandage and other crimes on the desert. These women have their flocks of goats, and sometimes a stock of dried dates ; by the sale of a portion of the goat's milk and fruit, by washing for the military en- campment, and by gathering loads of desert scrub wood and roots, they are enabled to eke out a livelihood until the prisoner is released. This 103 SANDS OF SAHARA wood is readily salable, and can be had for the labor of cutting it on the desert and bringing it in on their little donkeys. The establishment of the military commander is the most important edifice of this, the modern town. This residence may be considered a curi- osity, as it is constructed of stone carried on camel-back across the desert for many days' jour- ney. Some of the apartments are commodious, and during the heated term one can be compara- tively comfortable within its stone walls. There a European traveller may obtain good army bread and a small portion of distilled water with which to prepare coffee, or tea, or soup ; all other water is so strongly impregnated with medicinal salts that a person not acclimated is terribly inconve- nienced by its use, though residents become im- mune. MARKET-DAY AT TOUGGOURT At an early hour on Friday morning the grunt- ing of camels and the jabbering of merchants as they unloaded their wares combined to make a hullabaloo that proclaimed the great market-day. Having obtained the services of Farjala, an Arab, who has consented to be our guide, we set out to see the sights. Merchants of every kind and artisans from dif- 104 SANDS OF SAHARA ferent oases may be found squatting on the ground, surrounded by their wares, from early morning until late at night. Some of them display their stock in trade on the sand ; the more orderly spread some cotton material on which they show their merchandise. Here are dealers in leather slippers of many varieties, colored red, yellow, and green, plain and embroidered ; knife-cases or sheaths of the same material and colors ; ogols, twisted cords, of camel's hair, about the thickness of one's little finger, for binding the turbans to their heads or for girdles at their waists ; broad-bladed tweezers, with which the natives, both male and female, draw out all hair from their bodies, and hand- mirrors gaily bound in leather, which are used sometimes during the latter operation ; combs of yellow and white woods, for both men and don- keys ; and goggles of leather with glasses to pro- tect the eyes from the sand-storms, for much of the desert sand is so impalpable as even in a day's march to penetrate the seams of the best- made boots. Earthenware utensils also are for sale, not of great variety, as the simple mode of life of these people demands little more than cups, dishes, pots, and pans, in which to cook and from which to eat their cous-cous, the national dish, 105 SANDS OF SAHARA They do make some rather artistic incense-burn- ers, however. Primitive locks and keys — rude, but ingenious — for the hovels of Touggourt and other towns are also sold. Here, too, are merchants of fans — of fans round, oval, and square, made of palm-leaves, orna- mented with colored embroideries or cut-leather applique ; to nearly all of them are attached small, round looking-glasses with embroidered covers. The teeth and talons of wild animals, lions, leopards, and tigers, also are sold. TOUAREGS Here and there we encounter Touaregs, a race of black men, who always veil their faces below their eyes with a course netting. They offer for sale ornamented knives, small bags, and large travelling bags, made from the entire skins of goats and other animals, stained red and yellow with rude designs, and purses in similar style, with others of beautifully marked lizard skins ; the larger sizes of which are made into leggings to match their many-colored, soft, leather shoes. Besides the women alluded to above, merchants of fuel scour the plains hunting scraggy roots of the desert sage, which are brought into market, loaded on either side of the smallest donkeys 1 06 ■' SANDS OF SAHARA imaginable, who stagger under their loads in the market-place, and actually seem to show their contentment when some one comes along and purchases their burden and thus relieves them. This fuel is sold to those who are too lazy to go and get it for themselves, for it abounds in the desert. We find dealers in henna, used by both men and women to stain their finger-nails, and by women to disfigure their teeth as soon as they are married ; for then a woman should cease to be attractive to any man except her husband. Also a pigment with which the women blacken their eyelashes and lay on a tint under their eyes for the same reason. Other articles are the gum benjamin, which so many use in their earthen- ware incense-burners, and strings of variously designed colored opaque beads, to which are at- tached talismans for the neck and wrists. Among the eatables are tons of dates, from large packages, bales made of bullock's skins, to a handful counted out for a few centimes. And lumps of turmeric are sold ; this is reduced to a powder, and is used in various meat stews, and to color the national cous-cous, a dish made of a coarse meal of roasted acorns mixed with ordinary flour. 107 SANDS OF SAHARA Large and small red peppers abound ; most of them find their way into the cous-cous. As in all hot climates, there is here a great demand for high seasoning to give relish to the food ; but none of their condiments compare with the chut- ney of India. THE AUCTIONEERS AND BLIND DWARF A strange feature is the peripatetic auctioneer, who pursues his vocation by walking from morn- ing until night throughout the market-place, with an assortment of second-hand bernouses, turban cloths in many colors, several watches, a stilletto or two, a second-hand gandoura, an outside gar- ment in many colors, something like carpet, to be put on in the chill of the early morning, etc. He reports at every few steps the highest bid he has had on each article, and when he reaches a figure he is willing to accept, he confronts the bidder with the last bidder, and the bargain is consum- mated. About nine o'clock in the morning, a blind dwarf, whom we had seen at Temacin, arrived in the market-place with a stock of eggs in baskets, loaded on either side of his little donkey. For several years the dwarf has followed this business of buying up eggs around the country through- 108 SANDS OF SAHARA out the week, and selling them in Touggourt on Friday, following his donkey across the desert by hearing the tinkling bell strung on its neck ; the donkey knows the route thoroughly, of course. Although the man had only met me twice pre- viously, he now recognized me by my voice. It was touching to see the affectionate manner with which he groped and reached for the hand of the man (my host) for whom he brought the eggs. HOODED FALCONS One of the most picturesque features of the market-place is formed by the dealers in hooded falcons, the hunting birds. The training of these falcons is an honored and honorable profession, and on the occasion of a grand fete the falconers always take part in the procession. The falcon's eyes are kept hooded at a hunt until a hare or other animal has been started, when the hood is removed. When the falcon sees his prey he rises in the air until he is well over it, when he descends swiftly and eagerly on it ; it is then the falconer's duty to secure the game. To see these birds pounce upon their game is fine sport CAMEL, GOAT, AND DONKEY MARKET Near the northern entrance of the town and market-place congregate those who have camels, 109 SANDS OF SAHARA goats, and donkeys for sale. Others near by sell the skins of all these animals, some raw and some cured or tanned. A little farther away a number of camels are slaughtered every day. Although these animals appear to be only skin and bone, those that are butchered are very fleshy, and much of the meat is tender and even fat ; it has an agreeable flavor, especially the hump, from which are cut the choice pieces. The flesh of the antelope and gazelle are offered for sale, and some of these animals are sold alive as compan- ions for women. A little to the west the ground is covered with a group of men busy in hammering out knife- blades and poniards, while others are finishing and polishing. Other workmen near by, whom we may reasonably term skilled mechanics, are preparing, fitting, and ornamenting red leather sheaths for these implements, a very interesting operation to watch. Just off the northern side a blacksmith has a hovel, a sort of tent. About all he finds to do is to make a few hoof irons for the donkeys, hinges for the doors of the huts, and the flat hanging rings that serve as knockers. His fire is blown by a boy squatting on the ground, who presses alter- nately on two goat-skins, which he thus inflates. ^^^ SANDS OF SAHARA All this time a procession is passing to and fro. Many of the Arabs who promenade in the market-place with the greatest complacency are clothed in materials so patched and mended that they consist more of repairs than of the original garment. But they seem so contented that one might almost say, "when rags give bliss, 'tis folly to wear whole cloth." Some of them, however, are far more wealthy than their appearance indi- cates ; that is, even the most patched and mended of them may possess more camels than does one who is more pretentious in his costume. The financial status of a man in