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 ELEMENTARY 
 
 PRINCIPLE^ 
 
 OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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 FERGUSON AND LEWIS 
 
 
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ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
 OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 A TEXT BOOK 
 FOR THE COMMON SCHOOLS 
 
 BY 
 
 A. M. FERGUSON, B.S.H., M.8c. 
 
 AND 
 
 L. L. LEWIS, M.Sc, D.Y.M. 
 
 PKOFES«OR VETERINARY SCIENCE, A. ANT) M. COLLEGE OF OKLAHOMA 
 
 1908 
 FERGUSON PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 SHERMAN, TEXAS 
 

 'sm 
 
 LIBRARY of CONti«ESS 
 I wo Cooies rtecvi-ii 
 
 JUN n 1908 
 
 Ato^ 2 7 '<?o^ 
 
 OOHY a. 
 
 Copyright, 1908 
 By a. M. FERGUSON 
 
 First Edition, June, 1008 
 
 J. Horace McFarland Company 
 Harrisburg, Pa. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The little volume herewith submitted for the use 
 of the school children of the Southwest is the outcome 
 of many years' study of the problem^s of rural school 
 agriculture. Agriculture, as a, school subject, is new, 
 and no guiding standards have yet been generally recog- 
 nized which Umit the method or scope of such a text. 
 A careful review of the many texts, that have been 
 published during the last ten years shows a wide range 
 of opinion as to the function of such texts. Some are 
 mere handbooks, deaUng with the practical work of 
 agriculture; others are only a series of short chapters 
 on botany, chemistry, physics, zoology, meteorology, 
 etc., without reference to applications. 
 
 Our own ideas are that the primary object of a text 
 on agriculture, intended for the common schools, is to 
 satisfy the natural interest of all children about the 
 whys of common farm conditions. This is the first step 
 in developing an intelligent theory which will guide 
 practice. 
 
 While the idea of teaching agriculture is very old, 
 it is only in recent years that it has come to be a large 
 factor in the system of general education. A word of 
 introduction, therefore, may not be out of place. 
 
 A number of agricultural colleges and special schools 
 for agricultural instruction were established between 
 1840 and 1860. Some were privately endowed, others 
 supported out of public revenues. In 1862, a bill, known 
 as the ''Morrill Bill," passed the National Congress, 
 
 (vii) 
 
viii Preface 
 
 appropriating a specified amount of the public lands for 
 the benefit of colleges to be established in the several 
 states and territories, in which agriculture and the 
 mechanical arts would be taught along with the subjects 
 usually taught in the better grade of colleges. In the 
 course of time, all the states and territories established 
 colleges under the provisions of this Act. To fill the 
 professorships in the classics and sciences was an easy- 
 matter. To fill the professorships in agriculture was a 
 problem. Agriculture had not been thought of as a field 
 of much learning. ''What is agriculture," and ''What 
 shall be taught as agriculture," were seriously discussed. 
 It was soon discovered that while agriculture as an 
 industry was old, little had been done to develop and 
 organize the body of scientific facts bearing on the 
 country's greatest industry. Something else was needed, 
 — agricultural investigation. 
 
 Several states established agricultural experiment 
 stations in connection with their colleges, but in 1887 
 Congress passed a bill authorizing the organization of 
 an experiment station in connection with each of the 
 agricultural colleges. These institutions have been 
 studying agricultural problems for only a little more 
 than a quarter of a centuiy, and in so short a time have 
 discovered enough facts, and arranged these facts, so 
 that we now have a science called agricultural science. 
 
 The development of agricultural teaching has kept 
 pace with the development of our knowledge of the 
 subject. The teaching of agriculture is no longer con- 
 fined to the colleges. The discoveries and ideas brought 
 out by the investigations are too important to all the 
 country not to be more generally taught. While only 
 one-third of the population Kve in the country, approxi- 
 
Preface ix 
 
 mately half of our people are directly interested in agri- 
 culture as a business. Why not give them the benefit 
 of what is known about the soil, plants and animals? 
 ''If any man w^ere to find himself in a new country, 
 wholh^ devoid of schools, and were to be set the task 
 of originating and organizing a school system, he would 
 almost unconsciously introduce some subjects that 
 would be related to the habits of the people and the 
 welfare of the community/' Agriculture is taught not 
 merely because it is an important industry, but as a 
 school subject, to be studied from the point of view of 
 science. As a field of study and investigation, it has 
 attracted the highest talent. Agricultural science is 
 now developed to a plane where it takes rank with the 
 older and more popular lines of scientific investigation, 
 such as chemistry, physics, biology, etc. 
 
 We study language in order that we may more easily 
 exchange ideas with our fellows: we study history and 
 civics in order that we may better understand our social 
 relations; we encourage the development of our artistic 
 and emotional natures by singing, declamations, draw- 
 ing, etc.; we study geography to get a knowledge of 
 ''the earth as the home of man," but not until recent 
 years have we stopped to study the conditions that 
 affect our immediate material environment, — the soil on 
 which we live and grow the materials for food, shelter 
 and raiment. It is surely no fad to study the things that 
 are closest to us. 
 
 As a broad, general statement, it is plain that a sub- 
 ject so universal as agriculture should be studied, even 
 though, as individuals, our work will be restricted to 
 other lines. We shall still have a large interest in the 
 ideas that belong to our country's greatest industry. 
 
X Preface 
 
 The large body of useful facts and working theory that 
 have been worked out by our experiment stations has 
 proven the great value of the subject. When Professor 
 Babcock discoMered a simple method of testing the value 
 of dairy cows, he conferred a great benefit on mankind. 
 A striking illustration of the need for a general knowl- 
 edge of this test was discovered in Illinois. From in- 
 vestigations made by the experiment station, it was 
 found that a large per cent of the cows on the farm 
 dairies of lUinois did not give enough milk and butter 
 to pay for their board; that, instead of the cows working 
 to make a hving for the farmer, the farmer was work- 
 ing to make a living for the cows. What is true of 
 Illinois is true of other sections. Equally significant 
 facts have been brought to light in other lines of farm 
 activity. 
 
 Oklahoma is the first state to make the teaching of 
 agriculture a constitutional requirement. The Agricul- 
 tural and Mechanical College, with its Agricultural 
 Experiment Station, and the state's system of Farmers' 
 Institutes, the regulations dealing with fertilizer in- 
 spection, live-stock inspection, nursery inspection, and 
 other matters affecting the interest of agriculture in 
 Oklahoma, is controlled by the Oklahoma State Board 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 The Board of Agriculture is selected by the farmers 
 of the state and consists of eleven members. The 
 president of the Board is elected by the people at a 
 general election, and serves for four years. The remain- 
 ing ten members are elected at annual meetings of the 
 delegates from the various county farmers' institutes, 
 held at the Agricultural and Mechanical College. After 
 the present plan becomes fully established, there will 
 
Preface xi 
 
 be two members of the Board elected at each annual 
 meeting, and their term of service will be for five years. 
 It is plain that this plan places the responsibility 
 for the successful administration of the laws framed 
 for the upbuilding of the agricultural interests of Okla- 
 homa upon the farmers themselves, and especially upon 
 those participating in the county institutes. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
 
 In planning and preparing the work, we have had the 
 benefit of counsel from a number of teachers, practical 
 farmers, and others who are regularly engaged in the 
 professional study of agricultural problems. The text 
 has been greatly improved by the careful reading, either 
 in whole or in part, by the following persons: Miss 
 Dora Schnell, formerly of the Dallas public schools, 
 who has very kindly prepared the questions at the end 
 of the chapters; Miss Ada Henderson, of the public 
 schools of Cameron, Texas; Mr. and Mrs. T. P. Robinson, 
 both of them experienced teachers, who are also success- 
 ful farmers. The above may be taken as representing 
 the teaching and popular point of view. 
 
 On the professional and technical side, valuable 
 assistance and criticism have been given by Prof. J. H. 
 Connell, President of the Oklahoma A. and M. College: 
 Prof. F. R. Marshall, late Professor of Animal Husbandry, 
 Texas A. and M. College, but now of the University of 
 Ohio; Prof. T. V. Munson, our most accomplished and 
 distinguished horticulturist; Prof. W. H. Long, Professor 
 of Biology in the North Texas Normal College; Prof. 
 C. 0. Moser, Special Agent, United States Department 
 of Agriculture, and supervisor of the Denison Demon- 
 
xii Preface 
 
 stration Dairy Farm and Prof. Tom Carter, Bureau of 
 Soils, United States Depart of Agriculture. The chapter 
 on birds has been reviewed by Prof. Carl Hartman, 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction in Travis county, 
 Texas, and Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, Greensboro, N. C, 
 Secretary of the National Association of Audubon Socie- 
 ties. Acknowledgements are also due to Dr. W. D. 
 Hunter, Bureau of Entomology, United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, for assistance and suggestions in 
 the chapters dealing with the economic insects. We 
 are glad to acknowledge the valuable assistance and 
 criticisms that have been given by the persons named 
 above, and others. 
 
 The illustrations have been selected for their accuracy 
 and educational value-. They have been drawn from 
 various sources, and to the gentlemen and firms who 
 have supplied or allowed the use of the illustrations we 
 wish to extend our thanks. Many of the illustrations 
 have been reproduced from pubhcations of the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, and the several 
 state agricultural experiment stations. We are indebted 
 to Mr. Philip H. Hale, St. Louis, for figures 137, 138, 
 139, 146, 147, and 148, taken from his excellent book of 
 ''Live Stock Champions," and to Suburban Life for fig- 
 ures 152 to 156 and 158. Other acknowledgements are 
 made in connection with particular illustrations. 
 
 The Authors. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface vii 
 
 Agricultural Literature xv 
 
 PART I 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. Agriculture and Knowledge 1 
 
 II. Plants and Their Food 4 
 
 III. Structure of Seeds 9 
 
 IV. How Seedlings Get Established 12 
 
 V. Plant Substance 24 
 
 VI. How the Plant Increases Its Substance 28 
 
 VII. The Water in Plants 32 
 
 VIII. Structure and Work of Stems 34 
 
 IX. The Plant as Related to the Soil 40 
 
 X. Soils and Soil Management 52 
 
 XI. Water in the Soil 67 
 
 XII. Relation of the Plant to the Chemical Composition 
 
 of the Soil 76 
 
 XIII. Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil .... 82 
 
 XIV. Productiveness of Soils 94 
 
 XV. Rotation of Crops . 98 
 
 XVI. Relations of Plants above Ground 101 
 
 XVII. The Office of Flowers 109 
 
 XVIII. Pruning and Training of Plants 116 
 
 XIX. Propagation of Plants 127 
 
 XX. Improving Plants and Seeds 137 
 
 XXI. Fungus Diseases of Plants 146 
 
 XXII. Insects of the Farm 153 
 
 XXIII. Some Special Injurious Insects 165 
 
 XXIV. Useful Insects 174 
 
 XXV. Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals .... 178 
 
 (xiii) 
 
xvi Table of Contents 
 
 PART II 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XXVI. Animal Husbandry 187 
 
 XXVII. Types and Breeds of Cattle 193 
 
 XXVIII. Types and Breeds of Horses 202 
 
 XXIX. Types and Breeds of Hogs 214 
 
 XXX. Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats .... 218 
 
 XXXI. Farm Poultry 222 
 
 XXXII. Nutrition of the Animal Body 233 
 
 XXXIII. Farm Dairying 245 
 
 PART III 
 Special Topics 
 
 XXXIV. The Home Lot 257 
 
 XXXV. School Gardens 262 
 
 XXXVI. Forestry 266 
 
 XXXVII. Farm Machinery 271 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 A. Books on Agriculture 278 
 
 B. Insecticides and Fungicides 279 
 
 C. Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 283 
 
 D. Per cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feed .... 284 
 
 E. Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents 
 
 in Stock Feeds 285 
 
 F. Standard Feeding Rations 287 
 
 G. Standard Feeding Rations per Head 288 
 
 H. Glossary 289 
 
 Index 299 
 
AGRICULTURAL LITERATURE 
 
 Agriculture is older than civilization, yet it is the 
 last large field of human endeavor to develop a litera- 
 ture that is distinctly its own, and the last to find a 
 place in our system of education. 
 
 In spite of this comparative newness, our publish- 
 ing houses now issue books on special and general 
 agriculture that compare favorably with the best in 
 other hnes of thought. Every school library should 
 have a number of the more recent special treatises on 
 the important phases of agriculture. A suggestive list 
 is given in Appendix A. 
 
 In addition to the volumes published by the 
 regular book trade, the United States Department of 
 Agriculture and the several state agricultural experi- 
 ment stations publish, for free distribution, bulletins 
 giving accounts of investigations on the varied prob- 
 lems of agricultural science and practice. 
 
 Special attention is called to the series of " Farm- 
 ers' Bulletins," issued by the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. They are sent 
 to all parties on request. This series now includes a 
 special bulletin on all the leading field, orchard and 
 garden crops, and the many classes of farm animals. 
 
 Many states have a state department of agricul- 
 ture that publish bulletins dealing with agriculture. 
 With a few exceptions, all government publications are 
 sent free. Application should be made to the Direc- 
 tors of the state experiment stations. 
 
 (XV) 
 
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES 
 OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 PART I 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 AGRICULTURE AND KNOWLEDGE 
 
 1. Agriculture and Life. 'The object of agriculture," 
 says Professor Johnson, " is the production of certain 
 plants and certain animals which are employed to feed, 
 clothe, and otherwise serve the human race." Every 
 American should understand the elementary principles 
 of agriculture, because it is our country's most impor- 
 tant industry. Whatever materially affects the pro- 
 ductions of the farms and ranches also affects the trades 
 and professions, for the latter are the chief consumers 
 of agricultural products. 
 
 2. The Three Phases of Agriculture. There are three 
 phases of agriculture: first, the business phase; second, 
 the arts or crafts phase; and third, the scientific phase. 
 Agriculture, as a means of making a Uving, is a business. 
 Growing crops and stock, and the manufacturing of 
 these raw materials into finished products, are neces- 
 sary arts, based on a knowledge of the working of natu- 
 ral forces. The giving of milk by a cow, or the develop- 
 ment of a peach from a flower, are natural phenomena. 
 Increasing the flow of milk, or increasing the fruitful- 
 ness of a plant, are natural arts. Doing these things 
 
 A (1) 
 
2 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 for profit is a matter of business Knowing how these 
 things are done, how to control the natural forces so 
 that certain results are secured, are matters of knowl- 
 edge. When all this knowledge is systematically ar- 
 ranged, we have a science. As it is about agriculture, 
 it is agricultural science. 
 
 3. Natural Science is organized knowledge of the 
 phenomena of natural objects. The soil, the plants and 
 the animals with which the farmer works are natural 
 objects. A knowledge of the science of the natural ob- 
 jects of the farm serves to guide the farmer in the 
 practice of his craft. Knowing how plants grow is not 
 only interesting, but also useful information to persons 
 who grow plants. The same is true of animals. To know 
 something of how plants grow is to have a knowledge 
 of botany. To know how to grow plants is to have 
 some knowledge of agriculture. 
 
 4. A Knowledge of the Science of Agriculture is de- 
 sirable. Ability to work amounts to little without the 
 application of knowledge. We may know how, or possess 
 the skill to do a certain kind of work, without knowing 
 the reason for doing it in that particular way. A man 
 may guide a team and hold a plow so that it runs 
 smoothly, and yet not know why, or when, or how to 
 plow, to secure a desired result. Hence, we have an art 
 of doing things, and a science of why, when and how. 
 The master workman must possess the scientific knowl- 
 edge that underlies his trade. 
 
 5. How a Knowledge of Agriculture is Gained. Knowl- 
 edge comes by exact observation and correct thinking. 
 Observations are sometimes incorrect or incomplete. 
 As a basis for correct thinking, we must have accurate 
 observation. Books are merely the printed statements 
 
Agriculture and Knowledge 3 
 
 of what others have observed and thought. Hence; 
 book information is not always in accord with the 
 actual conditions; and, by placing too much confidence 
 in the printed page, one is sometimes misled. An ancient 
 writer stated that a cow had eight upper front teeth. 
 For centuries afterward, this statement was beheved 
 and repeated in many books, until one more careful 
 looked into a cow's mouth and found, not eight, but 
 no upper front teeth. Practical farmers, teachers, and 
 books may guide us as to how best to find out; but we 
 must use our own hands, eyes, and minds to acquire 
 knowledge, if we wish to really know. In writing out 
 our observations, we must be careful to distinguish 
 between what is observed and the conclusions which 
 we make from our observations. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What is the object of Agriculture? 2. Why should Americans 
 particularly study Agriculture? 3. What are the three phases of 
 Agriculture? Distinguish between these by familiar examples. 
 4. What is a Natural Science? 5. How does Botany differ from 
 the Science of Agriculture? 6. In what way is a knowledge of the 
 Science of Agriculture desirable? 7. How may this knowledge be 
 gained? 
 
CHAPTER II 
 PLANTS AND THEIR FOOD 
 
 6. Environment is a general term for all the condi- 
 tions that surround an animal or plant, such as air, 
 soil, water, light, temperature, other plants or animals, 
 etc. 
 
 7. Culture seeks to make the environment favorable 
 to the particular plant or animal, or to produce plants 
 and animals better adapted to the environment. The 
 most important conditions are those that affect the 
 supply of the substances used for food by the plant or 
 animal. To encourage the growth of, say, a corn plant, 
 we destroy the weeds that would injure it, and cultivate 
 the ground to make a better home for its roots. To 
 intelligently cultivate plants, we must first learn how 
 plants grow and get their food. 
 
 8. Not All Plants Use the Same Kinds of Food. Not all 
 plants are like those familiar to us, as trees, herbs, etc. 
 Possibly we do not often think of the yeast put in the 
 dough to make the bread ^' rise,'' or the " green scum " 
 on the ponds, as plants, — yet they are, though very simple 
 ones. The yeast which we get from the grocery store 
 as " compressed yeast " is only a mass of millions of 
 very small plants, each one composed of a tiny mass of 
 living substance, called protoplasm. "^^ This mass of 
 protoplasm is surrounded by a delicate membrane, 
 called a cell-wall. These plants are so small that they 
 
 *Protoplasm (meaning primitive substance) is the older term for that part 
 of the cell having the property of life. Some writers prefer the term bioplasm, 
 (meaning living substance). 
 
 (4) 
 
Plants and Their Food 
 
 can not be seen by the naked eye. When greatly magni- 
 fied by the microscope, their simple structure is plainly 
 seen. Each plant is only a single cell, such as shown 
 
 in Fig. 2 a and 6. Each one of 
 these plants, or cells, has the 
 power to form daughter plants, 
 that soon become independent. 
 9. Fungi. Yeast belongs to 
 a class of plants called fungi 
 (f un-gi — singular, fungus) . These 
 fungus plants are very small, 
 but they are very important. 
 The bacteria causing the nodules 
 on peas and clover plants are 
 very beneficial. Some cause dis- 
 ease that destroys other plants,, 
 like the rust on oats, mildew on 
 roses and grapes, or the rots of 
 fruits and roots. Other kinds of 
 these simple plants cause disease in animals, as chol- 
 era in swine and chickens. Their food consists of the 
 substances of other plants, or of animals, like starch, 
 sugars, fat, lean 
 meat, w^hite of 
 egg, etc. In order 
 to become famil- 
 iar with the con- 
 ditions which 
 favor the growth 
 of yeast-like 
 plants, we will set 
 up the following 
 
 eXDeriment" Fig. 3. Figures of various kinds of Bacteria. (After 
 
 ^ * Cohn and Sachs. Very highly magnified.) 
 
 Fig. 2. Yeast Colonies, yl, sur- 
 face view of full - grown 
 plants with young branches 
 or buds. B, view of similar 
 colonies seen as though cut 
 across. Magnified about 750 
 times. 
 
 
6 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 9a. Food Materials for Yeast. Secure two large bottles or fruit 
 jars, and fill both about two-thirds full of clear well-water. To one 
 jar add a teaspoonful of sugar and about as much of the white of 
 an egg. See that both are completely dissolved. Now add to both 
 jars small lumps of the ordinary ''compressed yeast," or dry yeast 
 cake, secured from the bakery. Whichever is used, see that it is 
 well dissolved in a spoonful of water before adding to the jar. Stir 
 well and notice that the liquids are clear, or nearly so. Set aside in 
 a warm place, but not in strong light, and observe once or twice 
 a day for several days. The liquid soon becomes cloudy in the jar 
 to which the food was added, but not in the jar of water. The cloudy 
 effects are due to the large number of yeast plants formed. The 
 sugar and egg substance furnish the nourishment for their growth. 
 They do not multiply in the pure water. Yeast grows in the bread 
 dough because the dough contains all the substances needed for 
 the nourishment of the yeast plants. In the "dry yeast" these 
 tiny cells are in a dormant condition, like seeds. 
 
 10. The Green "Pond Scums" belong to a class of 
 plants called algae (singular, alga). There are many kinds, 
 and nearly all of them are very 
 simple, being composed of single 
 cells, or small masses of cells. 
 Algae contain a green coloring 
 matter, which yeast-like plants 
 do not have. We shall later learn 
 something of the value of this 
 green coloring matter to the 
 plant. 
 
 11. The Food Materials of 
 Green Plants are made from 
 
 Fig. 4- Cells of Algae. A, a . 
 
 simple one-celled form with water, carbouic acid gas, and the 
 
 the cells embedded in a jelly- . , i t i i • i 
 
 like wall. B and c, forms Simple mmerals dissolved in the 
 
 with the cells arranged in m mi 
 
 chains. natural waters oi the soil. Ihese 
 
 are combined to make all the substances necessary for 
 the nourishment and growth of their cells. They must 
 
Plants and Their Food 
 
 have sunlight before they can make their food materials 
 out of the simple substances named. 
 
 11a. Food Materials Used by Green Plants. Use a jar filled with 
 clear spring water, as mentioned in 9a, but add nothing to the jar 
 but a small bit of some common pond scum, secured from the streams 
 or watering troughs. Place the jar in a well-lighted window, prefer- 
 ably a north window. Take care that the water does not get too 
 warm by staying too long in very bright light. Observe from day 
 to day to see if the alga mass is growing larger. It will grow much 
 slower than the yeast plants. The jar may be kept for weeks by 
 adding water from time to time, to make up the loss by evaporation. 
 If the alga grows, we must conclude that it gets all the food it used 
 from the well-water and air, because nothing else was added. The 
 water contains salts dissolved from the soil, and carbonic acid gas 
 dissolved from the air. 
 
 12. Green Plants, like the pond scums, herbs, trees, 
 etc., that are able to make their food materials out of 
 simple substances, are called ''independent,'' or "self- 
 feeding plants." Plants like the yeast, which must have 
 their food substances pre- 
 pared for them, are called 
 "dependent plants." 
 
 13. Cellular Structure of 
 Plants. The yeast and algae 
 are examples of very simple 
 plants. The higher plants 
 which we know as trees, 
 herbs and weeds, are very 
 large, but, if examined with 
 a strong microscope, we find 
 that their bodies are made Fig. 5. Growth of individual cells, a, 
 
 r i 1 1 M a very young cell. B, similar cell, 
 
 up Ot thousands, even md- but very much larger and older. 
 
 !• r J.' n 1 Ti showing vacuoles or sap spaces. C, 
 
 honS, ot tmy cells, much like a still later stage— all greatly mag- 
 
 the relk of thp al^-jp and '''^^'^\ "'' '^^l^"^^"- ^' nucleus, v, 
 tiic ctJiib Ui Lilt; dilgtJc dillLl vacuoles. 
 
8 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 yeast, except that their sides are flattened by pressing 
 against each other. New cells are formed by a single 
 cell dividing into two cells (Fig. 6). These new cells 
 grow to a certain size and divide again, and so on till 
 great numbers are formed. (See Fig. 14, C.) 
 
 14. The Living 
 Substances of Cells. 
 The cell is the unit 
 out of which all plant 
 and animal bodies are 
 made, just as the 
 brick is the unit out 
 of which buildings are 
 made. Within each cell-wall is the hving substance, 
 called protoplasm. It differs from dead substance in 
 that it has a different chemical constitution, and the 
 power of self-action. Protoplasm is a clear granular 
 substance, like the white of an egg or mucilage. It 
 differs from these in that it has life. 
 
 A B C D 
 
 Fig. 6. In forming new cells the living sub- 
 stance orpotoplasm divides and then a cell- 
 wall is formed between them. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Define environment. 2. What is the purpose of "culture?" 
 
 3. What is the most important condition of plant environment? 
 
 4. Describe the yeast plant. 5. Name other kinds of these simple 
 plants, and mention their importance. 6. What do you learn from 
 the yeast experiment as to the kind of food used by the yeast plants? 
 
 7. What is the chief difference between a fungus and an alga? 
 
 8. What do you learn from the "pond scum" experiment as to 
 the food of the algse? 9. Are the higher plants, such as herbs and 
 trees, in any way similar to simple plants, such as yeast and pond 
 scum? 10. Why are green plants called independent; fungi, de- 
 pendent plants? 
 
CHAPTER 111 
 
 STRUCTURE OF SEEDS 
 
 15. Germinating Seeds. The '' higher plants " have 
 their round of hfe from the seed to the mature plant, 
 forming roots, stems, branches, leaves and flowers. 
 Many crops of the farm and garden are started each 
 year from seed. We should observe a number of the 
 larger kinds of seeds, such as corn, beans, peas, cotton, 
 squash, sunflower, castor beans, and any other large 
 seeds that may be easily secured. After we have closely 
 examined them as to their size, texture of their coverings, 
 and other quali- 
 ties, a number of 
 each kind should 
 be planted and 
 observed in the 
 schoolroom while 
 they are germi- 
 nating. They may 
 be planted out-of-doors if the weather is warm, but it 
 will be much better to plant them in boxes of moist, 
 clean sand or sawdust. A shallow box, 3 or 4 inches 
 deep, Hke the gardener's flat (Fig. 7), will answer the 
 purpose very well. After the seeds are planted, the 
 box should be kept in a warm place. It may be kept 
 covered with a pane of glass, to prevent the sand 
 from drying out too rapidly. The student's ger- 
 minating seeds will furnish fine study material for the 
 class. 
 
 . Gardeners' flats. A, showing holes for 
 drainage. B, filled with sand or loam ready for 
 planting. 
 
 («) 
 
10 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 15a. Have the pupils make a list of all the common plants 
 with which they are familiar that are started from seeds; also, those 
 that are started from bulbs, roots, and cuttings. 
 
 16. Structure of Seeds. When we look at a bean, we 
 see it is covered with a thin skin, or ''seed-coat/' which 
 is quite smooth except at the edge where it was attached 
 to the bean pod. Now, if we remove this coat from a 
 
 seed (using one that has been 
 soaked in water over-night), two 
 large, thick " seed leaves," or 
 cotyledons (cot-y-le-dons), joined 
 to a minute stem, may be seen. 
 (Fig. 8.) One end of the stem is 
 round and plump, while the other 
 bears two tiny leaves. The latter 
 Fig. 8. Bean seed split open ig the stem end, and bears the 
 
 to show parts of plantlet i i rr^i ,. t- 
 
 young bud. The root grows from 
 the other end. Thus we see that the bean has all the 
 parts of a plant, but a very small or embryo plant. 
 
 17. Stored-up Food in Seeds. Plants need food to 
 build up their bodies and provide energy, just as animals 
 do. The cotyledons do not look like ordinary leaves, 
 because they are filled with much starch and other 
 substances, to nourish the plantlet when it begins to 
 grow. Substances stored up in seeds like this are called 
 '' reserve foods.'' The reserve food in the case of the 
 bean is largely starch. In some plants it is largely oil, 
 as in cotton seed, sunflower, pecan, flax, etc. Besides 
 starch and oils, another class of substances is present 
 as a reserve food of all kinds of seeds, called pro- 
 teids. Proteids from animal bodies are familiar, as the 
 whites and yolks of eggs, clabber of milk, clot of 
 blood, etc. 
 
Structure of Seeds 
 
 11 
 
 18. Corn. The corn " grain " is covered with a clear 
 skin, or seed-coat.* If we cut through a corn grain, as 
 shown in Fig. 9, we see a yellowish oily 
 germ, or embryo, on one side, and a large 
 starchy mass of additional reserve food 
 stored back of the germ. When the re- 
 serve food is stored outside of the germ, 
 it is called endosperm. The endosperm in 
 the corn grain exists in two layers, one 
 of which is starchy and loose, and the 
 other clear and hard. 
 
 19. Cotton. In cotton, the seed-coat 
 is covered with a layer of fibers, or lint. 
 The hard brownish coat encloses an em- 
 bryo cotton plant, with leaves closely 
 rolled around the stem. The parts are 
 best made out in seeds that have just 
 germinated. Cotton seeds are very rich 
 in oils and proteids. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. In what other ways than by seeds may plants 
 start new individuals? 2. Name the parts of a plant 
 that are enclosed in a bean seed. Describe them as 
 they are in the seed, 3. Of what use are the cotyledons? 4. What 
 is meant by reserve food? 5. What substances may be present in 
 reserve foods? 6. Describe the corn seed. 7. What is the essential 
 difference between the bean seed and the corn seed? 8. Describe 
 the cotton seed. 9. Is it most like the corn seed, or the bean seed? 
 that is, in what part of the seed is the reserve food stored? 
 
 *In reality, the covering of a grain of corn is double, but the two coats are 
 so closely united that it is difficult to distinguish them without special prepa- 
 ration. The outer coat corresponds to the pod, or seed-case, as in beans. 
 
 Fig. 9. Section of 
 a grain of corn 
 showing the 
 parts of the germ 
 or embryo corn 
 plant (A, B and 
 E), and position 
 of reserve food 
 A, root end and 
 B shoot end of 
 embryo; E, the 
 part of the em- 
 bryo that ab- 
 sorbs the reserve 
 food during ger- 
 mination; C, soft 
 starch; D, horny 
 part of reserve 
 food. 
 
CHAPTER lY 
 
 HOW SEEDLINGS GET ESTABLISHED 
 
 20. Germination. Germinating seeds must have 
 water, air, and a certain amount of warmth. The prompt- 
 ness of germination depends on how 
 well these conditions are provided. 
 In three or four days, seeds sown in 
 moist sand will be found to be very 
 much larger. They have absorbed 
 water from the sand, so much so 
 that the weight of the seed is now 
 much greater than when it was dry. 
 In some, the coverings of the seed 
 will be found broken, and tiny roots 
 pushing through. If they are watched 
 for some days, it will be found that 
 this tiny root grows in a downward 
 direction, regardless of the position 
 of the seed. The root makes a con- 
 siderable growth before the young 
 stem, with its tiny leaves, gets out 
 of the seed case. (Fig. 10.) When 
 the embryo plant inside the case 
 begins to grow, we say the seed is 
 germinating. 
 Fig. 10. During the early 21. Root-haifs. The tiny rootlets 
 
 ?he^'roof gfr^'TaS ^hich we fouud pushiug through 
 2'^shoorc'star^hy°en- ^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^* are just hke the thou- 
 dosperm. D, homy en- gands of branches found on roots of 
 
 dosperm. 
 
 (12) 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 
 
 13 
 
 On a seedling with root- 
 long, notice 
 
 older plants. They are very delicate, 
 and it is better to grow the roots in 
 moist air, to see the many minute 
 root-hairs 
 
 lets an inch or more 
 that just back of the tip it is covered 
 with a very fine fuzzy growth. This 
 fuzzy growth is composed of thou- 
 sands of slender tube-like cells, called 
 root-hairs. (Figs. 11 and 12.) 
 
 They are formed near the root's 
 tip. After a time they die. They 
 cannot be found on the root except 
 for a short way from the tip. Unless 
 the soil is very carefully washed from 
 the rootlets, the root-hairs may not 
 been seen. (Fig. 11, B.) 
 
 22. How the Root Absorbs Water. 
 Even though the seedlings that have 
 been growing in sand or sawdust be 
 very carefully washed, much of the 
 adheres to the hairs. (Fig. 12.) The root 
 
 m A B 
 
 Fig 12. Root-hairs of corn seedling with 
 soil particles adhering closely. 
 
 Fig. 11. Seedlings of 
 mustard. A, with 
 particles of soil cling- 
 ing to root-hairs. B, 
 after removal of soil 
 by a stream of water. 
 After Sachs. 
 
 sand or sawdust 
 -hairs hold the soil 
 particles to the 
 root. When the 
 roots are growing 
 in moist air, they 
 are straight; but 
 in the soil the 
 hairs apply them- 
 selves very closely 
 to the soil parti- 
 cles. (Fig. 13.) 
 The water ab- 
 
14 Eleinentary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 sorbed by the root is first taken in by the root-hairs. 
 The seedhngs may be growing in soil so dry that water 
 may not be pressed out of it, still, the soil particles are 
 covered with a film of moisture from which the root& 
 absorb their supply. (See Fig. 40.) 
 
 23. How the Root Grows. The root grows only at the 
 tip. The tip does not grow straight through the soil.. 
 
 Fig. 13. Diagram of a portion of soil penetrated by root-hairs, h, h' , arising 
 from root, e. At z, s, s' the hair has grown into contact with some of the 
 soil particles, T, which are surrounded by water films (shaded by parallel 
 lines). After Sachs. 
 
 but bends to and fro in a sort of circle, taking 
 advantage of the small openings between the soil par- 
 ticles. It is covered with a delicate root-cap. As the 
 root lengthens, the cells of the cap are rubbed off, but 
 new ones are formed to take their place. Only the region 
 in front of the root-hairs has the power of lengthening. 
 (Fig. 14.) 
 
 24. Absorption of Water by Seeds. Seeds absorb 
 water from the soil particles. When dry seeds are placed 
 in a bed of moist sand or loam, the little film of moisture 
 that covers the soil particles is absorbed by the seeds. 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 
 
 15 
 
 Seeds will not absorb enough water from moist air to 
 make them germinate. They must be in contact with 
 a film of water. 
 
 24a. The Swelling of Seeds. Place some common beans in a 
 glass of water, and observe every few minutes. Wliere does the 
 seed coat wrinkle first? 
 
 24b. Rate of Absorption Affected by the 
 Amount of Water Present. Place a dozen \V 
 
 B 
 
 in a glass of 
 water, a second dozen 
 in w^et sand, and a 
 third dozen in slightly 
 damp sand. Examine 
 every day, and judge 
 the amount of water 
 absorbed, by the in- 
 creased size and weight 
 of the seeds. 
 
 24c. Rate of Ab- 
 sorption Affected by the 
 Number of Points of 
 Contact. Take two lots 
 of seeds, corn for ex- 
 ample, and place each 
 lot in a tumbler or 
 other vessel with the 
 same amount of moist 
 sawdust. In one, 
 sprinkle a layer of 
 sawdust, and then a layer of seeds, then another layer of each, 
 taking care that in one the saw-dust is not pressed down, but kept 
 very loose. Prepare the second vessel just as above, but press the 
 sawdust firmly around the seeds. This increases the number of 
 points of contact between the sawdust and the seeds. Cover, to 
 prevent drying out, and examine the seeds at the end of every 
 twelve hours. Does pressing the saw-dust about the seeds make 
 them swell more quickly? 
 
 24d. Prompt Absorption Hastens Germination. Sow some peas in 
 a gardener's flat, filled with very loose sawdust. Press the sawdust 
 
 Fig. 14. A, a young root of the pea 
 marked with fine lines of water- 
 proof ink into 13 spaces. B, the 
 same root, 24 hours later, showing 
 elongation only in terminal 5 
 spaces. The rate of growth is 
 greatest in the second and third 
 spaces and slow in the first, fourth 
 and fifth. Magnified 2 diam; C, tip 
 of root greatly magnified and shown 
 in section . w, root-cap; i, younger part of 
 cap; i, dead cells separating from cap; s, 
 growing point; p, central cylinder. 
 
16 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 down firmly on one end and leave loose on the other. Cover with 
 a glass, to prevent drying out, and note the time required for ger- 
 mination in the two ends. 
 
 25. Other Conditions affecting the rate of absorption 
 of water by the seeds, are temperature, the nature 
 of the seed-coat, etc. The seed covering of most culti- 
 vated plants will absorb and transmit the soil-water 
 quite freely, though many seeds are provided with thick, 
 bony shells, or coats, that resist the action of water for 
 weeks, even months, if they once become dry. Such 
 seeds are the peach, locust, walnuts, and most wild 
 seeds. Germination may sometimes be hastened in 
 such seeds by soaking in warm water before planting; 
 freezing while moist aids and hastens others, especially 
 those having thick, hard shells, such as peach, walnut, 
 hickory, plum, etc. 
 
 26. How Warmth Affects Germination. A certain 
 degree of warmth is necessary before seeds will germi- 
 nate. If we had placed in a refrigerator the seeds used 
 in the experiment described in Tj 15, the corn and 
 beans would not have germinated, although they 
 had plenty of water and air. This shows that a certain 
 amount of warmth is necessary for germination. Some 
 seeds, however, will germinate at a very low temperature, 
 though they do not germinate quickly. The lowest 
 temperature at which seeds will germinate is called 
 the " minimum germination temperature." The high- 
 est temperature at which they can germinate and hve 
 is called the '' maximum germination temperature." 
 Between the highest and the lowest there is a temperature 
 at which germination takes place quickly, but without 
 injury to the seedlings. This is called the " optimum 
 germination temperature." These temperatures have 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 
 
 17 
 
 been determined by trial for many kinds of seeds. 
 The following results were reported by the celebrated 
 German botanist, Julius Sachs:* 
 
 Effect of Temperature on Germination 
 
 Kind of Seeds 
 
 Oats 
 
 Pea 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Indian Corn 
 Sunflower. . 
 Pumpkin. . . 
 
 Melon 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Minimum or low- 
 est between 
 
 Fahr. 
 32- 41° 
 32- 41° 
 32- 41° 
 41- 51° 
 41- 51° 
 51- 61° 
 60- 65° 
 99-111° 
 
 Optimum or best 
 between 
 
 Maximum or 
 highest be- 
 tween 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 77- 88° 
 77- 88° 
 77- 88° 
 99-111° 
 88- 99° 
 93-111° 
 88- 99° 
 99-111° 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 88- 99° 
 
 88- 99° 
 
 88-108° 
 
 111-122° 
 
 99-111° 
 
 111-122° 
 
 111-122° 
 
 111-122° 
 
 27. The Soil Should Be Warm before seeds are planted. 
 If the soil is cold, or has a temperature just above the 
 minimum temperature, germination will be slow, and 
 many seeds will rot before the seedhng is established. 
 The soil should be considerably above the minimum 
 temperature before seeds are planted. The variation 
 in the minimum temperature required for germination 
 in different kinds of seeds explains why some seeds can 
 be planted much earUer than others. 
 
 28. Effect of Temperature on the Promptness of 
 Germination. In some tests made by Professor Haber- 
 landt, it was found that the seeds of most of the small 
 grain crops required five to seven days to begin germi- 
 nation at 41° Fahr., while at 51° Fahr. only half the 
 time was required. At 65° Fahr., one day was sufficient 
 
 *Julius Sachs, esteemed as the founder of modern plant physiology, was 
 born in Breslau, 1832, and died in 1897. The great interest aroused by the 
 results of his investigations on plant nutrition led to the establishment of one 
 of the first public institutions for the scientific study of agricultural problems 
 
18 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 for wheat, rye and oats. Corn required three days, 
 and tobacco six days. Sugar beets germinated in 
 twenty-two days when the temperature was 41° Fahr., 
 while, at 65° Fahr., germination commenced on the 
 third day. (See ^\ 94, Temperature of Soils.) 
 
 29. Germinating Seeds Need Air. Growing plants, 
 including germinating seeds, must have air. They use 
 the oxygen of the air, and we call it respiration, just as 
 we do in animals. While plants do not have lungs, they 
 absorb the oxygen of the air and give off 'carbon dioxid. 
 (But see ^ 48, Carbon Assimilation.) 
 
 29a. To show that germinating seeds use the oxygen of the air, 
 take two large fruit jars with good rubber bands. Into one put noth- 
 ing. Into the other put a big handful of soaked seeds of corn or 
 peas. Screw the tops on tightly and let S|tand for about twelve hours. 
 Then carefully remove the top from the empty jar and thrust a 
 hghted splinter down to near the bottom of the jar, noting the dura- 
 tion and brilliancy of the burning taper. The taper goes out after 
 a time, because the burning of the wood uses up the oxygen in the 
 jar. Now thrust a lighted paper into the jar with the germinating 
 seeds, noting if it burns as brightly as in the empty jar. It goes out 
 quickly because the germinating seeds have used up all the oxygen, 
 and that carbon dioxid is present may be proven by lime water 
 poured down the side of each jar. The empty one gives no result, 
 while the other will show a white band on the inside of the jar. This 
 is the test for carbon dioxid.* 
 
 30. Not All Seeds Germinate. Seeds often fail to ger- 
 minate when given the proper conditions for germina- 
 tion. This may be due to one or more causes. They 
 may be too old; they may have been gathered when 
 immature; they may have become too dry, or frozen 
 when not sufficiently dry. Sometimes they become 
 
 *Carbon dioxid, exhaled from the lungs of animals and by germinating 
 seeds, is a gas formed by the union of two elements — carbon and oxygen. Oxygen 
 is a gas forming a large part of the air; carbon is a solid familiar as charcoal, 
 which is crude carbon. 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 
 
 19 
 
 damp and spoiled by molds. In many cases, insects 
 injure them while stored. It is not usually possible to 
 tell if seeds will germinate by looking at them. 
 
 31. Testing Seeds for Germinating Powers. If there 
 is reason to think that a particular lot of seeds are not 
 practically sound, they should be tested. It is a simple 
 matter to test the germinating power of a sample of 
 seeds. Several forms of seed-testing apparatus may be 
 easily provided. Any arrangement will do that will 
 allow us to place a counted number of seeds under the 
 proper conditions for 
 germination. Small 
 seeds may be placed 
 between moistened 
 layers of clean cloth 
 or soft paper. It is 
 best to wash the cloth 
 in boiling water be- 
 fore use, in order to 
 lessen the liability to 
 the growth of molds. 
 Moist sand or saw- 
 dust is very satisfac- 
 
 15 A good seed tester. Clean sand and 
 soup-plates 
 
 later 
 
 tory for large seeds like corn, beans, etc. We wil 
 learn more about testing seeds for yielding power. 
 
 31a. Farmer B bought two bushels of alfalfa seed at $9 per 
 bushel, of which 95 per cent were viable, that is, capable of germi- 
 nating. He was offered seed for $8 per bushel, of which only 75 
 per cent would germinate. What was the actual cost of a bushel 
 of live seed in each lot? 
 
 32. How Deep Should Seeds be Planted? Seeds should 
 be planted just deep enough to secure the conditions 
 necessary for germination. The soil is warmer near the 
 
20 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 16. Seed-testing devices 
 
 surface, but also dryer. If planted too deep, it will 
 take a longer time to begin germination, because the 
 deeper ground is colder, particularly so in early spring. 
 The seedling will be more exhausted before it reaches 
 the surface if planted too deep. The seedling stage is a 
 delicate one. Success, therefore, in getting a good stand 
 will often depend on how well the soil has been pre- 
 pared for the seeds. The soil intended for the seeds 
 should be warm, moist and mellow. The particles should 
 be so fine that the seed will be in contact with grains 
 
 of soil on all sides. Small seeds, 
 like tobacco, are merely pressed 
 into the surface with a board. 
 With such small seeds, special 
 arrangements should be made 
 to keep the surface from dry- 
 ing out. 
 
 33. In Planting Field Seeds, 
 it is often desirable to put them 
 sufficiently deep to allow for 
 some drying out of the surface 
 soil. If planted very near the 
 surface, hot winds will often 
 dry the soil before the seeds 
 absorb enough water to ger- 
 minate. In such dry spells it is 
 sometimes desirable to compact 
 This puts the surface particles' 
 the seeds, and the moisture is 
 
 Fig. 17. An easy way to observe 
 the effect of planting seeds at 
 different depths. 
 
 the surface by rolling, 
 in closer contact with 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 21 
 
 absorbed more rapidly. In dry times the seeds often 
 germinate more quickly in the tracks made by per- 
 sons walking across the field. Gardeners often pack the 
 surface with a spade or board or roller, after sowing 
 the seeds. When moisture is scarce in the soil, as is quite 
 often the case at the planting time of field seeds, a most 
 practical and successful way to secure the germination 
 of seeds in drills is to make the laying- off plow or 
 tool cut a deep V-shaped furrow in the compact soil, 
 into which the seeds are dropped and covered to the 
 proper depth with ^ 
 
 fine soil. This V- 
 
 shaped furrow affords ~^ \^^^ j 
 
 two banks of undis- ^.-'^v-/ .-o^s-scu 
 
 turbed soil holding MM/jwMm'^ ~ ^^cw-^o^^ -' 
 
 a supply 01 moisture 
 
 Fig. 18. Planting seeds in the " water tur- 
 lOr tne seed. (rig. lo.J row" insures a more even supply of 
 
 34. Prompt Germi- moisture. 
 
 nation Important. Seeds that germinate quickly give 
 more vigorous plants. Besides, seeds in the ground 
 may be destroyed by insects, or caused to rot by fungi 
 and bacteria, or rains may come and make a hard crust 
 on the surface through which they cannot grow. Vig- 
 orous-growing weeds may crowd out slow-growing seed- 
 lings. Prompt germination may be secured under field 
 conditions by thoroughly preparing the seed bed, and 
 delaying planting until the soil is warmed sufficiently 
 for the kind of seed to be planted. 
 
 35. Time Required to Complete Germination. The 
 plantlets are nourished for a tirne by the reserve food 
 in the seed. While the plantlet is dependent on this 
 reserve food, it is called a "seedling." The root develops 
 faster at first, with the result that the plantlet secures 
 
22 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 a more permanent supply of moisture from the deeper 
 layers. The roots grow down or downward, and the 
 stem and leaves grow upward into the air. The time 
 required for the completion of the seedling stage will 
 vary with the kind of seed and the conditions which 
 affect germination. When conditions favor quick ger- 
 mination and rapid growth, the supply of reserve food 
 is used up much sooner. Wheat seedlings will exhaust 
 their reserve food in ten days in warm weather; but, if 
 the temperature is low, it may be forty days before the 
 plantlet is thoroughly estabUshed. 
 
 The table below shows the effect on the time in 
 coming up, of planting wheat at different depths, and 
 the number of seedlings that grew. 
 
 Proportion of seed 
 Depth Time in comin? up that grew 
 
 ^ inch 11 days |^ 
 
 1 inch 12 (lays all 
 
 2 inches 18 days | 
 
 3 inches 20 days | 
 
 4 inches 21 days ^ 
 
 5 inches 22 days f 
 
 6 inches 23 days ^ 
 
 36. Hotbeds. It is often desirable to grow seedlings 
 under artificial conditions, so that the plants may be 
 ready for transplanting when the warm season comes. 
 Many tender garden plants, such as tomatoes and cab- 
 bages, are propagated in this way. Coldframes and hot- 
 beds are often used. A coldframe is an inclosed bed of 
 soil that may be covered at night to protect from frost. 
 A hotbed is an inclosed bed of soil, covered with glass. 
 as shown in Fig. 19, which is warmed by the heat of 
 fermenting compost placed below the bed of soil. Some- 
 times steam pipes are run below the seed-bed to supply 
 the warmth. 
 
How Seedlings Get Established 
 
 23 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Describe germination. 2. What are root-hairs? 3. What 
 is their position on the roots? 4. What is the purpose of root-hairs? 
 5. At what place does the root grow? 6. How is this growing region 
 protected? 7. What are the conditions necessary for germination? 
 8. Does the air contain enough moisture for germination? 9. Name 
 some seeds whose seed-coats hinder quick germination. 10. How 
 may this hindrance be overcome? 11. Why do not most seeds 
 germinate in winter? 12. What is meant by "minimum germination 
 temperature"? By "maximum germination temperature"? By 
 "optimum"? 13. Discuss the relation of soil, and the time of 
 planting, to these temperatures. 14. Give in substance Professor 
 Haberlandt's experiment in regard to the effect of temperature on 
 the promptness of germination. 15. What necessary food does the 
 plant get from the air? Does the plant breathe in the same gas that 
 we do? 16. Name some of the causes of failure in germination. 
 
 17. What are some of the conditions of successful seed-planting? 
 
 18. What are coldframes? hotbeds? 
 
 Fig. 19. Hotbeds and coldframes. The upper figure is a coldframe. If let 
 down into the soil and warmed by fermenting compost, it is called a hot- 
 bed. A, Warm air; B, garden loam; C, fermenting compost; D, bank 
 of soil. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 PLANT SUBSTANCE 
 
 37. The Body of a Plant, including stem, root, seeds, 
 etc., is composed chiefly of framework material and 
 reserve food. The framework material is never used 
 by the plant for any other purpose. The reserve food 
 contains a variety of substances. Sometimes this re- 
 serve food is separated by mechanical means in an 
 almost pure condition, such as starch from corn and 
 potatoes, cooking oil from cotton seed, Unseed oil from 
 flax seed, castor oil from castor beans, corn oil from 
 corn, and peanut butter (a thick oil) from peanuts. 
 When the starches and oils are thus removed, there 
 still remain the bran and meal, which contain a variety 
 of food substances. 
 
 38. In Germinating Seeds, all the reserve food may 
 be used to nourish the young plant. The substances 
 in the thick cotyledons of the bean were seen to wither 
 away as the seedling grew. The store of food for the 
 young plant in the seed was put there by the parent 
 plant. A corn grain will produce from one thousand 
 to two thousand seeds and a large stalk. Where does 
 the seedling get all the food materials to nourish so 
 large a stalk, and lay up a large store for so many other 
 seeds? Before we answer this question, we will try to 
 find out something of the nature of the substances in 
 plants. 
 
 39. Composition of Plant Substance. Chemists have 
 ways of separating the various substances found in 
 
 (24) 
 
Plant Substance 25 
 
 plants. They find that every plant contains a variety 
 of substances, though the quantity and number vary 
 in different kinds of plants. Some plants, as corn, con- 
 tain much starch in their seeds, and but little in the 
 stalk. Some plants have a large amount of sugar, as 
 beets and sugar-cane, while others contain oil. These 
 substances which we call starch, oils, sugars, proteids, 
 resins, gums, acids, etc., are themselves compounds 
 of a number of ''elements." The carbon mentioned in 
 H 29 is an element. So are iron, sulphur, lead and the 
 oxygen of the air. 
 
 40. Compounds of Elements. A simple element is a 
 substance of a pecuUar kind that cannot be reduced by 
 analysis to any simpler state. When wood burns, the 
 carbon (an element) of the wood combines with the 
 oxygen (an element) of the air, to form an invisible 
 gas, known as carbon dioxid (a compound). When iron 
 " rusts," it has formed a compound with the oxygen 
 of the air. In germinating seeds, the oxygen absorbed 
 is afterward given off as carbon dioxid. Oxygen com- 
 bines with another element which we call hydrogen, 
 to form the substance we call water. Thus we see that 
 the same element may combine with a number of other 
 elements, making a different compound or substance 
 with each combination. 
 
 41. Substances Found in Plants are usually complex 
 compounds of the simple elements; for instance, starch 
 is a combination of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, 
 and the properties of the substance we call starch are 
 different from any of its parts. Sugar is composed of 
 these same elements, but has them combined in a 
 different way. Wood is composed of the same three 
 elements, yet combined in still a different way. 
 
26 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 42. Protoplasm, or living substance; has the power 
 to combine simple compounds to form the complex 
 ones that compose the plant or animal body. Living 
 green plants absorb water and mineral matter from the 
 soil and carbon dioxid from the air, and with these form 
 the complex plant substances. Light is needed by the 
 leaves in making these combinations. 
 
 43. Elements Necessary for Plant Growth. There 
 are about eighty different elements known, but only 
 about a dozen are actually used by plants. The follow- 
 ing elements are necessary for the healthy growth of 
 plants: (1) Carbon, absorbed by the leaves from the 
 air as carbon dioxid; (2) oxygen and (3) hydrogen taken 
 in as water; and the following, all taken in by the roots 
 from the soil solutions as soluble salts: (4) nitrogen, 
 (5) phosphorus, (6) potassium, (7) calcium, (8) magne- 
 sium, (9) sulphur, (10) iron, and (11) chlorine. Other 
 elements are often found in plants, but only the ones 
 named above are really essential. If any one of these 
 essential elements is withheld from the plant, the normal 
 growth is impaired. The importance of the mineral 
 substances to the welfare of plants will be discussed 
 later. (See Chapters XII and XIII.) 
 
 44. Non-essential Elements in Plants. Besides the 
 essential elements named, plants usually contain other 
 elements that are really not necessary for their normal 
 growth. The most common ones are sodium (the prin- 
 cipal element in common salt), and silicon, a constitu- 
 ent of sand. 
 
 45. The Amounts of the Elements in the Plant Body. 
 About half of the plant substance is carbon. It is a 
 part of practically all compounds found in plants. 
 Oxygen and hydrogen, too, are parts of nearly all 
 
Plant Substance 27 
 
 substances in plant and animal bodies. Nitrogen is 
 always present in the living substance, or protoplasm. 
 The other elements, usually called the '' mineral ele- 
 ments,," while absolutely essential, occur only in small 
 amounts, usually less than five per cent. These elements 
 form the ^^ash," when plants are burned. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Name some of the reserve food substances. 2. What is 
 meant by a "chemical element"? Name some common ones. 3. Do 
 plants contain simple elements? Name three plant materials that 
 contain the same elements combined differently. 4. By what 
 means does the plant manufacture complex compounds out of 
 simple compounds? 5. Name the elements essential for plant 
 growth. 6. Name the most common non-essential elements in 
 plants, 7. What are the proportions of the elements in plants? 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 HOW THE PLANT INCREASES ITS SUBSTANCE 
 
 46. The Work of Leaves. The leaves are the food 
 factory of the plant. Perhaps you have never thought 
 to ask why most leaves are flat. You will find a sugges- 
 tion of the answer if you note that their flat faces 
 are usually turned toward the source of the strong- 
 est hght. Look at a tree, to note the position of the 
 leaves, as seen from a distance and from among the 
 branches. This position is an advantage to the leaf in 
 carrying on its work, because it secures the greatest 
 amount of energy from the sunlight for the food-making 
 process. 
 
 47. Structure of Leaves. A thin section of a leaf, 
 when examined under a powerful microscope, is seen 
 
 Fig. 20. Cross-section of a leaf through a "vein," or fibro-vascular bundle. 
 
