i-k i S4w^'^*:^»*«j;'r»> >M., ><-\v -u^Am* . BrnKKf. KV f^ %#. ^■it^^^" W'-' %^#V '\ m f}.^ w y»^v !«?«''■ ^«iS^i^ ///lA^-o v-v, .A M^^ p»"r^(.i'- •><'^l^l^. :'p: A^A^^'^^^\ AAiiA AMiH.. IlIBRARY OF CONGRESS, I MEMORABILIA. MEMORABILIA; OR RECOLLECTIONS, HISTORICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, AND anttquartan. By JAMES SAVAGE. TAUNTON : PRINTED FOR JAMES SAVAGE, AND SOLD BY J. POOLE, BOOKSELLER, FORE-STREET, and BY BALDWIN, CRADOCK, & JOY, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 1820. TAUNTON : PRINTED BV J. POOLE, FORE'STREKT. ADVERTISEMENT. T^HE following pages have been compiled from Tarious sources, and from an extensive course of reading. The Editor has in some instances placed his authorities in the notes at the bottom of the page ; and, where he has copied from former writers, he has inserted the names of those from whom he has borrowed his materials. His chief object has been to confine himself to facts ; he has therefore carefully- avoided giving opinions upon, or drawing conclusions from, the various subjects of which he has treated. He has endeavoured to place many points of history in a new light, and in every part to illustrate, in some degree, the several matters which have occupied his attention. It has been his desire to present the reader with a volume, from which he hopes both instruc- tion and amusement may be drawn, and he submits it with confidence, to the perusal of young persons in particular, as a collection of biographical and hiistorical Miscellanea, calculated to beguile the tedium of an hour, without incul. eating a single idea that may sully the purest mind. Taunton^ May n$ty 1820. ERRATA. Page 160— line 9-/or Edward the third— read Edward the first. 223— line 2 of the note— deU Turkey. CONTENTS. Page. Anecdotes of Dr. Kfnnicotf, ,.., 1 Remarkable Historical Coincidences, 4 Charles XH. of Sweden, 6 British Prarls, 8 Pillars of Commemoralioii, 9 Mason, (hf Poet, 13 Bishops of Sodor and Man, 17 The Tdbie, 19 Clocks, 20 Aldu^ Manutius, 22 Bottles of Skin, 24 English Slave Trade, 25 Oliver Cromwell's Wife, 26 Shakes|)eare, , 28 University Degrees, 31 Guy Carleton, Lord Dorchester, 33 Figs, 35 Fruits cultivated at Rome in the time of Pliny, that are now grown in our English gardens, 37 Peacocks, 51 Ancient Libraries, 52 King Charles the First, 58 The Fair Geraldine and the Earl of Surrey, 60 Jews in England, 66 The English tJible, 67 Luxury of Ancient Rome, . . ., 68 Rhyme, 70 Mr. Coquebert de iVlontbret, 72 Dr. Thomas Pierce, 73 Writing among the Greeks, 74 Account of the Scriptoria, or Writing Rooms in the Monasteries of England 76 Gildas, A^o/6', 77 Emanu'*l Clirysoloras, Note^ 98 Laurentius Valla, Note, 99 Torture in England, 105 J)r. Johnson's Conversation with the late King, 114 Dr. lieattie's Conversation with the late King & Queen, 121 Sacred Gardens, 128 Sir Thomas Wyat, 129 Vlll CONTENTS. Page, The Hand, a Symbol of Power, 132 Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I, 133 Last Moments of Philip Melancthon, i . , 142 House of Commons, 145 Mosaic Painting, 165 King Egbert, 168 The Latin Language, 171 Dr. Herschel, 174 Parodies, . . . . „ 177 Mourning for the Dead, 178 Garrick, , 179 Lemons, 181 Origin of the Point of Honour, 182 Geoflfrey of Monmouth, 185 Nennius, Note, 190 Lifting up the Hand in Swearing, 205 Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, 207 King Arthur, 210 Alchemy, 213 Account of several Noble Families, in England, who owe their elevation to the Peerage to their Ancestors having been engaged in Trade, 214 Last Moments of Queen Caroline, 220 The Britons, according to the Greek and Latin Classics, 221 Tattooing, Note, 223 The Seven Sleepers, 227 John Ray, the Naturalist, 230 Francis Willoughby, Note, 230 London Bankers and their Origin, 233 Elucidation of the Ornaments with which the Greeks and Romans adorned the Human Head on Coins & Medals, 237 The Tradescants, 243 Orange Trees, 249 Articles of Use and Luxury introduced into Europe by the Romans, 231 Account of the Escape of the Earl of Nithsdalc from the Tower, in 1716, 255 Account of the first rise of Fairs in Englatul, and the Manner of Living, in the 16th and 17th Centuries, .... 269 Sir Ricliard Clough, 277 Royal Clemency, 279 Lotteries, ; 280 Herculancum Manuscripts, 283 Wolves in England, 286 Professor PorsiMi, > . . . 288 History of Sepulchral Monuments, 297 MEMORABILIA. Dr. KENNICOTT. Dr. KENNICOTT was the son of the parish clerk of Totness, once master of a charity school in that town. At an early age young- Kennicott took the care of the school, and in that situation wrote some verses, addressed to the Hon. Mrs. Courtenay, which recommended him to her notice, and to that of many neighbouring gentle- men, who laudably opened a subscription to send him to Oxford. The following inscriptioji^ written hy Dr. Kennicott, it engraven on the tomb of his. parents : As Virtue should be of good Report, Sacred be this humble Monument to the Memory of BENJAMIN KENNICOTT, Parish Clerk of Totness, and ELIZABETH his Wife ; The latter an example of every Christian Duty, The former animated with the warmest zeal, regulated by the best good sense, and both constantly exerted for the salvation of himself and others. Reader ! soon shalt thou die also ; And as a Candidate for Immortality, strike thy breast and say, " Let me live the life of the righteous, that my latter end may be like his." Trifling are the dates of Time, where the subject is Eternity, Erected by their Son, B. Kennicott, D. D. Cnuon of Christ Church, Oxford. li 2 DR. KENNICOTT. It is said that when Dr. Kennicott took orders, he came to officiate in his clerical capacity in his native town, — when his father, as parish clerk, proceeded to place the surplice on his shoulders, a struggle ensued between the modesty of the son and the honest pride of the parent, who insisted on paying that respect to his son which he had been accustomed to shew to other clergymen ; to this filial obedience he was obliged to submit. A circumstance is added, that his mother had often declared she should never be able to sup- port the joy of hearing her son preach ; and that on her attendance at the church, for the first time, she was so overcome as to be taken out in a state of temporary insensibility. The following Letter from Br, Kennicott to the Rev, William Daddo has been preserved : " To the Rev. Mr, Daddo, in Tiverton, Devon. «« Wadh, Coll, Mar, 30, 1744. '' Rev. and Hon. Sir, ** Gratitude to benefactors is the great law of nature, and lest I should violate what was ever sacred, 1 presume to lay the following before you. ** There are. Sir, in the world, gentlemen who confine their regards to self, or the circle of their own acquaintance, and there are (happy experi- DR. KENNICOTT. 15 ence convinces me) who command their influence to enlarg-e and exert itself on persons remotely situate, both bv fortune and education. To you, Sir, belongs the honour of this encomium, — to me the pleasure of the obligation, and as I am now first at leisure in the place whither your goodness hns transphmted me, I lay this acknow- ledgment before you, as one of the movers in this system of exalted generosity; for when 1 consi- der myself as surrounded with benefactors, there seems a bright resemblance of the now exploded system of Ptolemy, in which, Sir, (you know) the heavenly bodies revolved around the central earth which was thus rendered completely blest by the contribution of their cheering and benign influence. " And now, Sir, the sentiments of duty rise so warm within me, that every expression of thanks seems faint, and I am lost in endeavours after a suitable acknowledgfment of mv obligations. " But I know. Sir, whom 1 am now addressing; I know those who most deserve can least bear praise, and that your goodness is so great, as even to reject the very thanks of the grateful ; like the sun in its splendour, which forbids the eye that offers to admire it. " That Heaven may reward yourself and Mrs. Daddo with its best favours, and console you under your parental sorrows, is my daily and fervent prayer ; and I shall esteem it one of the B 2 4 REMARKABLE HISTORICAL COINCIDENCES. great honours of my life Id be favoured at your leisure wit" any commands or advices you shall condescend to bestou' on Rev. Sir, Your dutiful and obliged Servant, BENJAMIN KENNICOTT." The Rev. William Daddo was for many years head-master of BlundelVs Free School, in Tiver- ton, where young Kennicott received the rudi- ments of his classical education. Mr. Daddo having- acquired a considerable fortune from the emoluments of his school, quitted Tiverton, and retired to Bow-hill House, in the neighbourhood of Exeter, and there died many years ago, leaving a daughter, an only child, afterwards married to the Rev. Mr. Terry. REMARKABLE HISTORICAL COINCIDENCES. xVMONG the curiosities in the British Museum are shewn two helmets ; the one Roman, found in the ground on which the battle of Cannoe was fought, 21G years before Christ, and the other made of feathers, l)rought from one of the South Sea Islands, by Captain Cook. On comparing* these helmets, the shape will be found exactly REMARKABLE HISTORlCAT> COINCIDENCES. 5 similar, thoug-h the latter wks made by an un- civilized people living- at the distance of more than 2000 years since the battle of Cannae was foug-ht, and who had never even heard of the Roman name. A second coincidence is found in the same collection. Two breast-plates are shewn to the visitors, exactly corresponding in uniformity of shape, though made of different materials, the one taken from the bosom of an Egyptian Mummy, which had been dissected, if I may be allowed to use the term, in the Museum, and the other brought by Captain Cook, among- various other curiosities, from the South Sea Islands. A third coincidence is the mode of cookery practised by the South Sea Islanders as describ- ed by Captain Cook, especially in roasting their hog-s. This is by means of hot stones placed in a hole dug in the ground. In Ossian's Poems the reader will find that the Caledonians of that time made use of the same method in cooking their hogs for the table. The extinction of the Roman Empire in the West, about the year 47G, by Odoacer, King of Italy, was attended by one of the most memora- ble coincidences in the history of mankind. The patrician Orestes had married the daughter of Count Romulus, of Pctovio in Noricum ; the name of Ait/justus, notwithstanding the jealousy of power, was known at Aquileia as a familiar 6 CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. surname ; and the appellations of the two great founders, the first of the city of Rome, and the second of the Roman monarchy, were strangely united in the last of their successors. The son of Orestes succeeded to the throne of the Western Empire, and assumed and disgraced the names of Romulus Augustus; the first was corrup- ted into IVlomyllus by the Greeks, and the second has been changed by the Latins into the contemp- tible diminutive iVngustnhis. The life of this inoffensive youth, the last Sovereign of the Roman Empire in the West, was spared by the generous clemency of Odoacer, who dismissed him, with his whole family, from the imperial palace, fixed his annual allowance at 0000 pieces of Gold, and assigned the castle of Lucullus, in Campania, for the place of his exile or retirement. CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. That Charles the twelfth did not fall by a shot from the walls of Fredericshall, as is com- monly su|>posed, but met his death from a nearer and more secret hand, has been fully ascertained; and M. Megret, a French Enginrer, who accom- panied him, was no doubt, concerned in the CHARLES XTI. OF SWEDEN. 