Touggourt is always gauged by the answer to the question, " How many camels has he?" THE MOSQUE Among all this vast throng the earnestly re- ligious, the zealous, find frequent opportunities to withdraw and forget the cares of life for a while in their devotions at the mosque, which almost closes the northern end of the place we have been de- scribing. The exterior of this mosque is attrac- tive and interesting, possessing a dome of the fifteenth century ; the interior, down to the pillars that support the dome, is of unique Arabesque ornamentation, as is also the mimbar. The pillars in SANDS OF SAHARA are fluted, having the appearance of three cylin- drical columns pressed into one. This fine old specimen of architecture has been restored from time to time during several centuries. As water is scarce, there is not always sufficient accommo- dation for men worshippers to wash their legs and arms ; they therefore often resort to the sub- stitute of rubbing with a stone. Men only are considered, as women do not enter where the presence of the prophet is approached. Very few prayer-carpets are to be seen in this mosque, the worshippers being unable to afford such luxuries, but the stone floor is strewn with prayer-mats, made of rushes and shreds of bam- boo, in ornamental design. The gallery on the minaret of the tower commands an extended view of the surrounding desert, — particularly beautiful at sunset, — including Temacin to the southwest, and the salt lakes on the left of that route, with their borders of rushes and tamarisks. From this minaret, before the morning light and through- out the day, may be heard the musical ringing voice of the muezzin. THE SUPPLY OF WATER Narrow diverging streets lead from the portal of the mosque into the old and curious town of 112 SANDS OF SAHARA Touggourt, and about five minutes' walk from this portal is one of the most important wells, from which constantly rises a welcome stream of warm water, which flows into a stone pool, supplying the greatest need in this desert land. The natives enjoy its warm temperature during the cold morn- ings of their short so-called winter, while the heat of their summer is so intense that this same water seems cool to their palates at that season. The demand for water for several thousand inhabitants causes a continual assemblage of women, some from the town, with many nomads from the neigh- boring desert, waiting their turn to fill their pecu- liar water-jars. There are three such wells ; the second is at the southeast, supplying the merchants and camels of the market-place, and the third is in the southwest, behind the Kasba. Three times daily the water-carriers assemble at the principal well, not far from the mosque, filling their water- bottles made of the entire skins of animals, the necks of which are fastened with a leather band. This subject, the supply of water, has always occupied the minds of the tribes of the desert. The people from time to time listened to every suggestion that was presented, but, blinded by superstition, were favorable to none. The theory was often entertained that the 8 113 SANDS OF SAHARA Sahara was formerly a great sea, that the sands were its bed, and as the sea subsided there re- mained the brackish salt water frequently obtained at great depths. But scientists who have exam- ined the sand in the dunes have found no parti- cles of animal organisms, no minute fragments of sea-shells, to support this theory. Further- more, the desert of Sahara is not throughout a level plain, for there are many mountains fre- quented by the Barbary sheep and moufflons, another species of wild sheep, which animals live only where they can find water. Rain falls in these rocky hills, and the water percolating through the sand renders the sources of some wells less brackish, so that the supply of water in such hilly districts is much more palata- ble after a rainy season. There are indications of a subterranean sea, or a water-course, at the least, for I have seen crabs and little fishes come to the surface at some of the wells, probably thrown up from artesian pools of water at a depth of two hundred feet below the surface sands. Just as every oriental country where England has planted her flag has improved and been en- riched, so the Arabs of the desert of Sahara have greatly profited by the advent of the French. Facts demonstrate how grateful inhabitants and 114 SANDS OF SAHARA nomads in those parched districts should be to the French nation. Especially have the engineers almost miraculously contributed to their comfort, their necessity, in fact. In 1844 the ancient wells of Touggourt were failing — drying up ; little water was to be had for irrigation. Then scientists divined where the source of water, already known to exist nearer the Mediterranean Sea, might possibly be reached by sinking wells at certain points. Had they listened to the native wiseacres, they would have been discouraged. But they continued boring, and much to the astonishment and joy of the in- credulous, at no very great depth about (one hun- dred and ninety feet) reached a supply of water, which gushed forth and which has ever since en- riched that oasis, even in a measure having a civilizing effect on the natives. The French colonists have constructed more than one hundred artesian wells in this section, and the natives probably possess three times as many of their own making ; the wells may even aggregate nearly five hundred in number. THE UNDERGROUND CITY Passing thence to the interior of the old town, we find ourselves in a subterranean city, as it "5 SANDS OF SAHARA were ; for in the last century the narrow streets which traverse Touggourt were roofed through- out with the long trunks of palm-trees, laid on the baked walls, over which earth and sand were packed, the mass being bound together by the fibrous roots of plants. For the admission of light and air an occasional opening occurs, two or three feet in breadth and six or eight feet in length. The people in the hot season sleep on the roofs in cages made of cane and palm-wood, over which a screen is arranged to intercept the rays of the moon ; some of these frames are for one person, others for as many as four members of a family. Outside the door of nearly every house is a ledge of sun-baked earth. In the hot season these terra-cotta benches are occupied by the people, and here and there some lucky fellow who has turned out early may be found lying at full length enjoying a sound sleep. Those less fortu- nate sit close along the walls of the narrow passageways or streets, with their hands locked together over their ankles, supporting their chins on their knees, as they talk about the prophet and smoke their tobacco. The buildings within this town are principally 116 A Woman of the Ouled Nails. SANDS OF SAHARA dwellings, almost all the shops being under the arcades, on the market-place outside, where sup- plies are obtained at the daily market. There are, however, apartments where women and men work as tailors on the universal burnouse, and a few fan- makers are found. Carpets (or rugs) are made quite extensively, but they are generally woven out of doors. There are Arabs who deal in them when the sea- son is not too extremely hot, starting out with three or four bright rugs thrown over their shoul- ders, and frequenting the well-known routes in the desert. These men will follow a caravan for sev- eral kilometres, offering their carpets for a price which, moderate as it is, is lowered at every suc- cessive demand, so anxious are they to make sales. Many a European traveller regrets his inability to profit by the opportunity to purchase these curi- ous carpets, because of the inconvenience of carrying such encumbering souvenirs of an indus- try decidedly unique. THE CAFE MAURESQUE Now, from the market-place those who care more for the flesh and the devil than for the sanc- tuary repair to the Cafe Mauresque, the estab- lishment of the dancing-girls known as the Ouled 117 SANDS OF SAHARA Nails. It is situated, with its dependencies, to the right, just at the entrance from the desert into the market-place. Here these girls pass on an average two years of their lives, by turns per- forming the "danse du ventre," from about sunset until far into the night. Here gather crowds of the Arabs of the desert from far and wide, sit- ting, smoking, drinking coffee, drowsing, admiring, and dreaming, as one dancing-girl after another approaches them with her bewitching gestures. The music from one-stringed instruments and the sonorous tam-tam, though monotonous to Euro- pean ears, apparently moves their hearts, so that with the smoky atmosphere, the dance, and the music, the troubles of life seem forgotten. As the charmers in turn need repose, they re- tire to a large square court, connected by an arch- way behind the dancing-room, on all sides of which, on the ground, are the divans of the Ouled Nails. Some of them look really beautiful as they promenade under the weight of gold and silver coins and medals, sewn to silk braids of many colors, which generally ornament their heads. One might imagine himself near rose-bushes when these girls come near, so penetrating is the odor of attar of roses, which they use in the water for their ablutions. 