 Os, upper surface; }/s, under surface; o, layer of outside cells forming the 
 
 epidermis; sp, Stoma; g, water duct; wb, phloem; hlz, wood of fibrovas- 
 cular bundle. 
 
 (28) 
 
How the Plant Increases Its Substance 
 
 29 
 
 to be composed of a great number of cells. The surface 
 layer forms a skin, or '' epidermis," which keeps the 
 cells within from ,,, 
 
 drying. (Fig. ^#^'^- 
 20.) The epi- 
 dermis is in 
 two layers. The 
 outer, or cutin 
 layer, is only a thin 
 membrane which, while 
 transparent, to allow the 
 light to reach the inner 
 tissues of the leaf, is 
 impervious to water. 
 The second layer is a tier ( 
 which support the cutin layer 
 epidermis is very efficient in keepin 
 the water in the leaf. On 
 side of the leaf, and on 1 
 of some leaves, 
 there are many -- " 
 
 small openings, 
 to let the car- 
 bon dioxid en- 
 ter and the 
 excess of oxy- 
 gen pass out 
 when the plant is making food. (Fig. 21.) Some water 
 escapes through these openings, or stomata (singular, 
 stoma); but at night, when the food-making processes 
 are not going on, these stomata close up, so that 
 much less water escapes. 
 
 47a. To get an idea of how well the epidermis protects the 
 
 Fig. 21 . How the young plant gets its food. In the early 
 stages it is nourished from the store of food in the 
 cotyledons. When the green leaves unfold to the 
 light they absorb the energy of the sunlight and 
 cause the water to combine with the carbon dioxid 
 of the air to form starches and other foods. 
 
30 Elementari/ Principles of Agriculture 
 
 plant, take an apple or potato and peel off the epidermis and place 
 in an exposed place beside an impeded specimen. Note how quickly 
 the peeled specimen will shrivel and dry, while the other retains its 
 form. 
 
 48. Carbon Assimilation. The soft tissue between the 
 upper and the lower epidermis is the real food factory 
 of the plant. It is composed of several layers of cells, 
 all arranged sponge-like, so that the carbon dioxid 
 of the air can reach every cell. All these cells contain 
 minute green bodies, called chloroplastids (chlo-ro- 
 plast-ids). The green coloring matter in these bodies 
 is formed only in the hght. It does not form in leaves 
 growing in the dark. The yellowish stems of potatoes 
 growing in dark cellars is a familiar example. The green 
 color will disappear if plants are kept from the light. 
 Advantage is taken of this property in ''blanching'^ 
 celery. When the light shines on the leaves, the chloro- 
 phyll absorbs the energy of the sun's ra3^s and forms 
 the starches, sugars, etc., from the water and carbon 
 dioxid. This process goes on through all daylight hours. 
 (1) Light, (2) living cell with (3) chlorophijll, (4) water 
 and (5) carbon dioxid must all be present. This explains 
 why plants do not grow unless they get plenty of sun- 
 hght. This process of making plant substance under 
 the influence of sunUght is called ''carbon assimilatioin." 
 It is not confined to the leaves, but takes place in any 
 green cell when the other conditions exist. (See Figs. 
 20 and 21.) 
 
 49. How Green Plants Purify the Air. When carbon 
 dioxid combines with water, the excess of free oxygen 
 of the carbon compound escapes into the air. By this 
 means, growing green plants purify the air. They take 
 up the carbon dioxid given off from the lungs, or that 
 
How the Plant Increases Its Substance 31 
 
 formed by burning of plant or animal bodies, and retain 
 the carbon, the oxygen being set free. But this oxygen- 
 izing power of plants is much less than is generally 
 supposed; for the respiratory processes of plants, giving 
 out carbon dioxid partially counteracts the effect of 
 the assimilative process. Carbon assimilation does not 
 take place rapidly in a subdued Hght, such as exists 
 in an inclosed room. 
 
 50. Importance of Carbon Assimilation. With one 
 or two minor exceptions, this process of food-making 
 is the only known means of increasing the supply of 
 food for both plants and animals. We can now answer 
 the question asked in ]| 38. By this process the corn 
 plant is able to reproduce itself many fold and, also, 
 " tall oaks from little acorns grow\" No animal has 
 this power to form food substances from the simpler 
 compounds. It is plain, therefore, that the -farmer's 
 stock, and indeed all life, is dependent upon plant Hfe 
 for food. More than one-half of everything grown on 
 the farm is carbon drawn from the air. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Why are most leaves flat? 2. Describe the layers in a leaf. 
 3. Which layer manufactures food? 4. Describe carefully how the 
 carbon of the air gets into the leaf. 5. Is light necessary for the 
 formation of the green color in leaves? 6. What is the effect of 
 continued darkness on green plants? 7. Name the five necessary 
 conditions for the making of plant substance. 8. Discuss the 
 importance of food-making by plants. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE WATER IN PLANTS 
 
 51. Why Plants Need Water. Plants use water in 
 three essential ways: (1) It combines directly with 
 carbon dioxid to form plant substance; (2) it acts as 
 a solvent for the minerals absorbed from the soil; (3) it 
 serves to make the plant rigid. Young, succulent stems 
 are dependent on water for their rigidity. If water 
 escapes, they wilt and lose the power of carrying on 
 their work. Water is necessary for plants in other 
 ways. It is present in all parts. 
 
 52. The Movement of Water within the Plant. There 
 are special channels for conducting the water from the 
 roots to the stems and leaves. The water is absorbed 
 by the roots and is transported in special water-conduct- 
 ing vessels through the stem and leaves. These chan- 
 nels may be easily marked by placing the soft stem of 
 some plant in a glass of blueing or of diluted red ink. 
 The coloring matter will be carried along with the water 
 and the path through which it moves will be shown. 
 This experiment should be made and closely observed 
 by all. Cut cross-sections of the stem to notice the 
 channels through which the water travels. Leafy stems 
 of balsam, begonia, Johnson grass, poke-berry, and 
 other common plants, make good illustrations. 
 
 53. The Amount of Water in Plant Substance is con- 
 siderable, as may be seen from the following table show- 
 ing the approximate amount of water in a number of 
 common plants. 
 
 (32) 
 
The Water in Plants 33 
 
 Approximate Amount of Water in Plants 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Prairie Hay . . . 
 
 Corn Stalks. . . 
 Potato Tubers 
 Corn Grain . . . 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Grain straw. . . 
 Sniall grains . . 
 
 In fresh plants — 
 
 In air-dry plants — 
 
 water in 100 lbs. 
 
 water in 100 lbs. 
 
 Average 
 
 Average 
 
 72 
 
 8.4 
 
 70 
 
 30.0 
 
 82 
 
 34.0 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 10.0 
 
 91 
 
 
 .... 
 
 9.0 
 
 .... 
 
 9 to 12 
 
 53a. How many pounds of water in a ton of freshly cut alfalfa? 
 How many pounds of water in a ton of air-dry, or cured alfalfa? 
 
 54. Loss of Water by Plants. Plants lose water through 
 the stomata in their leaves, and their other parts to a 
 slight extent. Some plants lose water very slowly, even 
 under very dry conditions, as, for instance, the cactus 
 on the dry, open prairies. It has been estimated that 
 ordinary cultivated plants lose water by transpiration 
 about one-fifth to one-tenth as fast as it would evapo- 
 rate from a surface of free water. In times of drought, 
 when the air is very dry, transpiration will be greater 
 than under ordinary conditions. Hot, dry winds in- 
 crease the rate at which water escapes from the plant. 
 (See Tl 98, How Plants Dry the Soil.) 
 
 55. Drought-resistant Varieties of cultivated plants 
 have coverings that prevent the ready escape of water. 
 This ma}" be seen in the varieties of corn imported 
 from dry countries, which have thicker leaves and 
 coarser shucks than the native kinds. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. In what three ways do plants use water? 2. How does the 
 plant get water? 3. How does the plant lose water? 4. How do 
 drought-resisting plants prevent the escape of water? 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 STRUCTURE AND WORK OF STEMS 
 
 56. The Primary Use of the Stem is to hold the leaves 
 up where they may be fully exposed to the light. Sun- 
 light furnishes the energy for the food-making work. 
 Of course, when the leaves are more exposed to ^. 
 the light and winds, evaporation is increased. H 
 Therefore, stemmed plants need more water than ||m 
 stemless ones. 
 
 57. The Growing Point of the Stem 
 is in the bud at the end. The cells at 
 the growing tip are very small and 
 delicate. The young sections, or inter- 
 nodes,* grow in length, forming the 
 stem. The stem length- 
 ens by the multiplica- 
 tion and growth of the 
 cells. All the cells are 
 much alike at first, but, 
 as the cells lengthen, so 
 does the stem. Many 
 changes take place. 
 Soon there are several 
 
 kinds of cells and VeS- p-g 22. Cross-sectlon of a woody stem. 
 qpIq ac! cjVinwn in Fio- 99 Upper one actual size, a, pith; b, d and 
 
 SeiS, aSSnOWn m rig. ZZ. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^g. ^^ ^oody portion; /, 
 
 Snmp «T*p plnno-a + prl phloem; g, h, and i, outer protective 
 
 ome are eiongaxea, j^y^^.^ After Goodaie. 
 
 *The use of the words nodes and internodes is made necessary by the double 
 use of the word "joint." 
 
 (34) 
 
Structure and Work of Stems 
 
 35 
 
 thick-walled, woody fibers, arranged with 
 overlapping ends cemented together, thus 
 stiffening the stem. The water-conducting 
 vessels are surrounded by these woody 
 fibers. In some grasses and grass-like 
 plants, the water vessels and wood fibers 
 are united into strands forming the 
 ''threads," or fibro - vascular bundles, 
 embedded in a mass of soft pithy tissue. 
 This condition is well illustrated in the 
 stalks of corn. The strands (Fig. 23) in 
 the pith are bundles of woody fibers sur- 
 rounding the water-conducting channels. 
 Plants having the veins of the leaves 
 arranged like a net have the water-con- 
 ducting vessels in the woody part. (Fig. 
 22.) In young stems they exist as separate 
 
 Fig. 23. Corn- 
 stalk, showing 
 fibro- vascular 
 bundles, or 
 " threads." 
 
 B 
 
 
 Fig. 24. Cross-section (B) and longi-section (A) of stem, greatly magnified. 
 P, pith; d, d, water ducts; m, medullary rays; w, woody portion of stem; 
 c, delicate cambium or growing cells; s, phloem of food-conducting cells; b, 
 hard fibers; ck, cortex; e, epidermis. 
 
36 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 m 
 
 my 
 
 bundles, but with age become so numerous that they 
 unite to form the soUd woody portion of the stem. 
 Outside of this woody region is a layer of very thin- 
 walled cells that are actively dividing and growing. 
 This is the cambium layer. (Fig. 24c.) 
 
 58. Cambium. The cambium is the region of active 
 growth in the stem of plants with netted veined leaves. 
 It causes the stem to increase in diameter by adding 
 layers of cells each season, forming the annular rings. 
 
 (Fig. 25.) The 
 cambium cells on 
 the inner side be- 
 come wood cells 
 and water ducts, 
 while the cells on 
 the outside are 
 gradually trans- 
 formed into the 
 food-conducting 
 channel, or phloem, 
 just under the bark. The increasing thickening of the 
 stem breaks the outer bark in long, vertical slits, and 
 new bark is formed below. 
 
 59. Wounds made by pruning, gnawing of rabbits, 
 "breaking of branches, and other agencies, are often 
 healed over by the growth of the cells of the cambium. 
 Whenever the cambium cells form an extra growth in 
 this way, it is called callus. Where large limbs are 
 removed, it takes several years for the callus to grow 
 over the wound. When trees are pruned, the exposed 
 part should be heavily painted, to protect it till the 
 callus can have time to grow over entirely. (See T| 186, 
 How to Make the Cuts in Pruning,.) 
 
 
 Fig. 25. Cross-section of an oak stem, showing 
 the "annular" rings at J, which mark the 
 close of the growing season. 
 
Structure and Work of Stems 
 
 37 
 
 60. The Phloem Portion of the Stem is important, 
 because it is the channel through which the food sub- 
 stances are carried from the leaves to the roots. The 
 water moves up through the woody portion, but the 
 food material moves in 
 the phloem part of the 
 stem. When land is cleared 
 of large trees, the stumps 
 will continue to form water 
 sprouts for a long time, 
 unless the trees are first 
 ''deadened." This is done 
 by cutting off the bark 
 entirely around the trunk 
 of the tree, thus leaving a 
 strip or girdle of the wood 
 exposed. This does not 
 cause the immediate death 
 of the tree, because water 
 can move up to the leaves 
 through the stems, 
 as before. How- 
 ever, no food can 
 pass down to the 
 roots, and they 
 finally die of star- 
 vation. When the 
 roots die, water is 
 root -hairs are gone 
 
 SOLUBLE 5UB5TANCE5i 
 
 Fig. 26 
 
 Diagram to show the path of move- 
 ment of water and reserve food substances in 
 stemmed plants. 
 
 no longer absorbed, as the living 
 . Girdling kills trees by starving 
 
 the roots. (Fig. 26.) 
 
 61. Roots May Die without Girdling. When fruit 
 trees overbear, nearly all the food formed in the leaves 
 goes to mature the fruit, and not enough goes down to 
 
38 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 nourish the roots, hence the trees often die early in 
 the following spring. Sometimes a severe drought pre- 
 vents the trees from forming sufficient food, or insects, 
 fungous diseases, or storms destroy all the leaves. All 
 the reserve food is used up in an effort to form new 
 leaves, and the roots die of starvation. Transplanted 
 trees that fail to make a good growth often die at the 
 beginning of the second spring, because of the exhaustion 
 of their reserve food. 
 
 62. Perennial Weeds and sprouts from stumps may 
 be killed by constantly destroying all leaf growth. Even 
 though it does not kill them completely the first season, 
 it may weaken them to such an extent that they may 
 be more easily killed by other means. If allowed to 
 grow to considerable size, the roots will receive food 
 materials sufficient to start vigorous new growth. 
 
 63. Killing Johnson Grass. Grasses and weeds that 
 form thick rootstocks are difficult to destroy. They 
 may be killed much more easily if they are kept grazed 
 down, so that the leaves do not have a chance to form 
 a store of reserve food for rootstocks. The half- 
 starved rootstock is much more easily killed than the 
 fully nourished one. 
 
 64. The Storage of Reserve Food. Annual plants use 
 their food supplies as fast as formed, in developing the 
 shoots and roots, and, particularly, in forming flowers 
 and fruits. Some plants, like turnips, cabbage, radish, 
 etc., store the surplus food in the stem, leaves or roots 
 during the first season, and use it during the next season 
 to nourish a large crop of seeds. If grown in warm cli- 
 mates, these plants will complete the cycle in one sea- 
 son. In plants that live from year to year (perennials), 
 food is stored up in the stems and roots, to supply the 
 
Structure and Work of Stems 39 
 
 needs of the dormant season, and also to form the new 
 crop of root-hairS; leaves and flowers in the following 
 spring. It is the reserve food in the stems that makes 
 the callus and new roots in cuttings of roses, privet, 
 grape, etc. (See, also, Tj 159.) 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Where is the growing point of the stem? 2. What changes 
 take place as the stem lengthens? 3. What is the difference in the 
 arrangement of wood fibers and water vessels in the corn stalk 
 and in plants with netted- veined leaves? 4. Where is the cambium, 
 and what is its work? 5. How are the wounds on plants healed? 
 6. What is the position and use of the phloem layer? 7. Why are 
 trees girdled? 8. How else may the roots of a tree be starved to 
 death? 9. How may perennial weecfe be killed? 10. How may 
 Johnson grass be killed? 11. What are the uses of reserve food? 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 THE PLANT AS RELATED TO THE SOIL 
 
 65. The Welfare of Plants is dependent on the nature 
 of their surroundings. In cultivation, the effort is to 
 make and keep the environment favorable. In open- 
 field culture, little can be done to change the air, the 
 temperature, or the amount of light. While the diffi- 
 culty of changing the environment of the plant above 
 ground is great, much may be done to control the en- 
 vironment under the ground. The fertility of the soil, 
 the amount of water, the temperature, the supply of 
 air, and other conditions affecting the growth of the 
 root, may be readily changed. A knowledge, then, of 
 the habits and needs of roots, and of how to make the 
 soil conditions favorable, will be very practical 'infor- 
 mation. 
 
 66. Uses of the Soil to Plants, (a) Serves as a foot- 
 hold. The roots enter the soil and act as braces to keep 
 the plant in the proper position. Plants with long stems 
 and heavy foliage must have strong roots to enable 
 them to withstand the action of the winds and other 
 forces that would displace them. 
 
 (b) Supplies the plant with important mineral foods. 
 The amount of food which the plant takes from the soil 
 is small, as has already been seen, only about 5 per 
 cent of its dry weight; yet, small as it is, these mineral 
 foods are absolutely necessary. 
 
 (c) The soil acts as a .storehouse for water. The plant 
 
 (40) 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 
 
 41 
 
 must have a continuous supply of water. The soil is 
 able to store up water in the tiny spaces that separate 
 its particles. The roots penetrate the soil and take up 
 this water as the plant needs it. Plants can not take 
 up soUd food. All food substances must be dissolved 
 before they can be 
 absorbed. Hence, 
 water is important, 
 not only as a food, 
 but also as a sol- 
 vent for the particles 
 of soil. The solutions 
 pass through the thin, 
 delicate membranes 
 (cell-walls) of the cells 
 (the root -hairs) by 
 osmosis. 
 
 (d) It retains and 
 regulates the tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 66a. Absorption of 
 Water by Roots Illustrated. 
 The upward movement of 
 water absorbed by plants 
 may be easily illustrated 
 in various ways. A good 
 way is to cover the end 
 of a lamp chimney with 
 parchment paper, as shown 
 in Fig. 27; then fill one- 
 fourth full with syrup. Support the chimney in a vessel of water, 
 with the syrup at the level of the water. After a time, it will be 
 found higher, due to the absorption of water through the membrane. 
 It acts like a large root-hair, which absorbs water from the soil 
 and forces it upward into the stems and leaves. The water would 
 
 Fig. 27. To illustrate the absorption of 
 water by roots. The plant absorbs 
 water against the force of gravity. So 
 will a salt solution. 
 
42 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 not be absorbed unless the chimney contained the sugary syrup 
 or some similar substance. It will be recalled that syrup is boiled- 
 down sap from cane plants. 
 
 A solution of salt in the chimney would cause the water to be 
 absorbed in the same way as the syrup, because salt, like sugar, 
 makes the solution stronger and denser. Where two liquids are 
 separated by a membrane, more water always goes through into 
 the stronger solution. The bulk of the liquid in the chimney is thus 
 increased, and is forced higher in the chimney. 
 
 67. Conditions Favorable for Root Growth. Not all 
 
 plants require the same conditions for perfect develop- 
 ment. All require some degree of moisture. Some 
 plants do best when their roots are totally submerged 
 in water, as the water-lily. Some land plants will grow 
 with their roots in water, though they do best when 
 the roots are in soil that contains plenty of air as well 
 as water. When roots grow in a moist and very fertile 
 soil, they are short, but have hundreds of little branches. 
 This gives them a large absorptive surface, enabling 
 them to readily take up the water and mineral food. 
 When the soil is poor, or insufficiently supplied with 
 moisture, the roots grow long and slender and have 
 few branches. This does not mean, as some suppose, 
 that the roots are " searching for food." When in a 
 fertile soil, roots multiply rapidly, because they are 
 well nourished. When in a poor soil, where the mineral 
 food and water are insufficient, the leaves are unable 
 to supply the roots with enough sugar, oils, proteids, 
 etc., to make the roots multiply and grow rapidly. 
 It has already been observed that roots will not grow 
 vigorously when the oxygen of the air is excluded. Plenty 
 of air is necessary for vigorous growth. 
 
 67a. To Show that Air is Necessary for Root Growth, use two 
 
 jars, one filled with well-water, as shown in Fig. 28, and the other 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 
 
 43 
 
 with freshly boiled well-water. The water should be boiled to drive 
 out all the oxygen, and a layer of cooking oil used to prevent more 
 being absorbed from the air. Insert cuttings of willow or Wandering 
 Jew, and keep in a warm place for a 
 week or more. Note the time when 
 the rootlets appear on the cuttings. 
 
 68. Moisture Promotes Root 
 Growth on Stems. A continu- 
 ous supply of moisture stimulates 
 root growth. Portions of stems 
 kept in contact with moist soil for 
 some time develop roots, as is often 
 noticed in fallen corn stalks, to- 
 mato vines, and potatoes. To make 
 roots develop on cuttings of roses, 
 figs, grapes, etc., we bury them in 
 moist sand, loam, or sawdust. (See 
 ^ 194, Layerage.) 
 
 69. The Ideal Soil for cultivated plants is one having 
 an abundant supply of moisture, containing plenty of 
 soluble plant food, and so porous that air can circulate 
 freely and come in contact with the roots. The soil 
 may be too dense, or so compact that the air and water 
 cannot circulate. It may be too wet, — that is, have so 
 much water that all the air is forced out. In very wet 
 weather, the roots are often noticed growing out of the 
 surface of the ground. 
 
 70. Improving the Tilth of the Soil. We have already 
 learned that the particles of the soil should be suffi- 
 ciently fine for the root-hairs to grow between them. 
 The particles may be so fine and so run together that 
 neither the air nor the root-hairs can enter the soil. 
 This condition is just as unfavorable for the roots as 
 the coarse, lumpy soil. The texture, or physical con- 
 
 Fig. 28. Arrangement for 
 showing the effect of 
 the exclusion of air on 
 plant growth. A film of 
 cooking oil prevents the 
 boiled water from ab- 
 sorbing oxygen from the 
 air. 
 
44 Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 
 
 dition, of the soil in either case would have less water- 
 storage space, and be less hable to set free hberal supplies 
 of plant food. Some soils are so porous and loose that 
 the moisture drains away, and the air circulates so freely 
 that they dry out too rapidly. 
 
 71. Capillary Attraction is that force which causes 
 water to rise in tubes or between particles of solid 
 substances. The narrower the tube the higher will the 
 liquid rise against the force of gravity. Fine-grained 
 soils having smaller pores or spaces between their par- 
 ticles than coarse-grained soils, will lift water from 
 below nearer to the surface than will coarse-grained 
 soils. They will also hold more moisture in satura- 
 tion than coarse soils, hence, are generally the bet- 
 ter. Therefore, thorough pulverization of the soil is 
 beneficial. 
 
 72. The Problem in Soil Management is to bring the 
 soil to an ideal condition for the healthy growth of the 
 roots. Some soils must have the particles made finer, 
 and some must be made coarser by causing the finer 
 particles to combine. 
 
 73. How to Improve the Texture. Good texture is 
 important and dependent on the size of the soil par- 
 ticles. In soil treatment the object, then, is to find the 
 best means of modifying the size of the particles until 
 the soil is mellow and friable. There are three general 
 ways of changing the texture of the soil: 
 
 (a) By applying mechanical force, as in the opera- 
 tions of spading, plowing, harrowing, etc. This acts 
 directly to make the particles finer. If heavy clays 
 or black waxy land are tilled while wet, the particles 
 are forced closer together, and we say the soil is '' pud- 
 dled." This is a brickmaker's term. In making brick, 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 
 
 45 
 
 the first effort is to destroy the granular texture, which 
 is done by wetting and working the clay. Puddled 
 clays do not crumble when dried before baking. Neither 
 will a soil puddled by plowing when too wet crumble 
 into fine particles in drying. (See Ij 105 and Fig. 40.) 
 
 (b) By exposing the soil to the weathering influences 
 of the air, frost, sun, snow, 
 etc. When a lump or clod of 
 stiff soil is left exposed to 
 the alternate wetting of the 
 rain and drying of the sun, 
 it breaks up into many smaller 
 particles and becomes mel- 
 low. Without this weather- 
 ing effect, much of our plow- 
 ing would be worse than 
 useless. The land often breaks 
 up cloddy, but in time it 
 becomes mellow and loose. 
 (Fig. 29.) It requires time. 
 In order that a soil may be 
 in the best condition for seed- 
 ing, plowing should be done 
 long before planting time so 
 that the weathering influences 
 may have ample time to per- 
 fomr their work thoroughly. 
 Some soils will weather or 
 crumble promptly, while 
 others, like clay, require more time. Under this head 
 should be included some of the effects following under- 
 drainage. (See Fig. 41.) The surplus water is thus carried 
 off and air takes its place, and the soil particles crumble. 
 
 Fig. 29. Waiting for time and i 
 rains to mellow down the clod? 
 
46 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 * 
 
 (c) By applying substances which act chemically 
 or physically upon the particles. These are called amend- 
 ments, or indirect fertilizers. Lime is a familiar example. 
 It renders many stiff clay soils mellow, and cements or 
 binds together the particles of a sandy soil. Fertilizers 
 are also amendments, because they act to modify the 
 texture of the soil as well as to supply mineral plant 
 food. Evidence is not wanting that the good effects of a 
 fertilizer are sometimes much greater than the amount 
 of mineral food supplied would allow us to expect. This 
 is probably due to the effect of the fertilizer on the 
 texture of the soil particles. It is especially true of 
 composts, for they serve not only to supply plant food, 
 but also to improve the texture of the soil. 
 
 74. The Texture of the Soil affects the yield of crops 
 to a striking degree. To improve the texture is often 
 equivalent to an application of a fertilizer. One farmer 
 will raise as much on twenty-five acres as another will 
 raise on forty acres. A gardener will raise as large a 
 plant in a small pot of soil as a farmer does in a yard 
 of soil. It seems that the surface exposed to the action 
 of the root-hairs in the pot of soil may be equal to the 
 yard of imperfectly prepared soil in the field. 
 
 75. A Soil is in Good Tilth when the particles are small 
 enough for all the root-hairs to find a surface upon which 
 they may act. A soil in good tilth exposes a large sur- 
 face to the slow action of water, air and roots. (Fig. 30.) 
 A coarse, lumpy soil may contain an abundance of plant 
 food' but still make poor crops. If we take a cube and cut 
 it into halves, we increase the surface exposed by one-third ; 
 we add two sides. By dividing again, we increase the 
 surface in the same ratio. It will be seen that a lump of 
 soil, when sufficiently fined to be in good tilth, exposes a 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 
 
 47 
 
 large surface to the action of the root-hairs. Professor 
 King has figured out the result:* ''Suppose we take a 
 marble exactly one inch in diameter. It will just slip 
 inside a cube one inch on a side, and will hold a film 
 of water 3.1416 square inches in area. But reduce the 
 marble to one-tenth of an inch and at least 1,000 of them 
 will be required to fill the 
 cubic inch, and their aggre- 
 gate surface area will be 
 31.416 square inches. If, 
 however, the diameter of 
 these spheres be reduced to 
 one-hundredth of an inch, 
 1,000,000 of them will be 
 required to fill a cubic inch 
 and their total surface area 
 will be 314.16 square inches. 
 Suppose, again, that the soil 
 particles have a diameter of 
 one-thousandth of an inch. 
 It will then require 1,000,- 
 000,000 of them to com- 
 pletely fill the cubic inch and 
 their aggregate surface area 
 must measure 3141.59 square 
 inches." All in one cubic 
 inch of soil. When all the 
 surfaces are moist, it is then Fig. so. a 
 perfectly plain why a fine soil will withstand more drought 
 and give more root-feeding surface than a coarse soil. 
 
 76. Root-Hairs Absorb Plant Food. Root-hairs absorb 
 the water that covers the soil particles as thin films. 
 
 *King, The Soil. 
 
 'A 
 
 -J 
 
 (I tilth. 
 
48 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 They also take in some of the substances that are dis- 
 solved in the soil moisture. Root-hairs give off carbonic 
 acid gas and possibly other acids, which help to dissolve 
 some substances in the soil. This may be easily demon- 
 strated by allowing roots to grow on a polished marble 
 slab. 
 
 77. The Amount of Root Growth is large. A plant 
 must have a large root surface to absorb enough water 
 to make up for the loss from a large leaf surface. A large 
 leaf surface is, of course, beneficial, because it means so 
 much more surface for absorbing the carbon dioxid and 
 energy from the sun's rays. There must, however, be a 
 balance between the activities of the root surface and 
 the leaf surface. 
 
 78. The Distribution of Roots in the soil varies with 
 the kind and condition of the soil, but, roughly, the 
 
 Fig. 31. When trees are dug up, the large roots are found spreading in the 
 first few feet of soil. These roots had a spread of forty feet. 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 49 
 
 roots are said to spread through an area equal to that 
 shaded by the branches. Only in exceptional conditions 
 do the roots extend very deeply into the soil. Even in 
 forest trees, the most vigorous roots are found in the 
 first foot or two of soil. In young trees, the tap-root 
 is often noticed to grow directly down for some distance, 
 but, when the trees are old, the side roots will be found 
 to be many times larger. (See Fig. 31.) 
 
 79. The Total Length of the Roots is very great. Hell- 
 riegel* noted that a vigorous barley plant in a rich porous 
 garden soil had one hundred and twenty-eight feet of 
 roots, while another growing in coarse-grained, compact 
 soil had only eighty feet of roots. One-fortieth of a cubic 
 foot sufficed for these roots. It may be readily under- 
 stood that all the soil was occupied. Professor Clark, 
 after making a number of measurements, estimated that 
 a vigorous pumpkin vine had fifteen miles of roots and 
 gained one thousand feet per day. Professor King, of 
 the Wisconsin Experiment Station, estimates that if 
 all the roots of a vigorous corn plant were put end- 
 to-end they would measure more than one mile in 
 length. 
 
 80. The Vertical Distribution of Roots is affected 
 to a large extent by the depth of the plow line, particu- 
 larly so on stiff clay soils. The roots extend much deeper 
 in dry seasons than in wet ones. These facts have been 
 found out by carefully washing the soil away from the 
 roots, leaving them supported on poultry netting. 
 These observations are easily explained when we con- 
 sider the effect of tillage on soil conditions. Fig. 32 
 
 *Herman Hellriegel (1831-1895) devoted his life to the study of the 
 chemistry of plant nutrition. He was the first to discover the relation of the 
 bacteria causing the tubercles on the roots of legumes to the fixation of free 
 nitrogen. He made many other important discoveries in agricultural science. 
 
50 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 illustrates the appearance of the roots of a corn plant 
 at silking time. 
 
 81. Shall Crops be Tilled Deep or Shallow? It is im- 
 portant that we know the distribution of the roots in 
 the soils that are cultivated with plows; otherwise we 
 might plow too deep and destroy many roots. At one 
 of the agricultural experiment stations it was found 
 that thirty days after planting corn, at the second 
 
 ■f^i ''H>< 
 
 Fig. 3i' \ii ill I. 1 ■ the root-growth of a com plant at silking time. 
 
 After Hartley. United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 cultivation, the roots from the adjacent hills (three feet 
 apart) had alread}' met. A few roots had reached a 
 depth of twelve inches, but the bulk of the roots were 
 within eight inches of the surface. Six inches from 
 the hill, the main roots were within two or three inches 
 of the surface. Midway between the drills they lay 
 within four inches of the surface. Deep plowing at this 
 time with shovel-pointed plows would certainly have 
 injured many roots. 
 
The Plant as Related to the Soil 51 
 
 82. The Condition of the Soil has great influence on 
 the distribution of the roots. Where the surface layers 
 are moist the roots will grow freely in these layers, but 
 if dry spells come the plants will suffer more than plants 
 that have been growing on soils less favorably supplied 
 with moisture. This explains why it is best, in watering 
 lawns, to give them a heavy drenching rather than a 
 frequent sprinkhng of the surface, so that the water 
 will soak down into the deeper layers. 
 
 83. Grass-like Plants are without tap-roots. They 
 form a number of fine roots near the surface, and are 
 hence known as '^surface feeders." Other plants, like 
 cotton, alfalfa, peanuts and beans, have strong tap-roots 
 that branch out in the lower layers of soil, and are for 
 this reason called ''deep feeders." We must not conclude 
 from this that the small grains do not have deep-feeding 
 roots. Notwithstanding the small diameter of the root 
 branches, some of them penetrate the soil much below 
 the surface layers, as illustrated in Fig. 32. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What conditions of open-field culture are under our control? 
 2. What are the uses of soil to a plant? 3. What kinds of roots 
 grow in moist, fertile soils? 4. What kind in poor soil? 5. What is 
 an ideal soil for plants? 6. What conditions of soil particles prevent 
 the right supply of food? 7. What are the three general ways of 
 changing the texture of the soil? 8. When is a soil in good tilth? 
 
 9. Why is it necessary for a plant to have a large root surface? 
 
 10. What is the general rule as to the distribution of roots? 11. What 
 is the effect of moisture on the downward distribution of roots? 
 
 12. Shall crops be tilled deep or shallow? Discuss this question. 
 
 13. Why are the grasses called surface feeders? 
 
CHAPTER X 
 SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT 
 
 84. From what we have learned, we recognize that 
 the proper management of soils should be such as to: 
 
 (a) Provide the plant with an adequate supply of 
 available soil moisture at all times. 
 
 (b) Put the soil in such tilth that the roots can find 
 abundant supplies of the important soil nutrients. 
 
 (c) Provide for the removal of the surplus water 
 (drainage) that would fill up the air spaces and prevent 
 the proper development of the roots. 
 
 (d) Make the soil sufficiently loose so that the oxygen 
 of the air and the water in the soil may circulate freely. 
 
 85. Classification of Soils. Before we can intelli- 
 gently discuss the problems of soil management we should 
 learn more about the properties of the different kinds 
 of soils. By ''soil" we mean that layer of the earth's 
 crust which is formed from finely broken-up rocks and 
 decayed plants and animal remains. Soils are variously 
 classified according to origin*, method of formation, 
 chemical composition, physical properties, or adaptations 
 to kinds of crops. It will be advisable for us first to 
 learn more of the properties of the substances that 
 compose the various kinds of soils. 
 
 86. Origin of Soils. The geologist classifies soils 
 according to their origin and conditions of formation. 
 He tells us that all soils have been formed by the gradual 
 breaking up of rocks. Fig. 33 shows a mountain of rock 
 
 *See chapters on Erosion in any text-book on geology or physical geography. 
 
 (52) 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 53 
 
 being slowly but surely converted into soil. The large 
 boulders break and fall from the cliffs, and by the weath- 
 ing of the rains, frosts and other agencies, they are 
 worn away. The finer particles are washed down the 
 hillsides into the valley below, forming the rich valley 
 soil. Soils formed in this way by the deposit of the 
 sediment from running water are called sedimentary 
 soils. In some cases the rocks break up and are not 
 
 Fig. 33. Soil formation. Rain, frost and plants all assist in changing the moun- 
 tains of rock into soil. After Hill. United States Geological Survey. 
 
54 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 removed by flowing water. Such soils are referred 
 to as residual soils. 
 
 86a. Weigh a fruit jar and fill with the muddy water flowing 
 from the field after a heavy rain. Let stand until the water is clear, 
 and note the amount of soil in the bottom of the jar. 
 
 86b. Weigh the jar again, pour off the clear water, leaving the 
 thick sediment. Dry and weigh the sediment, and calculate the 
 per cent of sediment in the muddy water. 
 
 87. other Classifications. A convenient and natural 
 •classification of soils is often made according to the 
 color, texture and structure of the soil layers. We com- 
 monly speak of a soil as consisting of a surface soil and 
 a subsoil. 
 
 The surface soil includes the top layer of soil — ^''that 
 which is moistened by the rains, warmed by the sun, 
 permeated by the atmosphere, in which the plant ex- 
 tends its roots, gathers its soil-food, and which, by the 
 decay of the subterranean organs of vegetation, ac- 
 quires a content of humus." The surface soil may be 
 subdivided further into surface soil and sub-surface soil; 
 the surface soil proper, or soil mulch, including the layer 
 of top soil that is moved about by the ordinary operations 
 of tillage, and the sub-surface soil, referring to the layer 
 ■of surface soil that is just beneath the soil mulch, thus 
 iDeing a part of the surface soil and yet is not stirred 
 by ordinary inter-tillage. 
 
 The subsoil is the layer just below the surface soil, 
 and in all soils it is taken to mean the second layer, 
 showing characteristic differences from the surface 
 soil. Sometimes the subsoil, or a layer just beneath the 
 top layer of the subsoil, may consist of a hard, stiff layer 
 of clay or other compacted material, impermeable to 
 water and air. This is spoken of as hard-pan. It is often 
 absent altogether, or it may be at various depths. It 
 
Soils and Soil Management 55 
 
 may be considered as a condition of the subsoil rather 
 than as a different material, where it is composed 
 of the same material as the subsoil. 
 
 88. Sand. Sand is broken-up fragments of a mineral 
 called quartz, or flint. It often occurs mixed with con- 
 siderable quantities of coarse gravel. Pure white sand 
 is almost valueless for agricultural purposes, because it 
 supplies no needed mineral element. However, it rarely 
 occurs pure, but mixed with other minerals that supply 
 plant food. Sandy soils are usually classed as "light" 
 soils because of the hght draft in plowing. They are in 
 reality very heavy, for a cubic foot of air-dry sand will 
 weigh over a hundred pounds, whereas an equal quan- 
 tity of clay will weigh only about eighty pounds. The 
 grains of sand are rounded, and so there are spaces be- 
 tween them. This allows water and gases to move easily 
 through sandy soils. Because of their open nature, sandy 
 soils readily take in large quantities of water. For the 
 same reason, they allow it to drain off or evaporate 
 quickly. Sand has the property of absorbing and re- 
 taining the heat of the sun's rays readily, and will, for 
 this reason, warm up sooner than other soils and is, hence, 
 preferred for growing early vegetables. 
 
 89. Clay, in an agricultural sense, includes any soil 
 composed largely of very fine particles, which gives the 
 land a close, compact, adhesive nature. Clay, as used 
 by chemists and potters, refers to the disintegrated mass 
 of certain kinds of rocks. The several kinds of clay soils 
 vary widely in chemical composition, physical proper- 
 ties, and fertility. Usually, however, clay soils are very 
 productive. Clay has the property of absorbing large 
 quantities of water, often as much as from 50 to 75 
 per cent of its own weight. Even the dry clay road 
 
56 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 dust may have as much as 10 per cent of water. When 
 wet, clays become sticky and impervious to water and 
 air, and, of course, root growth cannot take place when 
 the soil is in this condition. If kneaded or puddled by 
 working at this time, it does not crumble on drying. 
 Clay particles have a tendency to cling together in small 
 lumps, or floccules, especially if lime is present. This 
 makes them more open and porous, and lightens the 
 draft in plowing. Water evaporates slowly from clay 
 soils.* 
 
 90. Calcareous, or Limy Soils. Many fertile soils 
 contain large quantities of crumbled limestone (car- 
 bonate of calcium). The presence of hme in a soil may 
 be easily detected by the effervescence (giving off of 
 gas) when treated with acids. Strong vinegar will 
 answer. Try it on some lumps of soil. Finely pul- 
 verized limestone has physical properties similar to 
 clay. Lime tends to improve clay soils by making 
 them more granular and porous. Lime also acts bene- 
 ficially on sandy soils by increasing their water-hold- 
 ing power. The fertile black lands of Texas contain 
 from 5 to 40 per cent of carbonate of lime. Soils low 
 in Ume often become sour or acid, (Tj 141). 
 
 90a. Effect of Lime on Clay Soils. Take about three pounds of 
 stiff clay soil and work into a soft plastic mass by wetting and 
 kneading. Divide into three equal parts. Round one into a ball 
 and put on a board. Work the second up with an equal volume of 
 air-slaked lime, and the third with half as much air-slaked lime. 
 Put all three on a board and let dry. Describe the results. What 
 is the effect of the lime on clay soils? 
 
 90b. Effect of Lime on Clay Particles. Clay settles slowly in water. 
 The particles are so fine that they float in water like dust in the air. 
 Rub up some clay in water until the water is turbid. Pour a little 
 
 *Are the clay soils of your community classed as drought-resistant soils? 
 
Soils and Soil Management 57 
 
 of this turbid water into lime water.* What happens to the particles 
 of clay suspended in the water? 
 
 91. Humus is the term applied to partly decayed 
 plant and animal remains, and is well illustrated by 
 the leaf-mold found under the trees in a dense forest. 
 Humus gives to the soil a characteristic blackish color, 
 and adds greatly to its fertility It improves the 
 water-holding power in a noticeable degree, often 
 to double the original water-storing power. It makes 
 clay soils mellow and sandy soils compact. Humus is 
 formed by the decay of the roots, leaves, etc., in virgin 
 soils. The farmer is able to increase the humus in the 
 soil by adding compost directly, and by plowing under 
 straw and green crops, Uke cow-peas, etc. (See 11131, 
 Green Manuring.) 
 
 92. Examination of Soils.f An experimental study 
 of the several kinds of soils, especially of those occurring 
 in the school district, should be made, and, if a sufficient 
 number of different kinds are not close at hand, others 
 may be secured. These various kinds of soil consist of 
 mixtures of varying amounts of sand, clay, limestone 
 dust, and half-decayed plant remains. The fertility and 
 water-holding power will bear some relation to the 
 amounts of these separate substances composing the 
 soil. 
 
 *To prepare lime water, secure a large-mouthed bottle or fruit jar. Fill 
 half-full with water. Add lime, a little at a time, until a good handful is used. 
 Cork securely, to keep out the air, and let stand. The lime will settle to the 
 bottom and the clear liquid above is lime water. 
 
 tThe direct examination of the samples of soil, as outlined in this chapter' 
 may be conducted by any boy or girl with little or no assistance from the teacher. 
 A word of caution may be given to the student. He should be reasonably 
 familiar with the theory of the work lie is to undertake, and what questions his 
 results may answer. Too often he will want to say that he is "going to prove" 
 so and so. He should be cautioned to " find out" if so and so is true or not true. 
 This is the attitude of the true student. 
 
58 
 
 Elementary Princi])les of Agriculture 
 
 93. Size of Soil Particles. In recent studies on Ameri- 
 can soils, much attention has been given to the deter- 
 mination of the size of the particles in good agricul- 
 tural soils. Fig. 34 
 shows how two soils 
 may differ in this 
 
 iyj 
 
 s 
 
 r/f' ^J3 
 
 ml 
 
 respect. In noting 
 the size of the soil 
 particles, we should 
 distinguish between 
 the actual size of 
 the minute particles 
 or fragments of rocks 
 and the soil floccules, 
 or granules formed 
 by the sticking to- 
 gether of a number of 
 very small particles. 
 93a. Examination to 
 Observe the Size of the 
 Soil Granules. Secure a 
 half-dozen lumps of soil 
 from the moist layers 
 beneath the surface, and 
 put into a fruit jar three- 
 fourths full of water. 
 Screw on the top and 
 shake vigorously for 
 some minutes, and allow 
 to settle. Describe the layers formed after standing one hour or 
 more. Note the differences in size of the granules of the soil. Apply 
 the same treatment to a handful of garden soil; to a sample of stiff 
 clay soil. 
 
 93b. Secure a good handful of soil and moisten and work till 
 a very thin, even paste is formed. Place in a jar. as in H 92a, and 
 shake. Allow to stand until the particles have all settled to the bot- 
 
 Fig. 34. Showing the amounts of the particles 
 of different size in two kinds of soils from 
 Bureau of Seeds, United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 59 
 
 torn. Observe the different layers. The coarse material at the bot- 
 tom is probably sand. Above this will be a layer of finer particles 
 consisting largely of clay, the finest particles of which remain in 
 suspension in the water, making it turbid. Small particles of vege- 
 table matter may be found floating on the surface. 
 
 Estimate the amount of sand and clay in the samples. What 
 effect did working the soil into a paste have on the size of the granules? 
 
 Make similar tests with a number of different kinds of soils. 
 Make a table as shown below, and record your observation for each 
 sample of soil. 
 
 93c. Classify the soils examined according to the following 
 scheme. Estimate the amounts of the sand or clay. 
 
 I Per cent ! Color 
 Kind of soil j of sand of fresh 
 present soil 
 
 Sandy 
 
 Sandy loam. 
 
 Loam 
 
 Clay loam. . . 
 Clay 
 
 80-100 
 60- 80 
 40- 60 
 20- 40 
 0- 20 
 
 Productive! Drought 
 
 or unpro- resistant 
 
 ductive or not 
 
 Heavy 
 
 or light 
 
 draft 
 
 Remarks 
 
 93d. Weight of a Cubic Foot of Soil. It will not be necessary to 
 use a full cubic foot. Small, rectangular boxes may be made and 
 then carefully measured for their inside dimensions. The dirt 
 may be put in these and weighed, and the results calculated to a 
 cubic foot. Three-pound tomato cans, with the tops melted off, 
 may be used in the same way. The samples of soils should be 
 thoroughly dry and free from coarse lumps. Weighing should be 
 very carefully made and recorded. A sample of every type of soils 
 in the community should be used. 
 
 94. Temperature of Soils. Soils have the power of 
 absorbing the heat from the sun's rays. If they absorb 
 the heat readily they are called warm soils, and if slowly, 
 cold soils. Dry soils get warm much more quickly than 
 moist soils. Barefooted boys know that the dry sands 
 and fine clay road dust becomes warm more quickly 
 than moist soils. 
 
60 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \\ 
 
 
 10' 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 \j 
 
 
 
 
 Ih 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 5' 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 35. Temperature 
 curves of dry and wet 
 soils. 
 
 The amount of water in the soil affects the tem- 
 perature more than the kind of soil. Much heat is re- 
 quired to warm and dry out wet 
 soils. Most of the heat is consumed 
 in evaporating the water. The 
 evaporation of water from the soil 
 may be compared to the evapo- 
 ration of sweat from the body^ 
 because it cools the soil, just as 
 evaporation cools the body. 
 
 The texture of the soil also 
 affects the temperature. Coarse 
 rocky or lumpy soils suffer from 
 sudden changes in temperature. 
 Loose and well- cultivated soils 
 absorb and retain the sun's heat 
 best; and the temperature in such soils is more uniform. 
 The color of the soil affects the amount of heat 
 absorbed from the sun's rays. Dark-colored bodies 
 absorb the heat rays more readily than light ones. This 
 explains why dark soils are warmer than light soils. 
 
 94a. Absorption of Heat from the Sun by Dry Soils. Air-dry 
 soils should be put into uniform vessels. Gardeners' flats are 
 quite suitable. Insert ordinary dairy thermometers into the soil for 
 about two inches and note the temperature in each box. Put the 
 box in strong sunlight and make readings at 8, 10, 12, 2, 4, and 
 6 o'clock. Record the readings of temperature on a sheet of paper 
 ruled as shown in Fig. 35. 
 
 94b. Rate of Cooling of Dry Soils. The same boxes used in ^ 93a 
 may be used. Note readings when placed in sunlight at 8, 10, and 
 12. Then put in shade and note the temperature at 2, 4, and 6. 
 Which kind of soil cooled quickest? What soils retained their heat 
 longer? Do the soils that warm quickly cool quickly? What soils 
 would you class as "warm soils?" 
 
 94c. Absorption of Heat by Moist Soils. Use same boxes of soils 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 61 
 
 as above, but add same amount of water to each, and make 
 readings when exposed to sunhght from 8 until 4. The cans or 
 boxes should be weighed at the beginning, and, when through 
 with the test in this experiment, weighed again for results in ^ 95a, 
 noting loss of weight in each. 
 
 94d. Loss of Heat by Moist Soils. As above in t 94b. The same 
 boxes may be used. 
 
 95. Soil Mulch. The rain falling on the surface 
 causes the many fine lumps of soil to crumble and 
 run together^ and leaves the surface covered by a closely 
 compacted layer or crust. This condition of the soil is 
 very favorable for the rapid evaporation of the capillary 
 water. When the surface becomes dry, the water below 
 will move rapidly to the surface and the soil will soon 
 become dry. The thrifty farmer destroys this crust 
 just as soon as the surface layer can be harrowed or 
 plowed. He thus destroys the close capillary connection 
 formed between the surface and sub-surface soil. The soil 
 mulch should be two or three inches thick. (Fig. 36.) 
 
 95a. Rate of Loss of Water. Use three-pound tomato cans. 
 Put equal volume of air-dry soil of different kinds in each, and add 
 same amount of water to each. At 4 o'clock each day, note the 
 amount of water lost from each kind of soil during four separate 
 days, and calculate the per cent of total water lost for each day. 
 Record the results as shown in the following; table: 
 
 Fig. 36. How cultivation retards surface evaporation. The position of ground 
 water after fifty-nine days, and the per cent of water in tlie soil at different 
 depths. The shaded plots were cultivated. After King, University of 
 Wisconsin. 
 
62 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Sandy soil .... 
 
 Clay soil 
 
 Garden soil . . 
 Coarse gravel . 
 
 Weight at begin- 
 ning 
 
 End of 
 first 
 day 
 
 End of 
 
 second 
 
 day 
 
 End of 
 third 
 day 
 
 End of 
 
 fourth 
 
 day 
 
 Per 
 cent 
 
 96b. Rate of Rise of Water Through Soils of Different Texture. 
 For this test, a number of ordinary lamp chimneys serve very well, 
 because the results may be easily observed. These may be secured at 
 stores. Select three samples of soil: one sand, one clay, and one a soil 
 with much humus. Prepare two chimneys of each kind of soil, as fol- 
 lows: Close the tops of the chimneys with muslin. In number one, 
 let the soil particles drop lightly into the chimney and remain very 
 loose. In number two, pour in a little at a time and press slightly 
 
 with a stick. Do not 
 try to make too com- 
 pact, lest the chim- 
 ney be broken. Put 
 all the chimneys in a 
 vessel of water, as 
 shown in Fig. 37, 
 and note the rise of 
 the moisture every 
 recess hour. 
 
 What effect does 
 compacting the soils 
 have on the quick- 
 ness with which they 
 absorb water in sand? 
 In clay? In humus? 
 Would the water 
 percolate down through these soils in the same way; and rate? 
 Try it. 
 
 95c. Effect of Mulches on Evaporation of Water from Soils. 
 Secure seven or eight three-pound tomato cans from which the 
 tops have been melted carefully off to leave smooth rims. Fill 
 
 Fig. 37. To test the rise of water through soils of 
 different texture. 
 
Soils and Soil Management 
 
 63 
 
 three of the cans full to the upper edge with clean, dry sand or other 
 soil. Fill the remaining ones within one inch of the top. Weigh 
 the cans separately when dry, and add the 
 same amount of water to each one and note the 
 weight. Prepare the mulches as indicated below, 
 and weigh again. Set in a convenient place 
 
 Fig. 38. Consuming soil moisture. Loss in seven days: A, packed surface, 
 8* oz. water; B, fine chopped straw, 2 oz. water; C, covered with loose sand, 
 1 oz. water; D, dust mulch, 3 oz. water; E, young oat plants, 10 oz. water. 
 
 where they will all be exposed to the same conditions. Weigh 
 daily for one week or ten days, and record the loss of weight for 
 each can on the following table. The difference in loss will approxi- 
 mate the power of these separate mulches to retard evapora- 
 tion from the surface. Give all the cans the same exposure to 
 light and wind. 
 
 Effect of Mulches on Evaporation 
 
 
 First day 
 
 Second day 
 
 Third day 
 
 No. of 
 can 
 
 Weight 
 
 Loss 
 of weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Loss 
 of weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Loss 
 of weight 
 
 1 .... 
 
 2 .... 
 
 3 .... 
 
 4 .... 
 
 5 .... 
 
 6 .... 
 
 7 .... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
64 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 1. Not mulched. (Check or control.) 
 
 2. Surface cultivated one inch deep (soil mulch). 
 
 3. Surface cultivated two inches deep (soil mulch). 
 
 4. Mulch with one inch of coarse gravel, 
 
 5. Mulch with one inch of sawdust. 
 
 6. Mulch with one inch of fine sand. 
 
 7. Mulch with one inch of fine cut straw. 
 Which mulch is most effective? 
 
 Which mulch is most practical under field conditions? 
 What other conditions affect evaporation from the soil? 
 
 96. Soil Moisture Retained by Cultivation. Professor 
 King has investigated the efficiency of surface culti- 
 vation in retaining water in the soil. A piece of fallow 
 ground was divided into plots twelve feet wide, as shown 
 in diagram in Fig. 36. Three were cultivated and two 
 left fallow. The figures in the table show the per cent 
 of water in the soil of each plot, at different depths, at 
 the end of fifty-nine days. The average loss of water 
 from the cultivated plots was 709.4 tons per acre, while 
 in the non-cultivated plots the loss was 862.3 tons 
 per acre. This makes the mean daily loss of water 
 from the ground not cultivated 3.12 tons per acre 
 greater than was that from the cultivated soil. 
 
 97. "Dry-land Farming." In some sections of the 
 country where the rainfall is so light that the trees and 
 other large plants requiring large amounts of water 
 will not grow, the soil mulch has been found to be an 
 excellent conserver of soil moisture. A crop is grown 
 only every other year. The fields are divided into 
 two parts. One is planted in grain, and the other will 
 be harrowed after each rain, or oftener, to form a mulch. 
 In this way, the water is stored up one season for the 
 next season's crop, and from twenty-five to fifty bushels 
 of grain to the acre are harvested every other year. If 
 
Soils and Soil Management 65 
 
 a crop were grown every year on all the land, the yield 
 would not average ten bushels per acre. 
 
 98. How Plants Dry the Soil. Do plants take moisture 
 from the soil faster than ordinary evaporation? To get 
 an answer to this question, fill four tomato cans with a 
 good garden loam. In one plant nothing: in another, 
 forty or fifty grains of oats; in another, five or six grains 
 of corn. Put an elder stem or hollow cane on the side 
 of each so that the plants can be watered from the 
 bottom. If we put water on the surface, a crust will 
 form that will cause the water to evaporate much faster. 
 (Do any of our experiments justify this statement?) 
 Pour just enough water down the tube to make the 
 soil reasonably moist, but not too wet. Set in a warm 
 place, and, when the seedlings are half an inch high, 
 weigh the cans and determine the loss of moisture in 
 the usual way. Keep the cans in a place where the 
 plants can get a good light, but not where the sun 
 would heat the earth too much. Sum up your results 
 at the end of the first week, and answer the questions 
 given above. Likewise, at the end of the second week. 
 
 99. Absorptive Power of Soils. Soils have the power 
 of absorbing many substances, particularly some that 
 are valuable plant foods. The soil is a great purifier of 
 water. Prepare two lamp chimneys as described in ^ 95b, 
 and fill with good field or garden soil. Into one pour 
 several ounces of water made deep blue with laundry 
 blueing. Note the color of the water when it comes 
 through the cloth below. Into the second chimney pour 
 foul water made by leaching compost. Use as before. 
 