7 murder. Many years afterwards, one Cronsted, an officer, on his death bed, confessed that he had himself, at the instigation of the Prince of Hesse, brother-in-law of Charles, and whose wife was declared Queen of Sweden, fired the shot that killed the unfortunate monarch. In the arsenal at Stockholm, the Swedes pre- serve, with great care, the clothes he was habited in at the time he fell. The coat is a plain blue cloth regimental one, such as every common sol- dier wore. Round the waist he had a broad buff leathern belt, in which hung his sword. The hat is torn only about an inch square, in that part of it which lies over the temple, and certainly would have been much more injured by a large shot. His gloves are of very fine leather, and as the left one is perfectly clean and unsoiled could only have been newly put on. Voltaire says that the instant the King received the shot, he had the force and courage to put his hand to his sword, and lay in that posture. The right hand glove is covered in the inside with blood, and the belt at that part where the hilt of his sword lay, is likewise bloody, so that it seems clear, he had previously put his hand to his head, on receiving the shot, before he attempted to draw his sword and make resistance. in the same case that contains his clothes is preserved the cap he wore on the terrible day at Bender, w hen he so desperately defended himself 8 liRITlSH PEARLS. ag-ainst the Turks. It is of fur ; and has one tre- mendous cut on the side, which must have been within a hair's breadth of there ending the career of this wonderful man. BRITISH PEARLS, 1 HE River Conway in North Wales was of considerable importance, even before the Roman invasion, for the Pearl muscle, (the My a Mar- garitifera of Linneeus) and Suetonius acknow- ledged, that one of his inducements for undertak- ing' the subjugation of Wales, was the Pearl Fishery carried forwards in that river. Accord- ing to Pliny, the muscles, called by the natives Kregindilin, were sought for with avidity by the Romans, and the pearls found within them were highly valued ; in proof of which it is asserted, that Julius Caesar, dedicated a breastplate set with British Pearls to Venus Genetrix, and placed it in her temple at Rome. A fine specimen from the Conway is said to have been presented to Catherine, consort of Charles II. by Sir Richard Wynne of Gwydir -, and it is further said that it has since contributed to adorn the regal crown of England, Lady Newborough possessed a good collection of the Conway j)earls, which she purchased of those who were fortunate enough to PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 9 find them, as there is no regular fishery at present. The late Sir Robert Vaughan had obtained a sufficient number to appear at Court, with a button and loop to his hat, formed of these beau- tiful productions, about the year 1780. PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. J. HE erection of a column or pillar, on the highest point of that ridge of hills, called Black- down, which separates the county of Somerset from that of Devon, in commemoration of the great victories obtained by the Duke of Wellington, is an inducement to look into history, to see how the nations of antiquity, particularly those of Greece and Rome, rewarded their heroes who signalized themselves by the performance of feats of military courage, valour, and skill. Among the Grecians it was usual to confer honours and rewards upon those who distinguished themselves in battle by valiant and courageous conduct. The ordinary rewards presented to con- querors in all the states of Greece, were crowns, which were sometimes inscribed with the person's name and actions that had merited them, as ap- pears from the inscription upoi! the crou^n present- ed by the Athenians to Conon. The Athenians sometimes honoured those who had performed c 10 riLLARS OF COMMEMORATION. great actions with permission to raise pillars, or erect statues to the gods, with inscriptions declar- ing* their victories. Plutarch, however, supposes this to have been a grant rarely yielded to the greatest commanders. Cimon, who commanded the Athenian fleet against the Persians, became master of the city of Eion, in Thrace, and was, on account of his not imitating former com- manders, by standing upon the defensive, but repulsing the enemy, and carrying the war into their own country, highly respected and admired by his countrymen, who allowed him, in honour of his success over the enemy, to erect three pillars of stone or marble, each surmounted with the head of Mercury ; but though they bore an inscription, Cimon was not permitted to inscribe his name upon them. These pillars were consi- dered by his contemporaries as the highest honour which had then been conferred upon any com- mander. Various Pillars were erected at Rome in honour of great men, and to commemorate illustrious actions. Thus there were the Columna ^neay a pillar of Brass, on which aleague with the Latins was written. The Columna KostratOf tiie Rostral Column, erected in the Forum, in honour of Duillius, was adorned with figures of ships, and was constructed of white marble. This colunni is still remaining with its inscription. It was built in honour of a great victory gained by PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. 11 Duillius over the Carthaginian fleet near Lipara, in the first Punic war. Another Pillar was erected by M. Fulvius, the Consul, consisting of one stone of Numidian marble, nearly 20 feet high. But the most remarkable cokimns were those of Trajan and Antonmus Pius, Trajan's Pillar was erected in the middle of his Forum, and was composed of twenty-four great pieces of marble, but so curiously cemented as to seem but one. Its height is 128 feet. It is about 12 feet in diameter at the bottom, and 10 at the top. It has in the inside 185 steps for as- cending to the top, and forty windows for the admission of light. The whole pillar is incrusted with marble, on which are represented the warlike exploits of that Emperor and his army, particularly in Dacia. On the top was a Colossal figure of Trajan, holding in his left hand a sceptre, and in his right a hollow globe of gold, in which his ashes were put, but Eutropius afl^rms that his ashes were put under the pillar. The pillar of Antoninus was erected after his death, by the Senate, in honour of his memory. It is 176 feet high, the stops of ascent 10(3, and the windows 5(). The sculpture and other orna- ments are much of the same kind with those of Trajan\s pillar, but the work is greatly inferior. Both these pillars are still standing, and justly reckoned among the most precious remains of c 2 12 PILLARS OF COMMEMORATION. antiquity. Pope Sixtiis V. instead of the statues of the Emperors, caused the statue of St. Peter to be erected on Trajan's pillar, and of St. Paul on that of Antoninus. Pompey's Pillar, as it is commonly called^ in the city of Alexandria in Egypt, is equally celebrated with the two just mentioned. It is composed of red granite. The base is a square of about 15 feet on each side } this block of marble, 60 feet in circumference, rests on two layers of stone bound together with lead. The shaft and the upper member of the base are of one piece of 90 feet long, and nine in diameter. The capital is corinthian, with palm leaves, and not indented ; it is 9 feet high. The whole column is 114 feet in heighth. It is perfectly well polished, and only a little shivered on the eastern side. Nothing can equal the majesty of this column ; seen from a distance it overtops the town, and serves as a signal for vessels. Ap- proaching it nearer, it produces astonishment mixed with awe. The eye can never be tired with admiring the beauty of the capital, the length of the shaft, nor the extraordinary simpli- city of the pedestal. Among the first inhabitants of the world after the flood there were pillars erected sacred to the Pythonic god, Apollo, or the Sun. These pil- lars had curious hieroglyphical inscriptions ; they were very lofty and narrow in comparison of MASON THE POET. 13 their length ; hence among the Greeks, who copied from the Egyptians, every thing gradually tapering to a point was stiled an Obelisk. MASON THE POET. J[ HE merit of this gentleman as a poet is well known. However he was not satisfied with the applause he received in that character ; he was desirous also of being esteemed a good musician and a good painter. In music he succeeded better than in painting. He performed decently on the harpsichord, and, by desire, I undertook, says Dr. Miller, in the History of Doncaster, to teach him the principles of composition ; but that I never could effect. Indeed, others before me had failed in the attempt, nevertheless he fancied himself qualified to compose ; for a short Anthem of his, beginning " Lord of all power and might,'* was performed at the Chapel Royal, of which only the melody was his own ; the bass was composed by another person. The same may be said of two more Anthems, sung in the Cathedral of York. In painting he never arrived even to a degree of mediocrity ; so true is Pope's observation : " One science only will one genius fit, " So vabt is art, so narrow human wit.'' li MASON THE POET. Fond, however, of being considered as a patron both of music and painting, he contributed to the advancement off several young men by his re- commendation : yet I never knev^ him patronize but one, in either of these arts, whom he did not desert afterwards, without his former favourite ever knowing in what he had offended him. " When young,'' says Dr. Miller, ** I was one of those he took under his protection. He permitted me to dedicate the music of some elegies to him, and also gave me pieces of his own writing to set to music, particularly the ** Ode to Death" in Caractacus. However, at the end of a few years, I found myself involved in the disgrace of others, though I never knew the cause of my dismissal ; most probably our disgrace proceeded from the envy of some offici- ous tale-bearer. On recollection, I have often observed him listen attentively to these charac- ters ; and his favourite servant had it in his power to lead him which way he pleased, even to the changing a former acquaintance as easily as he would change his coat. Rather late in life he married Miss Sharman, of Hull, which was his native place. The reason he assigned for making her an offer of marriage was, that he had been a whole evenino^ in her company with others, and observed, that during all that time she never spoke a single word. This lady lived about a year after their marriage. She died at Bristol, MASON THE POET. 15 where, ia the Cathedral, he placed a handsome monument to her memory, on which are inscribed some beautiful and miich-admired lines as an epitaph. During the short time this lady lived with him, he appeared more animated and agree- able in his conversation; but after her decease, his former phlegm returned, and he became silent, sullen, and reserved. " Though he had a good income, and was by no means extravagant, yet he frequently fancied himself poor, to that degree, that he once asked an acquaintance to lend him a hundred pounds, though at that very time he had considerable sums of money in the public funds, for which he neglected taking the interest. A great attach- ment appeared to exist between him and a very hospitable family in the neighbourhood of Don- caster, to whom he was nearly related, and with whom he used to pass some months in the summer. At length he fancied they expected to receive a good legacy at his decease, but resolv- ing to disappoint them, he did not even mention them in his will, but left the greater part of his property to a person who had formerly been his curate.'' The following Letter from Mason to Dr. Beattie^ is pre^ served in Sir William Forbes^ s Life of the latter : York, 17 th October, 1771. " In my late melancholy employment of re- viewing and arranging the papers, which dear 16 MASON THE POET. Mr. Gray's friendship bequeathed to my care, I have found nine letters of yours, which I meant to have returned ere this, had I found a safe oppor- tunity by a private hand ; but as no such oppor- tunity has yet occurred, 1 take the liberty of troubling- you with this, to enquire how I may best convey them to you. I shall continue here till the 12th of next month, and hope in that interval to be favoured with a line from you upon this subject. " I should deprive myself of a very sincere gratification, if I finished this letter, with the business that occasions it. You must suffer me to thank you for the very high degree of poetical pleasure which tlie first book of your ** MinstreF' gave my imagination, and that equal degree of rational conviction which your " Essay on the Immutability of Truth" impressed on my under- standing. I will freely own to you, that the very idea of a Scotsman's attacking Mr. Hume, prejudiced me so much in favour of the latter piece, that I should have approved it, if, instead of a masterly, it had been only a moderate per- formance. ** I shall be happy to know, that the remain- ing books of your " Minstrel" are likely to be published soon. The next best thing, after in- structing the world profitably, is to amuse it innocently. England has lost that man, (Mr. Gray) who, of all others in it, was best qualified BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 17 for both these purposes; but who, from early chag-rin and disappointment, had imbibed a dis- inclination to employ his talents beyond the sphere of self-satisfaction and improvement. May Scotland long possess, in you, a person both qualified and willing to exert his, for the pleasure and benefit of society." BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. J. HE Bishopric of Sodor and Man was first erected by Pope Gregory IV, about the year 840, and had for its diocese the Isle of Man and all the Hebrides or Western Islands of Scotland ; but when the Isle of Man became dependent upon the kingdom of England, the Western Islands withdrew themselves from the obedience of their Bishop, and had Bishops of their own, whom they entitled Episcopi Sodorenses, but com- monly Bishops of the Isles. The Prelates of the diocese of the Isles had three places of residence, namely, the Isle of Icolumkill, Man, and Bute ; and in ancient writs, are promiscuously styled Episcopi Manni(B et Insularum, Episcopi jEbu^ dariimy and Episcopi Sodorenses, which last title is still retained by the Bishops of the Isle of Man 3 and the reason of this style is as follows : The Island of Ily, or 1, or lonah, was in former ages D 18 BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. a place famous for sanctity and learning, and vepy early became the seat of a Bishop. This little Island was likewise denominated Icolum- kill, from St. Columba (the companion of St. Patrick) fonnding a monastery here in the sixth century, which was the mother of above one hun- dred other monasteries situated in different parts of Britain and Ireland. From the many learned men who came to study here, the Picts and Eng- lish Saxons of the North owe their conversion to Christianity. The Scots used long ago to com- mit the education of the presumptive heir of the crown to the care of the Bishops of this see ; and so holy was the Island of Icolumkill reckoned, that most of the Scottish monarchs w ere interred there. The Cathedral church was dedicated to our Saviour, for whom the Greek word is Soter, hence Soterensis^ now corrupted to Sodorensis; and it seems probable that this is the reason why the Danes called these Islands Sodoroe, The civil wars that raged among the Scots enabled the Danes and Norwegians to seize the Isle of Man ; and about the year 1097 or 1098, Donald Bane, an usurper, who then sat on the throne of Scotland, treacherously put the Norwegians in possession of the Western Isles, for the assistance they had given him. It is probable that these foreigners were the cause that tlie see was trans- lated entirely to the Isle of Man. They were at length however, expelled from all their usurped THE TABLE. 