118 SANDS OF SAHARA BEDOUIN ENCAMPMENTS All this is within the town of Touggourt. Sur- rounding it, within a radius of three-quarters of a mile, are always several Bedouin encampments, with entire families huddled together under their low tents, their goats, dogs, and camels giving effect to the picture. In front of the Bedouin encampments, men and women work with their primitive looms spread out on the sand, weaving with the coarse brown, black, and grayish-white hair of camels and goats the strong impermeable cloth with which they construct their tents. These looms are very simply arranged on the ground, consisting of two bars of wood with convenient holes into which is attached the twisted warp ; a flat shuttle is passed slowly backward and forward, while the strands of the web are driven home by a bevelled wooden bar. (See illustrations facing pages 120 and 122.) Extra colonies of nomadic Ouled Nails, not so richly dressed as those of the Cafe Mauresque in the town, are found in two neighboring villages ; these combine the questionable traffic of fortune- telling with their other occupations. They are all well defended by talismans, with which they will not part, unless it be for money. Having 119 SANDS OF SAHARA made the acquaintance of Touggourt and its im- mediate surroundings, we proceed with our host and Farjala to penetrate farther into the desert. Farjala was the owner of several palm-groves in different oases, and proved to be very useful in his capacity as guide. NEZLA On elevated ground, about a kilometre to the south of Touggourt, stands the little town of Nezla, of which some idea may be formed by picturing a labyrinth in which low, sun-baked walls and huts instead of trees form the maze, and are the obstructions around which we wend our way, continually turning in every direction, and in whose lanes and alleys scantily clad children seem to be playing at hide-and-seek with us. For some moments a dozen little heads of boys and girls, with twice as many bright eyes, shyly peep out from doors and around the corners in every direction, vanishing as we approach. But their curiosity tempts them to appear again, and they follow when we have passed. Women with veiled faces, and men standing about, lounging in groups, or passing with date- laden donkeys or camels, modestly regard us. Though we encounter many who cannot see, 1 20 SANDS OF SAHARA few demand charity. The inhabitants of this hamlet, characterized by poverty and squalor, have an air of contentment, perhaps resulting from their sense of security from all danger, for not only are the lintels protected by amulets, vegetable, animal, or mineral, but here the people also have placed their reliance greatly in round mirrors, which are cunningly fastened over the entrances of their habitations, so that the evil spirits, perceiving their own hideous forms, may in disgust keep away. Furthermore, Nezla has a marabout's tomb, which is to the inhabitants, especially the women, of greater value than this world's riches, and renders the squalor of the vil- lage of no importance, for it is their belief that reverence of such a shrine insures a reunion with the saintly spirit of that holy one in the life beyond the tomb. At the resting-place of these sacred remains not only do the residents relig- iously assemble, but devout Arabs from many distant oases, whose departed parents were ordi- nary men, often come to kneel at its rude portal. A marabout's tomb is not only a possession of which the people of the village are proud, but is a source of some profit, on account of the money thus contributed by strangers for its support. The principal industry in Nezla is the forming SANDS OF SAHARA and baking of terra-cotta dishes, bowls, and jugs by the men, while the women are occupied with spinning and weaving on their primitive hand- looms. In the potteries, poor artisans, with a few boys to assist them, work untiringly at modelling the clay into the various forms desired. Some of the vases or jugs are formed in three pieces, and it is particularly interesting to observe these pot- ters spin the parts deftly together on a revolving pedestal with only their hands, a smooth stick, and water to form them. The peculiar salt with which the chott water is impregnated seems to facilitate the glazing of their pottery when baked. Having procured several of the round mirrors used as house talismans, we retraced our steps and prepared for a longer tour. SIDI RACHID Certain officials in Sidi Rachid having been noti- fied of the intended visit of a European, Farjala, our guide and companion, and the merchant with whom we had been lodging applied themselves to the arrangement of a sort of drag, or dog-cart, with which to make our day's excursion. An extra pole was rigged to the cart, to which a little pony was already harnessed, and to the pole they hitched a powerful and rather obstreperous mule. 122 •omen weaving Material for Head-Dresses— Haiks. SANDS OF SAHARA Some bread, canned fish, dates, bananas, and brandy stocked our provision-basket. It is not to be supposed that Farjala and my host arranged this outfit by themselves ; on the contrary, during the half-hour in which everything was being made ready on the market-place in front of our sleeping lodge we were assisted by the advice — and at times interference — of a group of forty or fifty- Arabs of many sizes and various complexions. When all was ready these counsellors sent us on our way with prayers for the protection of the prophet. Among these simple-hearted people such an outfitting is an event which somewhat relieves the general monotony of their lives. After traversing for some time the resonant beds of gypsum, which always furnish a more agreeable way than the deep heavy sand, to shorten our route and economize time we passed through the shallow, salt-water chotts, in several of which the splashing of the animals' feet drove away schools of little fish in every direction. (See P a g e 93.) Beyond these lakes the way was more un- dulating, brightened again by sunlit crystals of selenite. Our course was indicated occasionally by the geimaras, ancient towers pointing out the way, most of which on this route are in a dilapi- 123 SANDS OF SAHARA dated condition. We are entertained from time to time in every direction by little animals of the genus Macroscelides tetradactylus, known among the French residents as the Rat a trornpe. They seek insects on the desert-sage, the turpentine bushes, and the vines of the colocynth, the tough roots of which are deeply imbedded in the sand. As they look at us, each cunning fellow swings from side to side his little proboscis, which some- what resembles an elephant's trunk. The colocynth gourds resemble bitter apples ; their plentiful flat and oval seeds are said to yield an oil. As a medicinal fruit, the light spongy pulp was employed by the ancient Greek and Arab physicians. The leaves of the vine resemble those of the cucumber. This tempting gourd is very beautiful and very abundant, which last fact is not to be wondered at, for it is so intensely bitter that no living creature is known to eat of it. As we advanced we enjoyed seeing the little jerboas scampering away at the crack of our driver's whip. The jerboa is of the genus Dipus cBgypticus ; it is sometimes called the "dwarf kangaroo," because of its resembling in miniature the Australian kangaroo. It derives its name Dipus from the fact that when it stands erect, and 124 SANDS OF SAHARA is about to spring, it's fore-paws are so drawn in that it seems to have only the two long legs, which are about six times the length of the fore- paws. The driver's friendly whistle caused the little creatures to turn their keen eyes now and then wonderingly on us as they sought for insects on the stems of the sage. Crested larks were everywhere flitting and hopping about. We heard the sweet tones of the Certhilauda deserti, and the piping of migratory birds. Lizards and chameleons gave animation to the rocks. At the outskirts of Sidi Rachid, which stands on a slight eminence, we were met by the sheik and his retinue, who were waiting to receive us. After a few salutations, we proceeded with him to one of his houses in the town, somewhat amused that this, his house, where we were to be enter- tained at lunch, was not the residence in which he kept his wives. He was willing to accommodate us and entertain us in every other way, but his wives were not to be seen. During our repast the sheik sat, cross-legged and at his ease, under the low arch of the apart- ment in front of us. He was a picturesque figure, his bushy, silvered eyebrows, mustachios, and beard standing out very distinctly on his bronzed skin. He seemed to be more occupied 125 SANDS OF SAHARA in observing our manner of partaking of the meal than of enjoying it himself, and was quite solicitous to know our opinion of the dates, which were from his own palms, but to which, owing to lack of time, we did not do full justice. Lunch hastily disposed of, we soon were in the town again with quite a retinue ; one attendant carried a basket of good size. The houses of Sidi Rachid, made of sun-baked earth, are small and without any comfort; there is almost no furniture except mats of straw or rush, and the door-ways are so low that the people almost crawl when they enter. The streets are narrow and tortuous, as in all the towns of the Sahara. The inhabitants, both human beings and goats, modestly followed us, and children observed us as usual on the sly from the door-jambs and corners, as though we had been representatives of the ancient cliff-dwellers. I explained frankly to the sheik that