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 5 « 
 
THE 
 FEUDAL AGE 
 
 BY 
 
 ROSCOE LEWIS ASHLEY 
 
 Head of the 
 
 Department of History and Economics. 
 
 Pasadena High School. 
 
 WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Pasadena 
 
 Pasadena High School 
 
 1913 
 
AS 
 
 % 
 
 Copyright 1913 
 by R. L. Ashley 
 
 ©CI.A347810 
 
 *t 
 
iii 
 
 To 
 
 The Students of Pasadena 
 

PREFACE. 
 
 The Pasadena course in "Ancient History" includes not only 
 the conventional course to 800 A. D., but a continuation of that 
 course to the close of the Crusades. This little book has been 
 written to cover important phases of the period from Charlemagne 
 to 1^70. It does not include all of the material which was prepared 
 originally on the Feudal Age, since the discussion of the rise of 
 the nations and the study of civilization in the later Feudal Age 
 has been postponed until the second year, being considered in the 
 course in modern European history. 
 
 There has been no attempt to cover carefully the events of 
 these five centuries. The book is less a narrative than a descrip- 
 tion of life and of general changes, with some account of the great 
 personages of the period. The author hopes that the book is suf- 
 ficiently long to show that the Feudal Age was essentially different 
 from any other in history; he cannot expect that it will make clear 
 to the student that medieval spirit which animated society during 
 the Feudal Age. 
 
 The author's thanks are due to many for help and suggestions. 
 Among these are Professor Jacob N. Bowman of the University of 
 Washington, Professor James T. Shotwell of Columbia Univer- 
 sity, and the author's colleagues, especially Miss Leonora Schop- 
 bach and Miss Katherine J. Kenaga and Mr. W. R. Morris. None 
 of these is responsible for errors or for the partial and misleading 
 statements which are inevitable in so brief an account. The au- 
 thor will be glad to receive criticisms from teachers who use the 
 pamphlet. 
 
 Pasadena, June, 1913. 
 
VI 
 
 .MAI'S AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 A medieval castle (Rheinstein; Frontispiece 
 
 The Treaty of Verdun (843) Facing 1 
 
 Viking ship l § 
 
 A tournament in the later Feudal Age Facing 26 
 
 Attack on a walled town — later Feudal Age Facing 28' 
 
 English soldiers with armor and weapons Facing 30 | 
 
 Armor of a prince Facing 32 
 
 Dress of a lady Facing 32 
 
 Plan of a manor or feudal estate 36 
 
 Nun-priest (Canterbury pilgrim) 44 
 
 Benedictine abbot 45 
 
 Europe about 1000 A. D 49 
 
 Carcossonne (Type of a walled town) Facing 5; 
 
 Monastery of St. Francis, Assisi, Italy Facing 
 
 Dominican friar 6q 
 
 Knight templar , 74 
 
 St. Mark's, Venice Facing 76 
 
 Belfry of Bruges .Facing 82 
 
 Streets of a medieval town (Rothenburg) Facing 82 
 
 : 
 
Vll 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 WESTERN EUROPE AFTER CHARLEMAGNE 
 he Break-up of Charlemagne's Empire 
 
 he Barbarian Invasions 
 
 rvAsioNs of England 
 
 9 
 16 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 LIFE OF THE PEOPLE UNDER FEUDALISM. 
 
 he Feudal System 
 
 [fe of the Nobles 
 
 he Common People Under Feudalism 
 
 21 
 32 
 32 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE CHURCH OF THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 he Church and the People .... 
 
 he Temporal Power of the Church 
 
 he Investiture Strife . . . 
 
 he hohenstaufen emperors and the popes 
 
 he Church During the Later Feudal Age 
 
 42 
 47 
 5i 
 55 
 58 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES 
 
 onditions Affecting the Crusades 68 
 
 he Eight Crusades 76 
 
 esults of the crusades 76 
 
 he Rise of the Towns 81 
 
 hronological table 86 
 
 »DEX 89 
 
THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 ESTERN EUROPE AFTER CHARLEMAGNE 
 (800-1066 A. D.) 
 
 The Break-up of Charlemagne's Empire 
 
 1. Charlemagne the Emperor. — It was Christmas day Crowning of 
 in the year 800 A. D. The great church of St. Peter's at 
 Rome was thronged with worshippers ; townsmen, German 
 knights and nobles, Italian prists and bishops. But the cen- 
 tral figure of all was Karl the Great, King of the Franks, 
 better known as Charlemagne, ruler of wide dominions from 
 the forests of central Germany to the Bay of Biscay and 
 from the North Sea to southern Italy. As Karl rose, after 
 a few moments of silent prayer, the pope, placing on his 
 head a golden crown, proclaimed him Emperor, and the mul- 
 titude shouted, "To Charles Augustus, crowned the great 
 and peace-giving Impcrator of the Romans, be life and vic- 
 tory I" 1 
 
 In the centuries to come, the central figures in this scene. The pope and 
 the pope and the emperor, were to be the conspicuous per- theem P eror - 
 sonages of western Europe ; the one, spiritual head of a 
 
 "Charlemagne claimed to be the successor not only of the 
 Caesars but of the Eastern Roman Empire as well, since the head of 
 the Eastern Empire at this time was a woman. The Eastern Roman 
 Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, lasted as a separate empire 
 until 1453, when the city was captured by the Ottoman Turks. A 
 glimpse of this empire at the time of the Crusades is given in sec- 
 tions 69 and 70. The western empire, revived by Charlemagne in 
 800 and re-established as the Holy Roman Empire of the German 
 Nation by Otto I in 962, could claim to be an empire as long at is 
 held part of Italy, that is, to the death of Frederick II in 1250. It 
 lasted as a German kingdom, with the name Holy Roman Empire, 
 until the time of Napoleon (1806). 
 
The empire of 
 
 the Car 
 
 The Germanic 
 
 empire. 
 
 Government 
 through counts 
 and "missi 
 dominici." 
 
 10 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 great catholic, cr universal, church; the other, the chie 
 among the temporal princes, revered because of his positio: 
 
 if ni A f< t his power. 
 
 2. The Old Empire and the New. — The old Romai 
 Empire of the Caesars had included most of the civilize' 
 world. It was a Mediterranean empire, stretching from the 
 Pillars of Hercules to the borders of Persia. Although it in- 
 cluded hundreds of diverse races or peoples, it had a fairly 
 uniform civilization throughout its length and breadth. The 
 
 tern half used one language, Greek; the western half 
 s] oke 1 atin. This empire i f the Caesars had great cities, 
 carried on extensive trade — not only by way of the Medit- 
 erranean, but over the famous Roman roads; — and enjoyed 
 the advantages of culture and wealth. 
 
 The new empire of the Germans barely touched the Med- 
 iterranean, though it covered most of Western Europe. Its 
 subjects were chiefly of one race, the Teutonic, but they had 
 almost less in common than the citizens of the old Roman 
 empire. They spoke hundreds of dialects and lived a free, 
 independent, out-door life, being interested in hunting 
 and warfare, not in art and commerce. 
 
 3. How Charlemagne Ruled His Empire. — The Cae- 
 sars held absolute sway over tens of millions of subjects who 
 were accustomed to being governed by arbitrary princes 
 kings, but Charlemagne governed a different type of men. 
 rude, warlike and independent. The Germans followed their 
 local chiefs or counts and gave but half-hearted obedience 
 to a distant king, even if he bore the exalted title of em- 
 peror. Charlemagne did not destroy the power of the counts, 
 but he united the German people in his empire by selecting 
 as counts in each "count}" the most powerful leader who 
 would be loyal to him. This count might be removed by the 
 emperor and the office did not descend from father to son 
 To keep the counts dependent on the emperor, Charlemagne 
 sent out each year two officials, called missi dominici. who 
 reported the acts of the counts, and called assemblies of the 
 people. 
 
 
CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE 11 
 
 4. Why Charlemagne's Empire Fell to Pieces. — Lack of union 
 
 . among the 
 
 ,In Charlemagne's time and for centuries afterward people Germans, 
 loved to think of a great empire with Rome as its center, 
 but the real glory of a western Roman empire had departed 
 when the Germans invaded Rome in the fifth century, and 
 
 ,the empire which existed after Charlemagne was little more 
 than a name. There were several reasons why it was impos- 
 sible to hold most of Western Europe together in one empire 
 Is Charlemagne had done. 
 
 (1) The successors of Charlemagne were ordinarv men, Needof 
 
 *■ ' _ J extraordinary 
 
 and none but an extraordinary man like Charles Martel or emperors. 
 his great son Pippin, or his greater gran Ison Charlemagne, 
 could combine into one empire so many countries. 
 
 (2) The different countries and peoples of Charle- Divers p e °» le ^ 
 
 culture and 
 
 magne's empire had little in common. The cultured Romans dialects, 
 were different from their neighbors the Lombards. Southern 
 "France" was much more refined than northern "France" ; 
 and the inhabitants of both were different from the ignorant 
 Saxons and Bavarians who lived beyond the Rhine. These 
 .people spoke several different languages and almost num- 
 berless dialects. 
 
 (3) The Franks followed the Teutonic custom of divid- Division of 
 
 , ii - t kingdoms. 
 
 ing a king's realm among all of his sons. In this way many 
 kingdoms took the place of the empire. 
 
 (4) Even before Charlemagne's time, the great nobles Poweroftht ' 
 
 v ' & & nobles. 
 
 were almost as powerful as kings. As we have seen, Charle- 
 magne had kept them subordinate to him, but, after his 
 death, those nobles, and even the agents whom he appointed 
 to represent him in different parts of his empire, made them- 
 selves practically independent. 
 
 (5) A thousand years ago, there were few roads in Im P° rtance of 
 
 local govern - 
 
 western Europe, so that people stayed at home. There was ment. 
 very little trading clone because there was little money and 
 merchants were likely to be robbed on the road. Each local- 
 ity came to look after all of its own interests, especially after 
 the raids of Norsemen, Magyars (Hungarians) and Sara- 
 
12 
 
 THE FEUDAL 
 
 The oaths of 
 Strasshurjr. 
 
 Division of 
 
 Charlemaprne's 
 
 empire. 
 
 Importance 
 of this treaty. 
 
 cens (Sec-. 7-11) compelled every community to ^protect 
 itself. 
 
 5. The Beginnings of National Languages. — Charle- 
 magne left his empire to his son Lewis the Pious, but Lewis 
 
 could not keep his own sons or the nobles from seizing th* 
 territory and the power which lie was su] 
 emperor. After Lewis' death, his younger sons, Charles the 
 Bald and Lewis the German, made war on the elder, Lothair, 
 who had been proclaimed emperor. In the oaths of Strass- 
 burg in 842 they swore to support each other against Lo- 
 thair. Lewis the German swore before the troops of Charles 
 in the language of the west Franks, the words showing the 
 Latin origin of the language spoken by the people west of 
 the Rhone and the Seine. The oath hegan as follows: "Pro 
 Deo anuir et pro christian poblo et nastro cominun salva- 
 uient. . . .' M Charles took the same oath before the German 
 troops of his brother Lewis. "/// Codes minna ind in thes 
 christianes folches ind miser bedhero gealtnissi. . . "* : In a 
 sense these oaths of Strassburg represent the beginning of 
 two great national languages, the French — the language of 
 the west Franks — and the German — the language of the 
 East Franks. 
 
 6. The Treaty of Verdun. (843). — The next year the 
 three brothers agreed at Verdun on a division of Charle- 
 magne's empire. Charles the Bald was to have all of the 
 territory west of the Rhone and a line drawn from Lyons 
 north to the mouth of the Rhine. Lewis the German was to 
 have the eastern part, east of the Rhine and north of the 
 Alps. Emperor Lothair received a center strip including 
 what is now Holland, Belgium, the Rhenish provinces, Swit- 
 zerland and, of course, Italy, since he was emperor, and the 
 emperor must have Rome, the old capital of the empire. 
 
 This treaty has had a greater influence on history than any 
 
 'Out of love for God and for the good of the Christian people 
 and our own salvation. . . 
 
? 
 
THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 13 
 
 other ever made. 1 The territory of Charles, being compact, 
 and being inhabited by people of somewhat similar language 
 and race, developed later into France. That of Lewis, for 
 similar reasons, formed one country now known as Ger- 
 many. That of Lothair possessed no territorial unity, and in- 
 cluded people of very diverse races. It could not become a 
 Single country (although the lower half later became known 
 as Italy) while its peculiar shape, and its position between 
 France and Germany, made it the disputed strip of the later 
 centuries. A great deal of medieval and modern history is 
 taken up with the contest over this strip from Rome north 
 to the mouth of the Rhine river. 
 
 The Barbarian Invasions 
 
 7. The Invasions in General. — Charlemagne had spent invasions under 
 
 ,. , r . <- i • • Charlemaprne. 
 
 several campaigns defending the frontiers ot his empire 
 from the barbarians. On the east he had driven back the 
 Slavs, and the Hungarians or Magyars. Beyond the Pyr- 
 enees he had established a "buffer state" against the Sara- 
 cens which is known as the Spanish March or mark. On 
 the northern coast he encountered pirates from the Scandi- 
 navian peninsulas. Against all of these invaders Charle- 
 magne had been successful, but later rulers found the task 
 greater than they could manage. 
 
 8. Slavs, Hungarians and Saracens. -Large bands of Protection of 
 Slavs and fierce companies of wild Hungarian horsemen har- bo ^ der 
 rassed the eastern borders of Germany. Villages were plun- 
 dered and destroyed, crops were burned and the people were 
 
 in constant terror of raids. The frontier territories of Char- 
 lemagne's empire were abandoned, and, along the new fron- 
 tier, farther west, there arose a series of "buffer states," 
 called marks, ruled by strong dukes that revelled in the bor- 
 der warfare, and protected from invasion the country still 
 
 a By the treaty of Mersen (870) most of the territory of Lothair 
 and Lewis was reunited and the "empire" included most of this com- 
 bined territory, that is, Germany and Italy, during a large part of 
 the Feudal Age. 
 
14 i ill-. FEl UAL A< \E 
 
 farther west. Austria and Brandenburg, the central state 01 
 that kingdom which we now call Prussia, were originally 
 rmrks of this kin ', while the name of Denmark shows that 
 that country was originally the Danish mark. The rulers of 
 these border states naturally were allowed great privileges 
 and were practically independent of king or emperor. 
 Saracens and T ,, e t(nvns ct] t p e Mediterranean shores were plundered 
 
 Normans in ' 
 
 Sicily and itaiy. by Saracens durihg this period of disorder. These Saracens 
 were Mohammedans whose conquests had extended from 
 Arabia across Northern Africa and into Spain. Their 
 quests had been checked at Tours in K ranee by Charles Mar 
 tel in 732 A. D. Italy suffered greatly from their attacks, 
 and at one time the Saracens came even to the gate- cf 
 Rome, plundering St. Peter's, which at that time was out 
 side of the walls of the city. Sicily was conquered by the 
 Saracens and held by them for two centuries until bands of 
 Normans from Northern France drove out the Saracens and 
 established a Norman state in the island. 1 . 
 
 Method of g The Norsemen. — The really important invasion 
 
 Norse invasion. J l 
 
 the ninth and tenth centuries were made by Norsemen called 
 Vikings, large, blonde, fierce seamen from the Scandinavian 
 peninsulas. Driven from home by their political enemies 
 large numbers of these longdiaired warriors from the north 
 -wept down upon the European coasts in their swift boats 
 propelled by sails and oars. Each boat with its leader an 1 
 band of perhaps fifty men acted independently. Finding a 
 town undefended they would hide their boat, attack unex- 
 pectedly, seize all possible booty and l)e away before heln 
 could come. Monasteries and churches were especial objects 
 of prey because they contained more wealth than any homes 
 or shops. Tn winter these pirates and raiders returned to 
 their northern abodes to enjoy the booty which they had 
 -eized. 
 
 'This Norman invasion was the beginning of a movement by 
 which Southern Italy was brought again into the whirl of inter- 
 national politics, jnst as it had been involved in the conflict between 
 Greece, Carthage and Rome fifteen centuries earlier. 
 
T, 
 
 THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS 
 
 15 
 
 he Norsemen extended their raids and conquests over all Extent of 
 
 Norse 
 
 i j northern Europe. They settled on the islands north of invasions. 
 'Scotland, and in Iceland. They made voyages to Greenland 
 land "Vinland" 1 several centuries before any other navigators 
 
 VIKING DRAGON SHIP' 
 
 dared to cross tie Atlantic. One of their leaders, Rurik, 
 gained control of the western part of Russia. His succes- 
 sors ruled that territory for several centuries. 
 
 10. The Norsemen in France. — Meanwhile raids contin- Resuitsof raids 
 tied along the northern coast of France and the Netherlands. 
 At one time the Norsemen besieged Paris for seven months, 
 until the emperor bought them off by giving them permis- 
 sion to pillage other territory. This act shows the weaknes- 
 of the emperor and the kings, who could not protect their 
 subjects. Everywhere the people, the towns, and the lesser 
 nobles sought the help and protection of the most powerful 
 nobles of the neighborhood. Not only did the power of the 
 nobles increase, but castles were built at all exposed points, 
 and all coast towns built walls for defense. 
 
 Finland was in North America, but the exact location has 
 never been determined. 
 
16 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Normandy. -j-]ie raid- along the coast of n irthem France were no 
 
 stopped until a strong Morse leader called Rollo was askc 
 by the king of France to protect the northern part of tha 
 country from other enemies. Rollo thereupon embrace* 
 Christianity and was made duke of that territory, hencefortl 
 known as Normandy. These Normans were good fighters 
 able rulers and the most faithful of the Chur :h's adherents 
 "It is difficult to believe that the Norsemen could have treat- 
 ed those they conquered with much kindness; but it is cer 
 tain that serfdom soon disappeared from the soil of Nor- 
 mandy, that the life of the husbandman was happy, [and] 
 that agriculture prospered." 1 
 
 Invasions of England 
 
 Alfred the 
 Great and 
 the Danes. 
 
 Kul. of Alfred. 
 
 11. Alfred the Great. — A few years before the Norse- 
 men, or Danes, came to England, seven petty English king- 
 doms had been united (827 A. D.) by Egbert, a friend of 
 Charlemagne, and King of Wessex. In one sense, therefore, 
 the Danes found a united England if not a united people. 
 They were met by the youngest and ablest of Egbert's 
 grandsons, Alfred the Great. Alfred was not successful at 
 first. In fact, he was a fugitive at one time. He finally de- 
 feated his enemies, having learned the location of their cam] 
 by entering it disguised as a harper, so the legend relate- 
 Guthrum, the Danish leader, later accepted Christianity an< 
 agreed to remain north and east of a line following the ok 
 Roman road, afterward known as Watling Street, from Lon- 
 don to Chester. The territory of the Danes was called the 
 Dane law and the successors of Alfred spent a century try- 
 ing to regain it. 
 
 Alfred ruled with great wisdom, establishing a much bet- 
 ter government than England had had and arranging a bet- 
 ter written law. He was just but strict with those who broke 
 his laws. He encouraged schools, brought together great 
 
 'Duruy, "Middle Ages" p. 158. 
 
Danish 
 kingdom. 
 
 INVASIONS OF ENGLAND 17 
 
 scholars, and urged churchmen to study more faithfully. As 
 the people coul 1 speak and read only the Saxon language 
 the king translated several Latin works for his people. By 
 example and by precept he helped to educate his subjects. 
 He is the most beloved of English kings. 
 
 12. Cnut and Later Danish Conquests.— A century f n * }aml 
 
 J becomes a part 
 
 after Alfred, new Danish armies invaded England. These ofCnufs 
 were not barbarians but the warriors of the great Danish 
 king Cnut who wished to include England as well as Den- 
 mark and Scandinavia in his great kingdom. The Danes were 
 generally successful during the long reign of Ethelred, usu- 
 ally called the "unready." During this period the first Eng- 
 lish national tax was levied in the form of contributions for 
 defense called the "Danegeld." This was levied quite fre- 
 quently by the Danes themselves when their King Cnut 
 (Canute) was recognized as the regular king of all England. 
 Cnut was an able ruler who governed the English as though 
 they were his own people. 
 
 Soon after Cnut's death, Edward the Con f esse r, of the ^ dward *** 
 
 Confessor and 
 
 line of Alfred, was recognized as king. Edward was a mild the succession 
 man who surrounded himself with Norman nobles and fol- t ° theEns:llsh 
 
 throne. 
 
 lowed Norman customs. When he died his minister, Harold, 
 was recognized as king, but the throne vas contested by 
 William. Duke of Normandy. William was related to Ed- 
 ward, and claimed that the latter had selected him as his 
 successor. 
 
 13. William the Conquerer — William had already dis- Con <»'" SB t< rf 
 tmguished himself in his little duchy of Normandy as a brave 
 soldier, a skillful statesman and a born ruler of men. As 
 soon as he learned of the death of Edward the Confessor, 
 William prepared to enforce his claim by bringing to Eng- 
 land a large force of archers and mailed horsemen. His 
 army met that of Harold at Senlac near Hastings (1066). 
 Harold's force was much smaller but was protected by the 
 hill on which his men were drawn up. Time after time the 
 Normans were repulsed, until, pretending to flee, they drew 
 Harold from his strong position. Harold fell, his eye and 
 
 England. 
 