19 dominions. During the great contest between the houses of Bruce and Baliol for the throne of Scotland, King Edward III, of England, made himself master of the Isle of Man, and it has re- mained an appendage of the crown of England ever since. The Lords of the Isle of Man sat up Bishops of their own, and the Scottish monarchs continued their Bishops of the Isles. The patron- age of the Bishopric of Man was given, together ^Tith the Island, to the Stanleys, by King Edward IV. and they came by an heir-female to the Duke of Athol, who still keeps it -, and on a vacancy thereof, he nominates the intended Bishop to the King, who sends him to the Arch- bishop of York for consecration. This is the reason why the Bishop of Sodor and Man is not a Lord of Parliament, as none can have suffrage in the house of Peers who do not hold immediately of the King himself. THE TABLE 1. HE form of a half-moon for a table is of very ancient date ; the Romans called it the Sigmciy from its resemblance to the Greek letter so called, which was in the time of the Roman Emperors like the letter C. Martial tells us this sort of table admitted but of seven persons, sepiem sigma d2 20 CLOCKS, capit. And Lampridius, in his life of Heliogaba- lus, mentions it very frequently, and says it was for seven only ; he tells us the Emperor once in- vited eight, on purpose to raise a laugh against the person for whom there would be no seat. The same form of a table continued in after ages. The authors of the life of St. Martin say, that the Emperor Maximus invited him to a repast, where the table had the form of a sigma ; and again in the lower ages, Sidonius ApoUina- ris speaks of the same thing in the life of the Emperor Majorianus ; and it is likewise repre- sented in a manuscript of the fifth or sixth cen- tury. The seat itself was only a common bench or form ; the sigma was the principal piece of furniture, and most ornamented. In the time of Homer the guests sat round the table, as we do now, but afterwards some nations adopted the custom of a reclining position at their meals. CLOCKS. 1 HE first Clock we know of in this Country was put up in an old tower of Westminster Hall, in the year 1288, and in 1202, there was one in the Cathedral of Canterbury. These were probably of foreign workmanship ; and it may be doubted, if there was at that time any person CLOCKS. 21 \vho followed the business of making' clocks. There was, however, one very ing-enious artist, Richard of Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans, who constructed a clock which represented the motions of the sun, moon, and stars, and the ebbing and flowing of the sea. That this won- derful piece of mechanism might be of permanent utility to his Abbey, he composed a book of directions for the management of it. And Leland who appears to have seen it, says, that in his opinion all Europe could not produce such another. There is a fine specimen of ancient Clock- making in Wells Cathedral. It is a clock con- structed by Peter Lightfoot, one of the monks of Glastonbury, about the year 1325, of complicated design and ingenious execution. It was origi- nally put up in that celebrated Monastery, and was placed in the south transept, and by means of a communication tolled the hours on the great bell of the central tower, whilst the quarters were struck by automata on two small bells in the transept. The dial plate shews the hours, and also the changes of the moon, the solar and other astronomical motions; on its summit there is an horizontal frame work, which exhibits by the aid of machinery, eight knights on horseback armed for a tournament, and pursuing each other with a rapid rotatory motion. At the Reforma- tion this clock was removed from Glastonbury 22 ALDUS MANITIUS. Abbey to its present situation in Wells Cathe- dral. ^ The Clock in Exeter Cathedral was erected by Bishop Courtenay in the year 1480. It is on the Ptolemaic system of Astronomy and of a curious construction for the age in which it was put up. The earth is represented by a globe in the centre ; the sun by a flenr-de-lys ; and the moon by a ball painted half black and half white, which turns on its axis, and shews the different phases of that luminary. ALDUS MANUTIUS. [died 1516.] JLT would be difficult to say whether the exer- tions of any individual, however splendid his talents, or even the labours of any p^irticular association, or academy, however celebrated, ever shed so much lustre on the place of their residence as that which Venice derives from the reputation of a stranger, who voluntarily selected it for his abode. I allude to Aldus Manu- Tius. This extraordinary person combined the lights of the scholar, with the industry of the mechanic ; and to his labours, carried on with- out interruption till the conclusion of a long life, the world owes the first or principes editiones of ALDUS MANUTTUS. 23 twenty eight Greek Classics. Among" these we find Pindar, ^schyhis, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus, Thucydides, Demosthenes, Plato, and Aristotle. Besides these, there are few ancient authors of any note, of whom this inde- fatig-able editor has not published editions of acknowledged accuracy, and as far as the means of the art of printings then in its infancy, permitted, of great beauty. In order to appreciate the merit of Aldus, we must consider the difficulties under which he must have laboured at a time when there were few public libraries ; when there was no regular communication between distant cities; when the price of manuscripts put them out of the reach of persons of ordinary incomes ; and when the existence of many since discovered, was utterly unknown. The man who could sur- mount these obstacles, and publish so many authors till then inedited ; who could find means and time to give new and more accurate editions of so many others already published, and accom- pany them all with prefaces mostly of his own composition ; who could extend his attention still farthei- and by his labours secure the fame, by immortalizing the compositions of the most distinguished scholars of his own age and country, must have been endowed in a very high degree, not only with industry and perseverance, but with judgment, learning, and discrimination. One virtue more, Aldus possessed in common 24 BOTTLES OF SKIN. with many of the great literary characters of that period, I mean, a sincere and manly piety, a virtue which gives consistency, vigour, and permanency to every good quality, and never fails to communicate a certain grace and dignity to the whole character. BOTTLES OF SKIN. JL HE Ancients made use of bottles of skin to hold their wine, as is usual in many countries to this day. Thus Homer mentions wine being brought in a (joaCs skin. (U. II. iii. line 247. Odys. VI.line78, IX. line 196, 212) Herodotus (ii. 121,) mentions skins being filled with wine. AndMaundrell in his Travels to Jerusalem, speak- ing of the Greek Convent at Bellmount, near Tripoli, in Syria, says, *' The same person whom we saw officiating at the altar in his embroidered sacerdotal robe, brought us the next day on his own back, a kid, and a goat's skin of wine as a present from the Convent.'* ENGLISH SLAVE TRADE. 25 ENGLISH SLAVE TRADE. xjL great article of exportation among the Anglo-Saxons was Slaves, in which kind of traffic, the Northumbrians in particular, were very famous, amongst whom this trade continued, according to William of Malmesbury, for some time after the conquest. The people of Bristol were also very much employed in the Slave Trade, which they pursued with such eagerness, that they frequently spared not their nearest re- lations ; but at length they were prevailed upon by the preaching and exhortation of Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, who possessed that See at the time of the Conquest, to quit such a barba- rous and inhuman traffic. In the history of the Saxon period there is frequent mention of living money, in contradis- tinction to coins of gold, silver, &c. This liv- ing money consisted of slaves and cattle of all sorts, which according to the value fixed upon them by law, were equally current with gold or silver in the payment of debts. In Domesday Book it is said that in the Borough of Lewes, four-pence was to be paid to the Portreeve for every man sold within that borough. E 26 OLIVER Cromwell's wife. The Monks were forbid by an ancient Canon to manumit their slaves, and this unhappy race of men seems to have been longer perpetuated on the estates of the Monasteries than elsewhere, for in the survey of Glastonbury Abbey taken after the dissolution, there is mention of "271 bond- men, whose bodies and goods were at the King's Highnesses pleasure." OLIVER CROMWELL'S WIFE. JL HE two following notable instances of this Lady's niggardliness are taken from a very scarce little book intitled '* The Court and Kitchen of Elizabeth Cromwell," &c. printed in 1664. <* The first, was the very next summer after Oliver's coming" to the Protectorate in 1651. In June, at the very first season of green pease, where a poor country woman living some where about London, having a very early but small quantity in her garden, was advised to gather them and carry them to the Lady Protectress; her counsellors conceiving she would be very liberal in her reward, they being the first of that year ; accordingly the poor woman came to the Strand ; aud having her pease amounting to a peck and a h(dr, in a basket, a cook by the Savoi/ as she OLIVER Cromwell's wife. 27 passed, either seeing* or guessing' at them, demand- ed the price, and upon her silence offered her an ang-el (a coin so called) for them, but the woman expecting some greater matter, went on her w^ay to Whitehall, where after much ado, she was directed to her chamber, and one of her maids came out, and understanding it was a present and a rarity, carried it in to the Protectress, who out of her princely munificence sent her a crown, which the maid toki into her hand ; the woman seeing this baseness, and the frustration of hey hopes, and remembering withal what the cook had proffered her, threw hack the money into ths maid's hands, and desired her to fetch her back her pease, for that she was offered five shillings more for them before she brought them thither^ and could go fetch it presently ; and so half slight- ingly and half ashamedly, this great lady returned her present, putting it off with a censure upon the unsatisfactory daintiness of luxurious and prodigal epicurism. The very same pease were afterwards sold by the woman to the said cook, who is yet alive (that is in 1G64) to justify the truth of this relation. " The other is of a later date. Upon Oliver's rupture with the Spaniards, the commodities of Spain grew very scarce, and the prices of them raised by such as could procure them under- hand. Among the rest of these goods, the fruits of the growtli of that country were very rare E 2 28 SHAKESPEARE. and dear, especially oranges and lemons. One day as the Protector was private at dinner he called for an orange to a loin of veal, to which he used no other sance, and urofinix the same com- mand, was answered by