 Wood ashes contain the salts left from the plant 
 when the air-derived substances have been driven off 
 by burning. It represents the valuable salts absorbed 
 
66 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 from the soil. Take some home-made lye and taste a 
 drop on the end of a broom straw. Allow to filter through 
 the soil as above and try the taste of the drippings. 
 Has the soil absorbed any of the salts? 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What are the ends to be worked for in soil management? 
 2. What is meant by "soil?" How does a geologist classify soils? 
 4. What is the farmer's classification of the layers of soils? 5. Name 
 the four chief components of soils. 6. What are the advantages 
 and disadvantages of a sandy soil? 7. Of a clay soil? 8. Of a limy 
 soil? 9. Of hmnus in soils? 10. What is the importance of the size 
 of soil particles? 11. Which are more important, soil particles, or 
 granules? 12. What does the farmer mean by heavy and light soils? 
 13. What kind of soil warms up most quickly? 14. Why does the 
 farmer harrow or plow up the crust formed by rains? 15. What is 
 meant by dry-land farming? What is its advantage? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 WATER IN THE SOIL 
 
 100. How the Water Exists in the Soil. From our ex- 
 periments, we have noticed that the water in the soil 
 may be classed as: 
 
 (a) Free, or gravitation ivater, the water which flows 
 under the influence of gravity and percolates down- 
 ward. When the water collects below, we call it bottom, 
 or ground, water, and the upper layer is called the 
 water table. (See Figs. 36 and 41.) 
 
 (b) Capillary water is held in the capillary spaces or 
 pores of the soil and is not influenced by gravity, but 
 moves upward, or in any direction where the soil is 
 becoming drier. It is held in 
 
 the soil by the same force 
 which causes the whole of a 
 rag to become wet when one 
 end is placed in water, or 
 which causes oil to rise in the 
 wick of a lamp. The amount 
 of capillary water, that is, 
 the water which the soil may 
 retain against the influence 
 of gravity, depends on the 
 size and form of the soil 
 particles, and several other 
 conditions. Where there is 
 only capillary water in the 
 soil, there is, of course, some 
 
 (67) 
 
 >->. 
 
 >.^^ 
 
 Fig. 39. Diagram to illustrate how 
 the soil particles are covered by 
 capillary water. 
 
68 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 air space, because the capillary films will not be thick 
 enough to fill the spaces between the grains, espe- 
 cially if the soil is coarse grained. This is the condition 
 most favorable to the growth of roots, because both 
 water and air are present. (Fig. 39.) 
 
 (c) Hygroscopic water does not differ essentially from 
 capillary water, except that it is held more firmly to 
 the grains. Air-dry soil may still contain from one to 
 ten per cent of hygroscopic water, — that is, water which 
 may be driven off only by heating to the temperature 
 of boiUng. Clay soils, in particular, often contain large 
 amounts of hygroscopic moisture. 
 
 1 00a. Rate of Percolation of Water Through Soils. Prepare lamp 
 chimneys as in H 95b, filling them two-thirds full, using different 
 kinds of soil. Quickly fill all the chimneys full to the top with water, 
 and then notice the time required for water to begin dripping at 
 the lower end. It will be well to place small -mouthed bottles 
 under each chimney to collect the drippings. In this way the amount 
 of water percolating through the different soils may be estimated. 
 Which would be preferable in field conditions, for the water to per- 
 colate rapidly or slowly? Discuss this question. 
 
 Soil 
 
 Time required for first 
 
 flow from bottom of 
 
 chimney 
 
 Amount of water passed 
 through chimney at end of 
 
 
 First 
 day 
 
 Second 
 day 
 
 Third 
 day 
 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 101. The Amount of Capillary Water which a soil may 
 retain varies with the soil. This is ^ measure of the power 
 of a soil to store up water. The following table, taken 
 from Schubler"^, who first investigated this property 
 
 *See Johnson, How Crops Feed. 
 
Water in the Soil 
 
 69 
 
 of soils, gives a good idea of the water-storing power of 
 the different soils: 
 
 
 Maximum capillary 
 water 
 
 Water lost in four 
 hours 
 
 Pure sand 
 
 Per cent 
 
 25 
 29 
 40 
 51 
 
 61 
 70 
 
 85 
 
 89 
 
 181 
 
 Per cent 
 88.4 
 
 Lime sand 
 
 75.9 
 
 Clay soil (60% clay) 
 
 Loam 
 
 Heavy clay (80% clay) . . . 
 Pure gray clay 
 
 52.0 
 47.5 
 34.9 
 31.9 
 
 Fine carbonate of lime .... 
 Garden mold 
 
 28.0 
 24.3 
 
 Humus 
 
 25.5 
 
 The second column shows the per cent of water 
 that evaporated in four hours, when spread over a given 
 surface. It is seen that soils having capacity for large 
 amounts of capillary water part with it very slowly. 
 
 102. What amount of water is most favorable to 
 the growth of plants? This has been experimentally 
 studied by Hellriegel, who found that oats, wheat, 
 and rye growing in sand able to hold twenty-five per 
 cent capillary water made maximum yield with fifteen 
 to twenty per cent water. He observed that the plants 
 would grow with no less vigor when the soil contained 
 even only 2.5 per cent water. Below this the plants 
 would wilt. It is not generally true that the most 
 favorable amount of moisture for the growth of a plant 
 is the full capillary power of the soil, as might be inferred 
 from the above results. The results of some investi- 
 gations of the United States Department of Agriculture 
 show that plants might suffer for lack of water (drought 
 limit) when the soil contained 15 per cent moisture, 
 while in other soils the plants were well supplied 
 
70 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 when the soil contained onl}'' 4 per cent moisture. In 
 some soils 20 per cent moisture caused injury, while 
 in others only 10 per cent moisture acted injuriously 
 on the plants. These figures indicate approximate 
 amounts only. While the range from the ^^dry" to ^Svet" 
 seems narrow, it should be remembered that 1 per cent 
 difference in water in the first foot of soil would amount to 
 a rainfall of only about 0.65 inch for clay soil and 0.50 
 for sand, allowing 80 pounds per cubic foot for clay soil 
 and 110 pounds for sand. Water weighs 62.31 pounds 
 per cubic foot. One inch of rainfall completely absorbed 
 would increase the percentage of moisture about six 
 per cent. 
 
 103. In Irrigation it is important to know how much 
 water to apply. Injury may be done by applying too 
 much water, besides causing undue expense in handling 
 the water. 
 
 103a. How much water should be applied to a sandy loam 
 soil weighing 90 pounds per cubic foot to raise the moisture from 
 3% to 20%? 
 
 104. What Becomes of the Rain? The average annual 
 rainfall at Guthrie, Oklahoma, is about thirty-two inches; 
 that is, in a year's time, the rain, snow, and sleet would 
 be sufficient to cover the surface thirty-two inches 
 deep in water. In some parts of the South the rain- 
 fall is fifty inches, and in other sections only about 
 fifteen. What becomes of this large amount of water? 
 Some of it runs off into the creeks before it can be 
 absorbed by the soil. This is called the '^surface run-off," 
 or simply surface water. This water is lost for the use 
 of the plants. When the surface layers are hard and 
 compact, the water can not be absorbed quickly, and 
 may even flow off while the roots in the deeper la3^ers are 
 
Water in the Soil 71 
 
 suffering from a lack of moisture. If the fields were 
 kept well plowed; more of this water would soak into 
 the soil and could latet* be used by the plants when dry 
 times come. If more water soaks into the layer of tilled 
 soil than it can retain by its capillary properties, it is 
 absorbed by the sub-soil and may finally percolate 
 down to the layer of rock or clay and flow off to form 
 springs. It is much better for the farmer if the surface 
 soil and the sub-soil are well supplied with water. The 
 rains are usually not abundant in the season when they 
 would be most beneficial in increasing the yield of the 
 crops. This fact suggests all the more strongly the im- 
 portance of studying the ways that may be used to : 
 
 1. Increase the ready absorption of the rainfall ; 
 
 2. Increase the water-storage power of the soil occu- 
 pied by the roots (*[} 100) ; 
 
 3. The efficiency of mulches in conserving the mois- 
 ture. 
 
 105. Increasing the Water-Storage Power of the soil 
 may be accomplished in two ways: (a) By deep break- 
 ing. This increases the pore space in the soil by making 
 the granules of soil smaller. They, therefore, have more 
 capillary space (H 95). Breaking should be done in 
 the fall so that the winter rains may be absorbed. 
 
 
 Fig. 40. Diagram to illustrate the effect of ideal plowing. The compactness of 
 the soil is indicated by the density of the shading. Before plowing, there is a 
 compact surface crust (s), below which the soil grows less compact as we go 
 deeper; after plowing, this compact mass is broken up into a loose, friable 
 mass of soil-crumbs, or floccules, with a consequent increase in the bulk of 
 the furrow-slice (fs); compacted plow sole at pi. Modified after Hilgard. 
 
72 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 (b) By adding substopnces to 
 the soil that increase its water- 
 holding power, such as com- 
 post and green manures 
 (1[ 101). Increasing the water- 
 storage power of the soil tends 
 to lessen washing. The water 
 ''runs" after every little 
 shower in the hard roadway, 
 hut in the well-plowed field 
 the rain is soon absorbed and 
 passes to the deeper layers 
 of soil. 
 
 106. Amount of Water Re- 
 quired to Mature a Crop. For 
 every pound of dry matter 
 made by growing corn, cotton, 
 oats, etc., it has been esti- 
 mated from many experi- 
 ments that from two hundred 
 to four hundred pounds of 
 water are required. This in- 
 cludes the entire plant above 
 ground, regardless of that 
 which is harvested. Accept- 
 ing these figures as nearly 
 correct, let us estimate how 
 much of the rainfall is con- 
 sumed in maturing a good 
 crop of corn, cotton, oats, etc. 
 In a field of corn making fifty 
 bushels per acre the figures 
 would be roughly as follows: 
 
Water in the Soil 73 
 
 50 bushels corn (72 pounds to bushel). . .3,600 pounds 
 Stalks and leaves 3,600 
 
 Plant substance 7,200 " 
 
 Approximate quantity of water required 
 
 for each pound of plant substance. . . 300 " 
 
 Water used by crop 2,160,000 " 
 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 62.3 pounds. A rain-fall 
 of one inch would be 5.19 pounds per square foot of 
 soil, or 43,560 X 5.19= 226,175.40 pounds on an acre. 
 Dividing 2,160,000 by 226,175.40, we find that less than 
 ten inches of rainfall would be used by the plants in 
 making fifty bushels of corn per acre. This does not 
 include the water that would evaporate from the soil 
 or be lost by the surface run-off. 
 
 106a. At Stillwater, Oklahoma, the average annual rainfall is 
 about 33 inches. What per cent of this would be required to make 
 50 bushels per acre? What is the average rainfall in your county? 
 See page 74. 
 
 107. Soil Drainage. There are many places in low 
 bottom lands on w^hich water accumulates to an injuri- 
 ous extent, either from seepage from the hills or from 
 the lack of an outlet for the surplus water in very wet 
 spells. Again, there are low ^'sweeps," ''swags," ''runs," 
 "sloughs," and the like, in which water stagnates to 
 the detriment of the soil and the crops. Such places 
 may often be greatly improved by making surface 
 ditches or by placing drainage tiles (Fig. 41) to carry off 
 the surplus water. In making open ditches it is better, 
 if circumstances allow, to make them broad with sides 
 sloping up about one foot in three or four. This will 
 permit of the cultivation of the drainage-way, and leave 
 no banks to harbor weeds or interfere with the driving 
 
74 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 of the plows in any direction. Sometimes underground 
 drainage ways are provided. These are often made by 
 digging narrow ditches to the proper depth and filUng 
 partly with coarse stones, logs, etc., before refiUing. The 
 surplus water finds an outlet through the spaces between 
 the stones. Regular drainage tiles are now most often 
 used in place of loose stone. They may be secured in 
 any size to suit the local conditions. Many fields have 
 been greatly improved by placing rows of tile drains 
 every thirty feet or so. The prompt drainage of some 
 soils is just as important as the conservation of water 
 in others. An excess of water delays the warming of the 
 soil in spring, and prevents the growth of the roots. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. In what three forms does water exist in the soil? 2. Explain 
 capillary water. Hygroscopic water. 3. Between what per cents 
 of water content do plants grow most vigorously? 4. Can an irri- 
 gated field have too much water? 5. What becomes of the rains? 
 6. What can the farmer do to make use of a greater amount of 
 the average rainfall? 7. About how much water is used for every 
 pound of dry matter made by growing cotton, or corn? 8. Why is 
 soil drainage important? 9. How should open drains be made? 10. 
 What is a tile drain? 
 
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CHAPTER XII 
 
 RELATION OF THE PLANT TO THE CHEMICAL 
 COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL 
 
 "The soil is not only a sponge, from which the plant 
 may obtain water, but it is also a storehouse of plant 
 food and a laboratory in which the plant food is pre- 
 pared and dissolved for the plant." — Osterhout, Ex- 
 periments with Plants. 
 
 108. In the preceding chapter, the relation of the 
 plant to the water contained in the soil, and the means 
 by which the water supply may be increased, have been 
 discussed. These tillage operations not only cause the 
 water to be retained for the use of the plants, but dis- 
 solve the mineral food elements in the soil. While the 
 amount, the kind, and the condition of these soil foods 
 affect very greatly the fertility or agricultural value of 
 a soil, we should remember that, without resort to 
 means for improving the mechanical condition, many 
 soils, naturally rich in plant food, would yield poor 
 crops. We should study closely the relation of the 
 chemical composition of the soil to the fruitfulness of 
 the crops. 
 
 109. The Essential Elements. By growing plants with 
 their roots in a medium of known composition, plant 
 physiologists have determined which elements of the 
 soil are really necessary for the healthy, normal growth 
 of the plant. By the same means they have been able 
 to determine the effect of other substances. For these 
 tests, the plants are usually grown in vessels thoroughly 
 
 (76) ' 
 
Relation of the Plant to the Soil 
 
 77 
 
 cleaned and partly filled with distilled water (water cul- 
 ures). or with pure sand (sand cultures), to which is 
 added solutions containing the different substances 
 supposed to be necessary for plants. These solutions are 
 made similar in every respect to the solutions as they 
 occur naturally in the soil. Plants have been grown to 
 maturity in these artificial solutions side by side with 
 ones just like them planted in the ground, 
 and with equally satisfactory results. Where 
 it was desired to determine if, say, potas- 
 sium was really necessary, a solution was 
 prepared having all the ingredients found 
 in the soil waters except potassium, and in 
 this the plants would be grown. Fig. 42 
 shows the results of growing buckwheat in 
 a complete or normal nutrient solution and 
 also when certain important elements are 
 withheld. It should be remembered that 
 some potash, calcium, etc., was in the seed 
 so that not all the mineral nutrients 
 are kept from the plantlet. Sodium, 
 while quite simi- 
 lar to potassium 
 can not replace 
 potassium as a 
 nutrient. 
 
 110. Effect of 
 Fertilizers. An- 
 other way of 
 r = testing the effect 
 
 Fig 42 l.u \\\n It grown in artificial «!olutions of ^^ ^ SUDStaUCe 
 
 mineial iiutnein-< 4, complete 'iolution ii, pota^ ,0 ^.^ rrvz-wTxr 4-Uf^ 
 
 Slum withheld C, mtiogen ^Mthheld D, calcium ^^ ^^ grOW tne 
 
 (lime) withheld; E, without potassium, but so- i-wlon + a ir. c^rkVY-iQ 
 
 dium added. Drawn from photograph by Nobbe. piauib in bUUie 
 
78 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 available soil and add the substances to the soil. This is 
 called fertilizing the soil. Fig. 43 illustrates the effect 
 of applying different fertilizing substances to a sandy 
 soil taken from a field in Eastern Texas. Fig. 44 shows 
 the effect of adding nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus 
 to pot-cultures of alfalfa made at the Oklahoma Agri- 
 cultural and Mechanical College. 
 
 Fig. 43. Orangeburg fine sandy loam. An application of phosphoric acid is 
 denoted bj' P; potash by K; nitrogen by N. 
 
 111. The Quantity of Fertilizing Substances added ta 
 the soil is but a small fraction of the increased weight of 
 the crop which it produces. Minerals are absorbed by 
 the plants in exceedingly small amounts, for they form 
 only about one part in two hundred of the fresh, living 
 plant, and rarely more than five per cent of the dry^ 
 substance. They are necessary as food substance; they 
 become a part of the living plant substance. Exceedingly 
 small amounts suffice in the case of iron, sulphur, chlo- 
 
Relation of the Plant to the Soil 
 
 79 
 
 rine, calcium, and magnesium. Tlie substances named 
 occur in nearly all soils in quantities sufficient to supply 
 the plants abundantly. Other substances, as potassium, 
 phosphorus and nitrogen, are more important, and must 
 be supplied when necessary. (See table of fertilizing 
 substances in feecl-stuffs in Appendix). 
 
 112. The Form in Which Plants Take Up Their Mineral 
 Food. These '* elements" occur in the soil as compounds 
 with other substances. The soil is composed mostly of 
 
 Fig. 44. Pot cultures of alfalfa showing effect of adding different fertilizers. 
 D9, nothing; DIO, nitrogen; Dll, potassium, and D12,-phosphorus. Pho- 
 tograph from Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College. 
 
 insoluble compounds, which the plants cannot use. The 
 particles are very slowly changed into soluble compounds, 
 and in this form are absorbed by the plants. The amount 
 or per cent of soluble matter in the soil water at any 
 one time is exceedingly small, as shown by the analysis 
 of natural waters. In fact, if the amount should exceed 
 ten parts in a thousand the effect would be unfavorable 
 on the growth of the plant. The total amount of, say, 
 potash in the soil may be several per cent of the total 
 soil weight, yet the amount in solution at any time may 
 rarely exceed fifty parts per million of water. It is well 
 
80 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 that this is so, for, otherwise, the valuable soil constitu- 
 ents would be washed off to the sea by the percolating 
 water. It is the great solubiUty of some substances, like 
 nitrates, that explains their scarcity in the soil. 
 
 Mineral Matter Dissolved in 100,000 Parts of 
 Drainage Water. 
 
 
 Field No. 1 
 
 Field No. 2 
 
 Field No. 3 
 
 Potash 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 Nitrogen compounds 
 
 Soda 
 
 trace 
 trace 
 10.27 
 1.43 
 6.93 
 10.00 
 16.25 
 
 44.88 
 
 trace 
 0.17 
 21.17 
 3.10 
 10.24 
 10.57 
 12.04 
 
 57.29 
 
 0.07 
 
 trace 
 
 2.79 
 
 1.24 
 
 Lime 
 
 Soluble organic matter .... 
 Other substances . 
 
 2.23 
 8.00 
 6.89 
 
 Total 
 
 21.22 
 
 113. Chemical Change in the Soil. The soil is the seat 
 of constant changes, and these changes have great in- 
 fluence on the productiveness of the soil. When the 
 soil is plowed, the particles are exposed more to the 
 action of the air, water, frost, etc. When humus is put 
 into the soil, acids are formed as the humus decomposes, 
 and these tend to dissolve the substances in the soil. 
 
 114. Soil-Bacteria. Humus also encourages the growth 
 of soil bacteria, because they live on plant and animal 
 remains. These bacteria decompose the humus, and, 
 in doing so, set free carbonic acid, which aids in dis- 
 solving the particles of soil. Thus it is that the bacteria 
 of decay act beneficially on the soil. Other species of 
 bacteria cause the formation of nitrates from insoluble 
 nitrogen compounds. No soil will long remain fertile 
 unless the supply of organic matter is kept up. 
 
Relation of the Plant to the Soil 
 
 81 
 
 115. Effect of Wheat and Barley Grown Continuously 
 on the Same Land. Some results from the famous ex- 
 periments of Laws and Gilbert at the Rothamsted 
 estate* are very instructive in showing the effect of 
 growing crops continuously on the same soil. Wheat 
 and barley, as well as other crops, have been grown on 
 the same land through a series of years without manur- 
 ing. Adjoining these non-fertihzecl crops were others 
 treated annually with barnyard manure. Tests were 
 also made of the effect of various other fertilizers. 
 The results are given in averages for periods of eight 
 years. They show that the annual application of manure 
 increased the average annual yield twenty bushels per 
 acre for wheat and thirty-two and one-eighth bushels for 
 barley. 
 
 Effect of Continuous Cropping With and 
 Without Manuring. 
 
 
 Wheat. Bus. per acre 
 
 Barley. Bus. per acre 
 
 
 Un- 
 manured 
 
 Manured 
 
 Un- 
 manured 
 
 Manured 
 
 8 years, 1844-51 
 
 8 years, 1852-59 
 
 8 years, 1860-67 
 
 8 years 1868-75 
 
 171 
 16i 
 131 
 12i 
 10^ 
 121 
 9i 
 
 13i 
 
 28 
 341 
 351 
 35f 
 
 28t 
 39i 
 33| 
 
 331 
 
 24i 
 
 18 
 
 141 
 
 14f 
 
 111 
 
 101 
 
 161 
 
 44i 
 
 52f 
 491 
 
 8 years, 1876-83 
 
 8 years, 1884-91 
 
 8 years, 1892-93 
 
 Average 50 years 
 
 521 
 44f 
 
 491 
 
 48f 
 
 *Rothamsted Estate, Hartfordshire, England, the home of noteworthy in- 
 vestigations in agriculture under the Laws Agricultural Trust, was founded in 
 1843 by Sir J. B. Laws. These investigations, directed by Sir Joseph Gilbert 
 and the distinguished founder for more than half a century, have had great in- 
 fluence in shaping the agricultural practices of the world. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 IMPROVING THE CHEMICAL NATURE 
 OF THE SOIL 
 
 116. What Plants Remove from the Soil. The amount 
 of mineral food substances removed from the soil by a 
 bountiful harvest is considerable. The object of fertil- 
 izing is not only to return to the soil the elements that 
 help the growth of the crops, but also to improve the 
 tilth. In applying fertiUzers, we should remember that 
 our effort is to bring about a twofold result: (a) to supply 
 mineral food, and (b) to improve the texture of the soil. 
 While, ordinarily, we add substances supplying soluble 
 salts containing nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, it 
 should be remembered that equally beneficial results are 
 sometimes secured by applying dressings of substances 
 that do not contain any considerable quantities of these 
 elements, as lime, plaster of Paris, or gypsum. The 
 benefits derived from these substances are due to the 
 effect they have on the physical properties of the soil. 
 The lime may also cause the decomposition of insoluble 
 particles containing potassium or phosphorus. (Fig. 45.) 
 
 116a, Corn contains about 1.58 per cent of nitrogen; 0.37 per 
 cent of potassium; and 0.57 per cent of phosphorus. How much of 
 each does a crop of 50 bushels per acre remove from the soil? 
 
 117. Not All Soils Need the Same Fertilizer. Experi- 
 ments have shown that the chemical analysis of a soil 
 does not give a farmer a satisfactory guide as to what 
 fertilizer to apply to his land. The analysis might show 
 a high per cent of potash, and yet it might be in such 
 
 (82) 
 
Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 83 
 
 BEEF 
 
 BUTTER 
 
 STRAWBERRIES 
 
 1 
 
 1^1 
 
 2_ , < ■ 
 
 A 
 
 * o 
 
 ^. Showing the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash removed 
 from the soil when 1,000 pounds each of beef, milk, butter, and strawberries 
 are sold. 
 
 CORN 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 OATS 
 
 ^,-— 
 
 t 1 
 
 
 -^ ^ 
 
 /. A ^ 
 
 
 -- 
 
 M 
 
 
 : :'■ ■•"1 
 
 
 fi. Showing the amounts of the three most important plant foods removed 
 from the soil by growing 1,000 pounds each of corn, wheat, and oats. 
 
 ALFALFA 
 
 C Showing the amounts of the three principal 
 plant-foods removed from and returned to 
 the soil by 1,000 pounds each of cotton 
 lint, cotton seed, and alfalfa. 
 
 ^ 
 
 COTTON LINT 
 
 COTTON SEED 
 
 tMt 
 
 Iff 
 
 o. 
 
 z 
 
 mi 
 
 2 
 
 _i2 
 O 
 
 — ■a 
 
 P 
 
 X 
 
 — -t« 
 a 
 
 Fig. 4^ 
 
 Tables showing the amount of mineral food substances removed and 
 returned to the soil by various crops. 
 
 insoluble combinations that the plants could not absorb 
 it. This would not be the general rule, however. Usu- 
 ally, where the soil analysis shows a high per cent of 
 an essential element, fertihzing with substances con- 
 taining this element rarely give returns above the cost 
 of the fertilizer. The only safe rule by which to learn 
 
84 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 the needs of a particular field is to make trials, using 
 a variety of fertilizers, and thus observe what fertiUzer 
 gives most satisfactory results. These tests must be 
 made for each soil formation. (See ^ 133.) 
 
 118. Kinds of Fertilizers. Fertilizers are variously 
 classed; according to the valuable element they supply, 
 as nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphate fertilizers, com- 
 plete or balanced fertilizers; or according to source, as 
 home fertilizers, commercial fertilizers. In most instances 
 the substances applied to the land contain more than 
 one valuable element, as, for instance, composts, which, 
 being made out of plant remains, contain all the mineral 
 elements found in plants. 
 
 119. Potassium Fertilizers. The most important 
 source of potash fertilizers is the famous Stassfurt mines 
 of Germany. The most common forms known to the 
 markets are the sulphate, muriate and kainit— the latter 
 a mixture of several salts. All are readily solul:>le and 
 therefore are classed as ''quick fertilizers." Wood-ashes 
 form an important source of potash, though their 
 value depends much on the source, and the way in 
 which they have been cared for. If leached out by the 
 rains, their value as a fertilizer is much lessened. Lime 
 and gypsum often have the effect of potash fertilizers, 
 causing the decomposition of insoluble potash com- 
 pounds in the soil, and thus indirectly acting as potash 
 fertihzers. The "home-made lye" obtained from ashes 
 is largely potash. 
 
 120. Phosphorus Fertilizers. Phosphorus is an im- 
 portant fertihzer. Three-fourths of the phosphorus 
 absorbed from the soil is deposited in the grain of the 
 crop, and is, therefore, ordinarily sold from the farm, 
 while only one-fourth remains in the straw. Phos- 
 
Yield from one-tenth acre, with fertihzer containing phosphoric acid, 
 nitrogen and potash. 
 
 Fig. 46. Some soils are made more productive by fertilizers. 
 
86 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 phorus compounds are widely distributed, though, 
 usually, in insoluble compounds. Phosphorus is found 
 in the soils combined with lime, magnesia, iron and 
 alumina. For fertilizing purposes it is obtained from 
 bones, oyster shells and rocks formed by the deposit of 
 similar remains. In bones it exists as the insoluble 
 lime phosphate. To overcome this, the rock or bone 
 phosphates are treated with sulphuric acid which con- 
 verts the insoluble into soluble compounds. When ap- 
 plied to the soil it soon returns to the insoluble salt, 
 dicalcium phosphate. This latter is soluble in the pres- 
 ence of carbonic acid formed by the roots and decaying 
 humus, and is hence readily available. (See ^ 76.) 
 Phosphorus fertilizers do not give beneficial results when 
 applied to soils containing an excess of lime, like most 
 of the ''black waxy'' soils. 
 
 Bone-black, formed by heating raw bones in the 
 presence of air, is used in large quantities by sugar 
 refineries. When it has served its purpose, it becomes a 
 waste product and is sold for fertilizing. It has little 
 value until treated with sulphuric acid. Bone-meal is 
 the fresh bone ground and steamed and contains some 
 nitrogenous matters in addition to the phosphorus. 
 It dissolves very slowly. 
 
 The commercial supplies of phosphates are bones, 
 and phosphate rocks. The latter are mined in large 
 quantities in South CaroHna, Florida, Tennessee, Vir- 
 ginia and Pennsylvania. 
 
 121. Nitrogenous Fertilizers. Nitrogen is absorbed 
 by plants as nitrates. The most readily available form 
 is the "Chili saltpeter," found in large quantities in 
 rainless regions on the western coast of South America. 
 As it occurs naturally in the ''saltpeter beds" it contains 
 
Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 87 
 
 a large amount of salt, but when prepared for commerce 
 it is quite pure nitrate of soda. This is the form most 
 used on quick-growing truck crops. It is readily soluble 
 and, therefore, easily washed out of the soil. (See H 127, 
 Nitrification.) 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia is obtained as a by-product 
 in the manufacture of illuminating gas from coal, and 
 from the distillation of bone in the manufacture of bone- 
 black. It is a very concentrated fertilizer, containing 
 about twenty per cent nitrogen. Ammonia salts may 
 be absorbed by some plants, but they are readily con- 
 verted into the nitrates by the nitrifying bacteria and 
 are usually absorbed in this form. 
 
 122. Guano, obtained from the habitation of flesh- 
 eating birds roosting in caves and sea islands, has long 
 been used as a fertilizer. Dried fish, blood, hair, leather, 
 and various other substances of animal origin, are fre- 
 quently used for fertilizing purposes. The nitrogen of 
 both animal and vegetable origin must first be decom- 
 posed and converted into nitrates before it can be used 
 by plants. This takes time, and hence such substances 
 are slow-acting fertilizers. The meal, or pomace, 
 obtained as a by-product in the extraction of vege- 
 table oils, all contain large quantities of nitrogen, 
 such as cottonseed meal, castor pomace, germ meal 
 obtained from corn, etc. These substances are very 
 valuable as feeds for stock. This does not preclude 
 their use for fertiUzing, for, in fact, they are almost 
 as valuable for fertilizing purposes, after passing 
 through the cattle, as before. 
 
 123. Composted manures are the most economical and, 
 in general, the most desirable fertilizers. Besides sup- 
 plying large amounts of nitrogen, they contain consid- 
 
88 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 erable quantities of potash and phosphoric acid. The 
 vegetable matter acts very beneficially, improving the 
 texture and water-retaining property of the soil. An 
 instance of the power of compost to maintain the land 
 at a high state of productiveness has already been 
 given (^ 115). Compost should be applied in the fall or 
 early, winter and plowed or harrowed under. Covered 
 barns prevent the loss in value of compost by scattering 
 and leaching. Sometimes the compost is removed 
 directly to the field. In many cases, where it is stored in 
 bins, sufficient soil should be added from time to time 
 to absorb the ammonia that is formed. When packed 
 down closely to exclude the air, the loss from fermenta- 
 tion will be greatly reduced. 
 
 124. Fixation of Free Nitrogen by the tubercle-forming 
 bacteria, found on the roots of plants belonging to the 
 pea family, is the most important source of nitrogen 
 known. By growing these legumes we add to the supply 
 of combined nitrogen, and thus make the world richer. 
 We do not recover all the nitrogen added to the soil in 
 fertilizing. A part of it is lost by leaching, and a part by 
 the escape of free nitrogen. All combined nitrogen may 
 be used over and over again by plants and animals, but 
 eventually it escapes back to the air as free nitrogen 
 and, in this form, is available only to the bacteria 
 which cause the formation of tubercles on the roots of 
 legumes, and to a low class of microscopic plants. (See 
 ^ 127, Nitrification.) Without these plants the world's 
 supply of combined nitrogen would become exhausted. 
 In the present state of our knowledge, only the ''tubercle 
 bacteria," and one or two other classes of bacteria, 
 whose life-habits are little understood, are known to 
 have the power "of fixing free nitrogen. 
 
Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 
 
 89 
 
 125. Tubercles on Legumes. Plants belonging to the 
 pea or legume family have small tubercles on their roots. 
 (Fig. 47, A and B.) On opening the small tubercles found 
 
 Fig. 47. A, root system of pea with tubercles. B, root system of alfalfa with 
 tubercles. After Belzung 
 
 on the roots of beans, peas^ alfalfa, blue bonnets, etc., 
 
 we notice in the center a rose-colored area. If a bit 
 
 of this is scraped into a drop of water, it becomes milky 
 
 because of the hundreds of bacteria. 
 
 They are so small that the most powerful 
 
 microscopes are needed to make out their 
 
 form. (Fig. 48.) It is these little plants 
 
 that have the power to take the free 
 
 nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert 
 
 it into such form that the nodule-bearing 
 
 plants, such as the cow-pea, may use it. 
 
 Without these bacteria the legumes do not 
 
 fix free nitrogen. It is this nitrogen-fixing 
 
 power that makes these plants so valu- ^fubei-cie of^e^ 
 
 , , . gume showing 
 
 able to us. the bacteria. 
 
90 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 126. How Legumes Enrich the Soil. By growing 
 legumes (cow-peas, alfalfa, peanuts, etc.) the farmer is 
 able to harvest a crop valuable as food for man, or feed 
 for stock. These crops are especially valuable because 
 of the large amount of nitrogenous or muscle-building 
 substances which they contain. At the same time, 
 strange as it may seem, they leave a larger quantity 
 of nitrogen in the soil than was there before the crop 
 was sown. The latter becomes available to other plants 
 by the decay of the roots. This promotes the yield 
 of the succeeding crop, as the following experiment 
 shows: The plan of the experiment included two 
 plots, ''A" and '^B." On ''A" clover was grown the 
 first year and barley the second. On '^B" barley was 
 grown both years. The increase in yield of barley on 
 plot ''A" over ''B" is the measure of the manurial value 
 of the roots of the clover left in the soil by the first year's 
 crop. 
 
 Plot 
 
 Yield in 
 
 
 Yield in 
 
 first year 
 
 
 second year 
 
 A. Clover . . . 
 
 ...Clover 
 
 Barley 
 
 69.4 bus. 
 
 B. Barley. . . 
 
 . . . 37.3 bus. 
 
 Barley 
 
 39.1 bus. 
 
 Increase in yield due to clover roots. .30.3 bus. per acre. 
 
 The fixation of free nitrogen by the bacteria in the 
 root nodules of the pea family has been thoroughly 
 studied and is well established. 
 
 127. Nitrification is the formation of nitrates or salts 
 containing nitrogen. Whenever vegetable or animal 
 remains, like guano, cottonseed meal, composts and 
 animal bodies, decay in the soil, the complex nitrogen 
 compounds are broken up, and nitrates are formed. 
 Nitrogen, which is so essential to plant life, is absorbed 
 from the soil as nitrates. The nitrogen in the cottonseed 
 
Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 91 
 
 meal, for instance, must be converted into a soluble 
 salt before it can be absorbed. This change is complex 
 and is brought about by certain kinds of bacteria in 
 the soil. 
 
 128. How to Promote Nitrification. Since the amount 
 of nitrate nitrogen in the soil affects the yield of crops, 
 particularly grain and forage crops, the question is often 
 asked, ''Can the farmer promote the growth of the nitri- 
 fying bacteria in his soils?" The answer is ''yes." These 
 bacteria are most active when the soil is loose, so that 
 air can enter. These bacteria use large amounts of oxy- 
 gen in making the nitrates, hence deep cultivation is 
 the first essential to promote their activity. They do not 
 grow in strongly acid soils. (See further in any ency- 
 clopedia, under "Saltpeter.") Nitrification is most active 
 during the summer when the temperature is high. It 
 ceases when the temperature of the soil falls below 
 50° Fahr. 
 
 129. De-nitrification is the destruction of nitrates. 
 This is due to another class of bacteria, but, fortunately, 
 the soil conditions that favor nitrification tend to retard 
 de-nitrification. De-nitrification takes place in a serious 
 degree, sometimes, when manure is not properly cared 
 for; as when it becomes too dry, or when so wet that air 
 is excluded. The same is true for the soils of the fields. 
 
 130. How the Soil Loses Nitrogen. The complex 
 nitrogen compounds are usually converted into nitrates 
 and absorbed by growing plants. If not absorbed, they 
 may be destroyed by the de-nitrifying bacteria, or leached 
 from the soil by percolating waters. They are quite 
 soluble and, therefore, easily washed from the soil, par- 
 ticularly so from fallow soils through the winter months. 
 The practice of leaving our cotton and corn fields fallow 
 
92 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 and unplowed through the winter has much to do with 
 the ''wearing out'' of the soils. A better plan would be 
 to have the ground covered by some winter annual 
 plant, such as oats, which could be grazed. 
 
 131. Green Manuring. Sometimes crops are grown 
 with no intention of saving the above-ground portion 
 for hay, but it is plowed under to increase the content 
 of humus in the soil. While, in general, it would be 
 much better to save the hay and, after feeding to stock, 
 return the compost to the soil, there may be situations 
 where it is desirable to turn the entire crop directly 
 into the soil. When a crop is plowed under to enrich the 
 soil, sufficient time should be allowed for complete decay 
 before sowing another crop. The decaying plant remains 
 often causes the soil to become quite acid for months 
 afterward. 
 
 132. Relation of Texture to Fertilizing. The profit or 
 loss resulting from the application of fertilizers depends 
 much on the texture of the soil. Irrigation water and 
 fertilizers are but poor and expensive substitutes for 
 timely efforts to improve the texture of the soil. The 
 best results from irrigation, or the application of ferti- 
 lizers, may be expected only when the soil is in the most 
 favorable tilth. "Tillage is manure." 
 
 133. Experiments on Soil Testing. In ^| 117, mention 
 was made of the desirability of testing the value of 
 various fertilizing substances for any particular soil 
 formation. Select a level piece of soil whose productive- 
 ness is to be tested under varying treatments, and lay 
 out into beds, one (or two, or more, if desired) yard 
 square. The location selected should be such as to give 
 uniform conditions in all the beds, and all should be pre- 
 pared alike. Fall-sown oats, wheat, or barley, are suitable 
 
Improving the Chemical Nature of the Soil 93 
 
 crops for tests in school gardens. From the usual amount 
 of the various fertilizers applied per acre, we may cal- 
 culate the amounts necessary for the beds. If they are 
 just one yard square, divide the usual quantities by the 
 number of square yards per acre (4,840), and the quo- 
 tient will indicate the amount required for the beds. 
 It is recommended that a space of two feet be left be- 
 tween the beds to guard against the possibility of the 
 fertilizer in one bed affecting results in adjacent ones. 
 The location should be one not subject to washing or 
 flooding. 
 
 133a. Scheme for Field Tests of Different Fertilizers. Beds exactly 
 one yard square. Walks two feet wide. 
 
 1. Land for beds plowed 2. Harrowed, or raked 
 
 3. Beds laid out and staked. . . 4. Fertilizers applied 
 
 5. Beds planted 6. Quantity of seed to each bed. . 
 
 7. Depth planted 8. Plants appeared above ground 
 
 Fertilizers 
 
 At the rate per 
 acre in pounds 
 
 Nothing (check) 
 
 Compost 
 
 Wood ashes 
 
 Fresh lime 
 
 Common salt 
 
 Sodium nitrate 
 
 Acid phosphate 
 
 Nothing (check) 
 
 Potash (Kainit) 
 
 Combination — 
 
 Soluble phosphate. 
 
 Sodium nitrate. . . . 
 
 Nothing (check) 
 
 Combination — 
 
 Phosphate 
 
 Potassium nitrate 
 Nothing (check) 
 
 5-10 
 1,000-3,000 
 5,000-20,000 
 
 100-300 
 200-400 
 
 100-300' 
 
 200-400 
 200-300 
 
 Quantity 
 
 of lbs. ap- 
 
 plied to one 
 
 square yard 
 
 2 ibs. 
 
 i lb. 
 
 3 lbs. 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 2 oz. 
 
 1 oz." 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 Lbs. of 
 crop har- 
 vested 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 PRODUCTIVENESS OF SOILS 
 
 134. Fertility and Productiveness Compared. A soil 
 may be fertile, that is, rich in food elements, but not pro- 
 ductive because of the presence of some harmful sub- 
 stance in the soil. A familiar example is the '^clover 
 sickness" of northern soils. A soil naturally suited to 
 
 clover will grow 
 several splendid crops, 
 and then become 
 ''sick of clover," as 
 the}^ say, because 
 clover will not thrive 
 any longer. The soil 
 is still rich in all ele- 
 ments of fertility, but 
 not productive for 
 clover because of 
 some poisonous sub- 
 stance thought to 
 be produced by the 
 decay of the clover 
 roots. If planted to 
 other crops for a few 
 seasons it will recover 
 its former productive- 
 ness. The injurious 
 results of even a 
 single crop of sorghum 
 
 Fig. 49. Poisonous substances in the soil, 
 formed by decaying vegetable matter, some- 
 times keeps a fertile soil from being pro- 
 ductive. (Wheat seedlings grown in: (1) 
 Pure distilled water ; (2) soil extract ; (3) 
 same soil extract from which the poisonous 
 substances have been removed by absorp- 
 tion with carbon black.) Bureau of Soils, 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 (94) 
 
Productiveness of Soils 95 
 
 on some soils is much greater than could result from 
 the loss of fertiUzing substance removed by the crop. 
 The effect is probably due to the formation of some 
 harmful substance by the decay of the roots. These 
 injurious substances are dissolved in the soil moisture. 
 Deep plowing and the application of composts tend to 
 overcome the bad effects of the poisonous substances. 
 
 135. Soil Conditions That Affect Production. The in- 
 telligent farmer watches his crop closely from day to 
 day, and studies all the conditions that affect the vigor 
 or fruitfulness of his crop, of which there are many. 
 The general health of the plant may be affected as 
 much by conditions above the ground as by conditions 
 below the ground. If the plants are not growing properly, 
 close observation will often lead one to discover the 
 unfavorable condition, and a remedy for it. 
 
 136. Excessive Droughty Conditions are noticed by 
 wilting, twisting, or drooping conditions of the leaves. 
 The plants endure but do not make profitable growth 
 when this condition exists, even for a part of the day. 
 Where irrigation is not possible, prevention is the only 
 remedy. (See H 95, 105.) 
 
 137. Wet Soil Conditions often cause the leaves and 
 stems to grow slowly and assume a yellowish cast, with 
 splashes of purple. This condition is not the result of 
 too much water in the plant, but of some injurious 
 effect of water-logged soils on the roots. Many plants 
 can be grown to full maturity with their roots in water, 
 but not in a water-logged soil. Soils that frequently 
 retain injurious amounts of water should be drained. 
 (See H 107.) 
 
 138. Soils Deficient in Essential Elements. Some soils 
 do not have enough of some one or more of the essential 
 
96 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 elements to suit the requirements of the crop. It is im- 
 portant in this particular to remember that forage crops 
 need large amounts of nitrogen, and grain crops much 
 phosphorus. The fruit crops require much potash. A 
 soil may be even deficient in any one or several of the 
 essential elements. The best and safest guide to learn 
 the special fertilizing needs of a soil is to try by test. 
 (See t 133a.) 
 
 139. Chemical Elements May Not Be in Balance. A 
 soil may contain so much nitrogen that the crop, say 
 
 t^ ^^^^ 
 
 I ^^s^^^^^mm^^^m^. ,.. ^ 
 
 Fig. 50. Showing the effect of an exco-^'- of hnic tnl mai^iiesia on plant growth. 
 Excess of Hme in pots on left; excess of magnesia in pots on right. Nearly 
 equal amounts of each in center pots. From Bull, United States Department 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 grain or fruit, goes all to wood and leaf and does not 
 produce a harvest. In such cases, a potash or a phos- 
 phate fertilizer would be needed to balance the ration 
 of mineral food. Sometimes some element, even an 
 essential element, may be in excess. Plants require 
 magnesium and calcium (^ 43), but an excess of either 
 may be the cause of a poor result. Fig. 50 shows the re- 
 sult of adding lime to balance an excess of magnesia in 
 the soil, and shows the effect of balanced and unbalanced 
 amounts of calcium and magnesium on plant growth. 
 The good effects that sometimes result from the appli- 
 
Productiveness of Soils 97 
 
 cation of lime may be due to the establishment of bal- 
 ance between the calcium and magnesium as just men- 
 tioned; to the effect on insoluble potassium or phos- 
 phorus compounds (^ 90); to a mechanical effect on the 
 texture of the soil (^ 73); to the effect of lime in taking 
 up an excess of acid in soils (^ 141); or in neutralizing 
 some forms of alkali. 
 
 140. The Mechanical Condition of the soil may be the 
 cause of unsatisfactory crops. Some crops, like wheat, do 
 best with a settled sub-surface soil, while beets, potatoes 
 and many other crops do best with a very loose soil. 
 
 141. Sour, or Acid, Soils are very unfavorable to some 
 crops. Many soils are slightly acid, as will be found when 
 tested with litmus paper. They differ greatly in the 
 degree of sourness. Very acid soils are not favorable 
 for alfalfa, cotton, etc.; but, for corn and small grains, no 
 rule has yet been suggested. Soils that contain injurious 
 amounts of acid are found in swamps or in sandy uplands. 
 
 141a. To Test Soils for Acid, use a small slip of litmus paper, 
 secured from the druggist. Place the paper against the moist soil, 
 and the color after some minutes will change. If blue, the soil is 
 alkaline; if red, it is acid. 
 
 141^. Alkali Salts in a soil may be the cause of un- 
 productiveness. There are several kinds of very soluble 
 salts that accumulate in the surface soils, most fre- 
 quently in regions of low rainfall. Often the dwarfing 
 effect of alkali salts is confined to a low place, a wet- 
 weather seep, or other place where a quantity of soil- 
 water is evaporated. These salts are formed in all soils, 
 but where the rainfall is abundant they are washed out 
 of the soil by percolating water. If the rain is all evapo- 
 rated from the surface, it will cause an accumulation of 
 these salts to such an extent that injury to the plant 
 results. Lime is often beneficial on such soils. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 ROTATION OF CROPS 
 
 142. Rotation. The amount of mineral food which a 
 crop will take from the soil varies with the kind of crop, 
 depending on how much of the crop is removed by the 
 yearly harvest, the richness of the land, and many 
 seasonal features which are too complex to be discussed 
 here. By referring to the table in the appendix it will 
 be seen that the amount of nitrogen removed by the 
 grain crops is less than the amount removed by crops 
 grown for their roots. It will be noticed, also, that grain 
 crops remove or require large amounts of phosphorus; 
 root crops, potash; and hay crops, much nitrogen ; an 
 exception being made for legumes Uke alfalfa, clover, or 
 cow peas when grown as hay crops (H 117). Some 
 legume crop should be included in any system of rota- 
 tion. 
 
 143. Order of Succession in Rotation. It is desirable 
 to arrange the rotation so that the same land does not 
 have the same crop twice in succession. In arranging the 
 crop it is important to consider the order in which the 
 crops should follow each other. Plants with shallow roots 
 should follow plants with deep-feeding roots; non-cul- 
 tivated crops, hke grain, should follow cultivated crops, 
 because they leave the land in better tilth. As regards 
 the predominating mineral foods, it is better to let those 
 crops requiring large amounts of nitrogen follow potash- 
 loving crops, or, still better, legumes, because they 
 will leave additional amounts of nitrogen in the soil which 
 
 (98) 
 
Rotation of Crops 99 
 
 will be very beneficial to the grain, but not so necessary 
 to the others. In some soils cover crops or heavy appli- 
 cations of fresh manure tend to cause too rank a growth 
 of straw in the small grains. In such cases it is advisable 
 to allow a crop of corn to come before the small grains. 
 
 144. Cover Crops; Catch Crops. Except in arid 
 regions, it is best to keep the land constantly occupied by 
 some crop. They not only keep the land continually earn- 
 ing something, but it is best for the land. A field that is 
 bare or fallow loses more by leaching than when occu- 
 pied by plants. It is often possible to grow a quick- 
 maturing crop after the principal crops have been harves- 
 ted, for example, June corn after potatoes or small 
 grain; cowpeas after corn. 
 
 145. Marketable, or Usable, Crops. In planning a 
 rotation or selecting a cover crop, it is necessary to con- 
 sider what may be successfully sold, or used to advan- 
 tage. This will depend on the markets and the farmer's 
 facilities for keeping and feeding certain kinds of crops. 
 
 146. Other Advantages of Rotation. Besides pre- 
 serving the soil nutrients, providing for their better dis- 
 tribution, facilitating fertilizing, rotation (which is 
 closely related to diversification) affords other ad- 
 vantages: 
 
 (a) Tends to free the land from noxious weeds, as where 
 oat stubble is planted to June corn, the late cultivation 
 of the corn prevents the seeding of the weeds, such as 
 cockle burs or Johnson grass. 
 
 (b) Exterminates insect and fungous diseases. Insect 
 and fungous pests usually attack only particular kinds of 
 crops. If the same crop is grown on the same land year 
 after year, the larvae of insects and spores of the fungi 
 lodging in the ground during the fallow season will 
 
100 Elementarj/ Principles of Agriculture 
 
 find their food ready when the season is ready for them 
 to multiply. (See ^ 217 and ^ 228.) 
 
 147. Distributes the Labor. Rotation and diversifi- 
 cation make it possible for the work to be more evenly 
 distributed through the year. Not all the crops will need 
 to be planted, cultivated or harvested at the same time. 
 The farmer will thus be able to keep busy, and not have 
 to pay out so much for help during rush seasons that 
 ^come with a one-crop system of farming. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 « 
 RELATIONS OF PLANTS ABOVE THE GROUND 
 
 148. We have now found out some of the things 
 about the relation of the plant to the soil. Soil culture^ 
 we found to be making a home for the roots. What can 
 we do to make the conditions above the ground more 
 favorable to the growth of the crops? 
 
 149. Provide for Leaf Development. All the carbon 
 in plants, which is fully half their substance, is absorbed 
 from the air by the green leaves, and, through the agency 
 of sunhght, made into plant substance. The leaf is a 
 part, or organ, where the raw materials are brought 
 together and made into the foods that nourish the plant. 
 It is plain, then, that in husbanding plants provision 
 should be made for normal leaf development. Leaves 
 will not grow unless plenty of light is present. This is 
 shown when plants are grown in darkness. We have 
 often noticed how the leaves arrange themselves *so that 
 they get the greatest benefit from the rays of hght. 
 Plants growing beside a wall or in a window turn their 
 leaf surfaces toward the light. Vigorous leaf develop- 
 ment is possible only when plants are far enough apart 
 to not unduly shade each other. Too many plants must 
 not be allowed to grow on the same ground, whether 
 they be w^eeds or all of the crop planted. When the 
 plants are too close together, the leaves and side branches 
 do not grow, and the stem spindles up in an effort to 
 reach the best light. The individual plants are thus 
 weakened, and are more subject to the attack of insects 
 
 (101) 
 
102 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 and fungi. Weak, poorly nourished plants are not fruit- 
 ful. Healthy plants have large leaves. Large leaves 
 indicate vigor. The rank-growing weeds have large 
 leaves. Increasing the amount of leaf surface is increas- 
 ing the capacity of the plant to manufacture plant 
 substance. 
 
 150. Relation of Leaf Surface to Soil Moisture. The 
 total leaf surface on a plant may be several times the 
 total ground surface shaded by the plant. If evapora- 
 tion is increased by the winds or high temperatures, it 
 may happen that the supply of soil moisture may become 
 exhausted and the plant suffer. Soils covered with plants 
 lose their moisture faster than if they are bare or fallow. 
 In regions of slight rainfall, therefore, it often becomes 
 desirable to reduce the number of plants to prevent too 
 great a draft on the stores of soil moisture. This is an 
 additional reason for leaving space between the indi- 
 vidual plants in a crop. (See ^ 102.) 
 
 151. How Far Apart Should Plants Be Grown? Where 
 the value of the crop depends on the perfect develop- 
 ment of the individual plant, or some special part, such 
 as the leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, or roots, sufficient 
 space should be allowed that adjacent plants will not 
 interfere with each other. However, the value of the 
 crop often depends more on the total weight of the 
 harvest than on the quality of the individual plants. 
 In such cases, the loss from a limited amount of shade 
 will be more than made up by the increased number 
 of plants, as in the case of the grain crops. Again, the 
 fertility of the land also affects the size of the plants, 
 and, of course, the space which each should be allowed. 
 Often the use for which the crop is intended must be 
 considered, as, for instance, in the case of sorghum grown 
 
Relations of Plants Above the Ground 103 
 
 for syrup or for forage; corn grown for ensilage or for 
 grain. 
 
 152. The Vigor of Leaves and Stem Growth. The size 
 of leaves is influenced largely by the amount of water 
 available to the plants during the period of their for- 
 mation. From this, it follows that plants grown for their 
 leaveS; like cabbage, lettuce, hay crops, etc., do best 
 when plenty of moisture is in the ground. Light is neces- 
 sary for the formation of leaves, as we have seen. Where 
 branches are shaded, the lower leaves are small and 
 weak, and often fall off before the season ends. As the 
 buds, from which the branches, leaves and flowers of the 
 succeeding season grow, are formed in the axils of the 
 leaves and take their vigor from them, it is important 
 that fruit trees be pruned out so that hght may reach 
 to all parts. (See Chapter XVIII.) 
 
 153. The Temperature of the Air is subject to great 
 and often sudden variations, whereas the soil, as we have 
 seen, changes its temperature very slowly. The above- 
 ground portion is more often injured by extreme cold 
 or excessive heat than the part below the ground. 
 The first effect of lowering the temperature is to retard 
 the growth of the plant. Cold does not permanently 
 affect all plants alike. Some plants are killed by moder- 
 ately low temperature, while others are uninjured even 
 by long exposure to severe freezing. The ill effects of 
 freezing are more severe on plants when full of sap. 
 Peach trees may endure a number of severe freezes 
 through the winter, but if a severe cold spell comes 
 late in the spring, after the buds have swollen, the 
 injury is often considerable. 
 
 Sometimes the bad effects are due to the sudden 
 thawing, more than to the cold itself. The winter-kiUing 
 
104 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 of the cambium layer is often confined to the east side 
 of a tree where the early sun rays cause a sudden warm- 
 ing. DeHcate plants, fruits, etc., may often be saved 
 by protecting from too rapid thawing. By shielding 
 from the sun's rays, bathing in cold water, etc.* 
 
 154. Buds and Nodes. If we examine the branches of 
 almost any shrub or herb, we shall find that they are 
 divided into segments by the buds at the nodes. We have 
 already found a reason for calling the former nodes, and 
 the spaces between, internodes. The buds are formed 
 just above, or, as the botanist says, in the axil of the leaf, 
 which readily explains the observation that the vigor 
 of the buds is determined by the size of the leaves which 
 nourish them. The bud at the end of the shoot, called 
 the "terminal bud," is usually the most vigorous; 
 but, as a rule, the vigor and the size of the buds de- 
 crease as we pass down to the beginning of the season's 
 growth. This is often due to the subsequent shading of 
 the lower leaves, — often to the extent that they turn 
 yellow and fall off. 
 