18 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 William's rule. 
 New form of 
 leudali-sm. 
 
 I)iv:s o 
 
 Charlen acre's 
 empire. 
 
 Barbarian 
 invasions. 
 
 Invasion of 
 England. 
 
 brain pierced by an arrow, and his army was defeated. The 
 way was LlOVt open to William, who was crowned king of 
 England on Christmas day, 1066, in Westminster. 
 
 William defeated all who rebelled against his authority 
 and ruled England with a strong hand. He took the lands of 
 his enemies, distributing them among Norman nobles, but le 
 refused to give any noble extensive possessions in any one 
 place, so that no noble could rival the king in power, as the 
 dukes of France and Germany rivalled their king and em- 
 ] eror. William made every landholder in England take oath 
 ( the Salisbury oath ) that he would serve and obey the King 
 before he served or obeyed anyone else. This was a form 
 of feudalism very different from that in use on the continent 
 (Sees. 16, 20), a form which made the English kings real 
 rulers of England, while the French king and the German 
 emperor were often figureheads. This Norman invasion or 
 "conquest" also brought England into closer relations with 
 the trade, the politics and the religion of the re^t of Europe-. 
 It is one of the most important facts in English history. 
 
 14. Summary. — We have considered in the preceding 
 sections the external facts and territorial changes in the fir t 
 half of the "Feudal Age." We find that there are three 
 changes to be remembered. (1) In 843. by the Treaty o\ 
 Verdun, Charlemagne's empire was divided into a west part, 
 which later became France, an east part, which later devel- 
 oped into Germany, and an intermediate strip from Rome 
 to the North Sea, which was disputed for centuries, and in 
 which four countries have since been created, Holland. Bel- 
 gium, Switzerland and Italy. 
 
 (2) The barbarians who invaded western Europe in the 
 ninth and tenth centuries were not migrating peoples as in the 
 fourth and fifth centuries, but leaders who made raids, al- 
 though sometimes they afterward settled down as border rul- 
 ers. The Norsemen, Saracens. Hungarians and Slavs took 
 part in these raids. 
 
 (3) In England the early Norse or Danish raids were 
 repelled by Alfred, one half of England being granted to the 
 
WESTERN EUROPE AFTER CHARLEMAGNE 19 
 
 Danes. Later, England was annexed to the Danish Kingdom 
 by Cnnt, and in 1066 was conquered by William, Duke of 
 Normandy. 
 
 General References 
 
 Robinson, History of Western Europe, 77-103. 
 Munro, A History of the Middle Ages, 1-85. 
 Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 139-186. 
 Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 108-195, 2 33- 2 44- 
 Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, 126-155, 194- 
 214. 
 
 Topics 
 
 The Battle of Senlac : Robinson, Readings in European History, 
 
 I, 224-229 ; Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World, Chapter VIII. 
 The Coronation of Charlemagne: Robinson, Readings in Euro- 
 pean History. I, No. 56; Thatcher, Europe in the Middle Age, 125- 
 133 ; Duncalf and Krey, Parallel Source Problems in Medieval His- 
 tory, 3-26. 
 
 Studies 
 
 1. Charlemagne, the Man. Robinson, Readings in European His- 
 tory, I, 126-128. 
 
 2. The Division of Charlemagne's Empire. Emerton, Medieval 
 History, 26-35. 
 
 3. Reasons for the disruption of Charlemagne's Empire. Adams, 
 Civilization during the Middle Ages, 170-177. 
 
 4. The Norsemen besiege Paris. Robinson, Readings, I, 163-168. 
 
 5. Feasts and entertainments of the Norsemen. Du Chaillu, The 
 J 'iking Age, II, 274-284. 
 
 6. Ornaments of Norse women. Du Chaillu, The Viking Age, 
 
 II, 301-331- 
 
 7. The Norsemen in America. Fiske, Discovery of America, I, 
 
 I57-I7L 
 
 8. Rollo the Norman. Jewett, The Story of the Normans, 30-51. 
 
 9. Saxon art. Traill and Mann (eds.), Social England, I, 278-284. 
 
 10. The home of a Saxon noble. Scott, Ivanhoe, Chapter III. 
 
 11. Alfred and the Danes. Harding, The Story of England, 39- 
 49; Cheyney, Readings in English History, No. 40. 
 
 12. Alfred's interest in education. Ogg, Source Book of Medieval 
 History, 185-193. 
 
 13. The rule of Cnut the Dane. Lee, Source Book of English 
 History, Nos. 41-43. 
 
20 THK FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Questions 
 
 i. Poinl out "ii the map the boundaries of the Roman Empire of 
 Augustus; those of Charlemagne's empire. 
 
 _>. Why was Karl called the Great? 
 
 .}. What was the difference in character and in spirit between the 
 people ruled by Augustus and the Germans in the days of Charle- 
 magne ? 
 
 4. Explain each "t" the reasons mentioned in paragraph (5) of 
 sec. 4. 
 
 5. In the oaths of Strasshurg which is more like Latin? Which 
 is more like modern German" Why should the French people of to- 
 day have a Latinized or Romance language, when the Germans have 
 not? 
 
 6. Draw a map showing the boundaries agreed upon in the Treaty 
 of Verdun. Compare those boundaries with the boundaries of the 
 
 'different countries of western Europe at present. What was the im- 
 portance of the treaty? 
 
 7. What was the importance of the "marks"? Why should the 
 rulers of the marks have had more power than other dukes or counts? 
 What three countries have developed out of these marks? 
 
 8. Can you explain what we owe to the Danes and the Normans? 
 Q. In what three ways did Alfred do a great work for England? 
 10. Why was the battle of Hastings or Senlac one of the decisive 
 
 battles of the world? 
 
 n. What was the importance of William's demand that every land 
 holder in England should swear allegiance to him first and to the 
 neighboring duke or baron afterward? If you cannot tell now, study 
 sees. 16 and 20, and then answer the question. 
 
 12. What was the importance of cSoo A. D. ? of 843? of 1066? 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Life of the People Under Feudalism. 
 15. Increase of the Power of the Nobles after loss of 
 
 A royal power. 
 
 Charlemagne. — Even Charlemagne had some trouble in 
 keeping the more powerful liobles in subjection. After bis 
 death, the nobles grew stronger because the emperors were 
 weak, and the kings quarrelled with the emperor, with their 
 nobles or with other kings. Throughout western Europe a 
 great lord or noble almost always had more power in his 
 own duchy or county than his king or emperor. 
 
 This change was inevitable. The people cared less about Need of power- 
 great kings than they did about powerful local leaders. There 
 were no roads or other easy means of communication, so 
 that each locality was obliged to look to itself for defense 
 and for its laws, since it was shut off from its neighbors. 
 Dangers were pressing, not only on the border, where Norse- 
 men, or Hungarians, or Saracens raided and plundered, but 
 in the interior, where robbers and brigands seized unpro- \j "*fe 
 tected travellers and drove the peasants to seek shelter 
 within the walls surrounding the nearest castle. 
 
 If the kines could have kept up the national armies which Be * inrnn * sofa 
 
 ° ' . feudal army. 
 
 Charles Martel, Pippin and Charlemagne used, they might 
 have defended the people and maintained their own author- 
 ity in addition, but there was no money for the payment of 
 soldiers, so that soldiers must be paid in honors or in land. 
 This made these soldiers dependent on the great nobles, not 
 on the kings, for the nobles really controlled the land. The 
 great nobles of western Europe were not independent, how- 
 ever. If they had been, they would have been kings ; and 
 Europe would have been divided into many tiny kingdoms 
 smaller than Belgium of the present time. 
 
; iand 
 WM granted to 
 nobles in ex- 
 change for 
 M rvice. 
 
 Distribution of 
 n noble's land. 
 
 Nob es as 
 both ioids 
 and vassals. 
 Fiefs. 
 
 22 lin: FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The Feudal System 
 
 16. Land Holding under the Feudal System. — 
 The nobles did not own this land under their control. The\ 
 had been permitted by their king or emperor to use th> 
 hinds of their barony, or county, or duchy, because they ha< 
 rendered their king some service in the past, or because the) 
 promisel to" furnish him a hundred or more warriors ii 
 case he needed an army. Theoretically the king was suppos- 
 ed to own all of the land, and the nobles recognized him as 
 their superior. But as each noble's son held his father's land 
 when the noble died, and, as the son possessed the power. 
 as ruler, which his father had had, the king was only nomi 
 nally the superior of the noble. 
 
 In turn the great noble parcelled 01 t his land among his 
 followers. But these lesser nobles again held this land from 
 father to son. so that it could not be taken away from them, 
 although they did not own it. These lesser nobles in turn 
 divided their lands among their followers until finally we 
 come to areas so small that they supported only a single 
 noble, a knight or horseman 1 . 
 
 17. Lords and Vassals. — If a great noble A allowed 
 a lesser noble R to use some of his land, then A was R's 
 lord or overlord and B was called A's vassal. A was usual! 
 a vassal of the king and B might be the lord of many knight 
 among whom his land was divided. All feudal land-holders, 
 except those at the top and at the bottom, were therefore 
 both lords and vassals, but only persons of noble birth might 
 be either lord or vassal. Usually men who could fight held 
 chese positions, but women and abbots and bishops some- 
 times were lords of feudal dependents. When a noble receiv- 
 ed land from his lord, he always called that estate a fief. 
 Recause land was held in fiefs, the system was called a sys- 
 tem of fiefs or the feudal system. 
 
 • 
 
 J In theory this formed a hierarchy, but in fact there was no such 
 symmetry or uniformity in the feudal system, the word system be- 
 ing almost a misnomer in consequence. 
 
THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 23 
 
 18. Homage and Fealty. — When a vassal died, his Process of 
 
 • investiture. 
 
 .eldest son took his place, 1 , doing homage and taking an oath 
 of fealty to his lord. The ceremony was impressive. The 
 vassal came to the lord accompanied by his retainers. Kneel- 
 ing before the lord, without sword or helmet, he placed his 
 liands in those of his lord and swore that he would be the 
 lord's "man." This was called homage, from the Latin 
 "homo," meaning man. Having done homage, the vassal 
 ,took the oath of "fealty" or faithfulness, promising to ob- 
 serve his many obligations as the lord's vassal. The control 
 of the fief was then given to him, this act being called "in- 
 vestiture." The lord usually handed him a twig or a stone 
 or a clod of earth as evidence that the fief had been grant- 
 _ed. 
 
 The lord promised to protect the vassal's right to his fief PhS™ 3 of 
 from all outsiders, so long as the vassal observed his feudal 
 (obligations, and to defend him from all other dangers. 
 
 19. Obligations of the Vassal. — In return for the General, 
 granting of the fief and the promise of protection, the vas- 
 sal was obliged to help his lord in several ways. 
 
 (1) The vassal owed military service. When the lord ' ltary servict ' 
 demanded, the vassal must appear fully armed with his re- 
 tainers to help his lord in his private wars against his ene- 
 mies or in the larger conflicts to which his lord might be 
 summoned by his king. 2 
 
 (2) He owel court service. He must help his lord by court service 
 being present at court ceremonies, for the lord must not lack 
 attendants. He must aid in the decision of suits that were 
 
 ir rhe right of the eldest son to the whole of a father's estate is 
 called primogeniture. The adoption of primogeniture instead of 
 the division of the father's estate among all of his sons was very 
 important, especially in the case of the king, for it prevented the 
 kingdoms and the duchies from heing cut up into numerous small- 
 er kingdoms and duchies. 
 
 -Military service was usually limited by agreement or custom to 
 40 or 60 days and ordinarily did not involve service outside of the 
 kingdom. Compare with militia service in the United States at 
 present. 
 
24 
 
 THK FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Feudal aids. 
 
 ll .lues. 
 
 The king as 
 
 duke of his 
 own duchy and 
 overlord of 
 all other 
 dukes in 
 his kingdom. 
 
 The real 
 rulers were 
 those who 
 levied taxes 
 and controlled 
 courts 
 
 Real rulers in 
 France and 
 England 
 
 brought before the lord's court and must give his help whe 
 the lord asked his advice. 
 
 (3) Feudal aids must be given when the lord was mad 
 prisoner, (in the form of ransom), when the lord's eldes 
 son was knighted and when his eldest daughter was mar 
 1 ied. 
 
 (4) Among other obligations was included that of en 
 tertaining his lord and retinue on a journey* When a soi 
 
 • • it* 
 
 succeeded his father, rehef was paid ; alicnan&n was due i 
 a fief was transferred to another vassal. If the fief return 
 ed to the lord, it was said to have escheated. The Ion 
 might also exact payments from a ward, or from a woman j 
 dependent if she wished to marry the man of her choice 
 rather than the man whom the lord selected. 
 
 20. Government Under the Feudal System. — Tht 
 king of each country was always a great noble who held ex- 
 tensive territories of his own, which he distributed among 
 lesser nobles. That is. the king of France was al>o Duke of 
 Francia ; Francia or the Isle of France being an area around 
 Paris somewhat smaller than the Duchy of Normandy which 
 the Normans had established (Sec. 10) in the northern part 
 of France. His power was greater at first as Duke of Fran- 
 cia than as King of France, for he had real power in Fran- 
 cia and only nominal power as overlord of the other dukes 
 or great nobles of his kingdom, France. 
 
 A great noble might, however, be the duke of extensive 
 territories, and the overlord of other powerful nobles, with- 
 out himself being powerful in his own duchy. If he could 
 not control His ZHissals, he was, like the king, in an exalted 
 position, but with little power. The real ruler of any terri- 
 tory was the noble ivho held the courts that controlled life 
 and death — that is, those courts from which there was no 
 appeal to a higher court — the noble who could levy imposts 
 on travellers or collect revenue from his people, for if a 
 noble had both of these powers, then the people of his terri- 
 tory were really his subjects. 
 
 In France, the real rulers were ordinarily the barons wh 
 
THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 25 
 
 eld their fiefs directly from the dukes, but in England, a? 
 we have seen (Sec. 13), William the Conquerer and his 
 successors were really the rulers of the entire realm, ah 
 ' though the barons were powerful enough, as is well known, 
 to force King John (1215) to grant their demands in the 
 form, the greai Chartei (Magm Carlo). 
 
 Life Of The Nobles. 
 
 21. The feudal Age in General — The Feudal Age The early 
 
 ,, . . r r . j r feudal period 
 
 from the ninth to the fifteenth century was a period of 
 I force, of disorder and of violence. It was literally an age 
 
 When the strongest took what he could and the weaker 
 nobles and the common people protected themselves as best 
 they might. A leader who did not excel as a fighter usu- 
 
 : ally gave way to one whose arm was stronger, whose 
 
 " sword-thrust was keener and whose battle ax cut deeper. 
 
 - It was an age when assassination was used frequently to 
 rid a noble or prince of his enemies. It was an age when 
 treachery abounded and faith was not kept except with the 
 strong. Even the Church was disorganized and corrupt 
 in the earlier period. Few of its members were able to 
 read, and higher churchmen were only a little less unscrupu- 
 lous than their near relatives, the great nobles. The rights 
 of peasants and women were not deeply respected, al- 
 though in the later Feudal Age (1100-1400), a more chiv- 
 alrous spirit was shown to noble ladies. The later Feudal Thetetet 
 Age was much like the earlier but was less rough and dis- feudal period 
 orderly, and is distinguished for knightly adventure,' brave 
 deeds and widely-sung romances. It produced the trouba- 
 dours and the minnesingers. To it we owe chivalry. In 
 it we find great international pilgrimages called crusades. 
 In it trade developed, universities were established and 
 scholars became more interested in art, in science and in 
 the classics. 
 
 22. The Castle.— The earliest "castle", having been Earlyc astie* 
 built to ward off wandering horsemen or repel invading 
 Norsemen, was a wooden building, strong Hit simple, of 
 
26 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Description of 
 ailatei castle . 
 
 Scene in th< 
 srreat hall. 
 
 few rooms and practically without comforts. This strong 
 house stood frequently between two court-, one of which 
 was a place of entertainments, the other a barnyard, and 
 was surrounded by huts which sheltered the peasants in 
 this time of danger, the whole village being surrounded 
 by a stockade. 
 
 In the time of William the Conqueror real castle life 
 may he said to have begun. Huge towers, called donjons 
 (or keeps), guarded the entrance to a court-yard which 
 was unclosed by walls. A deep ditch called a moat sur- 
 rounded the fortification. None could enter the castle with- 
 out crossing the drawbridge — which was raised at night 
 or against enemies — and passing through the double gates 
 of the donjon. Enemies were kept at a distance by cross- 
 bowmen stationed at the narrow slit-like windows, or were 
 driven hack by an avalanche of stones or hot metal from 
 above, if thev forced the outer gate of the tower. There 
 were dungeons below for prisoners and a great hall on the 
 second floor of the tower or at the opposite end of the 
 court. In the upper part of the tower there were chambers 
 for the noble and his attendants. There was little glass 
 for the narrow windows, but a fireplace furnished warmth, 
 and, during the later semi-barbarous but luxurious "mid- 
 dle ages", the tiled floors and stone walls were covered 
 with costly rugs and draperies. 
 
 23. Entertainment and Pastimes. — Hunting. — Be- 
 yond the courtyard in the larger castles was usually the 
 great hall with its huge fireplace and gigantic table, the 
 latter groaning with an abundance of hearty foods from 
 the forest or barnyard, in time of plenty. Here the master 
 with his guests and retainers indulged in hard drinking 
 and gluttony, for these were common vices in those days 
 among the rich and sometimes among the poor. Here 
 jester and bard offered entertainment, and here came 
 occasionally wandering minstrels (troubadours or minne- 
 singers perhaps), pilgrims lately from the Holy Land, or. 
 

LIFE OF THE NOBLES 27 
 
 special occasion, the lord of the castle's owner, with 
 his great retinue of followers and servants. 
 
 The noble did not spend a great deal of his time w \ix\ Manor houses 
 
 .. i t r • i— 1 i i i i on the different 
 
 his castle. In tact, in England the castles were usually estates of ■ 
 
 me 
 
 royal fortresses, garrisoned by royal troops. He usually '"' le - 
 owned several large manor houses on his different estates 
 and stayed some time in each. Since the roads were poor 
 and food could not easily be brought to him, he and his 
 followers went to the supplies, eating the surplus on one 
 estate and going on to a second. As he journeyed from 
 one to another he might spend the night at some monastary 
 — the only substitute for inns — or with one of his vassals, 
 or in the open air, as fortune dictated. 
 
 Much attention was given to hunting, foi the forests H unt j ng on 
 originally furnished an abundance of game, and later game game preserves 
 preserves were established on every estate. With hooded 
 falcon on wrist, the nobles sallied forth for an afternoon's 
 amusement, or, well-armed, they pursued bear or wild boar 
 into the depth of the forest, a sport worthy of a fighter. 
 
 24. Tournaments. — A pastime which grew in favor Jousting. 
 as war became less common was tilting or jousting. Joust- 
 ing was a combat between two horsemen armed with 
 lances, who sought to unhorse each other. Even the youths 
 with their miniature lances practiced at tilting, trying to 
 see whether they could strike the quintain or dummy fig- 
 ure. 1 Knights in search of adventure spent considerable 
 time on the road, willing to break a lance with any equal. 2 
 If the thrusts of a knight's lance knocked his opponent from 
 his horse, the opponent's steed became the victor's prop- 
 
 ^his quintain was so constructed that if it was missed by the 
 youth or was struck by a clumsy blow, the youth ran into a wooden 
 arm or was struck by this swinging arm. 
 
 2 The legends of King Arthur abound with examples of this prac- 
 tice. King Arthur was supposed to have lived several centuries be- ' 
 fore this time, but accounts tof the advantures were not written 
 until this period of feudalism. Consequently the stories of King 
 Arthur and his knights of the round table depict ideas, adventures 
 and customs of the "middle ages." 
 
THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 erty. Then the combat was continued on foot with sword 
 
 If the victorious knight won this also, he gained the am* 
 which his opponent had worn. 
 individual on- Jousting on a large scale occurred in the frequent tour 
 louraamnt naments. Individual contests usually came first. The 
 knights rock together fiercely, each aiming his lance at the 
 head or breast of his Opponent, and seeking to unhorse him. 
 \> soon as one was forced from his steed, the other dis- 
 mounted and the contest was renewed with swords until 
 one was disabled. Frequently some powerful knight 
 v challenged all comer- and disposed of one antagonist after 
 another. 
 tkt meiee. More like a battle was the melee of the tournament. 
 
 well described by Scott in Ivanhoe, 1 where sides were tak- 
 en and a pitched battle ensued. Three -core knights were 
 killed in one of these tournaments. Against this practice 
 the Church thundered and threatened in vain, but, as times 
 grew quieter and the method of warfare changed, tourna- 
 ments become more and more displays rather than contests. 
 and, about the time of Queen Elizabeth, were discontinued 
 How a feudal 25. The Feudal Army and Warfare. — Although the 
 
 army was made p em i a i Age was pre-eminently an age of fighting, there 
 was really no army worthy of the name. Each lord sum- 
 moned his vassals who fought under his standard and fre- 
 quently refused to take orders from any one else. As each 
 lord wished to make as good a showing as possible, a king 
 could gather a large number of knights and squires besides 
 a great rabble of churls or peasants, but a feudal army 
 never could be an organized body. Feudal battles likewise 
 were usually made up of hundreds of hand-to-hand con- 
 flicts, the center of each being a group of strong fighters... 
 Knights vs. The real feudal soldier was a horseman, because no 
 
 Displacement criur l m leather tunic could stand against him, but, long 
 of feudal before feudalism disappeared, companies of yeomen, armed 
 
 with long bows and fighting in masses at a distance, proved 
 that the day of the armed horsemen were over. The ^reat 
 'Scott, Ivanhce, Chapter XII. 
 