in a great measure the object of my visit was to obtain amulets, not admitting for a moment that they were evidences of superstition, but rather ex- pressing an interest in the wonderful defensive powers of the objects that met my view. The sheik behaved very amiably, and although he did not command the occupants of the houses to take down the amulets from their lintels, he pleaded 26 SANDS OF SAHARA my cause so urgently, that in a majority of cases my money was exchanged for their amulets. The populace regarded me with mixed sentiments of curiosity and anxiety ; some of them really looked as though they feared that I was an emissary of the evil one, and that at his instance I was carry- ing off the veils that until now had hung between them and him. When we had completed an interesting visit to the suburbs, we re-entered the principal town just as a caravan was starting away for the north. After some persuasion, and through the agency of money, more potent than any amulet, I ob- tained from the leading camel's neck the donkey's foot which had long served as an amulet. At a neighboring way-side refreshment cabin, where palm-juice, eggs, and dates were to be obtained, several amulets came down from the lintels to en- rich my collection, and I also purchased a few talismans of a merchant squatted on the ground at the entrance to the town. When we left Sidi Rachid, in time to reach Touggourt before night, the sheik sent a man to go before the pony and mule to show us a better or shorter way for our return to Toug- gourt. It is wonderful what swift runners these men of the desert are : this one kept in advance 127 SANDS OF SAHARA of our cart for a long distance ; the following day I sent one of them as a messenger all the way from Touggourt to Sidi Rachid, to pro- cure one of the carved wooden bars with which every door in that town is rudely decorated, and at the centre of which hangs a chiselled bronze 01 iron ring with which to pull the door shut or to knock. MEGGERINE One morning, armed with a letter of introduc- tion to the caid of a number of oases to the northwest, we set out on another tour of investi- gation. After passing over some acres of hard beds of gypsum, we ploughed through the heavy sand, and farther on we passed through the shallow salt water of some chotts, where again thousands of little fish hurried away from our course, startled by the noise of our conveyance. Soon we met numerous caravans on the desert, and among the camels we remarked some that were nearly white. We passed through a town, deserted on account of its unhealthiness, and eventually arrived at Meggerine ; a very neat place compared with most other villages or towns in this district. We were accompanied by a mer- chant well known throughout the country as a 128 SANDS OF SAHARA buyer of entire crops of dates, and as a dealer in maize and other grains. On our arrival we repaired immediately to the house and enclosure of the Governor of Mog- gars, the " Caid Ahmed Lalalie," who received us very courteously and kindly invited us to enter. He was a handsome man and really a polished gentleman, of light copper-colored complex- ion. He spoke French perfectly, and when he had occasion to write me afterwards I dis- covered his orthography to be remarkably cor- rect, an accomplishment by no means uni- versal, even in France. He wore a very white turban, bound several times around with a light brown ogol, or twisted cord, of camel's hair, and a white garment, having a red hood and lined throughout with red, and bordered with em- broidery in gold thread. This he wore jauntily thrown open in front ; and under it was a sort of jacket, also heavy with yellow embroidery on the front and on the sleeves. Ample white cotton trousers, a red and yellow silk sash, red leather leggings, black shoes, and tan-colored suede gloves completed his costume, which was really quite elegant, everything seemed so fresh and clean. The Sheik Djemai was also well dressed, though his simpler costume made less 9 129 SANDS OF SAHARA display. The caid showed us through his rooms, and asked us to be seated in one in which he evidently attended to his correspondence ; here was a square table spread with a cloth. He introduced his adjutant (Djaballah ben Mahomet, his cousin), and, knowing the object of my visit, authorized him to accompany us throughout the town, and to arrange with the people so that I might obtain as many evidences of their super- stitions as possible. This was accomplished very thoroughly ; a good part of my collection will show what curious acquisitions were made. The native women and children were curious to see us, but were quite shy, the children par- ticularly hiding themselves around the corners of the narrow streets and in every available nook. The women's loose garments are of indigo blue ; they drape their heads and shoulders with coarse tissues, and veil their faces with elaborately em- broidered thin scarfs, almost transparent. After a couple of hours' search throughout the town we returned to lunch with the caid, which was attended to in a princely manner, though the vegetables savored of the odor of flowers more than we desired. With the dessert, he surprised us with some delicious roasted sugared almonds of different kinds, which we ate with dates. Black 130 SANDS OF SAHARA coffee was served in dainty cups, on a very bright brass salver. At the suggestion of the caid we then pro- ceeded to visit the environs, which proved interest- ing. On lower ground, only a short distance to the northwest, stands the old town, long since de- serted on account of the insalubrity of its climate. More than one object was added to my collec- tion from a ridge between the two towns. A bearer of burdens, carrying an earthenware jar on her head, crossed our path, but halted at the salutation of the sheik. Like other women of her tribe, she wore a long, thin, gauze scarf of translucent blue, adorned and brightened by fine needle-work in yellow and red, which, after encir- cling her body from the waist, was passed grace- fully up over the head, so that a thin point, more tastefully embroidered, veiled her face. Beneath this point, on her forehead, she wore a diminutive hand of Fatma, in silver, with a dark enamelled wrist, which talisman, through the intercession of the sheik, and for a satisfactory consideration, came into my possession. As we passed again through the town on our departure we remarked that on the walls of the houses were a great number of skulls of camels, fastened over the doors and on the corners as 131 SANDS OF SAHARA amulets. We left with the kind wish that these amulets migh prove effectual. We were not alone on our departure, for the good people kept with us until we were well on the way. One grain of sand resembles another, yet the desert at this point presented new features : there were more undulations, clumps of scrub-sage and turpentine cropped up from each little mound, and at every kilometre stood those ancient, dilapi- dated geimaras, friendly assurances that we were on the right course. As usual, the evening brought now and then belated caravans, on their way to rest for the night at the town we had just quitted. During all these journeys our wandering way had been varied by beds of gypsum, which re- sounded like muffled drums to the camel's foot- steps, or had been brightened by the sunlight re- flected in the ever-welcome outcropping crystals of selenite, occasionally varied by white flakes of saltpetre, groups of date-bearing palms, and strag- gling sage-bushes, or by those running vines so temptingly laden with the bitter colocynth fruit, from which all living creatures turn aside. THE DUNES OF EL OUED Turning our backs on this quasi-civilization, in which we have seen so many evidences of super- 132 SANDS OF SAHARA stition, we journeyed to the southeast, away from the diversion afforded by passing animals and the numerous tribesmen of caravans, and entered on a barren area in which we saw nothing but golden sand and sunshine. Here one finds in all its intensity the element of silence, which no- where prevails to such an extent, for here it almost disputes the supremacy of the sunlight. One is here reminded of a vast treeless tract over which winds continued during many days have drifted heavy snow, rolling it up into innu- merable little hillocks. Here within the dunes of El Oued the mountains of golden sand have been tossed and rolled up in every direction for miles, and then, just as though in the midst of a great stormy upheaval all motion had instantane- ously ceased, each dune had been transfixed, like Lot's wife. These nomadic mounds rest without a trace of life, without a footprint to break or mar their undulatory surfaces, each grain of sand sparkling with reflected light in the still- ness of the desert, the geometrical form of the grains evidently contributing to their attractive appearance, until another sand-storm may drive them away, perhaps twenty or thirty kilometres. A compass might be very serviceable in finding one's way to the oases and villages beyond, but 133 SANDS OF SAHARA not every itinerant Arab is supplied with such an appliance, so the geimaras, or stone towers, already alluded to, have been erected with great difficulty out of stone brought laboriously by camel-back to these sand-hills in the desert. These towers not only indicate the path to El Oued in one direction and Touggourt in the other, but they serve as refuges. We were impressed, as the stranger must al- ways be, with the delightfully pure atmosphere of the desert, which revives and animates all who pass this way. But we were forced to turn away from one wonder after another and return to Touggourt, crossing with difficulty a stream of water pursuing a winding course through a rough channel. With renewed pleasure we reached the gardens and groves of the suburbs of Touggourt, which already seemed to be our home. TEMACIN AND THE MARABOUT Among other interesting excursions practicable in this section of the Sahara, is that to Temacin, southwest of Touggourt. The route, similar to those already described, passes through a num- ber of oases, some of which have had to be abandoned, new artesian wells sunk in other places having drawn away the source of water. 