 155. Structure and Classification of Buds. If we exam- 
 ine some large buds, such as the buckeye, sycamore, or 
 fig, just as they unfold their leaves in the spring, it 
 will be very plainly seen that the bud scales are only 
 transformed leaves, hence they are called scale-leaves 
 to distinguish them from normal leaves. These scale- 
 leaves cover up an embryo branch — a branch having 
 miniature leaves, nodes and internodes. Nature formed 
 these buds, or embryo branches, early in the preceding 
 season. Note also that more buds were formed than are 
 likely to grow into branches. (Fig. 52.) 
 
 *For excellent full discussion of the effects of temperature on plants, and 
 the proper treatment to lighten the bad effects, reference should be made to 
 Goff, The Principles of Plant Culture; Bailey, The Principles of Fruit Culture. 
 
Relations of Plants Above the Ground 
 
 105 
 
 156. Leaf Buds and Flower Buds. If we notice the 
 buds on peach or plum branches from January until 
 spring, we shall see that all the buds are not the same size 
 or shape. Some are pointed and slender, and will form a 
 cluster of leaves when they burst forth in the springs 
 and are hence called leaf buds. Others are broad and 
 rounded: these buds are flower buds. They are some- 
 
 Fig. 51. Leaf buds and flower buds of plum. 1. Shoot bearing leaf^buds only. 
 2. A bud of same enlarged. 3 and 5. Branches having leaf-buds and 
 flower-buds. 4, 6 and 7. Buds of same enlarged. Flower-buds at /; leaf- 
 buds at I. 
 
 times called fruit buds, but, of course, the flower must 
 always precede the formation of the fruit, so it is best 
 to call them flower buds. Just below each bud is a leaf 
 scar. Sometimes we will find the leaf scars, though the 
 buds are apparently not there. They are there, however, 
 but too small to be seen. They do not grow unless the end 
 of the branch is removed. Such buds as do not grow 
 except when stimulated are called latent buds. (Fig. 51.) 
 
106 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 157. How to Distinguish Flower Buds. Flower buds 
 are formed the same season that the leaf buds are, 
 though it is not always easy to distinguish the two kinds 
 till some time after the fall of the leaves. The position of 
 the bud is often an indication of its kind. We notice, 
 in the plum twigs illustrated in Fig. 51, that the flower 
 buds are on the side of the leaf buds. We also noticed 
 that the flower buds were found 
 
 only on the wood of last season's 
 growth. The ''bearing wood" of the 
 peach, plum, and other similar stone 
 fruits, is formed in the season before 
 the flowers appear. Good crops of 
 fruit cannot be had from trees of 
 this class unless sufficient bearing 
 wood is made the preceding season. 
 In the case of the apple, pear, 
 quince, etc., the flower buds are 
 formed less regularly. They occur 
 on the end of small side branches 
 that are from two to five years 
 old. The shape and place of appear- ^®"- 
 ance of the flower buds vary very much in the differ- 
 ent classes of fruits. It is important that one should 
 know how to recognize them and to know the time of 
 their formation as well. It often gives valuable informa- 
 tion as to how and when to cultivate and prune. For 
 illustration, take the grape. The flower clusters are 
 found on the current spring shoots, hence we prune 
 heavily to promote the formation of new wood. 
 
 158. Formation of Flower Buds. In plants that are 
 esteemed for their flowers or fruits, it is desirable to 
 know all the conditions that promote the formation of 
 
 Fig. 52. Diagram of a 
 section through a bud. 
 V, the apex; 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 successively older leaf 
 rudiments; A, B, C, suc- 
 cessively older branch 
 rudiments; D, E, vascu- 
 lar bundles. After Han- 
 
Relations of Plants Above the Ground 107 
 
 flower buds. Some sorts are naturally more inclined to 
 form flowers than others, still we can promote the 
 fruitfulness of the plants by giving them proper treat- 
 ment. Every one has noticed that the trees bloom more 
 profusely some seasons than others. This has led many 
 persons to study the conditions that induce the forma- 
 tion of flower buds. 
 
 159. Conditions That Promote the Formation of Flower 
 Buds. Flower buds are formed in the greatest abundance 
 when the reserve food is considerably in excess of the 
 current needs of the plant. If a plant is growing too 
 rapidly, using up all the food as fast as the leaves make 
 it, flowers are not formed in abundance. They may be 
 stimulated to form flower buds by checking the growth, 
 either by reducing the water supply, by removing the 
 tips (terminal buds) of the shoots, or by restricting the 
 growth of the roots. When plants are young, or just at 
 the opening of spring, in the case of fruit trees, they 
 grow very rapidly. Flower buds already formed will open, 
 but new ones are not formed till the warm, dry winds 
 have checked the rapid growth of the shoots. This check- 
 ing of the growth allows the formation of reserve food 
 in excess of what the plant is using for growth. To en- 
 courage the formation of the flower buds, then, we should 
 promote the accumulation of reserve food. 
 
 160. How to Promote the Accumulation of Reserve 
 Food. Experience has shown that the three following 
 rules are safe guides: 
 
 (a) Provide favorable conditions for food formation 
 in the leaves. Light and a free circulation of air are essen- 
 tial. These may be secured by giving the plants plenty 
 of distance, or by pruning out useless branches. The 
 normal healthy conditions of the fohage should be pre- 
 
108 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 served. Plants suffering from the attacks of insects 
 or fungi are not fruitful because they are imperfectly 
 nourished. 
 
 (b) Provide the roots with the proper amounts of 
 phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen. An excess of nitro- 
 gen tends to favor growth of leaves and shoots at the 
 expense of flowers. Phosphorus and potash favor the 
 formation of flowers and the full development of the 
 fruit and seeds. 
 
 (c) Check any unusual or unnecessary growth of the 
 sterns by withholding excessive supplies of water. This 
 check to the growth naturally results when the warm 
 weather of the summer sets in. Where the plants are 
 grown under glass it is often possible to regulate the time 
 of flowering by controlhng the water supply. 
 
 161. Fruiting in Perennial Plants is sometimes so 
 excessive that they are greatly damaged. Fruit trees 
 "overbear" to such an extent that they exhaust all the 
 reserve food and the flower buds do not develop for the 
 succeeding crop. This gives rise to the habit of producing 
 a crop every other year, noticed in apples and peaches. 
 
 162. Sterile Plants, or other plants that are kept from 
 fruiting, tend to become perennial. If the formation of 
 fruits is prevented or removed while young they con- 
 tinue to grow and form new flowers. In this way, sweet 
 peas, nasturtiums, and other plants grown for their 
 flowers, have their blooming period prolonged. Garden 
 plants of which the fruit is gathered immature, as beans, 
 cucumbers and okra, grow much longer than they would 
 if the first fruits formed were allowed to mature and 
 exhaust the plant. Clover, grown so extensively in the 
 North and in some southern states, is a biennial; though, 
 if prevented from fruiting, it becomes a perennial. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 THE OFFICE OF FLOWERS 
 
 163. We have already mentioned some of the con- 
 ditions that promote the free formation of flowers. We 
 might call it the conditions necessary for fruitfulness, 
 for the flower is only a step in the formation of the fruit 
 and seeds. Some plants are cultivated only for their 
 leaves, stems or roots— as cabbages, lumber trees, or pota- 
 toes. Most plants, however, owe their value to the crop 
 of seed or fruit which they bear. In the latter class, in- 
 clucUng the fruits and grains, it is not only necessary that 
 the flowers be formed, but that they should form seed 
 abundantly. They must "set seed," as the farmer says. 
 To understand this process, we must know more about 
 the structure and the use of the different parts of a 
 flower. 
 
 164. Structure of Flowers. Flowers are very varied in 
 their form, size, and in the arrangement of their parts. 
 If we should closely examine a flower of a peach or a 
 geranium, to take familiar examples, we will find that it 
 has several parts, each of which contributes some service 
 to the success of the plant's effort to form seed. We 
 have already learned that a seed is usually an embryo 
 plant, with a store of reserve food, both inclosed in a 
 protecting case called the seed coat. 
 
 165. The Names of the Parts. We must learn the parts 
 of a flower and their names. We first notice the brightly 
 colored petals. They attract our attention and that of 
 the bee also. The bee long ago learned to recognize 
 
 (109) 
 
110 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 these brightly colored parts as sign-boards directing 
 it to the nectar below. The pleasant scent or odor 
 serves the same purpose. 
 
 166. There are five petals in the peach-blossom, all 
 separate, but in the morning-glory they are united. 
 Whether united or separate, taken together they are 
 termed corolla. (Fig. 53.) Just below the corolla there are 
 usually five small green leaves which are named sepals, 
 and, when taken together, the calyx. The corolla and 
 
 Peach-blossom cut open, to show the parts of Calyx and corolla of Morn- 
 
 the flower. . ing-Glory. 
 
 Fig. 53. Peach-blossom and morning-glory. 
 
 calyx were called the floral envelope by the older botan- 
 ists. Inside of the corolla are a number of small yellow- 
 ish masses on slender stalks. These yellowish bodies are 
 called pollen cases, or anthers. When ripe, they produce 
 the fine yellow dust, or pollen. In the center of the whorl 
 of stamens is the pistil. There are three parts in the 
 pistil. At the top it usually has a slightly knob-like 
 portion called the stigma, covered with a thick, gummy 
 Hquid. The stigma is sticky, to catch and germinate the 
 pollen brought from its own or other flowers. Below 
 the stigma is a slender portion, the style, and then the 
 swollen base, the ovary. The ovary is the part that 
 
The Office of Flowers 
 
 111 
 
 At 3 p. m. 
 
 At 8 a. m. the next morn- 
 ing. 
 
 Fig. 54. The opening of a flower of Kieffer pear, showing the unfolding \oi the 
 parts in blooming. The flowers of pears and apples have five styles'fand 
 stigmas. All natural size. From American Gardening. 
 
 grows after the other parts of the flowers have fallen. 
 It becomes the cherry with its seed, the pea pod, the 
 corn grain, the pecan with hull, etc. 
 
 167. Use of the Parts of the Flower. Now that we have 
 examined a flower and learned to recognize the parts, we 
 want to know what these parts do. We have already 
 learned that the bright color of the corolla serves to guide 
 the bee or butterfly, or other nectar-eating insect, to the 
 
 Fig. 55. Flowers of scarlet sage, showing how pollination takes place. 
 A, Position of anther when the bee sips nectar; B, stigma {st) in 
 position to be pollinated. 
 
112 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 drop of food at the base of the ovary. When the bee 
 enters the flower to gather bee-bread (pollen) and the 
 honey, or nectar, at base of pistil, some of the pollen is 
 lodged on its head and legs and body. When it enters 
 the next flower, some of this pollen is caught by the 
 
 stigma. (Fig. 55.) Many 
 kinds of flowers are solely 
 dependent on the going and 
 coming of insects to bring 
 about pollination and, there- 
 fore, the formation of fruit 
 and seed. We used to think 
 that flow^ers had their gor- 
 geous colors to please man's 
 fancy. We now know that it 
 is to attract the lowly in- 
 sects. Usually, night-bloom- 
 ing flowers are white and 
 give off their odors more 
 strongly at night (study the 
 tuberoses, rain lilies, night- 
 blooming cereus, moon-flow- 
 ers, etc.), in order to attract 
 the night-flying moths. Blue 
 and red flowers are day 
 bloomers. 
 
 168. Growth of the Pollen 
 Grains. The pollen grain is 
 a very small body, consisting of one or two cells. 
 When it is deposited on the moist stigma, it begins to 
 grow a slender tube (pollen-tube) down into the ovary. 
 169. Fertilization. The pollen-tube produces a small 
 cell that contains a nucleus that passes into and unites 
 
 Fig. 56. Diagrammatic section of 
 ovary and ovule at time of fertili- 
 zation, m, micropyle; k, egg cell; 
 The pollen tube is shown down 
 through the style, between the 
 walls of the ovary and ovule, to 
 the egg cell. A:, of the embryo sac. 
 
k'^^ 
 
 A Fruit for Every Farm. 
 
The result of poUenixmg the Herbert grape with different varieties. 
 
The Office of Flowers 
 
 113 
 
 with the female cells in the ovule. (Fig. 56.) This pro- 
 cess is called fertilization or fecundation. When fertili- 
 zation takes place, the fruit is ''set" and the ovary- 
 begins to grow. The corolla, stamens, etc., wither and 
 fall away. If fertiUzation does not take place, the entire 
 flower withers and dies in most cases, — the exceptions 
 being the fleshy seedless fruits, as seedless grapes and 
 oranges. 
 
 170. The Growth of the Fruit and Seeds. After fertili- 
 zation, the ovary and, in many plants, other adjacent 
 parts, begin to grow rapidly. The reserve food of the 
 stems moves rapidly through the httle twig that sup- 
 ported the flower into the fruit. The fruit contains the 
 seed. Seed production exhausts the plant. Nearly all 
 the reserve food passes into the seed and fruits. Often 
 more than half of the substance of a plant is collected 
 into the seeds, as in common field corn. 
 
 171. Importance of Pollination. Pollination and fecun- 
 dation are necessary for the growth of the fruits and 
 seeds, except in some kinds of seedless fruits, like the 
 banana. In some varieties of strawberries the pollen 
 is not produced in sufficient quantity to cause the fruit 
 to set. In such cases it is usual to plant varieties pro- 
 ducing pollen freely, in alternate rows. (Fig. 57.) The 
 bees, going back and 
 forth from one variety 
 to the other, carry 
 sufficient pollen to 
 make the fruit set on 
 the fine sorts. Some 
 varieties of plums 
 
 and pears, while pro- ^ig. 57. Flowers of the strawberry. A. 
 ^ ^ ^ a flower having both stamens and pistils; 
 
 ducing p 1 le n , are B, flower of a kind having pistils only 
 
114 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 sterile to their own pollen. Many varieties of grapes 
 also do not set fruit when poUinated with their own 
 pollen. The illustration facing page 113 shows the 
 
 Fig. 58. Injurious effect of self-pollination shown in pile at right. From 
 Bulletin United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 effect of pollen of several varieties of grape on the 
 Herbert grape. Some varieties make good pollinizers 
 while others do not. If one is planting Herbert grapes, 
 other varieties should be planted nearby to furnish 
 pollen. In the same way, an orchard of Kieffer pears 
 will be more fruitful if trees of other varieties are in 
 the orchard. The bees will carry the pollen back and 
 forth as they go from flower to flower. Sometimes in 
 long-continued rainy weather during the flowering sea- 
 son a full crop of fruit is not set, because the bees are 
 unable to visit the flowers freely. 
 
 172. Not All Plants Pollinated by Insects. Some plants, 
 like wheat, oats, cotton, beans, etc., are ordinarily self- 
 pollinated, that is, the pollen in the flower is produced 
 so that it naturally falls on the stigma. Many other 
 plants, as the pine trees, field corn, willows, etc., are 
 solely dependent on the wind to carry the pollen from 
 one flower to another. There are many interesting 
 adaptations for bringing about pollination, which cannot 
 be discussed here. 
 
The Office of Flowers 
 
 115 
 
 173. Cross-Fertilization is Important in many plants. 
 There are many plants that are normally self-fertilized 
 and whose progeny do not seem to lack vigor. However, 
 most plants give better seed from cross-fertilization, 
 that is, having the pollen to come from different plants. 
 Seeds originating from normal cross-fertilization are 
 usually more vigorous, healthy and productive than 
 seeds resulting from self-fertihzation. The Illinois 
 experiment station found a difference of about ten 
 bushels per acre in 
 the yield of corn 
 between seed pro- 
 duced by cross- 
 fertilization (Fig. 
 58) and that by 
 self-fertilization. 
 
 Continuous 
 self -fertilization 
 leads to complete 
 sterility in plants 
 that are normally 
 cross-fertilized, as 
 corn, etc. Fig. 59. 
 Darwin found 
 that after eleven 
 generations of 
 self-fertilization 
 the scarlet runner 
 failed to set seed, 
 while the plants 
 produced by as many generations by cross-fertilization 
 were much more healthy and fruitful than the original 
 stock. 
 
 Fig. 59. Effect of inbreeding. A, Cross-bred; 
 B, inbred five years. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 PRUNING AND TRAINING PLANTS 
 
 174. The Pruning and Training of Plants have for their 
 object the improving of the relations of the plant to 
 the sunUght and air. They are very old arts, that were 
 well developed before we understood how the sunUght 
 and air were of use to the plant. 
 
 175. The Effect of Pruning. The practice of improv- 
 ing the usefulness of plants by removing some part, is 
 founded on the principle that 
 suppression of growth in one part 
 stimulates growth in others. The 
 manner and season of pruning 
 governs the result. 
 
 176. Pinching. If we should 
 pinch out the terminal bud from 
 a leafy branch during the rapid- 
 growing season of spring, as shown 
 in Fig. 59, it would result in a 
 temporary check to the lengthen- 
 ing of the branch and a more 
 rapid swelling and better nourish- 
 ing of the buds below. If only 
 the tip were removed, probably 
 only one of the buds left — the 
 uppermost — would form a new 
 shoot. This would soon grow out 
 and take the place of the one 
 removed. This pinching usually 
 
 (116) 
 
 Fig. 60. Pruning by 
 pinching 
 
Pruning and Training Plants 117 
 
 gives a stocky growth to the branch and favors the 
 formation of fruit-buds. (Tj 159) 
 
 177. Summer Pruning of Blackberries. If the new 
 shoots of blackberries be pruned off, the buds below 
 will form several branches. As the fruit of the following 
 season will be borne on this growth, we see how summer 
 pruning may increase the fruitfulness of blackberries. 
 
 178. Light Pruning in the Dormant Season stimulates 
 branching. If a branch, like the one shown in Fig. 71 
 on page 123, were pruned at X, two, or possibly three, 
 of the next lower buds might grow into fairly vigorous 
 leafy branches, with many strong buds. If left unpruned, 
 it would probably grow straight out, forming a slender 
 shoot with very feeble side branches, too poorly nour- 
 ished to form many fruit-buds. Thus we see that prun- 
 ing may stimulate branching, thickening of the stems, 
 and a freer formation of bearing wood (branches with 
 fiower-buds). This kind of pruning is often practiced on 
 all kinds of orchard trees and berry plants, and is fre- 
 quently referred to as ^'cutting back" or ^'heading-in."' 
 This kind of pruning is quite necessary for the first few 
 seasons' pruning of newly set orchards. 
 
 179. Why Prune Plants? We see from the illustra- 
 tion given that pruning may be used to (1) check growth, 
 (2) induce branching, to give correspondingly more leaf 
 surface. The latter causes the branches to be better 
 nourished and, hence, to grow thicker and form more 
 flower-buds. (See T| 159.) Any kind of pruning that 
 retards growth tends to increase fruitfulness and a bet- 
 ter ripening of the branches. Pruning is sometimes ob- 
 jected to, with the idea that nature knows what is best 
 for the plant. Persons who advocate no pruning forget 
 that orchard plants are grown in an environment that 
 
118 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 leads to an unusual development of the branches, and 
 that such unusual growth does not favor the develop- 
 men of fruitfulness (T| 159). Practical experience has 
 long proven that the proper pruning of orchard trees 
 makes them fruitful and profitable. Pruning is not 
 merely removing so many branches or brush. The 
 pruning should be done at the place that will pro- 
 duce the desired result. Herein lies the value of an 
 understanding why and how pruning should be done. 
 
 180. Pruning to Stimulate Growth. Sometimes a 
 plant or tree will cease to make the normal amount of 
 healthy growth. If such condition is not the result of 
 improper soil conditions, very severe pruning of the 
 branches may bring about a renewal of active growth. 
 Very old orchard trees are sometimes improved by a se- 
 vere pruning. Pruning of orchard trees or shade trees 
 may be overdone, producing such a shock that the plant 
 is weakened rather 
 
 than stimulated. 
 
 181. Pruning to 
 Hasten or Delay Ma- 
 turity. Pruning to 
 hasten maturity is sel- 
 dom practiced except 
 on nursery stock (re- 
 moving the leaves), 
 or on tobacco plants. 
 It is usual to remove 
 the seed -pods from 
 flowering plants, such 
 as sweet peas, etc., in 
 order to prolong the 
 
 flowering period. The Fig. 61. An example of thinning. After Goff. 
 
Pruning and Training Plants 
 
 119 
 
 food substance that 
 would be used in ma- 
 turing the seed is used 
 to build new flower- 
 buds. 
 
 182. Pruning to Pro- 
 tect Plants from dis- 
 ease and mechanical 
 injury is often neces- 
 sary. Dead branches 
 may fall and do much 
 injury to the other 
 limbs unless removed; 
 or, they may become 
 diseased by the fungi 
 of decay and transmit 
 the disease to the 
 heart-wood of the 
 trunk, thus mak- 
 ing the plant 
 weaker. Fig. 62. 
 Dead or diseased 
 branches, such 
 as pear blight, 
 should be cut off 
 below the dis- 
 eased part, and 
 burned to prevent 
 the spread of the 
 disease. 
 
 ^'-*% 
 
 .., ^ 
 
 183. Thinning 
 Fruit is a form of 
 pruning. It often 
 
 Fig. 62. Effect of improper pruning. The larger 
 stump became diseased and the heart -wood 
 in turn. The fungus mycelium caused the 
 heart-wood to decay, as shown in the cross- 
 section. The fruiting fungus is shown at A. 
 From photograph by Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson. 
 
120 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 happens that a fruit tree will set more fruit than it 
 should mature. Nature causes many of these young 
 fruits to fall off, but not always sufficiently. Where 
 too much fruit is left on the branches, the trees ''over- 
 bear," with the result that they do not prove fruitful in 
 the season following. All the reserve food is used up in 
 maturing the crop and, therefore, flower-buds are not 
 formed. (See H 159.) Another good reason for thinning 
 is found in better quality of the fruit. A dozen good 
 peaches will sell for more than a gallon of ''pie peaches." 
 184. Root-pruning. In healthy plants there is a 
 balance between root-surface and leaf-surface. If a 
 plant is growing too vigorously, it may be checked by 
 running a spade into the ground to sever some of the 
 roots. 
 
 Fig 63. Tree properly pruned 
 before setting out 
 
 Figo 64. A badly shaped top, duei to 
 not cutting back when set out. 
 
Pruning and Training Plants 
 
 121 
 
 Fig. 65. A, cutting too far above the bud; B, cut- 
 ting too close; C, the cut as it should be; Z), 
 removal of a branch, the cross-line indicating 
 the proper place for the cut. 
 
 185. Pruning Transplanted Plants. In transplanting 
 plants many of the roots are destroyed, thus destroying 
 a natural balance. Transplanted plants, especially 
 woody ones, should 
 have all injured 
 and extra-long 
 roots removed and 
 the top cut back 
 correspondingly. 
 (Figs. 63 and 64.) 
 
 186. How to 
 Make the Cuts in 
 Pruning. When a 
 branch is removed, 
 we expose a part of 
 the cambium and woody portions. Unless this is quickly 
 healed over, the wound may become diseased, and the 
 entire plant, in turn, before the callus grows over the cut 
 surface. It is important, therefore, that, in pruning, noth- 
 ing but sharp instruments be used, so that the cuts will 
 be smooth. Not only should suitable tools be used, but 
 care should be exercised to make the cuts so that the 
 least amount of callus will be needed to close the wound. 
 Callus cells are nourished by the reserve food. This 
 suggests that the line of cut should be close to the sup- 
 plies of reserve food. If a small branch is to be cut off, 
 make the cut close to a bud, as shown in Fig. 65 C. The 
 bud will grow out and the cut will heal over. If cut too 
 far above the bud, A, a dead stub will remain that cannot 
 be healed over. If cut too close to the bud, B, the bud 
 will die, and we have a stub the full length of the inter- 
 node. Side branches should be pruned close up to the 
 main stem, D. 
 
122 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Roots of trans- 
 planted plants 
 should be se- 
 verely pruned. It 
 is not the length 
 of the roots left 
 that favor the 
 plant, but the 
 quickness with 
 which new 
 branches with 
 root -hairs are 
 formed. Severe 
 pruning pro- 
 motes vigorous 
 branching in 
 
 many plants, notably the strawberry, celery, etc. 
 
 187. In Removing Large Limbs, extra care should be 
 
 taken to get the cuts at the proper place and angle. 
 
 
 ^^"1 
 
 A .#w^- ^ 
 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Showing proper position and angle of cut 
 to use in removing large limbs. 
 
 Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 
 
 Healing of properly made cuts. Photographs by Prof. F. A. Waugh. 
 
Pruning and Training Plants 
 
 123 
 
 Figs. 66, 67 and 68 are good examples. We have already 
 noticed the bad results from improper cuts, as shown in 
 Fig. 62. (See ^ 59.) 
 
 188. Pruning Orchard 
 Trees. Before we can intel- 
 ligently prune even young 
 orchard trees, it is neces- 
 sary to decide on the ar- 
 rangement of the branches 
 desired in the matured tree. 
 Whatever the number 
 and arrangement of the 
 branches, they should be 
 low enough to allow the 
 fruit to be gathered easil}', 
 and high enough not to 
 interfere with the easy care 
 and cultivation of the 
 ground. Some prefer to 
 have the outline of the 
 pear trees pyramidal, with 
 a central supporting trunk, 
 such is shown in Fig. 70. 
 For most orchard trees, 
 possibly for pears also, it is 
 preferable to have a number 
 
 Fig. 70. Pyramidal form of top. 
 
 of strong branches starting out from two to four feet 
 from the ground. That portion from which the leading 
 branches start is called the head. This gives an open 
 center to the tree and allows more light to the smaller 
 interior branches, and keeps even the top of the tree 
 within reach. Fig. 71 shows the framework of an open- 
 headed tree. Fig. 72 shows the starting of such a head. 
 
124 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 and Fig. 73 further thickened and made stocky by 
 ''heading in." The branches should not start out from 
 the same place, as illustrated in Fig. 74. Such branches 
 often split out when strong winds prevail. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Open -headed tree; vase form of top. 
 
 189. Pruning and Training Grape-vines. The stem 
 of the grape is too weak to stand without support. In 
 nature it grows over the outer branches of trees, some- 
 times forming a canopy over the tops of small trees. 
 Cultivated grapes are given supports made with posts 
 and smooth wire. In order to keep the bulk of the vines 
 within limits and to increase their fruitfulness, they are 
 severely pruned every winter. This heavy pruning 
 
Fig. 72. Starting of an open -headed tree. 
 
 1 ig. -o. Ii i.-^ ii.-Liaiij .ie.-Miaijit- lO 
 head-in young trees for two or 
 three years after planting ; it 
 makes them stockier. 
 
 Fig. 74. Improperly trained. The 
 limbs start too close together. 
 The first big crop will split off 
 some of them. 
 
126 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 makes the new branches grow very vigorously, but, as 
 the fruit in grapes is borne on the new wood, this is 
 very desirable. (See H 157). 
 
 The growth of the vine for the 
 first season after transplanting is 
 cut back to a single shoot, for 
 at least four or five feet. This is 
 tied up to the central wire and 
 forms the permanent stock, or 
 stem. In pruning, after the first 
 year, from two to four arms, or 
 branches, are left to produce the 
 bearing wood. The number and 
 length of the arms will vary with 
 the vigor of the plants. Weak- 
 growing vines are usually left 
 with only two or three arms. 
 The most desirable form of grape trellis is that shown 
 in Fig. 76, known as the Canopy, or Munson trellis. 
 This kind of trellis allows more leaves to be exposed to 
 the light, and gives more color and flavor to the fruit. 
 
 Fig. 75. Y-system of pruning 
 and training grapes. 
 
 Fig. 76. Munson system of training 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS 
 
 190. How Plants Propagate. Plants propagate natu- 
 rally by seeds and by the formation of special parts, 
 which become separated and independent of the parent 
 plant, as bulbs in onions, stolons or runners in straw- 
 berries, tubers (thickened stems) in Irish potatoes, and 
 by roots, as in the sweet potatoes, and in many other 
 special ways. These are natural methods of multipli- 
 cation, and take place without man's assistance. Often 
 man provides the conditions which favor multiplication 
 in these ways. We have already mentioned the impor- 
 tant conditions to be controlled in causing the embryo 
 plants of sprouting seeds to grow. The other natural 
 processes of multiplication, i. e., by tubers, bulbs, etc., 
 are matters of every-day knowledge, and are used for 
 propagating a variety of plants. We speak of the former 
 as propagation by seedage, and the latter as propagation 
 by division. 
 
 191. Seedage. In preparing land for seeds, it is not 
 sufficient that the seed-bed provide simply the conditions 
 favorable for germination, but should be such as is de- 
 manded by the nature and peculiarities of the plant. 
 Thorough and deep pulverization is desirable for all 
 kinds of plants. Make a good seed-bed. It should be 
 done long enough before planting to allow for a thorough 
 settling of the sub-surface soil, for many crops, such as 
 wheat, corn, and other grains, do best on a settled seed- 
 bed. In planting, therefore, it is necessary to know the 
 
 (127) 
 
128 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 special requirements of the crop. Quick-growing annuals 
 and root-crops do best on a very loose seed-bed. Sugar 
 beets become fibrous, and may be pushed out of the 
 ground if the roots reach a hard subsoil. The depth of 
 covering the seeds often has a great influence not only 
 on the promptness of germination, but, also, on the 
 fruitfulness of the crop. The distance between the seeds 
 must be such that there is proper room for the develop- 
 ment to the size desired at maturity, or for transplant- 
 ing."^ 
 
 192. Propagation by Seedage and by Division Com- 
 pared. The embryos in seeds are formed by the union 
 of the nuclei of pollen and egg-cells, each from differ- 
 ent individuals. In division, the new individual is 
 formed from a part of the original plant, and, therefore, 
 has only the characters of the original plant, that is, it 
 is just Hke the original plant. Seed-propagated plants 
 often partake of the characters of two individuals. 
 This explains why seed-propagated plants are more 
 variable than those propagated by division. For illus- 
 tration, we may use blackberries. Fig. 77 shows the 
 forms of the leaves of a number of blackberry plants 
 grown by Luther Burbank from seeds of a single plant. 
 Not all seeds are so variable as the example given, but 
 they are, in most cases, variable, and the differences are 
 only of degree. Therefore, in order to make sure of propa- 
 gating the desirable qualities of some particidar indi- 
 vidual, resort is had to propagation by division. 
 
 193. Propagation by Division may be by some of the 
 
 *NoTE. — It is not advisable to discuss the needs of particular crops in a 
 general text-book, but a number of interesting comparisons may be made in 
 this connection by comparing (1) the season of seedage; (2) depth of planting and 
 size of seed ; (3) how the depth of planting affects the potato crop ; (4) the 
 duration of the roots in the soil; (5) surface feeding and deep-feeding or tap- 
 rooted plants. 
 
Fig. 77. Variation in leavea of hybrid blackberries, all from the seed of one 
 plant. The stems of the plants varied jtist as much in shape, size and 
 color. One result of Luther Burbank's experiments in propagation of 
 new fruits. 
 
130 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 natural processes, such as mentioned in paragraph 190, 
 or by artificial processes, such as by layers or buds. 
 The process of propagating by cuttings is known as 
 cutting propagation. That by layers, as layering; that 
 by inserted scions, as grafting; and that by inserted 
 buds, as budding. They may be 
 termed respectively, cuttage, lay- 
 erage, graftage, and buddage. 
 
 194. Layerage. When a branch 
 or part is caused to form roots, and 
 then severed from the parent 
 plant, the plant produced is a 
 layer. Fig. 78 shows how a vine of 
 
 Fig. 78. Propagating grapes by layering. 
 
 the grape may be bent down, and covered at inter- 
 vals with moist soil. Roots form at the nodes. (See 
 ^ 68.) After these roots are sufficiently abundant, 
 the vine may be cut into pieces, each piece having 
 roots, and each planted in a new place as a complete 
 plant. Layering is used to propagate grapes, raspberries, 
 dewberries, and many other plants. Strawberries, dew- 
 berries, blackcap raspberries, and many grasses, such 
 as Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, some of the Musquite 
 grasses, white clover, and some varieties of sweet pota- 
 toes, naturally multiply by their prostrate stems, taking 
 root at every node; and man, in practical agriculture. 
 
Propagation of Plants 
 
 131 
 
 greatly aids it by better preparing the soil. There are 
 many plants that do not often multiply in this way, but 
 will readily do so if their bodies or branches be bent down 
 to the ground and covered with mellow soil. 
 
 195. Cuttage. Rooted cuttings are parts of either 
 stems or roots (or leaves, in some cases), cut into small 
 pieces and kept under proper conditions until the for- 
 mation of roots 
 and shoots has 
 taken place. Cut- 
 tings of some 
 kinds of plants 
 put out roots very 
 readily, as willow, 
 dogwood, roses, 
 grapes, some 
 kinds of plums, 
 and berry plants. 
 Cuttings may be 
 made from dor- 
 mant or green 
 growing shoots. Geraniums are propagated from green 
 cuttings. Green cuttings should be kept moist at all 
 times. 
 
 196. Buddage. The callus-tissue of one plant may 
 unite with the callus-tissue of another plant, if the two 
 plants are of the same kind. Apple may be made to 
 unite with apple; peach with peach; but not peach with 
 apple. However, peach will unite with plum, because 
 peach and plum are closely related. In budding we have 
 two parts: (1) A bud of the kind or variety to be propa- 
 gated, and (2) a stock. The stock may be a rooted cutting 
 or a seedling. In the common ''T"-budding, a sharp 
 
 Fig. 79. Cuttings: a, simple cutting; b, heel cut- 
 ting; c, mallet cutting; rf, single-eye cutting. 
 
132 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 knife is used to make a 'T"-like slit through the bark, 
 as shown in Fig. SOD. The corners may be raised and a 
 bud, cut as shown at E, placed under the edges of the 
 bark of the stock, as shown at G. The cambium layer 
 of i the bud is left in contact with the cambium layer of 
 the stock. The wound is wrapped with soft twine, such 
 as cotton yarn, or other suitable material, to hold the 
 
 edges of the bark down and 
 keep the bud from drying 
 out as at /. After a week or 
 ten days, depending on the 
 condition of the shoot, the 
 bud will be grown to the 
 stock, if the work has been 
 properly done. In this way 
 we may cause one variety of 
 plant to unite with another. 
 Budding is easiest made and 
 most likely to be success- 
 ful if made while the stock 
 is growing rapidly, or when 
 the bark ''sUps," as it is 
 called. 
 
 197. Later Care of the 
 Bud. After the bud has 
 united with the stock, there 
 is still much to be done before 
 we have a new plant. The 
 strings are removed when the 
 bud has united with the 
 stock. The later condition is 
 
 shown by the bud remain- 
 Fig. 80. Steps in propagating . . , . », 
 
 ifpiants by budding mg green and plump. Alter 
 
Propagation of Plants 133 
 
 a week to ten days, or when the string begins to be over- 
 grown, it should be cut and removed. The next step 
 is to force the bud into growth. This may be done im- 
 mediately, as in ''force budding," or left until the fol- 
 lowing spring ; when the top of the stock is cut off just 
 above the inserted bud. This causes all the buds below 
 to swell and many to form shoots. All the new sprouts 
 except the one from the inserted bud should be rubbed 
 off when they attain three to five inches in length. This 
 causes the new shoot to grow very rapidly. Many per- 
 sons leave a foot of stock stem to protect the young 
 shoot. As soon as the latter is thoroughly established, 
 the stock is pruned close down, as shown in Fig. 80J. 
 The final result is that we have a stem of one variety 
 growing on a common seedling stock. One may prop- 
 agate millions of Elberta, or other variety of peach 
 trees in this way, and every tree will bear peaches just 
 like the parent variety. The great value of propaga- 
 tion by budding is obvious. Choice varieties of peaches, 
 plums and apricots are propagated by budding. It is 
 often used for pears, apples, roses, and many other 
 kinds of plants. Special methods of budding are used for 
 pecans and other hardwood trees. 
 
 198. Graftage. In propagation by grafting, two parts 
 are used, as in budding. One we call a stock, or root, and 
 the other the scion, the latter coming from the plant to 
 be propagated. The scion usually consists of a short 
 piece of stem. In making the cleft-graft, the stock is 
 split open smoothly, as shown in Fig. 81^. The lower 
 end of the scion having been trimmed to a wedge is 
 inserted as shown at A. Care should be taken to 
 see that the cambium layer of stock and scion coincide, 
 at least on one side. (Fig. SIC.) The graft is now wrapped 
 
134 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 with waxed cloth to prevent drying out. The two layers 
 of cambium grow and unite, and the scion grows out into 
 a vigorous shoot. Cleft-grafting is u-ied in propagating 
 
 Fig. 81. Steps in propagating by graftage. A, B, and C, details of cleft graft; 
 D, same for tongue graft. 
 
 many kinds of plants, such as apples,, pears, peaches. 
 etc. If the graft is made below the ground on a rooted 
 stock it is not necessary to wrap with waxed cloth. The 
 moist soil, pressed firmly about the union, prevents 
 drying out. 
 
 199. In Tongue Grafting, we make a sloping cut on 
 both scion and stock. (Fig. 8 ID.) The tongue of one 
 is slipped into the cleft of the other, care being taken 
 to have the cambium layers together, at least on one 
 side. In piece-root grafting, as is usual with pears and 
 apples, the graft is wrapped to secure the two pieces in 
 an unmovable union until the callus growth has- had 
 time to unite. They may be prevented from drying out 
 by storing in moist sand or sawdust. It is usual to make 
 the grafts during the winter months and plant them in 
 the nursery rows early in the spring. (Fig. 82.) 
 
Propagation of Plants 
 
 135 
 
 200. Care of Buds and Grafts. There are many special 
 ways of budding and grafting. All depend on the prop- 
 erty of callus-tissue of two different plants to form a close 
 living union. In making the cuts, nothing but the 
 sharpest of knives should be used. Dull knives produce 
 such mutilation that the cambium does not grow out 
 and form the callus-tissue promptly, and, as a result, 
 the graft or bud fails ''to take." The dormant buds 
 on the stock are inclined to form vigorous-growing 
 sprouts, but should be rubl^ed off as explained in ^ 197. 
 
 201. Transplanting Nursery Trees. Nursery trees, 
 whether propagated from seeds, cuttings, buds, or 
 grafts, are removed from the nursery rows and trans- 
 
 Fu. iJ. Grattetl ( 
 
 >Ll Hi UU1^< 1% i.lW 
 
136 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 planted in orchards. In removing nursery stock, 
 many of the roots are necessarily cut short. In trans- 
 planting, the ends of all bruised or mutilated roots should 
 be cut off smoothly and the top cut back to keep it in 
 balance with the roots. Fig. 63 shows a one-year-old 
 budded peach tree trimmed ready for transplanting. 
 The young trees should be put into good-sized holes and 
 loose, moist soil worked in around the roots, and tramped 
 just sufficiently to hold the young tree in position. In 
 transplanting nursery stock, the roots should never be 
 allowed to become dry. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 IMPROVING PLANTS AND SEEDS 
 
 202. Domesticated Plants. The cultivated plants 
 were originally wild sorts. Some of them have been 
 cultivated so long and so improved by man's care that 
 the original or wild form is not certainly recognized, such 
 as wheat, potato, onion, cabbage, etc. Other sorts have 
 been brought into cultivation in comparatively recent 
 times, and the original wild form is well known, as the 
 tomato, carrot, chrysanthemum. Cultivated forms are 
 vastly superior to the wild forms. The strawberries of 
 our gardens are more palatable and productive than the 
 wild sorts. The cultivated tomato is much larger and 
 firmer than the original wild form. Wherever a plant 
 has been long under cultivation it has been greatly 
 modified. We may ask, ''How are these improvements 
 secured?" 
 
 203. Variation in Plants is the starting point for 
 improvement. Scientists have a theory that all the 
 plant and animal forms de- 
 scended from some common 
 ancestor. This theory of the 
 origin of Uving forms, called the 
 ''theory of evolution," finds its 
 support in the similarity of 
 many forms, suggesting rela- 
 tionship, and the further fact 
 that, through natural varia- 
 tion, new forms are constantly 
 
 (137) 
 
 Fig. 83. Old-time and new- time 
 forms of tomato. After Bailey. 
 
138 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 coming into existence. Plant -breeders try to cause 
 variations. 
 
 204. Fixing Variations. Variations in cultivated 
 plants more often resemble earlier and less valuable 
 forms. Where improvement is desired, great numbers of 
 individuals should be observed and a few of the most 
 promising saved for seed. This is called selection. When 
 seeds are saved from individual plants with desirable 
 
 Fig. 84. A chance for selection. The two kernels in the center are the best. 
 The two outside grains at each end of the upper row are too short. The 
 two outside ones in the lower row are too pointed at the tip, showing lack 
 of vitality. 
 
 characters, they should be planted away from other 
 plants of the same kind. Usually, only a few specimens 
 of the progeny will retain the good qualities of the 
 parent. Selection^3 should again l)e made. By repeated 
 selection, a large per cent may be made to ''come true 
 to seed." This is called "fixing the type." Where the 
 crop is grown for seed, the field should be gone over and 
 all plants that are noticeably inferior or not true to type 
 should be removed. This is what the seed-grower calls 
 ''rogueing." 
 
Improving Plants and Seeds 139 
 
 205. "Natural Selection." The original wild species 
 owe their form and habits to the continuous selections 
 which wild nature makes. Wild plants must grow in 
 competition with other plants and struggle with them 
 for the conditions necessary for growth and the preser- 
 vation of their seeds. The size, form and character of 
 the leaves, stems, flowers, fruits and seeds, are all im- 
 portant features in the struggles for nature's favors. 
 
 206. No Improvement Without Variation. No two 
 plants are exactly ahke. The offspring from the same 
 individual are not alike. This is, the fact of '^variation.'' 
 In some forms the variations are more obvious than in 
 others. As a rule, variations in wild plants are less fre- 
 quent than in cultivated forms. Variations may be 
 desirable or undesirable and progress comes from propa- 
 gating only the best selections. Improvements could not 
 be made if all individuals were alike. 
 
 207. Variations Are Not Permanent. The Concord 
 grape is a variation of the wild fox grape of Massachu- 
 setts, discovered by E. W. Bull about 1850. It has 
 been propagated by division ever since and is still the 
 same grape, because our Concord grape-vines of today 
 are only parts of the original plant. However, when the 
 seed of Concord grapes are grown, we get the original 
 wild fox grapes. Many such seedlings have been grown, 
 but none have yet been secured that are the same as the 
 parent vine, although some of them are very nearly like 
 it. DeVries had a variety of corn, the ears of which had 
 eight to twenty-two rows of grains. The average num- 
 ber of rows was between twelve and fourteen. He 
 planted an ear having sixteen rows and found the aver- 
 age in the crop to be fifteen rows per ear. He then planted 
 some ears having twenty rows and continued this for 
 
140 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 six generations. At the end of this time the average of 
 the variety was twenty rows, whereas it had originally 
 been only thirteen. The lowest number of rows on any 
 ear was twelve and the highest twenty-eight, a number 
 that had never been observed in the parent variety. 
 The average and the actual number of rows had been 
 greatly increased by continuous selection through six 
 years, yet, when left for three years without selec- 
 tion, the average number of rows w^as back to thirteen. 
 Other instances might be mentioned, showing the in- 
 constancy of varieties propagated from seed. 
 
 208. Perpetuating Desirable Variations. How may a 
 desirable variation be perpetuated? There are two ways: 
 (a) Propagating the Plant by Division, (b) By Repeated 
 Selection toward an Ideal Type. Many kinds of plants are 
 more conveniently propagated from seed, such as the 
 grains, cotton, garden vegetables, and the like. We have 
 seen how the number of rows of grains on an ear of corn 
 was increased. Had the selections been continued for 
 ten or more years, the new characters would have been 
 more fixed. 
 
 (c) Special Methods. In addition to continual selec- 
 tion, plant-breeders sometimes resort to inbreeding to 
 fix variations. Plants that normally inbreed, like oats, 
 wheat, cotton, and others, are much less variable than 
 kinds that are normally cross-fertilized, as corn. 
 
 209. How to Stimulate Variation. While seed-propa- 
 gated plants are variable, in fact too much so for the 
 average grower, the plant-breeder desires to bring about 
 the most decided variations possible in the hope that 
 some form of unusual value may be secured. The means 
 usually relied upon are: 
 
 (a) Intensive Culture. Plants grown under the most 
 
hnproving Plants and Seeds 141 
 
 favorable conditions are thought to produce a more 
 variable offspring than wild or uncultivated plants. 
 
 (b) By Hybridizing Dissimilar Forms, such as dif- 
 ferent varieties, or species. Many valuable varieties of 
 fruits have been secured by cross-fertilizing individuals 
 belonging to two different species. 
 
 We have already noticed the variations in hybrid 
 blackberries (H 192). As a rule, the more dissimilar the 
 parents, the greater are the variations in the seedUngs. 
 In choosing parents for hybrids, it is well to consider the 
 characters of each; for it is possible, though often quite 
 difficult, to combine the good qualities of two forms in 
 a single individual. 
 
 210. Some Notable Results. Professor Munson found 
 that the varieties of the wine grapes, grown with such 
 success in Europe, and the fox grapes, in the eastern 
 United States, were not suited to the climate of the 
 Southwest. He sought to combine the hardiness of the 
 native wild grapes of Texas with the fine flavor and 
 fruitfulness of the foreign species by hybridizing. Many 
 valuable varieties of grapes well suited to Texas con- 
 ditions have been produced in this way. Some of the 
 most popular are the Carman, Fern, Muench, and 
 America, each having one-half of the native Post-oak 
 grape blood. The Kieffer pear is a hybrid between the 
 Bartlett and Chinese Sand pears. The Bartlett pear has 
 a delightful flavor but often suffers from blight. The 
 Sand pears are poor in flavor but quite hardy and fruit- 
 ful. Many fine varieties of plums, blackberries and dew- 
 berries have been produced by hybridization. 
 
 211. Hybridization is accomplished by placing the 
 pollen of one variety or species upon the stigma of 
 another. To prevent self-pollination, the anthers should 
 
142 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 be removed before the pollen is mature. (Fig. 85.) In 
 the flowers of wheat, oats, peas, and some grapes, polli- 
 nation takes place before the flowers open; hence, in such 
 plants it is necessary to remove the anthers very early. 
 
 Fig. 85. Buds or "squares" of cotton. 1 Flower-bud nearly ready to open; 
 2, parts removed to expose the stamens; 3, stamens removed to prevent 
 self-pollination. After Hartley, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 After the anthers have been removed, the stigma should 
 be protected from chance-flying pollen by covering the 
 flower with a paper bag. The sack may be removed 
 when the pollen is to be placed on the stigma. The latter 
 may be accomplished by a clean, moistened finger, 
 camel's-hair brush, or other means suited to the plants 
 in hand. For success in artificial cross-pollination, one 
 should fully understand the structure and habits of 
 flowers in both parents. 
 
 212. The Hybrid Seedlings. The seedhngs from hybrid 
 seed should be closely observed. Out of a great number 
 of individuals, only a few, possibly none, will possess the 
 desired characters. Even though none are found, it is 
 often desirable to grow their seed in the same way for the 
 desired form may appear in the second generation. 
 
Improving Plants -and Seeds 
 
 143 
 
 When a specimen is found having merit, it should be 
 given special care and properly propagated (1j 208). 
 When a new form is secured and has its characters so 
 fixed until they "come true," it is called a variety. 
 
 213. Examples of the Value of New Varieties. The 
 improvement of our cultivated plants has been gradual 
 because but few men have made it a business to look 
 for and select out the best forms. Many men, however, 
 have secured decided results in a few years by following 
 scientific methods. The work of Professor Munson has 
 already been mentioned. Hays was able to secure a 
 strain of Minnesota blue -stem wheat that produced 
 five bushels more per acre. When wheat ii worth SO 
 cents, such seed represents a superior earning value of 
 $4 per acre. Many other examples of the great value 
 
 Taylor 
 
 Iron 
 
 Fig. 86. Iron cowpea vs. Black and Taylor, showing comparative resistance to 
 the Wilt and Root Knot. From Bulletin United States Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
144 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 of propagating seed from desirable individuals might 
 be given. The old varieties have, in many cases, been 
 ■crowded out by the introduction of new and better 
 forms. Special attention should be called to the Elberta 
 peach, many excellent varieties of grapes, Austin dew- 
 berry, Gonzales and other varieties of plums, Triumph 
 cotton, and other forms that have added immensely 
 to the value of the harvests of the world's staples. A 
 variety of the cowpea has been discovered that is not 
 only resistant to ''wilt," but to the little worm which 
 causes the formation of knots on the roots of other 
 varieties. (Fig. 86.) 
 
 213a. Selecting Seed Oats.* Suppose that it is desired to im- 
 prove the quality and yielding power of oats. The first question 
 to be answered is, "What quality has the oat that makes it valued? 
 For what may the oat plant be used, and what does it supply?" 
 In the South it is sown in the fall and the field is used for winter 
 grazing. It makes a crop of grain which is thrashed and the straw 
 and the grain are both used. The grain has most value so that in 
 selecting oats we usually select for fine grain. 
 
 Next let us find out what an oat grain is. If we carefully hull 
 an oat grain we find a hull composed of two or more pieces, and a 
 true seed. If we examine a number of large grains we shall find that 
 the large grain usually has a large seed. In selecting the seed then 
 we will select the large grain. Now secure a bundle of oats harvested 
 and bound just as they come from the fields. Let each student take 
 a dozen heads as they come, spread them out on a table and note 
 
 *The foregoing outline of the process of selecting seed oats and suggestions 
 for testing the qualities in the plants of the progeny is given merely to illus- 
 trate the more fundamental problems of seed improvement, and the common 
 -crops or garden plants. They may be carried out by any energetic boy or girl 
 in a comer of the garden with noticeable results in improving the plants. As an 
 exercise for training the mind in observation, comparison, discrimination, and 
 test of ideas, it will prove highly satisfactory to the teacher from the viewpoint 
 •of culture training as well as a practical study it. "the relation values." Oats 
 have been selected because they may be grown and matured during the school 
 year. Local conditions may suggest other material. Some consideration should 
 Toe given to the more important crops of the community, such as corn, cotton, 
 kafir com, sugar-cane, rice, and the various kinds of fruits. 
 
Improving Plants and Seeds 145 
 
 the differences in the heads. Now thresh out each head separately 
 and put the grains from each head in a small bottle. Note differ- 
 ences in color, size, shape, etc. What sorts do you consider the 
 best oats? Why? Save the four best and take home and plant one 
 seed at a time in drills one foot apart, and one foot in the drill. 
 Plant seeds from each head separately, so that if they grow differ- 
 ently it may be noticed. Compare the quality of the crop from the 
 four different heads. If the school has a school garden they may 
 be planted there. 
 
 214. Effect of Cultivation. Cultivated plants are 
 shielded from competition with other plants; they are 
 planted in prepared ground, given plenty of space, and 
 protected from many destructive agencies; their seeds 
 are harvested, stored, and throughout the life of the 
 plant they are given favorable opportunity to make 
 vigorous growth. Cultivated plants are selected, not 
 for their ability to propagate under unfavorable con- 
 ditions, but because of their power to grow and fruit 
 under favorable conditions. Wild plants do better under 
 cultivation, but not in the same degree that improved 
 varieties do. In selecting seeds for propagation, prefer- 
 ence should be given to the forms which show the 
 greatest yield under favorable but practical condition. 
 The local conditions, whether due to peculiarities of 
 climate or conditions produced by culture, often affect 
 the result quite as much, possibly more, than the kind 
 of seed. A variety may yield very satisfactory harvests 
 in one place, and yet be quite unsuited to other locali- 
 ties or uses. It has been found to be quite generally 
 true that when equal care is given to seed selection, 
 home-grown seeds are better yielders. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS 
 
 215. Many plants of the farm and garden are subject 
 to attack by various kinds of minute plants, known as 
 fungi. The "rusts'^ of small grains, plum trees and cot- 
 ton, are familiar examples. Also, the '^mildew" of grapes 
 and roses. These fungi are thread-like plants. Some 
 form their thread-like bodies inside of the plant tissues, 
 such as the ''smuts" and ''rusts." (Fig. 87.) Other 
 forms, like the mildew, grow on the surface of the 
 
 leaves and stems, but 
 send little root -like 
 branches (Fig. 89) into 
 the plant tissue to 
 absorb its substance. 
 Another class of fungi, 
 known as bacteria, 
 never form "threads/' 
 or hyphce, as they are 
 called by the botanist, 
 but only cells. Some 
 species of bacteria cause 
 disease. The cells are 
 formed inside of the 
 plant body. 
 
 216. How Fungus 
 
 Fig. 87. A, head of oats affected with smut, ■ni«„4.„ r»«+ TU^i*- "Vr^r^A 
 
 the chaff being only partially destroyed; I'lantS IjCt IJieir I'OOa. 
 
 B, head of oats decidedly smutty, but xr< ^ • J^ „^4. ■Ur>-rT/% +V.i-v 
 having the chaff only partially destroyed; Jb UUgl dO UOt nave tne 
 
 C, final stage of oat smut, showing con- ^„^^^ ^V>l«-««,-r^'U-trl fVAQ\ 
 
 dition at harvest time green chlorophy 1(1 48), 
 
 (146) 
 
Fungus Diseases of Plants 
 
 147 
 
 and, therefore, can not make their food Hke the algse and 
 the higher green plants. They are called dependent plants. 
 There are many kinds. Plants like the fungi are thought 
 by scientists to be greatly changed algse that have lost 
 
 Fig. 88. Spores, or seeds, of the fungus producing the "rust" of wheat. A, 
 summer spores, or "red rust" stage; B, same germinating on surface of 
 leaf; C, autumn spores, or "black rust" stage. 
 
 the power of carbon assimilation, and are, therefore, 
 dependent on host plants to supply the food they need. 
 They are called independent plants. Many higher 
 plants are dependent in the same way, such as the 
 dodder, or '4ove vine." They grow under many con- 
 ditions, but all must get their food from plant or animal 
 substance. Species that get their food from living plants 
 or animals, are called parasites. Those that get their 
 food from dead plant or animal remains, are called 
 saprophytes. Some species of fungi may get their food 
 from either hving or dead organisms. The red or black 
 powdery mass which we call "rust," is only a mass of 
 spores (one-celled seeds) of the fungus causing the 
 disease. The body of the plant exists as a lot of threads 
 inside of the host-plant and is not visible to the eye. 
 When magnified by the microscope, these fine hyphse 
 may be plainly seen. 
 
148 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 89. Germinating spores of the potato 
 blight fungus. Cross section through a 
 portion of a stalk. Two germinating 
 spores (a, h) piercing the epidermis, and 
 the threads penetrating the cells of the 
 leaf. 
 