LIFE OF THE NOBLES 29 
 
 victories of the English during the Hundred Years' War 
 with France (1338-1453) were due to the skill of the Eng- 
 lish archers. After gunpowder came into common use so 
 that arquebus replaced lance and bow, and cannon were 
 used instead of catapults and arbalasts, the armor of the 
 knight, like the stone walls of the castle, possessed no fur- 
 ther military value. siege methods 
 
 in the Feudal 
 When an army attacked a castle or a walled town, a force of men Age. 
 
 was sent forward, protected by a shed called the "cat." The roof of 
 the cat was made of tough material like skins so that it could not 
 be broken by stones thrown from the walls. Under the protection 
 of the cat, forty or fifty men would thrust against the wall a huge 
 beam known as the "ram." A smaller sharp-pointed beam, some- 
 times called the "rat," was used to pick the wall to pieces. Usually 
 these men filled the moat or ditch with brush and dirt so that they 
 could reach the wall. If this was done well and the surrounding 
 ground was not too rough, a tall wooden tower was pushed against 
 the walls, the defenders were driven from their position by the 
 showers of arrows and lances from above, and the attacking party 
 crossed on a bridge. Perhaps at the same time in another place 
 miners undermined the walls, so that the knights could enter 
 through the breach which had been made in the walls. 
 
 From a distance heavy bolts were thrown with great violence by Siege artillery 
 the arbalast, which was a huge cross-bow mounted on wheels. The 
 inangon or catapult hurled immense rocks against the walls or in- 
 side the fortifications. Later small cannon threw iron balls or iron- 
 tipped arrows. Private war- 
 
 26. Private Warfare. The Peace of God.— Wars fare 
 were not confined to conflicts between kings, for, as Rob- 
 inson well says, war was the chief amusement as well as 
 the main business of the feudal knight. Ambitious nobles 
 wished to extend their boundaries. Vassals often sought 
 to throw off their allegiance to their overlord. Knights 
 found excuse to attack and plunder wealthy neighbors. In 
 short, every possible excuse was used as a reason for mak- 
 ing private War. Opposition of 
 . the Church to 
 
 Private war was countenanced by the laws even as late private war- 
 as the fourteenth century, but the Church used its great fare - 
 influence against private warfare. Before the time of Wil- 
 liam the Conquerer, war upon churchmen, women, peas- 
 

 TH1-". FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The traininn of 
 a knitrht. 
 
 Evo'.ul 
 
 chain to plate 
 armor. 
 
 1 ben 
 
 veloped a code 
 of knightly 
 honor, called 
 chivalry. 
 
 e 
 
 ; 
 
 or merchants was forbidden, under pain of excom- 
 munication. This was called the Pane of God. Latei 
 
 private warfare was not permitted from Thursday to Sun- 
 day inclusive, nor on holy days, the latter being so numer- 
 
 i 11- that private enmities could he settled, with the permis-ra 
 sion of the Church, on not more than one day in four on 
 the average. This was called the Truce of God. 
 
 27. The Knight and His Armor. — ( )nly men of noble 
 birth who had proved their worth and powers were al- 
 lowed to become knights. Sons of nobles at the age of 
 seven were taken from their mothers and taught t" serve 
 the ladies as pages in the castle of some friend. At four- 
 teen the page became a squire, who looked after some 
 knight and attended him wherever he went. After some 
 years of service he might be deemed worthy of knight 
 hood. When that time came, having fasted and spent 
 night in prayer, he put on his armor. His patron knigh 
 gave him three strokes with the fiat of his sword. In full 
 armor he sprang upon his horse without touching the stir- 
 rups, and proved his skill with sword and lance. He had 
 now reached the time of full manhood. He was a knight/ 
 
 The knightly armor that was in use when America was 
 discovered (1492) was very different from that which Wil- 
 liam the Conquerer's followers had used. In the tenth and 
 eleventh centuries armor consisted of a long leather coat 
 covered with metal rings, the head being protected by a 
 conical-shaped helmet. Later, coats of mail, that is, of 
 interwoven rings, were worn over stiff cloth, but heavy 
 blows usually drove the rings into the flesh, so that grad- 
 ually plate armor replaced mail, until the knights of the fif- 
 teenth century were literally incased in suits of movable 
 steel plates. 
 
 28. Chivalry.— The knight was at first only a brutal 
 and violent warrior, but, even in that rough age, he learned 
 fidelity and loyalty to the person who knighted him and 
 
 'In England the squire rarely went to the trouble and expense of 
 being knighted. 
 
LIFE OF THE NOBLES 31 
 
 to his overlord. In time, more was expected of the knight 
 and his oath included a promise to defend the Church and 
 protect women. Being strong and courageous, he naturally 
 became the champion of the weak and the defenceless. To 
 valor he added courtesy. His loyalty for a superior grew 
 into fidelity to those of noble birth who sought his help. 
 He developed a code in which devotion, liberality and hon- 
 or held a high place. Standing by the dead body of 
 Launcelot, Sir Hector exclaimed : "Thou wert the cour- 
 teousest knight that ever bare shield ; and thou wert the 
 truest friend to thy lover that ever bestrode horse ; and 
 thou wert the truest lover, of a sinful man, that ever loved 
 woman ; and thou wert the kindest man that ever struck 
 with sword ; and thou wert the goodliest person that ever 
 came among press of knights ; and thou wert the meekest 
 man and gentlest, that ever ate in hall among ladies ; and 
 thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe that ever 
 put spear in the rest." 
 
 Very few knights of the Feudal Age ever attained all influence oi 
 or even most of these knightly virtues, but these ideals 
 which were held up before the young knights undoubted- 
 ly created a respect for the Church and a position for wom- 
 en which would not easily have been aroused except for 
 the chivalry of the later "middle ages." This feudil period 
 was a transitional one from an age of barbarism and blood- 
 shed to an age of order, and there was little law but that 
 of might, but out of this barbarism came gradually a civili- 
 zation in which government, religion and respect for wom- 
 en were important. Some of these changes were due to the 
 ideals of knighthood or chivalry. As for the knight, we 
 may say with Coleridge, 
 
 "The knight's bones are dust. 
 And his good sword rust, 
 His soul is with the saints, I trust." 
 
 "Chivalry, then may be defined as the moral and social law and 
 custom of the noble and gentle class in Western Europe during the c hivalry 
 later 'Middle Age,' and the result of that law and custom in action. 
 
32 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The services 
 
 of the 
 
 villein to the 
 noble. 
 
 Obligation* 
 of the serf. 
 
 It applies, strictly speaking, to gentlemen only. Its three princi] 
 factors are war. religion and love of ladies." 
 
 "Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service willing] 
 rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedience to rule, 
 consecrated military powers to the service of the Church, glorifie 
 the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfishness and courtesy, an 
 above all courtesy to women. Against these maj be sei the \iei> i 
 pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed, contempt of inferiors an 
 loose maimers." (Cornish, Chivalry, pp. 13, 27-28.) 
 
 The Common People Under Feudalism. 
 
 29. Villeins and the Feudal Classes. — Feudalism and 
 chivalry were affairs solely for those of noble birth, but 
 feudalism could not have existed without a very large class 
 of workers which provided food and other necessities andi 
 did the drudgery, which all nobles scorned. In the earlier 
 and cruder days of feudalism, there were two classes of 
 these workers, the freemen or villeins, who dwelt in the 
 village, and the serfs. , The villeins were a true peasant 
 class, the descendants of free peasants, or small landown- 
 ers, who tilled the soil, and, as tenants, made such terms 
 as they could with the noble who gave them protection in 
 exchange for labor. This labor might be spent upon the 
 lord's mill, upon the castle or upon the roads. It might 
 
 1 ^ spent upon the lord's fields, planting or harvesting at a 
 time with the peasant's own crops suffered for want of 
 care. Or the payment might be simply a supply of grain 
 and provisions from the tenant's land. Whether of service 
 or produce, the peasant's dues were usually definitely 
 known and regularly paid. 
 
 30. Serfs — I nlike the villeins the serfs were not free, 
 for they were bound to the land, which they could not 
 leave. Unlike the villeins again their services to their 
 lord were not fixed and definite. Whenever the noble 
 needed their help, to till his fields, cook his food, or care 
 for his stable, the serf must drop his own work and give 
 what the lord demanded. Even then his life was freer and 
 more hopeful than that of his slave ancestors, and the lot 
 
> 
 
 >0 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 hJ 
 
 fa 
 
 <c 
 
 'd 
 
 fa 
 
 
 o 
 
 <i> 
 
 
 fa 
 
 r/) 
 
 
 r/l 
 
 
 fa 
 
 D 
 
 Ci 
 
 ri 
 
 O J 
 
THE COMMON PEOPLE 
 
 33 
 
 grew lighter as the centuries went by, for the services that 
 .he must give to the noble became fixed by custom. He was 
 allowed to marry and might enter the Church, in which 
 birth did not debar him from rising to exalted positions. 
 
 Serfdom disappeared in France and England soon after Disappearance 
 
 ,„., r .. i r i 11 of serfdom. 
 
 the Crusades, the sen gaming personal ireedoni as 'well 
 as the right to pay all of his obligations to his lord at 
 stated times and in fixed amounts. In Germany serfdom 
 •existed until about one hundred years ago, and in Russia 
 Alexander TI freed more than twenty million serfs as late 
 •as 1863. The lords usually freed their serfs voluntarily, 
 as a villein was a more willing servant and did better work. 
 After the Crusades began freedom was purchased frequent' 
 ly by the serf, since money had become more plentiful. The 
 Black Death, which about 1350 swept away moie than 
 half of the working population of western Europe, hastened 
 the emancipation of serfs by reducing the number of work- 
 ers. Serfs could now demand money wages or could be- 
 come villeins. 
 
 31. What the Peasant did for the Lord.— An old Listttftay 
 
 merits on a 
 
 document gives a picture of the dues on a French estate, 1 ?£ ^nce* 3 * 
 an estate held by the Church. ' 
 
 "The tenants must fetch stone, mix mortat, and serve the masons. 
 Toward the last of June, on demand they must mow and turn hay 
 and draw it to the manor-house. In August they must reap the con- 
 vent's grain, put it in sheaves and draw it in. For their tenure they 
 owe the champart : they cannot remove their sheaves before they 
 have been to seek the assessor of the champart, who deducts his due, 
 and they must cart his part to the champart-barn ; during this time 
 their own grain remained exposed to the wind and rain. On the 
 eighth of September the villein owes his pork-due, one pig in eight ; 
 he has the right to take out two, the third choice belongs to the 
 seigneur. On the ninth of October he pays the cens. At Christmas 
 he owes his chicken-due ; also the grain-due of two setters of barley 
 and a quart of wheat. On Palm Sunday he owes his sheep-due; and 
 if he does not pay it on the day set the seigneur fines him, arbi- 
 trarily. At Easter he owes corvee ; by way of corvee he must 
 
 Quoted from Seignobos, Feudal Regime. See Luchaire, Social 
 France at the Time of Philip Augustus. 
 
Later abuses 
 from survival 
 of peasant's 
 obligations. 
 
 The homeof the 
 peasant. 
 
 Food. 
 
 M 
 
 Till* FEUDAL AGE 
 
 plough, sow and harrow. If the villein sells his land, he owes tl 
 seigneur the thirteenth part of its value. If he marries his daught 
 to any one outside the seigneury, he pays a marriage-right of thr< 
 sous. He is subjected to the mill-ban and the oven-ban; his wi 
 - to get bread; she pays the customary charges; the woman ; 
 the oven grumbles— for she is 'very proud and haughty'— and th 
 man at the oven complain: ■•■■ rs '^ 
 
 the oven will be poorly heated and that the villein's bread will b 
 all raw and not well browned." 1 
 
 In some instances these payments and obligations of the peasant 
 in time become purely nominal, that is they were discharged in ful 
 by sending to the lord a few pigeons or fowls, or by slight services 
 but frequently the obligation remained until recent times. Thest 
 survivals of old obligations became abuses, when peasants wen 
 obliged to grind their grain at the lord's mill at a much greater 
 cost than the mills of neighboring towns might charge; when the\ 
 were forbidden to bake bread in ovens that they might own for 
 themselves; when tithes that should have been paid to the Church 
 were demanded by secular lords 5 when the nobles used their ancient 
 hunting rights and crossed peasants' fields, trampling down the 
 grain ; when taxes were demanded of peasants in order that worse 
 calamities might not befall them. 
 
 32. The Life of the Peasant.— It does not necessarily 
 follow that because the nobles oppressed the peasants 
 their lives were wretched. Yet the life of the common 
 people during the centuries from Charlemagne to the close 
 of the Crusades was degraded. Almost all of the peas- 
 ants lived in miserable wooden or sod huts of one room, 
 with a single window, without glass of course, and no 
 chimney. There was little furniture. Perhaps rushes cov- 
 ered the earthen floor. Masses of straw served for beds, 
 the peasants wearing the same rough clothing during the 
 day and at night. Cooking was done outside if the weath- 
 er permitted, for an indoor fire was a necessary evil to be 
 avoided. In wet weather the room was partitioned off so 
 that the pig and poultry might have half. 
 
 Food was coarse and of little variety, animal foods and 
 
 ^hampart — part of produce. 
 
 Cens — a very small money rent. 
 
 Corvee — personal service for the noble. 
 
 Ran — order from the noble to use his mill or oven. 
 
 !.' 
 
 ■ 
 
THE COMMON PEOPLE 35 
 
 eavy bread or cakes of wheat or rye forming the main 
 liet. Vegetables and fruit were poor, those which are 
 lost in use at present being unknown. A cheap beer or 
 fine was made and consumed in large quantities. In time 
 >f plenty no one went, hungry, but famines and pestilences 
 tccurred with alarming frequency. Because the diet in 
 vinter was chiefly salted meat 6 :, scurvy was common. Other 
 oathsome diseases were caused by the filth in which the 
 leasants lived. 
 
 Most of the peasants enjoyed games and sports at some Pastimes. 
 :entral point in the village after a hard day's work. Some 
 )f them also lived in wooden houses of several rooms sur- 
 ounding a court. These were well enough off to enter- 
 ain the lord or his friends on their travels. 
 
 33. Cultivation of the Estate. — The peasants of the The village, 
 ■arly feudal period lived in tiny villages, usually near the estate. 
 : oot of the hill on which stood the manor house or castle. 
 >Vith each hut or house was a lot of an acre or two, which 
 vas later used as a kind of "garden-plot" for the family. 
 rhe lands of the estate to which the manor house and vil- 
 age belonged were either forest lands, meadow lands or 
 jrain lands. The forests were the common range of the 
 )igs, and the meadow-land was used by the cattle and 
 ;heep of all, after a crop of hay had been harvested. 
 
 Each peasant had about thirty acres of land divided into Divisions of the 
 r*any strips of from one to three acres. That is, all of estate . 
 he cultivated land was separated into three great fields ; 
 >ne used for winter wheat, another for spring wheat, or 
 )arley or rye, and the third allowed to remain fallow, as 
 he peasants did not understand fertilizing or rotation of 
 •rops. Each large field was subdivided into these narrow 
 ;trips of which each peasant had several, usually separated 
 : rom one another. The owner of the estate had a great 
 nany strips and frequently had large areas which he did 
 lot share in any way with the peasants. 
 
 When planting time came, six or eight small oxen— there cultivation of 
 were no others — were hitched to the clumsy plow and all farm ,ands - 
 
56 
 
 nil-: FEUDAL AGE 
 
 of the fields were plowed and planted, irrespective of own 
 ership, for no peasant owned a plow and few boasted a 
 many as two oxen. Cultivation and harvesting were als< 
 
 
 
 PLAN OF A MANOR OR FEUDAL ESTATE 
 dofle by common effort, the lord's land usually being cared 
 for first and best, under the direction of the steward or in- 
 tendant. Eight bushels of wheat per acre was a large crop 
 under this Crude method of farming. Under this system 
 each estate provided itself with its own food and other 
 necessities, only salt, iron— chiefly for armor and plow- 
 shares — and millstones being brought in from outside, 
 the peasahts A.S the peasants grew more intelligent, and money be- 
 
 w.TrVor""* came more P lentiful > tlie y sometimes gained possession of 
 Bometimes separate farms which they cultivated with their own ani- 
 
 fr*>eholders 
 
Decay of serf- 
 dom and of rule 
 
 FEUDALISM 2>7 
 
 mals and tools. Yet in England in 1800 more than one- 
 lalf of the land was still cultivated under the old system 
 which had survived from the Feudal Age. In changing 
 from common cultivation to separate cultivation the peas- 
 ants usually remained the tenants of the owner of the 
 state, but occasionally they became owners of their own 
 land, or freeholders. 
 
 34. Decline of the Feudal System. —The feudal sys- 
 tem was an attempt to preserve order and continue gov- by the nobles, 
 eminent in an age which started with such lawlessness as 
 to be almost anarchy. As western Europe became more 
 settled, as roads were built and commerce developed, as 
 warfare declined, the feudal system was not so satisfactory. 
 Not only did serfs buy their personal freedom, but they 
 might gato the towns, where, after a year and a day, their 
 lords had no further claim on them. "The old order chang- 
 ed!' and the kings began to assert the rights which they_^_—- 
 had legally to demand obedience from the nobles. The 
 feudal system crumbled to pieces because it had outlived 
 its usefulness, but many feudal ideas survived, so that soriie 
 feudal dues were paid in very recent times, and, it was not 
 until almost our own day that in Germany, for example, 
 the duchies and city kingdoms which were "left over" 
 from feudal times, were united into a great German em- 
 pire. 
 
 As a political institution feudalism was undermined by j^y^f^ 
 the rise of towns (sees. 84-88), by the development of the d l lism . 
 power of the kings and by the beginnings of national senti- 
 ment. As an economic institution it was replaced by the 
 money payments which were substituted for services (sec. 
 34), by the improvement in roads and the development of 
 commerce (sees. 82-84). As a military institution,' it was 
 no longer needed when kings could hire troops instead of 
 calling upon feudal dependents who might or might not 
 furnish knights, and when gunpowder made armor and 
 castles valueless. As a social institution it survived all of 
 the others, for titles and privileges continued; but the 
 
33 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Purpose and 
 character of 
 the Feudal 
 
 System. 
 
 
 The peasant 
 of the Feudal 
 A?e. 
 
 clas ty were not separated after 1400 as Che) 
 
 »vere luring the Feudal Age. 
 
 35. Summary.— Feudalism was an attempt to main- 
 tiaii order in an age of confusion without sacrificing the 
 personal independence which all Teutons held dear. Every 
 noble held land, called a fief, from some one higher in 
 feudal authority. The superior was called a lord, the de- 
 lent a vassal, but both were nobles. The lord gave 
 ection and allowed the vassal the use of the fief; the 
 vassal gave military service, court service and financial 
 Fervice. A noble really ruled his own dominions, with 
 y little check upon his authority, if he could make the 
 ! eq le in that territory obey him rather than the duke or 
 the Ling who were this noble's feudal superiors. 
 
 The noble.- lived in manor houses of which each had sev- 
 eral. On the continent one of these was probably a castle. 
 made of stone, with a huge tower and courtyard within 
 walls. The nobles hunted and jousted, but especially de- 
 lighted in making private warfare. They were heavily 
 armored and always went on horseback. To prevent at- 
 tacks on defenseless persons, the Church declared the Peace 
 of God, and to break up private warfare, the Truce of God 
 limited private fighting to fewer than 100 days a year. In 
 the time of the Crusades and the later Feudal Age, the 
 knights showed a more chivalrous spirit toward oppon- 
 ents and stood forth as the champions of noble women and 
 the Church. 
 
 The workers who supported the burden of this system 
 r landed rights and social privilege were either serfs, who 
 were bound to the soil, or villeins, who were personally 
 free but gave services or produce to the nobles in exchange 
 for land which they cultivate'. These serfs and villeins 
 were not part of the feudal system, they -simply supported 
 it. The peasant's burdens were heavy, bis work was con- 
 tinuous, his food was crude and his home was without 
 comforts. Land was cultivated in common and very un- 
 scientifically. During the later Feudal Age the serfs in 
 
 
 
FEUDALISM 39 
 
 ^England and France gained their freedom. The lot of the 
 villein improved also, and, as money became more plentiful, 
 personal services were often changed into money rents an J 
 occasionally villeins were able even to buy their laud 
 
 General References 
 
 West, Modern History, 22-51. 
 
 Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 40-50, 135-159. 
 Robinson, Readings in European History, I, 171- 
 Robinson, Readings in Europe History, 171-194, 399-4.^' 
 Adams, Civilization During the Middle Ages, 194-226 
 Emerton, Medieval Europe, 477-540. 
 Seignobos, The Feudal Regime. 
 Bateson, Medieval England. 
 
 Luchaire (Krehbiel), Social France at the l'i)nc of Philip AuguS- 
 ius, 249-428. 
 
 Abram, English Fife and Manners in the Later Middle Ages. 
 Lacroix, The Middle Ages, 5 vols. 
 
 ElA.' 
 
 Topics 
 
 Sieges in the Feubal Age: Tappan. When Knights Were Bold. 
 53-74; Archer Kingsford, The Crusades. 349-366; Cutts, Scenes and 
 Characters, 280-393; Oman, The Art of War in the Middle Ages. 
 
 The Training of the Knight: Tappan, When Knights Were 
 Bold, 1-17; Cutts, Scenes and Characters. 406-422; Cornish, Chivalry 
 29-46, 58-67. 
 
 Medieval Armor: Boutell, Anns and Armor, 97-152; Cutts, 
 Scenes and Characters, 311-352, 452-460; Blashfield, E. H. and E. 
 W., in Scribner's Magazine, III (1888), 1-19, 161-180. 
 
 The Condition of the Peasant: Seignobos, Feudal Regime. 
 Bateson, Medieval England, 99-106, 252-259; Luchaire, Social France 
 at the Time of Pliilip Augustus, 381-420. V 
 
 Studies 
 
 1. Charlemagne's way of raising troops. Robinson, Readings in 
 Ewopean History, I, Sees. 57-60. 
 
 2. Origin of feudalism. West, Modern History, Sees. 18-24. 
 
 3. The ceremonies of homage and fealty. Ogg, Source Book of 
 Medieval History. No. 36; Robinson, Readings. I. Sees. 83-87. 
 
 4. Important rights of the lord. Ogg, Source Book, No. 38. 
 
 5. The real rulers under feudalism. Munro and Sellery, Medie 
 ral Civilization, 159-167, 
 
40 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 6. Life in the castle. Tappan, When Knights were Bold, 75-10 
 Blashfield, E. II. and E. VV., in Scribner's Magazine, V (1885 
 1-26. 
 
 7. The mirror of fashion. Abram, English Life and Manners 
 the Later Middle Ages, 152-172. 
 
 8. Improvement in life of the upper classes. Synge, Social Li, 
 in England, 75 81, 87 96, 109 121. 
 
 9. Mete and drinke. Abram, English Life and Manners in th 
 Later Middle Ages, 134-151. 
 
 10. A baronial household. Bateson, Medieval England, 302-321 \ 
 
 11. Minstrels in the Feudal Age. Cutts, Scenes and Character 
 of the Middle Ages, 267-283, 293 and following. 
 
 12. Tournaments. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 423-438; Cor 
 nish, Chivalry, 86-108. 
 
 13. Amusements in the later Feudal Age. Abram, English Lift 
 and Manners in the Later Middle Ages, 230-247. 
 
 14 Change from the feudal army to a national army in France 
 Munro and Sellery (eds.). Medieval Civilisation, 547-574. 
 15- The medieval bowman. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 439-446. 
 
 16. Private war. Munro and Sellery (eds.), Medieval Civiliza- 
 tion, 177-187. 
 
 17. The Peace of God and the Truce of God. Ogg, Source Book 
 of Medieval History, Sec. 39; Robinson, Readings, I, 187-191. 
 
 18. The Church and feudalism. Munro and Sellery (eds.), Med- 
 ieval Civilization, 188-201. 
 
 19- The position of women. Abram, English Life and Manners 
 in the Later Middle Ages, 31-45. 
 
 20. The Black Death and the peasants' revolt. Cheyney, Short 
 History of England, Sees. 211-219. 
 
 21. The home of the peasant. Traill and Mann (eds.), Social 
 History, I, 546-550. 
 
 22. The cultivation of an estate. Rogers, Six Centuries of Work 
 and Wages, 73-90. 
 
 23. The abolition of serfdom. Cheyney, Industrial and Socia 
 History of England, 125-133. 
 
 7 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. Why was the Duke of Normandy more powerful in Normandy 
 than the King of France? 
 
 2. What is meant by a hierarchy? Explain how the feudal sys- 
 tem, in theory, created a hierarchy. 
 
 3. Explain these terms: lord, vassal, fief, homage, fealty, inves- 
 
 
FEUDALISM 41 
 
 ,ture, military service, court service, feudal aids, relief; alienation, 
 cheat. 
 
 4. Who was an overlord? What could he demand of his vassals? 
 /hat dukes or courts recognized the King of France as their im- 
 lediate overlord? (See map, sec. 49). 
 
 5. What two powers must any lord possess in order that he 
 iould be the real ruler of his estate or domain? 
 
 6. Compare the feudal system of England (sec. 13) with that of 
 France. (Sees. 16, 20). 
 
 7. Why were the earliest castles built? Where were they built? 
 
 8. Write a short account of your experiences if you approached 
 1 castle and went through it. 
 
 9. Why was there usually "a feast or a famine" in the Feudal 
 Lge? 
 
 10. Why did a great lord spend several months at each of his 
 lanor houses? Why were game preserves established in the later 
 ■eudal Age? Why should the peasants have objected to the nobles' 
 tunting rights ? 
 
 11. What was the quintain? Why did it pay to hit the quintain 
 quarely with your lance? What did a winner in a joust obtain? 
 
 i 12. Show the connection between private warfare, the Truce of 
 }od, early tournaments and later tournaments. 
 
 13. What was a "cat?" a "rat?" How was a tower used in tak- 
 ng a city? How was a mine used? Compare the effectiveness of a 
 ialista, a catapault and a medieval cannon. 
 
 14. Was plate armor superior to a coat of mail? Why? How 
 lid the ceremony of knighting test the character, skill and endur- 
 ince of the new knight? 
 
 15. What do we owe to chivalry? Is the modern gentleman 
 rcore or less chivalrous that the medieval knight? Name differ- 
 ences between the medieval standards of character and modern 
 
 tandards. 
 
 16. Why was the serf better off than his ancestors? If the 
 villein's lot was worse than that of his forefathers, why did he 
 submit to it? 
 
 17. Where does serfdom exist now? In what countries was it 
 abolished first? in which, last? How do you account for these 
 facts ? 
 
 18. Compare the life of thte peasant with that of our poorest 
 laborers at present? Was the peasant worse off than our poor of 
 the present ? Explain your answer. 
 
 19. What is meant by cultivation in common? Why was it used 
 so universally during the Feudal Age? In what way is it less sat- 
 
42 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 isfactory than separate farm lands which are cultivated by differe 
 tenants? by different owners? What is a freehold? For what po: 
 tions in Pasadena must one be a freeholder? 
 
 20. Give the reasons for the decline of the feudal system : poll 
 ical, economic, military and social. Would you say that the feud 
 system declined before or after the discovery of America? Wei 
 there any forms of feudalism transplanted to America? 
 
 21. In what ways was the feudal system like the government c 
 the social organization of the present day? Compare these things i 
 the Feudal Age and at present: What classes are there who cat 
 vote? Do all have the same legal rights? Is there a difference i 
 the social privileges of trie classes then and now? Who held privat 
 property, then? now? Who had personal freedom, then? now? 
 
 22. Mention some things that seem necessary to us that did no 
 exist eight centuries ago; some comforts; some luxuries. Has th 
 standard of living improved? the standard of morality? 
 
 23. Why would you like to have lived during the Feudal Age 
 Why do you prefer to live now? 
 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE CHURCH OF THE FEUDAL AGE. 
 36. General Character of the Medieval Church. The two great 
 
 _, ... r i t-> 'i i a institutions 
 
 -There were two great institutions of the reudal Age. f the Feudal 
 One was the feudal system itself, that system of land-hold- Age - 
 tig which divided society into feudal classes of nobles, 
 vith serfs and villeins to do the real work, and which gave 
 yestern Europe those loosely organized feudal states, with 
 veak kings and unruly nobles. The other was the Church, 
 in institution unlike any that we have today, although its 
 lame suggests organizations with which we are familiar. 
 
 In studying the medieval Church we should take into Distinction 
 iccount the disorder and the comparatively crude civiliza- between the 
 
 r J Church as a 
 
 :ion of the Feudal Age. We must discriminate between political organi- 
 :he Church as a religions body and the Church as a polit- H^i^tod & 
 leal organisation, for the medieval Church played an im- 
 portant part in the politics of the time as well as the chief 
 role in religion. We ought not to confuse the religious 
 and moral work of the Church with the political and social 
 policies of the Church, for the Church as a political organi- 
 sation zvas little better and little worse tJian its times, while 
 the Church as a religious body represented the best ideas 
 and wishes of the early feudal period. 
 
 The people almost literally lived and thought and had Jj^^T ° f 
 their being in the Church. The Church did not simply 
 pray for them and give them religious instruction ; it fur- 
 nished the schools, it preserved the learning ; it controlled 
 the work days, it ruled the holy days ; it guided the busi- 
 ness, it dominated politics. In an age of ignorance, of 
 destitution, and of tumult, the Church stood for wisdom, 
 for industry and for order. Unquestionably many church- 
 men were narrow, dogmatic, intolerant and selfish : in fact 
 they were often extermely ignorant, indolent and corrupt. 
 Yet the Church remains not simply the greatest force but 
 
44 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 General. 
 
 All people 
 members of 
 medieval 
 church. 
 
 Organization 
 of the Church. 
 
 Religious in- 
 struction. 
 
 Schools and 
 learning. 
 
 Church lands. 
 
 Great prelates. 
 
 i^oSa 
 
 Kfc.v^l 
 
 P 1 ^] 
 
 the greatest uplifting force of the Feudal Age. 
 
 37. Differences Between the Medieval Church 
 and the Modern Church. — In order that we may under- 
 stand better this great universal or Catholic Church, with 
 Rome as its center, let us compare it with the churches of 
 the present time. 
 
 In the first place the medieval church included every f 
 one in western Europe. Because it was the only church in f 
 western Europe, i. e. a universal church, every child really ' 
 was a member of this Church from the time of his birth, 
 just as all of us are American citizens if we are born in 
 the United States. 
 
 In the second place this universal church needed a very 
 large and complete organization. At the top of this orga- 
 nization was the spiritu- 
 al father or pope. Under 
 him were archbishops, 
 and under each arch 
 bishop many bishops. 
 Below the bishops were 
 the parish priests, and 
 often abbots and abbess 
 es. In the third place the 
 Church was the religious 
 teacher and moral guide 
 of every person, since 
 all were members of the 
 church. Fourth, through 
 its priests and bishop';, 
 and especially through 
 its nuns and monks it collected and made books and fur- 
 nished the only schools of that day. Fifth, because the 
 Church had extensive lands its officials like the bishops and 
 abbots had not only duties as churchmen but also were vas- 
 sals and therefore had feudal obligations to their overlords. 
 38. The Classes of Churchmen. — There were four 
 distinct classes of churchmen. The first of these were the 
 
 NUN-PRIEST 
 
CHURCH AND PEOPLE 
 
 45 
 
 igher secular clergy, including the great prelates and high 
 fficials like the pope (sec. 42), the archbishops and the 
 k ishops. These men were usually of noble birth and 
 yere ordinarily men of ability and influence. They were 
 he aristocrats of the Church, holding the positions which 
 nought honor and fame, and which gave great political 
 ,ower Their spiritual influence among the people was 
 .ess than that of their subordinates in the Church of whom 
 here were two classes at first and later a third, the friars. 
 ■ '2) Those of the first class of lesser churchmen were mem- p— * 
 ; e rs of the secular clergy. These were the parish priests 
 *ho looked after the people of parishes or small districts 
 nto which each county was subdivided. (3) The second Mon k , 
 -lass of the lesser clergy were the monks, who lived apart 
 from the world in secluded buildings called monasteries. 
 (4) The third class included the friars (brothers), mis- Friars, 
 sionaries who traveled from parish to parish and from 
 country to country, preaching, healing and comforting, but 
 everywhere depending on charity (sees. 61-62). 
 
 39. The Early Monasteries. -As we wish to study stB-gjt 
 the lesser clergy rather than the higher 
 clergy, let us consider first the monks, 
 later the lesser secular clergy, and final- 
 ly let us study briefly the political pow- 
 er ofthe higher secular clergy. Most 
 
 of the monasteries were supposed to 
 
 follow the rules laid down centuries 
 
 before this time by St. Benedict. Bene- 
 dict believed that monks should work 
 
 with their hands. Seven hours for 
 
 labor, seven hours for prayer, seven 
 
 hours for sleep was the rule in many 
 
 monasteries. During the dark ages be- 
 fore Charlemagne, the monks reclaimed 
 
 the fields that were going to waste and 
 
 taught the people the dignity of labor. 
 
 They welcomed to their midst all who 
 
 were sick of their conflict with sin and 
 
 BENEDICTINE 
 ABBOT 
 
46 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 What the mon- 
 asteries did for 
 the people. 
 
 Lax observance 
 of monastic 
 rules. 
 
 Influence of 
 Bernard. 
 
 The priest and 
 his assistants. 
 
 the world. They practiced self-denial, living in comfortlest 
 
 cells on a few crusts and often wearing hair shirts. 
 
 Although they lived apart from the world, the example 
 of the monks (their industry and their self-denial) had a 
 much greater influence among the people than their preach- 
 ing could have done. Yet they helped the people directly 
 Beggars were fed in great numbers at the gates of the mon- 
 asteries. Until the Hundred Years' War. monasteries 
 entertained most of the travelers, furnishing the only inns, 
 and the monks or nuns had charge of a large number of 
 schools. 
 
 40. The Later Monasteries — St. Bernard. — I 
 many of the monasteries there was little attempt to kee 
 these strict vows or perform these deeds of charity. I 
 place of manual labor, any kind of labor was given, the 
 copying of manuscripts being one of the most common and 
 most valuable substitutes for out-door work. Wealthy per- 
 sons left to the monasteries valuable property, so that in 
 time the average monk was lazy, selfish and even corrupt. 
 The reforms of Cluny (sec. 46) attempted to purge the 
 monasteries of their worst evils. This was only one of 
 many reform movements. 
 
 A very enthusiastic young man. tall and fair, with ruddy 
 hair and winning personality, became very much interested 
 in the work of reclaiming men from the world. This man 
 was Bernard. From the monastery at Clairvaux in France 
 Bernard sent out groups of men to found new monasteries 
 that should show -the people the Christ-life on earth. From 
 Clairvaux he went forth to preach the second crusade. 
 From Clairvaux he was summoned to the councils of kings 
 or to decide disputes between two men, each of whom 
 claimed to be pope. To Clairvaux came high and low, rich 
 and poor, for no one was refused, although Bernard was. 
 for a quarter of a century, the spiritual leader of western 
 Europe. 
 
 41. The Priest and His Parish. — A figure much 
 humbler than the monk was the parish priest, the church- 
 
CHURCH AND PEOPLE 47 
 
 worker among the people, who was usually one of the com- 
 mon people. Despised by monk and prelate, ignorant and 
 often worldly, the parish priest was the real foundation of 
 that great church organization of which we have spoken. 
 The priest alone of all the churchmen came into real con- 
 tact with the people. He alone knew them ; their burdens, 
 their troubles and their problems. Often he was a poor 
 pastor, for the head priest, or rector, frequently held scores 
 of benefices or livings, and the actual work of looking after 
 the parishioners was done by subordinates. These assist- 
 ants were almost always men of humble birth, and they 
 did not always live devout lives. 
 
 Nevertheless every priest was fully empowered not only Powers of the 
 to preach and minister to his flock, but priests no less than priest 
 bishops had the right to administer the sacraments. The 
 priest could by baptism bring the soul into the shelter of 
 the Church. Marriage was performed only by the Church, 
 and usually by the priests, for no civil marriages were per- 
 mitted in the Feudal Age. To the priest came all penitents, 
 for confession. After confessing their sins, they gained 
 absolution. Finally the priest could say "masses" for the 
 souls of the living or the dead, the mass being the import- 
 ant feature of all church service. 
 
 The Temporal Power of the Church. 
 
 42. The Pope. — The monks and the priests repre- Thepopeas 
 sented the working and preaching members of the Church, an dasagreatl 
 who were close to the people. Above them were the bishops temporal ruler 
 and archbishops, and above all the pope. 2 
 
 As the head of this great Church, he occupied the most 
 exalted position and had the greatest influence of any ruler, 
 temporal or spiritual. Yet it is the pope as a temporal ruler 
 rather than as a spiritual leader whom he must study. 
 
 1 Except that of ordination, that is, of creating members of the 
 "Holy orders." 
 
 *The Church officials formed a hierarchy, completely organized 
 like the later Roman Empire. 
 
48 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Bishop of 
 Rome (rains 
 position as 
 head of the 
 Church. 
 
 Bishop of 
 Rome grains 
 temporal power 
 
 Need of uni- 
 form law. 
 
 What the 
 church law in- 
 cluded. 
 
 When the Germans invaded the western Roman empire 
 the Bishop of Rome naturally came to be looked upon as 
 the real head of the western Church, since Rome was the 
 capital of the Western Empire. In time he denied that he 
 owed allegiance to the emperor who was at Constantinople, 
 and he even gained the right to crown the emperors of the 
 Holy Roman Empire (sec. 49), who were not considered 
 as true emperors without the papal sanction and blessing. 
 
 In addition to being the spiritual head of western Europe, 
 the pope (Bishop of Rome) had gained very extensiv \ 
 powers as a civil ruler. In the fifth century, when Rome, 
 was threatened by the barbarians, the pope not only sought 
 the withdrawal of the Germans, but, from the coffers of the 
 Church, had repaired the walls of the city and paid troops 
 for defense. The popes thus not only became the most- 
 powerful of the political leaders of the imperial city, but 
 became accustomed to exercise more or less temporal pow- 
 er over the territory under their control. This territory 
 was called the patrimony of St Peter. When the father of 
 Charlemagne gave the pope control of lands across Italy. 
 (called the Donation of Pippin), he practically made the 
 pope a great feudal lord. The political power which later 
 popes had as feudal lords made it possible for them to claim 
 the right, first, to help princes preserve order, and later to 
 control political affairs of rulers throughout western Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 43. The Church Courts. — The pope and the Church 
 did not gain this great temporal power by the use of armies. 
 They obtained it in part through the Church law and the 
 Church courts. As there were no national legislatures and 
 the feudal kings could make few laws, the civil latvs were 
 different in every barony or county of which there were 
 thousands in western Europe. The Church, however, had 
 a law of its own. This church lazv was about the same 
 over all western Europe. It dealt not only with churches 
 and churchmen, but with every subject connected with the 
 Church.. The Peace of God and the Truce of God were 
 
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 The interdict. 
 
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Bishop of 
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 position as 
 head of the 
 Church. 
 
 Bishop of 
 Rome grains 
 temporal pow. 
 
 Need of uni- 
 form law. 
 
 What the 
 church law in- 
 cluded. 
 
TEMPORAL POWER OF THE CHURCH 49 
 
 parts of the Church's law. This law covered many subjects, 
 like marriage, care of children, the breaking of agreements, 
 and the taking of life, that are today included in the civil 
 or criminal law. Furthermore all persons, laymen or clergy- 
 men, who broke the Church's law were tried in Church 
 courts. So the Church gave western Europe a set of al- 
 most universal laws by punishing offenders in its own 
 courts. 1 
 
 44. Excommunication and the Interdict. — Even Excommuni- 
 more drastic means that were used against persons who 
 opposed the Church or broke its laws were excommunica- 
 tion and the interdict. By excommunication the offender 
 
 was cast out of the Church and was stripped of office or 
 lands. Not only was his soul lost unless he made his peace 
 with the Church, but all who aided him, even those of his 
 own household, would lose their souls as well. Until it was 
 abused by over-use, excommunication was a terrible and 
 effective weapon against the enemies of the Church. 
 
 The interdict laid the curse of the Church on whole com- The interdict. 
 munities or countries whose people or rulers disobeyed its 
 mandates. Only occasional services were held. In some 
 cases even these were suspended. 2 The interdict usually 
 compelled princes to yield to the Church, but it injured the 
 Church because the prince's subjects were forced to do with- 
 out religious services. 
 
 45. Need of Reform in the Church. — The Giurch Tke reforms 
 could bring erring members to terms by the use of excom- 
 munication and the interdict, but it could not free itself 
 
 W law-breaker who fled to a church had the right of "sanctuary," 
 and could not be punished by the civil authorities so long as he was 
 in the church or under its protection. 
 
 2 An especially severe example of the interdict occurred in Nor- 
 mandy in 1 137. "The people were forbidden to enter the churches 
 for the purpose of worshipping God, and the doors were locked. The 
 music of the bells was silenced, and the bodies of the dead lay un- 
 buried and putrifying, striking the beholders with fear and horror. 
 The pleasures of marriage were denied to those desiring them and 
 the solemn joys of the Church services were no longer known." — 
 Pennsylvania Translation and Reprints, IV, No. 4, p. 28. 
 