134 SANDS OF SAHARA Our journey was enlivened by meeting some hun- ters, who had shot two gazelles and an antelope, for either of which they demanded only a sum equal to sixty cents in United States currency. A most unique and picturesque sight was formed by two Arab horsemen, each of whom had a falcon on his shoulder and another on his hand ; as there was no game in sight at the moment, the birds were hooded. We continued our way for two kilometres south- west of Temacin to a village, where we visited the Marabout Mohammed el Aid Ben Ali Tidjani, at his Zaouia. We entered this more preten- tious village by a portal, and though the streets were narrow they were covered in places by arches; deep niches on either side afforded pro- tection from the rays of the sun. We were con- ducted almost immediately to the house of the marabout, who received us most courteously in a cosy, interesting drawing-room, a most unex- pected thing in this region. He had quite a collection of unique objects hanging on the walls or displayed on brackets and tables. On a cabinet stood a terra-cotta incense-burner, in which smouldered a sacred fire fed by aromatic gum, a further evidence that in the shades of religion among the various tribes 135 SANDS OF SAHARA o the desert, both local and nomadic, customs and tenets were borrowed from other countries and other faiths. In all these excursions in this part of the desert we were accompanied by Far- jala, and on this occasion his intercession enabled me to become the possessor of that earthenware incense-burner ; though its fire has long since ceased to burn, the cinders and unconsumed frag- ments of the fragrant gum still remain within the charred vessel. After we had inspected the many curious objects which decorated or added to the comfort of his apartment, the marabout entertained us at an almost too-bountiful lunch. A number of dishes, very peculiar in flavor, were served, each being perfumed as with the extract of roses or other flowers ; one of the most acceptable of these was prepared with lentils and raisins. Perhaps our palates might have become accustomed to his Oriental cookery if we could have continued at his board during some weeks, but of many of the dishes we partook very sparingly. It was amus- ing to observe with what gusto our attendants attacked these dishes. They also helped them- selves freely to the dates, which we esteemed as a luxury. The repast ended, we proceeded to see the town. 136 SANDS OF SAHARA Near the corner of a crooked street, a heavy door ajar afforded sufficient space for us to see into a public school. The apartment was like a court, of which the centre was open to the sky, the four sides roofed sufficiently to protect the scholars from the rays of the sun. As we peeped in, some of the boys looked up from the wooden tablets on which were inscribed portions of the surahs, which they were striving to commit to memory ; but they were not annoyed by our presence, nor did any of them interrupt the singing of their lessons, which produced a perfect bedlam, of which, however, they seemed entirely unconscious. In this manner the knowledge of the counsel and the laws of their prophet have been inculcated through many gen- erations. Costumed like their fathers in miniature, they sit around their teacher, their knees support- ing their wooden tablets, assured that if they were assiduous they would go into the world fortified against the trials and snares of this transitory life; and, far better, that through this knowledge they would rejoin their ancestors in the true life beyond the grave, where they should forever sit down with the prophet of God and do no work, for an Arab's idea of Paradise is a realm where labor shall be unknown. We were shown the mosque (really worth see- 137 SANDS OF SAHARA ing), with its mimbar and arched dome ornamented with arabesque stucco resembling coarse lace- work. In an adjoining crypt were the tombs of marabouts who had gone before. We were aware that Mohammed el Aid Ben Ali Tijani was endeavoring to read in our countenances the amount of our admiration, and we gave him rea- sonable satisfaction. From the gallery of the minaret of this mosque one may overlook the town and command a view of several small oases, from which the men of those hamlets patiently plod through the desert sand to pay their tribute at the throne of the prophet. In more than one hut we saw women seated on the ground turning between them a heavy hori- zontal millstone, grinding grain into a coarse flour (a good subject for an artist, exceedingly pic- turesque). So intently were they concerned in reducing the grain to meal that they, like the wor- shippers in the mosques, did not seem conscious of our presence. When our visit to the village of the Zaouia was accomplished we expressed our hearty thanks for kind attentions and walked back to the old dilapi- dated town of Temacin, whose ruined houses rise in several tiers above the hillock on which it was originally constructed. The approach is over a 138 SANDS OF SAHARA bridge ; one enters the town through an old arched gate-way, and after mounting the narrow streets a view may be had from the upper terraces of one of the few salt lakes of this region. On the shores of this lake grow coarse grasses, rushes, and the tamarisk-tree or shrub, a thorny evergreen, with scale-like leaves and clusters of rosy-pink flowers on the ends of its branches. It is in these salt deserts that this low tree occurs and flour- ishes. It exists through long droughts ; in fact, wherever this plant, or tree, is found nothing else will grow, and it thrives when almost all other vegetation is scorched by the rays of the sun. Some of the bushes are large enough to afford shade during the hottest weather. The ashes of the tamarisk yield sulphate of soda. Just outside of the walls of the town, and between it and a moat of salt water, is the market-place. At the time of our visit it was the day of one of their principal fairs at Temacin. The esplanade was crowded with merchants, and many clients were bargaining with them for their wares. This bargaining is one of the pecu- liar features of Sahara life — the merchant demands a far greater price than he ever hopes to obtain. The equally naive buyers know this and each man has generally four or five friends or hangers-on, 139 SANDS OF SAHARA who join in the dickering, give their opinions and advice, and when the bargain is at last consum- mated, if it arrives at that point, these counsellors turn to the right or the left seeking some new victim. We were speaking with those accompanying us concerning certain wares spread out on the ground for sale, when the blind dwarf, the egg-merchant whom we met at the market at Touggourt, recog- nized our host's voice, and groping about soon found his hand ; it was wonderful to see how his distorted face lighted up with pleasure at find- ing his friend. The dwarf kept by us and re- mained with us until we were ready to leave. As with many denominations these men of the desert count their prayers on chaplets of polished brown wooden beads, of which several varieties were exposed among the merchandise on sale. Contented with this exhibition of men and man- ners at the market of Temacin, we took our leave in the afternoon. On our way back to Touggourt we again viewed some of the astonishing pools of warm salt water, rising from the artesian wells en route. It will be interesting to account for the presence and source of a lake in this otherwise arid region. Of the sunlight and heat there is a superabund- 140 SANDS OF SAHARA ance. It has long since been suggested that there is a subterranean channel of water by which the Mediterranean Sea connects with Lake Med- jerja southeast of Temacin. On returning from this expedition we visited this Lake Medjerja. In it we found the fish Cyprinodon dispar, also the African Chromidce, and a fish said to be similar to a species taken in the Mediterranean. We em- ployed an Arab to catch some specimens of the latter, and had them cooked at Touggourt. The little islands of this lake abound with flocks of black water-fowl. On the islands and the shores are rushes and tamarisk-bushes and trees similar to those of the salt lake near Temacin. At sunset of the day before leaving Touggourt for the north, we strolled out into the desert to visit the tombs of the marabouts. No guide was needed to show the way, for the route was con- stantly indicated by the pilgrims from villages near and wide. We remarked with pleasure those devout Mussulmans trudging through the sand, and kneeling in earnest prayer at the shrines of their ancestral holy ones. This