 217. How Fungi 
 Propagate. Fungi prop- 
 agate by minute cells, 
 called spores. They cor- 
 respond to seeds of 
 higher plants. They 
 require the same con- 
 ditions for germina- 
 tion as seeds. Fig. 89 
 shows a spore of the 
 potato blight germinat- 
 ing on a leaf. The first 
 
 thread soon enters the plant and absorbs the moisture 
 
 and food substance of the potato leaf. It soon forms a 
 
 crop of spores, sometimes in only a few days. These 
 
 spores are blown to other. 
 
 plants, and soon a whole 
 
 field will be blighted by the 
 
 fungus. Most species of fungi 
 
 grow on only one kind of 
 
 plant. The fungus that 
 
 causes grape mildew (Fig. 
 
 90) does not grow on any 
 
 other kind of plants but 
 
 grapes. The fungus that 
 
 causes the blasting of the 
 
 ears and tassels of corn 
 
 (corn smut) grows only on 
 
 corn. The fungus that causes 
 
 the smut of oats never at- 
 tacks corn. However, the Fig. 90. Downy mildew of grape 
 
 (. J.1 i 1 ii {Plasmopora viticola), showing 
 
 fungus that produces the tuft of gonidiophores bearing 
 
 , • 1 J. J 1 gonidia, also intercellular myce- 
 
 rUSt on grains also attacks Uum. After MiUardet. 
 
Fungus Diseases of Plants 149 
 
 barberry bushes. A number of fungi known as ''rusts" 
 have more than one host-plant. The yellow rust of 
 apple leaves is the same fungus that produces the so- 
 called cedar apples on cedar trees. 
 
 218. Not All Fungi Cause Disease. Some fungi are very 
 useful, like the little bacteria that gather the free nitro- 
 gen of the air for beans and clover plants; the yeast, 
 used in making bread, and in making wines and beers. 
 Some fungi are quite large, as the mushrooms and puff- 
 balls. Certain kinds are highly esteemed as table deli- 
 cacies, and are cultivated. Some species of mushrooms 
 should not be eaten because they are poisonous. 
 
 219. Preventing Fungus Diseases. There is no cure 
 for the fungus diseases in plants. Prevention is the only 
 safeguard against loss from parasitic fungi. This is 
 accomplished in four ways: 
 
 (a) Treating the Seeds with substances that destroy 
 the disease-causing germs, as scab in potatoes, smut in 
 oats and wheat. 
 
 (b) Using Resistant Varieties. Not all plants are 
 equally subject to the attacks of parasitic fungi. Some 
 varieties are much less injured than others. (Fig. 86.) 
 Many varieties of cultivated plants owe their value to 
 their power to resist disease. 
 
 (c) Sanitation. When crops are subject to a particu- 
 lar disease, all the dead parts, trash and Utter that 
 harbor the spores, should be gathered up and burned. 
 
 (d) By Using Fungicides. Fungi are poisoned by ex- 
 tremely small amounts of copper salts, or sulphur in 
 some cases, while green plants are not affected by small 
 amounts. Preparations of copper salts in water are, 
 therefore, used to spray plants to protect them from 
 attacks of fungi. A compound of copper sulphate (blue 
 
150 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 91. The "brown rot" of plums and 
 peaches leaves "mummies" on the 
 trees. 
 
 Fig. 92. Black rot of grape may be pre- 
 vented by timely use of Bordeaux 
 mixture 
 
 vitriol) known as Bor- 
 deaux mixture (given in 
 the Appendix) is most 
 often used. The plants are 
 sprayed with a very dilute 
 solution, so that a thin 
 film of the poison covers 
 the leaves, stems, buds, 
 and fruit of the plant. 
 Spores on the surface of 
 thoroughly sprayed plants 
 are killed, as Ukewise 
 others that fall on the 
 plants. It is often neces- 
 sary to make several ap- 
 pUcations, to replace the 
 film of spray washed 
 away by rains. Sulphur, 
 formaldehyde, and other 
 substances, are used for 
 special diseases. 
 
 220. General Methods 
 in Using Sprays. Where 
 efforts are made to pre- 
 vent the attacks of fungi 
 by sprays, it is important 
 to know how and w^hen 
 infection takes place. No 
 general rules can be given. 
 The time and manner of 
 applying the fungicide 
 must be suited to the 
 conditions peculiar to the 
 
Fungus Diseases of Plants 
 
 151 
 
 disease. The agricultural experiment station bulletins 
 and special books on spraying will supply full informa- 
 tion. 
 
 221. Diseases of Orchard Fruits, such as brown rot of 
 peaches and plums (Fig. 91); mildew and black-rot (Fig. 
 92) of grapes and other common diseases are controlled 
 by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying 
 
 Fig. 93. The apple scab may be prevented by spraying. 
 From Cornell University Junior Naturalist. 
 
 should be before the buds swell, and repeated every few 
 weeks thereafter until the crop is safe. 
 
 222. Grain Smuts. The smuts of oats and wheat 
 (Fig. 87) may be prevented by treating the seed before 
 planting. The spores become lodged on the grain on the 
 hull or fine hairs. When the seeds are planted, the spores 
 germinate with the seed. It is peculiar, but true, that 
 this fungus can infect the plant only in the seedling 
 stage. Therefore, it is plain, that to prevent the blasting 
 of the oats by smut, we must destroy the smut spores 
 on the seed before planting. This may be done without 
 injury to the grain by treating the seeds with dilute 
 
152 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 solutions of formaldehyde, or other special prepara- 
 tion.* 
 
 223. Potato Scab may be prevented by soaking the 
 seed potatoes in a two- or three-per-cent solution of 
 formaldehyde for one or two hours. This destroys the 
 fungus in the scabs and cracks on the potatoes. 
 
 224. Cotton-root Rot is a serious disease of cotton on 
 heavy clay lands. The disease does not attack cotton on 
 loose, sandy soils. This fact has suggested the practice 
 of earl}^ and deep breaking of land to prevent the growth 
 of the fungus. Results are favorable to the practice. 
 Rotation is also a means of holding this disease under 
 control. The destructive effects of the cotton-root-rot 
 fungus is often confused with damage due to alkali. The 
 soft, spongy condition of the roots of plants killed by 
 this fungus is very characteristic. This fungus also 
 attacks okra, orchard trees, shade trees, etc., in fact 
 nearly all classes of plants except members of the grass 
 family, such as corn, small grains, sorghum, etc. 
 
 *See full directions in Farmers' Bulletin No. 250, United States Department 
 of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 INSECTS ON THE FARM 
 
 225. There are a great many kinds of insects found 
 on the farm, many of them useful, while a few kinds are 
 injurious because they feed on the plants and animals 
 of the farm. Not all the small animals are properly 
 called insects. Insects have just six legs, and their 
 bodies are made up of three parts that may be easily 
 distinguished: First, the head; second, the thorax, or 
 middle part; and third, the abdomen. The spiders, mites 
 and scorpions have eight legs. The common sow-bug 
 has twelve legs and is more closely related to the crabs 
 and craw-fish than to true insects. 
 
 226. Changes of 
 Form in the Growth 
 of Insects. Nearly 
 all species of in- 
 sects have several 
 forms in passing 
 from the egg to the 
 mature insect. It 
 is like the story of 
 ^'The House that 
 Jack Built." The 
 female lays the 
 egg; the egg 
 hatches into the 
 
 larva (caterpillar ^'^" ^^- stages m the hfe historj of the June- 
 
 , ' bug. After Howard Dnision of Entomology, 
 
 grub, or maggot) ; United states Department of Agriculture. 
 
 (153) 
 
154 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 the larva feeds and grows and turns into a chrysalis, 
 or pupa, and out of this comes the mature insect again. 
 Take the common May-beetle, or June-bug as an ex- 
 ample. (Fig. 94.) The adult lays the egg among grass 
 roots in the early spring. From this then hatches a 
 small larva (white grub, or '^grub-worm"), which feeds 
 on the roots in the soil. It grows rapidly, and, at the 
 end of the second season, goes into a dormant state and 
 changes into a pupa, and, at the end of two years, emerges 
 from the ground as a May-beetle, or June-bug. In the 
 larval stage, the June-bug often does much damage to 
 the roots of grasses, corn, wheat and garden plants, 
 while the adult feeds on the leaves of trees — often fruit 
 trees. 
 
 The caterpillar stage in insect development is quite 
 unhke the mature butterfly stage, and only the closest 
 watching of the life history of the ''wiggle-tail" convinces 
 
 Fig. 95. Plum curculio. 1, larva inside of peach; 2, mature insect depositing 
 egg. After Quaintance, United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
Insects on the Farm 155 
 
 us that it is a mosquito in another form. The Httle 
 ^^worm" (larva); :^und in the phim, is quite different 
 from the shy curcuUo beetle that laid the egg. (Fig. 95.) 
 
 227. How Insects Differ from Other Animals. Insects, 
 Uke the frogs and snakes, are cold-blooded animals. 
 The temperature of their bodies changes with that of 
 the air or water, in whichever they happen to be. When 
 cold weather comes, they find shelter under fallen leaves, 
 sticks, stones, or may burrow into the ground and there 
 remain quiet until warm weather returns. This way of 
 passing the winter is called hibernation. While hibernat- 
 ing, they may be frozen stiff, or the eggs and larva may 
 be frozen, but when the weather becomes favorable, 
 many kinds will move about just as lively as ever. 
 Severe freezing may kill some, but many will survive. 
 Most animals have the bony skeleton inside of the body, 
 but insects have the hard bony part on the outside. The 
 muscles of insects are attached to the outer body wall and 
 not to internal bones, as in other animals. Insects do 
 not breathe through a mouth, but have little breathing 
 pores along the sides of the body. The nerves of the 
 insect that detect odors and guide it to its kind and food 
 are usually in the little ''feelers,'' or antennce, or sometimes 
 in the segments of the legs. 
 
 Some species of insects die soon after laying eggs, 
 often before the eggs hatch; others may hve on through 
 the summer and produce several broods, as in the case 
 of the cotton boll-weevil. 
 
 228. The Food of Insects. Insects are very peculiar 
 about the food they eat. Just hke the many species of 
 parasitic fungi, each species feeds, usually, on just one 
 kind of plant, or on closely related plants. In such cases 
 we speak of the plant as the ''host" for a particular 
 
156 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 insect. The Colorado potato beetle (Fig. 96) is a native 
 of the West, living on the western species of night- 
 shades. When the Irish potato was introduced, it found 
 a plant closely akin to its regular food plants, and on 
 which it thrives to such an extent that it takes its 
 name from the new host-plant. Sometimes there is a 
 wide difference in the kinship of the host-plants. The 
 feeding habits of the ''boll-worm" of cotton, or the 
 
 Fig. 96. Colorado potato beetle. After Riley, a, eggs; 
 b, larvse; c, mature beetle. 
 
 ''ear-worm" of corn, the same insect in both cases 
 (Fig. 97), is a striking exception to the general rule, 
 because it feeds on a number of different kinds of plants. 
 When insects do not find acceptable host-plants, they 
 die. Many insects are exclusively fiesh-eating, such as 
 the common "doodle-bugs," wasps, lady-bugs, and many 
 species of wood ants. Red bugs and mosquitos are 
 common forms of blood-sucking insects. Many para- 
 sites are solely responsible for the spread of diseases. 
 
Insects on the Farm 
 
 157 
 
 The ticks, which are closely related to true insects, on 
 cattle, are carriers of disease. Cattle do not have the 
 splenic fever (sometimes called Texas fever) except 
 when the germs are carried by ticks that bite them. 
 The common bee lives on the nectar and pollen of 
 flowers. It is not the only insect that lives on nectar. 
 Most species of butterflies, moths, bumblebees, etc., are 
 nectar-loving insects. We have already learned that 
 these insects are very use- 
 ful in bringing about the 
 pollination of flowers. 
 
 229. The Feeding Habits 
 of Different Stages. Many 
 kinds of insects feed on 
 plants cultivated by man. 
 They attack the plants in 
 various stages and ways. 
 Most frequently it is the 
 larval stage (caterpillar, 
 grub, maggot) that destroys 
 the plants by eating the 
 leaves. The Colorado potato- 
 bug lays its eggs on the 
 leaves. The young larvae 
 are, therefore, hatched out- 
 right at the breakfast table, 
 the caterpillar stage occurs in great numbers, and they 
 are, hence, often spoken of as ^'army worms," of which 
 the ^^cotton army worm" is a common example in the 
 South. Some caterpillars, known as cutworms, work only 
 at night. When daylight comes, they are concealed 
 under clods, and any trash that may be present. They 
 are called '^cutworms" because they have a habit of cut- 
 
 Fig. 97. Corn ear-worm or cotton 
 boll -worm. After Quaintance, 
 Bureau of Entomology, United 
 States Department of Agricul- 
 ture. 
 
 In some species of insects, 
 
158 
 
 Elernentary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 ting off young plants near the ground. They are the 
 caterpillar stage of several kinds of night-flying moths. 
 
 (Fig. 98.) 
 
 230. How Insects Get 
 Their Food, (a) By 
 Living inside the Plant. 
 It quite often happens 
 that the egg is deposited 
 inside of some part of 
 the plant and the larva 
 develops there, as in 
 the case of the larva of 
 the plumgouger. As the 
 larva is inside of the 
 plant (Fig. 95), it can- 
 not be destroyed by any 
 of the sprays, and, in 
 such cases, effort is made to catch and destroy the adults 
 before the eggs are laid. 
 
 (b) By Feeding on the Leaves. Insects that feed 
 directly on the leaves have mouth parts that are pro- 
 vided with scissors-like jaws by which their food is cut 
 from the plant. To destroy insects that feed in this way, 
 it is sufficient to cover the leaves with some suitable 
 arsenic compound by sprays. When they eat the leaves, 
 they consume enough of the poison to induce their 
 death. Paris green, London purple, and white arsenic 
 are the most usual poisons. Grasshoppers, locusts, and 
 army worms are killed in this way. In some portions of 
 Texas they have the leaf-cutting ants, which attack 
 peach trees in great numbers and cut and carry off 
 nearly all the leaves. These ants do not eat the leaves, 
 but carry them into their underground nests and use 
 
 Fig. 98. Cutworm and moth. After 
 Howard. Bureau of Entomology, 
 United States, Department of Agri- 
 culture. 
 
Insects on the Farm 
 
 159 
 
 them as a soil on which to grow a fungus which they 
 do eat. These ants are real ^'farmer insects," in that 
 the food they eat is grown by their own efforts. Carbon 
 bisulfide, poured into their nest, sometimes destroy 
 the colony. 
 
 (c) By Sticking the Juices. We may distinguish 
 another group of insects by the way they get their food 
 from the plant or animal. Instead of having jaws with 
 which they may bite off and chew their food, their 
 mouth parts are shaped into a kind of tube which they 
 
 /STv 
 
 Fig. 99. Squash bug. A, eggs on leaf; b, egg-shell; c, d, e, f, nymphs; g, adult. 
 , After Chittenden. Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 use to suck blood or sap. The squash-bug (Fig. 99), 
 and the chinch-bug get their food by suckino-. Plant 
 Hce, such as the green bug, and San Jose scale (Fig. 100) 
 are also sucking insects. 
 
160 
 
 Elementari/ Principles of Agriculture 
 
 230a. Structure of Insects. For this exercise the pupil should 
 secure good specimens of the grasshopper and butterfly, as these 
 two insects illustrate the difference of mouth parts as seen in insects. 
 Some, as the grasshopper, have biting mouth parts, while others, 
 as the butterfly, squash bug, etc., have mouth parts suited to pierce 
 the plants and suck out their juices, (a) Note the large eyes in the 
 front and side of the head of each insect. These are called com- 
 pound eyes because they are made up of a great number of simple 
 eyes. (6) Note also the feelers or antennae, and the mouth parts. 
 The large black jaws of the grasshopper are used for biting, while 
 the long coiled tongue-like organ of the butterfly is used for obtain- 
 ing food by sucking out the nectar from flowers. 
 
 San Jose scale on plum. A, natural size; 6, magnified; 
 c, greatly magnified. 
 
 230b. The next region of the body is called the thorax. In each 
 insect the thorax is divided into three parts, each division has a 
 pair of legs attached. All insects have six legs, and are sometimes 
 called Hexapoda on this account. On each insect you will find two 
 pairs of wings. These wings are attached to the second and third 
 divisions of the thorax. Notice that the wing of the butterfly is 
 covered with a "powder." This powder is made up of small scales 
 attached to the wing in rows overlapping each other very much 
 like the shingles of a roof. The wing of the grasshopper is smooth 
 and firm with a large number of small lines running through it, 
 called veins. 
 
 230c. The next division of the body is called the abdomen, 
 which is made up of a number of segments or rings. By looking 
 along the side of the abdomen of the grasshopper there will be seen 
 a number of small openings or pores. These are the breathing pores 
 
Insects on the Farm , 161 
 
 and nearly all insects have such breathing pores on the abdomen 
 and thorax. At the tip of the abdomen the segments are changed 
 a little in their form and size. This tip of the abdomen of the 
 female is the egg depositor. The grasshoppers usually bore down 
 into the ground and deposit their eggs, while other insects deposit 
 their eggs in the bark of trees, young fruit, etc. 
 
 230(1. All insects are constructed very much alike, there being 
 slight differences in certain parts in the different kinds. Collect 
 some of the common insects from the plants in the school-garden. 
 
 Fig. 101. This apple might have been kept sound by spraying. 
 From Cornell University Junior Naturalist. 
 
 or from the fields, and determine whether they have sucking or 
 biting mouth parts. 
 
 231. General Method of Destroying Injurious Insects. 
 
 The number of injurious insects appearing is affected 
 by their food supply, weather conditions, and their nat- 
 ural insect enemies. Wherever it is possible, encour- 
 agement should be given to the natural enemies, some 
 of which will soon be mentioned. Sometimes they can 
 be killed by running heavy rollers over the fields, plow- 
 ing or harrowing. The leaf-eating forms can frequently 
 
162 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 be killed by spraying the leaves with poisons. Others, 
 like the sucking insects, may be killed by spraying 
 directly onto the insect some substance that kills by 
 contact, such as oils, alkah washes, etc. The poison 
 must not be strong enough to injure the plants. In some 
 cases, the insects may be killed by treating the plants 
 with poisonous fumes or gases, such as tobacco smoke, 
 
 1 ig lUJ ,^pia>iiig. 
 
 and the deadly hydrocyanic acid gas, used especially 
 for San Jose scale. Where plants are sprayed to prevent 
 fungous diseases, the poison for insects may be applied 
 in the same solution at the same time. There are many 
 kinds of special machines for applying fungicides and 
 insecticides. They are fully described in special books 
 and bulletins. 
 
 232. Classification of Insecticides. Substances that 
 are used to poison insects are called insecticides. There 
 
Insects on the Farm 163 
 
 are many substances used to kill insects. They may be 
 grouped into three classes, according to the manner in 
 which they poison the insect. 
 
 (a) Food, or Internal Poisons, are substances which 
 poison by being taken into the digestive tract of the 
 insect. This class includes various arsenical compounds, 
 such as Paris green, London purple, lead arsenate. 
 Poisons of this class are used for insects that chew their 
 food, as the leaf-eating forms, unless the use of the poi- 
 son render the plants dangerous for food, such as 
 cabbage. 
 
 (b) Contact Poison. Substances that destroy by 
 attacking the body of the insect, such as washes of 
 caustic alkalies, oils, etc. They are used for sucking 
 insects, i. e., those having beaks, such as the San Jose 
 scale. 
 
 (c) Tracheal Poisons. Substances which enter the 
 breathing pores of the insect and cause death by poison- 
 ing or suffocation. Smoke, and the deadly hydrocyanic 
 acid gas, Pyrethrum, or 'insect powder," and carbon 
 bisulphide, belong to this class. 
 
Fig. 103. The cotton-boll worm. After Quaintance and Brues. 1, Eggs on corn 
 .silk, twice natural size; 2-4, early larval .stages, .somewhat enlarged; 5, 
 boll -worm eating into half -grown ball, natural size; 6, mature larva, 
 natural size; 7, boll-worm on green tomato, one -half natural size; 8, 
 full grown larva burrowing into soil for pupation; 9a, showing line of 
 movement of larva into the soil; 96, pupal chamber with pupa at bottom; 
 10, mature pupa, slightly magnified; 11, boll -worm moth with wings 
 e.xpanded, natural size. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 SOME SPECIAL INJURIOUS INSECTS 
 
 233. Insects that Attack Cotton. There are several 
 species of insects that injure the cotton plant, such as 
 the cotton army or leaf-worm, cotton boll-worm, the 
 Mexican boll-weevil, and the cotton aphis. The leaf- 
 worm and boll-worm may be destroyed by spraying 
 or dusting with arsenical poisons. 
 
 234. The Boll-Worm of cotton, damages cotton by 
 destroying the locks of the bolls. The same insect 
 damages the tips of more than 75 per cent of the ears 
 in the corn fields. The damage to corn ears is probably 
 fully 3 to 5 per cent of the crop. The pupae hibernate 
 in the ground through the fall and winter and do not 
 mature into moths until late in the spring. These facts 
 
 suggest the advisability of early fall 
 plowing to expose the pupa to the 
 severe weather conditions of the 
 winter seasons, predacious insects 
 and birds. (What other reasons have 
 already been mentioned for early 
 plowing?) Advantage is taken of the 
 habit of the insect of attacking corn 
 and cowpeas in preference to cotton, 
 to protect the latter. 'Trap rows" of 
 corn and cowpeas are planted near 
 the cotton to attract the moths. In 
 this way the damage to the cotton 
 is lessened. Corn is used, also, in pro- 
 (165) 
 
 Fig. 104. Mexican Cotton- 
 boll weevil. (Enlarged 
 five times.) Howard, 
 United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. 
 
166 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 tecting tomatoes from this insect. Much better results 
 will be secured if the corn is planted late. (Fig. 103). 
 
 235. The Mexican Boll- Weevil is a true weevil, 
 resembling very closely the plum curculio. It has been 
 
 ^^^^m 
 
 Fig. 105. Mexican boll-weevil. A, ap- 
 pearance of normal " square ; B, 
 "flaring" following the deposit of 
 eggs in the unopened bud; C, part 
 of flower bud removed to show 
 larva. 
 
 known in Mexico for years, 
 though it was not found 
 in this country until in the 
 early nineties. The mature 
 stage in the life history of 
 the Mexican boll-weevil is 
 shown in Fig. 104. These in- 
 sects leave their winter shelter early in the spring and 
 deposit the eggs in the flower-buds or squares. The 
 weevil does not deposit eggs in the young bolls when 
 the flower-buds are to be found. When the egg is thrust 
 
Some Special Injurious Insects 
 
 167 
 
 into the flower-bud ("stung/' as it is sometimes 
 improperly called), the square or calyx is soon 
 ''flared," as shown in Fig. 105, and then drops to 
 the ground. In about twenty-five or thirty days from 
 the laying of the egg, the mature weevils emerge from 
 the fallen flower-buds and start a new generation. 
 Each female weevil, starting early in the season, may, 
 if conditions are favorable, 
 produce enough to destroy a 
 crop of cotton. The adult 
 weevils hibernate in winter in 
 the many unopened damaged 
 bolls or under any kind of trash 
 that may be available, espe- 
 cially in the leaves of nearby 
 woods. During the following 
 spring, they begin to emerge in 
 considerable numbers after the 
 first few weeks of warm weather. 
 They feed on the tender por- 
 tions of the young cotton. The 
 eggs are deposited in the first 
 young flower-buds. In 1904, it was estimated that the 
 loss to Texas cotton -growers was equal to 450,000 
 bales, but, by using improved varieties of cotton, early 
 planting, distance between rows, and other measures, 
 a fair yield of cotton is now secured. More than thirty 
 species of birds are known to use the boll -weevil 
 as food. Ants, ichneumon flies, wasps and other agen- 
 cies assist man in his fight to keep this pest under 
 control. 
 
 236. The Spread of the Boll- Weevil. Fig. 107 shows 
 the advances of this great pest since it was first dis- 
 
 Fig. 106. Late-fall boll. shoAving 
 how beetles hide between boll 
 and involucre. 
 
Some Special Injurious Insects 
 
 169 
 
 covered in the United States. Birds, snakes and pre- 
 daceous insects assist man in holding the boll-weevil 
 under control, but no fact has yet been discovered that 
 suggests that it will not spread over the entire cotton- 
 growing section. 
 
 237. Tent Caterpillars are often found in fruit trees. 
 They are easily discovered in the spring by their large 
 webs supported on the branches. They may be found 
 much earlier as small bunches of eggs, like those shown 
 in Fig. 108c. They are laid late in the summer and cov- 
 ered by a sticky 
 substance to pro- 
 tect them from the 
 winter rains. They 
 hatch out usually 
 just about the 
 time the buds open 
 and the caterpil- 
 lars feed on the 
 young buds and 
 leaves. They soon 
 spin a delicate 
 cloth-like web or 
 tent, to which they 
 retire at night, and 
 in bad weather. 
 These caterpillars 
 are well marked 
 with dots and lines 
 along the bodies 
 that are character- 
 istic for each spe- 
 cies. After a time 
 
 Fig. 108. The tent-caterpillar, 
 c, egg-cluster; d, cocoon; ( 
 
 a and b, larv; 
 full-grown. 
 
170 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 they leave the tree and each individual spins a paper- 
 like case, called a "cocoon," in some sheltered place. 
 The adult moth emerges from the cocoon in a few 
 weeks, and lays the eggs as mentioned above. These 
 changes may be observed by bringing the almost mature 
 caterpillars into wire-screened cages. These caterpillars 
 are attacked by many parasites, birds, snakes, frogs, 
 and particularly by birds. The orchard should be in- 
 spected in the early spring for webs. 
 
 238. "Wire-worms" are very com- 
 mon in fields. They are the larval stage 
 of various species of 
 night-flying beetles, 
 such as the cUck- 
 beetles. The adult hves on the 
 nectar obtained from flowers 
 while the larval stage lives in 
 the ground and thrives on the 
 roots, leaves, and stems of 
 young plants. 
 
 239. Plant -lice, or Aphids, 
 are common everywhere. There 
 are many kinds, and all are 
 quite small. Plant-lice are soft- 
 bodied, usually green, Uke the 
 ''green bug," but sometimes 
 colored red or black according 
 to the plant they are infesting. 
 Most of them are wingless, 
 though some of them will 
 have two pairs of transpar- 
 ent wings. They almost al- 
 ways occur in colonies, 
 
 Fig. 109. A corn-plant growing 
 in a root-cage infested by 
 wire-worms and click-beetles 
 (from a specimen in the Cor- 
 nell Insectary). 
 
Some Special Injurious Insects 
 
 171 
 
 Fig 
 
 frequently of immense numbers. They feed upon the 
 
 leaves, buds, tender stems, and even the roots in some 
 
 sorts of plants. They 
 
 do much damage by 
 
 sucking the plant j uices. 
 
 Some species secrete a 
 
 substance known as 
 
 ''honey dew," which is 
 
 sought after by ants. 
 
 The Ants care for the 
 
 aphis and protect them 
 
 from the depredations 
 
 of predaceous insects. 
 
 The scale insects are 
 
 classed with the plant- 
 
 Uce. The San Jose scale 
 
 is the most serious re- 
 presentative. 
 
 239a. Colonies of plant-lice may be found frequently on road- 
 side weeds, sometimes under the folded edges of leaves tended by 
 ants. Such a colony should be closely observed. Small tubes may 
 be seen on the abdomen of the lice covered with drops of honey 
 dew. The ants have a way of stroking the lice to make them give 
 up the honey dew. This action is often fancifully called "ants 
 milking their cows." 
 
 240. Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. The insects 
 that damage stored grain are the larvae of moths and 
 beetles, and several species of weevils closely akin to 
 the plum-gouger and cotton boll- weevil. Corn, wheat, 
 peas, and many other seeds are often damaged by these 
 insects while stored. Some species are very destructive. 
 The ''rice-weevil" is the most destructive, particularly 
 to corn, peas, barley, kafir corn, etc. The two most 
 common species of weevil are shown in Fig. 111. The 
 
 10. The spring -grain aphis, a, wing- 
 less female; 6, larva; c, pupa; d, winged 
 migrant. After Webster, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, 
 
172 
 
 Elementary Princi'ples of Agriculture 
 
 the rice-weevil is the larger, and has a dull brown color. 
 The eggs are laid in the corn, often before it is gathered. 
 During warm weather it requires about six weeks to 
 mature a weevil from the egg, while, in cold weather, 
 
 they multiply very 
 slowly. The egg- 
 laying continues 
 over a consider- 
 able period and, as 
 it requires such a 
 short while to ma- 
 ture a new brood, 
 it is no wonder 
 that they are found 
 in such numbers in 
 grain stored for 
 any considerable 
 time. It is esti- 
 mated that, in the 
 course of a season, 
 they mature six or 
 more generations, amounting to 500 or more individuals 
 from a single pair. 
 
 241. The Grain Moths do more damage to the stored 
 grain than the weevils. The most common species is 
 the Angoumois grain moth, so named from a province 
 of Angoumois, France. It attacks grain in the field as 
 well as in the bin. The adult somewhat resembles the 
 common clothes moth. It is light grayish brown and 
 about a half-inch across when the wings are expanded. 
 The eggs are deposited in clusters of twenty to thirty 
 and require only about four to seven, or more, days 
 to hatch the caterpillars. The latter bore into the 
 
 Fig. 111. Granary weevil, a, adult; b, 
 c, pupa; d, rice weevil. All enlarged 
 Chittenden. 
 
 larva; 
 After 
 
Some Special Injurious Insects 
 
 173 
 
 grain, and, after feeding on the starchy matter for about 
 three weeks, form a thin silken cocoon, from which it 
 emerges a few days later. About thirty-five days are 
 used in passing from egg to adult. Four to, possibly, eight 
 broods are formed during the year. When grain is stored 
 in bulk, only the surface layers are infested. Both the 
 weevils and moths are subject to attacks by parasites. 
 242. Preventing Injury to Stored Grain. To reduce 
 the injury to stored grain, use is made of repellants like 
 napthelene (so-called ''moth balls")? salt, air-slaked 
 lime, and other substances which, while not poisonous, 
 drive the insect out. A temperature of 125° Fahr. is 
 sufficient to kill weevils, though more than 150° Fahr. 
 may be endured by dry grain without loss of ger- 
 minating power. Treating the grains to the vapors of 
 bisulfide of carbon in tight bins is by far the most satis- 
 factory means of protecting stored grain. In destroying 
 the insects, use one pound to one hundred bushels of 
 grain. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 USEFUL INSECTS 
 
 243. Useful Insects. Some insects are useful because 
 they supply food, as the honey-bee. Others supply 
 materials for clothing, as the silkworm. Still others, as 
 we have seen, cause flowers to set fruit by carrying 
 pollen from flower to flower. (See ^ 140.) There are 
 many species which are especially useful in man's battle 
 with the forces of nature, because they prey upon the 
 injurious insects. 
 
 244. Wasps. There are many kinds of wasps. The 
 common ''red wasps" and yellow jackets,''" with their 
 paper nests made out of the fragments of plants, are 
 well known. The mud-dauber is another common wasp, 
 There are many species of wasps that do not live in 
 colonies like the ones just mentioned, but live singly, 
 and are, hence, called "soUtary wasps." The wasps are 
 quite closely related to the domestic bees, and bumble- 
 bees, but instead of gathering nectar and pollen for 
 food, as the bees do, they feed on other insects. The mud- 
 dauber fills the mud-cells with the bodies of young 
 spiders, flies, etc., and before sealing up the hole, de- 
 posits an egg. The food for the larva is there ready for 
 it when it is hatched. Wasps are said to catch the biting 
 flies that w^orry stock, and, especially, the larvse of the 
 boll- weevil. Wasps' nests should not be destroyed 
 except, possibly, in orchards. 
 
 245. Ichneumon Flies, of which there are many 
 kinds, are closely related to the bees and wasps. The 
 
 (174) 
 
Useful Insects 
 
 175 
 
 adult often feeds on nectar. The usefulness of this 
 class of insects is due to the fact that the young are 
 parasites. They do not secure their prey by force. 
 Instead of catching the insects and carrying them to the 
 young larvae, their eggs are deposited in the bodies of 
 their victims, and there grow into grubs. The grubs 
 either mature in the body of the hosts, or come out and 
 mature in the ground. The eggs are most often deposited 
 in caterpillars, though sometimes in the chrysalis and 
 
 Fig. 113. A, dead "green bug," showing hole 
 from which the matured parasite emerges. The 
 top figure shows the Hd still attached, but 
 pushed back; the bottom figure shows the para- 
 site emerging; B, principal parasite of the 
 spring grain-aphis or "green-bug;" adult female, 
 highly magnified. After Webster, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
 on the adult stage, or even in the eggs. We find here 
 the same specialization in hosts that we noticed in the 
 fungi, and plant-eating insects. Each species of parasitic 
 fly rarely attacks more than one species of insect. Two 
 species (Fig. 113), of the ichneumon fly attack the 
 green bug. They thrive only during the warm weather 
 of spring, however, while the green bugs may endure 
 much cold weather. Below central Texas, the parasitic 
 flies are active at all seasons and that section has never 
 
176 
 
 Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 
 
 been seriously damaged by the green bug. In other 
 parts, the entire grain crops have been almost destroyed 
 several times because the cool weather retarded the 
 multiplication of the parasites. 
 
 Ichneumon flies are parasitized by other ichneumon 
 flies, and these in turn by others, reminding one of the 
 old adage that "Large fleas have smaller fleas to bite 
 
 'em." 
 
 246. Ants. Many 
 species of ants live on 
 the eggs and larvae of 
 other insects. They 
 are very useful in cot- 
 ton fields because they 
 destroy many boll- 
 weevils. The common 
 red stinging ant lives 
 on weed seeds and wild 
 grain. 
 
 247. Lady Bugs are 
 another class of insect- 
 eating insects. They 
 feed on eggs of the 
 Colorado potato bugs, 
 chinch bugs, and plant- 
 Uce. They are easily 
 recognized by their red 
 
 and black-spotted color. There are two kinds of lady 
 bugs found in the Southwest. One species, Megilla 
 maculata (Fig. 114), is especially active in feeding on 
 the green bug on grains, while another, Hippodamia 
 convergens, is more active on the plant-lice on cotton 
 and melons. The latter will lay about fifteen eggs per 
 
 Fig. 114. Two common species of lady bugs. 
 a, hippodamia; b. megilla; c and d, larva 
 stages. After Chittenden, United States 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
Useful Insects 177 
 
 day, and often a total of 500 eggs. These are deposited 
 on leaves in clusters of from a few to fifty in a place. 
 A lady bug will eat about fifty aphis per day. We recog- 
 nize these insects as a benefit to mankind in various 
 ways. 
 
 248. Parasitic Insects are possibly the most import- 
 ant class of beneficial insects. Without them, the 
 locusts and grasshoppers, the caterpillars of butter- 
 flies and moths, and many other kinds would destroy 
 all the plants. Every farm should have a ''lady bug 
 patch." Unless these insects have food during the 
 winter months, they die. They require plenty of insect 
 food, and this should be provided by growing some crop 
 that harbors insects through the winter. Some winter- 
 growing plant, like rape which has a winter insect para- 
 site, the cabbage aphis. The lady bugs, thus having 
 food through the winter, grow and multiply until spring 
 when food naturally becomes abundant. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 WILD BIRDS AND OTHER INSECT- 
 EATING ANIMALS 
 
 249. Most Birds Benefit the Farmer, because their 
 food consists very largely of harmful insects, weed seeds, 
 mice, etc. Some birds eat the grain or do much damage 
 to the fruit, but without the birds, the insects would be 
 far more destructive. In 1753, Benjamin Franklin 
 wrote to a friend: — ''In New England they once thought 
 blackbirds useless, and mischievous to the corn. They 
 made efforts to destroy them. The consequence was, 
 the blackbirds diminished, but a kind of worm which de- 
 voured their grass, and which the blackbirds used to feed 
 upon, increased prodigiously; then, finding their loss 
 in grass greater than their gain in corn, they wished 
 again for the blackbirds." 
 
 250. Birds Like Insect Food Best. Every one has 
 noticed how the field-larks, and other birds fly into the 
 
 newly plowed furrow. They 
 are not looking for freshly 
 planted seeds as some sup- 
 pose, but for worms and in- 
 sects which the plow uncovers. 
 They prefer insects, but will 
 eat weed or grain seeds if in- 
 sects are scarce. In summer 
 the field -lark (or ''meadow- 
 lark," as he is most often called 
 in the North) eats insects 
 
 Fig. 115. Food of the meadow 
 lark by months. 
 
 (178) 
 
Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 179 
 
 almost entirely, but in winter when he cannot find 
 insects, he has to eat weed seeds, and waste grain. (See 
 Fig. 115 and table of food by months.) The young of 
 all kind of birds, including those of the vegetable- 
 feeding adults, feed largely on insects. (See Fig. 116.) 
 
 Food for the Year. 
 
 Months 
 
 January 13 
 
 February 1 
 
 March 12 
 
 April 28 
 
 May 8 
 
 June 20 
 
 July 18 
 
 August 28 
 
 September 29 
 
 October 40 
 
 November 22 
 
 December 19 
 
 Stomachs Animal 
 
 Examined Food 
 
 Per cent 
 
 24.36 
 
 .00 
 
 73.14 
 
 77.51 
 
 97.99 
 
 95.79 
 
 97.32 
 
 99.35 
 
 99.20 
 
 94.39 
 
 77.08 
 
 39.22 
 
 Grain 
 
 Per cent 
 
 75.28 
 
 25.00 
 
 17.00 
 
 15.10 
 
 1.88 
 
 2.10 
 
 .00 
 
 .00 
 
 .40 
 
 .61 
 
 6.50 
 
 32.70 
 
 Total foryear 238 72.95 14.71 
 
 Weed 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Per cent 
 
 .36 
 
 75.00 
 
 9.86 
 
 7.39 
 
 .13 
 
 2.11 
 
 2.68 
 
 .65 
 
 .40 
 
 5.00 
 
 16.42 
 
 28.08 
 
 12.34 
 
 Total 
 Per cent 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 251. Beneficial Birds Should not be Killed for food, 
 neither for sport, nor for decorations for hats. Every 
 
 Fig. 116. Diagram showing proportions of food of English sparrow {Passer 
 domesticus), young and adult. 
 
180 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 time one feels tempted to kill birds, he should not only 
 think of the good they do by destroying insects and 
 weed seeds, but possibly not far off there is a group of 
 tender nestlings waiting for mama or papa bird to come 
 home with a morsel of food, to check the pangs of hunger. 
 When women decorate their hats with aigrettes, they 
 encourage selfish persons to kill harmless birds. It is 
 against the laws of many states to kill the useful birds. 
 No one should want to destroy them. Birds should be 
 protected at all seasons. Define ''game birds." ''Non- 
 game birds," as used in the laws of your state. 
 Ir 252. English Sparrows (Fig. 117) Uve almost exclu- 
 sively on the farmers' crops, besides destroying the 
 
 Fig. 117. English sparrow. 
 
 eggs and nests of other birds. They should be de- 
 stroyed. The native species of sparrows are insect- 
 eating birds. 
 
 253. Migration of Birds. Some birds live all the time 
 in the same locality, Hke the partridge, Texas road- 
 runner, and downy woodpecker, the sparrow, and the 
 
Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 181 
 
 cardinal, while other kinds, as the robin, bluejay, etc., 
 
 spend one season in one part of the world, and the 
 
 others elsewhere. 
 
 Everybody knows f 
 
 that the wild geese 
 
 ''fly over" in the 
 
 fall, going south to 
 
 the warm salt 
 
 waters, and back 
 
 again in the spring 
 
 on their way to the 
 
 breeding-grounds in 
 
 Canada. Likewise, 
 
 the field-lark spends 
 
 the summer in the 
 
 North, and in the 
 
 fall and winter he 
 
 makes his home 
 
 in the South. (Fig. 
 
 118.) 
 
 253a. Make a list 
 of the kinds of birds, 
 found in the county. 
 
 How many kinds are permanent residents, and how many visit 
 for only a part of the year? 
 
 254. The Feeding Habits of Birds. The farmer is 
 interested in the birds because they eat the insects that 
 destroy his crops. The illustrations, Figs. 119 and 
 120 show how much of each kind of food some common 
 birds eat. Some birds, like the swallows, and scissor- 
 tailed flycatcher, live on insects almost entirely. Others, 
 like the dove, eat nearly all weed seeds and grain, but 
 most birds eat some of both. It will be interesting to 
 
 Fig. 118. Meadow lark or field lark. 
 
5PIDFRS 
 
 1 Bouse M-en 
 
 2 SonaSparroiv 3 Orchard Oriole 
 
 10 RedHeadod 
 Woodpecker 
 
 Beneficial Animals 
 
 11 Red IVingfed 
 Blackbird. 
 
 12 American 
 Crotr 
 
 Fru its 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 Injurious An imals 
 ^^M mid Seed 
 
 Fig. 119. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficial 
 and destructive birds. 
 
22 Toa 
 
 25 HornedLizzard 24Chidten Snake 
 
 3eTieficial Animals 
 
 Fruits 
 
 oS2^ 
 
 Grain 
 
 Injuriousjlnima Is 
 ^^^ JfildSeeds 
 
 Fig. 120. Diagram illustrating the proportions of the food of various beneficiai 
 and destructive birds. 
 
184 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 watch the many kinds of birds in your neighborhood, 
 and see how they catch their food. The scissor-tails 
 capture the insects that fly during the day. At night 
 the whippoorwills and night-hawks begin to fly, and 
 catch the insects that the day-flying birds miss. Some 
 kinds of birds, Hke the WTen and vireos, go carefully from 
 leaf to leaf, looking for the small, half-hidden insects 
 on the under sides. Still, again, the busy woodpecker 
 goes over the bark looking for insect eggs and larvae, 
 or boring for ants and wood-worms. Other birds, like 
 the larks and sparrows, scan the ground for creeping 
 insects, while still others, with long legs and bills, go to 
 the bottom of the pool for the little swimmers that are 
 seemingly safe from molestation. 
 
 254a. If a bird eats on an average one hundred insects a day, 
 and there are three birds to every acre of land, how many insects 
 will they eat in a year? How many insects would they take from 
 the largest orchard in the neighborhood? 
 
 254b. A quail was found to have 10,000 weed and grass seeds 
 in the craw when killed. If each quail in a covey of fifteen should 
 destroy this many weed seeds daily for a year, how many weeds 
 would be destroyed? 
 
 255. Change of Feeding Habits in Migration. Some 
 birds that spend a part of a season in one part of the 
 country, and the other in a distant section, change 
 their feeding habits. A good illustration is the bobolink, 
 or rice bird. It breeds in the North, and feeds largely 
 on insects, and but sKghtly on grain. In the South it is 
 called ''rice bird'' because it prefers the rice field, 
 where 50 to 80 per cent of its food is rice. 
 
 256. Bird-houses. Instead of shooting at birds, 
 and throwing stones to scare them, we should encourage 
 
 -the useful birds to build their nests around the barns 
 and in the orchards. Many persons build houses to 
 
CARDINAL 
 
 Upper Figure, Female: Lower Figure, Male. 
 
 (One-half natural size.) 
 
Wild Birds and Other Insect-eating Animals 185 
 
 attract martins and sparrows. A simple house may be 
 made with old tin cans, as shown in Fig. 121, using a 
 board for a roof, and allowing part of the top of the can 
 
 Fig. 121, A good way to use tin cans. 
 
 to remain, to make a lighting place. A good house for 
 martins is shown in Fig. 122. 
 
 257. Other Animals that Destroy Insects. ''Horned 
 frogs" (though they are really horned lizards) and 
 common frogs live on insects, as, also, do most snakes. 
 Even the old chicken snakes make waj^ with many times 
 more rats and mice than they do with young chickens. 
 
 Fig. 122. A simple Martin house. 
 
-fl 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 
 4 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 1 
 
 ^^^gum.. -^ 
 
 3 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 
 r\ 
 
 ' .-<',- ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 Side, front and rear view of Hereford cow, " Lady Briton 16, 
 owned by Comstock & Son, Albany, Mo. 
 
PART 11 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 
 
 258. Utilizing Farm Crops. The farmer grows grass, 
 alfalfa, grains, cotton, fruits and other crops which he 
 desires to convert into money. There are two ways of 
 marketing tlie surplus feeds grown on the farm: (1) The 
 crops may be sold to other persons to be fed to stock, 
 or (2) they may be fed to animals on the farm where 
 they are produced and worked up into a variety of 
 products of less weight and bulk, as beef, pork, poultry, 
 eggs, milk, horses, mules, cows, etc. These finished 
 products may often be marketed for much more than 
 could be secured for the feed alone. And, in addition, 
 there will be retained on the farm much of the fertility, 
 in the feeds for the benefit of succeeding crops. 
 
 259. The Farm is a Factory where the plant and 
 animal products are made from the crude substances 
 of the air and soil. It is just as necessary to keep the 
 soil able to sustain large yields as to keep the machinery 
 in the mills in good working order. The wealth-pro- 
 ducing power of the farm lies in the productiveness of 
 the soils. It costs something every year to restore to 
 the soil the power to make a large yield of wheat (see 
 ^111), but it costs more to grow wheat on land that 
 averages only half crops during the life of a farmer. 
 
 260. The Cost of Manufacture and the value of the 
 
 (187) 
 
188 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 feeds should be counted against the value of the prod- 
 ucts. The value of a product is determined by its kind, 
 the supply offered at a given time, and the demand. 
 
 261. Animal Husbandry is the natural companion 
 of crop farming. When the products of the fields and 
 meadows are removed from the farm each year, there 
 is a continual loss of fertility, which leads to certain 
 poverty of the farm and farmer. When these are fed 
 to the stock on the farm much of the fertility in the 
 crops may be returned to the land. 
 
 262. Stock Farming varies and distributes the farm- 
 er's labor. It gives him opportunity to work every day 
 in the year by which he may earn something for his 
 family. An all-grain crop or hay crop, or cotton crop, 
 etc., overtaxes the farm labor in one season and leaves 
 it in comparative idleness the next. Stock farming en- 
 courages system in rotation of crops, and thus tends 
 to maintain the land in a high state of productiveness. 
 
 263. In Selecting Animals for the Farm, the farmer 
 should use just as good judgment as the manufacturer 
 does in buying machinery, for the stock is the machinery 
 that makes the crude products of the farm into salable 
 products. The machines used in manufacturing have 
 been greatly improved to cheapen production in special 
 lines. What shall be the character of the machines which 
 the farmer uses to convert his feeds into finished pro- 
 ducts? Shall it be the latest improved, — by years of 
 breeding and selecting, to secure a breed that will give 
 a larger return of meat, butter, eggs, wool, etc., for 
 each pound of feed supphed? 
 
 264. Many Animals Are Unsuited for the purpose 
 for which they are kept. The Illinois Agricultural 
 Experiment Station made individual records for a full 
 
DAILY MILK AND PSED BECORD FOR MONTH 
 
 Oil- Her of UeixL. 
 
 KAME: 
 
 EEKEl J : 
 
 ]>a.tOufti net u],' 
 
 Silage nrsnl „ r i 
 
 
 
 
 Cif^fr. &.-j(. ~hv^ ~ i -'/^ 
 
 
 
 ^^T7^^/^ 
 
 i Xfl- Z^" 1 // /a 
 
 ^"TTT^Y^ 
 
 3' ^' : 
 
 
 31 1 /J^ /^ 
 
 \ /6. /^\ /o 9 
 
 /o /■' 
 
 1 -^ ^ '■ \ 
 
 Total, 
 
 iy-y/ >r'i?/ 
 
 j-rt ^i/\3srj 3J2'/ 
 
 \iJi?j- ^/^ 
 
 \ ^/ A^' : A 
 
 1 rP * .w ^ 
 
 ! ^-/^ 
 
 < '^i? \ ^7-.- 
 
 v'^/'<'' 
 
 i-./x;;.^^ ■■ 
 
 , t ^ 
 
 ^ r» 
 
 , ^.-^'/.f .^-f. 
 
 -/f< 
 
 ^ 4/ 
 
 i ) «i nu lb 
 
 1 ^^Z). J'^ 
 
 » ^3. ^7^' ^3 /£< 
 
 J^. / (c 
 
 / 2 
 
 ,?^^/ 
 
 ^^ X ' ^-^;^ 
 
 :?.^~/ 
 
 ! .^. ' \ 
 
 1 
 
 '^,:^ .',', 
 
 ^ ^ry^ f ,'./X/^ 
 
 ^ ^'■7f 
 
 '.'^/■i- '■*■ 
 
 \ ^ im ^j 1 
 
 //f 
 
 J?./^\ /^/ 
 
 /. .y^,o 
 
 \ -V ' 
 
 1 1 
 
 .' / v" 
 
 ' . ' -^^ , V 2 
 
 7r 07\ 
 
 \.U.9^i \A 
 
 __Pr ur 
 
 ^// ;j' 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ....,,.^.....,.-..,. 
 
 
 
 _ ■Ooitvfi: 
 
 ^luio p«r h(»a.i. _ 
 
 Fig. 124. Record of five cows for one month. Is the profit above cost of feed 
 sufficient to pay for care? Record furnished by Prof. C. O. Moser. 
 
190 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 year of the butter produced by 554 cows in Illinois 
 dairies. The average for the 139 poorest was 133.5 
 pounds of butter-fat and for the 139 best, 301 pounds, 
 or an average difference of 167.5 pounds butter-fat per 
 year. At 25 cents per pound this is $41.87 per cow. 
 
 264a. Figure the gross and net returns per year to the dairy- 
 man for labor and interest on the investment for each of the above 
 groups of cows. Allow $30 per year for the cost of feed for each 
 cow, and 25 cents per pound for butter-fat. The cows were valued 
 at $50 each. Were they all worth this much? 
 
 265. Records of Individual Performance should be 
 made of cows, hens, etc., to determine the cost of keep- 
 ing and the returns of the farmer. By this means the 
 profitable animals may be recognized, as also the unprofi- 
 table ones. The latter should be discarded. The farmer 
 ma}^, by attention to these matters, learn that some 
 animals are being fed at a loss. 
 
 265a. Milk and Butter Records. Secure records of the amount 
 of milk, and amount of butter, from cows in the neighborhood for 
 a single week. Calculate the value of the product at current prices. 
 Count the amount and cost of the feed consumed. Determine the 
 returns for labor, etc. (See Fig. 124 and 11352.) 
 
 265b. Growth of Pigs. Weigh a weaned pig once a week for 
 four weeks, and calculate the daily gain in weight. Allow for cost 
 of feed and calculate the cost per pound gain. Market prices may 
 be secured from the daily papers. 
 
 265c. Record of Loretta D. (see Fig. 131), the champion ''best 
 cow of any breed" for economical butter-production in the dairy 
 test at the St. Louis Exposition in a 120-day test, average daily flow 
 of milk was 48.35 pounds, containing 2.33 pounds of actual butter- 
 fat (equal to 2.75 pounds of standard quality butter). The cost of 
 her feed was twenty- five cents per day. Calculate the value of the 
 milk and butter for ten months. 
 
 265d. Record of Colantha 4th's Johnanna, (see Fig. 125), in a 
 year test completed December 24, 1907, was 27,432 pounds milk, 
 yielding 998 pounds of butter-fat. This is the world's record, both 
 
Animal Husbandry 
 
 191 
 
 for milk and butter, for any cow of any breed. What would be 
 the value of her milk and butter at current prices? 
 
 BREEDS OF LIVE-STOCK 
 
 266. What Constitutes a Breed? Breed, as applied to 
 live-stock, corresponds to variety in cultivated plants. 
 The various breeds of poultry, cattle, horses, sheep, etc., 
 descended from a common stock. The differences which 
 
 Fig. 125. Colantha 4th's Johanna. 
 Record of Colantha 4th' s Johanna. 
 
 Days 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 365 
 
 Time 
 
 Feb. 6, 1907 
 
 Feb. 6 to 12 
 
 Jan. 21 to Feb. 20 ... . 
 
 Dec. 27 to Feb. 25 
 
 Dec. 24, '06 to Dec, '07 
 
 Milk 
 
 Butter-fat 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Total 
 
 100.8 
 
 3.96 
 
 3.99 
 
 651.7 
 
 4.37 
 
 28.17 
 
 2,873.6 
 
 3.86 
 
 110.83 
 
 5,326.7 
 
 3.91 
 
 208.39 
 
 27,432.5 
 
 "•■; 
 
 998.25 
 
 Estimated 
 butter 
 
 4.65 
 
 32.86 
 
 129.30 
 
 243.12 
 
 1,165.00 
 
192 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 we recognize in the breeds are the result of continued 
 selections. 
 
 267. Origin of Breeds. Man long ago recognized 
 differences in the ability of individual animals to con- 
 vert their food into milk, wool, feathers, eggs, etc. 
 Therefore we select animals, not so much for their 
 ability to endure hardships, but for their power to pro- 
 duce something in response to care. Continued selection 
 has produced breeds of animals having certain charac- 
 ters strongly developed. They are called ''special-pur- 
 pose breeds." 
 
CHAPTER XXVIl 
 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF CATTLE 
 
 268. The Beef Types are distinguished by their 
 ability to lay on large amounts of flesh. Their bodies 
 have a rounded form, with strong back and well-sprung 
 ribs. They have full quarters, straight bottom and top 
 
 uu 
 
 Fig. 126. Outlines of shape of beef cow as compared with parallelograms. 
 
 lines (see Fig. 127), and a tendency to develop flesh at 
 an early age. Careful breeders prefer the animal that 
 locates a large amount of its flesh where it is worth 
 most, i. e., in regions supplying the valuable cuts of 
 steak. (See Fig. 128.) Animals having these qualities 
 so fixed by repeated selections that they regularly 
 appear in the offspring, belong to the beef-breeds. 
 