his wife, that Oranges were oranges now ; that crab oranges would cost a groat, and for her part she never intended to give it ; and it was presently whispered that sure her Highness was never the adviser of the Spanish war : and that his Highness would have done well to have consulted his digestion, before his lusty and inordinate appetite of dominion and riches in the West Indies.'' SHAKESPEARE, i HE following ingenious reasons are assigned by Mr. Charles Butler, in his " Memoirs of the English Catholics,'' as grounds for a belief that Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. ** May the Writer premise a suspicion, which from internal evidence, he has long entertained, that Shakespeare was a Roman Catholic. Not one of his works contains the slightest reflections on Popery, or any of its practices ; or any eulogy of the Reformation. His panegyric on Queen Elizabeth is cautiously expressed; whilst Queen Catherine is placed in a state of veneration ; and SHAKESPEARE. , 29 nothing can exceed the skill with which Griffith draws the panegyric of Wolsey. The Ecclesi- astic is never presented by Shakespeare in a degrading" point of view. The jolly Monk, the irreg-ular Nun, never appear in his Drama. Is it not natural to suppose, that the topics, on which at that time, those who criminated Popery loved so much to dwell, must have often solicited his notice, and invited him to employ his muse upon them, as subjects likely to engage the favourable attention both of the Sovereign and the subject? Does not his abstinence from these justify a sus- picion, that a Popish feeling with-held him from them. Milton made the Gunpowder Conspiracy the theme of a regular Poem. Shakespeare is altogether silent on il,'^ The Editor of the Morning Chronicle has given a short comment on the above Para- graph : " We will only oppose" says he, " a single observation to Mr. Butler's suspicion. Shakespeare was buried at his own desire in a Protestant Church, with this rather curious In- scription, which we recommend to Mr. Butler's perusal : Good Friend for Jesu's sake forbear To dig the dust inclosed here. Blest be the man that spares these stones. And curst be he that moYCS my bones." so SHAKESPEARE. The Editor of the Morning Chronicle does^ not give his authority for stating that Shakespeare was buried hi/ his own desire in a Protestant Church. The poet, in his will, does not express any desire about being buried in any particular place, and being buried in a Protestant Church, neither proves one thing nor another respecting his religion. It is no proof that he was a Pro- testant because he was buried in a Protestant Church, even if it were clearly shewn that it was by his own desire ; neither is it any proof that he was not a Roman Catholic because he was buried in a Protestant Church. Let us ask the Editor of the M. C. where the Catholics of Shakespeare's time could bury their dead but in Protestant Churches, or in consecrated ground belonging to Protestant Churches ? The inscription which the Editor of the M. C. mentions to have been placed upon Shakespeare's tomb, certainly does not prove any more respect- ing his religion than does his being buried in a Protestant Church. It has been observed with a high degree of probability that the inscription in question alludes to the custom which was then in use of removing skeletons after a certain time, and depositing them in Charnel Houses. Similar execrations are found in many ancient Latin Epitaphs. It is one of tlie observations of Mr. Butler, in proof of his suspicion, that Shakespeare was a UNIVERSITY DEGREES. ol RoQian Catholic, that the poet has not eulogized the Reformation. In the speech (play of Henry Vlll. scene the last) which Archbishop Cran- mer makes at the christening* of the Princess Elizabeth, Shakespeare puts into the Prelate's mouth these prophetic words — '^ In her days '^ God shaU be truly known" . . , which appear evidently to infer that in the Roman Catholic times God was not truly known, but that the Reformation, so eminently promoted by Queen Elizabeth, had brought forth light and truth. Mr. Butler seems to have overlooked these lines, and the inference that may be drawn from them, namely, that Shakespeare was Qiot a Roman Catholic. The author of a Tragedy, recently published, entitled '* Moscow," says (p. 67.) that *' he has discovered that Shakespeare was a Free-Mason. Let every brother of the third degree, therefore SEARCH the works of the immortal bard, and he will find the truth of the above assertion.'* UNIVERSITY DEGREES. XT does not appear that there were any degrees in either the Greek or Roman academies ; the only distinction was that of masters and scholars. 32 UNIVERSITY DEGREES. The first seminaries of learning among christians were the cathedral churches and monasteries, but in process of time the schools belonging to them were regulated, and men of learning opened others in places where they could find protection and encouragement. Hence the ori- gin of universities, which at first were merely a collection of those schools, to which Princes and great men gave liberal endowments, and granted particular immunities and privileges. Degrees were not conferred till the universities were in- corporated ; a circumstance extremely probable, when we recollect that all civil honours must be derived from the supreme magistrate. The most ancient degrees were those of Ba- chelor and Master of Arts. Before the existence of a certain statute, which obliged the theologists to be regents in arts previously to their ascending the chair of Doctor, they were only students, and bachelors, or master^ of divinity, without reading the arts. At that time the degrees in arts were lield in such estimation, as to be thought superior to that of doctor in any other faculty. The degree of Doctor was not known in England till the time of Henry 11. It after- wards became common, and was taken not only by Professors of Divinity, Law, and Medicine, but by those of Grammar, Music, Philosophy, Arts, &c. As the Doctors of those profes- sions, however, seldom obtained great honour or GUY CARLETON. 33 riches, this degree decliaed and fell into neg- lect. That of Music is the only one which has survived. GUY CARLETON, LORD DORCHESTER. TT HEN General Wolfe was appointed to the Command of the Land Forces destined to act against Canada, in 1759, Mr. Pitt, then Secre- tary of State, told him, that as he could not give him so many troops as he wanted for the Expe- dition, he would make it up to him in the best manner he could, by allowing him the appoint- ment of all his Officers. Accordingly the General sent in a list, in which was the name of Lieutenant-Colonel Carleton, whom he had put down as Quarter-Master-General. This Officer, who had been Aide-de-Camp to the Duke of Cumberland during the campaign in Germany, in 1757, had unfortunately made himself obnox- ious to George the Second, by some unguarded expressions relating to the Hanoverian Troops, and which had by some officious person been re- ported to the King. Lord Ligonier, then Com- mander in Chief of the Forces, took General Wolfe's list to his Majesty for his approbation, M GUY CARLETON. when the King having looked over it, made some objections in pointed terms, to Colonel Carleton*s name, and refused to sign his commission. Lord Ligonier reported the King's objections and refusal to Mr Pitt, who immediately sent his Lordship a second time to his Majesty with no better success. Mr. Pitt then suo^-o^ested that his Lordship should go again, which he refused, on which Mr. Pitt told him, that unless he went to the King and got Colonel Carleton's commis- sion signed he should lose his place. Lord Ligonier then went a third time to the King, and represented to him the peculiar state of the ex- pedition, and that in order to make the General completely responsible for every part of his con- duct, it was necessary that the officers employed under him should be those who enjoyed his entire and perfect confidence, so that, if he did not suc- ceed, he might not accuse the Government at home with putting under him officers who, either by incapacity, want of energy, or inactivity, ishould thwart his commands, and thus paralyse the most skilful arrangements. The King list- ened to his Lordship's reasons with a favourable ear, and his resentment against Colonel Carleton, was so completely disarmed, that he immediately signed the commission under which that Officer accompanied General Wolfe as Quarter-Master- General of his army. FIGS. 35 FIGS. JD IGS have from the earliest times been reck- oned among- the delights of the palate. Moses, in the Pentateuch, enumerates among* the praises of the promised land, (Deut. viii. 8.) that it was a '' Land of Fig Trees" The Athenians valued figs at least as highly as the Jews. Alexis (in the Deipnosophists) calls figs " Food for the Gods." Pausanias says that the Athenian, Phytalus, was rewarded by Ceres for his hospitality, with the gift of the first fig- tree. Some foreign guest, no doubt, transmitted to him the plant, which he introduced into Attica, It succeeded so well there, that Athenseus brings forward Lynceus and Antiphanes vaunting the figs of Attica as the best on the earth. Horapollo, or rather his commentator Bolzair, says that when the master of a house is going a journey he hangs out a broom of fig-boughs for good luck. By one of the laws of Solon all the products of the earth were forbidden to be exported from Athens ; under this law the exportation of figs was prohibited, and it is from this circumstance we have the word sycophant from the Greek ; those who violated this law were subject to a heavy penalty, and the informer against the f2 SG FIGS. delinquents was called a sycophant from the ori- ginal word literally meaning- an ** exhibiter of figs," as thereby substantiating his charge. The name was afterward more extensively applied, and is now associated with the ideas of meanness, servility, and calumny. A taste for figs marked the progress of refine- ment in the Roman Empire. In Cato's time but six sorts of figs were known; in Pliny's twenty-nine. The sexual system of plants seems first to have been observed in the fig tree. Pliny in his Natural History alludes to this under the term caprification. In modern times the esteem for figs has been more widely diffused ; when Charles the 5th visited Holland in 1540, a Dutch merchant sent him, as the greatest delicacy which Zuricksee could offer, a plate of figs. The gracious Emperor dispelled for a moment the fogs of the climate by declaring, that he had never eaten figs in Spain with more pleasure. Carter praises the figs of Malaga ; Tournefort those of Marseilles ; Ray those of Italy -, Brydone those of Sicily -, Dumont those of Malta ; Browne those of Thessaly 3 Pocock those of Mycone ; De la Mourtraye those of Tenedos and Mitylene ; Chandler those of Smyrna; Maillet those of Cairo; and Lady Mary Wortley Montague those of Tunis. What less can be inferred from this conspiring testimony than that wherever there is a ^g there is a feast? FRUITS. 37 It remains for Jamaica, and the contiguous Islands, to acquire that celebrity for the growth of figs, which yet attaches to the Eastern Archi- pelago ; to learn to dry them as in the Levant, and to supply the desserts of the English tables. FRUITS, CULTIVATED AT ROME IN THE TIME OF PLINY, THAT ARE NOW GROWN IN OUR ENGLISH GARDENS. Apples. The Romans had twenty-two sorts of Apples. Sweet Apples (melimala) for eating, and others for cookery. They had one sort without kernels. [Eugene Aram, in his collections for a diction- ary of the Celtic language, says that the name of the Apple Tree is a corruption of *' Apollo's Tree." — ** And that this is its original, will be easily deducible from a little reflection on the proofs in support of it. The prizes in the sacred games were the Olive Crown, Apples, Parsley, and the Pine. Lucian, in his Book of Games, affirms that Apples were the reward in the Sacred Games of Apollo ; and Curtius asserts the same thing. It appears also that the Apple Tree was consecrated to Apollo before the Laurel ; for both Pindar and Callimachus observe that Apollo 38 FRUITS. did not put on the Laurel until after his conquest of the Python, and that he appropriated it to himself on account of his passion for Daphne, to whom the laurel was sacred. The Victor's wreath at first was a bough with its apples hanging- upon it, sometimes with a branch of laurel ; and anti- quity united these together as the reward of the Victor in the Pythian games.] Apricots. Pliny says of the Apricot (Armeniaca) quce sola et odore commendantur. He arranges them among his plums. — Martial valued them but little, as appears by his epigram, xiii. 46. [The Apricot, we are told came originally from Armenia, whence its name Armeniaca* Wolfe, gardener to King Henry the 8th, first introduced Apricots into England. Tusser mentions the Apricot in his list of fruits cultivated here in 1573.] Almonds — were abundant, both bitter and sweet. [The Almond was introduced into Eng- land in 1570 ; it is not, however, in Tusser's list of fruits cultivated herein 1573.] Cherries — were introduced into Rome in the year of the city 680, B. C. 73, and were carried thence to Britain 120 years after, A. D. 48. The Romans had eight kinds, a red one, a black one, a kind so tender as scarce to bear any carriage, a hard fleshed one (duracina) like our bigarreau, a small one with a bitterish flavour FRUITS. 