presents to us a fact meriting consideration. These Mahometans of this land where we are sojourning, the Brah- mins of India, and the Buddhists, one of the most numerous religious denominations on this earth, 141 SANDS OF SAHARA have each and all during many centuries enjoyed just such assurances of the reasonableness of their faiths as we Christians. Their ardor is to be admired as they silently express their trust in the mediation of their sacred dead whom they believe can and will intercede for them. Every tomb, every monument, every grove, each individual fruit-bearing palm, has interested us ; yet after one more glance at the primitive modes of enjoyment of the natives, — their innocent distrac- tions, their music, and their peculiar dances, which lead later to the gradual fatigue that causes one after another to cover up his head for the re- pose of the night, — we, too, become weary and prepare to take our places in the van (or courier) in the early hours of the dawning day en route for richer oases and civilization in the north. At seven o'clock in the morning came the sunrise, which compares favorably with sunrise at sea, the vapors hanging over the sands giving greater color and effect to the sunrise on the Sahara. With the daylight we saw other strange sights, and among them those that caused us almost to expect to arrive at some of the great cities with bat- tlements and verdant trees ; but these proved, like so many other experiences of life, to be only the visions, the illusions of one mirage after another. 142 SANDS OF SAHARA Thus we passed from Ourlana to Sidi Khelil, tasting here and there luscious dates, believing that we know something about their various qual- ities, or rather trying to become connoisseurs, for that is every man's occupation in that country. The colocynth was abundant here and there, and the jerboa, or dwarf kangaroo, spurted along and sported among the parched vines, and from a vantage-ground on the little hillocks of sand sur- veyed us again and again. After traversing a dreary, briny chott, which an hour before appeared to be a vast lake, we took fresh mules and passed over a section rich in out- cropping fragments of mica and selenite, the trans- parent crystallized variety of gypsum, which in the sunlight sparkled like so many diamonds. There were also numerous opaque crystals of alabaster. So undulating was the route at this point that the wagon rocked and pitched like a boat. Then for three or four kilometres the surface of the sand was white with flakes of nitre, as mentioned before. While changing mules at El Berd (a military bourg), we tried to get a few snap-shots of char- acteristic Arabs who were loitering around, but they all turned their heads quickly away, or cov- ered their faces with their outspread hands. In 143 ■H SANDS OF SAHARA some districts no dislike is manifested to the ko- dak, though, as a general rule, Mussulmans do object to their portraits being taken by Christians. The Arab who on this occasion was the most active in covering his face was even more so in appropriating a considerable portion of the con- tents of our lunch-basket. In the afternoon we arrived at the well-known M'Raier,* one of the few comfortable bourgs or resting-places on this route. Whether in going south from Cora or in com- ing north from Touggourt, the old town of M'Raier is approached, after a long day's journey, by a road or tortuous lane which traverses in its winding way a group of several palm groves, which form the oasis bearing the name of the town. The road or lane is the pebbled course of a shallow stream of salt water which becomes a torrent during the annual rains, at which time alone sweet water may be obtained. This lane on either side is flanked the whole distance by sun-baked walls, which protect the palm gardens during the wet season. The walls are frequently cracked, be- cause within the sun-baked earth the trunks of living palm-trees, which were intentionally left as * Pronounced em-rye-air. 144 SANDS OF SAHARA supports, naturally increase and crowd out the walls as the trees crow larger. This is the case with the walls of the houses wherever smaller vegetation establishes itself. The roots of the wild desert sage are very coarse and are apt to be transplanted and introduced into the great brick of the walls when the soft wet mass is being formed. Just outside the most southern group, and close to some stalwart palms, an artesian well recently sunk has produced an enormous flow of warm salt water, the vicinity of which is always crowded. Near it, within a great oblong- walled caravansary, is accommodation for man and beast. The rooms, in a row, have floors paved with stone, thick walls, little light, and few comforts. Yet under the cir- cumstances this bourg, or refuge, seems to the weary traveller to be a palace in that arid region. The town is near another garden of palms. Its chief attraction, both for the residents and for those who care to see how all men live, is the market- place, or public square. It was near sunset the last time we were there, the men had come in from whatever toil had occupied them during the day, and it seemed almost as though they had grouped themselves around and about that little market- place, knowing that we were coming, and with a 145 I SANDS OF SAHARA desire to render the scene as picturesque as pos- sible. If such was their intention, they succeeded admirably, for the scene lives now within my mem- ory, though, much to my regret, time failed in which to sketch it in color. The men were grouped together in little coteries here, there, and everywhere ; some of them were smoking fragrant tobacco, and several were pre- paring tobacco for smoking by pounding it in large wooden bowls with wooden pestles. Others were looking on and advising two who were playing a game somewhat resembling draughts, the pieces shaped like bishops in a game of chess. The by-standers, as is usual in that land, took more interest in the game and had more to say about the play than had the two players. Others again were entertained with gossip, and still others lis- tened to the oft-repeated stories of the skilful Oriental romancers (more than a thousand of which have suffered by translation into our less poetical language), leaning on an elbow or nursing their legs while they cradled their chins on their knees and watched the gesticulations of the story-tellers. A large oblong pool was continually surrounded by the toilers, who replenished their skin sacks with its warm salt water. It is astonishing that a 146 SANDS OF SAHARA human being can carry one of those large skins when fully charged. A glance within some of the houses disclosed the fact that they had no wooden floors. The in- habitants live and sleep on the earth, which is smoothed by the constant pressure of their bare feet. Straw mats give to the apartments some decoration and to the occupants some sense of luxury. In the public place men and women were plaiting mats of rushes, which are used as floor- coverings, and some families of well-to-do date- growers afford themselves the comfort of Toug- gourt carpets or rugs, laid upon these rush mats. There was no undue staring at us ; all were courteous. One Arab, better dressed than the average, and having an air of refinement, came to us, offered some information, and escorted us through the town. With his assistance we visited the houses where women were weaving thin ma- terials in white and blue for their garments, the carvers of wooden door-bars, the chisellers of rings for door-knockers, not always round, but of vari- ous shapes and unique designs, as are also the palm-leaf baskets, some of which have open- work sides. On returning at night to our caravansary, we 147 SANDS OF SAHARA were regaled at dinner with steaks of antelope. After our repast, though it was evening, we vis- ited again the remarkable flow of warm water from the new artesian well close to our camping- ground. An estimate has been made of the probable duration of the water-supply in this desert. It has been suggested that, from the degree of de- crease observed in the flow from many wells, in about ten years water will have to be imported on camel-back across the desert, unless some new subterranean sources are discovered and reached by boring. It is a remarkable fact that frequently when a new well is opened some other fountain within the distance of two kilometres will cease to flow. A weary life is that of those keeping a way-side bourg for the lodging of infrequent travellers in such a barren country. Therefore, as there were five wanderers gathered around the landlord's board that evening, the event might have been considered brilliant. What with the plentiful and comforting repast (in which game figured prominently), the accounts given of many adventures and interesting incidents, with a bone thrown now and then to the dog, that landlord, his wife, his son Joseph, with a coat of 148 SANDS OF SAHARA more than one color but no brothers, and that dog managed to have an amusing time. The sleeping apartments were on the ground (the only floor) on three sides of a protected square within which the mules and their drivers were quartered for a part of the night. Like the experience of many travellers, the plain accommodation afforded for two or three hours that night compared favorably with occasions when rich furniture and fine linen had been our lot. The few hours that remained before the