 269. The Shorthorn, like the Herefords, is an old 
 English breed. The shorthorns adhere closely to the 
 
 
 \N 
 
 A K^ ^ 
 
 Fig. 127. Outlines of shape of dairy cow as compared with parallelograms, 
 
 (193) 
 
194 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 beef type, but many strains are good milkers, and are 
 classed as ''general purpose" animals. They are of very 
 
 large size, the 
 cows often rang- 
 ing from 1,400 
 to 2,000 pounds. 
 The horn is 
 short, the hind- 
 quarters are 
 broad and well 
 filled. A consid- 
 erable range of 
 color is allowed 
 in the shorthorns — from light to dark red, or roan, the 
 latter formed by a mixture of red and white hairs. The 
 Polled Durhams are an offshoot of the Shorthorns. (Fig. 
 129.J The Shorthorn is one of the most popular of beef 
 breeds. During the course of its development three 
 
 ■>^^, 
 
 Fig. 128. Chicago retail dealers' method of 
 cutting beef 
 
 Fig. 129. A prize- win 1 
 
 Kun> wi liuttonwood 
 
Types and Breeds of Cattle 195 
 
 types have come to be recognized— the Bates, Booth, 
 and Crookshanks, or Scotch Shorthorns. The former 
 two are Enghsh in origin and differ from each other in 
 the following characters: The Bates cattle have been 
 bred for beauty and symmetry, style and milking quali- 
 ties, while the Booth strain constitution, wide thick- 
 fleshed backs and length of quarters have been empha- 
 
 Fig. 130. A typical Aberdeen Angus. 
 
 sized. The Crookshanks, or Scotch strain, are low, have 
 block forms with large scale, heavy coats of hair, and 
 mature quite early. * 
 
 270. The Herefords take their name from the county 
 of Hereford, England, where the breed originated. They 
 are typically a beef breed, hardy, early maturing, and 
 well suited to range conditions. In milk-production 
 they are very poor. The red body color and white face 
 are well-fixed marks for the breed. (See Fig. 123.) 
 
196 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 271. Aberdeen-Angus derive their name from two 
 counties of northern Scotland. They are polled or 
 hornless and noted for their fine beef qualities. Their 
 place as a range breed is not yet established, though 
 as feeders they have many friends. The body is very 
 compact and more cylindrical than that of either Here- 
 fords or Shorthorns. The legs are short and heavy. Color 
 is nearly always black. They are classed as medium 
 milkers among beef breeds. (Fig. 130.) 
 
 272. Dairy Types are noted for their ability to pro- 
 duce large quantities of milk and butter, instead of flesh. 
 They are noticeable for their long, deep couplings, 
 triple wedge-shaped outlines, due to their clean-cut 
 shoulders and broad, deep hind-quarters, clean-cut limbs, 
 slender necks and sharp withers. They also have a full 
 barrel, indicating strong constitution, and well-developed 
 digestive systems, well-developed udders, and a capacity 
 to yield a quantity of milk and butter on moderate feed. 
 The important dairy breeds are the Jerseys, Guernseys, 
 Holstein-Friesian. Ayshires and Dutch Belted. 
 
 273. The Jerseys and the Guernseys are natives of 
 the islands of these names in the English Channel. 
 The typical color for the Jersey breed is described as 
 fawn, gray, and silvery fawn. White marks are not 
 infrequent. The tongues and switch of the tail are typi- 
 cally black in pure-bred Jerseys. In conformation, the 
 Jersey adheres strictly to the dairy-type characteristics. 
 The weight of the cows averages between 650 and 850 
 pounds. Their milk is noted for its richness in butter-fat, 
 a fair average being close to 4.5 per cent fat in the milk. 
 As a beef producer, the Jersey is very poor. A number 
 of famous Jerseys have records ranging from 700 to 
 1,000 pounds of butter in a single year. 
 
Types and Breeds oj Cattle 
 
 197 
 
 Fig. 131. Horetta D. 
 
 Official Milk, Fat and Butter Yields 
 
 
 From 
 
 Milk 
 
 Fat 
 
 Estim'd butter* 
 
 Days 
 
 Total 
 
 Daily 
 average 
 
 Total 
 
 Daily 
 average 
 
 Total 
 
 Daily 
 average 
 
 120 
 30 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 June 16-Oct. 13. . . 
 Aug. 28-Sept. 26 . . 
 Sept. 17-Sept. 23 . . 
 Aug 13 
 
 Lbs. 
 5,802.7 
 1,442.8 
 335.2 
 50.65 
 
 Lbs. 
 48.35 
 48.09 
 47.90 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 280.16 
 
 73.68 
 
 17.67 
 
 3.13 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2.33 
 2.45 
 2.52 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 330.03 
 
 86.94 
 
 20.85 
 
 3.71 
 
 Lbs. 
 2.75 
 2.90 
 
 2.98 
 
 
 
 
 274. The Holstein-Friesian, or simply Friesian, as 
 they are called in their native country, Holland, is a 
 splendid dairy type with large frame. The color is black 
 
 * In calculating the amount of commercial butter, add one-sixth to the net 
 butter-fat, to allow for the moisture in the butter. 
 
198 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Points and Measurements to Be Observed in- Judging Cattle 
 
 9, 
 10. 
 11, 
 12, 
 13, 
 14. 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 
 32. 
 
 Mouth. 
 
 Lips. 
 
 Nostrils. 
 
 Muzzle. 
 
 Face, from muzzle to poll. 
 
 Forehead, from eves to 
 poll. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Cheek, side of head below 
 
 Jaw. [eye. 
 
 Throat. 
 
 Brains. 
 
 Ear. 
 
 Poll, top of head. 
 
 Horns. 
 
 Neck. 
 
 Neck, lateral view. 
 
 Breast or bosom, front of 
 chest. 
 
 Fore flank, rear of arm. 
 
 Dewlap, loose skin, under- 
 neath the throat. 
 
 Brisket, point of chest. 
 
 Withers, top of shoulders. 
 
 Shoulder point. 
 
 Neck or collar depression in 
 
 Elbow. [front. 
 
 Chest cavity inclosing vital 
 organs. 
 
 Arm, portion of leg between 
 shoulder and knee. 
 
 Knee. 
 
 Cannon or shank-bone, be- 
 tween knee and ankle in 
 fore- or hind-leg. 
 
 Hoof. 
 
 Spinal column, backbone. 
 
 Barrel or coupling, middle- 
 piece. 
 
 Loin, muscle covering the 
 short ribs. 
 
 33. Hooks or hips. 
 
 34. Crops, depression behind 
 
 shoulder. 
 
 35. Fore-ribs. 
 
 36. Girth at flank. 
 
 37. Girth at heart. 
 
 38. Chine, between withers and 
 
 loin. 
 
 39. False or floating ribs. 
 
 40. Belly. 
 
 41. Milk-veins, branched and 
 
 tortuous ducts running 
 forward beneath the 
 barrel. 
 
 42. Orifices through which the 
 
 milk veins enter the ab- 
 dominal walls. 
 
 43. Midribs. 
 
 44. Abdominal depth, indicat- 
 
 ing digestion and consti- 
 tution. 
 
 45. Tail head. 
 
 46. Pin bones. 
 
 47. Escutcheon, covered with 
 
 fine hairs. 
 
 48. Buttocks. ' 
 
 49. Twist where hair turns on 
 
 thigh. 
 
 50. Gaskin or lower thigh. 
 
 51. Brush. 
 
 52. Thigh. 
 
 53. Stifle. 
 
 54. Flank. 
 
 55. Udder. - 
 
 56. Teats. 
 
 57. Hock. 
 
 58. Navel or umbilicus. 
 
 60. Pelvic arch or sacrum, the 
 arch bone between the loin 
 and crupper. 
 
 Measurements 
 
 Width of forehead. 
 Width of neck. 
 Width of breast. 
 Length from pin 
 shoulder point. 
 
 bones to 
 
 E. Height at withers and hooks. 
 
 F. Girth at flank and navel. 
 
 G. Length of barrel depression. 
 H. Width of hooks. 
 
 K. Length of hind-quarters. 
 
>-5^- 
 
 37 
 
 _^...<ir7^ 
 
 ' 38 -^^ \ ^-^-^ 
 
 Fig, 132. Points and measurements to be observed in judging cattle. 
 
200 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 and white, sometimes the white, sometimes the black, 
 prevailing. In quantity of milk this breed excels all 
 others. Colantha 4th's Johanna (Fig. 125) is credited 
 with 27,432.5 pounds of milk in twelve months, which 
 is the world's record. A good cow is expected to pro- 
 duce from 7,000 to 9,000 pounds of milk in a year. 
 A cow that does not produce 4,000 or 5,000 pounds 
 of milk a year is likely to be unprofitable. While the 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 'She is broad on top." Courtesy of Department of Agricultural 
 Extension, University of Ohio. 
 
 milk from Friesian cows is not so rich as that afforded 
 by the Jerseys and the Guernseys, the total butter-fat 
 is equally great. 
 
 275. Dual-purpose Breeds are intermediate between 
 the beef and dairy types. The cows afford considerably 
 more milk than the calves can use, and the body form 
 is such that they dress out a good quality of beef. 
 The breeds most usually classed as dual-purpose ani- 
 
Types and Breeds of Cattle 201 
 
 mals are Red Polls, Brown Swiss, Shorthorn and 
 Ayeshires. 
 
 276. Judging Cattle. To become a good judge of 
 stock one should study to find out the form and habits 
 that represent useful qualities. The diagram in Fig. 000 
 should be closely studied, with two or three animals at 
 hand for comparison, in training the judgment on the 
 useful points. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 TYPES AND, BREEDS OF HORSES 
 
 277. Prehistoric Horses. The skeletons of horses 
 existing in prehistoric times, ages and ages ago, are 
 found in western North America, from Texas to British 
 Columbia, also in England and France. Some of these 
 early horses had toes. The little horny thickenings of 
 
 lis 134. Prehistoric horses. To show increase in size A and B, Early forms; 
 C, a later and larger form, about four and one-half hands high; D, the 
 "forest horse." Drawings constructed from a study of the geologic 
 remains, by Professor Osborne- 
 
 (202) 
 
Tj/pcs and Breed "< of Horses 
 
 203 
 
 Fig. 135. Trotting stallion, Carmon, 32,917. The first sire selected for use in 
 the experiments of the Department of Agriculture to develop an American 
 breed of carriage horses. 
 
 the skin just above the knee of the front legs (chestnuts) 
 and below the fetlock of the hind legs (ergots) are marks 
 of the toes that were in the feet of the prehistoric 
 horses. The horses which we have now are thought to 
 have descended from the Old World stocks. (Fig. 134.) 
 
 278. Valuable Qualities in Horses. The horse is 
 invaluable on the farm or in the city. He is stout, quick, 
 intelligent, and more faithful than any other animal 
 used for bearing burdens. Horses and mules are neces- 
 sary for heavy hauling and plowing. Other forms of 
 power are cheaper or more desirable in many cases, but 
 there will alwavs be work for the horse. 
 
204 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 279. "^Horses Should Be Selected for the work they 
 are to do. Different kinds of work require different 
 kinds of horses. A horse is of no particular value except 
 for what he can do. To fulfil his mission he must travel. 
 If he can draw a buggy containing one or two persons 
 at the rate of ten miles an hour, he is valuable as a road- 
 ster. Another horse that can draw his share of a load 
 weighing upwards of a ton, even though he moves 
 slowly, performs an equal amount of actual work, and 
 is just as useful to his owner as is the roadster. Since all 
 horses are valuable because they travel, although at 
 various rates and under widely varying conditions, 
 it will be interesting to make a study of those parts 
 of the horse's body directly connected with his loco- 
 motion. 
 
 280. Use of the Muscles. It is not difficult to under- 
 stand that, with the horse as with ourselves, all motion 
 is the result of the action of the muscles. About 40 per 
 cent of the weight of an ordinary horse is muscle. All 
 muscles concerned with locomotion are attached to 
 bones, and when they contract they cause the bones to 
 which they are fastened to move. The lower part of 
 a horse's legs are nearly all bone, but the muscles in 
 the body and upper part of the limbs are attached to 
 various parts of the bony construction by tendons, 
 and can thus produce a motion of the parts located 
 some distance away. When contracted, the muscles 
 we are discussing are about three-quarters as long as 
 when at rest. The amount of motion produced by the 
 action of the muscles of, say one of the horse's legs, 
 will depend upon the length of the muscles and the 
 
 * Paragraphs 279 to 285 are taken by permission from a leaflet on "The 
 Horse," by Prof. F. R. Marshall, published by the Ohio State University. 
 
Front view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B to G, 
 common defects. 
 
 Side view of front legs. A shows correct conformation; B, foot too 
 far back; C, too far forward; D, knee-sprung; E, knock-kneed. 
 
 -...~^ 
 
 ii'- ,■ 
 
 '^}\ 
 
 
 \{m 
 
 A \\ 
 
 , ,1 
 
 y '' 
 
 f 
 
 
 n 
 
 '\ 
 
 ■/ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 Side view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 
 B to D, common defects. 
 
 Rear view of hind legs. A shows correct conformation; 
 B to E, common defects. 
 
 Fig. 136. Proper and improper positions of horses' legs, while standing. 
 
206 Elementarij Principles of Agriculture 
 
 length and the relation of the bones to which they are 
 attached. The common idea among students of this 
 subject is expressed in these words, ^'Long muscles for 
 speed, short muscles for power." We have already seen 
 that a long muscle enables a horse to get over ground 
 rapidly. A short muscle, however, is not pow^erful 
 because it is short, but because in horses constructed 
 on that plan the muscles are thicker, containing more 
 fibers, all of which pulling together when contracted 
 exert a much greater pulling force than will a long, and 
 more slender muscle. It is because of this that in buying 
 horses to draw heavy loads we look for large and heavy 
 muscles, while in roadsters we must attach importance 
 to the length of the muscles. 
 
 281. Muscles of the Hind-quarters. The most of 
 a horse's muscle is in the hind-quarters. This may be 
 a surprise to you, but the next time you have an oppor- 
 tunity to see a horse pulling a ver}" heavy load, study 
 him carefully. You will be impressed with the idea 
 that most of the work is being done with the hind legs. 
 When the hind foot is moved forward the toe rests 
 on the ground, and the leg is bent at the hock joint; 
 if the toe does not slip, and the horse is strong enough 
 for his load, the muscles above, pulling on the tendon 
 fastened to the back and upper point of the hock, will 
 close the joint, or, in other words, straighten the legs, 
 and cause the body to move forward. It is by the per- 
 formance of this act at every step that the horse moves, 
 although, of course, the strain on all the parts is much 
 greater when pulling very hard. This will also show the 
 necessity of having large, broad, straight joints, and 
 legs that give the horse the most secure footing. You 
 have probably also noticed when driving that many 
 
Types and Breeds of Horses 207 
 
 horses put their hind foot on the ground in front of the 
 mark left by the fore foot, and the faster they go the 
 greater will be the distance between the marks made 
 by the fore and the hind feet. This shows that the 
 length of a step is determined by the hind- quarters; 
 it also explains the need of large, strong hocks, and legs 
 that are not so crooked as to seem weak, or so straight 
 as to lessen the leverage afforded by this very wonder- 
 ful arrangement of the parts. 
 
 282. Body Form. Then there are some other things 
 that are desired in all kinds of horses. One of these is 
 a short back, that is, short from the hips to the top of 
 the shoulders (the withers) . From what we have learned 
 of the hind parts we know that the horse is really push- 
 ing the rest of his body along. If the back is short and 
 strong, instead of long and weak, the w4iole body will 
 move more easily and rapidly in obedience to the force 
 produced in the hind parts. 
 
 283. The Fore-legs. Although the hind parts have 
 most to do with the horse's traveling, we must not forget 
 that the front parts are also very important. No matter 
 how much muscle a horse has, or how strong his hocks 
 are, if there is anything seriously wrong with his fronj^ 
 legs, he cannot travel, and so derives no benefit from his 
 good parts. Some horses may be seen whose knees are 
 not straight, others, when looked at from in front, show 
 that their feet are not in line with their legs. Such 
 animals are more likely to strike one leg with the oppo- 
 site foot, thus making themselves lame and unable to 
 do any work. 
 
 284. Horses* Feet. There are a great many interest- 
 ing things about a horse which cannot be told here, 
 but which you may learn at home, or from some neighbor 
 
208 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 who keeps good horses. We will, however, say some- 
 thing about horses' feet. Inside a horse's hoof there 
 are some very sensitive parts, resembUng the attach- 
 ment of the finger-nail to the finger. When anything 
 gets wrong with the foot, these parts cause a great deal 
 of pain, and even though the horse is otherwise perfect, 
 the pain in his feet makes him too lame to travel. 
 Horses with large, wide feet, that are wide across where 
 they touch the ground when you look at them from 
 behind (or in the heels), are not likely to have this 
 trouble. 
 
 285. Style in Horses. Even though you have never 
 studied horses, you have seen some that impress you 
 as being more beautiful than others. No matter what 
 kind of work is to be done, it is desirable to have a horse 
 that looks well. Of course, it will depend upon whether 
 the horse is thin or fat, and upon the grooming he has 
 had, but you will usually find that the horses which 
 attract you have rather long necks that rise upward 
 from where they leave the body; the head, too, instead 
 of being set on straight up and down, will have the nose 
 pointed a little forward; the ears will be rather close 
 together, and the eyes larger and bright-looking. 
 
 286. The Draft Type is becoming more popular wher- 
 ever horses are used. They are better suited to farm 
 work and the heavy hauling of large cities. Good draft 
 horses have large size, blocky build, short legs, broad 
 backs and quiet tempers. Percherons, Clydesdales, 
 English shires and Belgians are leading representative 
 breeds of the draft type. 
 
 287. The Percheron is now the most popular draft 
 breed in America. They are docile, intelUgent, active, 
 and have excellent feet; are heavy in weight, and 
 
Types and Breeds of Horses 
 
 209 
 
 steady pullers under load. Typical specimens of this 
 breed run from fifteen to sixteen hands high. The color 
 is generally gray, though blacks are often met. 
 
 Fig. 137. Percheron, Medoc, 30,986. First in class at Iowa, Minnesota, and 
 Wisconsin State Fairs, 1903 ; also one first and one second at Chicago 
 International, 1903. 
 
 288. The Clydesdale is the recognized draft breed 
 of Scotland, taking their name from the river Clyde. 
 Usually they have smaller bodies and longer legs than 
 the Percherons, which is supposed to allow more action. 
 
 289. Coach Types are sometimes referred to as 
 heavy harness horses. The most popular breeds are the 
 
210 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Hackney, or English Coach, Cleveland Bays, French 
 Coach and German Coach. 
 
 290. Saddle and Driving Horses are very popular 
 because of their quick action. There are several strains 
 
 Fig. 137. Clydesdale i.i-.., J - Handsome. Winner of first prize three 
 
 years in succession at Chicago International Live-stock Show. 
 
 of driving horses, all derived in part from the Arabian 
 horses. As a result of superior breeding, the English 
 thoroughbred and the American trotting horses have 
 come to be better movers than the original Arabian 
 stocks. There are several strains of the American trot- 
 ting horses, such as the Hambeltonian, the Wilkes and 
 the Morgans. The native ^'Mustangs," found in western 
 
Types and Breeds of Horses 
 
 211 
 
 America by the early explorers, are supposed to be the 
 descendants of early importations made during the 
 Spanish conquest of Mexico. 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 Lord Burleigh. Oi 
 "■■show horses 
 
 291. Ponies. Besides the ponies owned by the Indians 
 of America, the little Shetland island horses are called 
 ponies. These ''Shetlands" are small because they have 
 been forced to live on the coarse and scant grasses 
 of the cold regions of north Scotland. 
 
2i: 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 292. Judging Horses. Fig. 136 illustrates the proper 
 and improper position of the legs of horses. In study- 
 ing horses this should always be closely observed. Get 
 two horses together and closely contrast the various 
 points. Fig. 140 gives the names in common use for 
 the various parts of a horse. 
 
 Fig. 140. Typical horse, showing names of the points, 
 
 Muzzle. 
 
 Nostril. 
 Forehead. 
 Cheek. 
 Temple. 
 
 Poll or nape of neck. 
 7'. Crest. 
 Neck. 
 Withers. 
 Shoulder. 
 Point of shoulder. 
 Slant of shoulder. 
 Breast. 
 
 14. Elbow. 
 
 15. Fore-arm. 
 
 16. Knee. 
 
 17-17'. Cannon bone. 
 18-18'. Fetlock. 
 19-19'. Pastern. 
 20-20'. Coronet. 
 21. Hoof. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Ergot. 
 
 Splints. 
 
 Back. 
 
 Loins. 
 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 
 27. Chest. 
 
 28. Flank. 
 
 29. Belly. 
 
 30. Back. 
 
 31. Tail. 
 
 32. Croup. 
 
 33. Buttock. 
 
 34. Thigh. 
 
 35. Stifle joint. 
 
 36. Gaskin. 
 
 37. Hock. 
 
 38. Point of hock. 
 
 26. 
 
Types and Breeds of Horses 213 
 
 293. Care of Horses. Horses are intelligent and 
 nervous animals,, and should be handled with impas- 
 sive judgment. Your treatment should convince 
 him that you are his friend, as well as his master. If 
 a horse shies, or becomes frightened, soothe and encour- 
 age him. You cannot whip terror out of a horse, nor 
 courage into one. Before you check a horse's head into 
 an unnatural position try it on yourself. Read "Black 
 Beauty," and the story of the Bell of Justice in Long- 
 fellow's poem, "The Bell of Atri." 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF HOGS 
 
 294. Some Hogs Should Be on Every Farm. Hog flesh 
 may be produced more cheaply than other kinds. 
 There is very httle waste in a hog carcass, because they are 
 built so compactly. Hogs "dress out" seventy or eighty- 
 five pounds of palatable products per hundred pounds 
 live weight, varying according to the condition and 
 kind of animal. With hogs, meat-producing quality 
 is the valuable feature in all breeds. We consider not 
 only the gross weight, but the form that will dress out 
 the greatest per cent of high-priced cuts, and a small 
 per cent of waste. 
 
 295. Food of Hogs. The hog will eat many kinds of 
 slops and waste products that no other animal will. A 
 range or pasture, clean, roomy pens, and some grain 
 feed, with shelter for hot or extreme cold weather, are 
 necessary to keep hogs healthy and growing. Some pas- 
 ture should always be provided for hogs in winter 
 
 Fig. 141. Comparative values of the dififerent cuts as used by the retail 
 butchers of Chicago. 
 
 (214) 
 
Types and Breeds of Hogs 215 
 
 and summer. Oats, rye and wheat make good winter 
 pasturage. 
 
 296. Lard Hogs. The hogs with large, spreading 
 hams and shoulders, short bodies and broad backs, 
 thick neck and jowls, with deep layers that contain a 
 large amount of lard-bearing tissue as compared with 
 the lean cuts, are called lard hogs. The Poland-Chinas, 
 Berkshire, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester- Whites belong 
 to this class. 
 
 297. Bacon Hogs are long in body, deep in sides, 
 with comparatively narrow back, narrow, light hams 
 
 Fig. 142. Three representative Duroc-Jerseys. 
 
 and shoulders, and hght, muscular neck. Theyjlack 
 the deep layers of fatty tissue found in the lard hogs. 
 They have a strong muscular development, and hence 
 dress out a large per cent of lean meat. Bacon hogs 
 furnish a large per cent of the expensive cuts, such as 
 choice hams and breakfast bacons. The Yorkshires and 
 Tamworths are the leading breeds belonging to this 
 class. 
 
 298. Duroc- Jersey. The Duroc-Jersey breed has prob- 
 ably descended from several strains of red hogs. The 
 hair is coarse, and ears lapped forward. The back is 
 
216 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 143 
 
 representative Poland-Uhinas . 
 
 short, slightly arched, and supports a broad, well- 
 rounded body. The shoulders and hams are very heavy 
 and thick-fleshed. Duroc-Jerseys are splendid feeders 
 and good grazers and are justly popular in all sections. 
 299. The Poland-China breed is a native of Ohio. 
 The color is black, with white points on feet and head. 
 The ears are lapped, jowls are large, and the back has 
 a gradual yet moderate arch the entire length. The 
 body is shorter, but more spreading than in the Berk- 
 shire. As a rule, the sides and hams contain a smaller 
 per cent of lean meat than the Berkshires. The pigs 
 of this breed mature early, and as feeders under confine- 
 ment, are rated among the best, and are especially liked 
 
 44, riiroe rei)it"soiJt 
 
Types and Breeds of Hogs 217 
 
 in the corn-belt states. They are typically represen- 
 tative of the lard-hog tj^pe. 
 
 300. Berkshires take their names from a shire or 
 county of England. Berkshires have erect ears, a black 
 bod}^, generally with a white streak in the face or jowl, 
 and four white feet. The back of the Berkshires is nearly 
 straight, with moderate breadth. The barrel is long, 
 with slightly arched ribs and deep sides. They are strong 
 and active and are good grazers. The Berkshire is a 
 good feeder and affords a good quantity of bacon. 
 
 p^r 
 
 i 
 
 
 Im^^g, 
 
 
 ^■e 
 
 P^ 
 
 ^ ' - -^ 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 lip 
 
 h 
 
 ^^^^1 
 
 1 
 
 ■S' ' : 
 
 K 
 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 -: 
 
 Fig. 145. Three representative Tam worths. 
 
 301. Tamworth. The native home of the Tamworth 
 breed is in the counties of central England. They are 
 typical of the bacon type of hog, so popular in some sec- 
 tions of England and Canada. With the increasing high 
 prices for fancy bacon, they are becoming more widely 
 recognized than ever before. The color is red. The back 
 is long, while the sides are moderately deep and contain 
 a large amount of ''streak-o'-lean" bacon. The hams 
 and shoulders are without the large amount of external 
 fat, so noticeably present in Poland-Chinas and Duroc- 
 Jerseys. 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 TYPES AND BREEDS OF SHEEP AND GOATS 
 
 302. Uses. Sheep and goats are valued for wool and 
 mutton. In some countries goats are kept not only 
 for mutton and hair, but to supply milk. Sheep and 
 goats are great grazers. They will make more out of a 
 pasture than any other class of animal, consuming 
 not only the grass, but also many of the weeds and leaves 
 of shrubs. Sheep are grown in large herds in the west- 
 ern states, primarily for wool. In recent years many 
 farmers in the South have found small flocks of sheep 
 or goats valuable additions to the stock of their farms. 
 
 303. The Wool produced by the different breeds 
 differs much in quantity, quality and character. In 
 some strains of the Merinos the clip of wool may equal 
 one-fourth or even one-third of the animal's gross weight. 
 The wool is much less in the mutton breeds. The breeds 
 
 Fig. 146. Merino sheep. Champion flock at St. Louis Fair, Illinois State Fair, 
 and Charleston, S. C, Exposition, 1902. 
 
 (218) 
 
Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 219 
 
 are usually divided into three classes, according to the 
 length of the wool. The long-wooled breeds are repre- 
 sented by the Lincoln, Leicester and Cotswold, while 
 
 Fig. 147. Grand champion car-load of mutton sheep. Chicago Internationa. 
 Exposition, 1901. 
 
 the short-wooled class includes'^the Southdown, Shrop- 
 shire and Cheviot. The fine-wooled breeds are repre- 
 sented by the Rambouillet or French Merino, and 
 Delaines or Spanish Merino. The fineness, as well as 
 length of staple, is an important quality in wools. 
 Dense fleeces, referring to the number of fibers per 
 square inch, are desired by both the manufacturers 
 and the sheep breeders. The dense fleeces afford more 
 protection to the body, and deteriorate less from expos- 
 ure to the rain, cold and dirt than the thin fleeces. 
 
 304. The Merino Breeds have descended from old 
 Spanish stocks. They represent the highest type of 
 wool producer. The fleece is fine, dense on the body, 
 and uniform in length. The oil, or yolk, on the fleece 
 causes the wool to catch a great deal of dirt on the outer 
 layers, giving the animal a dark color. The Merinos 
 are hardy, healthy and excellent foragers. They thrive 
 even when the range is poor. 
 
220 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 305. Mutton Breeds. The mutton qualities in sheep 
 correspond to the same set of characters associated with 
 the beef breeds of cattle. (See H -^1-) Sheep dress out from 
 50 to 60 per cent of their live weight in marketable prod- 
 
 n^m 
 
 Fig. 148. A famous Angora goat. 
 
 nets. The leg, rib and loin cuts include nearly three- 
 fourths of the total weight, and over 90 per cent of the 
 value. Thus it is plain that a good mutton sheep means 
 one with a blocky form, full, heavy legs, deep body, level, 
 broad' back, and short head and neck. 
 
 306. Goats. Goats are natural browsers, and not 
 
Types and Breeds of Sheep and Goats 221 
 
 grazers. They prefer the slender tips and twigs of young 
 trees to grass, and on this account are often used to 
 keep down the underbush in pastures. In the Southwest 
 they find a cUmate well suited to their habits. The fibers 
 of the fleece are very long and some coarser than fine 
 wool. The fleece of the Angora goats is known as mohair. 
 Milking breeds of goats have been highly developed in 
 some countries. In the island of Malta the inhabitants 
 depend very largely on goats for supplies of milk and 
 butter. Milking-goats have been bred for centuries 
 in Switzerland. Fine specimens give from four to seven 
 quarts of milk a day. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI 
 FARM POULTRY 
 
 307. Poultry Should be Raised at Every Home. Only 
 a small outlay of capital is required to establish a pay- 
 ing poultry business. The natural food of nearly all 
 members of the bird family is largely insects, small 
 animals and fish. The eggs of all sorts of poultry from 
 a rich, nutritious food. Ducks and geese produce a fine 
 quality of feathers as well as food. 
 
 308. Hatching and Rearing Poultry. The growth of 
 the germ in the egg begins at a temperature just a little 
 below that of the bird's body. The temperature of the 
 blood in chickens ife given as 107.6° Fahr. or 42° C. In 
 the brooding season the small blood-vessels on the 
 breast of the chicken become more prominent. The 
 time required to hatch, called the period of incubation. 
 will vary with the freshness of the eggs and the kind 
 of birds. The period of incubation for several kinds of 
 birds is as fol ows: 
 
 Canary bird 14 days 
 
 Pigeon 18 days 
 
 Chicken 21 days 
 
 Guinea 25 days 
 
 Duck, geese and peacock 28 days 
 
 Turkey 28 days 
 
 309. Artificial Incubation. Artificial incubation is 
 a very old practice in some countries. Incubators 
 have become common in recent years wherever much 
 
 (222) 
 
Farm Poultry 
 
 223 
 
 attention is given to the raising of poultry. It costs a 
 great deal less to hatch, say, one hundred eggs artifici- 
 ally than it does to feed seven or eight hens. The addi- 
 tional advantage claimed for the incubator is that the 
 
 Fig. 149. A modern incubator. 
 
 hens soon begin laying, and that the chickens can l^.e more 
 easily cared for in brooders. There are two classes of 
 incubators on the market, — the water -heated and the 
 dry-heated. (Fig. 149.) 
 
 310. Poultry-Houses and Grounds. Poultry -houses 
 and yards should be located on well-drained, and, pref- 
 erably, on loose, sandy soils. They should be cleaned 
 regularly to prevent the accumulation of filth that 
 
224 
 
 Elementarii Principles of Agriculture 
 
 might harbor disease-producing germs and parasites. 
 The Utter in the nests should be changed often. A dust 
 box should be in every poultry-yard. The poultry-house 
 may be simple in our cUmate, providing only a good 
 coop, with the north and west sides closed, leaving 
 the south wall partly open. The perches and nests 
 should not be very high. (Fig. 150.) 
 
 - ? f ,JijJM^, 
 
 
 
 I^^^^H^ . ^ ^drr* ^ ^ i^^^^^H 
 
 
 ^^HlKi^Kw'! H^^H 
 
 
 
 Ri^iii 
 
 I^HI^H 
 
 Fig. 150. A simple poultry house. 
 
 311. Feeding Poultry. The natural food of all domes- 
 ticated fowls, and, in fact, nearly all birds, consists of 
 insects, seeds and grasses. They require plenty of 
 nitrogenous feeds, like insects, meat scraps, etc. For 
 confined fowls, cottonseed meal, milk, or the tankage 
 from the slaughter-house, make an excellent substitute 
 for the animal feeds. Any of the grains may be fed to 
 poultry. Green feed is very desirable for laying hens. 
 All birds require grit to assist in the grinding of the feed 
 in the gizzard. Coarse, sharp sand, crushed stone, or 
 
Farm Poultry 
 
 225 
 
 cinders, etc., are desirable forms of grit. Crushed oyster- 
 shells, or bones, supply the material for making the 
 bones in young growing chickens and the egg-shells for 
 laying hens. 
 
 312. Improving Poultry. To improve a breed or 
 flock of poultry, use the eggs from the individuals hav- 
 ing the desired characters. In breeding for increased 
 egg-production, the number of eggs laid by a hen in 
 a year is of far more importance than the color of the 
 feathers. A hen lay- 
 ing 200 or more eggs 
 a year is worth many 
 times more than one 
 laying from 30 to 50. 
 There are many poor 
 layers in all flocks. 
 By using trap-nests 
 for a full -year test 
 the Maine Experiment 
 Station found that in a number of spring pullets all bred 
 pure to type, only 3 laid more than 200 eggs; 10 laid 
 175 to 200; 11 laid 150 to 174, and so on down; 11 laid 
 75 to 100; 6 laid 50 to 75, and 5 laid 36 to 49. 
 
 313. Preserving Eggs. Eggs decay as the result of 
 the growth of germs in the rich substances of the egg. 
 Warm temperatures favor the rapid development of 
 the germs, hence eggs decay much faster in the summer. 
 Just how the germ makes its entrance through the shell 
 is not fully understood. Of the many kinds of egg-pre- 
 servatives, none are so satisfactory as sodium silicate, 
 commonly called ''water-glass." The eggs may be packed 
 away in a solution of about one part of water-glass to 
 twelve parts of clean boiled water and kept as long 
 
 Fig. 151. A home-made trap nest. 
 
226 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 as desired. A mixture of salty lime-water is often used. 
 In either case, the egg-shell should be punctured with 
 a needle before boiling to prevent the shells cracking 
 when placed in hot water. 
 
 314. Classes of Poultry. There are many classes and 
 breeds of poultry, such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, 
 
 Fig. 152. White Leghorns — popular representatives of the egg-laying, 
 or Mediterranean class. 
 
 geese, guineas, pigeons and peacocks. Some are raised 
 largely for eggs, others for meat or feathers, and others 
 still to satisfy a fancy. There are two well-marked 
 types of chickens, — the laying type and the meat' type. 
 A'combination of the two gives the general-purpose type. 
 
Farm Poultry 
 
 227 
 
 315. Egg Breeds. The so-called egg breeds are natives 
 of countries bordering the Mediterranean sea. They 
 are of medium size, good layers, but often poor sitters 
 when young. They are easily frightened, very hardy, 
 active and make good foragers. The most popular rep- 
 resentatives of this class are the Leghorns, Minorcas and 
 Hamburgs. 
 
 316. The Meat 
 Breeds are na- 
 tives of Asia, 
 hence are some- 
 times called the 
 Asiatic breeds. 
 They are large, 
 heavy bodied, 
 slow m o v i n g , 
 having a gentle 
 disposition, and 
 are persistent 
 sitters and good 
 mothers. They 
 are generally 
 considered poor 
 layers, though 
 the pullets are 
 often excellent 
 layers. They are especially desirable because of the 
 large size of the '"broilers" and '"friers." The best- 
 known representatives are Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans 
 and Faveroller, the latter a French breed. 
 
 317. The General-purpose Breeds, such as the Ptym- 
 outh Rocks, Wyandottes and Dorkings, are usually 
 of fair size, furnish meat of good quality, and will pro- 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 A Light Brahma cockerel. Typical repre- 
 sentative of the Asiatic class. 
 
228 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 duce a liberal quantit}^ of eggs under favorable condi- 
 tions. It has never been found possible to completely 
 combine into a sinijle animal the milk and butter-fat 
 
 X Jj;. i,'>-i. ijai ifu i IS iiiiMUu iviii K->. i Li\ i)nie> ( >t t llf llork iia \ lug 
 
 tlieir pictures " took." 
 
 qualities of the dairy types of cattle with the meat- 
 forming qualities of the beef breeds. The same body 
 cannot be made to do both kinds of work to the same 
 degree of perfection. So in poultry, we may blend, but 
 cannot combine the egg- and meat-producing qualities. 
 In selecting a breed, one should first decide what class 
 of chickens will give the greatest return under the 
 conditions, — a special-purpose egg or meat breed, or a 
 blend of qualities. The general -purpose breeds have 
 good egg-producing power, and produce good-sized friers 
 and broilers. They are often used for mothers for the 
 egg breeds. (Fig. 158.) 
 
 318. Other Classes of Poultry. On many farms 
 ducks and geese are raised for meat and feathers. There 
 are great differences in the adaptability of the breeds. 
 
Farm Poidtrj/ 
 
 229 
 
 Ponds of watei' are not essential for success with this 
 class of poultry. The food should be given to these birds 
 in a soaked or softened condition, because their crops 
 are less perfectly developed than in chickens, hence do 
 not thrive so well on hard grains. 
 
 319. Turkeys are native to North America. While 
 they have lost much of their shyness and roving dispo- 
 sition by long association w^ith man, they still must 
 have the run of a large place for best success. The 
 Bronze, White Holland and Black Norfolk are the most 
 popular strains. 
 
 320. The Care of Young Poultry. Freshly hatched 
 
230 
 
 Ehmejitary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Fig. 156. An effective method of confining a "cluclv" and her 
 
 Fig. 157. Names of the points con- 
 sidered in describing chickens. 1, 
 comb; 2, face; 3, wattles; 4, ear- 
 lobes; 5, hackle; 6, breast; 7, back; 
 8, saddle; 9, saddle-feathers; 10, 
 sickles; 11, tail -coverts; 12, main 
 tail feathers; 13, wing-bow; 14, wing 
 coverts forming wing-bar; 15, sec- 
 ondaries, wing-Tjay; 16, primaries or 
 flight-feathers, wing-butts; 17, point 
 of breast bone; 18, thighs; 19, hocks; 
 20, shanks or legs; 21, spur; 22, toes 
 or claws. 
 
 fowls of all classes are 
 quite delicate and there- 
 fore call for special atten- 
 tion. It is important that 
 they be kept warm and 
 dry until the feathers are 
 fairly well developed. Un- 
 less the mothers are con- 
 fined at night, they will 
 most likely lead the 
 young chickens into the 
 wet, dewy grass in the 
 early morning hours. 
 Nothing is so important 
 as warm, dry coops and 
 regular feeding in rear- 
 ing young chickens, tur- 
 keys, ducks or geese. The 
 
Farin Poidtru 231 
 
 feed should be specially prepared and offered five to 
 seven times during the day. No feed is needed for the 
 first day or two. The first food should be such as ma}' 
 be digested without grit, such as ground grain or stale 
 bread just well moistened in skim-milk. It makes little 
 difference whether the milk is fresh or sour. They 
 should be given no more feed than they will clean up 
 
 Fig, 15S. The Plymouth Rocks are often used for 
 mothers for Leghorns. 
 
 promptly. The feed supplies to young chickens, and older 
 ones as well, should contain ground bone or other form 
 of mineral matter. It is not so important that they have 
 animal food, as plenty of mineral matter and protein. 
 The latter may be of either vegetable or animal origin. 
 Investigations for the cause of death among young 
 poultry showed that 15 per cent had tuberculosis, due 
 no doubt to imperfect sanitation; 38 per cent had in- 
 testinal troubles, and 75 per cent had diseased livers, 
 
232 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 influenced no doubt by unbalanced rations. (H 335). 
 Shelter, feeding and exercise are points to be closely 
 studied. 
 
 321. Judging Poultry. Fig. 157 shows the names 
 of the more obvious points in chickens. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 NUTRITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY 
 
 322. Nutrition of the Animal Body. The nutrition 
 of the body of the farm animals is through the same 
 processes which have heen previously described for 
 the human body in the study of physiology. The feeds 
 are taken in by the tongue and lips, masticated by the 
 teeth, and digested in the stomach and intestinal canal. 
 
 323. Nutritive Substances. Animals require the same 
 classes of nutritive substances to provide for the growth, 
 repair and waste as in the human body. The sub- 
 stances which are taken into the digestive tract are 
 not available for the nourishment of the body until they 
 have been rendered soluble, absorbed and become a part 
 of the blood. The various cells of the body absorb the 
 sugars, proteids, and salts directly from the blood. These 
 substances are absorbed through the cell -walls, just 
 as the yeast absorbs the sugar and albumen from the 
 solution used in our early experiments. 
 
 324. Digestive Tract of Domestic Animals. There 
 are important differences in the digestive tracts of the 
 several classes of domestic animals, such that each 
 is adapted to the different classes of substances upon 
 which they feed and thrive. 
 
 325. Digestion by Fowls. Birds swallow their food 
 whole without chewing. It passes first into the crop, 
 where it is stored and softened by soaking. (Fig. 159 I). 
 Then it passes into the thick-walled, muscular stomach 
 or gizzard. The gizzard is supplied with powerful 
 
 (233) 
 
234 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 muscles which break 
 This is greatly aided 
 swallow. 
 
 326. Herbivorous 
 
 usually be eaten in 
 needed nutrients. In 
 is not only of a great 
 chambered stomach. 
 
 up the food eaten by the fowls, 
 by the sharp gravel which fowls 
 
 Animals. Vegetable food must 
 greater quantity to furnish the 
 herbivorous animals the intestine 
 length, but often has a large and 
 furnishing a large laboratory 
 
 Fig. 159. Stomachs of some tlomestic animals. I, Crop and gizzard of fowl. A, 
 oesophagus; B, glandular stomach; C, gizzard. II. Interior of horse 
 stomach showing the two kinds of lining. A, left sac with tough white 
 lining; B, right sac with soft red lining where the digestive juices are 
 secreted; E, duodenum. III. Stomach of ox as seen from right upper race 
 (Chauveau), and IV, Stomach of sheep with second, third and fourth 
 divisions open. A, oesophagus; B' right portion, and B" left portion of 
 rumen of first stomach; C, reticulum; D, omasum; E, abomasum, or true 
 stomach; F, duodenum. 
 
Nutrition of the Animal Body 235 
 
 in which the digestive processes may be carried out. 
 In the stomach of the horse, whicli is comparatively 
 small, two regions may be distinguished, of which only 
 the right or second part secretes digestive juices. 
 
 327. Ruminating Animals. In cattle and all split- 
 hoof animals, the stomach has four more or less distinct 
 compartments. (Fig. 159 III and IV). When a sheep or 
 cow bites off a bit of grass, it is moistened with a small 
 amount of saliva and swallowed without chewing, pass- 
 ing into the stomach or paunch. The stomach is a mere 
 store-house. After a time the animal finds a quiet place, 
 regurgitates a ball of grass, called a cud, which is slowly 
 ground up between the molar teeth. This mass is again 
 swallowed and passes into the second stomach, and 
 then on to the fourth or true stomach where the gastric 
 digestion commences. Ruminating animals continue 
 the digestive processes for a longer period, chew their 
 food finer, and, in general, digest a larger per cent of the 
 protein, carbohydrates, crude fiber and fat, than non- 
 ruminants, like the horse. 
 
 328. Nutrients in Feeds. The animal must secure 
 from the feeds consumed all the substances needed for 
 the support and growth of the animal body. The undi- 
 gested parts form the waste. The nutritive substances 
 actually secured from the feeds are classed as: 
 
 1. Proteids (albumin, albuminoids, amides, etc.). 
 
 2. Fats (oils, fats). 
 
 3. Carbohydrates (sugar, starches, gums, celluloses). 
 
 4. Mineral Matters (salts' of the elements found 
 in plants). 
 
 5. Water. 
 
 329. Functions of the Nutrients. The two chief uses 
 of the nutrients in animal feeds are to supply: 
 
236 Elementary Principles oj Agriculture 
 
 1. Building material for muscle, bones, skin, etc., 
 and repair the waste. 
 
 2. Heat to keep the body warm, and to supply 
 energy for work. 
 
 The several classes of nutrients act in different ways 
 in fulfilling these functions. The proteids from the 
 muscles, tendons, gristle, hair and hoofs supply the pro- 
 teids of blood, milk and other fluids, as well as the whites 
 and yellow in eggs. The chief fuel or heat-giving ingre- 
 dients are the carbohydrates and fats. These are con- 
 sumed in the body or stored as fat to be used as occa- 
 sion demands. The proteids may supply energy, though 
 it is not supposed that they do so in the presence of 
 sufficient fats and carbohydrates. 
 
 330. Fuel Value of Feeds. Starches, sugars, and fats, 
 are burned (oxidized) in the body and yield heat and 
 power, just as the same substances would if burned 
 in the stove to heat the house or under the boiler to 
 make the steam for the engine. The heat or energy is 
 developed gradually as the needs of the body demand. 
 Scientists have ways of determining the fuel value of 
 substances, and for the purpose of comparison use as 
 the unit of measurement the calorie (equal to the heat 
 required to raise one kilogram of water one degree Centi- 
 grade, or one pound of water four degrees Fahrenheit). 
 
 331. Digestibility of Feeds. The value of a substance 
 as a feed depends not only upon the quantity of the 
 different kinds of nutrients contained, but also upon 
 how much of the nutrients are in a form that they can 
 be digested and used for the support of the animal 
 body. The usefulness of a substance for feeding depends, 
 then, not on its gross weight, but upon the amount of 
 building material and heat energy which the animal 
 
Nutrition of the Animal Body 237 
 
 may extract from it. In comparing feeding substances 
 we should not only know the actual amount of proteids, 
 fat, carbohydrates, etc.. contained, but what per cent of 
 these substances is digestible. 
 
 In some digestion tests at the Oklahoma Experiment 
 Station with cockerels, it was found that 79.4 per cent 
 of the whole kaffir corn was digested, i. e., retained 
 in the animal's body; in the same way 81.9 per cent of 
 corn, and 64.1 per cent of cowpeas were digested. 
 
 332. Digestibility of the Nutrients. In the cUgfestion 
 tests mentioned above the composition of the substance 
 fed, the nutrients digested and the waste, were as fol- 
 lows for each 100 grams consumed: 
 
 Protein Carbohydrates and fats 
 
 Nutrients in Kaffir corn. . . 11.88 grams 75.26 grams 
 
 Digested and retained 6.28 grams 73.90 grams 
 
 Undigested waste 5.60 grams 2.17 grams 
 
 In the above case it is noted that nearly all the 
 carbohydrates were digested, though only about half 
 of the proteids were used in the cockerel's body. Similar 
 tests have been made for many kinds of feeds with 
 many kinds of animals. 
 
 We see from this example that a chemical analysis 
 giving the quantity of the nutrients is not an exact 
 statement of the available nutrients. Appendix B gives 
 the average results of many tests of the digestibility of 
 American feeding materials. See also tables of compo- 
 sition in Appendix. 
 
 333. Ratio of Digestible Nutrients. In feeding ani- 
 mals it is important, as will be shown, to know the ratio 
 of the digestible proteids, or flesh -forming nutrients, 
 to the effective heat - forming substances. This ratio 
 
238 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 is called the "nutritive ratio^^ and is taken to mean the 
 ratio of the digestible proteids to the digestible car- 
 bohydrates plus 2.25 times the fat. (The fat has two 
 and one-fourth times as much heat energy per pound 
 as the carbohydrates.) Thus, in the preceding example, 
 the nutritive ratio is 1:11.6, which means that the heat- 
 producing nutrients are 11.6 times greater than the 
 tissue-building nutrients. 
 
 Example with Cowpeas. 
 
 
 Proteids 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 Fats 
 
 
 Grams 
 
 Grams 
 
 Grams 
 
 Nutrients in cowpeas . 
 
 .. 21.44 
 
 62.16 
 
 2.38 
 
 Digested and retained . . , 
 
 . . 8.68 
 
 55.30 
 
 2.24 
 
 Undigested waste 12.76 6.86 .14 
 
 Ratio for digestible nutrients is 8.68 :(55.30+2.24x 2.25) = 
 
 8.68:(55.30-h5.60) = 
 
 8.68: 60.90 = nutritive ratio 1:7.01 
 
 The ratio calculated according to the chemical 
 composition is 1:3.1, which we see would be quite mis- 
 leading, judging by the actual ratio of digestible nutri- 
 ents which is 1:7.01. 
 
 334. Application of Ratios. The ratio of flesh-form- 
 ing nutrients to the heat-producing nutrients should be 
 suited to the condition and requirements of the animal. 
 Animals at heavy work, where the muscle materials 
 are being used up, require relatively more proteids 
 than when merely at rest. Likewise, young and grow- 
 ing animals require plenty of building material, or 
 animals which produce substances like milk, eggs 
 and wool, — substances that contain large quantities 
 of proteids, — should have food rich in proteids. (See 
 table B in Appendix.) 
 
Nutrition of the Animal Body 239 
 
 335. Economy of Balanced Rations. When the pro- 
 teids and heat -producing substances are supplied in 
 the ratio approximately in which they are consumed, 
 the ratio is said to be ''balanced." There may be wide 
 limits in the nutritive ratio without imparing the general 
 health of the animals, but there may be a great differ- 
 ence in the cost of properly nourishing the animal. The 
 feeds rich in proteids are very expensive, and it is desired 
 that they be used only in the formation of nitrogenous 
 products, and never to supply energy. The cheaper 
 starchy foods should be used in sufficient quantity 
 to supply heat and muscular energy. Thus, we see 
 that by knowing something of the composition and 
 digestibility of the common feeds, we may combine 
 them in such proportions that the animal may be prop- 
 erly nourished at small cost. 
 
 336. Kinds of Rations. Rations are classed accord- 
 ing to their effect on the animal, as regards bodily weight 
 or function. The most usual designations are: 
 
 (a) Deficient ration is one in which the animal 
 loses weight. 
 
 (b) Maintenance ration is one Avhich allows just 
 enough to keep the animal in good health without loss 
 or gain in bodily weight. This is usually about three- 
 fourths to one pound of nutrients to the hundred pounds 
 of live weight. 
 
 (c) Growing ration is one allowing of a regular 
 gain in weight. The amount af feed which a young 
 animal may profitably consume varies widely, usually 
 from 2 to 4 per cent of live weight. 
 
 (d) Work ration is one that will sustain an animal 
 at work without loss of weight or vigor. 
 
 (e) Dairy ration is one that suppHes the materials 
 
240 
 
 Elementarii Principles of Agriculture 
 
 for maintenance of bodily conditions, as well as those 
 used in secreting the milk. 
 
 There are many other kinds of special rations, refer- 
 ring to the bodily needs of animals maintained under 
 special conditions, such as egg rations, wool rations, 
 etc. 
 
 337. Planning a Ration. Suppose it is desired to 
 know how much and what kinds of feeds to give to a 
 dairy cow of 1,000 pounds live weight, giving two gal- 
 lons of milk per day. Turning to table of standard 
 feeding requirements we have: 
 
 Live weight Total 
 pounds dry 
 
 required matter 
 
 Dairy COW, 16 lbs. milk.. 1,000 27 
 
 Digestible nutrients 
 Pro- Carbo- 
 
 tein hydrate Fat 
 
 2.0 11.0 0.4 
 
 The problem is to find the combination of feeds 
 that will supply the above nutrients in approximately 
 the amounts indicated. Suppose we have alfalfa hay, 
 wheat bran and cottonseed meal. After studying the 
 tables of composition and digestible nutrients as given 
 in the Appendix, we ma}^ make a trial guess, with the 
 result as follows: 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter 
 
 Digestible nutrients 
 
 
 Feeds 
 
 Proteid 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates, fat 
 
 Cost 
 
 Alfalfa hay, dry. 
 
 Mixed hay 
 
 Wheat bran .... 
 Cottonseed meal. 
 
 10 lbs. 
 10 lbs. 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 lib. 
 
 9.2 
 
 8.5 
 
 4.4 
 
 .9 
 
 1.10 
 .44 
 .60 
 .40 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 .4 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 26 lbs. 
 
 23.0 
 
 2.54 
 
 11.3 
 
 .... 
 
 The result shows that we do not have enough dry 
 matter, and too much proteid by .54 pounds. The 
 
Nutrition of the Animal Body 
 
 241 
 
 latter is usually very expensive and would be advisable 
 only when the alfalfa was very cheap. Suppose we 
 decrease the alfalfa^ increase the mixed hay, and leave 
 out the cottonseed meal, which may be done when we 
 feed rich nitrogenous hay, Uke alfalfa. Then we try: 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 Dry 
 
 matter 
 
 Digestible nutrients 
 
 
 Feeds 
 
 Protein 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates, fat 
 
 Cost 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Mixed hay 
 
 Bran 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 20 lbs. 
 
 5 lbs. 
 
 4.6 
 
 16.9 
 
 4.4 
 
 .55 
 
 .88 
 .60 
 
 2.1 
 8.9 
 2.3 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 30 lbs. 25.9 
 
 2.03 
 
 13.3 
 
 
 The result is quite close enough. Close observation 
 may suggest slight variations to suit the needs of differ- 
 ent animals. It should be understood that these '^stand- 
 ards" are average, and that particular animals may 
 require more or less than the amounts indicated. 
 
 338. The Amount of Feed required depends on the 
 size and condition, and also on the individuality of 
 the animal. By many carefully conducted trials, inves- 
 tigators of feeding problems have made approximations 
 of the dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, etc., needed 
 per hundred or thousand pounds live weight of animal 
 per day. (See table of feeding standards in Appendix.) 
 
 339. Roughage and Concentrated Foods. According 
 to the per cent of digestible nutrients in feed stuffs 
 they are classed as Roughage and Concentrates. Sub- 
 stances like hay, which contain a large per cent of undi- 
 gestible, substance, are called Forage or Roughage, and 
 those like the grains, cottonseed meal, etc., in which 
 nearly all is digestible, are called Concentrates. Rough- 
 
242 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 age is desirable to give bulk to the ration. Straw is an 
 excellent roughage, yet if fed on straw alone, an animal 
 would be unable to eat enough to secure the needed 
 nutrients. If fed on concentrates entirely, the digestive 
 juice could not act on all parts sufficiently and disorder 
 would follow. Water and fiber give bulk to feeds. 
 Ruminating animals require about two-thirds of their 
 feed to be in the form of roughage. For horses, about 
 one-half should be in the form of roughage. 
 
 340. The Food Should Be Palatable. The food supplied 
 should be relished. A ration may be perfectly balanced 
 so far as its nutrients are concerned, and yet if it is not 
 palatable, good results may not be secured. One way 
 of making foods palatable is to give a change — change 
 in hay or in concentrates. In changing from one kind 
 of feed to another, however, the change should be made 
 gradually. Abrupt changes in feed are likely to throw 
 highly fed animals ^'off feed." Animals relish variety 
 at the dinner-table just as we do. The good effect of 
 green feeds in winter time is probably due in part to 
 this fact. Green feeds through the winter may be easily 
 supplied in nearly all parts of the South by sowing fall 
 oats or wheat. Green feeds aid the digestion of other 
 feeds. 
 