39 (laurea) like our little wild black, also a dwarf one, the tree bearing* which did not exceed three feet in height. [Cherries are said to have come originally from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, from which Lucullas brought them into Italy, after the Mithridatic War. They so generally pleased at Rome, and were so easily propagated in all climates into which the Romans extended their arms, that within the space of a hundred years, they had become common. It has been erroneously sup- posed that Cherries were first introduced into this country by Richard Haynes, fruiterer to King Henry the eighth, who planted them at Teynham, in Kent, whence they had the name of Kentish cherries; but Lydgate who wrote his poem called *' Lickpenny" before the middle of the fifteenth century, or probably before the year 1415, mentions them in the following lines, as being commonly sold at that time by the hawkers in the streets of London : '^ Hot pcscode oon began to cry, '^ Straberys rype, and cherreys in the ryse." Ryce, rice, or ris, properly means a long branch ; and the word is still used in that sense in the West of England. Dr. B alley n shews there were plenty of good native cherries at Ketteringham, near Norwich ; pears, called the Blackfriars, iu and about that 40 FRUITS. city; and excellent grapes at Blaxhall in Suffolk, where he was rector from 1550 to 1554.] Chesnuts. — The Romans had six sorts, some more easily separated from the skin than others, and one with a red skin. They roasted them as we do. [The chesnut, castanea, is a native of the South of Europe, and is said to take its name from Castanea, a city of Thessaly, where anciently it grew in great plenty. Gerard says that in his time there were several woods of chesnuts in England, particularly one near Feversham, in Kent ; and Fitz- Stephen, in a description of London, written by him in Henry the second's time, speaks of a very noble forest which grew on the north side of it. This tree grows some- times to an amazing size. There is one at Lord Ducie's at Tortworth, in the county of Gloucester, which measures 19 yards in circumference, and is mentioned by Sir Robert Atkyns, in his His- tory of that County, as a famous tree in King John's time ; and by Mr. Evelyn in his Sylva, to have been so remarkable for its magnitude in the reign of King Stephen, as then to be called the great chesnut of Tortworth; from which it may be reasonably supposed to have been standing before the conquest. Lord Ducie had a drawing of it taken and engraved in 1772. Formerly a great part of London was built with chesnut and walnut timber. FRUITS. 41 The Horse Chesnnt was brought from the northern parts of Asia into Europe, about the year 1550, and was sent to Vienna, about the year 1558. From Vienna it migrated into Italy and France : but it comes to us from the Levant immediately. Gerard in his Herbal, printed in 1597, speaks of it only as a foreign Tree. In Johnson's edition of the same Work printed in 1(383, it is said, " Horse Chesnut groweth in Italy, and in sundry places of the East Country; it is now growing with Mr. Tradescant at South Lambeth.** Parkinson says " our Christian World had first the knowledge of it from Con- stantinople." — The same Author places the Horse Chesnut in his Orchard, as a fruit tree between the Walnut and the Mulberry. How little it was then known, 1629, may be inferred from his saying not only that it is of a greater and more pleasant aspect, for the fair leaves, but also of a good use for the fruit, which is of a sweet taste, roasted and eaten as the ordinary sort. — This tree does not seem to have been so common a hundred years ago as it is now. Mr. Hough- ton (1700) mentions some at Sir William Ashhurst*s at Highgate, and especially at the Bishop of London's at Fulham. Those now standing at Chelsea College were then very young. There was also a very fine one in the Pest-house garden near Old-Street, and another not far from the Ice-house under the shadow of the Observatory in Greenwich Park. 42 FRUITS, Figs. — The Romans had many sorts of figs, black and white, large and small ; one as large as a pear, another no larger than an olive. [The tig has been cultivated in England ever since 1562. It is omitted by Tasser in his list of fruits cultivated in our gardens. Cardinal Pole is said to have imported from Italy that tree, which is still growing in the garden of the Arch- bishop's palace at Lambeth. It is the oldest ^g tree that is known in this kingdom. In the Percy Household-book, the person who had the charge of providing for the consumption and use of the Earl of Northumberland's numerous family, was ordered to purchase four coppets of figs, for which he was to pay twenty pence for each coppet. This quantity was to serve for one year. Medlars. — The Romans had two kinds of medlars, the one larger, and the other smaller. Mulberries. — The Romans had two kinds of the black sort, a larger and a smaller. Pliny speaks also of a mulberry growing on a briar: Nascuutur et in ruhis, (1. xv. sect. 27) but whe- ther this means the raspberry, or the common blackberry, does not appear. [The mulberry, Morus, is a native of Persia, whence it was introduced into the southern parts of Europe, and is commonly cultivated in England, Germany, and other countries where the winters are not very severe. " We are informed," says Forsyth in his treatise on fruit trees, " that mul- berries were first introduced into this country in FRUITS. 4^ 1596 ; but I have reason to believe that they were brought hither previous to that period, as many old trees are to be seen standing at this day about the sites of ancient abbeys and monaste- ries, from which it is at least probable that they had been introduced before the dissohition of religious houses. Four large mulberry trees are still standing on the site of an old kitchen garden, now part of the pleasure-ground, at Sion House, which, perhaps may have stood there ever since that house was a monastery. The first Duke of Northumberland has been heard to say, that these trees were above 300 years old. At the Priory near Stanmore, Middlesex, (the seat of the Mar- quis of Abercorn) there are also some ancient Mulberry trees. The Priory was formerly a religious house. Gerard in his description of the mulberry tree has the following curious paragraph : " Hexan- der in Athenaeus affirmeth, that the mulberry trees in his time did not bring forth fruit in twenty years together ; and that so great a plague of the gout reigned and raged so generally, as not only men, but boys, and women were troubled with that disease." Tusser, in his list of fruits cultivated in Eng- land in J 573 enumerates the Mulberry. — Gerard, who published his history of plants in 1597, says in that book, that Mulberry Trees thea grew in sundry gardens in England.] G 2 44 FRUITS. NtJTS. — The Romans had Hazel Nuts and Fil herds. They roasted these Nuts. Pjears. — Of these the Romans had many sorts, both Summer and Winter Fruit, melting and hard ; they had more than thirty six kinds, some were called Libralia, We have our Pound Pear. [Pliny mentions twenty kinds of this fruit, and Virgil five or six. ^lian describmg the most ancient food of several nations, reports that at Argos they fed chiefly upon Pears. Tusser, states that ** Pears of all sorts" were cultivated here in his time. The Arms of Warden Abbey, in Bedfordshire, as given by Tanner, are Argent, Three Pears, Or. — Quere, if these are the species called Wardens, or if they are peculiar to that part of Enofland. The Warden Pear is common in Yorkshire. Plums. — The Romans had a multiplicity of sorts (ingens turba prunorum) black, white, and variegated ; one sort was called asinia, from its cheapness ; another damascena ; this had much stone and little flesh : from Martiafs Epigram, xiii. 29, we may conclude that it was what we now call prunes. [The Plum is generally supposed to be a native of Asia, and the Damascene (Damson) to take its name from Damascus, a city of Syria. FRUITS. 45 Tusser enumerates in his list of fruits ** Grene or Grass Plums, and Peer Plums, black and yellow. Lord Cromwell introduced the Perdrigon Plum in the Reign of Henry the seventh.] Quinces. — The Romans had three sorts, one was called Chrysomela, from its yellow flesh. They boiled them with honey as we make mar- malade. See Martial, xiii. 24. [The Quince is called Cydonia, from Cydon, a town of Crete, famous for this fruit. — Tusser mentions it among his fruit-trees, and Gerard says it was cultivated here in his time.] Services. — They had the Apple-shaped, the Pear-shaped, and a small kind, probably the same that we gather wild, the Azarole. [There are three sorts of the Service Tree cul- tivated in England, namely the cultivated Ser- vice ; the Wild Service or Mountain Ash ; and the Maple leaved Service. The first is a native of the warmer climes of Europe ; and the other two grow wild in different parts of England.] Strawberries. — The Romans had Straw- berries, but do not appear to have prized them. The climate is too warm to produce this fruit in perfection unless in the hills. [Tusser enumerates Strawberries, red and white, as being cultivated when he wrote.] Vines. — The Romans had a multiplicity of Vines, both thick-skinned, (duracina,) and thin- 46 , FRUITS. skinned : one Vine growing" at Rome produced 12 Amphorae of juice, equal to 84 gallons. They had round-berried, and long-berried sorts, one so long that it was called dactilydes, the grapes being like the fingers on the hand. Martial (xiii. 22.) speaks favourably of the hard-skinned grape for eating. [In Domesday Book, (1. p. 8. col 1.) there are said to be in the Bishop of Bayeux's Manor of Chert, in the county of Kent, three arpents of Vineyard, and in the Manor of Leeds (1. p. 7. col. 4.) belonging to the same Bishop, two Ar- pents of Vineyard. In several Charters in the " Registrum RofFen- sis" mention is made of the Vineyard belonging to the Monks of Rochester, wherein grew great quantities of grapes ; and which is also, in much later days, said by Worlidge, to have produced excellent wines. Bishop llamon presented some of the wine and grapes of bis own growth, at Hailing, near Rochester, to Edward the second, when at Bockinfold \ and in some old leases of the bishoprick, mention has been found made, of considerable quantities of Blackberries being delivered to the Bishop of Rochester, by sundry of his Tenants, for the purpose of colouring the wine growing in his Vineyard. This gives us some idea of what sort the wine was, and also deserves well to be compared with that ancient usage of making wines in this country, the FRUITS. 47 remembrance whereof is preserved by means of some records of the reign of Henry the third ; amongst which are two precepts, the one (Claus, An. 34. Hen. III.) to the keepers of the king's wines at York, to deliver out to one Robert (de Monte Pessulano) such wines, and as much as he pleased to make ybr the king's use, against the feast of Christmas, ( Claret) such drink, as he used to make in preceding years. The first record says, ad potus regis pretiosos delicatos inde faciendos. The second says, ad Claretum indefaciend, — Ad opus regis sicut annis preteritis facere consuevit» And both may be seen at length in Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, vol. i. p. 11. Perhaps it may not be undeserving notice, that even to the beginning of the eighteenth Century, almost all red wine was, in this country, called Claret. Honey and Mead, constituted a part of the mixture of the royal Norman Claret, and for several ag-es Claret was considered as belonging to the Materia Medica; and formed a part of the old English Apothecaries store of Medicines, preserved in white glazed earthern pitchers, with labelled inscriptions burnt in large blue letters in the ware ; several of which are still preserved. Several other Monasteries and Abbeys, had remarkable Vineyards, as well as Rochester; particularly that of St. Edmund's Bury ; that at Ely ; that at Peterborough ; and even that at Darley Abbey, in Derbyshire ; And indeed most i I 48 FRUITS. of the original Vineyards mentioned are found to have belonged to Abbeys. It is a curious cir- cumstance, and elucidating the prices of the age, that in the time of Henry the third, a Dolium, or cask of the best wine, sold for forty shilling's, and sometimes even for twenty. For an enlarged account of Vineyards in Eng- land see Archseologia, vol. i. p. 321. ; and vol. iii. p. 53. and 67.] Walnuts. — The Romans had soft shelled, and hard shelled, as we have. In the golden age, when men lived upon acorns, the gods lived upon Walnuts, hence the name JnglanSy that is Jovis glans.