in- evitable early start were given to slumber. On the morrow, in the small hours of the dawn- ing day, we set out on the final section of our journey towards the north and civilization. Passing again through the narrow walled way between the palms as we left M'Raier, we entered again upon the desert, at times crossing dry ra- vines, called oueds (rivers), and said to contain water at certain seasons. Then once more our course was upon nearly barren stretches of sage- covered plains. With difficulty rising to another plateau, our mules plodding slowly through the deep sand afforded us an opportunity of observing one of the most picturesque scenes in this often monotonous journey. Marching almost as a regiment, a herd 149 SANDS OF SAHARA of shaggy, long-haired goats strolled out on the plain everywhere before us, with Arab shepherds, a few ouleds (boys), and four knowing shepherd dogs. For the moment they were the chief attraction on the visible expanse of the desert, until in the dis- tance a number of antelopes crossed the route we were about to take. Their gait was amusing, for so frequently did they bound and spring in air that they seemed to be leaping over barriers which, like the mirage, existed only in their imagi- nations. Our stop at Am Chegga* for lunch, which was carried with us, was a godsend for a rooster, a cat, a timid starved dog, and the old proprietress of five or six palm-trees and a gourbi or Arab hut. The little family gladly shared our repast, and looked as though they would have welcomed us had we daily returned to partake of their shade, which, with a rickety table, was their only hospi- tality. Journeying on again we passed more caravans ; in one we saw a camel which we were told was conveying a young negress on her way to the negro village beyond Old Biskra to be married to a rich date-planter. She was constantly con- * Ai'n signifies a spring. 150 SANDS OF SAHARA cealed from view in the arch-covered saddle, the illustration of which is given on page 151. In the same caravan were several camels carrying their new-born young, and other camels but a few days old, which followed as though that had been their occupation for many years. After we had taken our last relay of mules we saw more people in the desert ; there were more oases and villages, for we were nearing the mer- cantile centre. We passed more frequently hun- ters carrying game — antelopes and gazelles — on their backs. No longer could this game be pur- chased for three francs apiece, for the men had walked for three or four days over the desert, and now that they were approaching the market of Biskra they must be paid for their fatigue. The price had been augmented, and ten or even twelve francs were firmly refused. As the Chateau Landon came into view we saw again what industry and art can accomplish, even in the desert. The chateau is charming, with its grounds, its shady avenues, its rare trees and plants, — a very palace where before was desola- tion. We drove through the village Negre, and soon realized that the horse of iron and his steel way are driving out superstition by opening men's eyes, 151 SANDS OF SAHARA brightening their intellects, and introducing civili- zation. Then, reviewing all these curious evi- dences of superstition, I realized the great value of that amulet given to us by our Heavenly Father, that amulet, our Redeemer, Who sitteth forever at the right hand of God, that whoso believeth on Him and trusteth in Him shall finally rest in His realm, and never die. 152 APPENDIX The following is a list of the talismans secured during my journey in the Desert of Sahara. They are in my collection in The Free Museum of Science and Art, University of Pennsylvania. Donkey's foot, taken from the neck of a camel in a cara- van starting from Sidi Rachid. Gourd and appendages. Over a house-door to protect the inmates from disease. Sidi Rachid. Gourd, dried and shrivelled, with shells attached. To defend from evil spirits. Over a door at Sidi Rachid. A skull, said to be that of a jackal. Taken from over a door in Sidi Rachid. Placed there to give good luck in hunting and to keep off the jackals at night. Jawbone of an animal, cord attached. Taken from over a door at Sidi Rachid. Four amulets from over the doors of houses, Sidi Rachid. These consist of bags of coarse materials filled with sand, salt, etc. Donkey's foot, taken from over a door of a house. To protect the absent one of a family. Meggerine. Donkey's foot, taken from the outside lintel of a sun-dried mud house with an inner court. Meggerine. i53 APPENDIX Talisman from Meggerine. Bone amulet to keep the devil from the house. From Meggerine. Amulet. Bag of coarse material pierced with thorns from certain palm-trees. To keep disaster from the house. Meg- gerine. Seven amulets from over the doors of houses, Meggerine. They consist of bags of coarse materials. Door amulet from Meggerine. Cloth bag with peppers attached. Artificial fish, painted. Arabic inscription on its front, written in large characters, Naala ala Ech Chatane — "That curses be spread upon thee, O devil." Another such in- scription is Emsche ruah Chatane — " Get thee out, Satan." Natural fish, dried and painted. Found hanging before the shop of a locksmith, who said that it had been guarded to protect the vision of his ancestors. Pair of talismanic ear-rings. Bought from a poor merchant outside of Nezla. Three engraved brass Fatima hands. Four rude, painted, pasteboard Fatima hands. From Tunisie. Fatima hand, faience, from a garden gate. Two talismanic necklaces of spice with metallic Fatima hands. Talismanic necklace for a horse. Five gilded glass talismans. Talisman, lizard skin, from over a door at Nezla. Two talismans containing sacred texts. Three Mohammedan rosaries. Five cowries. i54 APPENDIX Cowrie, bought at a well near Carthage, off a girl's neck, by the permission of her father. Jawbone of an animal. From a house in Nezla. Part of a wealthy woman's trousers, with the symbolic hand of Fatima. Wooden hand of Fatima. It was hanging over the front door of the shop of a barber and watch repairer. It had been during seventy years in the family of the man from whom it was procured. Mirrors from houses in Nezla. ' ' If the devil comes and sees himself he will be so disgusted that he will run away. ' ' Talismans to place under the arms when the blood is over- heated. From Touggourt. Talisman containing a quotation from a sura in the Koran. Foot of a porcupine. Arabic inscription on the silver holder. Foot of a porcupine. Repousse mounting. Two metal talismans, bought from nomadic girls of the Ouled Nails.* Leather talisman, bought from nomadic girl of the Ouled Nails. Talisman obtained from a girl of the Ouled Nails. Paper wound with cord. Taken from the neck of the girl. Black ebony talisman with inscriptions. Large silver Fatima hand, set with forty-six stones and having coral pendants. Four belts with Fatima hands. Egg-shell amulet, cord strung with small onions. * Pronounced Na-eel. 155 APPENDIX Egg-shell amulet, cord strung with peppers. Tin talisman from Ouled Na'ils girls, Bedouin camp, Toug- gourt. Hone stones on which the Arabs sharpen their knives. They are ornamented, and, through long use, passing from father to son, are regarded as talismans. Talisman with a long cord. Procured from a woman who passed it around her waist and around her neck. From Bedouin camp. Smooth brass talisman. Procured with difficulty. From Bedouin camp. Five tin talismans from Bedouin camp. Two talismans with five cowries. From Bedouin camp. Eleven leather talismans from Bedouin camp, near Toug- gourt. Silver talisman with blue stone centre, worn by a child. Mohammedan inscription on both sides. Talismanic necklace of beads with moon-shaped silver pendant. Tooth set in silver. Hunter's talisman. Beni-Mora. Two teeth set in silver wire. Hunter's talisman. 156 INDEX * Ablutions, faithful performing their, 14, 15, 95 Ad Piscinam (ancient), 88 ^Esculapius, 80, 82 Am Chegga, 84, 97, 150 Aissouai, itinerant, 74-75 Algeria, its mosques, 10-17 Algerian garden, the, 40-42 Algiers, 10, 26, 52, 79 Court of the Fountains, 14-15 port of, 10 quays of, 1 1 Alma, 43 Almond- trees, 43 Amphorae, 46, 62 Amulets, 32, 79, 96, 121, 126, 127, 132 and talismans, 85-90 Ancient Greek theatre, Syracuse, 7 Roman cities, Africa, 7, 80 Appendix, list of talismans, 153-156 Apple-trees, 100 Arch of Septimus Severus, 80, 83 Artesian Wells, 99, 113, 114, 115, 140 Asha, second period of prayer, 16 Asr, fifth period of prayer, 16, 17 Asrayl, Moslem archangel, ^3 Atlas Mountains, 50, 52, 73 Auctioneers, the, and blind dwarf, 108-109 Azouza, 63 Bamboos, 41, 43 Bananas, 42, 123 Banana- trees, 40 Barbers, 102 Batna, 12, 79, 80, 84 Bazaars, 38, 39, 93, 103 Bedouin encampments, 1 19-120 Bedouins, 79 Belloua, 48, 49, 53 Bellouan funeral, a, 48-50 Beni-Mancour, 79, 101 Bernouse, 60, 68, 101, 108, 117 Bir Djefair, 84 Biskra, 12, 79, 84, 90, 93, 94, 151 Blacksmith, no Blind dwarf, the auctioneers and, 108, 140 Blod Guitoun, 43 Bossuet, 20 Bougie, 5 1 Bowls, 122 Cafe Mauresque, 117-119 " Caid Ahmed Lalalie," 129 Camel, goat, and donkey market, 109-111 Camel races, 90-93 Camels, 90, 92 carrying their young, 151 drinking, 96-98 nearly white, 128 slaughter of, no Camels' skulls fastened over doors, 92, 136 Camp Marechal, 43 Cape Caxine, 18 Caravans, 93, 94, 96, 127 carrying women, 95 conveying young negress, 1 50 '57 INDEX Catacombs at Syracuse, 8, 9 Cave "Dionysius's ear," 