50 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Dangers to the 
 Church from 
 the marriage 
 of the clergy. 
 
 ind 
 
 easily from corruption. Several times between 800 and 
 1600 the corruption became so serious that reform was 
 necessary. One of these reform movements took place in 
 the eleventh century. 1 The Church had grown rich, its 
 wealth had attracted irreligious men who obtained fat of- 
 fices, and her clergy were often indifferent and worldly. 
 These evils led to a demand for reform. Three demands 
 were more important than others.- (1) that the clergy 
 should not marry, (2) that churchmen should no longer 
 buy their offices, and (3) that bishops and the pope should 
 be chosen by the Church and not by outsiders. 
 
 46. Opposition to the Marriage of the Clergy. — 
 The demand that the clergy should n t marry cime in part 
 from those who objected to the clergy having worl ly in- 
 terests because the care of their wives and children would 
 interfere with their religious work. It came also from 
 those who feared that the bishops and other churchmen 
 would deprive the Church of its great wealth. The ex- 
 tensive church lands were held by the bishops and abbots 
 usually as the fiefs of the king or of some great noble. If 
 these churchmen were allowed to marry, this land might 
 come to be looked upon as the bishop's land rather than 
 the Church's property. In time the bishop's sons would 
 claim that church fiefs, like any other fief, should descend 
 
 *Later reform movements occurred in the thirteenth, fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries. The thirteenth century movement was due to 
 the failure of the Church to reach the poor in the cities and the 
 heretics in France. The heretics were crushed in a crusade and 
 the friars temporarily strengthened the hold of the Church on the 
 people (sees. 58-62). The second movement took place two hun- 
 dred years later when there were two popes, the Church was badly 
 disorganized and heresy was spreading in England and Bohemia. A 
 series of Church councils gave temporary relief. The third move- 
 ment was a revolution, the great Reformation, started by Martin 
 Luther, which separated most of the northern churches (called Pro- 
 testant), but led to more extensive reforms within the Church than 
 any of the others. 
 
 *These are sometimes called, from the monastery in eastern 
 France which demanded reform most strongly, the reforms of Cluny. 
 
choose the 
 higher clergy. 
 
 TEMPORAL POWER OF THE CHURCH 51 
 
 :roni father to son. Such a change would deprive the Church 
 lot only of its wealth, but of most of its income, and 
 would reduce the power which the Church had because it 
 ,vas wealthy. 
 
 47. Simony. — Simony 1 was the name gfiven to the Pur chaseof 
 
 ° Church offices. 
 
 practice of buying church offices. It had been in use from 
 Roman times. After Charlemagne purchase of church posi- 
 tions was frequently a means by which an ambitious or un- 
 scrupulous noble gained control of the land of some bishop- 
 ric or even elevated himself to the Holy See, that is, the 
 Papacy. Such a misuse of church offices not only filled the 
 Church with unworthy men but prevented it from being 
 the religious teacher and moral guide which it was sup- 
 posed to be. 
 
 48. The Question of Investiture. — A third difficulty who should 
 or evil which confronted the Church was this question : who 
 should elect the bishops and the pope? These high church- 
 men were both church officials and civil magistrates. A 
 bishop was not only a bishop, but he was a vassal of some 
 king or duke. If the Church selected its own bishops, should 
 the king or dukes have nothing to say about who should 
 control the lands of the bishopric as their vassals? Here 
 was a very real problem ; the bishop was literally serving 
 two masters — one a religious organization, the Church, the 
 other a feudal overlord. Which should choose him and 
 which should control him? In other words, who should 
 invest him with his office and fief? To settle that ques- 
 tion the Papacy, soon reformed and powerful, waged with 
 the emperor a conflict which lasted more than a half cen- 
 tury. This is the beginning of the ■ CONFLICT BE- Empire vs 
 TWEEN EMPIRE AND PAPACY that lasted two hun- Papacy ' 
 dred years. The first phase of the struggle is called the 
 Investiture Strife; the later phase is a Struggle be- 
 tween THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND THE POPES. 
 
 1 Simony derives its name from the attempt of Simon Magus to 
 buy from Peter and John the power of the Holy Ghost. Acts III, 
 18, 19. 
 
The empire at 
 the successor 
 of the Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 The Holy 
 Roman empire 
 in theory and 
 in fact. 
 
 The Hilde- 
 
 brandine 
 
 policies. 
 
 
 52 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The Investiture Strife, 1059-1 12J a. d. 
 
 49. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Natic 
 
 — We have mentioned the empire in the preceding sectior 
 In theory this was a continuation of the Roman Empire i 
 Augustus and Constantine which had once held sway <>v 
 the Mediterranean World, but had lost western Euro] 
 when the German barbarians overran Italy, < iaul. Spa 
 and Britain. It was more directly the successor of Charlt 
 magne's empire. 1 
 
 The empire of the "Middle Ages" was revived by Ott 
 I, King of Germany, in 962. It was now called the Hol% 
 Roman Empire of the German Nation. In theory it includm 
 cd all of western Europe, the kings and princes of all connffj 
 tries being theoretically vassals of the emperor. But in fac 
 it did not include more than Germany and Italy, becaus 
 Rome, the old capital of the empire, was in Italy. The em 
 perors usually went to Rome to be crowned by the pope 
 and returned to Germany in order to put down the insur 
 rections of the great nobles which always occurred as sooi 
 as the emperor was absent or was otherwise engaged. 
 
 Under Henry III (1039-1056) the empire reached the 
 height of its power, for Henry conquered his enemies on 
 the eastern border of Germany, repressed with a strong 
 hand the turbulent nobles who objected to a strong impe- 
 rial government, and reformed the papacy by deposing the 
 three rival popes and appointing in their stead a succession 
 of able and upright popes. 
 
 50. Hildebrand and his Policies.— "When Henry III 
 died he left a son but six years old to continue his aggres- 
 sive policy. Henry IV was confronted by two dangers. On 
 the one hand were the powerful nobles who had obeyed his 
 father because they did not dare do anything else. On the 
 other was a monk, Hildebrand, the son of an Italian peas- 
 
 x More exactly, it was the successor of that part of Charlemagne's 
 empire which was held by Lothair's successors after the treaties of 
 Verdun and Mersen (section 3 and note) for it included only Ger- 
 many and most of Italy. 
 
 I 
 
THE INVASTITURE STRIFE 53 
 
 ^nt, a man small of stature and of frail physique, who had 
 ''[■een the power behind the papacy even in the time of Henry 
 
 II. Hildebrand was determined that the Church should 
 v jie reformed. He was equally determined that the emperor 
 'Ilhould no longer make and unmake popes, and Hildebrand 
 lavished especially to bring the emperor into subjection to 
 
 he pope. To accomplish these ends, he insisted that the 
 
 >ope should be elected by the Church. 
 The conflict between the empire and the papacy might be Election of the 
 'taid to have begun during the boyhood of Henry IV when ^^nais. C 
 Ir :he Church decreed (1059) that the pope should be elected 
 
 3y a body of "Cardinal bishops," a college of cardinals as 
 it is called now. 
 
 51. Henry IV and Gregory VII.— Hildebrand was Beginning of 
 chosen pope as Gregory VII in 1073. Two years later the over the in- 
 Church at Rome decreed that marriage of the clergy should ▼estiture. 
 no longer be permitted, and Gregory threatened to excom- 
 'municate any emperor, king or noble who invested an ab- 
 bot or a bishop with lands and also threatened to excom- 
 municate the churchman who accepted church office from 
 
 a layman. When Gregory informed Henry that some of 
 his counsellors had been excommunicated, Henry replied in 
 a violent letter. "By craft abhorrent to the profession of 
 monk, thou hast acquired wealth; by wealth, influence; by 
 influence, arm ; by arms, a throne of peace. And from the 
 throne of peace thou hast destroyed peace . . ." He 
 demanded that Gregory relinquish the apostolic chair which 
 he had "usurped" and closed with the demand "come down, 
 come down to be damned through all eternity." Gregory's 
 reply was excommunication. He deposed King Henry, ab- 
 solved Henry's subjects from their allegiance, and declared 
 him anathema. Any one who helped a person against whom 
 the Church had hurled its curses was likely to lose his soul. 
 
 52. Canossa (1077).— The German nobles found the Humiliation of 
 excommunication of Henry an excuse for opposing him and enry ' 
 helping Gregory. They decided that Henry should be de- 
 posed unless he made his peace with the Church within one 
 
54 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 year. Gregory was invited to come to Germany in orck 
 to help the nobles settle German problems, a task' which tl 
 pope was only too glad to undertake, since it seemed t 
 show that the pope rather than the king was the greater ru 
 er, even in Germany. To prevent the pope from dircctin 
 German affairs in this fashion, Henry offered to go to Rome 
 When Gregory started north, Henry hastened south, cros^ 
 ing the Alps in the dead of winter. The king had gaine- 
 a partial victory in keeping Gregory out of Germany. l,u 
 the scene which followed at the castle of Canossa in north 
 em Italy showed the great power of the Church Three 
 days, in penitent's garb, Henry stood in the snow in the 
 courtyard of the castle before Gregory received him back 
 into the Church. 
 Hen^-sre- Henry was now free to act against the German nobles 
 
 whom he overpowered. He then returned to Italy where 
 he had his revenge by conquering the city of Rome. Greg- 
 ory was obliged to leave the city. A few months later he 
 died, saying, according to report, "I have loved justice and 
 hated iniquity, and therefore I die in exile." Henry lived 
 twenty years longer, opposed by popes, nobles and his own 
 sons, until, worn out, he abdicated his throne in favor of 
 his son, Henry V, who had helped the pope 
 ov3r p : s l ,"' The Concordat of Worms (1122 A.D.)-Henry 
 iem of mvesti- \ as emperor deserted the ally, the papacy, with which he 
 had fought against his father. After a further struggle, the 
 investiture conflict came to an end with the Concordat of 
 Worms (1122). .The emperor agreed that the Church 
 should elect its own abbots and bishops. He agreed fa- 
 ther that the Church alone should give the newly-ele-ted 
 officers the ring and the staff, which were the symbols of 
 their spiritual office. On tVe other hand the pope agreed 
 that elections of German bishop- and abbots should V in 
 the presence, and with the consent of the emperor md 
 that the new officers should receive the regalia, or symbols 
 of civil authority, from the emperor. Thus as clear a divi- 
 sion as possible was made between the religious position 
 and feudal tenure of the abbots and the bishops. 
 
HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND POPES 55 
 
 t^HE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND THE POPES 1152-1250 
 
 i 
 
 54. Frederick Barbarossa.— For a number of years 
 
 he German kings paid little attention to Italian affairs. Un- 
 der Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa or Red Beard), the 
 third of the Hohenstaufen line, an attempt was made to in- 
 crease imperial authority in Germany and in Italy. A man 
 of magnificent physique, the ideal sovereign of the "Middle 
 Ages," Frederick failed to combine two countries so dissim- 
 ilar as Germany and Italy. To the old opposition of pope 
 and German nobles there was now joined a new force, the 
 great cities of northern Italy ,-e. g., Milan, Verona and Ven- 
 ice, a force which represents the modern commercial idea 
 
 i as distinct from the medieval feudal one. 
 
 Frederick was exceedingly arbitrary and severe in deal- 
 ing with the cities of the Po valley. After he had taken 
 Milan, the leader, be allowed the city to be destroyed by her 
 jealous neighbors. His severity aroused against himself the 
 
 ' opposition of all of the cities of northern Italy, which or- 
 ganized the Lombard League. The popes gave the league 
 their support and in 1176 at Lcgnano the league defeated 
 the haughty emperor. 1 In the Peace of Constance, seven 
 years later, Frederick agreed to leave to the cities the right 
 to elect their own officials, and manage their own affairs, 
 provided they recognized Frederick as their overlord. 
 
 In spite of this defeat, Frederick was at the height of his 
 power during these years following the Peace of Constance, 
 and he had so far restored order throughout his empire that 
 he joined Richard of England and Philip Augustus of 
 France on the third crusade (sec. 76), on which he died. 
 
 55. Innocent III. — Frederick Barbarossa had married 
 his son, Henry, to the heiress of the kingdom of Sicily. It 
 was of the utmost importance to the papacy that southern 
 Italy should not be united with northern Italy and Germany. 
 The chief champion of that policy, that is, the policy to 
 
 1 The imperial party was called "Ghibelline", the papal party 
 "Guelf." The names survived in Italy for several centuries, but lost 
 their original meaning. 
 
 Imperial 
 policy of Fred- 
 erick. 
 
 FrederickHs 
 defeated'b y ''i"1 
 the {.orabard 
 League. 
 
 Frederick^at 
 the heigh t^of 
 his power. 
 
 Innocent III 
 and his 
 emperors. 
 
56 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Innocent III 
 extends the 
 temporal pow- 
 er of the 
 papacy. 
 
 Revival of con- 
 flict between 
 the empire and 
 the papacy. 
 
 make the papal states independent 1 and keep the Hohenstai 
 fen kings from uniting all of Italy under their rule, was th 
 pope, Innocent 111, who was chosen to the pontiffs chair ii 
 1198. Innocent III believed thoroughly in the policy o 
 Gregory I 'J I that the pope should be the temporal ruler a. 
 well as the spiritual head of western Europe. He first mad< 
 himself the real ruler of Rome. Then he asserted his righ 
 to decide between the two claimants to the imperial throne 
 As the Hohenstaufen were represented by a boy, Frederick 
 grandson of Barbarossa, who was both the ward and the 
 feudal vassal of Innocent, the danger of a united Italy un- 
 der German rule was averted during the life of Innocent. 
 
 Innocent went much farther than Gregory in using the 
 curses of the Church against his enemies. Gregory had ex- 
 communicated his enemies. Innocent not only excommuni- 
 cated his princely opponents, but placed the people of two 
 countries under the interdict. Churches were closed, the 
 dead were denied burial and religious services ceased. By 
 the use of this terrible weapon Philip Augustus of France 
 was forced to take back the wife whom he had divorced, and 
 John of England was compelled to give up England to the 
 pope and receive it back from him as a fief. Other kings, 
 including those of Portugal. Spain and Hungary, were 
 forced to do the pope's bidding. Even Innocent could 
 not make good all of his claims to power over all western 
 Europe, 2 and, after death,- the papacy declined percept- 
 ibly. 
 
 56. Frederick II. — The death of Innocent III oc- 
 curred about the time that Frederick Barbarossa's grandson 
 became emperor as Frederick II. Frederick had been born 
 in the south and had been king of "Sicily" for many years. 
 
 *In doing this he followed the policy of his predecessor, Alexan- 
 der III, the arch-enemy of Frederick Barbarossa, and the ally of the 
 Lombard League. 
 
 *The religious prestige of the papacy was strengthened by a cru- 
 sade (the fourth) against the Turks, which really injured only the 
 Eastern Roman empire, and a terrible crusade of extermination 
 against the Albigenses, a heretic sect of France. 
 
Success of 
 Frederick. 
 
 HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS AND POPES 57 
 
 'hroughout his life he was more interested in his kingdom 
 if Sicily than in the Germans, but he believed thoroughly 
 hat the empire must be revived and strengthened and that 
 ae papacy was the arch-enemy of the empire. He had 
 iromised Innocent III that when he should become emper- 
 r, he would give up his kingdom of Sicily. Innocent's suc- 
 cessor did not insist on the separation of the north from 
 ne south, because he wished Frederick to undertake a cru- 
 ade, which Frederick finally did. 
 
 ) Bald and insignificant in appearance as Frederick was, he 
 •lust be ranked as one of the greatest emperors of the Holy 
 toman Empire. 1 He was generally successful against the 
 German nobles, the Lombard cities and the jealous rulers 
 4 central Italy. During the last years of his life, the 
 opes paid less attention to excommunication, which had 
 »een used against Frederick II as well as against his grand- 
 ather with very little effect. Instead the popes preached 
 mong other kings and rulers a crusade against the emper- 
 or Frederick on the ground that he was an unbeliever. 
 
 Frederick's death in the midst of these struggles in 1250 Decline of the 
 eft the apparent victory with the Church, and the empire 
 rom this time lost its hold on Italy and became a German 
 tate, 2 less united and less well-ruled than France or Eng- 
 and, because its kings had sacrificed national unity to their 
 (reams of empire in Italy. In fact, so much did the Em- 
 )ire decline that, as Voltaire wittily remarked in the eight- 
 eenth century, it was neither holy nor Roman nor imperial. 
 
 iFrederick's intellectual ability, his skill in diplomacy, the energy 
 vith which he organized his kingdom of Sicily, above all, the clear- 
 less of his perception that states must be organized as absolute 
 nonarchies not subject to papal domination, all mark him not only 
 s a great man, but as a modern rather than a medieval statesman. 
 
 a The emperor was elected by the great nobles. Before 1356 this 
 vas done by those who had the greatest power. By the Golden Bull 
 >f Charles IV in 1356 seven electors were designated, the archbish- 
 ips of Mayence, Treves and Cologne, the "electors" of the Palatin- 
 ite, of Saxony and of Brandenburg, and the King of Bohemia. 
 fwo other electors were added afterward (1648 and 1692). 
 
 empire. 
 
Decline oi the 
 papacy. 
 
 Changes and 
 discontent 
 during last 
 half of the 
 twelfth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 New methods 
 in ihe Church. 
 
 The Walden- 
 ses. 
 
 58 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 57. Results to the Papacy of the Struggle with th 
 Empire.— The victory of the papacy over the empire di 
 it little good, however, for already in 1250 the times wei 
 changing. Neither empire nor papacy could rule wester 
 Europe after the feudal system began to decline, as it di 
 about this time. Moreover, the Church found that a ne 1 
 reform movement was necessary to crush heresy an 
 maintain the prestige and authority of the Church anion 
 the people. The removal of the papal capital from Rom 
 to France and the quarrels over the papacy still furthe 
 weakened the political influence of the church. (Sec. 65. 
 
 
 Church and People — Later Feudal Age. 
 
 58. New Needs of the People and New Methods i 
 
 if 
 
 r 
 
 the Church. — Great changes were occurring in westen 
 Europe during the half century before Innocent III becam< 
 pope. Towns were growing rapidly, commerce was 9p 
 ing, wealth was increasing, schools and universities wen 
 becoming more numerous. Tn towns there was consider 
 able poverty, and a great deal of vice and crime. Every 
 where change was demanded. Discontent and doubt wertf 
 prevalent especially in southern Europe. 
 
 The Church had lost its hold on many of its members 
 from the Pyrenees to the Danube. Besides these heretics 
 tens of thousands of others needed better teaching and more 
 help than the Church had been giving. To destroy heresy 
 crusades were undertaken against these European unbeliev- 
 ers. To give different instruction a new order of church- 
 men, the Dominican or black friars, was established. To 
 bring the people aid and comfort was the work of the 
 Franciscans or gray friars. 
 
 59. Two Sects of French Heretics.— The largest 
 
 number of heretics was found in Southern France. Here 
 two important sects had arisen. The Waldenses, or poor 
 men of Lyons, went about doing good and trying to purify |j 
 
CHURCH IN LATER FEUDAL AGE 59 
 
 ae Church, but they went without the pope's sanction and 
 isisted on preaching- new doctrines. The Waldenses were 
 te thirteenth century Protestants. They had many fol- 
 i>wers in Southern France, in the Swiss cantons, and in the 
 erman states further east. 
 
 In southern France another sect called Albigenses gained The Aibigen- 
 : numerous following. The Albigenses must not be con- 
 rised with the Waldenses. The Albigenses believed in an 
 riental non-Christian doctrine that the world is ruled by 
 : good spirit and by an evil spirit. They denied the Trin- 
 y and the existence of a place of punishment after death. 
 
 60. The Albigensian Crusade.— Against the Albi- Harsh su p- 
 enses Innocent III declared a crusade (1209). Good Cath- heresy ?n° 
 lies from many parts of Europe joined in this crusade Prance, 
 gainst western heretics, but the main army of suppression 
 
 ame from the north of France, and was led by de Mont- 
 Drt. Some of the cities, like Beziers and Carcassonne, held 
 ut for a long time, but were captured by the crusaders. 
 Vhen a town was taken, as it was impossible to distinguish 
 vlbigenses from Waldenses, or Waldenses from Catholics, 
 11 were mercilessly butchered. The Albigenses were wiped 
 ut, only a few Waldenses survived and sunny, southern 
 'Vance was desolated. It was an orthodox victory char- 
 cteristic of Innocent III, and a great advantage to the 
 rown of France, which annexed the great county of Toul- 
 use as royal domain soon after. 
 
 61. The Dominican Friars and the Inquisition. The inquisi- 
 
 tion. 
 —The crusade was followed in southern France and else- 
 where by the inquisition. Heretics were hunted out and 
 irought to trial before special churchmen who were zeal- 
 jus for the Church. The inquisitors were harsh in their 
 nethods, resorting to torture if necessary in order that the 
 ccused person might be forced to recant. Even those that 
 ecanted were punished severely and those who refused fre- 
 [uently were burned at the stake. 
 In southern France the work of suppressing heresy bv st " D ° m ' D , 1 , c 
 
 Jrl ° J and his follow- 
 
 he inquisition was turned over chiefly to the new order of «•». 
 