^^ As a matter of curiosity, it has been deemed Expedient, to add a list of the fruits cultivated in our English Gardens in the year 1573. This list is taken from Tusser's Five hundred points of good Hiishandrg, Thomas Tusser, who had received a liberal education at Eton school, and at Trinity hall, Cambridge, lived many years as a farmer in Suffolk and Norfolk. He afterwards removed to London, where he published in 1557, the first * This article is taken from the first volume of the Tran- sactions of the Horticultural Society, and was communicated by the Right Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. — The additioui, within brackets, arc by the Editor. FRUITS. 49 edition of his work, under the title of *« One hun- dred points of good husbandry.'* In his fourth edition, from which this list is taken, he first introduced the subject of Garden- ing", and has given us not only a list of the fruits, but also of ail the plants then cultivated in our gardens, either for pleasure or profit, under the following heads : — " Seedes and herbes for the kychen, herbes and roots for sallets and sauce, herbes and rootes to boyle or to butter, strewing herbes of all sorts, herbes, branches, and flowers for windowes and pots, herbs to still in summer, necessarie herbes to grow in the gardens for physick not reherst before.'' This list consists of more than 150 species besides the following fruits : — Apple Trees of all sorts — Apricots Barberries — Bullass, black and white Cherries, red and black — Chesnuts — Cornet Plums* Damsons, white and black Filberds, red and white Gooseberries — Grapes, white and red — Green or Grass Plums. Hurtle Berries.| * Probably the fruit of Cornus Mascula, commonly called Cornelian Cherry. + Ilitrtleberries^ the fruit of Vaccinium vitis idea, though no longer cultivated in our gardens, are still esteemed and II 50 ~ FRUITS. Medlars or Merles — Mulberries. Peaches, white and red* — Pears of all sorts Pear Plums, black and yellow. Quince Trees. Rasps — Raisins.f Snaall Nuts — Strawberries, red and white — Service Trees. Wardons, white and red — Walnuts — Wheat Plums. served up at the tables of opulent people in the counties that produce them naturally. They are every year brought to London from the rocky country, near Leath Tower in Surrey, where they meet with so ready a sale among the middle classes of the people, that the richer classes scarcely know that they are to be bought. — They also grow very plentifully on some of the hills and heaths in the counties of Somerset and Devon. * The Yellow fleshed Peachy now uncommon in our gardens, but which was frequent 40 years ago, under the name of the Orange Peach, was called by our ancestors MelicotoH, + By Raisins it is probable that Currants are meant ; the imported fruit of that name of which we make puddings and pies was- called by our ancestors Raisin de Corance. — In the Percy Household Book it is said that 200 pounds of Raisins de Corance should be purchased for the use of the Earl of Northumberland's family, which were to serve one year. PEACOCKS. 51 PEACOCKS. J.NDIA, says Mr. Pennant, gave us Peacocks, and we are assured by Knox, in his History of Ceylon, that they are still found in the wild state, in vast flocks, in that island and in Java. So beautiful a bird could not be permitted to be a stranger in the more distant parts ; for so early as the days of Solomon (1 Kings, x. 22.) we find among the articles imported in his Tarshish navies, Apes and Peacocks. A monarch so con- versant in all branches of natural history, would certainly not neglect furnishing his officers with instructions for collecting every curi -ity 'ii the country to which they made voyages, which gave him a knowledge that distinguished him from all the princes of his time. ^Elian relates that they were brought into Greece from some barbarous country, and that they were held in such hiofh estimation, that a male and female were valued at Athens at 1000 drachm(B, or c£32. 6s. lOcf. Their next step might be to Samos ; where they were preserved about the temple of Juno, being the birds sacred to that goddess ; and Gellius in his Nodes AlliccB commends the ex- cellency of the Samian Peacocks. It is therefore probable that they were brought there originally for the purposes of superstition, and afterwards H 2 52 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. cultivated for the uses of luxury. We are also told, when Alexander was in India, he found vast numbers of wild ones on the banks of the Hyarotis, and was so struck with their beauty, as to appoint a severe punishment on any person that killed them. Peacocks' crests, in ancient times were among the ornaments of the kings of England. Er- nald de Aclent (Acland) paid a fine to king John in a hundred and forty palfries, with sackbuts, lorainSf gilt spurs and peacock's crests, such as would be for his credit. — Some of our regiments of cavalry bear on their helmets, at present, the figure of a peacock. ANCIENT LIBRARIES. ItJLANY events have contributed to deprive us of a great part of the literary treasures of anti- quity. A very fatal blow was given to literature by the destruction of the Phoenician temples and the Egpytian colleges, when those kingdoms and the countries adjacent, were conquered by the Persians, about 350 years before Christ. The Persians had a great dislike to the religion of the Phoenicians and the Egyptians, and this was one reason for destroying their books, of which Euscbius says they had a great number. ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 53 The first celebrated library of antiquity was at Alexandria, and called from thence the Alexandrian library ; it owed its foundation to Ptolemy Soter, king* of Egypt, though his Son Ptolemy Philadelphus enjoys the reputation of being its founder. This was about 284 years before the Christian aera. The palace of Ptolemy Philadelphus was the asylum of learned men whom he admired and patronized. He paid particular attention to Euclid, Theocritus, Callimachus, and Lycophron, and by increasing the library, of which his father had laid the foundation, he shewed his taste for learning and wish to encourage genius. This celebrated library at his death contained 200,000 volumes of the best and choicest books, and it was afterwards increased to 700,(jOO volumes. The method adopted for making this collec- tion was the seizing of all the books that were brought by the Greeks or other foreigners into Egypt, and sending them to Ptolemy, who had them transcribed by persons employed for that purpose. The transcripts were then deli- vered to the proprietors, and the originals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for instance, borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles, Euripides, and ^schylus, and only returned them the copies, which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible ; the originals he retained for his own library, 54 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. presenting" the Athenians with fifteen talents for the exchange, that is, with upwards of cfSjOOO sterling. As the Alexandrian academy was at first in the quarter of the city called Bruchion, the library was placed there, but when the number of books amounted to 400,000 volumes, another library within the Serapeum was erected, by way of supplement to it, and on that account called the daughter of the former. The books lodged in the Serapeum increased to the number of 300,000, and these two made up the number of 700,000 volumes, of which the royal libraries of the Ptolemys were said to consist. In the war which Julias Caesar waged with the inhabitants of Alexandria, the library of Bruchion was accidentally, but unfortunately, burned ; but the library in the Serapeum still remained. The whole was magnificently repaired by Cleopatra, who deposited there the 200,000 volumes, forming the library of the kings of Pergamus, with which she had been presented by Antony. These, and others added to them from time to time, rendered the new library of Alexandria more numerous and considerable than the former, and though it was plundered more than once during the revolutions which happened in the Roman empire, yet it was as frequently supplied M'ith the same number of books, and continued for many ages to be of great fame and ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 55 wse, until it was burnt by the Saracens, in the year 642 of the Christian eera. There was a building adjoining* to this library, called the Museum, for the accommoda- tion of a college or society of learned men, who were supported there at the public expense, and where there were covered walks and seats where they might carry on disputations. The next library of antiquity was that founded at Pergamus, by Eumenes, and considerably in- creased by the literary taste of his wealthy and learned successors, at whose court merit and virtue were always sure of finding an honorable patronage. This library which consisted of 200,000 volumes, was given by Antony to Cleopatra, as has been already mentioned. — Parchment was first invented and made use of at Pergamus to transcribe books upon, as Ptolemy had forbidden the exportation of Papy- rus from Egypt, in order to prevent Eumenes from making a library as valuable and choice as that of Alexandria. The first public library at Rome, and in the world, as Pliny observes, was erected by Asinius Pollio, in the Atrium of the Temple of Liberty on Mount Aventine. Augustus founded a Greek and Latin library in the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, and another in the name of his sister Octavia, adjoining to the Theatre of Marcellus. 56 ANCIENT LIBRARIES. Among" the ancient libraries that of Luculhis; is mentioned by Plutarch in terms of the highest praise. The number of volumes was immense, and they were written in elegant hands. The use he made of them was still more honorable to him than the possession of so much literary treasure. The library of LucuUus was open to all ; the Greeks who were at Rome repaired with pleasure to his galleries and porticos, as to the retreat of the muses, and there spent whole days in conversation upon subjects of literature, delighted to retire to such a scene from other pursuits. LucuUus himself, who was a perfect master of the Greek language often joined and conferred with these learned men in their walks. There were several other libraries at Rome, the chief of which was the Ulpian library, insti- tuted by Trajan, which Dioclesian annexed as an ornament to his baths. One of the most elegant was that of Serenus Samonicus, preceptor of the Emperor Gordian. It is said to have con- tained not less than 60,000 volumes, and that the room in which they were deposited was paved with gilded marble. The walls were ornamented with glass and ivory ; and the shelves, cases, presses, and desks, made of ebony and silver. There were libraries in the capital, in the Temple of Peace, and in the house of Tiberius. Many •)riva e persons had good libraries parti- cularly in their country villas. The Rqmaa ANCIENT LIBRARIES. 57 libraries were in general adorned with statues and pictures, particularly of ing-enious and learned men. Learning- and the arts received a fatal blow by the destruction of the heathen temples, in the reign of Constantine. The devastations then committed, are depicted in the strongest and most lively colours by Mr. Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Many valuable libraries perished by the Bar- barians of the north, who invaded Italy in the fourth and fifth centuries. By these rude hands perished the library of Perseus, king of Macedon, which Paulus iEmilius brought to Rome with its captive owner ; as did also that noble library, just mentioned, established for the use of the public by Asinius Pollio, which was collected from the spoils of all the enemies he had subdued, and was much enriched by him at a great ex- pense. The libraries of Cicero and Lucullns met with the same fate, and those of Julius Caesar, of Augustus, Vespasian, and Trajan also perished, together with that of the Emperor Gordian. 