9 Chateau Landon, 151 Chinese figure — stone, 86 Chott Melgigh, 98 Chotts, tracts of salt water, 93, 1 22, 123, 128, 143 Cocoanuts, 42 Coffee merchants, 68 primitive manner of making, 69 Colocynth, 124, 132, 143 Colonnade, 82 Commandant, house of, 103, 104 Cora, 90, 144 Cork-trees, 50, 51, 63 commercial importance of, 63 maturity of, 63 removal of bark from, 63 Corso, 43 Costumes, 39, 61, 64, 68, 72, 10 1, in, 129, 130 Court of the Fountains, 14, 15 Cous-cous, the national dish, 94, 105, 107, 108 Dancing girls (Ouled Nails), 117, 118 "Danse du Ventre," 118 Date-palms, groves of, 24, 84, 100, 103, 132 Dates, 45, 97, 99, 103, 107, 126, 143 Deglet Nour, finest grown, 100 Dealers, 32, 39, 66, 67, 68, 105, 109 Desert of Sahara, 12, 84, 85, 93-96 "Dionysius's ear," cave, 9 Divisions of the day, 16 Djaballah ben Mahomet, 130 Djama el Djedid, mosque, 33, 39 Djama el Kebir, mosque, most ancient, 14 Donkeys, 104, 106, no Dormitories and refectory, 27-29 Dra-el-Mizan, 51 Duhr, fourth period of prayer, 16 Dunes of El Oued, 79, 132-134 Earthenware incense-burners, 106, 107, 135, 136 utensils, 105 El Berd (a military bourg), 143 El-Guera, 79, El Hadjira, 84 El Kantara, 79, 84 El Oued, dunes of, 79, 132-134 Encampment of prisoners' wives, 103-104 Enchanter comes, the, 78 English railway, 79 En route for the sands, 78-79 Eucalyptus-trees, 26, 40, 43 Evening at the village mosque, 52- 54 Fakirs and fortune-tellers, 71-73, 119 Fan-makers, 1 17 -merchants, 106 Farjala, 104, 120, 122, 123, 136 Fatma, favorite wife of Mahomet, 87 hand of, 87 y 88, 131 legend of hand of, 87 Fayum, natives of, 30 Figs, 45, 9 8 > 103 Fig-trees, 43 Fish, 123, 128, 141 "Fort National," 64 Forum at Lambessa, 80 at Thimgad, 80, 81, 83 Fountains, 39, 45, 46 Court of the, 14, 15 French government, 24, 79, 84 Game resembling draughts, 146 Gamhra, sweetest water at, 98 [ 5 8 INDEX Gandouras, 68, 108 Garden, the Algerian, 40-42 Gardens, 98 and industrial buildings, 24-27 Gate of the desert, the, 84-85 Geimaras, ancient stone towers, 123, 132, 134 Girls, 45, 46, 62 married and unmarried, 72 Goats, 51, 64, 92, 96, 150 Goat's milk, 94, 103 Gorge of Chiffa, 35, 37, 40 its monkeys, 35-38 Governor of Moggars, 129 Greek theatre, Syracuse, 7 Gum benjamin, 107 Gypsum, beds of, 93, 123, 128, 132 Haiks, 68, 72 Hand of Fatma, 87, 88, 131 Hasheesh, 66, 102 Henna, 107 Hezzabin, 33 Hooded falcons, 109, 135 Houses of Sidi Rachid, 126 Incense-burners, 106, 107, 135, 136 Indian hemp, 102 India-rubber trees, 40 Industrial buildings, gardens and, 24-27 Inhabitants of Nezla, 121 of Touggourt, 1 01 Interesting sights, 1 3 Iron bridges at Sebaou River, 59 Israfyl, Moslem archangel, 33 Itinerant Aissouai, 74-75 fanatic performances of, 74 Ixos, the dusky, 17 Jackals, skulls, 92 Jebrayl, Moslem archangel, 2,3 Jerboa, 124, 143 Jewellers, 103 Jewelry, 65, 72 Jugglers, 72 Jugs, 65, 122 Kabylia, 12, 42-44, 45, 56, 57, 63 costume, 46, 57 de Djurdjura, 12 jewelry, 65 women, 61 Kabylians, 50, 68, 70, 71, 77 and their country, glimpse at, 56- 57 Kabylian scenery, 50-52 Kasba, 11, 18, 40, 113 of the Agha, 103 Kef-el-Akhdar, 97 Khartum, 30 Knife-makers, 65, 103, no Koran, 31, 55, 65 manuscript copies, richly illumi- nated, 33 Kufieyah, 67, 72, 101 Lake Medjerja, connects with Medi- terranean, 141 Lambessa, ancient Roman city, 79, 80 and Thimgad, 80-84 Lares and Penates, 82, 83 Latonia del Paradiso (ancient quarry), 9 La Trappe, 1 9, 23, 28 Leather dealers, 103, 105 Lemons, 43, 98 List of talismans (Appendix), 153- 156 Little mosque at base of mountain, 53 Looms, primitive, 119, 122 L'Oued Rir, 99, 103 M'Raier, 79, 84, 90, 98, 144, 149 market-place, 145 Machine-shops, 24 159 INDEX Madagascar cypress-trees, 40 ravenala (water-tree), 41 Maghrib, first period of prayer, 16 Magnolia-trees, 40 Mahomet, 15, 49, 55, 87 legend of protection of head, 87 Mandarins, 42, 98 Marabout, the, 48, 49, 89 Temacin and, 134-152 Marabouts, tombs of, 1 21, 138, 141 Marche de la Lyre, 40 Marcus Aurelius, 80 Market-day at Touggourt, 104- 106 of Souk-el-Arba, 64 -place, 83, 101, 102, 117, 139 Massinissa, 56 Massyli, 56 Mauri tanian kingdoms, 56 Meggerine, 79, 128-132 " Memento mori," 26 Menerville, 43 Junction, 79 Merchants, 66, 68, 104, 106, 139 Mikayl, Moslem archangel, t>3 Mimbar (pulpit), 32, in, 138 Minarets, 11, 30, 34, 53, 72, 112, 138 Mirage, 94, 142 Mohammed el Aid, Ben Ali Tid- jani, marabout, 135, 138 Mohammedans, 56 Monastery at Syracuse, 8 of Staoueli (Trappist), i7~ 2 9 Monkeys, Gorge of Chiffa, 34-38 Monks of La Trappe, 19, 22 principal industry of, 25 rules for, 27 Moorish cafes, 39 fort, old, 18 houses and bazaars in the Oriental city, 38-40 Mosaic floors, 80, 8^ Moslem archangels, four principal, 33 Moslems, 32, 54 Mosques, 14, 32, 2,3, 53, "i-"2, 137, 138 of Algeria, 10-17 Mount Belloua, 45-48 Mountains, Atlas, 50, 52, 73 Muezzin, the, II, 16, 30, 53, 112 Museum, 80 of the Louvre, Paris, 80 of University of Pennsylvania, 30, 66, 86, 90, 153 Mustapha, II Suph S4- National games, 83 Negre, 151 Nezla, 79, 120-122 Ngouca, 84 Nomads, 89, 1 13, 115 Numidia (ancient), 56 Oases, 84, 98, 115 Off to Souk-el-Arba, 57-64 Old Moorish fort, 18 Olive-trees seven hundred years old, 65 Oranges, 25, 43, 98 Order of the Trappists, 19-29 Oriental city, Moorish houses and bazaars in, 38-40 Ostrich eggs, curiously engraved, 30 farm, 29-30 feathers, 30 Ouargla, 84, 89 Oued Gheiir, 97, 103 Smar, 43 Ouled Nails, dancing girls, 117, 118, 119 Ourlana, 84, 143 Palm groves, 98-100 -trees, 40, 99, 100, 116, 144 :6o INDEX Plane-trees, 40, 43 Pliny, 88 Pointe Pescade, 18 Pompeii, 81 Potteries, 122 Praetorium, 80 Prayer, posture for, 31 carpets, 31 mats, 11, 14, 31, 34, 54, 112 Prayers for the dead, 48 Primitive coffee merchants, 68 hand-looms, 119, 122 locks and keys, 106 ploughs, 44 shepherds, 63 Prior Zosimus, 23 Public baths, 80, 83 latrines, 80 school (Zaouia), 137 Quays of Algiers, 1 1 Railways, 79, 84, 85 Ramadan, 54-55 Ranee, Armand Jean Bouthillier de, 20 Abbot of La Trappe, 20 Canon of Notre Dame de Paris, 20 Rat a trompe, 124 Reghaia, 43 Remarkable flow of warm water, 148 Rohan- Montbazon, Duchess of, 21 Roman cities in Africa, 7 Roses, fields of rare, 24 Rouiba, 43 Ruins, massive, African Desert, 7, 81 Saada, 84, 97 Sakerja (aromatic leaves), 102 Salt lakes, 112, 139, 140 Sand-storms, 98, 105, 133 School of industrial arts and traues, 61 Scrub sage, 97, 106, 132 Seaside city, 30-34 Season of Ramadan, 54 Sebaou River, iron bridges over, 59 Septimus Severus, arch of, 80 Setif, 51, 79 Setil, 84 Sewers, of massive stone, 81 Sheep, herds of, 64, 114 Sheik, 125, 127, 129, 131 Shoemakers, 67, 103 Shops, 61, 80, 81, 103 Side aba el Rohmen el Talebi (Mosque), 40 Sidi-Feruch, 18 Sidi-Khelil, 84, 143 Sidi Rachid, 79, 122-128 Skilled mechanics, no Skulls and bones on doors and walls, 92, 131 Snake-charmers, 75-76 Snow-clad mountains, 43, 60 Souk-el-Arba, 58, 59, 78, 64-71 Staoueli, 17, 24, 59 monastery at, 17-29 Statues, 80, S3, 84 Stone for ablutions, 15, 95, 112 Story-teller, 76-77 Subh, third period of prayer, 16, 17 Subterranean grotto, 38 sea, 114 Symbolic ablutions, 95 Syracuse, ancient Greek theatre at, 7 catacombs at, 8, 9 monastery, 8 vast caverns, 8 Talismans, 30, 32, 79, 82, 86, 87, 89,91, 119, 122, 131 161 INDEX Talismans for animals, 90 Tamarisk-trees, 112, 139, 141 Tamazirt, 61 Tamerna Kedima, 84, 98 Tamghout Lalla Khadidja, 51, 52 Taza, 60 Tchagra shrike, 17 Temacin, 79, 108, 112 and the marabout, 134-152 market-place, 139 Temple of Jupiter, 80 of Victory, 81 Terra-cotta benches, 116 dishes, 122 incense-burner, 135 tiles, 71, 72 Theatre, 8^ Thermae (public baths), 8^ Thimgad, 79, 80 Lambessa and, 80-84 Thunder-storm in the mountains, 58 "Tieeb; tieeb kateer," 75 Tizi Ouzou, 44-45, 53, 58 Tobacco, 99 Tombs of marabouts, 121, 138, 141 Touaregs (black men with veiled faces), 101, 106 Touggourt, 100-120 ancient wells of, 115 auctioneers and blind dwarf, 108- 109 Bedouin encampments near, 119- 120 Cafe Mauresque, II 7-1 1 8 camel, goat, and donkey market, 109-1 1 I encampment of prisoners' wives, 103-104 hooded falcons, 109 market-day, 104-106 mosque, IH-112 Touaregs, 1 06- 108 underground city, 1 1 5-1 1 7 Touggourt, water-supply, 112-115 Tribunes, 8^ Turmeric, 107 Turpentine bushes, 97, 124, 132 Underground city (Touggourt), 115-117 Unique and picturesque sight, 135 costume, 64 work, 65 University of Pennsylvania, Museum of the, 30, 66, 86, 90, 153 Veneration for Mahomet, 15 Vineyards, 24 Vintage-halls, 24 Water, pools of warm, 113, 140, 146 probable duration of, 148 supply of, 1 1 2-1 15 Water-carriers, picturesque girls, 45, 62, 113 Water-sacks, body skins of calves, 68 Wells, artesian, 99, 113, 114, 115, 140 Wine, 25, 63 Women, 26, 29, 61, 72, 107, 113, 120, 130 fortune-tellers, 73, 119 grinding grain, 138 plaiting mats, 147 weaving, 119, 147 Wood and stone paving, 101 Wooden utensils, 65 Worshippers, devout, 31 Zaouia, 138 public school, 137 the marabout at, 135 Zerack, 70 Zeralda, 29 162 H 122 80 1 J»V * 5 ^° . ^/ ^> ^ > ^ , o ■ * at yv. • ©IIS * «? ^ a <*. Deacidified Neutralize Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. v. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: April 2003 ^ -y Treatment Date: April 2003 Preserve! ionTechnologies r\ -** * P&Mf&S aV' O **XS5^« ' a world leader in paper preservation 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive v** A Cranberry Township, PA 16066 »* # °* •> V .*JL ^ A9 (724)779-2111 .^ » V. 5* ++J LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 010 590 474 5 L_