 341. Importance of Salt for Stock. Every good 
 farmer knows that his stock needs salt, and takes pains 
 to supply them. All classes of farm animals should 
 have salt where they can get it every day. Almost 
 every animal will take salt every day. Either fine 
 or rock-salt may be used, and, to prevent waste from 
 rains, it should, if possible, be under a shed. Ruminating 
 animals (sheep and cattle) need salt more regularly 
 and abundantly than horses. Dairy cows should always 
 
Nutrition of the Animal Body 243 
 
 receive special attention in this respect. Salt aids diges- 
 tion^ improves the appetite, and lessens the danger 
 from disease. Small ciuantities of salt in the feed will 
 often stimulate the appetite of sick animals and acts 
 as a good tonic. 
 
 342. Preparations of Feeds. The extent to which 
 different feeds should be prepared by grinding, shred- 
 ding, soaking, cooking, etc., before feeding is, in many 
 cases, an open question. When grain is fed to ruminants 
 it is best to have it milled, but in other cases it is fre- 
 quently without advantages, except in the case of kaffir 
 corn. Kaffir corn should be ground for all farm stock. 
 
 343. Racial Peculiarities are observed in the way 
 different breeds dispose of the feed they consume above 
 that required for maintenance. This is important. 
 The extent to which an animal disposes of the feed above 
 that required for maintenance governs the profit or 
 loss in animal husbandry. It is this extra quantity of 
 feed that makes flesh, milk, eggs, or performs work. 
 If the maintenance ration be assumed to be eight pounds 
 of dry matter and the feed contains twenty-five pounds, 
 what becomes of the additional seventeen pounds 
 of feed? The Hereford steer would deposit it in the 
 loin steaks and thick quarters. The animals would 
 gain in weight. The dairy cow would probably not gain 
 in weight but use it in making the fat, sugar and curd 
 of milk. An animal is valuable for its ability to trans- 
 form large quantities of crude farm feeds into special 
 products, such as valuable cuts of meat, milk, wool, 
 etc., or perform labor. 
 
 344. Individual Peculiarities are also to be noted. 
 The average dairy cow will profitably use about six 
 pounds of feed above the maintenance ration. Many 
 
244 Elementary Principtes of Agriculture 
 
 animals will be able to profitably use only three or four 
 pounds, while still others may return a profit on twelve 
 or fifteen pounds. The intelligent feeder knows how 
 to feed to get best results, but in every herd or flock 
 there are ''good feeders" and ''poor feeders." The 
 wise breeder notes the peculiarities in selecting his 
 animals for propagation. "Like begets like," in habits 
 as well as in form. 
 
 345. Skill in Feeding. The observant farmer or 
 feeder will soon learn the peculiarities of his animals. 
 He never feeds an animal so abundantly that the appe- 
 tite will be lax at the next feeding. He will feed often 
 and regulavty. In fattening hogs, steers, etc., he begins 
 with light rations, and increases gradually as circum- 
 stances suggest until the stock are on "full feed." 
 
 346. Pasturage. Wherever possible, provision should 
 be made for stock to gather green food from pastures. 
 It is a benefit to the fields to sow them in winter annuals 
 and allow the stock to graze during dry weather. This 
 is especially desirable for poultry, dairy cattle and hogs. 
 In some cases it is profitable to haul the green feed to 
 the stock, rather than pasture it. This latter practice 
 is spoken of as "soiling" and the crop as a "soiling 
 crop." 
 
 347. Shelter for Farm Animals. A simple shelter 
 to shield stock and poultry from wet or cold weather 
 is necessary on every farm. This need not be so elabo- 
 rate and costly as those used in colder regions. Shelter 
 reduces the cost of feeding. Exposure reduces the 
 flow of milk in dairy cows, and the frequency of laying 
 in poultry. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 FARM DAIRYING 
 
 348. Farm Dairying. The dairy cow on the farm 
 is a necessity, first and foremost, because she supplies 
 food for the family which in quality and cheapness is 
 without comparison. Milk and eggs supply the protein 
 nutrients needed by the human body cheaper than 
 meats. A pound of steak, a dozen eggs, or a quart of 
 milk supply about the same amount of protein, yet 
 the selling price of the milk, on an average, is less than 
 half the cost of the others. Milk and butter are not 
 only important foods, but valuable condiments used 
 in many ways in rendering other foods palatable. It 
 is these qualities that make a market for dairy products 
 the world over. 
 
 349. A Natural Advantage of the South is the ease 
 with which green feeds may be grown throughout the 
 entire yesir. Many dairies are profitable without green 
 feeds, yet every one recognizes that fresh green feed, 
 either in pastures or in soiling crops, are great aids in 
 increasing the flow of milk. Mild winters remove the 
 necessity for expensive barns, and reduce the quantity 
 of feed needed to keep the cow in splendid condition. 
 
 350. The Distinctive Quality of the Dairy Cow is 
 her capacity to manufacture large quantities of milk, 
 rich in butter -fat, from common feeds. A cow that 
 does not give more than two gallons of rich milk per 
 day should be discarded. The richness of the milk is 
 always to be considered. The Babcock test (Fig. 160) 
 
 (245) 
 
246 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 places easily at the disposal of every farmer a means 
 of determining the butter-producing qualities of every 
 cow in the herd. The success or failure of the farm dairy 
 to yield a profit on the outlay for land, building, feed 
 and labor, lies in the proper selection of the cows to 
 compose the herd. 
 
 351. The Babcock Test is a simple means of testing 
 the milk to determine the amount of butter-fat (rich- 
 ness) contained in a sample of milk. It takes its name 
 from Professor Babcock, of the University of Wisconsin, 
 who discovered the method of making the test. By its 
 
 use the dairyman may learn which 
 of his cows pay for their board. 
 The milk from each cow is 
 weighed, and a small sample used 
 to determine the per cent of but- 
 ter-fat. Knowing these two facts, 
 the total butter-yield for each cow 
 may be calculated. In this way 
 „. ,„^ ^ , the value of the cow is definitely 
 
 Fig. 160. Apparatus used . . ^ 
 
 in making the Babcock kuowu. It Is easier and more 
 *^^*- reliable than a ''churning test." 
 
 In making the test, a measured quantity of milk is put 
 into a special flask (Fig. 160 A), and to this a small 
 quantity of acid is added. By following a few simple 
 operations, for which directions come with every 
 machine, the per cent of butter-fat is read off directly 
 on the graduated neck of the bottle. Knowing the 
 per cent of butter-fat and the quantity of milk, the 
 amount of butter in each cow's milk may be quickly 
 calculated. 
 
 352. How Dairy Cows Are Valued. The dairy cow 
 is valuable according to her abilitv to convert farm feeds 
 
Farm Dairying 
 
 247 
 
 into milk rich in butter-fat. Creameries and dairies 
 pay for milk according to the per cent of butter-fat, 
 and not the mere- gallons of milk. 
 
 352a. (a) Farmer ''A" runs a small butter dairy. He bought 
 a Babcock Test, and made a test of each cow's milk with the fol- 
 lowing results: 
 
 Name of cow 
 
 Blossom 
 Flower . 
 Nancy . 
 Lily --. 
 
 Average daily 
 flow of milk 
 
 Pounds 
 23 
 14 
 31 
 20 
 
 Per cent of butter- 
 fat in average 
 samples 
 
 Per cent 
 
 2.3 
 3.1 
 4.2 
 6.5 
 
 Pounds butter- 
 fat daily 
 
 Calculate the amount of butter-fat in each cow's milk. One 
 pound of butter-fat is equal to one and one-sixth pounds commer- 
 cial butter. How much butter would these cows make in ten 
 months? 
 
 353. Other Uses of the Babcock Test. Creameries 
 no longer buy milk by the ''gallon/' but pay so much 
 a pound for the butter-fat. This does away with the 
 temptation to water the milk. In cities, public dairies 
 are required to sell pure milk, with a certain amount 
 of butter-fat, usually not less than 35 per cent. By the 
 use of the test, both the dairyman and the public offi- 
 cials may easily know if the milk is up to the required 
 standard of richness. The butter in buttermilk is often 
 a source of considerable loss. By testing the buttermilk, 
 or skim-milk, the dairyman may know if his methods 
 get all the butter. 
 
 354. Composition of Milk. Milk contains about 87 
 per cent water and 13 per cent solids, divided as fol- 
 lows: 5 per cent sugar, 3.3 per cent protein, 4 per cent 
 
248 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 fat and only 0.7 per cent mineral matter, or salts. The 
 milk from different cows varies considerably. The solids 
 may be as low as 10 per cent or as high as 18 per cent. 
 The protein (the substance that thickens and forms 
 clabber) may be low if cows do not receive feeds suffi- 
 ciently rich in protein. The fat varies, sometimes as 
 low as 2.5 per cent and sometimes as high as 8 per cent. 
 The legal standard required by state and city laws is 
 3 to 3.5 per cent fat, and 9 to 9.5 per cent solids other 
 than fat. The composition of milk is but shghtly changed 
 by the feed a cow consumes. The feed does affect the 
 quantity of milk, however. 
 
 355. How the Kind of Feed Affects the Flow of Milk. 
 The feeding of dairy cows to increase the flow of milk 
 has long been studied, both by the experiment stations 
 and practical dairymen. The exact methods of scien- 
 tific investigation where the feed consumed and the 
 milk and butter produced are carefully weighed, teach 
 that for the best results dairy cows should have: 
 
 (a) An allowance of green, succulent food, either 
 by pasturing, soiling crops or silage. 
 
 (6) Some dry roughness in the form of hay, corn 
 stover, or straw. 
 
 (c) Grains or concentrates supplying sufficient pro- 
 tein and carbohydrates to bring the ration to the normal 
 dairy standard. 
 
 Succulent feeds promote the digestion of other feeds, 
 and give flavor and color to the milk and butter. 
 
 Dry roughage has a wholesome effect on the health 
 and general condition of the cows. The cow craves 
 some dry feed which can be hastily swallowed, and 
 while lying down at rest, be regurgitated and chewed 
 over. 
 
Farm Dairying 
 
 249 
 
 
 i^le 
 
 
 356. Changes in Milk. Bacteria are the active agents 
 of change in milk. The souring of milk is due to the 
 formation of acid by bac- 
 teria. When the acid 
 accumulates in sufficient 
 quantity, it combines with 
 the protein to form the 
 clabber. If bacteria are 
 kept out of the milk, it will 
 keep sweet indefinitely. 
 The flavors developed in 
 milk and butter are due 
 to the presence of certain 
 kinds of bacteria. Some give the butter undesirable 
 flavor, and some greatly improve the flavor. The flavor 
 of butter, however, may be controlled by destroying 
 all the bacteria in the milk or cream by Pasteurization. 
 (11 367.) After the milk or cream has been freed from 
 the desirable, as well as undesirable germs, by the 
 process mentioned, it is then cooled and desirable ones 
 
 : -^'"/ ,''-'-■' -^_ 
 
 Fig 1161. Microscopic appearance of 
 ordinary milk showing fat globules 
 and bacteria in the milk. The 
 cluster of bacteria on left side are 
 lactic acid -forming germs. After 
 Russell, Wisconsin Bulletin, No. 62. 
 
 Progeny of 
 a Single Germ © 
 in twelve hours. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 162. Cooling hinders growth of bacteria. 
 Wisconsin Bulletin, No. 62. 
 
 After Russel, 
 
250 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 are added and maintained at a temperature favorable 
 to the development of proper flavors and texture in the 
 butter. This is preferably between 60° and 70° Fahr. 
 This practice is known as adding a "starter," and is 
 used extensively in commercial butter- 
 making. In the absence of commercial 
 starters, a little sour milk will prove 
 quite satisfactory. 
 
 357. Gravity Creaming. 
 When milk is ''set" to allow 
 the cream to rise, it should be 
 kept cool. The cream rises 
 quicker and more completely 
 if kept cool by ice or moist 
 cloths. Gravity creaming 
 leaves from 0.5 to 1.0 per 
 cent of the butter-fat in 
 the milk even when the 
 temperature of the milk 
 is kept at 60° Fahr. The 
 rise of the fat globules of 
 milk to form ''cream" is 
 due to the fact that fat 
 is lighter than water or 
 the milk serum. 
 
 358. Centrifugal Cream- 
 
 rni . Fig. 163. A modern cream separator. 
 
 mg. The cream separator 
 
 is a machine for separating the cream from milk while 
 fresh. It separates cream much better, quicker and 
 with less work .than gravity creaming. Good sepa- 
 rators leave only 0.1 to 0.2 per cent of the butter-fat in 
 the milk. The separator also gives a cleaner cream than 
 can be obtained by the usual methods. The effective- 
 
Farm Dairi/ing 251 
 
 ness of cream separators is due to the action of centrif- 
 ugal force, which has a tendency to throw the heavier 
 particles to the outside. Cream being lighter than 
 skimmed milk, it is thrown to the center and the 
 skimmed milk thrown to the outside of a rapidly re- 
 volving hollow ball. 
 
 358a. Farmer Smith milked ten cows, giving an average of 
 6,000 pounds of milk per year. He used the gravity creaming pro- 
 cess and lost one-third to three-fourths pound of butter on every 
 hundred poimds of milk due to imperfect separation of the cream. 
 His neighbor advised the purchase of a cream separator which 
 would leave only one-twentieth pound of butter-fat in the milk, 
 telling him that besides saving the difference in butter-fat he would 
 be able to feed his calves the fresh-skimmed warm milk. Estimate 
 the difference and give your advice to Farmer Smith. 
 
 359. Sanitary Dairy Products. In the production 
 of sanitary dairy products great care must be observed 
 in the following particulars: (1) The healthfulness 
 of the animals. (2) The healthfulness of the milker. 
 (3) The cleanliness of the stables. (4) The care in 
 milking. (5) The care in keeping the milk. Unless 
 all of these conditions are carefully observed, sanitary 
 milk-production is an impossibility. 
 
 360. The Healthfulness of the Animals. Unless the 
 the dairy cow is in a healthy condition, she should 
 not be expected to secrete a healthy milk. All of the 
 blood which goes to the manufacture of milk must pass 
 through the circulation, and if any diseases are present 
 the blood is apt to take up the germs producing them, 
 and in some cases these same germs have been found 
 in the milk. It will, therefore, be noted that the first 
 essential in the production of sanitary dairy products 
 is the presence of a healthy herd of cows. 
 
 361. The Healthfulness of the Milkers. On account 
 
252 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 of the fact that milk is pecuUarly adaptable to the 
 growth of germs, any one having a contagious or infec- 
 tious disease should not come in contact with it. Germs 
 are always present in such cases, as smallpox, typhoid 
 fever, diphtheria, etc., and are certain to find their way 
 into the product if the person afflicted is permitted 
 to come in contact with the milk or butter. 
 
 362. Cleanliness of the Stable. At best, the stable 
 is difficult to free from bacteria. The great natural 
 enemies of bacteria are light and sunshine. The stable 
 should be kept clean, and there should always be pres- 
 ent an abundance of fresh air and sunshine. The dark 
 corners of the stable, filled with dust, are the houses 
 of millions of germs which finally find their way into 
 thfe milk and make it unfit for human food. 
 
 363. Care in Milking. When milk first comes from 
 a healthy cow it is clean, wholesome, and free from 
 bacteria or germs. It is also known that it is possible 
 to produce milk with comparatively only a few germs 
 by the exercise of care in milking. The care in milking 
 consists in clean hands and clean clothes on the part 
 of the milker and the proper cleaning of the cow's 
 udder before the milking begins. 
 
 364. Care in Keeping Milk. Milk is very susceptible 
 to bad odors as well as germs, therefore, it should be 
 removed to a cool, clean place as soon as milked. The 
 milking should precede the feeding, as there is always 
 more or less dust present in feeding hay, and other 
 undesirable odors are present, when feeding silage or 
 root crops. As soon as milked, the animal heat and 
 animal odor should be removed by thoroughly airing 
 and cooling the milk. 
 
 365. Churning. The size, consistency and number 
 
Farm Dairj/ing 
 
 253 
 
 of the butter-fat globules is not always the same. The 
 object of churning is to cause these many, minute fat 
 globules to unite to form larger ones. This is brought 
 about by agitating the milk in such a way that the 
 globules will rub against each other and unite. As 
 temperature greatly affects the consistency of the 
 
 Fig. 164. Revolving barrel churn. 
 
 globules it also affects the nature of the result in churn- 
 ing. If the temperature is very low, the globules are 
 hard and are less likely to adhere in the operation of 
 churning. If the temperature is very high, it renders 
 the globules quite soft and churning has a tendency to 
 cause them to break up into even smaller particles. 
 There are many other conditions besides the tempera- 
 ture that affect the "gathering," or "breaking," of the 
 
254 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 butter-fat globules and the character or quality of 
 the butter, such as the condition and breed of the cows, 
 the feed of the cows, the temperature maintained dur- 
 ing the ripening of the cream, the acidity of the cream 
 and even the nature of the agitation given the cream 
 in churning. As these conditions vary, so will the tem- 
 perature giving the most favorable results in churning. 
 Practical dairymen usually try to maintain a tempera- 
 ture near 59 to G5 degrees in churning. The preference 
 will usually be for the lower temperatures because of 
 the l)etter qualit}" of the butter, although it will require 
 a longer time to churn. There are many styles of churns 
 on the market, 1)ut expert butter-makers usually prefer 
 some form of revolving box or barrel churn, claiming 
 that it gives a butter with better quality. Where the 
 agitation is produced by paddles the grain of the butter 
 is not so desiral:>le as in the open-centered churns. 
 
 366. Judging Butter. Butter is now judged by a 
 scale of points just as the breeds of live stock and crops 
 are. The points of most importance are (1) flavor, 
 (2) texture, (3) color, (4) salt, and (5) package. Varia- 
 tions in flavor are due to several causes, such as breed 
 of cows, individuality of cow, nature of feed, acidity of 
 cream and kind of bacteria in the cream. Variations 
 in texture are due chiefly to the nature of the feed and 
 the temperature at which the cream ripens, and, also, 
 the churning temperature, as discussed above. 
 
 367. Pasteurization. One way of keeping milk 
 longer than could be done under natural conditions, 
 consists in heating to a temperature of 160° Fahr. 
 and then rapidly cooling. This method of treating milk 
 is known as Pasteurization, and takes its name after 
 Pasteur, the great French bacteriologist. The object 
 
Farm Dairying 255 
 
 of heating and cooling is to destroy the majority of 
 bacteria present, and prevent the others which are not 
 affected at that temperature, from becoming active. 
 The temperature given above is deemed sufficient to 
 destroy all, at least all disease-producing, germs and is 
 not high enough to affect the flavor of the milk. 
 
 368. Clarification. We have just observed the 
 practice of freeing milk from bacteria in order to make 
 it ''keep" longer. Now let us note the practice employed 
 in freeing the milk from undesirable foreign matter. 
 It matters not how careful the milker is in doing his 
 work, there is always more or less foreign matter, which 
 passes through a ''strainer." This substance may be 
 separated from the milk by centrifugal force. The 
 process is known as clarification, and the machine 
 used "s known as a clarifier. The machine is built on 
 precisely the same plan as a cream separator, and often- 
 times the separator is used for the purpose. 
 
Fig. 165. Where shrubs are needed. 
 
 Fig. 166. Where shrubs are added. Compare with Fig. 165. 
 
PABT III— SPECIAL TOPICS 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV 
 THE HOME LOT 
 
 369. The Decoration of a Landscape with herbs, 
 shrubs and trees has been called '^picture-making out- 
 of-doors." Whether we know it or not, all of us have 
 a great appreciation of the beauty and grandeur of 
 landscapes. We recognize that some landscapes are 
 attractive, or that the surroundings of some homes 
 look bleak. Again, there is the little cottage of the new- 
 comer, simple though it may be, yet we say, "It's a nice 
 place." Ask us why, and the answer is a very uncertain 
 one. Why? It's because we fail to recognize the essen- 
 tials of a good picture. 
 
 370. Studying Landscapes. Compare Fig. 165 with 
 Fig. 166. Manifestly, one is more pleasing to the eye 
 than the other, but why? Some shrubs have been added, 
 it is true, but it is not the shrubs in themselves that are 
 so noticeably pleasing. The shrubs cover up many of 
 the harsh geometrical Unes and make the landscape look 
 more natural. Had the shrubs been placed in the open 
 space the effect would not have been half so pleasing. 
 The large open lawn gives an attractive setting for the 
 trees farther on. A comparison of these two pictures 
 teaches us the A, B, C of landscape art. In making 
 
 Q (257) 
 
258 
 
 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 the plants 
 
 pictures on the land- 
 scape, whether around 
 the home or the 
 school house, we 
 should 
 
 (.4) Strive to avoid 
 sharp, straight lines; 
 
 (B) Preserve open 
 spaces; 
 
 (C) Plant in 
 masses, and note how 
 nature plants trees 
 
 and shrubbery for instructive examples. (Figs. 167, 168.) 
 371. Rural Home Grounds should have such group- 
 ings of lofty trees and attractive shrubs that the sharp 
 lines of houses, barns and fences shall be softened into 
 a natural picture. The appearance of the home lot 
 should suggest more than mere shelter for man and his 
 useful animals. It should appear as though the house, 
 barns and 'ots were built in what was naturally an at- 
 tractive landscape. 
 Open lawns and large 
 trees are always 
 pleasing. In the 
 crowded city such 
 features may, from 
 necessity, be dis- 
 pensed with, but, 
 w hen the c o u n t r y 
 house is set in a 
 small yard, it im- 
 presses us immedi- Fig. leS. a plan that makes a good picture, 
 . whether viewed from the house or the 
 
 ately as showing too highway. 
 
Fig. 169. A good plan for the arrangement and decoration of a farm-house, 
 buildings and grounds. 
 
260 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 great a contrast with the natural openness that is so 
 characteristic of farm life. 
 
 372. Planning a Home Lot is a matter requiring 
 much study. Along with the study of the view of the 
 home site from within and without, we must cautiously 
 plan for all the conveniences for the Hving of both man 
 and beast. The location of the house, the barns, poultry 
 houses, roads, gardens, orchards and fences should 
 first be studied from the standpoint of convenience and 
 healthfulness. When these features are planned, then 
 we may study how to complete the picture and introduce 
 those features that make a residence "home-Uke." 
 
 373. Completing the Picture. In placing the trees, 
 shrubs and flower-beds, we should consider first the 
 outlook from the house, — the view that we will see most 
 often. Next we may consider the view from the highway. 
 In both cases the openness of view should be preserved. 
 In planting the trees and shrubs we are using them 
 only as materials. They may make or mar the view, 
 according to the way we arrange them. Fig. 169. 
 
 374. Locating the Plants. In making a plan, the 
 grouping of the plants should be carefully worked out. 
 For every plant to be used, we must know how it will 
 look, and how much space is required when fully mature. 
 After a satisfactory knowledge of the plants has been 
 gained, we may mark the place for each on our plan 
 (Fig. 169). The way the plants are grouped makes a 
 great difference in the appearance of the place. Every 
 attractive picture has some one central object. In mak- 
 ing a picture on the landscape, the home, or the school- 
 house is to be made the central feature. As a picture 
 is often marred by a poor frame, so may a landscape 
 lose its attractiveness by improper use of plants. 
 
The Home Lot 261 
 
 375. Plants to Use. Landscape architects are also gar- 
 deners in that they must know the character of many 
 kinds of plants and the conditions under which they 
 succeed. In selecting trees and shrubs for home plant- 
 ing, it is important that sorts be used that succeed. 
 Native wild plants should always be considered. By 
 observing the plants that are grown on other persons' 
 grounds, we may often learn of the good sorts and 
 avoid undesirable varieties. In selecting the plants, it 
 is always advisable to consult the local nurseryman. 
 
 375a. Make a list, using the names given in the nursery cata- 
 logues of all the different kinds of trees, shrubs, perennial and 
 annual flowers that grow well in your locality. Mention the location 
 in the community of one or more plants of each sort. 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 SCHOOL GARDENS 
 
 376. The School is a place where many of our ideas 
 and ideals are formed. It should be more than a place 
 where we take short cuts to knowledge, that is, learning 
 from teachers and books what others have found out 
 by observation and investigation. Nature does not 
 teach by words, pages or chapters. To understand 
 nature's forces and how to control them, for our 
 benefit, we must get close to her creatures. 
 
 377. The School Garden should be a place to learn 
 what is true, beautiful and useful about plants, insects, 
 soils, birds, sunshine and rain. We may do this by 
 working with nature, by growing a small number of sev- 
 eral kinds of plants and observing their needs as they 
 grow from seed to fruitage. In outw^ard appearance, 
 school gardens do not differ from home gardens. All 
 the common sorts of plants may be grown in a school 
 garden, though we observe and study them more closely. 
 Some plants must be cultivated one way, while others 
 require different care. In a school garden we seek the 
 explanation of the differences. If w^e grow a small 
 number of plants and observe the progress of each 
 separate plant, we will learn a great deal about how to 
 care for a large crop. (See Frontispiece.) 
 
 378. Laying Out a School Garden. When a piece of 
 ground has been secured it should be cut up into a 
 number of small gardens — one for each student. A 
 
 (262) 
 
School Gardens 263 
 
 diagram should be made .showing all the walks and the 
 location of each student^s plot. Space should be left 
 for walks between the gardens sufficient to allow access 
 on all sides. The main walks may l)e five to eight feet 
 wide, and the smaller walks only eighteen inches wide. 
 A larger plot should be left for growing corn, pumpkins 
 and other plants too large for the individual gardens. 
 All students should take part in caring for the large plot. 
 The laying out of the entire garden, and all questions 
 about how it should be managed should be fully discussed 
 by all students. Each student should make a plan and 
 submit it to the teacher, who will select the best. 
 
 379. Individual Gardens. Every student — boy and 
 girl — should have a small plot of ground on which they 
 will begin w^ork in the fall at the opening of school. 
 
 Each student should make a plan for his or her 
 garden, covering the preparation of the ground, selecting 
 the kinds of plants or seeds to be grown, and all other 
 important features. If the teacher approves the plan, 
 the w^ork may be begun. If any changes are desired, the 
 consent of the teacher should be secured before carrying 
 them out. The students remain responsible for the 
 success and appearance of their plots. Some gardens 
 will be so fine that they will show the importance of 
 care. No student should allow his or her garden to be 
 pointed out as an example of what neglect will do. 
 
 380. Selecting Plants. In selecting plants for the 
 garden, preference should be given to kinds that will 
 mature during the school term. Some hardy sorts may 
 be planted in the fall. 
 
 Many plants mature so quickly that two or more 
 crops may be grown on the same land. The plan for 
 the garden should show how and when the land will be 
 
264 
 
 Elementary Principles oj Agriculture 
 
 
 Dwarf Nasturtium 
 
 s 
 
 Radish 
 
 o 
 
 Radish 
 
 
 Radish 
 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 i^H 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 CD 
 
 Beans 
 
 O 
 
 Beans 
 
 
 Beets 
 
 >s 
 
 Beets 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 Beans 
 
 Turnips 
 
 
 White oats 
 
 is- 
 
 8 
 
 Red oats 
 
 a; 
 o 
 
 Barley 
 
 £ 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Fig 
 
 170. Plan of a garden with 
 vegetable and field crops. 
 
 
 Petunia 
 
 
 Petunia 
 
 
 Zinnia 
 
 
 Zinnia 
 
 
 Ageratum 
 
 
 Nasturtium 
 
 1 
 
 7i 
 
 Radish 
 
 
 Radish 
 
 -B 
 ^ 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 ^ I 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 M 
 
 Beets 
 
 
 Beets 
 
 o 
 
 Beans 
 
 fS 
 
 Beans 
 
 
 Poppies 
 
 
 Shirley Peppies 
 Plant in fall 
 
 Fig. 171. Plan of a garden with 
 flowers and vegetables. 
 
'As the roose in his radness is richest of floures." 
 
 —Destruction of Troy. Early English translation, 1670. 
 
School Garden 265 
 
 prepared, where each kind of plant will be in the garden, 
 how and when each kind will be planted. Each student 
 should strive to do well. Figs. 170 and 171. 
 
 381. The School Grounds should be made attractive 
 by planting trees, shrubs, flowers and vines. Just as 
 every one takes pride in the appearance of the home lot, 
 so does the community feel a pride in keeping the school 
 grounds in order. The school grounds should be kept in 
 order by the pupils even during vacation. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI 
 FORESTRY 
 
 382. A Forest is a considerable piece of land covered 
 with large trees. Forests are directly important to 
 mankind as sources of fuel,, lumber, heavy round timber, 
 such as posts, piling, and telegraph poles; also, cooper- 
 age stock, tan bark, wood pulp for paper-making, rosin, 
 cork and many other useful supplies. They are also 
 important because of their good effect in regulating 
 stream flow, preventing the erosion of the land and, 
 probably, in modifying climate. 
 
 383. The Need of Forests was not fully recognized 
 by the early settlers in timbered regions. The heavy 
 timber was looked upon as an obstacle to rapid progress; 
 l)ut, in recent years, when railroads are at hand to haul 
 the forest products wherever they may be needed, they 
 are quite valuable. Before a piece of timbered land is 
 destroyed, the probable value of the annual harvest of 
 forest products should be carefully considered. America 
 is now repeating the forestry experiences of European 
 countries. The forests were first destroyed to make 
 room for the fields, gardens and orchards, and, as the 
 farming interest reduced the timbered areas, fuel and 
 lumber supplies became more difficult to secure. Then 
 the forest was looked upon as something of value that 
 should not be destroyed. Where the natural covering of 
 the hills and bottoms have been removed, the bad effects 
 caused by the washing of the soil from the hills and the 
 flooding of the valleys has been plainly seen. 
 
 (266) 
 
Forestry 
 
 267 
 
 384. Systematic Forestry teaches us to remove only 
 the matured products, leaving the young timber to 
 grow. France and man}^ European countries have had 
 to restore, though at great expense, the forest condi- 
 tions to large areas that had been thoughtlessly destroyed. 
 In many of the Old World countries no man is allowed 
 to destroy a mature forest tree without permission of a 
 forest official, and this is often given only when another 
 is started to take its place. Such restrictions seem 
 needlessly severe to us, but is it improbable that, some 
 day, we may find some such restriction necessary for 
 the public good? 
 
 385. The Exhaustion of Our Forest Resources is now 
 going on at a rapid rate. Our forested areas are being 
 rapidly reduced. Fig. 172 illustrates the present differ- 
 ence between the use of for- 
 est products and the rate of 
 increase by growth. The east- 
 ern states have long since 
 all but exhausted their na- 
 tural forests. The}' once 
 secured the needed supplies 
 of lumber from the virgin 
 forests of the north central 
 states, but today those areas 
 are almost exhausted and 
 the large lumber suppUes 
 are now furnished by the northwestern and southern 
 states. 
 
 386. Conserving Our Forest Resources is a national 
 need. In former times the lumberman cut everything. 
 The young timber was needlessly destroyed. Now, 
 however, they have realized the value of the small 
 
 Fig. 172. Excess of annual cut 
 over annual forest growth. 
 
268 Ele7nentary Principles of Agricultuce 
 
 seedlings and saplings, and seek to protect them from 
 forest fires and the grazing of stock. All the conditions 
 that favor the growth of the young trees are carefully 
 considered by the modern forester. 
 
 387. Our Forest Reserves. Our government, observ- 
 ing the great hardships resulting from an insufficient 
 supply of forest products in the Old World, and how 
 quickly the forests of the East and middle states have 
 been reduced, has set aside large tracts of timbered 
 regions in the western states as National Forest Reserves. 
 These reserves form but a small part of our present 
 forest resources; but, taken with the privately owned 
 forests, are sufficient to supply our needs if properly 
 used. Forestry plantings have been maintained in older 
 countries for long periods and experience has shown 
 that such plantings yield an annual revenue equal to 
 four to eight dollars per acre. 
 
 388. The Forest Service of the United States Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, and the Forestry Commissioners 
 provided for in many states, study the problems of 
 forest management and issue bulletins of information 
 for the instruction of all who have land suitable for 
 timber-growing. 
 
 389. The Farm Wood-Lot. In many sections the 
 waste lowland and the hill land may be planted to trees 
 to supply fuel, poles and the many special timbers 
 needed on every farm. In many cases such lands have 
 been made to return to the farm products equal in value 
 to the returns of the regular field crops. The value of a 
 wood-lot will depend much upon the care, nature of the 
 soil, and the kinds of trees planted. Of course it takes 
 some years before the first harvest can be made; but 
 this may be greatly shortened by planting thick and 
 
Forestry 
 
 269 
 
 cutting out the less desirable forms as the growth 
 thickens. Varieties for wood-lot planting should be 
 selected to suit the locality. Hardy catalpa, black 
 locust, black walnut, honey locust, Bois d'Arc, or 
 Osage orange, mulberries, and many other sorts, have 
 proven to be w^ell suited to many sections of the South 
 and West. Not every wood-lot has turned out a success; 
 
 Fig. 173. A catalpa plantation. Every farm should have a wood lot. 
 From Year Book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1899. 
 
270 Elementary Priyiciples of Agriculture 
 
 but a larger number have. Many of the failures were 
 due to neglect or to the selection of species unsuited to 
 the conditions. 
 
 389a. A farmer planted a large acreage of bottom land to hardy 
 catalpas, in rows six feet apart and four feet apart in the row. At 
 the end of ten years he found the books showed the following items: 
 Cost of rent on land for ten years, seedlings, planting, cultivating, 
 trimming, marketing, etc., $56. Value of stakes and small posts 
 secured, early thinning, $63. Stock on hand: 678 posts, first class, 
 10 cents each; 712 posts, second class, 7 cents each; 616 posts, 
 third class, 4 cents each. What was the approximate value per 
 acre per year of the crop? 
 
 390. Windbreaks. In open regions, windbreaks, 
 formed by growing shrubs and trees, have been found to 
 be quite beneficial because of the protection they give 
 to growing crops and orchards, or to stock. Windbreaks 
 reduce the evaporation from the soil and from the 
 plants themselves. They often prevent the drifting of 
 the soil in open, sandy regions. They also protect stock 
 from cold winds in winter and hot wdnds in summer. In 
 regions that most need windbreaks, it is most difficult to 
 get the trees to grow. The plan that has proven most 
 satisfactory is to make plantings of arborvitse, locusts, 
 Osage orange, red cedar, blackberries, green ash, or other 
 species in wide rows and cultivate the trees until they 
 become thoroughly estaldished. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII 
 FARM MACHINERY 
 
 By PROF. J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, 
 Iowa State College 
 
 391. Progress in Agriculture owes much to the intro- 
 duction of machine methods for doing hand labor. When 
 the savage began to plant seeds with a sharp stick in- 
 stead of depending on wild nature, the idea was certainly 
 a progressive one. When he learned that destroying the 
 weeds that came up with those seeds would add to the 
 quantity and the certainty of the harvest, he ceased to 
 be a savage. Still again, when he learned to prepare 
 the ground and cultivate his crops, civilization was 
 well established. ^'Civilization begins and ends with the 
 plow," and yet the plow remained a crude wooden tool 
 until within comparatively recent times. 
 
 392. Tillage Tools were not noticeably improved 
 until chemists and botanists began to study the soil and 
 formed a theory about the relation of the soil to the 
 plant. Machines are not invented until the need for 
 them is recognized. The ideas about the relation of the 
 plant to the soil given in modern books would have 
 been wondrous strange to our great -grandparents. 
 McMaster--' tells us that 'The Massachusetts farmer 
 who witnessed the Revolution, plowed his land with a 
 wooden bull-plow, sowed his grain broadcast, and, when 
 it was ripe, cut it with a scythe and thrashed it out on 
 his barn floor with a flail." These implements w^ere 
 
 ^History of the People of the United States. 
 
 (271) 
 
272 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 similar to the ones used by the Egyptians three thou- 
 sand years before. It is worthy of note that many of 
 the greatest of the early Americans were interested in 
 the development of the plow, the fundamental imple- 
 ment of tillage. Thomas Jefferson and Daniel Webster 
 planned plows and had them constructed, which were 
 improvements over preceding types. In 1797, Charles 
 Newbold introduced the iron plow, but it is recorded 
 that the farmers of that time refused to use it, claiming 
 that so much iron drawn through the soil poisoned the 
 
 Fig. 174. Webster's plow. 
 
 land and increased the growth of weeds. This latter 
 superstition delayed the general acceptance of improved 
 plows for many years. The use of iron and steel plows 
 did not become general until about 1830. Many im- 
 provements were made in the construction and form of 
 the points and mold-boards, adapting them to various 
 kinds of soils. The modern plow is familiar to all. The 
 recent types of sulky plows enable the plowman to 
 ride in a comfortable seat, and, when properly ad- 
 justed, so that the pressure due to the raising and turn- 
 ing of the furrow slice have no heavier draft than the 
 walking plow. The single-shovel cultivator has given 
 way to the double-shovel implement, and this, in turn, 
 to the straddle-row cultivator, and, in many sections, 
 the two-row cultivator is finding favor. 
 
Farm Machinery 
 
 273 
 
 393. Harvesting Machinery. Perhaps no hne of 
 development has assisted agriculture so much as machine 
 narvesting. The grass hook and the scythe were long 
 in use. When a Scotchman put fingers to the scythe, 
 forming the cradle, it was heralded as a great invention 
 because it enabled one man to do the work of several 
 equipped with the older implements. Obed Hussey 
 and Cyrus H. McCormick"^' 
 stand out prominently in the 
 development of the reaper, 
 which was later improved by 
 many others, among whom 
 Palmer, Williams, Marsh 
 Brothers, Spaulchng and Ap- 
 pleby should be mentioned, 
 leading up to the self-binder 
 in 1878. It appears marvel- 
 ous to find that there has 
 taken place within sixty 
 years — -within the life of a 
 single man — the universal in- 
 troduction of machines which 
 are so efficient and still require the guidance of Ijut 
 one man to do the work of many. 
 
 394. Farm Machinery. The general introduction of 
 specialized farm machines, — implements too complex 
 
 *Cyrus H. McCormick was born in Rockbridge county, Virginia, in 1809. 
 His father had constructed a reaping machine, though his efforts, Uke those 
 of many others along the same line, were not successful. Young Cyrus had 
 watched his father's experiments and cherished the thought that some day he 
 might solve the difficult problem. He abandoned the principle.^ that had 
 formed the underlying features of his father's machine. The elder McCormick 
 did not approve of the young man's plans, but he put no obstacles in his way, 
 and offered him the facilities of his little blacksmith shop to build his first 
 machine. Young McCormick completed his first reaper In time to give it a 
 trial in the harvest of 1831, and it worked successfully that year. 
 
274 Etementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 to be called tools, — has made the modern farmer a 
 mechanic. Modern haying implements, consisting of 
 mowers, rakes, hay-loaders, stackers and presses, have 
 greatly reduced the hand work in hay-making. It has 
 been estimated that the farmer of 1850 spent eleven 
 hours in cutting and storing a ton of hay, while, under 
 modern methods, the time has been reduced to one hour 
 and thirty-nine minutes. There are machines for every 
 
 Fig. 176. McCormick reaping machine, 1834. 
 
 class of farm work : Threshing-machines for threshing 
 grain; shellers, for shelling corn from the cob; huskers 
 and shredders, for removing the ears from the corn- 
 stalk and converting the latter into palatable food for 
 farm animals, and many others. This is true to such an 
 extent that large farms have nearly as much invested 
 in machinery as some factories. Many forms of machinery 
 used on the farm require considerable power. Wind- 
 mills, gasoline engines, and even steam engines, are not 
 
Farm Machinery 
 
 275 
 
 infrequently in regular use for pumping water, grinding 
 grain, separating milk and other special operations. 
 These motors increase the capacity of the farm worker 
 by enabling him to use and direct more power, resulting 
 in more economical production. Fig. 177. 
 
 395. Power Versus Hand Labor. The change from 
 hand tools to implements and special machinery has 
 lead to the use of more power for each worker, and the 
 
 Fig. 177. A suggestion for the use of power on the farm. From an 
 agricultural implement catalogue. 
 
 amount is governed somewhat by the abihty of the 
 worker. Man, when working alone, is able to develop 
 only about one-eighth horse power. When he uses one 
 horse, his capacity to work is increased eightfold, and 
 if two horses are used, sixteenfold. The American farmer 
 is not content to drive his brain with a one-horse power 
 when two, three or four may be used to advantage. 
 This demand for more power has stimulated the breed- 
 ing of larger horses for draft purposes. 
 
 396. Care of Machinery. The operation of many 
 
276 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 forms of farm machinery often taxes the mechanical 
 skill of the average worker. Much loss results from the 
 neglect to repair agricultural machines promptly and 
 S3^stematically. Many machines are discarded which 
 would be almost as good as new if the broken parts 
 were replaced. Costly agricultural machines should be 
 kept under shelter when not in actual use to lengthen 
 their period of usefulness. 
 
 397. The Influence of Agricultural Machinery on the 
 quantity and quality of farm productions has ]:)rought 
 many changes. The year 1850 has been mentioned as 
 marking the transition from the use of implements for 
 hand-production to those for machine-production. The 
 increase in production per farm worker under modern 
 methods is most marked. The Roman farmer in the 
 time of Columella spent four and six-tenths days in 
 growing a bushel of wheat. It is stated in the Thirteenth 
 Annual Report of the United States Department of 
 Labor that the x4merican farmer spent three hours in 
 1830, under hand methods, in producing a bushel of 
 wheat, at a cost of 17.7 cents, while now the same result 
 is secured in nine minutes at a cost of 3.5 cents. In 1800, 
 97 per cent of our people were living on farms, or in 
 small towns, depending upon agriculture for food; 
 yet, with all this army of workers, the country raised 
 only five and five-tenths bushels of wheat per person. 
 In 1900, while approximately only one-third of the 
 population lived on farms, the production of wheat 
 was ten bushels per capita, one-half of which was in 
 excess of our needs. 
 
 398. Other Changes in Farm Conditions have been 
 made, at least in part, as a result of the change from 
 hand methods to machine methods of production. An 
 
Farm Machinery 277 
 
 old method of threshing grain was by the treading of 
 animals, but bread made from wheat threshed in this 
 manner would not be salable today. Women are no 
 longer required to do heavy field work as they did at 
 one time. The working day has fewer hours and the 
 wages of the farm-worker has increased many fold. 
 "All intelligent expert observation/' says Dodge, 
 "declares it beneficial. It has relieved the laborer of 
 much drudgery; made his work lighter and his hours of 
 service shorter; stimulated his mental faculties; given 
 equilibrium of effort to mind and body; made the laborer 
 a more efficient worker, a broader man and a better 
 citizen.'' 
 
APPENDIX A 
 BOOKS ON AGRICULTURE 
 
 RECOMMENDED FOR A COMMON-SCHOOL LIBRARY 
 
 A. Primarily for Teachers — 
 
 The Nature Study Idea, Bailey. (Doubleday, Page & Co.) 
 Special Method in Elementary Science, McMurray. (Macmil- 
 
 lan.) 
 Principles of Agriculture, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
 
 B. For Teachers and Patrons — 
 
 The Farmstead, Roberts. (Macmillan.) 
 
 Rural Wealth and Welfare, Fairchild. (Macmillan.) 
 
 C. Supplementary Texts on Agriculture — 
 
 The First Book of Farming, Goodrich. (Doubleday, Page 
 
 &Co.) 
 Principles of Plant Culture, Goff. (University Cooperative 
 
 Company, Madison, Wis.) 
 
 D. Special Treatises and Books for Reference and General Reading — 
 
 The Great World 's Farm, Gaye. (Greely & Co.) 
 
 Plants and Animals Under Domestication, Darwin. (D. 
 
 Appleton.) 
 The Soil, King. (Macmillan.) 
 Art Out-of-Doors, Van Rensselaer. (Scribner.) 
 How to Plant the Home Grounds, Parsons. 
 Disease in Plants, Ward. (Macmillan.) 
 The Spraying of Plants, Loderman. (Macmillan.) 
 Principles of Fruit Growing, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
 The Nursery Book, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
 The Pruning Book, Bailey. (Macmillan.) 
 The Care of Animals, Mayo. (Macmillan.) 
 Fertihzers, Voorhees. (Macmillan.) 
 Breeds of Live Stock, Craig. 
 
 Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery, 
 The Book of Alfalfa, Corburn. (Orange Judd Co.) 
 Farm Machinery, Davidson and Chase. (Orange Judd Co.) 
 
 (278) 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture. This is the fungicide used every- 
 where to reduce damage to fruits and vegetables caused 
 by fungi. The proportions in which the substances 
 are mixed are but rarely varied from the following: 
 
 Copper Sulfate, or Bluestone : . 4 pounds 
 
 Fresh lime 4 
 
 Add water to make about 50 gallons 
 
 In preparing, use two half-barrels, one for copper 
 sulfate and one for Ume. Fig. 178. The copper sulfate 
 should be pulverized and put in a coarse burlap sack 
 and suspended in water until dissolved. Use wooden 
 vessels only for copper 
 sulfate. The fresh lime 
 
 should be dissolved in Aii'T^ /f^ 
 
 another vessel, using "^^ ^'* ^^^ 
 
 only a small amount of 
 water at first, adding 
 more as the slaking pro- '"' ' 
 
 gresses. Care should be ^^-/^< Vl \ \ '"'2^}!:'t^} 
 taken to see that the I^i,„t \A iv ' I ' .' Xw '^•"'^•^ v 
 lime is stirred into a ^==^=-<«^^'^^v..- '- 
 very thin batter, free 
 
 '^ Fig. 178. Making Bordeaux mixture. 
 
 from even small lumps. 
 
 It is advisable to strain through a burlap sack, or a 
 copper strainer with eighteen or twenty meshes to the 
 inch. Dilute the milk of Ume and the solution of copper 
 sulfate up to about twenty-five gallons and mix. Do not 
 
 (279) 
 
280 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 attempt to pour the milk of lime into the copper sulfate, 
 or the reverse, but pour together in equal quantities 
 into a third vessel. 
 
 Success in preparing Bordeaux mixture of uniform 
 color and consistency will depend on the pureness 
 of the substances and the manner of mixing. When 
 properly prepared it has a sky-blue color. If the lime 
 is not fresh, a greenish color sometimes results, which 
 indicates that more hme is needed. It is advisable to 
 have an excess of lime. Where plants with delicate 
 foHage, like the peach, are to be sprayed, three times 
 as much lime as copper sulfate is used. 
 
 Insecticides With Bordeaux Mixture. It is often de- 
 sirable to apply an insecticide at the same time a fungi- 
 cide is applied, in order to obviate the necessity of two 
 sprayings. This is often done when internal poisons', like 
 Paris Green, London Purple, or Arsenate of Lead, are 
 used. They may be added to the Bordeaux Mixture at the 
 rate of one-fourth pound to fifty gallons of Bordeaux. 
 
 Lime and Sulfur Preparations are much used to 
 destroy scale insects. They act both as a fungicide and 
 an insecticide, though their use is advisable only during 
 the dormant season. The preparations in common use 
 vary somewhat in detail. The following is often used: 
 
 Fresh lime 15 to 30 pounds 
 
 Flowers of sulfur 15 " 
 
 Common salt 10 " 
 
 Water to make 50 gallons 
 
 When the lime is perfectly fresh, the smaller quantity 
 named above will answer. 
 
 To make the preparation, proceed as follows: Slake 
 the lime with hot water, adding the water slowly until 
 about ten gallons are used. Then add the sulfur and 
 
Appendix B 
 
 281 
 
 salt and stir until thoroughly mixed. Boil this mixture 
 for from forty-five to sixty minutes to thoroughly 
 dissolve the sulfur. The sulfur dissolves most easily 
 in a thin milky solution of Ume, and, for this reason, 
 no more water is used in dissolving the sulfur than is 
 necessary to keep the mixture from becoming pasty. 
 When the sulfur is thoroughly dissolved, pass the solu- 
 tion through a strainer and dilute to the desired con- 
 centration with hot water. The mixture should be pre- 
 pared just as needed, and applied while still warm. 
 
 Kerosene Preparations. Kerosene oil is an external 
 irritant and is very effective in killing insects. It can 
 not be applied to plants, however, in its crude form, 
 without producing serious injury. Resort is had, there- 
 fore, to various substances to dilute and carry the oil, 
 such as soap-suds, milk, milk of lime, or even water 
 alone, automatically mixed with the water in forming 
 the spray. Kerosene preparations 
 should be appHed to plants with great 
 caution. They are ver}^ efficient in 
 fighting certain injurious insects, but 
 if not properly applied, serious injury 
 to the plant may result. 
 
 Kerosene Emulsion. Dissolve one 
 pound of Naphtha soap in two and 
 one-half gallons of water. Then add 
 two and one-half gallons of kerosene 
 to the solution and thoroughly mix by 
 pumping the entire mixture through 
 a bucket sprayer. Fig. 179. Now di- 
 lute to from twenty to thirty gallons 
 as desired. Apply while fresh. Used for scale and other 
 sucking insects. 
 
 Fig. 179. Hand bucket 
 spray pump . A 
 longer hose than that 
 shown is needed for 
 convenient using. 
 
282 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Paris Green is a standard poison for all insects that 
 bite and swallow their food. It is heavy and, therefore, 
 requires constant agitation to keep suspended in the 
 spraying preparation. Paris Green is used at rate of 
 about four ounces to fifty gallons of water. It is advisable 
 to add some lime to the mixture to prevent injury to 
 the foliage. It should be first worked into a paste 
 before adding to a large quantity of water, whether 
 used singly or in combination with Bordeaux Mixture. 
 
 Arsenate of Lead. This is often preferred to Paris 
 green because it is lighter, remains in suspension longer, 
 and adheres to the foliage better. It is white in color 
 and can be readily seen. Another important advantage 
 claimed for Arsenate of Lead is that it is less liable to 
 injure tender foliage. In its preparation use: 
 
 Arsenate of soda 4 ounces 
 
 Acetate of lead 11 " 
 
 Water 16 gallons 
 
 Dissolve the first tw^o separately in a small amount of 
 water and then mix and add the full quantity of water. It 
 may be purchased, prepared ready for use, at seed stores. 
 
 Dust Applications of Insecticides are sometimes 
 advisable. Special machines are on the market for 
 applying both insecticides and fungicides in the form 
 of dust. Dust applications have not been found so uni- 
 formly satisfactory as the liquid applications. 
 
 Spraying Domestic Animals with poisons is some- 
 times recommended to kill insects, ticks and other 
 parasites. Various preparations of oils and arsenical 
 preparations are used. London Purple, dusted on the 
 perches, nest and bodies of poultry, is a very satisfactory 
 way to destroy mites on poultry. If applied regularly, 
 it becomes a preventive. 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 
 
 Green Feeds, 
 
 Corn fodder, whole plant . 
 
 Kaffir corn fodder 
 
 Sorghum fodder 
 
 Kentucky Blue grass 
 
 Johnson grass 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Peanut Adnes 
 
 Dry Hay and Fodders. 
 Corn fodder, entire plant . 
 Corn fodder, leaves only. . . 
 Corn husks from ears .... 
 
 Kaffir corn stover 
 
 Hay from 
 
 Oats 
 
 Timothy 
 
 Prairie grass 
 
 Johnson grass 
 
 Millet 
 
 Mixed grasses 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Alfalfa, minimum 
 
 Alfalfa, maximum 
 
 Alfalfa, average 
 
 Cowpea 
 
 Peanut vines, without nuts 
 
 Oat straw , 
 
 Wheat straw 
 
 Roots and Tubers. 
 
 Sweet Potatoes 
 
 Irish potatoes 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Pounds per hundred 
 
 73.4 
 73.0 
 69.4 
 65.1 
 
 71.8 
 83.6 
 
 42.2 
 30.0 
 50.9 
 19.2 
 
 16.0 
 
 13.2 
 
 7.7 
 
 9.9 
 
 8.8 
 
 15.3 
 
 20.8 
 
 4.6 
 
 16.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 10.7 
 
 7.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.6 
 
 71.1 
 
 78.9 
 86.7 
 90.6 
 
 88.6 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.8 
 
 2.7 
 1.7 
 
 2.7 
 5.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 8.0 
 
 6.1 
 4.4 
 6.4 
 5.7 
 
 10.1 
 5.5 
 6.6 
 3.1 
 
 10.4 
 7.4 
 7.5 
 
 10.8 
 5.1 
 4.2 
 
 1.0 
 1.0 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 1.0 
 
 2.0 
 2.3 
 1.6 
 4.1 
 
 4.8 
 2.4 
 
 4.5 
 6.0 
 2.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 5.9 
 
 3.8 
 
 12.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 10.2 
 
 20.3 
 
 14.3 
 
 16.6 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.0 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.5 
 2.1 
 1.5 
 1.3 
 1.1 
 
 6.7 
 6.9 
 
 9.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 4.8 
 
 14.3 
 21.4 
 15.8 
 26.8 
 
 27.2 
 29.0 
 34.8 
 29.1 
 32.1 
 27.2 
 21.9 
 14.0 
 33.0 
 25.0 
 20.1 
 23.6 
 37.0 
 38.1 
 
 1.3 
 0.6 
 0.9 
 1.2 
 1.3 
 
 OX 
 
 15.5 
 15.1 
 16.8 
 17.6 
 
 12.3 
 7.1 
 
 34.7 
 35.7 
 28.3 
 30.6 
 
 40.6 
 45.0 
 45.7 
 39.8 
 34.8 
 42.1 
 33.8 
 35.1 
 53.6 
 42.7 
 42.2 
 42.7 
 42.4 
 43.4 
 
 24.7 
 
 17.3 
 
 9.9 
 
 5.9 
 
 7.6 
 
 0.9 
 0.7 
 1.6 
 1.3 
 
 1.0 
 0.4 
 
 1.6 
 1.4 
 0.7 
 1.6 
 
 2.7 
 2.5 
 1.5 
 2.7 
 2.9 
 2.5 
 4.5 
 1.1 
 3.8 
 2.2 
 2.9 
 4.6 
 2.3 
 1.8 
 
 0.4 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 
 (283) 
 
APPENDIX D 
 
 Per Cent of Digestible Nutrients in Stock Feeds 
 
 Timothy, green Steers 
 
 Timothy, green Horse 
 
 Timothy, hay, dry 
 
 Mixed hay 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 Johnson grass, dry 
 
 Corn fodder, leaves 
 
 Corn shucks 
 
 Alfalfa hay 
 
 Corn, unground Horse 
 
 Corn meal Horse 
 
 Corn, unground Swine 
 
 Corn, groimd Swine 
 
 Corn meal Sheep 
 
 Corn meal Cows 
 
 Oats, imground Horse 
 
 Oats, ground Horse 
 
 Wheat bran Swine 
 
 Wheat bran Sheep 
 
 Wheat bran Steers 
 
 Cotton-seed hulls Cow 
 
 Cotton-seed hulls Goats 
 
 Cotton-seed meal Goat 
 
 Cotton-seed meal Cow 
 
 Cotton seed, raw 
 
 Cotton seed, roasted 
 
 Potatoes, raw 
 
 Potatoes, boiled 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Digestion coefficients 
 
 a 
 >-. 
 