60 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Life of St. 
 Francis. 
 
 Orowthof the 
 
 Franciscan 
 
 order. 
 
 It 
 
 black friars. This order had just been founded by St. D< 
 minic, a learned an'l devout Spaniard of noble birth. D< 
 nii>iic's followers were stem, dogmatic, wandering preache 
 to whom heresy was the greatest of crimes. 
 
 62. The Franciscans. — The founder of the secon 
 famous order of the friars was Francis of Assizi. Frai 
 cis was the son of a successful Italian merchant. As 
 boy he was gay, careless and thoughtless, but a severe il'cs 
 ness aroused in him a greater interest in his fellowmeifo 
 He decided to give his life to poverty and good worki-nc 
 When his father objected, Francii| 
 cast aside the garments which thcoi 
 father had given him and started oullu 
 barefoot, his cloak fastened with al 
 piece of rope. His sincerity and enj 
 thusiasm attracted many follower ■ 
 who agreed to devote themselves tc j 
 visiting and working among the poor 
 especially the lepers. Without purse 
 or script, supporting themselves liter- 
 ally as Christ had requested that hi^ 
 first disciples should do, they wenU 
 out bringing joy to thousands. One 
 day, according to the story, the pope., 
 the great Innocent III, was walking 
 in his gardens when he noticed a beg-j 
 gar before him. He turned upon him in anger ready tow 
 
 Dominican Friar 
 
 drive him out. Instead, won by the charm and genuine 
 piety of Francis, he gave his blessing on the work. 
 
 In the few years before Francis died, he saw his mis- 
 sionary movement spread as no religious movement ever 
 spread before, over all western Europe. His followers 
 sometimes forgot their high calling, occasionally accepting 
 wealth and lives of ease, but their efforts brought, even to 
 distant California, the spirit and the teachings of the saint- 
 ly Francis of Assisi. 
 
CHURCH IN LATER FEUDAL AGE 61 
 
 63. Adoration of the Virgin. — The practical work of social import- 
 lie Franciscans was only one way in which the Church re- adorttL'n of ' 
 enerated society during this period. Another, which up- the virgin, 
 .fted men and women and created for women a respect 
 
 irhich they had never had before, was the reverence in 
 
 ^hich the Virgin Mary was held. The Virgin dominated 
 
 eligious worship in the churches and in the homes. The 
 
 vtylve Marias were prominent in the services, as the statues 
 
 f the Virgin held a place of honor in every home. Church- 
 
 s were dedicated to Our Lady, for example, the beautiful 
 
 rtfotre Dame Cathedral of Paris. The Virgin was the chief 
 
 motive in most of the art of the later Feudal Age and the 
 
 iubsequent period of the Renaissance. It is impossible, of 
 
 ourse, to say how much this adoration of the Virgin in- 
 
 liuenced the men of this period in their attitude toward 
 
 jvomen, but it is certain that its influence was considerable. 
 
 Many stories and legends are told of the services done a story oi the 
 or the Virgin and of the miracles performed by her. One 
 >f the most beautiful tells of an erring nun who left the 
 'onvent to which she belonged. After fifteen years she re- 
 turned to the convent and asked after Beatrix, for that 
 vas the name by which she had been known. Imagine her 
 urprise when told that Beatrix had never left the convent, 
 or it seems the Virgin had taken her place and done her 
 Vork all of that time. Grateful and penitent, the nun re- 
 urned to her holy life. 
 
 64. Miracle Plays. — Another way in which the Church Purpose and 
 ried to teach the people was through religious pageants or 
 through miracle plays. The most important events record- 
 id in Scripture were presented in these plays. Originally 
 
 hey were intended chiefly for religious instruction, as it 
 vas easier to teach many truths by this means than in any 
 ■>ther way. Later they were used chiefly to keep the hold of 
 he Church on the people, for the plays were a source of great 
 interest. At first they were given in the churches. Later 
 hey were presented more frequently in some special ad- 
 
62 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Characteristics 
 
 General reas- 
 ons for the 
 decline. 
 
 The Bab ylon- 
 ian captivity 
 (1309-1347) 
 
 jacent chapel, and, after 1400, they were given by the d 
 ferent gilds of the towns rather than by the Church. 
 
 These plays were very realistic. They brought home 
 the people the reward of real virtue and the punishment 
 sin. The fortunate are carried up into heaven, represent* 
 by a cloud, by means of a rope and windlass. At the clo 
 of the play on the unwise virgins, Christ appears and cas 
 them down into the pit of destruction. The deluge was 
 favorite theme, especially when Noah's wife refuse I to he'fliftii 
 build the ark and knocked her husband down. But in spii 
 of the crudity and even vulgarity of some features in the 
 plays, they appealed to the imagination of the people. Ofte 
 these plays or pageants taught the people in the same loft 
 spirit in which the Passion Play at Oberammergau has bee 
 given in our own day. 
 
 65. Decline of the Papacy. — In spite of the work 
 the friars and the effort made by the Church to retain th'th 
 support of the people, during the fourteenth century th 
 papacy lost not only most of its temporal power but mud 
 of its spiritual influence also. This decline was due to th< 
 removal of the papal capital from Rome to Avignon ii 
 France (1309), and to the forty-year struggle between ; 
 pope at Rome and a pope at Avignon, each of whonP 
 washed to be recognized as head of the Church. 
 
 For seventy years the popes lived at Avignon in south-In 
 ern France, a period known as the "Babylonian Captivity' 
 of the papacy. The popes at Avignon had much less auth- 
 ority than those of the previous century in Rome. The\ 
 no longer seemed to be the head of a universal church, but 
 in other countries were considered as French popes. Eng- 
 land refused to pay the dues which King John had promised 
 when he accepted his kingdom from Innocent III as a fief. 
 Germany did not accept the decrees of the French popes, 
 while Wyclif in England and later Huss in Germany 
 gained a wide following by preaching doctrines different 
 from those advocated by the Church. To be sure Wyclif's 
 bones were disinterred, burned, and his ashes were scat- 
 
THE FEUDAL CHURCH 63 
 
 ered ; but the papacy had undoubtedly lost its political in- 
 
 uence and was in danger of losing its spiritual headship 
 
 f Europe. 
 This serious decline was caused by the Great Schism TheGreat 
 " 1377-1417), as well as the Babylonian captivity. During (1377-1417). 
 
 he Great Schism there were two popes, each denying the 
 vuthority of the other. Naturally the people, even devout 
 
 atholics, began to lose faith in the power and infallibility 
 l)f the papacy. The Council of Constance was finally called 
 110 settle the questions of the papacy and of the heresy of 
 .-[uss. Huss was burned at the stake in spite of the safe 
 conduct that had been promised him, and the three popes 
 t)f that year (1414) were deposed. The papacy was finally 
 inited, but a pope who owed his election to a council could 
 lot logically claim to be supreme in the Church, since the 
 xmncil had shown that it was above the pope, at least for 
 :he moment. 
 
 66. Summary. -The Church of the Feudal Age was The church 
 both a spiritual body, which included all of the people, and pe0 pie. 
 Ian organization wielding political power. As an organiza- 
 tion it was made up of the higher clergy — the pope, the 
 archbishops and the bishops— and the lower clergy — the 
 monks, the priests and the friars. The monasteries were 
 founded centuries before the Feudal Age. Originally the 
 rule was strict, later it became lax, needing reform. The 
 monks and nuns, the regular clergy, lived apart from the 
 world ; the priests, the lower secular clergy, lived in their 
 parishes and ministered directly to the needs of the people. 
 
 The temporal power of the Church, that is, the political The temporal 
 power that it wielded, grew as the Church lands became church 
 more extensive, and as the civil authority of the Bishop of 
 Rome (the pope), was recognized more widely. By the 
 use of Church courts, of excommunication and the inter- 
 dict, this power was developed until the popes believed that 
 they should be obeyed by princes. As the Church became 
 wealthy and powerful, reforms were needed. Three seri- 
 ous evils were the marriage of the clergy, the custom of 
 
64 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The Investi- 
 ture Strife. 
 
 Hohenstaufen 
 emperors and 
 the popes. 
 
 The Church in 
 the later 
 Feudal Age. 
 
 buying church offices, called simony, and the election ( 
 church officials by laymen. 
 
 The great Emperor Henry III selected good popes, bi 
 Hildebrand, afterward Gregory VII, insisted that tr 
 Church should select its own popes, bishops and abbot 
 and should be free from simony and a married clergy. A 
 Canossa he forced the German king, Henry IV, to seek foi 
 giveness, after humiliating him deeply. By the Concorda 
 of Worms (1122), the Church was allowed to choose it 
 officials and the emperor could decide whether they wer 
 proper vassals. 
 
 In the later struggle between the empire and the papacy] 
 Frederick I and Frederick II tried to unite Germany an< 
 Italy. The popes, Alexander III and Innocent III, aimec 
 to prevent this so as to preserve the "States of the Church." 
 Innocent III tried also to secure recognition of himself a- 
 the overlord of all European kings. After the death of 
 Frederick II the papacy was victorious over the empire, 
 but its victory was short-lived. 
 
 After Innocent III reforms were as necessary as in th 
 time of Gregory VII. The Dominican and Franciscan 
 friars began to preach and to heal the people, while heresy 
 was exterminated by the sword, especially in southern 
 France (the Albigensian crusade). The Church revived 
 old methods and adopted new practices to reach the peo- 
 ple. Nevertheless both the Church and the papacy de- 
 clined; the papacy because the French popes (Babylonian 
 captivity) and the dissentions between two claimants to 
 the papacy (Great Schism) weakened the authority of the 
 pope ; the Church because it did not reform itself to count- 
 eract the growing weakness of the papacy, or to meet the 
 growth of new national feelings and the demand of the 
 people for greater knowledge and for spiritual truth. 
 
 General References 
 
 Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 25-32, 55-61, 122-134, 169-183. 
 Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 235-260, 505-516. 
 
 e. 
 
THE FEUDAL CHURCH 65 
 
 Robinson, History of Western Europe, 148-186, 201-232, 303-320. 
 Robinson, Readings in European History, I. 245-311, 346-398, 488- 
 
 Bemont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 286-335, 488-514. 
 
 Munro and Sellery (eds.), Medieval Civilisation, 129-158, 188-209, 
 .06-457. 
 A* Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 245-281, 362-417. 
 )iji Bateson, Medieval England, 43-49, 194-235, 330-375. 
 
 Adams, Civilisation During the Middle Ages, 227- 257, 392-415. 
 L Thatcher, Europe in the Middle Ages, 230-335, 576-582. 
 
 Emerton, Medieval Europe, 185-356, 541-592. 
 
 Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, 91-120, 150-320. 
 
 Luchaire, Social France at the Time of Philip Augustus, 37-62, 
 1 <:o4-248. 
 
 Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, 1-156, 195-266. 
 
 Cutts, Parish Priests. 
 
 Topics 
 
 Life in a Monastery : Abram, English Life and Manners in the 
 Later Middle Ages, 62-79; Luchaire, Social France in the Time of 
 Philip Augustus, 212-248; Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars, 113- 
 165. 
 
 Canossa : Emerton, Medieval Europe, 240-257; Thatcher, Europe 
 lin the Middle Age, 257-271 ; Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, 
 \261-278; Duncalf and Krey (eds.), Parallel Source Problems in 
 ^Medieval History, 29-94. 
 
 1 The Organization of the Medieval Churchs Bemont and Mo- 
 nod, Medieval Europe, 488-505 ; Emerton, Medieval Europe, 541-581 ; 
 Bateson, Medieval England, 43-69, 330-353. 
 
 Studies 
 
 1. The Benedictine orders. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the 
 Middle Ages, 6-17. 
 
 2. Saint Bernard. Hodges, Saints and Heroes, 166-181. 
 
 3. The parish priest. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 222-231. 
 
 4. Clerical costume. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 232-251. 
 
 5. The strenuous life of a bishop. Luchaire, Social France in tie 
 Time of Philip Augustus, 148-157. 
 
 6. Conflict between Henry I of England and Thomas a Becket 
 over the church courts. Bateson, Medieval England, 194-200. 
 
 7. Use of the interdict. Pennsylvania Reprints, Vol. 4, No. 4, 
 27-33. 
 
66 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 8. Gregory VII's conception of the papal authority. Ogg, Sour 
 Book of Medieval History, 261-269. 
 
 9. The Concordat of Worms. Robinson, Readings in Europec 
 History, I, 292-294. 
 
 10. Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury. Hodges, Saints an 
 Heroes, 199-208. 
 
 11. The Italian kingdoms of the Normans and the church. En|JiBf 
 erton, Medieval Europe, 223-229. 
 
 12. Southern France and the religious opposition. Munro an 
 Sellery (eds.), Medieval Civilization, 432-457. 
 
 13. The orders of friars. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 36-53. 
 
 14. St. Dominic. Hodges, Saints and Heroes, 209-233. 
 
 15. The lite, rule and will of Saint Francis. Ogg, Source Boo/l 
 of Medieval History, 362-379. 
 
 16. "Our Lady's Tumbler." Mason (ed.), Medieval Rotnancc 
 53-66. 
 
 17. A pageant of the Deluge. Rhys (ed.), Everyman, 27-38. 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. What was the difference between the Church as a political 
 organization and the Church as a religious body? 
 
 2. Name five differences between the medieval Church and our 
 own present churches. 
 
 3. Explain the difference between the different classes of clergy. 
 
 4. Was the work of the Church more important while the people 
 of western Europe were barbarians or later? 
 
 5. Why should different methods have been used by the Church 
 in the early Feudal period and in the later period? Why should the 
 religious instruction of the present differ from that of the Feudal 
 Age? 
 
 6. Show the importance at different periods of the following : 
 Conversion of the Franks and the Saxons; the work of the Bene- 
 dictine monks in reclaiming waste lands; the Cluniac reforms for 
 better life by the clergy; the healing of the sick and the aid to the 
 poor by the Franciscans. 
 
 7. What are the "sacraments?" 
 
 8. Why should the Bishop of Rome have gained so much power; 
 (1) in the form of spiritual leadership? (2) in the form of tem- 
 poral power? 
 
 9. If the Church law applied universally during the Feudal Age 
 the wonderful Roman law and preserved that law as the basis of 
 the systems of law on continental Europe, was not the work of the 
 Church courts during the Feudal Age? 
 
 i 
 
THE FEUDAL CHURCH 67 
 
 10. Why was there any objection to the administration of civil 
 
 aw by the Church; (i) if it freed churchmen from civil authority? 
 
 i(2) in the later Feudal Age, when good, national, civil courts were 
 
 stablished? 
 * II. Why was it necessary for the Church to use excommunica- 
 ion and the interdict? Why should it have used both more spar- 
 ngly? 
 
 12. Name and explain each of the reforms of Cluny. 
 r 13. Why was the bishop "literally serving two masters?" (Sec. 
 
 53). 
 14. Which was nearer right, Henry IV or Hildebrand? 
 
 18. Name all of the reasons that you can why the papacy was 
 very powerful in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries ; why it de- 
 clined after 1300. 
 
 19. What was the Holy Roman Empire? What territory did it 
 include; in theory? in fact? How was the emperor chosen, before 
 the Golden Bull of 1356? after 1356? 
 
 20. Should heresy have been permitted by the Church? Do you 
 object to the Albigensian crusade? 
 
 21. Compare the aims and work of Father Junipero Serra in 
 California with those of St. Francis in western Europe. 
 
 22. Why should the adoration of the Virgin have been so very 
 important in the later Feudal Age? Why was its influence so 
 great ? 
 
 23. In what ways was the Church the greatest uplifting force in 
 the Feudal Age? 
 
 24. What did the Church do to protect life? to guard the weak? 
 to stop warfare? to promote justice? to dispel ignorance to encour- 
 age liberty of conscience? to demand higher standards of character? 
 to discourage luxury, class hatred, vice and crime? to help the down- 
 trodden, the sick and the oppressed? 
 

 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Eight eastern 
 
 crusades 
 
 (1CW5-1270) 
 
 The Crusades 
 as medieval 
 armed pil- 
 grimages. 
 
 The age of the 
 Crusades as 
 the beginning 
 of modern life. 
 
 THE AGE OF THE CRUSADES (1095-1270 A. D.) 
 Conditions Affecting the Crusades. 
 
 67. Place of the Crusades in History. — The e i g h 
 
 crusades against the infidels who had seized the Holy Sep 
 ulchre of the Savior at Jerusalem cover a period of near- 
 ly two centuries (1095-1270 A. D.), coinciding rather close 
 ly in time with that great struggle between the empire and 
 the papacy which we considered in the last chapter (sees 
 49-57). The first crusade occurred in the time of Henry 
 IV, not long after that dramatic scene at Canossa. The 
 last crusade was undertaken but a few years after the pa- 
 pacy triumphed over Frederick II. 
 
 The crusades were distinctively medieval in purpose and 
 in character. They were in a sense armed pilgrimages to 
 the holiest of shrines, and pilgrimages were characteristic 
 of the age. Only during medieval times could a universal 
 church have organized wide-spread armed pilgrimages with 
 followers from a half dozen different countries. Again, 
 the crusading armies were distinctively feudal or medieval 
 organizations, made up of feudal groups of knights ; yet 
 they contained also a large number of common people, al- 
 though the latter were pilgrims rather than soldier^. 
 
 68. The Age of the Crusades. — On the other hand 
 the crusades represented the beginning of modern life. 
 They developed great fleets for carrying European troops 
 and supplies. They brought the crusaders into contact with 
 two civilizations, the Byzantine and the Moslem, both of 
 which were much more developed than the civilization of 
 western Europe. They represented that expansion move- 
 ment which was characteristic of the twelfth century and 
 especially of the "wonderful thirteenth century." By show- 
 
 tnort 
 k 
 
 ill.' 
 
 rt' ,f 
 
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE CRUSADES 69 
 
 rig the opportunities for travel and the advantages of com- 
 inerce, the crusades aroused in people the desire for new 
 hings. The desire for knowledge, wealth, and culture de- 
 veloped so rapidly that the thirteenth century, like the fif- 
 eenth, was almost a period of renaissance. 
 
 On the one side the Crusades represent armed religious The crusades 
 Mlgrimaqes. On the other they embodv discontent with f transition 
 
 a J J from medieval 
 
 ieudal oppression, the desire for conquest, the demand for to modem 
 Pjriore business and better commercial opportunities, and times - 
 :he search for those wider markets which would bring lux- 
 ury and wealth. On this other side, in short, the age of 
 the Crusades represents the beginnings of an economic 
 revolution. 
 
 69. The Eastern Empire After Justinian.— The seijukian 
 first crusade started with a request made by the eastern the Eastern 
 emperor to the pope for help against the Seijukian Turks, RomanEm ; 
 These barbarians had overrun Asia Minor and were threat- f the Eastern 
 ening Constantinople. It was only fair that western Europe Empire to 
 
 western 
 
 should help the Eastern Roman Empire in its difficulties, Europe, 
 since for centuries the Eastern Empire had driven back 
 the hordes of Slavs, Moslems and other enemies who 
 would otherwise have attacked, the weak Teutonic king- 
 doms of the "West. It had been possible to do this because 
 Constantinople nad been very strongly fortified, and because 
 of the well-tramed army and completely organized gov- 
 ernment which the eastern emperors were usually able to 
 maintain. 
 
 Nevertheless Constantinople had been the scene of much changes in 
 disorder, only 34 out of 107 emperors or associates dying pi ^ ern m " 
 in their beds during the ten centuries preceding the cap- (395-1453) 
 ture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The 
 great territory over which the emperor Justinian had ruled 
 had shrunk, in 1095, to an area but six hundred miles 
 square, from Crete to the Danube, and from the Adriatic 
 Sea to ancient Sardis. culture, ieam- 
 
 70. Byzantine Civilization. — Munro makes an excel- ing , and civili " 
 
 " t # zation in Con- 
 
 lent summary of the better side of Byzantine Civilization, stantinopie. 
 
70 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 CO. 
 
 Contact of 
 Europeans 
 with the 
 Moslems. 
 
 Science, art 
 and civiliza- 
 tion among the 
 Saracens. 
 
 bdai 
 
 ps. 
 
 "During the early centuries of the middle ages Constant! 
 nople was the most wealthy and populous city in Kurope 
 Its inhabitants were the most artistic, learned an 1 highh 
 civilized people in the Christian world. They controllec 
 the commerce of the .Mediterranean Sea and monopolize* 
 the manufacture of many luxuries. ... In Constan 
 tinople the travelers found lighted and paved streets, ex 
 tensive public parks, hospitals and homes for orphans. ( )r- 
 der was preserved by a w r ell organized police force; the-|o^ 
 atres and circuses were maintained for the amusement oflp 
 the populace. There were flourishing schools in which the iM 
 scholars pursued not merely the elementary studies taught I lie 
 in the West, but also those pertaining to law, medicine and|nv 
 science. The nobles lived in magnificent buildings which I fa 1 
 far surpassed the palaces of the western monarchs. The I 
 artisans were comfortably housed, and worked together in loi 
 great factories, producing the rich stuffs that were so rare 
 and so highly prized in the West. In short, they found a 
 civilization several hundred years in advance of the rude 
 customs of Germany, France or England. 1 
 
 71. Saracenic Civilization.— Not only was the By- 
 zantine civilization much higher than that of western Eu- 
 rope, but the crusaders discovered to their great surprise 
 that the despised infidels, the Mohammedans, were more 
 enlightened than they. In their religious zeal, however, 
 they failed to appreciate the value of the Moslem civiliza- 
 tion and brought home comparatively little science and 
 learning from either Constantinople or Palestine. Moslem 
 civilization seems to have filtered into Europe rather 
 through the Moors in Spain or the Saracenic allies of Fred- 
 erick II in Sicily. 
 