58 KING CHARLES THE FIRST. KING CHARLES THE FIRST. Jl he Journey of Prince Charles (afterwards Charles the First) and the Duke of Buci^ingham to Spain, was considered at the time to be such a piece of knight-errantry as scarcely any age could parallel. Spanheim in his history of Louisa- Juliana, Electress Palatine, naother of the king" of Bohemia, says " that never Prince was more obliged to a sister, than king Charles I. was to the queen of Bohemia; since it was only the consideration of her and her children, who were then the next heirs after him to the Crown of England, that prevailed with the Court of Spain to permit him ever to see England again. Charles the First, though of abstemious habits kept a splendid and hospitable table, at the beginning of his reign. Of this trait in his cha- racter, hitherto unnoticed, the following account affords a sufficient proof. There were daily in his court eighty six tables, well furnished each meal, whereof the king's table had twenty-eight dishes ; the queen's twenty- four ; four other tables sixteen dishes each ; three other ten dishes each ; twelve other had seven dishes each ; seventeen other tables had each of thevas too deeply engaged in studious employments, and in procuring transcripts of useful books, not- withstanding his unwearied assiduity in beautify- ing and enriching their monastery, was in high favour with this munificent prince. The Duke was fond of visiting this monastery, and employed Abbot Whethamstede to collect valuable books for him. Some of Whethamstede' s tracts, manu- script copies of which often occur in our libraries, are dedicated to the Duke, who presented many of them, particularly a fine copy of Whetham- stede's Granarium, an immense w^ork, which Leland calls ingens volumeri to the new library. The copy of Valerius Maximus, mentioned before, has a curious table or index, made by Whetham- stede. Many other Abbots paid their court to the Duke, by sending him presents of books, the margins of which were adorned with the most exquisite paintings. Gilbert Kymer, physician to king Henry the sixth, and holding, among other ecclesiastical preferments, the Deanery of Salisbury and IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 97 Chancellorship of the University of Oxford ; the latter dignity by the recommendatory letters of the Duke, inscribed to the Duke of Gloucester his famous medical system-^ Di€Btarium de Sanitatis Custodia — in the year 1424. Lydgate,* one of the early English poets, trans- lated Boccacio's book, De Casihus Virorum illustrium, at the recommendation and command, and under the protection and superititendance, of Duke Humphrey, whose condescension in conversing with learned ecclesiastics, and dili- gence in study, the translator displays at large,^ and in the strongest expressions of panegyric. He compares the Duke to Julius Caesar, who, amidst the weightier cares of stale, was not * Lydgate was commoaly called the Monk of Bury, because born at that place, about the year 1380. After some time spent in the English Universities, he travelled through France and Italy, in which countries he greatly improved himself. In addition to his poetical talents, he is described as being an eloquent rhetorician, an expert mathe- matician, an acute philosopher, and no mean divine. He is said to have been so much admired by his contemporaries, that they said of him, that his wit was fashioned by the Muses themselves. After his return from France and Italy, he became tutor to the sons of several of the nobility, and for his excellent endowments, was much esteemed and re- verenced by them. He wrote a poem, called The Life and Death of Hector^ some satires, eulogies, and odes, and other learned works in prose. He died in 1440, aged sixty, and was buried in his own convent at Bury. Lydgate is said to have been a disciple of Chaucer. o D8 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS ^\sliuined to enter the rhetorical school of Cicero at Rome. Nor was his pati'onag-e confined only to Eno'lish scholars. His favour was solicited by the most celebrated writers of France and Italy, many of wliom he bountifully rewarded. Leonard Aretin,* one of the first restorers of the Greek tong-ue in Italy, (which language he learned of Emanuel Chrysoloras,f ) and of polite "^' Leonard Aretln, the disciple of Chrysoloras, was a lin- guist, aa orator, and an historian ; the secretary of four successive Popes ; and Chancellor of the Republic of Flo- rence, where he died in 1444, aged seventy-five. He added a Supplement to Livy on the Punic War, and wrote the History of Italy, with other valuable works. T Emanuel Chrysoloras was one of the envoys sent by the Greek Emperor Manuel, at the end of the fourteenth century, to implore the compassion of the Western Princes. He was not only conspicuous for the nobleness of his birth but also for the extent of his learning. After visiting the coucts of France and England, in furtherance of his mission, he was invited to assume the office of a Professor, and Florence had the honour of this invitation, as it had had a few years previously that of the first Greek Professor Leo Pilatus, whose mind was stored with a treasure of Greek learning, with whom history and fable, philosophy and grammar, were alike familiar, and who first read the Poems of Homer in the Scliools of Florence. Chrysoloras may be couhiidcrcd as the founder of the Greek language in Italy, and his knowledge not only of the Greek, but of the Latin tongue, surpassed the expectation of the Florentine republic. At the same time and place, the Latin classics were explain, ed by John of Ravenna, the domestic pupil of the celebra- ted Petrarch. The Italians, who illustrated their ag« and IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. W literature in g'eneral, dedicates to this uiuversal patron his elegant Latin translation of Aristotle's Politics, The copy presented to the Duke by the translator^ most elegantly illuminated, is now in the Bodleian library. To the same noble encourager of learning, Petrus Candidus, the friend of Laurentius Valla,* country, were formed in this double school, and Florence became the fruitful seminary of Greek and Roman erudilioii. Chrysoloras was recalled by the Emperor from the college to the court, but he afterwards taught at Pavia and Rome wif ii equal industry and applause. He died at Constance on ar public mission from the Emperor to the council. Gibbon's Hist, Tol. 12. p. 126. * Laurentius Valla, was a natire of Placenza, where he was born in 1415; he revived the Latin language from gothic barbarity, but he was a rigorous critic. He fell under the displeasure of the Church cf Rome, for the freedom ■with which he hazarded his opinions respecting some of its doctrines, and he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved- by Alphonsus, king of Naples. Pope Nicholas the fifth, who was himself one of the greatest encouragers of learning of his time, and who highly respected the talents of Valla, invited him to Rome, and gave him a pension. ^ — This Pope, whose pursuits were in direct association with our present subject, from a plebeian origin, raised himself by his virtue and his learning to the highest honours of the Church. The character of the man prevailed over the interest of the Pontiff, and he sharpened those weapons which were soon pointed against the religion of Rome, lie had been the friend of the most eminent scholars of the age, and after his elevation to the chair of St. Peter, he became their patron. Under Pope Nicholas, the influence of the Ifoly See pervaded Christendom, O 2 100 ACCOUNT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, OR WRITING ROOMS and secretary to the g-reat Cosmo, Duke of Milan, inscribed by the advice of the Archbishop of Milan, a Latin version of Plato's Republic, An ilkiminated manuscript of this translation is in the British Museum, perhaps the copy presented, with two epistles from the Duke to Petrus Candidus. Petrus de Monte, another learned Italian of Venice, in the dedication of his treatise — De Virtuium et VUiorum differentia — to the Duke of Gloucester, mentions the latter's ardent attach- ment to books of all kinds, and the singular avidity vi'ith which he pursued every species of literature. A tract entitled Comparatio Studiorum et Rei 3Iilitaris, written by Lopus de Castellione, a Florentine civilian, and a great translator into and he exerted that influence in the search, not of benefices, but of books. From the ruins of the Byzantine librariesy from the darkest monasteries of Germany and Britain, he collected the dusty manuscripts of the writers of antiquity ; and whenerer the original could not be removed, a faithful copy was transcribed and transmitted for his use. The Vatican was daily replenished with precious furniture, and such was his industry, that in a reign of eight years, he formed a library of five thousand volumes. To his munifi. cence the Latin world was indebted for the versions of Xeno. phon, Diodorus, Polybius, Thucydides, Herodotus, and Appian ; of Strabo*s Geography, of the Iliad, of the more valuable works of Plato and Aristotle, of Ptolemy, and Theophrastus, and of the Father! of the Greek Church. IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 101 Latin of the Greek classics, is also inscribed to the Duke at the desire of Zeno, archbishop of Bayeux. It must not be forgotten that our illustrious Duke invited into England the learned Tito Livio of Foro-Juli, whom he naturalized and constituted his poet and orator. He also retained learned foreigners in his service, for the purpose of transcribing, and of translating from Greek into Latin. One of these was Antonio de Beccaria, a Veronese, who translated into Latin prose the Greek poem of Dionysms Afer de Situ Orhis ; whom the Duke also employed to tran- slate into Latin six tracts of Athanasius. This translation, inscribed to the Duke, is now among the royal manuscripts in the British Museum, and at the end, in his own hand-writing, is the following insertion : — " C'est Livre est a moi Homphrey Due le Gloucestre : le quel je fis translater de grec en latin par un de mes secre- taires Antoyne de Beccara ne de Verone." An astronomical tract, entitled, by Leland, Fahulce Directionum, is erroneously supposed to have been written by Duke Humphrey. But it was compiled at the Duke's instance, and accord- ing to tables which he had himself constructed^ called by the anonymous author in his preface, Tabulas lUnstrissimi principis et nobilissimiDomini mei, Humfredi, ^c. In the library of Gresham College, however, there is a scheme of calcula- tions in astronomy, which bears his name. 102 ACCOUNT OFTHE SCRIPTORIA,OR WRITING ROOMS Astronomy was then a favourite science ; nor is it to be doubted that he was intimately acquainted with the politer branches of knowledge which now began to acquire estimation, and which his liberal and judicious attention g-reatly contributed to restore. King- Edward the fourth and Henry the seventh greatly assisted the cause of learning, by the encouragement they gave to the art of printing in England, and by purchasing such books as w^ere printed in other countries. William War- ham, archbishop of Canterbury, purchased many valuable Greek manuscripts which had been brought hither by the prelates and others after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. King Henry the eighth may justly be called the founder of the royal library, which was en- riched with the manuscripts selected from the scriptoria and libraries of the principal monas- teries, by that indefatigable antiquary John Leland. Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, enriched the library of the college of Corpus Christi, with a great number of ancient and curi- ous manuscripts. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Bodley greatly increased the public library at Oxford, which is now called by his name. This great benefactor to the literature of his country, IN THE MONASTERIES OF ENGLAND. 103 ■quitted the court, and applied himself wholly to the purchasing" of books and manuscripts both at home and abroad. By these means he had the satisfaction of furnishing that library with 1294 manuscripts, which by the subsequent liberality of many great and illustrious persons, has been since increased to more than eight thousand volumes, including the manuscripts given by Tanner, Bishop of Norwich, and the valuable library bequeathed by the will of Dr. Richard Rawlinson, Considerable augmentations were made to the libraries of the several colleges in the two univer- sities, as also to those of our cathedral churches, the palace at Lambeth, the Inns of Court, the College of Arms, and others ; catalogues of which were published at Oxford in 697 under the title of Catalogus Manuscriptorum Anglioe et Hihernice. Bodley's great contemporary. Sir Robert Cotton, is also entitled to the gratitude of posterity for his diligence in collecting the Cottonian library ; he was engaged in the pursuit of manu- scripts and records upwards of forty years, during which time he spared neither trouble nor expense. The noble manuscript library founded by Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, and greatly en- riched by his son Edward, who inherited his father^s love of science, claims a distinguished place in every account which may be given of J 04 ACCOU^IT OF THE SCRIPTORIA, &c. the literary treasures of antiquity in general, and of this country in particular. Posterity will ever be indebted to her grace the Duchess Dowager of Portland, for securing this inestimable treasure of learning to the public, by authority of Parlia- ment, under the guardianship of the most distin- guished persons of the realm, both for rank and abilities, whose excellent regulations have made this library, as also the Royal, Cottonian,Sloanian, and others, now deposited in the British Museum, easy of access, and consequently of real use to the philosopher, tl;ie statesman, the historian, the scholar, and the artist.'