 _Q 
 
 % 
 63.5 
 43.5 
 53.4 
 
 oS 
 
 % 
 65.6 
 44.1 
 54.5 
 
 50.3 
 56.5 
 59.8 
 72.0 
 58.9 
 74.4 
 88.4 
 82.5 
 89.5 
 89.6 
 84.6 
 72.4 
 75.7 
 65.8 
 58.7 
 67.3 
 35.9 
 38.6 
 65.9 
 77.9 
 66.1 
 55.9 
 75.7 
 80.1 
 94.5 
 92.8 
 
 52.0 
 58.3 
 63.6 
 74.2 
 60.7 
 75.3 
 
 83;4 
 91.2 
 90.7 
 
 82.8 
 74.1 
 
 77.7 
 
 61 !6 
 68.6 
 36.2 
 39.8 
 69.5 
 80.0 
 65.8 
 56.8 
 77.0 
 81.2 
 98.7 
 96.1 
 
 % 
 32.2 
 34.1 
 30.3 
 
 30.5 
 26.8 
 16.0 
 39.5 
 26.3 
 
 49.5 
 
 33!i 
 29.2 
 
 i7!3 
 47.1 
 27.1 
 20.9 
 19.8 
 35.0 
 43.3 
 
 31.9 
 
 58.6 
 
 % 
 48.1 
 21.2 
 45.1 
 48.0 
 38.- 
 
 4i!4 
 48.4 
 29.5 
 72.0 
 57.8 
 75.6 
 68.7 
 86.1 
 76.9 
 58.3 
 86.1 
 82.4 
 75.1 
 70.2 
 82.3 
 24.6 
 
 seis 
 
 89.8 
 67.8 
 46.9 
 44.7 
 43.4 
 91.3 
 89.7 
 
 % 
 55.6 
 42.6 
 47.1 
 48.0 
 58.0 
 57.6 
 65.7 
 67.5 
 79.5 
 46.0 
 
 38.3 
 29.4 
 
 31.1 
 14.4 
 33.0 
 16.1 
 25.1 
 27.4 
 45.2 
 46.8 
 
 75!5 
 65.9 
 
 100.0 
 100.0 
 
 OX 
 h as 
 
 % 
 65.7 
 47.3 
 60.4 
 57.0 
 53.0 
 53.2 
 56.9 
 63.0 
 75.0 
 69.2 
 88.2 
 95.7 
 88.8 
 94.2 
 95.3 
 87.1 
 79.4 
 86.3 
 65.5 
 67.2 
 74.6 
 40.3 
 37.4 
 43.8 
 68.1 
 49.6 
 51.4 
 90.4 
 92.1 
 99.7 
 96.5 
 
 % 
 53.1 
 47.3 
 51.9 
 50.0 
 38.0 
 38.0 
 38.4 
 59.9 
 32.5 
 51.0 
 47.7 
 73.1 
 45.6 
 81.7 
 98.1 
 91.9 
 82.4 
 79.9 
 71.8 
 72.1 
 54.7 
 80.6 
 87.1 
 92.4 
 89.4 
 87.1 
 71.7 
 13.0 
 
 49.9 
 
 87.5 
 
 (284) 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 Average Digestible Nutrients and Fertilizing Constituents in 
 
 Stock Feeds 
 
 
 Green Feeds. 
 
 Corn fodder, entire 
 
 plant 
 
 Kaffir corn fodder .... 
 Sorghum fodder. . . . . 
 
 Johnson grass 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Cowpea vines 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Peanut vines 
 
 Dry Fodders and Hat 
 
 Corn stover 
 
 Kaffir corn stover 
 Sorghum stover 
 .Johnson grass . . . 
 
 Red clover 
 
 Cowpea vine hay 
 Alfalfa hay .... 
 Peanut vine hay 
 Wheat straw . . . 
 
 Oat straw 
 
 Hay, mixed grasse; 
 
 Grains and Seeds. 
 Corn, whole grain 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Kaffir corn 
 
 Oats 
 
 Wheat, all varieties 
 Wheat bran .... 
 Wheat middlings 
 Wheat shorts . . 
 
 Cotton seed 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 Cotton-seed hulls 
 
 Root Crops. 
 Irish potatoes. 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Beets 
 
 20.7 
 27.0 
 30.6 
 
 29!2 
 16.4 
 
 28.2 
 
 59.5 
 
 80.8 
 
 84.7 
 89.3 
 91.6 
 
 90.4 
 90.8 
 87.1 
 
 89.1 
 89.1 
 
 87.5 
 89.0 
 89.5 
 88.1 
 87.9 
 88.2 
 89.7 
 91.5 
 89.5 
 
 21.1 
 
 9.5 
 
 11.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 Digestible nutrients in 
 100 pounds 
 
 iFertilizing consti- 
 ! tuents in 100 
 I pounds 
 
 3.07 
 1.68 
 3.89 
 
 1.98 
 
 1.82 
 
 7.38 
 10.79 
 10..58 
 
 'o!37 
 1.20 
 5.90 
 
 8.00 
 
 5.78 
 9.25 
 10.23 
 12.20 
 12.80 
 12.22 
 11.08 
 38.10 
 0..30 
 
 1.36 
 0.81 
 0.81 
 1.21 
 
 1 «J 
 II 
 
 1.10 12.08 
 0.87 13.80 
 0.70 17.60 
 
 14.82 
 
 8.08 
 
 11.20 
 
 32.16 
 41.42 
 
 38.15 
 .38.40 
 37.33 
 
 36130 
 38.64 
 40.90 
 
 0.37 
 0.43 
 0.20 
 
 0".69 
 0.25 
 0.41 
 
 0.57 
 0.98 
 
 1.81 
 1.54 
 1.38 
 
 OAO 
 0.76 
 1.20 
 
 65.90 4.60 
 
 53.58 
 48.34 
 69.21 
 39.20 
 53.00 
 49.98 
 .33.13 
 16.00 
 32.90 
 
 16.43 
 6.46 
 
 7.83 
 8.84 
 
 1.33 
 4.18 
 1.68 
 2.70 
 3.40 
 3.88 
 18.44 
 12.60 
 1.70 
 
 0.11 
 0.22 
 0.05 
 
 26.076 0.30 
 29.101 
 0.30 
 
 36.187 0.54 
 19.209 0.27 
 29.798 h 
 
 67.766 
 84.562 
 
 1.10 
 
 92.324 0.54 
 97.865 2.66 
 94.9.36 
 
 69^894 1 6.60 
 77.310 0.46 
 93.925 1.40 
 
 1.57.237 1.58 
 
 116.022 
 124.757 
 154.848 
 111.138 
 136.996 
 131.855 
 160.047 
 1.52.6,53 
 69.839' 0.69 
 
 1.65 
 
 2.67 
 2.63 
 
 6.90 
 
 o 
 
 a- 3 
 
 0.15 
 0.09 
 
 33.089 I 0.24 
 13.986 I 0.19 
 16.999 I 
 18.904 I 
 
 0.15 
 0.10 
 
 0.29 
 
 0.15 
 0.52 
 
 0.22 
 0.28 
 0.27 
 
 0.57 
 
 0.69 
 
 2.89 
 0.95 
 
 3.00 
 0.25 
 
 0.08 
 0.09 
 
 (285) 
 
286 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Composition of American Feeding Stuffs, continued 
 
 Grains and Seeds, 
 
 Corn, minimum 
 
 Corn, maximum 
 
 Corn, average 
 
 Kaffir corn 
 
 Barley 
 
 Oats 
 
 Svniflower seed 
 
 Cotton-seed, whole 
 
 Cotton seed, hulls 
 
 Cotton-seed meal 
 
 Peanut hulls 
 
 Peanut, kernel only 
 
 Cowpeas 
 
 By-Products of Mills. 
 
 Corncob 
 
 Gem from corn 
 
 Gem meal from corn 
 
 Wheat bran 
 
 Wheat middlings 
 
 Wheat shorts 
 
 Rice bran 
 
 Dairy Products. 
 
 Whole milk 
 
 Skim milk, gravity creaming . . , 
 
 Skim milk, separator 
 
 Buttermilk 
 
 Whey 
 
 By-Products, Packery. 
 
 Dried blood 
 
 Meat scraps 
 
 Tankage 
 
 Pounds per hundred 
 
 6.2 
 
 19.4 
 
 10.6 
 
 12.5 
 
 10.9 
 
 11.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 5.8 
 
 11.1 
 
 8.2 
 
 9.0 
 
 7.5 
 
 11.9 
 
 10.7 
 10.7 
 
 8.1 
 11.9 
 12.1 
 11.8 
 
 9.7 
 
 87.2 
 99.4 
 90.6 
 91.0 
 93.8 
 
 92.0 
 78.0 
 92.0 
 
 1.0 
 2.6 
 1.5 
 1.3 
 2.4 
 3.0 
 2.6 
 2.9 
 2.8 
 7.8 
 3.4 
 2.4 
 3.4 
 
 1.4 
 4.0 
 1.3 
 5.8 
 3.3 
 4.6 
 10.0 
 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 0.7 
 0.4 
 
 17.39 
 
 7.5 
 11.8 
 10.3 
 10.9 
 12.4 
 11.8 
 16.3 
 14.5 
 
 4.2 
 42.3 
 
 6.6 
 27.9 
 23.5 
 
 2.4 
 9.8 
 11.1 
 15.4 
 15.6 
 14.9 
 12.1 
 
 3.6 
 3.3 
 3.2 
 3.0 
 0.6 
 
 87.0 
 49.72 
 60.0 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 Xi 
 
 ox 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 
 
 0.9 
 
 65.9 
 
 4.8 
 
 75.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 70.4 
 
 1.9 
 
 70.5 
 
 2.7 
 
 69.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 59.7 
 
 29.9 
 
 21.4 
 
 10.9 
 
 17.3 
 
 46.3 
 
 33.4 
 
 5.6 
 
 23.6 
 
 64.3 
 
 15.1 
 
 7.0 
 
 15.6 
 
 3.8 
 
 55.7 
 
 30.1 
 
 54.9 
 
 4.1 
 
 64.0 
 
 9.9 
 
 62.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 53.9 
 
 4.6 
 
 60.4 
 
 7.4 
 
 56.8 
 
 49.5 
 
 49.9 
 
 
 4.9 
 
 
 4.7 
 
 
 5.2 
 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 5.1 
 
 3.1 
 7.5 
 5.0 
 2.9 
 1.8 
 5.0 
 
 21.2 
 
 15.3 
 2.2 
 
 13.1 
 1.6 
 
 39.6 
 1.7 
 
 0.5 
 7.4 
 7.1 
 4.0 
 4.0 
 4.5 
 8.8 
 
 3.7 
 0.9 
 0.3 
 0.5 
 0.1 
 
 18.51 
 8.0 
 
APPENDIX F 
 
 Standard Feeding Rations 
 
 Approximate requirements of nutrients for a clay's feeding per 1,000 
 
 pounds live weight 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 >. 
 
 ■-. 
 
 Digestible nutrients 
 
 9 
 
 o Fuel value 
 
 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 1 
 
 > 
 
 it 
 
 Oxen — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 At rest in stall 
 
 18 
 
 0.7 
 
 8.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 16,600 
 
 1:11.6 
 
 At light work 
 
 22 
 
 ! 1.4 
 
 10.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 22,500 
 
 1:9.3 
 
 At heavy work 
 
 28 
 
 ' 2.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 32,755 
 
 1:5.0 
 
 Dairy cattle, in milk — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Giving 11 pounds milk a day 
 
 25 
 
 1.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 22,850 
 
 1:6.8 
 
 Giving 16.5 pounds milk a day. . . . 
 
 27 
 
 2.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 25,850 
 
 I 1:5.4 
 
 Giving 22 pounds milk a day 
 
 29 
 
 2.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 30,950 
 
 1:5.6 
 
 Giving 27.5 pounds milk a day. . . . 
 
 32 
 
 3.3 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 33,700 
 
 1:4.5 
 
 Cattle, growing age- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 About 150 lbs., 2 to 3 months . . . 
 
 23 
 
 4.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 40,050 
 
 1:3.4 
 
 About 300 lbs., 3 to 6 months 
 
 24 
 
 3.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 33,600 
 
 1 :4.7 
 
 About 500 lbs., 6 to 12 months . . . 
 
 27 
 
 2.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 29,100 
 
 1:6.8 
 
 About 700 lbs., 12 to 18 months . . 
 
 26 
 
 1.8 
 
 12.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 28,300 
 
 1:7.5 
 
 About 900 tt3s., 18 to 24 months . . 
 
 26 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 26,350 
 
 1:8.4 
 
 Sheep— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Heavv fleeced breeds 
 
 23 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 26 400 
 
 1 :8.5 
 
 Ewes, with lambs 
 
 25 
 
 2.9 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 35 400 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 Growing, wool breeds — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 to 75 lbs., 4 to 8 months 
 
 25 
 
 3.2 
 
 14.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 35,500 
 
 1:4.9 
 
 80 to 90 lbs., 8 to 15 months . . . 
 
 23 
 
 2.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 26,000 
 
 1:6.1 
 
 Growing, mutton breeds — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 60 to 80 lbs., 4 to 8 months .... 
 
 26 
 
 4.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 38,000 
 
 1:4.1 
 
 100 to 150 lbs., 8 to 15 months . 
 
 23 
 
 2.2 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 30,000 
 
 1:6.4 
 
 Swine — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Growing, breeding stock — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 to 100 lbs., 2 to 5 months . . . 
 
 40 
 
 6.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 60,000 
 
 1:4.0 
 
 120 to 200 lbs., 5 to 8 months . . 
 
 30 
 
 3.8 
 
 20.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 45,000 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 200 to 250 fts., 8 to 12 months . 
 
 26 
 
 3.0 
 
 17.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 35,000 
 
 1:5.8 
 
 Growing, fattening — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 About 50 lbs., 2 to 3 months . . . 
 
 44 
 
 7.6 
 
 28.0 , 
 
 1.0 
 
 70,000 
 
 1:3.7 
 
 About 100 lbs., 3 to 5 months . . 
 
 35 
 
 5.0 
 
 23.0 i 
 
 0.8 
 
 55,650 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 About 150 lbs., 5 to 6 months . . 
 
 33 
 
 4.3 
 
 22.3 
 
 0.6 
 
 52,000 i 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 About 200 lbs., 6 to 8 months . . 
 
 30 
 
 3.6 
 
 20.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 46,500 
 
 1:5.9 
 
 About 275 fts., 9 to 12 months . 
 
 26 
 
 3.0 
 
 18.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 40,900 
 
 1:6.3 
 
 (287) 
 
APPENDIX G 
 
 Standard Feeding Rations 
 Approximate requirements of nutrients per day per head 
 
 
 < 
 
 ll 
 
 if 
 
 Digestible nutrients 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 £ 
 
 Ah 
 
 Carbon- 
 hydrate 
 
 Fat 
 
 > 
 
 11 
 
 
 Months 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. Lbs. 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 Growing cattle 
 
 2-3 
 
 150 
 
 0.60 
 
 2.10 0.300 
 
 6,288 
 
 1:4.6 
 
 
 3-6 
 
 300 
 
 1.00 
 
 4.10 0.300 
 
 10,752 
 
 1:4.7 
 
 
 6-12 
 
 500 
 
 1.30 
 
 6.80 0.300 
 
 16,332 
 
 1:5.3 
 
 
 12-18 
 
 700 
 
 1.40 
 
 9.10 0.280 
 
 30,712 
 
 1:6.8 
 
 
 18-24 
 
 850 
 
 1.40 
 
 10.30 0.260 
 
 22,859 
 
 1:7.7 
 
 Growing sheep 
 
 5-6 
 
 56 
 
 0.18 
 
 0.87 0.045 
 
 2,143 
 
 1.5.4 
 
 
 6-8 
 
 67 
 
 0.17 
 
 0.85 0.040 
 
 2,066 
 
 1:5.4 
 
 
 8-11 
 
 75 
 
 0.16 
 
 0.85 0.037 
 
 2,035 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 
 11-15 
 
 82 
 
 0.14 
 
 0.89 .032 
 
 2,050 
 
 1:7.0 
 
 
 15-20 
 2-3 
 
 85 
 50 
 
 0.12 
 0.38 
 
 0.88 0.025 
 
 1,956 
 3,497 
 
 1:8.0 
 
 Gro\\-ing fat swine .... 
 
 1.50 
 
 1:4.0 
 
 
 3-5 
 
 100 
 
 0.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 5,580 
 
 1:5.0 
 
 
 5-6 
 
 125 
 
 0.54 
 
 2.96 
 
 6,510 
 
 1:5.5 
 
 
 6-8 
 
 170 
 
 0.58 
 
 3.47 
 
 7,533 
 
 1:6.0 
 
 
 8-12 
 
 250 
 
 0.62 
 
 4.05 
 
 8,686 
 
 1 :6.3 
 
 (288) 
 
APPENDIX H 
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Abdomen. That part of an animal's body containing the digestive 
 
 organs; the part of an insect lying behind the thorax. 
 Acid. A sour substance, such as vinegar, and lemon juice. 
 ^Esthetic. Appealing to the faculties of taste, as in form, color, etc. 
 Agriculture. Farming. 
 
 Agronomy. Of, or pertaining to, field crops. 
 Air-dry. Dried in air at ordinary temperatures. 
 Albumin. A substance found in plants and animals, rich in nitrogen. 
 
 The white of an egg is a good example. 
 Alga. A green plant of simple structure, such as pond scum. 
 Ameliorate. To improve; make better. 
 Amendment. Substances which improve the productiveness of soils 
 
 without being used directly as a plant food. 
 Ammonia. A compound of nitrogen readily usable as plant food. 
 Animal Husbandry. Raising and caring for animals. 
 Annual. A plant that bears seed during the first year of its existence 
 
 and then dies. 
 Anther. The part of a stamen that bears the pollen. 
 Antiseptic. Substances which kill germs or microbes. 
 Art. The skillful and systematic arrangement or adaptation of 
 
 means for the attainment of some end. 
 Ash. The mineral substance left when plant or animal substances 
 
 are burned. 
 Assimilation. The absorption of digested nutrients into the body 
 
 substance. Also sometimes used as synonymous with carbon 
 
 assimilation. 
 Atmospheric Nitrogen. Free nitrogen of the air. 
 Available. Said of fertilizing mineral nutrients in the soil when they 
 
 are in a condition to be absorbed. 
 Axils. Angle above the junction of a leaf-stalk with the parent stem. 
 Babcock Tester. Instrument used for determining the amount of 
 
 butter-fat in milk. 
 
 s (289) 
 
290 Eleme7itary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Bacteria. A name applied to a class of very small parasitic plants. 
 
 There are many kinds, most of which are beneficial to man. 
 
 Some species are the cause of disease in man and the higher 
 
 animals or plants. 
 Biennial. A plant that grows during the first year, and forms seeds, 
 
 and dies the year following, such as turnips, beets. 
 Bioplasm. The living substance of cells. See Protoplasm. 
 Blight. A diseased condition of plants in which the entire plant 
 
 or some part withers and dries up. 
 Bordeaux Mixture. A mixture of lime and copper sulphate (blue- 
 stone), used to prevent fungus diseases on plants. It takes its 
 
 name from Bordeaux, France, where it was first used. 
 Botany. The science that deals with plants. 
 Breeding. Plant-breeding; animal-breeding. The practice of 
 
 selecting out the best individvials for propagation. 
 Bud (noun). An undeveloped branch. 
 
 Bud (verb). To insert a bud, as in the practice of budding. 
 Bud Variation. Where a bud produces a bran'ch that possesses 
 
 characteristics different from the parent plant. New forms 
 
 originating in this way are called sports. 
 Bulb. A stem with thickened leaves overlapping one another, as in 
 
 the onion, Easter lily, etc. 
 Calcareous. Limy, or having the properties of lime. 
 Calcium. A chemical element giving limestone its distinctive prop- 
 erties. 
 Callus. The growth of extra tissue over cut or wounded places on 
 
 plants. 
 Calyx. The outermost circle of leaves in a flower. 
 Cambium. The growing layer of cells lying between the bark and 
 
 the wood. 
 Cannon. The shank bone above the fetlock in the fore and hind legs 
 
 of the horse. 
 Capillary. 
 Capillarity. 
 Carbon. The principal chemical element in plants. Charcoal and 
 
 graphite are forms. 
 Carbon Assimilation. The process carried on in the cells of green 
 
 plants in assimilating the carbon of the carbon dioxid of the air. 
 Carbon Dioxid. A gas formed whenever substances containing 
 
 carbon are burned. 
 
Appendix H 291 
 
 Carbon Bisulphide. A chemical compound of carbon and sulphur. 
 
 A heavy inflammable liquid used to kill insects in stored grain. 
 Carbohydrate., Compound of carbon with water, such as sugar, 
 
 starch, wood fiber, etc. They form the largest part of plant 
 
 substance. 
 Carnivorous. Feeding on flesh. 
 Casein. Milk curd, the most important albuminoid in milk and 
 
 cheese. 
 Catch Crop. A crop grown during an interval between harvest of 
 
 regular crops. 
 Cellulose. The principal carbohydrate in wood fibers, such as cotton, 
 
 flax, wood pulp. 
 Cereal. The name given to the grasses cultivated for their grain, 
 
 as corn, wheat, kaffir corn. 
 Chemistry. The science that deals with the properties of the elements 
 
 and their compounds. 
 Chlorophyll. The green coloring-matter to which plants owe their 
 
 characteristic color. 
 Cion. A part of a plant inserted in another with the intention that 
 
 it shall grow. 
 Climatology. The knowledge and science of weather. It includes 
 
 the science of weather (local climate) and meteorology. 
 Coming True. Reproducing the variety characters. 
 Compost. Rotted organic matter, plant or animal. 
 Concentrates. A term used to designate feeding substances that are 
 
 almost wholly digestible, as corn, bran, mill products. 
 Contagious. A disease is said to be contagious when it can be carried 
 
 from one individual to another. 
 Corolla. The second circle of leaf-like parts of a flower. The corolla 
 
 is usually colored. 
 Cotyledons. The primary or seed-leaves of an embryo plant. 
 Cover Crop. A catch-crop designed to cover the ground during the 
 
 fall, winter or spring to prevent washing. 
 Cross. The individual resulting from breeding two varieties together. 
 Cross-Pollination. The pollination of a flower by pollen from another 
 
 plant. 
 Croup (crop). The top of the hips. 
 Cutting. A part of a stem or root put into the soil or other medium 
 
 with the intention that it shall grow and make another plant. 
 Dependent Plants. Plants that do not have the power of making 
 
292 Elemental'}! Principles of Agriculture 
 
 their own food products; i. e., incapable of carbon assimilation. 
 
 Digestion. The process of converting the insokible substances of 
 
 foods into sohible materials, preparatory to absorption into 
 
 the blood. 
 
 Drainage. Removing surplus water from the soil, either by ditches, 
 
 terraces or tiles. 
 Ecology. The science which treats of the inter-relationships between 
 animals and plants, and their environments. The study of the 
 modes and conditions of life of plants and animals, — a very 
 important phase of agricultural science. 
 Element. A substance that has only one form of matter. An original 
 
 form of matter. 
 Emulsion. A more or less permanent and complete mixture of oils 
 
 or fats and water. Fresh milk is an excellent illustration. 
 Endosperm. Reserve food in seeds stored outside of the embryo. 
 Energy. Power; force. Every movement of, or change of body, 
 expends energy. The energy of sunlight may be expressed in 
 sunlight heat, or other form of energy. 
 Ensilage, Green foods preserved in a silo. 
 Entomology. Science of insects. 
 
 Erosion. Wearing away. Denudings, as of rocks or soils. 
 Ether Extract. A term used in feed analyses to describe the substances 
 
 removed by ether — usually oils. 
 Evolution. The doctrine that present forms of plants and animals 
 are descended from previous forms. A theory of the origin of 
 forms of living organisms. 
 Farming. The practice of raising crops and animals. 
 Farmstead. A farm home or establishment. 
 Fecundation. The union of male and female cells. 
 Fermentation. A chemical change produced by bacteria, yeast, 
 etc. Example, souring of milk. The decay of any organic 
 substance is due to a form of fermentation. 
 Fertilization. Used in the same sense as fecundation. 
 Fertilizer. A substance added to the soil to improve its productive- 
 ness, as compost. Some fertilizers are known as amendments, 
 which see. 
 Fetlock. The long-haired cushion on the back side of a horse's leg, 
 
 just above the hoof. 
 Fiber. Any fine thread-like substance, as the wood fibers of stems, 
 cotton fiber, etc. 
 
Appendix H 293 
 
 Fibro-vascular Bundle. The bundles of wood fibers and water- 
 conducting vessels in the stems and leaves of plants. 
 
 Flocculate. To make granular. 
 
 Floral Envelope. The collective term for the calyx and corolla. 
 
 Fodder. Any coarse dry food for animals. 
 
 Forage. Plants fed to animals in their natural condition; i. e., 
 without preparation. 
 
 Formalin. A solution in water of the gas known as formaldehyde. 
 It is used to destroy bacteria, fungi, etc. 
 
 Function. The particular use of any organ or part. 
 
 Fungicide. Substances used to kill fungi, as compounds of copper. 
 
 Geology. The science that deals with the formation and properties 
 of the earth. 
 
 Germ. See Microorganism; bacteria. Also appHed to the embryo 
 of seeds, as in corn. 
 
 Germination. To sprout; to grow from a seed. 
 
 Girdle. To make a cut or groove around a tree or branch. 
 
 Glucose. A kind of sugar, very common in plants. The sugar 
 from grapes is glucose, but the sugar from cane and beets 
 is not. Glucose is formed from starch in the manufacture of 
 syrups. 
 
 Gluten. A form of protein found in plants. 
 
 Grafting. The practice of inserting a cion into a plant or root that 
 it may grow. 
 
 Growth. The increase in size or substance of a plant or animal. 
 
 Gypsum. Same as Plaster of Paris. 
 
 Herbivorous. Feeding on plants. 
 
 Heredity. The resemblance of offspring to parents. 
 
 Hibernating. Passing the winter or dormant season in an inactive 
 or torpid state in confined quarters. 
 
 Hock. The joint in the hind legs of quadrupeds corresponding to 
 the ankle of man. 
 
 Horticulture. Pertaining to the growing of fruits, vegetables, flow- 
 ers, and other ornamental plants. 
 
 Host. The plant or animal upon which a fungus or insect lives. 
 
 Humus (or humous). Partly decayed or rotten remains of plants 
 and animals. 
 
 Husbandry. Farming. 
 
 Hybrid. The progeny resulting from the crossing of two kinds of 
 plants, either varieties or species. 
 
294 Elcmentarij Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Hydrogen. A chemical element. It is present in water and all living 
 
 substances. 
 Hygroscopic. ' Holding moisture as a film on the surface. 
 Hypha (])lural, hypha^). The separate threads of the plant body of 
 
 fungi. 
 Inoculate. . To infect with a disease. 
 Inorganic. Matter which has not been elaborated into plant or animal 
 
 substance. 
 Insectivorous. Eating insects. 
 Insecticide. A poison used to kill insects. 
 Internode. The space between two nodes of a stem. 
 Inter-tillage. Tillage between plants. 
 Kainit. A salt of potash used in making fertilizers. 
 Kernel. A single seed, as a grain of corn, wheat, etc. 
 Kerosene Emulsion. See Appendix B. 
 Larva (plural, larvae). The worm-like stage in the development 
 
 of insects. 
 Layer. A part of a plant that has been bent down and covered with 
 
 soil to stimulate the formation of roots. After the roots are 
 
 formed, it is separated from the parent plant. 
 Legume. A plant belonging to the same family of plants as the pea, 
 
 bean, alfalfa, clovers, etc. 
 Lichen. A kind of fungus plant that grows associated with algae. 
 
 Very common on stones and bark of trees. 
 Loam. An earthy mixture of sand and clay, with some organic 
 
 matter. 
 Magnesia. A substance containing the chemical element magnesium. 
 
 It is similar to lime. 
 Microbe. A general term applied to all plants or animals that are 
 
 so small that they may be seen only by aid of the microscope. 
 Mildew. A cobwebby fungus on the surface of diseased or decaying 
 
 things. 
 Mold, or Mould. I'sed in the same way. IMold occurs only on dead 
 
 substances. 
 Mulch. A loose covering of straw, leaves, or soil, to retard evapora- 
 tion from the soil. 
 Nitrate. A compound having NO3 combined with a basic mineral 
 
 substance; a salt of nitric acid. 
 Nitrification. The changing of nitrogen into nitrates. 
 Nitrogen. A gaseous chemical element composing 79 per cent of the 
 
Appendix H 295 
 
 air. It forms a constituent of the more expensive mineral plant- 
 foods. A constituent of ammonia, albumen, proteids and all 
 living substances. 
 
 Node. The place on a stem where the leaves and branches originate. 
 
 Nutrient. A substance which serves as a food. 
 
 Organic. Of or belonging to living things. Organic matter has been 
 formed from simple chemical compounds and exist in nature 
 only as formed by animals or plants. 
 
 Osmosis. The movement of a liquid through a membrane. 
 
 Ovary. The part of the pistil that bears the seeds. 
 
 Ovule. The parts inside of the ovary that grow into seeds. 
 
 Ornithology. Science of birds. 
 
 Oxygen. A gaseous element composing about one-fifth of the air. 
 
 Oxidation. Combining with oxygen, as in the rusting of iron, burn- 
 ing of wood. 
 
 Parasite. Dependent plants or animals drawing their food from other 
 living plants or animals. Compare with Saprophyte. 
 
 Pedigree. A record of one's ancestors. 
 
 Perennial. Plants that live from year to year, as trees. 
 
 Petal. Parts of the corolla of flowers. 
 
 Phloem. That part of a stem through which the reserve food moves . 
 In plants with netted veined leaves it is just outside of the 
 cambium. 
 
 Phosphate. A salt of phosphoric acid. The bones of animals and the 
 shells of oysters are composed of phosphates. 
 
 Photosynthesis. Same as Carbon Assimilation. 
 
 Physiology. The science that treats of the life processes. It treats 
 of organs and their uses. 
 
 Pistil. The part of a flower containing the embryo seeds. 
 
 Plumule. The shoot end of an embryo plant. 
 
 Pollination. The act of carrying pollen from anther to stigma. It 
 is usually done by the wind or insects. 
 
 Pollen. The powdery mass borne by anthers. It is necessary for 
 ihe formation of seeds. 
 
 Potash. A substance containing potassium. 
 
 Predaceous. Living by prejang, or pillaging. Said of insects that 
 attack and destroy other kinds. 
 
 Protoplasm. The hving substance. "The physical basis of life." 
 
 Proteids. Organic substances rich in nitrogen. 
 
 Ration. A dailv allowance of food for an animal. 
 
296 Elementary Principles of Agriculture 
 
 Rotation (of crops). A systematic order of succession of crops on 
 
 the same land. 
 Roughage. Dry, coarse fodders. 
 Sap. The watery sokitions in plants. 
 Saprophyte. Living on dead organic matter. 
 
 Scion. A shoot, sprout or branch taken to graft onto another plant. 
 Science. ''Systematized common sense." Knowledge gained and 
 
 verified by exact observation and correct thinking. Knowledge 
 
 deals with simple facts, without reference to inter-relations. 
 
 Art refers to something to be done. Science to something to 
 
 be known. 
 Sepals. The segments of the calyx. 
 
 Silage. Green feed cut up and preserved without loss of succulence. 
 Silo. A place for keeping silage. 
 Smut. A term to designate the fungi that produce the blasting of 
 
 the fruits and leaves of plants. 
 Soil. That part of the earth's crust permeated by the roots of plants. 
 Soiling. The practice of feeding green plants in the stables. 
 Spiracle. Breathing pores of an insect's body. 
 Spore. The one-celled reproductive body of the lower plants. 
 Sport. A marked variation from the parents that appears suddenly. 
 Stamen. The part of a flower bearing the anthers with pollen. 
 Starch. A carbohydrate found in plants. 
 
 Sterilize. To destroy all the germs or spores in or on anything. 
 Sterile Plants. Plants that do not set seed. 
 Stigma. The part of a pistil that receives the pollen. 
 Stover. 
 Stoma (plural, stomata). The minute openings in the epidermis 
 
 of leaves. 
 Subsoil. The layer of soil below the surface layer of cultivated soils. 
 Superphosphate. Phosphates that have been treated with sulphuric 
 
 acid to render the phosphates available. 
 Thorax. The middle part of an insect's body. 
 Tillage. The act of preparing the ground to receive the seed and the 
 
 cultivation of the plants. 
 Tuber. A thickened underground stem, as an Irish potato. 
 Tubercle. A small wart-like growth on the roots of legumes, caused 
 
 by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 
 Variety. A kind or sort of plant. 
 Viable. Capable of germinating. Having life. 
 
Appendix H 297 
 
 Vigor. Referring to the rapidity of growth, without reference to 
 
 hardiness. 
 Vital. Of, or pertaining to hving things. 
 Water-Table. The hne of free water in the soil. 
 Weathering. The action of moisture, air, frost, upon rocks, etc. 
 Weed. A plant where it is not wanted. 
 Wilt. Used synonymous with blight. 
 Zoology. The science that treats of animals. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus, 271. 
 
 Absorption of Water by Root-Hairs, 
 22. 
 
 Absorption of Water by Seeds, 24. 
 
 Absorption of Water by Soils, 24. 
 
 Absorption of Water, Effect on Germi- 
 nation, 24, 25. 
 
 Advantages of South, 349. 
 
 Agriculture, Books on, Appendix A. 
 
 Algse, Fo&d of, 11. 
 
 Amount of Feed, 33S. 
 
 Angora Goats, 306. 
 
 Animal Body, Nutrition of, 322. 
 
 Animals, Destroy In.sects, 257. 
 
 Animals, Healthfulne.ss of, 360. 
 
 Animals. Herbivorous, 326. 
 
 Animal Husbandry, 258. 
 
 Animal Husbandry. Advantages of, 
 261. 
 
 Animals, Ruminating, 327. 
 
 Animals, Shelter for, 347. 
 
 Application of Ratios, 334. 
 
 Arsenate of Lead, Appendix B. 
 
 Artificial Incubation, 309. 
 
 BabcockTest, 351. 
 
 Bacon Hogs, 297. 
 
 Balanced Rations, Economy of, 335. 
 
 Beef Breeds, 268. 
 
 Berkshire Hogs, 300. 
 
 Birds, 249. 
 
 Birds, Beneficial, 251. 
 
 Birds, Feeding Habits, 254, 255. 
 
 Birds, Food of, 250. 
 
 Bird Houses, 256. 
 
 Birds, Migration of, 253. 
 
 Books on Agriculture, Appendix A. 
 
 Bordeaux Mixture, Appendix B. 
 
 Breed, 266, 267. 
 
 Butter, Judging, 366. 
 
 Callus, 59. 
 
 Callus, Growth of, 64. 
 
 Cambium, 58. 
 
 Carbon Assimilation, 47, 48, 50. 
 
 Carbon Dioxid, 29. 
 
 Capillary Attraction, 71. 
 
 Capillary Water. 100. 
 
 Capillary Water, Amount of, 100. 
 
 Care in Milking, 363. 
 
 Care of Horses, 293. 
 
 Care of Young Poultry, 320. 
 
 Catch-Crops, 144. 
 
 Caterpillar, 226, 237. 
 
 Cells, 13. 
 
 Cellular Structure, 13. 
 
 Cell- Wall, 8. 
 
 Chickens, Barred Plymouth Rock, 317. 
 
 Chickens, Egg Breeds, 227. 
 
 Chickens, Light Brahma, 316. 
 
 Chickens, General-Purpose Breeds, 
 
 317. 
 Chickens, Meat Breeds, 316. 
 Chickens, White Leghorn, 314. 
 ChiU Saltpeter, 121. 
 Churning, 365. 
 Clarification of Milk, 368. 
 Clay, 89. 
 
 Cleanliness of Stable, 362. 
 Clydesdale Horses, 288. 
 Coach Horses, 289. 
 Coldframes, 36. 
 Composition of Plants, 45. 
 Compost, 123. 
 
 Compounds of Elements, 40. 
 Concentrated Foods, 339. 
 Cover Crops, 144. 
 Cross-Fertilization, 173. 
 Creaming, Centrifugal, 358. 
 Creaming, GraWty, 357. 
 Cultivation, Effect of, 214. 
 Cultivation of Soil. (See Tilth.) 
 Culture, Objects of, 7. 
 Cuttage, 195. 
 
 Dairy Breeds, 272. 
 
 (299) 
 
300 
 
 Index 
 
 Dairy Cow, Distinctive Quality of, 
 
 350. 
 Dairy Cows, How Valued, 352. 
 Dairy Products, Sanitary, 359. 
 Dairying, 348. 
 
 Decoration of Landscape, 369. 
 Denitrification, 129. 
 Dependent Plants, 12. 
 Digestible Nutrients, Ratio of, 333. 
 Digestibility of Feeds, 331. 
 Digestibility of Nutrients, 332. 
 Digestion of Fowls, 325. 
 Digestive Tract of Domestic Animals, 
 
 324. 
 Disease, Due to Fungi, 215. 
 Disease, Due to Insects, 146. 
 Domesticated Plants, 202. 
 Drainage, 107. 
 
 Drainage Waters, Plant Food in, 112. 
 Driving Horses, 290. 
 Drouth, 136. 
 Drouth Limit, 102. 
 Drouth-Resistant, 55. 
 Dry-Land Farming, 97. 
 Duroc-Jersey Hogs, 298. 
 Dust Applications, Appendix C. 
 
 Economy of Balanced Rations, 335. 
 
 Eggs, Preserving, 313. 
 
 Element, 39. 
 
 Elements, Essential, 43, 109. 
 
 Elements, in Plants, 41. 
 
 Elements, Non-Essential, 44. 
 
 Environment, 6. 
 
 Environment of Roots, 66. 
 
 Epidermis, 47. 
 
 Essential Elements, 109. 
 
 Essential Elements, Soils Deficient in, 
 
 138. 
 Evaporation, from Soils, 95c. 
 
 Farm Conditions, Changes in, 398. 
 
 Farm Dairying, 348. 
 
 Farm Lot, 371. 
 
 Farm Machinery, 391, 394. 
 
 Farm Wood-Lot, 388. 
 
 Feed, Amount of, 338. 
 
 Feeding Poultry, 311. 
 
 Feeds, Preparation of, 342. 
 
 Feeding Rations, Standard, Appen- 
 dixes F and G. 
 
 Feeding Stuffs, Composition of, Ap- 
 pendix C. 
 
 Feeding, Skill in, 345. 
 
 Feeds, Digestibility of, 331. 
 
 Feeds, Fuel Value of, 330. 
 
 Feeds, Nutrients in, 328. 
 
 Fertilization of Flowers, 169. 
 
 Fertilizer, Quantity of, 111. 
 
 Fertilizers, 110. 
 
 Fertilizers, Kinds of, 118. 
 
 Fertihzing, 132. 
 
 Fertihzing, Effect of, 115. 
 
 Fibro- Vascular Bundles, 57. 
 
 Flower-Buds, 156. 
 
 Flower-Buds, Formation of, 158,159. 
 
 Flower-Buds, To Distinguish, 157. 
 
 Flowers, 163. 
 
 Flowers, Names of Parts, 165. 
 
 Flowers, Structure of, 164. 
 
 Flowers, Use of Parts, 167. 
 
 Food of Hogs, 294. 
 
 Food, Palatability of, 340. 
 
 Foods, Concentrated, 339. 
 
 Foods, Roughage, 339. 
 
 Forest, 381. 
 
 Forest, Conserving of, 385. 
 
 Forest, Exhaustion- of, 384. 
 
 Forest, Need of, 382. 
 
 Forest Reserves, 386. 
 
 Forest Service, 387. 
 
 Forestry, Systematic, 383. 
 
 Fowls, Digestion by, 325. 
 
 Fuel Value of Feeds, 330. 
 
 Functions of Nutrients, 329. 
 
 Fungi, 9. 
 
 Fungi, Food of, 8, 9a, 216. 
 
 Fungicides, Appendix B. 
 
 Fungicides, 219. 
 
 Fungus Diseases, 215. 
 
 Fungus Diseases, Preventing, 219 
 
 Gardens, Individual, 379. 
 Garden Plans, 379. 
 General-Purpose Chickens, 317. 
 Germinating Seeds, 38. 
 Germination, 15, 20, 27, 34. 
 Germination, Effect of Air, 29. 
 
Index 
 
 301 
 
 Germination, Effect of Temperature, 
 
 26, 27, 28. 
 Germination, Failure in, 30. 
 Germination, Time of, 35. 
 Germination, Time for, 35. 
 Girdling, Deatli by, 60, 61. 
 Glossary, Appendix H. 
 Goats, 306. 
 Goats, Angora, 306. 
 Goats, Fleece of, 306. 
 Goats, Food of, 306. 
 Goats, Milking, 306. 
 Goats, Uses of, 302. 
 Graftage, 198, 199. 
 Grape-Vines, Pruning, of 189. 
 Green-Manuring, 131. 
 Green Plants, Food of, 11, 12. 48. 
 Ground Water, 100. 
 Growth of Flower, 57. 
 Growth of Fruits, 170. 
 Growth of Root, 57, 67, 82. 
 Growth of Stem, 57. 
 Guano, 122. 
 Guernsey, 273. 
 
 Hard-Pan, 87. 
 
 Hatching Poultry, 308. 
 
 Harvesting Machinery, 393. 
 
 Healthfulness of Milkers, 361. 
 
 Healthfulness of Animals, 360. 
 
 Hellriegel, 80. 
 
 Herbivorous Animals, 326. 
 
 Hereford, 270. 
 
 Hogs, Bacon, 297. 
 
 Hogs, Berkshires, 300. 
 
 Hogs, "Cuts" of, 295. 
 
 Hogs, Duroc-Jersey, 298. 
 
 Hogs, Dressing of, 294. 
 
 Hogs, Food of, 294. 
 
 Hogs, Lard, 296. 
 
 Hogs, Tamworth, 301 
 
 Hogs, Poland-China, 299. 
 
 Hogs, Types and Breeds, 294. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian, 274. 
 
 Home Grounds, 371. 
 
 Home-Lot Planning, 372. 
 
 Horse, Diagram Showing Points, 292. 
 
 Horse, Feet of, 284. 
 
 Horse, Fore-Legs, 283. 
 
 Horse, Muscles of, 280. 
 
 Horse, Muscles of Hind- Quarters, 
 
 281. 
 Horse, Percheron, 287. 
 Horses, 277. 
 
 Horses, Body Form, 282. 
 Horses, Care of, 293. 
 Horses, Clydesdale, 288. 
 Horses, Coach type, 289. 
 Horses, Draft Type, 286. 
 Horses, Driving, 290. 
 Horses, Judging of, 292. 
 Horses, Ponies, 291. 
 Horses, Qualities in, 279. 
 Horses, Saddle, 290. 
 Horses, Selection of, 279. 
 Horses, Style in, 285. 
 Hotbeds, 36. 
 Humus, 91. 
 Hybridization, 211. 
 Hygroscopic Water, 100. 
 Hyphce, 216. 
 
 Incubation, 309. 
 Individual Peculiarities, 343. 
 Insecticides, Appendix B. 
 Insects, Injurious, 243-248. 
 Insects, Parasitic, 248. 
 Insects, Useful, 243-248. 
 
 Jerseys, 273. 
 Johnson Grass, 63. 
 Judging Butter, 366. 
 Judging Horses, 292. 
 
 Keeping Milk, 364. 
 
 Kerosene Preparations, Appendix B. 
 
 Landscape, 369. 
 Layerage, 194. 
 Lard Hogs, 296. 
 Leaf Development, 149. 
 Leaves, Structure of, 47. 
 Leaves, Work of, 46. 
 Legumes Enrich the Soil, 126. 
 Legumes, Tubercles of, 125. 
 Light Brahma Chickens, 316. 
 Lime and Sulphur, Appendix B. 
 Lime in Soils, 139. 
 
302 
 
 Index 
 
 Lime- Water, 92. 
 Living Substances, 14. 
 
 Machinery, Care of, 396. 
 
 Machinery, Farm, 394. 
 
 Machinery, Harvesting, 393. 
 
 Machinery, Influence of, 397. 
 
 Manure, Effect of, 115. 
 
 Merino Sheep, 304. 
 
 Milk, Care in Keeping, 364. 
 
 Milk, Changes in, 356. 
 
 Milk, Clarification of, 368. 
 
 Milk, Composition of, 354. 
 
 Milk, Kind of Feed Affects Flow of, 
 
 355. 
 Milking, Care in, 363. 
 Milking Goats, 306. 
 Milkers, Healthfulness of, 361. • 
 Mineral Food, 112. 
 Mineral Matter, in Soil Waters, 112. 
 Mohair, 306. 
 Mutton Breeds of Sheep, 305. 
 
 Natural Selection, 205. 
 Natural Science, 3. 
 Nest-Trap, 312. 
 Nitrogen, Fixation of, 124. 
 Nitrogen, Loss from Soil, 130. 
 Nitrification, 127. 
 Nitrification, Promoting, 128. 
 Node, 57. 
 Nodes, 154. 
 
 Nutrients, Digestibility of, 332. 
 Nutrients, Functions of, 329. 
 Nutrients in Feeds, 328. 
 Nutrition of Animal Body, 322. 
 Nutritive Substances, 323. 
 
 Palatability of Food, 340. 
 Parasites, 216. 
 Paris Green, Appendix B. 
 Pasturage, 346. 
 Pasteurization. 367. 
 Peculiarities, Individual, 344. 
 Peculiarities, Racial, 343. 
 Percheron Horse, 287. 
 Perennial, 62. 
 Phloem, 57, 60. 
 Pinching of Plants, 176. 
 
 Plant, Soil Relations, 65. 
 
 Plant-Food, How Absorbed, 76. 
 
 Plant-Food, Kinds of, 8. 
 
 Plant-Food, Removed from Soil, 116, 
 
 Plant Substances, 37, 39. 
 
 Plant Substances, Increase of, 46. 
 
 Planting, 33. 
 
 Planting, Depth of, 35. 
 
 Planting Seeds, 32. 
 
 Plants, Drouth-Resistant, 55. 
 
 Plants, Dry the Soil, 98. 
 
 Plants, Food of, 8. 
 
 Plants for School Garden, 379. 
 
 Plants, Locating, 374. 
 
 Plants, Structure of, 13. 
 
 Plants to use in Landscape, 375. 
 
 Plants, Variation in, 203. 
 
 Plow, AVebster's, 392. 
 
 Plymouth Rock Chickens, 317. 
 
 Poland-China, 299. 
 
 Pollination, 171. 
 
 Pollination, Importance of, 171. 
 
 Pond Scum, 8. 
 
 Ponies, 291. 
 
 Poultry. 307 
 
 Poultry. Artificial Incubation, 309. 
 
 Poultry, Care of Young, 320. 
 
 Poultry. Classes of, 314. 
 
 Poultry, Feeding, 311. 
 
 Poultry Grounds, 310. 
 
 Poultry, Hatching of, 308. 
 
 Poultry Houses, 310. 
 
 Poultry, Improving, 312. 
 
 Poultry, Judging, 321. 
 
 Poultry, Miscellaneous, 318. 
 
 Poultry, Rearing of, 308. 
 
 Power versus Hand-Labor, 395. 
 
 Preparation of Feeds, 342. 
 
 Promoting Nitrification, 128. 
 
 Propagation, Methods of, 190-200. 
 
 Propagation of fungi, 217. 
 
 Protoplasm, 8, 14, 42. 
 
 Proteids in Plants, 17. 
 
 Pruning, 174-178. 
 
 Pruning Orchard Trees, 188. 
 
 Pruning, Reasons for, 179-185. 
 
 Racial Peculiarities, 343. 
 Rain, 104. 
 
Index 
 
 303 
 
 Rain, Absorption of, 99, 102. 
 
 Rainfall in Oklahoma, 107. 
 
 Ratio of Digestible Nutrients, 333. 
 
 Ration, Planning a, 337. 
 
 Ratios, Application of, 334. 
 
 Rations, Balanced, 335. 
 
 Rations, Kinds of, 336. 
 
 Rothamsted Estate, 115. 
 
 Records of Performance, 256. 
 
 Reserve Food, 17, 37, 38, 160. 
 
 Reserve Food, in Stems, 61. 
 
 Reserve Food, Movement of, 60. 
 
 Reserve Food, Storage of, "64. 
 
 Root Growth, 68. 
 
 Root, Growth of, 23. 
 
 Root Growth, 77-80; amount of, 77. 
 
 Root-Hairs, 21. 
 
 Root-Hairs, Absorption by, 76. 
 
 Root-Hairs, Absorption of Water by, 
 
 22. 
 Root-Hairs. Death of, 60. 
 Roots, 48. 
 
 Roots, Death of, 61. 
 Roots, Growth of, 20, 67. 
 Rotation, 142. 
 
 Rotation, Advantages of, 146. 
 Roughage, 339. 
 Ruminating Animals, 327. 
 Rural Home Grounds, 371. 
 
 Saddle Horses, 290. 
 
 Sand, 88. 
 
 Sand Cultures, 109. 
 
 Sanitary Dairy Products, 359. 
 
 Salt for Stock, 341. 
 
 Saprophyte, 216. 
 
 School Gardens, 377. 
 
 School Garden, Laying Out, 378. 
 
 School Grounds, 380. 
 
 Science of Agriculture, 4. 
 
 Seed Oats, 213a. 
 
 Seed-Testing, 31. 
 
 Seedage, 191. 
 
 Seedlings, of Hybrids, 212, 
 
 Seeds, 15. 
 
 Seeds, Germination, 15. 
 
 Seeds, Growth, of 170. 
 
 Seeds of Corn, 18. 
 
 Seeds of Cotton, 19. 
 
 I Seeds, Structure of, 16. 
 Seeds, Reserve Food, 17. 
 Selecting Animals, 263. 
 Selecting Seed, 213. 
 Self-Fertilization, 172. 
 Sheep and Goats, 302. 
 Sheep, Mutton Breeds, 305. 
 Sheep, Merino, 304. 
 Sheep, Uses of, 302. 
 Sheep, Wool, 303. 
 Shelter for Farm Animals,5347. 
 Shorthorn, 269. 
 Smut of Grain, 222. 
 Soils, Weight of, 93d. 
 Soil Bacteria, 114. 
 Soil, Change 'n, 113. 
 Soil, Classes of 93c. 
 Soil Classification, 85, 87. 
 Soil Drainage, 107. 
 Soil Fertility, 92. 
 Soil, Humus in, 91. 
 Soil, Ideal, 69. 
 Soil, Improving, 70, 116. 
 Soil Management, 71, 84. 
 Soil, Mineral Food in, 66. 
 Soil Moisture, 150. 
 Soil Mulch, 95. 
 Soil Particles, 75. 
 Soil Particles, Size of, 93. 
 Soil, Roots in, 76. 
 Soil Temperatures, 94. 
 Soil-Testing, 133. 
 Soil Tests. 117. 
 Soil, Texture, 73, 74. 
 Soil, Use to Plants, 66. 
 Soil, Water Storage, 105. 
 Soils, Ab.sorption by, 99. 
 Soils, Acid, 141. 
 
 Soils, Chemical Analysis of, 117. 
 Soils, Color of, 94. 
 Soils, Examination of, 92. 
 Soils, Exhaustion of, 117. 
 Soils. Lime in, 90. 
 Soils Need Fertilizer, 117. 
 Soils, Origin of, 86. 
 Soils, Productiveness, 134. 
 Soils, Rise of Water, 95b. 
 Soils, Sedimentary, 86. 
 Soils, Fertility of, 134. 
 
304 
 
 Index 
 
 Soils, Use to Plants, 84. 
 
 Spore, 216 
 
 Spraying Animals, Appendix B. 
 
 Sprays, How Used, 220. 
 
 Stable; Cleanliness of, 362. 
 
 Stems, 56. 
 
 Stems, Growth of, 57. 
 
 Stems, Movement of Food in, 60. 
 
 Stems, Movement of Water in, 60. 
 
 Sterile Plants, 162. 
 
 Stock, Salt for, 341. 
 
 Stock Feeds, Average Digestible Nu- 
 trients and Fertilizer Constituents 
 in. Appendix E. 
 
 Stock Feeds, Per Cent of Nutrients, 
 Appendix D. 
 
 Svibsoil, 87. 
 
 Tamworth Hogs, 301. 
 Temperature of Air, 153. 
 Temperature of Soils, 94. 
 Test, Babcock, 351. 
 Texture of Soils, 74, 132. 
 Thinning Fruit, 183. 
 Tillage, Depth of, 81. 
 Tillage Tools. 392. 
 Tilth, 75. 
 
 Tilth, Means of, 73. 
 Tilth of Soil, 70. 
 Tools, Tillage, 392. 
 Transplanting, 201. 
 Trap Nest, 312. 
 
 Tubercles, 125. 
 Turkeys, 319. 
 
 Variation, Effect of Cultivation, 214. 
 Variation in Plants, 203. 
 Variation, Fixation of, 204. 
 Variations, How Fixed, 204. 
 Variations, How Perpetuated, 208. 
 Variations Not Permanent, 207. 
 Variations, Perpetuation of, 208. 
 Variations, to Stimulate, 209. 
 Variety Defined, 212. 
 
 Water, Absorption by Plants, 66. 
 
 Water-Cultures, 109. 
 
 Water, in Irrigation, 103. 
 
 Water, in Plants, 51-53. 
 
 Water, in Soil, 89, 160. 
 
 Water, Favorable to Growth, 102. 
 
 Water, Loss of, by Plants, 47, 54. 
 
 Water, Movement in Plants, 57. 
 
 Water, Needed by Crops, 106. 
 
 Water, Needed by Plants, 47, 51. 
 
 Water, Percolation of, 100. 
 
 Water Storage, 105. 
 
 Water Table, 100. 
 
 Weathering of Soil, 73. 
 
 Weeds, 62. 
 
 White Leghorn Chickens, 314 
 
 Windbreaks, 390. 
 
 Wool, 303. 
 
 Wounds on Plants, 59. 
 
JUN 11 1908 
 
/