 The Mohammedans', with true Semitic adaptability, bor- 
 rowed learning from every possible source, chiefly the 
 Egyptian Greeks, the Persians, the Hindoos and the Chin- 
 ese. Their civilization and culture reached their height un- 
 
 1 Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 95-96. 
 
 
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE CRUSADES 71 
 
 er the great Caliph Haroun al Raschid, with whom the 
 
 Arabian Nights have made us acquainted. The Moham- 
 
 ledans established great universities, one of them at Cor- 
 
 ova in Spain being attended by large numbers of Chris- 
 
 itjxans. Aristotle was studied with especial care and later 
 
 •assed on to the scholars of western Europe. Great libra- 
 
 ies were collected by the Moslem scholars. They devoted 
 
 particular attention to mathematics, developing algebra in- 
 
 -o a science and making use of the numerals, invented by 
 
 Gerbert, 1 which we call Arabic. Their achievements in 
 
 nedicine and their surgical skill contrasted strangely with 
 
 .he dense ignorance and gross superstition of the people 
 
 h western Europe. In manufacture they were distinguished. 
 
 One has but to mention the fine "damask' 11 of Damascus, 
 
 ;he beautiful leather known as Morocco and the excellence 
 
 }f Toledo blades. 
 
 72. Beginning of Conflict between East and West, commercial 
 
 ° ° rivalry ovar 
 
 — The Conflict between East and West which is represent- eastern trade, 
 ^d by the crusades showed itself in three different ways 
 at the beginning. ( 1 ) There was first the commercial riv- 
 alry. The Mohammedans had developed a great commerce 
 which centered at Bagdad, in the Euphrates valley. The 
 silks, spices, precious stones and other valuable products of 
 the East were transported to Mediterranean ports, whither 
 they were carried to Constantinople for distribution 
 throughout the civilized Christian world, or were carried 
 by the Saracens themselves to their kinsmen in Sicily and 
 Spain. In order to get all of this trade that was possible 
 there was intense jealousy and keen rivalry between three 
 sets of people, the Saracens, the merchants of Constanti- 
 nople, and the Italian cities, of which Venice was at this 
 time the most prosperous. 
 
 (2) Then there were the grievances of the pilgrims, a seijukian 
 
 / r , 11 i ... Turks inter- 
 
 much truer cause of the crusades than the commercial nv- fere with pil- 
 grimages 
 
 to Jerusalem. 
 1 Gerbert was a great French scholar of the tenth century. He was 
 
 elected pope with the title of Sylvester II. 
 
72 
 
 The eastern 
 emperor ap- 
 peals for help. 
 
 Van-guard of 
 the first 
 crusade. 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 
 
 airy. The Saracens had been too much interested in tra< 
 to interfere with the pilgrimages to Jerusalem, but win 
 the Seljukian Turks, (1050) gained control of the Calipha: 
 of Bagdad and overran Syria and Palestine, these fierce, ii« 
 tolerant Turks prevented further pilgrimages and treatc im 
 the pilgrims with cruelty. 
 
 (3) The Seljukian Turks conquered the disorganize 
 governments in Asia Minor and threatened Constantinopl 
 itself. Having formerly hired soldiers from Normandy am 
 other parts of Western Europe, the eastern emperor, Alex 
 ms Comnenus, appealed to the pope for aid against the in 
 fidels. He found himself embarrassed by the help of the 
 westerners, for great hordes of crusaders, streaming through 
 Constantinople, seemed to threaten the independence of thaJ 
 city. 
 
 The Eight Crusades (1095-1270 a. d.) 
 
 73. The First Crusade. -The crusading movement 
 started with the appeal made by Pope Urban II before a 
 great assembly at Clermont in 1095. 1 Fired by his eloquence 
 the nobles cried out, "God wills it! God wills it!" Thou- 
 sands pledged themselves on the spot for the Crusades. 
 Like wildfire the enthusiasm for a crusade spread through^ 
 out France and other countries, hundreds of thousands 
 wearing the red cross which was a sign of their vow to res- 
 cue the holy sepulchre from the infidel. Among the most 
 ardent apostles of the crusade was Peter the Hermit, who 
 collected a great band of followers in northern France. 
 Following Walter the Penniless, he set out with his un- 
 armed motley throng, the vanguard of the first crusade. 
 The journey along the Danube route was full of hardships. 
 The crusaders plundered the people and the people retal- 
 iated. Crossing at Constantinople into Asia Minor, they 
 
 Gregory VII was the real originator of the Crusades, for twenty 
 years earlier, he had gathered a crusading army. Trouble with 
 Henry IV prevented the crusaders from leaving Italy. 
 
 4 
 
THE EIGHT CRUSADES 
 
 73 
 
 the first 
 crusade. 
 
 i he march to 
 Jerusalem and 
 the capture of 
 the city. 
 
 ;re able to proceed but a short distance before the Turks 
 "t down the last of this unfortunate band. 
 Later came the army of the knights, numbering, with The knights ot 
 eir attendants, more than a half million, according to the 
 j':aggerated accounts of the time. Emperor Alexius in 
 arm prepared to defend his possessions, but induced most 
 ' the leaders to take oath that they would be his vassals. 
 74. The Capture of Jerusalem.— In the spring of 
 \97 the emperor and the crusaders set out, the one to re- 
 gain his lost territories, the oth- 
 er to secure the holy sepulchre. 
 The long, hard march with its 
 sieges of hostile cities took sev- 
 eral years. The mutual distrust 
 of the emperor and his western 
 "allies," and the jealousy which 
 each leader and every feuday 
 band felt toward every other, 
 grew from month to month. 
 Finally, in. June, 1099, the cru- 
 saders reached Jerusalem. After 
 a siege of several weeke, with- 
 out a decent supply of water 
 the crusaders broke through the 
 'alls, the defenders fleeing. "Our men followed, killing and 
 laying even to the temple of Solomon, where the slaughter 
 ras so great that our men waded in blood up to their 
 nkles." 
 
 Most of the crusaders returned home without great de- 
 ty, but the leaders of the remainder quarreled over the 
 ivision of the spoils. The conquered territory in Syria 
 ras finally divided into four little feudal states, the largest 
 nd most important of which was the Kingdom of Jerusa- 
 :m. 
 
 Large numbers of pilgrims, unarmed or in armed crusading bands, The military 
 ime to Jerusalem each year. To care for the sick or needy there or ers- 
 as organized an order of monks called the Hospitalers. To pro- 
 
 Knight Templar 
 
 The feudal 
 states in 
 Palestine. 
 
74 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Palestine and 
 trade froiujt he 
 first^crusade 
 to the third. 
 
 The crusade of 
 the three 
 kings. 
 
 Richard and 
 Saladin. 
 
 tect pilgrims on their journey, another order was formed lat 
 called the Templars from the fact that some of the founders livtl 
 close by the Temple in Jerusalem. Like the Templars, who wei 
 knights rather than monks, a third order was established, called tl 
 Teutonic Knights. 
 
 75. The Second Crusade. — Although comparative! 
 few westerners remained in Palestine, so many pilgrin 
 came that it was necessary to give them food and protec 
 them on the way. Many of the permanent residents wer 
 merchants, most of whom came from the thriving Italiai 
 cities. There was considerable demand for western armor 
 horses, and particularly grain. Vessels and caravans tool 
 in return silks and cottons, spices, wines and fine glass 
 ware. This trade developed somewhat before the seconc 
 crusade was made in 1147, after the northernmost of the! 
 little feudal states had been recaptured by the Mohamme- 
 dans. The crusaders accomplished little but the Latin j 
 states were strengthened by the warriors left in Palestine. 
 In 1187 Jerusalem itself, however, was captured by the! 
 ablest and most intelligent of the Mohammedan rulers, Sal- 
 adin of Egypt. 
 
 76. The Third Crusade.— The third crusade is the 
 most interesting international expedition of the "Middle 
 Ages." It was made up of three great national armies, led 
 by three distinguished kings, Frederick Barbarossa of Ger- | 
 many, Philip Augustus of France and Richard the Lion- 
 Hearted of England. Frederick went by land, but the others 
 followed the easier route by sea. In spite of the prominence 
 of the leaders, or perhaps because of that prominence, they 
 quarreled and interfered with each other, and, Frederick 
 having died in Asia Minor, Philip returned to France, 
 leaving Richard to fight Saladin. 
 
 Richard was pre-eminently a medieval knight who revel- 
 led in hand-to-hand combats and fierce fighting, but he was 
 neither a general nor a statesman. Having made no head- 
 way against Saladin he finally departed from Palestine, leav- 
 ing Saladin in possession of Jerusalem. While traveling 
 
 it. 
 
 
THE EIGHT CRUSADES 75 
 
 !tJ erland through Germany in disguise, Richard was recog- 
 \ed and imprisoned for nearly two years by his enemies, 
 ins ended the most spectacular and romantic of the Cru- 
 des. 
 
 77. The Fourth Crusade.— Unlike the other crusades, capture of 
 e fourth was an expedition against Constantinople rather B °pi e * n x ~ 
 an against the Saracens. Except the Italians, the cru- 
 
 ders expected to attack the Mohammedans, but the Vene- 
 
 ins, under their blind and crafty aged doge, or duke, per- 
 
 laded the others to seize the great city on the Bosporus. 
 
 heir excuse was that the ruling emperor was a usurper ; 
 
 leir reason, a desire for a still larger share of the trade in 
 
 ie eastern Mediterranean. Towers having been erected 
 
 i the decks of the ships, the attacking parties crossed on 
 
 .dders, gained the walls, and sacked the city. Priceless 
 
 •easures were lost, manuscripts being burned and paintings 
 
 estroyed. 1 Scores of metal statues, some of which dated 
 
 rom the classical period, were melted down for weapons 
 
 nd armor. Four famous bronze horses were taken to 
 
 r enice where they may still be seen above the portico of 
 
 >t. Mark's Cathedral. 
 
 : This Latin empire lasted more than 50 years (1204-1261 The Latin 
 
 i. D.). It added nothing to the glory of Constantinople; J^ ireofthe 
 
 i fact, it so weakened the city and empire that they were 
 
 educed later by the Ottoman Turks, but it brought the 
 
 Venetians an opportunity. They gained "a quarter and 
 
 , half a quarter" of the lands of the eastern empire, chiefly 
 
 hose along the Adriatic, the islands of the Aegean and the 
 
 astern Mediterranean. Venice seized the trade that had 
 
 ormerly gone through Constantinople, although, when the 
 
 -atin empire fell, Genoa fell heir to the western trade from 
 
 Constantinople and the Black Sea. 
 
 78. Later Crusades.— The fifth crusade was made up The «*iidren's 
 
 crusade. 
 
 *Most of the old Greek manuscripts were copied under the Mace- 
 Ionian emperors in the ninth and tenth centuries. Most of the 
 nanuscripts that were afterward carried to western Europe were 
 vritten in this period. ' 
 
76 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Sixth, seventh 
 and eighth 
 crusades. 
 
 The Crusaders 
 gain broader 
 knowledge. 
 
 ;he:: 
 
 Influence oi 
 the Crusades 
 on the great* 
 changes oi the 
 Age of the 
 Crusades. 
 
 of fanatical expeditions of tens of thousands of misguidt 
 and unfortunate children (1212). Most of those froi 
 France never left the country, but many of the Germa 
 children were sold into slavery in the East. Like the vai 
 guard of the first crusade these defenceless crusaders ha| 
 paid dear for their zeal. 
 
 Frederick II finally went on a crusade promised to th 
 popes (1229), and St. Louis, Louis IX of France. (1248 
 and (1270), led the last crusades against the Mohammed 
 ans. In 1291 the followers of the Prophet regained the las 
 stronghold of the Christians in Palestine and the Latii 
 kingdoms of the East came to an end. 
 
 Results of the Crusades. 
 
 79. General Results. — The two centuries of the Cru 
 sades saw so many important changes that we cannot tel 
 which were caused by the Crusades. No event in history \f 
 is due to any single cause. Every change is the result of to 
 different causes working together. It would be untrue to 
 maintain that the Crusades produced the great develop- 
 ment in national feeling, in literature, in government and 
 in business that occurred during the twelfth and thirteenth 
 centuries. Nevertheless the Crusades undoubtedly gave 
 an impetus to these and other changes of that period. They 
 were the occasion if not the cause of a great revival, a re- 
 vival which was intellectual, political and economic, a re- 
 vival which showed itself particularly in new national lit- 
 eratures, in the breaking down of the feudal system, in the 
 development of commerce. 
 
 80. How the Crusades Helped to Produce a New 
 Europe. — Nearly a million men took part in the Crusades. 
 Before they went to the Holy Land, few of these armed 
 pilgrims, whether knight or villein, had been outside of their ' 
 country or beyond the bounds of the great feudal estate on 
 which they had been born. Imagine the result when these 
 ignorant men, gathered with other soldiers of their own 
 nation, journeyed month after month with men of other 
 
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 77 
 
 ationalities, viewed great cities, discovered better ways of 
 
 dressing and of living, and learned their own ignorance by 
 
 I ontact with courteous Byzantines and intelligent Saracens. 
 
 tlany of the crusaders, too many, left their bones on the 
 
 /astes of Asia Minor or in the valleys of Syria, but those 
 
 hat returned came back with a new appreciation of the 
 
 Vorld, with clearer ideas on government, a better knowledge 
 
 [if warfare, and a truer conception of the narrowness of 
 
 >heir old life. They did not bring back manuscripts or any 
 
 aeal learning. The time was not ripe -for that. But they 
 
 >rought back products of the East ; they created a demand 
 
 or better foods, for luxuries and for money to get the 
 
 hings they wanted. They had learned to bathe. They be- 
 
 jan to wear beards. They had discovered that one name 
 
 !vas not enough and to their given names added surnames. If 
 
 /:hey were noble, they devised coats of arms and mottoes 
 
 t:o distinguish them from others. Thus the Crusades 
 
 broadened their lives and enriched their experiences. 
 
 81. Political Results. — The Crusades destroyed a increase of 
 large part of the old nobility. Hundreds of thousands of k°n g erc 
 knights and nobles never returned from the East. The new 
 nobility did not have the same prestige, the same influence 
 or the same rights as the old. The feudal system, with the 
 new nobles as leaders, was much less solid than it had been 
 in the days of William the Conqueror. In France especial- 
 ly the king had grown powerful. In Germany the king 
 failed to grow powerful chiefly because he spent his strength 
 fighting the papacy and trying to control Italy. 
 
 Many- of the nobles sold their birthright of rights and Decline of the 
 
 . ' . . , feudal nobility 
 
 privileges. Iheir mess of pottage was equipment and pro- 
 vision for the long journey. Their Esau either their king 
 or the great towns. Many of the latter bought the right 
 to govern themselves because the new trade was making 
 them wealthy and the lords needed money. 
 
 The new towns produced a new class made up of mer- Rise of the 
 chants, manufacturers and professional men. To the two 
 
78 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Trade from 
 Italy to east, 
 north and 
 west. 
 
 Money and 
 banking. 
 
 Routes to the 
 Eaat, Marco 
 Polo and the 
 China trade. 
 
 The Mongol 
 empire and 
 eastern trade. 
 
 old estates, the nobles and the clergy, we now add a th 
 known in history as the tliinl estate. 
 
 82. Commerce, Money and Banking. — Trade w i 
 the East existed before the Crusades, yet the Crusades 
 most created a new foreign commerce. Venice, Genoa a 
 Pisa brought home the products of the Levant. Merchai 
 from northern Europe came to Italy for these valual 
 goods ; spices, silks, dyes and drugs, sugar, delicate drapt 
 ies, and fine glassware. 1 They carried them overland 
 Augsburg, Nuremberg and Vienna, or farther north 
 Bruges, Bremen and Hamburg, bringing back wool fro| 
 Britain, amber from the Baltic and furs from the Nort 
 Vessels put out from Venice, Genoa and Marseilles for tl 
 Atlantic coast towns, developing the first important tra( 
 to the west. 
 
 The Italian merchants traded the wheat, wool and othti 
 products of the West for these luxuries, but this great e> 
 pansion of commerce would not have been possible with 
 out money. Gold and silver coins came into general us< 
 In fact an international coin (the Leventine Byzant) wa 
 introduced. Bankers were necessary t o keep safe th 
 wealth of the merchants, to lend money for great expedi 
 tions and to manage great financial enterprises. 
 
 83. Trade Routes to the Orient. — S o m e traveller 
 and merchants did not stop at Antioch and Damascus, bu 
 followed the regular trade routes to Bagdad or pushed oil 
 still farther by water to India or overland to China. The 
 most famous of these was Marco Polo and his brothers win 
 spent several years in China. On their return accounts 
 were published of their travels, so that people learned aboul 
 the Far East and demanded tea, silks and other products 
 that "Cathay" could furnish. 
 
 It was possible for merchants and travelers to take this 
 
 *At this time the cultivation of buckwheat, melons, apricots, lem- 
 ons, oranges and other foods was introduced, being borrowed from 
 the Saracens, but these probably came through Spain and Sicily. 
 
RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 79 
 
 ong, hazardous trip across Asia, because, during the years 
 that the Venetians held Constantinople (sec. 61), a great 
 warrior, Genghiz Khan, and his successors had established 
 a loosely organized Mongol empire from Hungary and 
 Southern Russia eastward to the Pacific. One of these 
 Mongol leaders offered to help Louis IX on the seventh 
 crusade, but the French king would not have the help of 
 one unbeliever against another. 
 
 The eastern trade routes across Asia were closed not closing of the 
 only by the breakup of the Mongol Empire, but by the cap- b^thTotto- 
 ture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The man Turks 
 middle route through Antioch and Bagdad had already 
 been blocked and the lower route across Egypt was threat- 
 ened by the advance of the Ottoman Turks soon after, so 
 that new routes were sought, one around Africa by Vasco 
 de Gama and another westward by Christopher Columbus. 
 
 The Rise of the Towns. 
 
 84. The New Commerce and the Growth of the Towns before 
 Towns. — The Crusades were the opportunity of the free A . D , 
 cities. There had been towns and cities before the Crusades, 
 
 but, in southern Europe, the old Roman municipalities had 
 grown pitifully small after the Germanic invasions, while in 
 the north, there had been no need of towns. In the half cen- 
 tury before the first Crusade, trade had begun again be- 
 tween the villages of western Europe, along the rivers and 
 even from country to country along the coast. To this 
 new trade and the revived interest in building towns, the 
 Crusades gave a great impetus. The cities of northern Italy 
 grew with amazing rapidity between the first Crusade and 
 the fourth. Along the Rhine and other rivers feudal vil- 
 lages grew into towns, and on the northern coasts of west- 
 ern Europe great cities like Bruges, Antwerp and Ham- 
 burg developed as the trade grew. 
 
 85. Struggles of the Towns for Power. — The towns The granting 
 did not become free and powerful without a struggle. Many of « hart *«' 
 
80 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Town develop- 
 ment in differ- 
 ent countries. 
 
 Classes ol 
 gilds. 
 
 Sin 
 taste 
 
 cor 
 fori 
 
 dui 
 
 noble crusaders gave to the towns valuable privileges ftetf 1 
 return for money to equip themselves and their attendan 
 for the long expensive journey to the Holy Land, but as 
 rule lords did not make concessions to the towns unless th< 
 needed their political support. The towns wanted chart e 
 so that they knew what rights they had, when paymen 
 should be made, or how many troops must be furnishe 
 if their lord made war. The lords often granted charter 
 but, at the same time, they limited the powers that the towi 
 already had. Then would ensue a long struggle to increas 
 the town's privileges; to secure freedom from the lordi 
 intendant, that is, his representative; to gain the right o 
 holding more frequent assemblies; to reduce the tax pai( 
 to the lord, or to increase the number of officials elected b) 
 the town. 
 
 In Italy the pope helped the Lombard towns against thtjp 
 emperor, so that after 1176 (sec. 54) they became practic-ltb 
 ally independent. The emperor, especially Frederick Bar-la 
 barossa, sold privileges to the German towns in order top 
 have money for his campaigns against the Lombard cities. 
 In France the kings aided the towns against the more pow- 
 erful nobles whom the kings were trying to control, but 
 they helped the weaker nobles against their rebellions 
 towns. In this way French cities never became independent 
 like those of northern Italy and Germany. In England 
 cities were not so large as those of the Continent, but they 
 helped the king against the nobles, being rewarded by lib- 
 eral charters and by admission to the parliaments which 
 were called occasionally from the time of Edward I (1295). 
 But they never became independent. 
 
 86. The Management of Business Within a Town. 
 — The business men of the medieval towns were organized 
 into gilds or associations. The distinctively merchant gilds 
 were made up of those who were engaged in trade. Those 
 who made leather goods, armor, cabinets or any of the hun- 
 dreds of articles manufactured in the towns belonged to 
 craft gilds. There were almost as many of these gilds as 
 
RISE OF THE TOWNS 81 
 
 :here were crafts, Paris having one hundred of them in the 
 :welfth century and some of the small English towns al- 
 most as many a little later. 
 
 Since the market-places of the town were small, it was Fairs. 
 Customary for the merchants to attend great fairs in some 
 'convenient city, at which local products were exchanged 
 ftfor foreign textiles, eastern spices or drugs, or necessaries 
 like salt and iron. These fairs supplied a wholesale market 
 '[through which the gilds could send their own products to 
 the outside world. 
 
 Only skilled workmen were admitted to the craft gilds, classes of 
 'There were three classes of workers. Apprentices were boys 
 who bound themselves for a period, usually seven years, 
 "during which they learned the craft, working without pay. 
 Not only the apprentices, but the journeymen, who were 
 graduate apprentices, usually lived with the employer, but 
 the journeymen received wages. When a journeyman had 
 a little capital, he set up a shop of his own and became a 
 master, later employing both journeymen and apprentices 
 to help him. 
 
 The gilds regulated the business of their craft. Each control by the 
 
 1 gild had a monopoly of its business. As the members usu- 
 
 ■ ally lived in the same street or quarter of the town, it was 
 
 1 easy to regulate the quality of goods and to prevent the 
 
 masters from using poor stock and cheating their own 
 
 customers. 
 
 89. Condition of the Towns. — The medieval towns Location, waiis 
 were usually built at commercial cross-roads, if possible at 
 a point that was easily defended. Walls surrounded the 
 town proper, although there were many houses outside of 
 the gates. A high belfry overlooked the surrounding coun- 
 try so that the man on watch could always ring the town 
 bell, if an enemy approached. The bell was rung also at 
 curfew and on those occasions when the citizens assembled 
 to elect town officials or transact other business. 
 
 As towns must be walled, the houses were close together streets, 
 and the streets were no better than allevs, even the main 
 
82 
 
 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 Improvement 
 of towns and 
 citizens. 
 
 General. 
 
 Lombard 
 League. 
 
 Confederation 
 of the Rhine. 
 
 street of Paris being unpaved until 1182. Chimneys we 
 almost unknown. Slops and refuse were frequently throw 
 from the overhanging upper stories, which were so close t« 
 gether that little sunlight reached the street below. Foi 
 tunately pigs were allowed the freedom of the street s. f< 
 they proved useful scavangers of the filth that accurm 
 lated near the doorways. At night the streets were un 
 lighted. Although, in time, a police squad, called th 
 "watch," patrolled the streets and called the hours, no on 
 ventured forth after nightfall without an armed body-guard 
 Street fights were not uncommon between armed enemies 
 
 Until the thirteenth century, townspeople were not mucl 
 better off than the villeins, but as wealth and intelligena 
 became more general, the streets were kept in better condi 
 tion, the introduction of chimneys reduced the danger oi 
 fire and the streets were kept freer of swine and encroach 
 ing buildings. Fine town halls were built, especially after 
 1350, and in the cities of the bishops, magnificent Gothic 
 cathedrals rose, emphasizing more strongly by contrast, 
 perhaps, the squalor and degradation of the average citi- 
 zen. 
 
 88. The Leagues of Cities. — The political importance 
 of the cities is shown especially in the formation of the 
 great leagues. The largest and most powerful of the city 
 leagues, three in number, were in the Holy Roman Empire, 
 where the feudal nobles still maintained their authority. 
 The emperor was the overlord of the nobles and the cities 
 rather than the king of the country. 
 
 The first of these leagues was formed by the large and 
 wealthy cities of the Po valley in northern Italy, and was 
 called the Lombard League. It was organized to protect 
 the cities from their enemies, but it helped the cities to build 
 up their trade and to extend their territories. 
 
 In the Upper Rhine Valley the cities joined together for 
 protection rather than trade, since the nobles of that part 
 of Germany had united in order to control the emperor and 
 the cities. 
 
 1 
 
 
AGE OF THE CRUSADES 83 
 
 By far the largest, most powerful, and most lasting of the The H«nsa. 
 leagues was that great commercial state known as the Han- 
 seatic League or the Hansa. It included nearly 100 towns 
 
 ' along the northern coast of Europe from the mouth of the 
 Rhine to the Gulf of Finland, and was associated with oth- 
 er great commercial cities farther away like Novgorod, 
 Bruges and London. In order to protect its commerce, it 
 
 1 made commercial laws, made treaties and made war. its 
 great fleets controlled for three centuries the trade of the 
 northern seas and drove off pirates. The larger cities, as 
 Bremen, Hamburg and Lubeck, remained independent, and 
 are now states of that great federation known as the Ger- 
 man Empire. 
 
 89. Summary. — The Crusades were armed religious pil- causes of the 
 grimages to Palestine. They were due to the religious zeal 
 of the people and to the influence of the papacy. To a less 
 degree they were affected by the love of adventure and con- 
 quest as well as the desire to trade. The immediate occa- 
 sion of the first Crusade was the conquest of Palestine by 
 the cruel Seljukian Turks, who maltreated pilgrims and 
 threatened to capture Constantinople. 
 
 The eastern crusades were eight in number, beginning in The eight east- 
 1095 and ending in 1270. By far the largest was the. first, ernc ™ ad « s - 
 which established four petty feudal states in Palestine. The 
 most interesting was the third, in which Frederick Barba- 
 rossa, Philip Augustus and Richard the Lion-Hearted pro- 
 ceeded against Saladin. The fourth led to the conquest of 
 Constantinople by the Venetians and allies. The rest were 
 relatively unimportant. 
 
 The Crusades coincided with important economic chang- General results 
 es, of which the Crusades were a part and to which the crusades. 
 Crusades gave impetus. The travel made people broader 
 and the absence or death of many nobles gave opportunities 
 for kings and cities to increase their power. The Crusades 
 made the use of money common, and, more than all else, 
 the Crusades developed the eastern trade very greatly. 
 
84 THE FEUDAL AGE 
 
 The rise of Towns had declined after the "'fall'* of the western Rem- 
 
 an empire. They began to revive soon after 1000 A. E 
 and grew very rapidly during the fir.^t century of the Ag 
 of the Crusades. They gained charters and gained right 
 which the charters defended and protected. Thev carrie* 
 on trade through trade gilds, and their craft gilds inanii 
 factured many articles. The towns were small, crowded 
 filthy and disorderly, but conditions improved after 130( 
 A. D. To promote trade or protect one another league- 
 were formed especially in the Holy Roman Empire, the mos 
 famous being the Lombard League 'ind the Hansa. 
 
 General References 
 West, Modern History. 98-132. 
 
 Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 87-121, 153-159. 
 Bemont and Monod. Medieval Europe, 336-390. 
 Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, 336-445. 
 Emertnn, Medieval Europe. JS57-397. 519-540. 
 Day, History of Commerce, 31-127. 
 
 Adam?, Civilization During the Middle Ages, 258-310. 
 Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades. 
 Zimmcrn The Hansa Towns. 
 Oman. The Byzantine Empire. 
 Gilman, The Saracens. 
 
 Topics 
 
 Byzantine Civilization. Munro and Sellery (eds.), Medieval 
 Civilization, 212-223; Oman, The Byzantine Empire, 141-157; Foord, 
 The Byzantine Empire, 397-406. 
 
 Studies 
 
 1. Moslem civilization. Munro, History of the Middle Ages, 
 86-94. 
 
 2. Eastern trade before the Crusades. Day, History of Com- 
 merce, 79-86. 
 
 3. Appeal of Pope Urban II at Clermont (1095). Ogg, Source 
 Book of Medieval History, No. 51. 
 
 4. Pilgrims. Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, 
 
 157-175- 
 
 5. Inducements offered to crusaders. Robinson, Readings in 
 European History, I, 337-340. 
 
 |*rJ 
 
THE FEUDAL AGE 85 
 
 6. The capture of Jerusalem. Duncalf and Krey, Parallel Source 
 Problems in Medieval History, 103-109. 
 ■I 7. The military orders. Cutts, Scenes and Characters, 26-35; 
 Vrcher and Kingsford, The Crusaders, 169-187. 
 
 8. The attack on Constantinople (1204). Foord, The Byzantine 
 ^Empire. 
 
 9. The children's crusade. Larned (ed.), History for Ready 
 Reference, I, 632-363. 
 
 10. Heraldry. Cornish, Chivalry, 154-178. 
 
 11. The Mongol Empire. Renouf, General History, 225-230. 
 
 12. The medieval fair. Day, History of Commerce, 63-69. 
 
 13. The medieval gild. Tappan, When Knights were Bold, 232- 
 $246. 
 
 14. Characteristics of town life. Abram, English Life and Man- 
 ners in the Later Middle Ages, 18-30. 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. Distinguish between the religious and the commercial char- 
 acter of the Crusades. 
 
 2. Compare the civilizations of the Moslems, the Byzantines, the 
 Crusaders and that of America today ; in regard to art, business, 
 learning and moral standards. 
 
 3. Name at least five conflicts between East and West that pre- 
 ceded the Crusades. 
 
 4. How were the crusades against the Saracens different from 
 that against the Albigenses? (sec. 60). What did the first cresade 
 show about the Christian spirit of the crusaders and the ability of 
 the people of western Europe to cooperate? 
 
 5. Could the crusades have taken place earlier? three centuries 
 later? Explain your answer. 
 
 6. Why was the third "the most interesting international expedi- 
 tion of the Middle Ages?" 
 
 7. Was there any advantage from the capture of Constantinople 
 by the Venetians and their allies in 1204? 
 
 8. Did the Crusades do more to produce the new Europe of the 
 thirteenth century, or did the Crusades chiefly represent the desire 
 for the changes which actually developed in that century? 
 
 9. Explain the chief results of the Crusades. 
 
 10. What is the connection between the Mongol Empire of 
 Genghiz Khan and the discovery of America? 
 
 11. What was a charter? Why did the medieval towns wish to 
 have charters? 
 
 12. Were the medieval towns better than the city slums of our 
 day? Why are the towns of such importance of world history? 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL 
 
 General European 
 
 800 Crowning of Charlemagne. 
 843 Treaty of Verdun. 
 
 The Church 
 (Italy) 
 
 1054 
 
 Invasions of barbarians. 
 
 Final split b 
 tween Roma 
 Catholic Churc 
 and Greek Catl 
 
 1071 Manzikert, Victory of Turks over 1059 Cardinal bishops 
 Eastern emperor. 
 
 Development of the feudal system. 
 1059 Beginning of Investiture Strife. 
 
 1096 
 
 1122 
 1147 
 
 First Crusade. Capture cf Jerusa- 
 lem, 1099. 
 
 Concordat of Worms. Compromise 
 Second Crusade. 
 
 11;. 
 
 1189 Third Crusade. 
 
 1204 Fourth Crusade. 
 
 1206 Genghiz Khan's conquests (Mongol 
 empire). 
 
 1212 Children's Crusade. 
 
 1214 Bouvines, "the first modern battle.' 
 
 1236 Mongols in Europe. 
 
 1261 End of Latin empire at Constanti- 
 nople. 
 1270 Last Crusade. 
 1272 Marco Polo in China. 
 
 1338 Hundred Tear's War (beginning). 
 1350 Black Death. 
 
 1073 Pope Gregory VI 
 
 1077 Canossa. Victor 
 
 of Gregory th 
 
 pope over Henr. 
 
 IV the emperoi 
 
 over investiture 
 
 1158 University of Bo- 
 logna. 
 
 1176 Legnano. 
 
 1183 Peace of Con- 
 stance. 
 
 1198 Pope Innocent III 
 
 1209 Crusade against^ 
 heretics. 
 
 1215 Franciscan and 
 Dominican fri 
 ars recognized. 
 
 1250 Supremacy of pa- 
 pacy over the 
 empire. 
 
 1309 Babylonian cap- 
 tivity (begin- 
 ning). 
 
 Portuguese explorations 
 coast of Africa. 
 
 Invention of printing. 
 
 1377 Great Schism (be- 
 along ginning). 
 
 1414 Council of Con- 
 stance. 
 1431 Council of Basle. 
 
 1453 Capture of Constantinople and end 
 of Hundred Years' War. 
 
The Holy Roman 
 Empire 
 
 866 
 
 962 
 
 Empire revived 
 by Otto. 
 
 039 Henry III. 
 
 TABLE 
 
 France 
 
 Siege of Paris 
 by Norsemen 
 
 Hugh Ca pet 
 founds new 
 lineof French 
 kings. 
 
 827 
 
 878 
 
 1066 
 
 England 
 
 England unit- 
 ed under Eg- 
 bert. 
 
 Treaty of Wed- 
 more between 
 Alfred and 
 the Danes. 
 
 C o n q u e st of 
 England by 
 Willi am of 
 Normandy. 
 
 L152 Frederick Bar- 
 barossa em- 
 peror. 
 
 University 
 Paris. 
 
 1154 
 
 1170 
 
 of 
 
 Henry II (of 
 Anjou feudal 
 over lord of 
 half of 
 France). 
 
 Becket mur- 
 dered by 
 Henry II. 
 
 1212. Frederick II 
 emperor. 
 
 1254-1273 Interreg- 
 num (end of 
 Hohenstauf- 
 en line). 
 
 1200-1213 Quarrels of Pope Inno- 
 cent III with Philip Au- 
 gustus and John of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 A 1 b i g e n sian 
 crusade. 
 
 LouisIX(Saint) 
 
 1209 
 1226 
 1285 
 
 1215 Magna Charta. 
 
 1265 
 
 Philip rV 
 Fair) 
 
 (The 
 
 1356 
 
 Golden Bull for 
 elect ors of 
 emperor. 
 
 1338 
 
 1346 
 1356 
 
 1360 
 
 1415 
 1431 
 1438 
 
 1453 
 
 Beginning of 
 Years' War. 
 
 Crecy (battle). 
 
 Poictiers (bat- 
 tle). 
 
 Peace of Bret 
 
 1272 
 1295 
 
 1314 
 
 De Montfort's 
 Parliament. 
 
 Edward I. 
 
 Model parlia- 
 ment. 
 
 B a n n ockburn 
 
 Hundred 
 
 1358 
 1360 
 
 The Jacquierie. 
 
 English gains 
 
 in France. 
 
 igny. 
 1381 
 
 1430 
 
 Agincourt 
 
 (battle). 
 Joan of Arc 
 
 burned. 
 Pragmatic 
 
 Sanction of 
 
 Bourges. 
 End of Hun dred 
 
 War. 
 
 Peasants' 
 bellion. 
 
 re- 
 
 English losses 
 in France. 
 
 Years' 
 
INDEX 
 
 Agriculture, 35-37. 
 Albigensian crusade, 59. 
 Alfred the Great, 16-17. 
 Arbalast. the, 29. 
 Armor, feudal, 30. 
 Army, feudal, 21, 23, 28-29. 
 Arthur, King and round table. 27 
 note 
 
 Babylonian captivity, 62. 
 Banking, 78. 
 
 Barbarossa, Frederick, 55. 
 Bernard, Saint. 46. 
 Bishops, the, 45. 
 
 Cannon, medieval. 29. 
 Canossa, 53-54. 
 Cardinals, college of, 53. 
 Castle, feudal, 25. 
 Cat, the, 29. 
 Catapult, the, 29. 
 Cathedrals, 82. 
 Charlemagne. 9-12, 21. 
 Charters, town, 80 
 Chivalry. 30-32. 
 Church, the feudal, 43-67. 
 
 importance of. 43-44. 
 
 conflict of, with empire. 51-58. 
 
 relation of, to people, 43-49, 58-62. 
 Clergy, the. 44-47, 50. 
 Cluny, reforms of, 50. 
 Cnut, 17. 
 
 Concordat of Worms, 53. 
 Children's crusade, the, 75. 
 Commerce, 74. 78-79. 
 Constance, peace of, 55. 
 Constance, council of, 63. 
 Constantinople, 70-75. 
 Crusades, the, 
 
 general character of, 68-69, 
 
 eight eastern, 72-76, 
 
 results of, 76-79 
 
 Danes in England, 16-17. 
 Dominican friars, 58,59-60. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, 17. 
 Electors, imperial, 58 note. 
 
 Empire, Roman, 9-12, 
 
 Eastern, 69-70, 
 
 Holy Roman of German Nation, 52. 
 
 Conflict of, with papacy, 52-58. 
 Estate, cultivation of, 35-37. 
 Excommunication. 49, 53. 
 
 Fairs, 81. 
 Fealty; 23. 
 
 in England. 18. 
 Feudal aids, 24. 
 Feudal dues, 23-24. 
 Feudal System, 22-25, 38, 77. 
 Fief, 22 
 
 Field system, the, 35-37. 
 Food, 26, 35. 
 
 Franciscan friars, 58-60. 
 Frederick I (Barbarossa). 55, 74. 
 Frederick II, 56-57. 
 
 Gerbert, 71. 
 
 Gilds, 80-81. 
 
 Golden bull. 58 note. 
 
 Gregory VII, pope, 53-54. 
 
 Hanseatic league, 83. 
 
 Harold, 17. 
 
 Hastings, battle of, 17. 
 
 Henry III, of Germany, 52. 
 
 Henry IV, of Germany, 53-54. 
 
 Heresy, 58-59. 
 
 Hildebrand. 52-54. 
 
 Homage, 23. 
 
 Hospitals, 73. 
 
 Houses. 26-27. 34. 
 
 Hunting, 27. 
 
 rights. 34. 
 Huss, John, 62 
 
 Innocent III. pope, 55-56. 
 Inquisition, the. 59. 
 Interdict, 48. 
 Investiture, 23, 51. 
 Investiture, strife, 51-54. 
 
 Jerusalem, capture of, 73. 
 John, King of England, 25, 56. 
 Jousting, 27-28. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Knight, the, 30-32. 
 
 Quintain, 27 note. 
 
 Lands, holding of, 22-23, 37. 
 
 cultivation of, 35-37. 
 Latin empire, the, 75. 
 Leagues, city, 82-83. 
 Legnano, battle of, 55. 
 Life, of people, 25-38. 
 Lombard League, 55, 82. 
 Lords, 22. 
 
 "Magna Carta," 25. 
 
 Magyar Invasions, 13. 
 
 Manor, 36, house, 27. 
 
 Marco Polo, 78. 
 
 Marks, 13-14. 
 
 Marriage of the Clergy, 50. 
 
 "Melee," 28. 
 
 Mersen, treaty of, 13 note. 
 
 Milan, 55. 
 
 Miracle plays, 61. 
 
 "Missi Dominici," 10. 
 
 Money, 78. 
 
 Mongol empire, 79. 
 
 Monks, the, 45-46. 
 
 Moors in Spain, 70. 
 
 Nobles, power of, 11, 21, 22, 24. 
 
 life of, 25-32. 
 Normans, 14, 15, 16. 
 Norsemen, 14-16. 
 
 Ram, the, 29. 
 Rat, the, 29. 
 Richard the Lion-Hearted, 74. 
 
 Sacraments, the, 47. 
 Saladin, 74. 
 Salisbury Oath, 18. 
 Saracens, the, 71-76. 
 Saracens in Italy, 14. 
 Schism, great, 63. 
 Serfs, 32-33. 37. 
 Sieges, feudal, 29. 
 Simony, 51. 
 Squire, the, 30. 
 Strassburg, oaths of, 12. 
 
 Templar, Knights, 73. 
 Teutonic Knights. 74. 
 Teutons, 10-11 
 Third estate, 78. 
 Tournaments, 27-28. 
 Tower in sieges, 29. 
 Towns, the, 79-83. 
 Trade routes, eastern, 79. 
 Truce of God, 30. 
 Turks, Seljukian, 72-74. 
 Ottoman, 79. 
 
 Urban II, pope, 72. 
 
 Otto I, of Germany, 52. 
 Overlords, 17, 24. 
 
 Page, the, 30. 
 Papacy, 47-58. 62-64. 
 Parliament, English, 80. 
 Pastimes, 27. 35. 
 Peace of God, 29-30. 
 Peasant, the lot of, 32-37. 
 Peter the Hermit, 72. 
 Philip Augustus of France, 56, 74. 
 Pope, the, position of, 47-48, 56. 
 conflict of with empire, 51-58. 
 Priest, the parish, 46-47. 
 
 Vassal, 22. 
 
 Venice, 71, 75. 
 
 Verdun, treaty of, 12-13. 
 
 Village, 35. 
 
 Villeins, 32-37. 
 
 Virgin, adoration of the, 60-61. 
 
 Waldenses, 58-59. 
 Walter the Penniless, 72. 
 Warfare, feudal, 29-30. 
 William the Conqueror, 18. 
 Worms, Concordat of, 53. 
 Wyclif, John, 62. 
 

 
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