* * For an account of the following Manuscript Libraries in England, see Savagel's Librarian, 5 toIs. London, 1 SOS- IS 10 — namely, that of the British Museum, in vol. 1. p. 26 ; of the Royal Society, p. 71 ; of the Heralds Office, p. 73 ; of the Society of Antiquaries, p. 129 ; of the Archbishop of Canterbury's at Lambeth Palace, p. 133 ; of Lincoln's Inn, p. 183, 225 ; of the Middle Temple, p. 273; of the Inner Temple, toI. 2. p. 131 ; of the Lansdown Collectioti 6f Manuscripts, toI. 1. p. 34, and vol. 3. p. 27, and of the Cottonian Manuscripts, vol. 3. p. 31. The curious reader who is interested in the history of the public records of his country, ^vill find in the same volumes, the Report of the Committee of the House of Commons on the State of the Records, in vol. 1. p. 17, SfC — an accduot of the Records in th6 Tower of London, vol. 2. p. 34, &c. of those in the Rolls Chapel, ibid. p. 185, &c. and of those in the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey, vol. 8. p. 41, &c. TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 105 TORTURE IN ENGLAND.* J.N the reign of King- Henry the Sixth, the Rack or Brake, was placed in the Tower of London, by the Duke of Exeter, when he and the Earl of Suffolk had formed the design of in- troducinof the Civil Law into Eng^land. It was called '^ Exeter's daughter,'* and remained after- wards in the Tower, " where it was occasionally used as an Engine of Slate, more than once in the reicjn of Elizabeth,'" Though the use of the Rack does not appear to have been known in this country until the 26th year of Henry the Sixth, and though it was never authorized by the law, yet to borrow the expression of Mr. Justice Blackstone, it was occasionally used as an " Engine of State," to extort confession from State Prisoners confined in the Tower, from the time of its introduction, until finally laid aside in consequence of the decision of the judges in Fel ton's case. One Hawkins was tortured-f in the reign of Henry the Sixth ; and the case of Anne Askew,f in that of * Vide Serjeant Heywood's Vindication of Mr. Fox's History of James the Second, p. 397. + Fuller's Worthies, p. 317. X There is a small book, printed in black letter, contain- ing an account of the treatment and trial of Anne Askew, ■which contains many curious particulars, — She was the P 1D6 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. Henry the Eig-lith,* cannot escape the recollec- tion of every reader of English history. The Lord Chancellor Wriothesely (1 blush for the honour and humanity of an English Judg-e while I ^vrite his name) went to the Tower to take her examination, and upon the Lieutenant's refusing to draw the cords tighter, drew them himself till every limb was dislocated, and her body nearly torn asunder. In Mary's reign several persons were racked in order to extort con- fessions, which was upon account of Sir Thomas Wyat's rebellion. And Barrmgton mentions that in Oldmixon's History of England (p. 284,) one Simpson is said to have been tortured in 15o8, and a confession extorted. In the beginning of the reign of Elizabeth, f the daughter of Sir William Askew, of Kclsay, in the countj of Lincoln, where she was born about 1520. She had a learned education, and while young was married to a person of the name of K) me, much against her inclination. On account of some harsh treatment from her husband, she went to the Court of Henry the Eighth to sue for a separation, where she was greatly taken notice of by those ladies who were attached to the Reformation; inconsequenceof which, she was arrested, and having confessed her religious principles, was committed to Newgate. She was first racked with savage cruelty in the Tower, and then burnt in Smithficld, in 1546, in company with iier tutor, and two other persons of the same faith. From her letters and other pieces in P'ox and Strype, it appears she was an accomplished, as well as a pious, woman. * Burnet's Reformation, vol. 1. p. 323 ; vol. 2. p. 382. + Collier's Eccl. Hist. vol. 2. p. 591.--Murden's State Papers, p. 9, 101. » TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 107 Rack was used upon offenders ag-ainst the State, and amon^ others, upon Francis Throgmorton ; in 1571, upon Charles Baillie an attendant upon the Bishop of Ross, Mary's ambassador, and upon Banastre, one of the Duke of Norfolk's servants ; and Barker, another of his servants was brought to confess by extreme fear of it. In 1581, Campion, the Jesuit, was put upon the rack,* and in 1585, Thomas Morgan writes to the Queen of Scots, that he has heard D. Atslow was racked in the Tower, twice about the Earl of Arundel. This is the last instance of the actual application of torture to extort confession. For the greater part of this reign the applica- tion of torture in the examination of State offenders seems to have been in common use, and its legality not disputed. Mr. Daines Barrington says,"!* that among the manuscript papers of Lord Ellesmere, is a copy of instructions to him, as Lord President of the Marches, to use the torture on the taking of some examinations at Ludlow ; and Sir Edward Coke himself, J in the year 1600, (the 43d of Elizabeth's reign) then being Attorney General, at the trials of the Earls of Essex and Southampton, boasted of the clemency of the * Collier's Eccl. Hist. toI. 2. p. 139.— Murden's State Papers, p. 452. + Observations on Ancient Statutes, p. 496, ntie, X State Trials, vol. 1. p. 199. p2 108 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. Queen, because, though the rebellious attempts were so exceedingly heinous, yet out of her princely mercy " no person was racked, tortured, , or pressed to speak any thing further than of their I own accord/* And in the Countess of Shrews- bury'^case (10 James 1st) when Sir Edward was ' Chief Justice, in enumerating the privileges of the I . nobility, he mentions as one, that their bodies were I not subject to torture m causa criminis Icesce majes- \ talis, Barrington justly observes* there was a re- I gular establishment for torture, for at his trial, f in I the first year of James the first, SirWalter Raleigh stated that Kemish had been threatened with the rack, and the keeper of the instrument sent for. SirWilliam Wade, who, with the Solicitor General had taken his examination, denied it, but ad- mitted they had told him he deserved it, and I Lord Howard declared, ** Kemish was never on I the rack, the king gave charge that no rigour should j he usecV Barrington mentionsj that Sir John Hay ward, the historian, was threatened with the rack, which Dr. Granger confirms ; and the former also re- I marks that it is stated in King James's works, that I the rack was shewn to Guy Faukes when under I examination. I * Observations on Statutes, p. 495. I + State Trials, vol. 1. p. 221. i J Observations on Statutes, p. 92. TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 109 Down to this period we do not find the legality of the practice questioned, though it has been said by high authority, as will be stated presently, that some doubts had been suggested to Queen Elizabeth. State Prisoners were confined usu- ally in the Tower, and commissioners, attended by the law officers of the crown, were sent to examine them,who applied the rack at their own discretion, or according to the order of the privy council, or the king's, without any objection being made to their authority. In the third year of King Charles the first, Felton was threatened with the rack by the Earl of Dorset in the Tower, and Laud, then bishop of London, repeated the threats in council, but the king insisted upon the judges being consulted as to the legality of the application, and they being unanimously of opinion that it was illegal, it was never attempted afterwards. The answer which Felton made to Laud's threats, is well worthy of attention ; when Laud told him " if he would not confess he must go to the rack," he replied " if it must be so, he could not tell whom he might no- minate in the extremity of torture, and if what he should say then was to go for truth, he could not tell whether his Lordship (meaning the bishop of London) or which of their Lordships he might name, for torture might draw unexpected things from him." In the year 1680 (32 Charles 2d) Elizabeth 110 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. Collier was tried at the Old Bailey,^ before Mr. fiaron Weston, for the publication of a libel, iu which many circumstances were related for the purpose of inducing- a belief that Prance, when a prisoner in Newgate, had been tortured there, and he was produced to prove the falsehood of the publication. The learned judge in summing* up the evidence to the jury said, ** But you must first know the laws of the land do not admit a torture, and since Queen Elizabeth's time there hath been nothing of that kind ever done. The truth is indeed, in the twentieth year of her reign. Campion was just stretched upon the rack, but yet not so but he could walk ; but when she was told it was against the law of the land to have any of her subjects racked (though that was an ex- traordinary case, a world of seminaries being sent over to contrive her death, and she lived in continual danger) yet it was never done after to any one, neither in her reign, who reigned twenty-five years, nor in king James's reign, who reigned twenty-two years after, nor in king Charles the first's reign, who reigned twenty-four years after ; and God in Heaven knows there hath been no such thing ofiered in this king's reign ; for I think we may say we have lived under as lawful and merciful a government as any people whatsoever, and have as little blood shed, and sanguinary executions as any nation under heaven." * State Trials, vol. 3. p. 99. TORTURE IN ENGLAND. Ill The learned judge may have been mistakea when stating Campion to be the last person racked, for in Murden's state papers, one Atslow, as before observed, is mentioned to have been tortured four years afterwards. Mr. Baron Weston states that upon a suggestion made to Queen Elizabeth of the illegality of the practice, it was discontinued in her reign, and thus we may account for Campion being racked with so little severity, as to be able to walk afterwards, and to manage the conferences with protestant doctors during his confinement in prison. In the Jurisprudence of the Romans the deceitful and dangerous experiment of the crimi- nal queestion, as it is emphatically styled, was ad- mitted, rather than approved. The Roman government applied this sanguinary mode of examination only to servile bodies, whose suffer- ings were seldom weighed by those haughty Re- publicans in the scale of justice or humanity; but they would never consent to violate the sacred person of a citizen, till they possessed the clearest evidence of his guilt.* The annals of tyranny, from the reign of Tiberius to that of Domitian, circumstantially relate the executions of many innocent victims ; but as long as the faintest remembrance was kept alive of the * The Pandects (1. xlviii. tit. xviii.) contain the senti- ments of the most celebrated civilians on the subject of torture. They strictly confine it to slaves. 112 TORTURE IN ENGLAND. national freedom and honour, the last hours of a Roman were secure from the dangler of igrno- minious torture. The conduct of the provincial magistrates was not, however, regulated by the practice of the city, or the strict maxims of the Civilians. They found the use of torture esta- blished not only among the slaves of oriental despotism, but among the Macedonians, who obeyed a limited monarchy among the Rhodians, who flourished by the liberty of commerce ; and even among the sage Athenians, who had assert- ed and adorned the dignity of human nature.* The acquiescence of the people in the provinces encouraged their governors to acquire or perhaps to usurp, a discretionary power of employing the Rack, to extort from vagrants or plebeian crimi- nals the confession of their guilt, till they insen- sibly proceeded to confound the distinctions of rank, and to disregard the privileges of Roman citizens. The apprehensions of the subjects urged them to solicit, and the interest of the Sovereign engaged him to grant, a * The Citizens of Athens could not be put to the rack, unless it was for high treason. The torture was used within thirty days after condemnation. There was no preparatory torture. In regard to the Romans, the third and fourth law de Majestate^ by Julius Caesar, shews that birth, dignity, and the military profession exempted people from the rack, except iu cases of high treason. — Montesquieu's Spirit oj Lawsy vol. 1. p. 132. TORTURE IN ENGLAND. 113 variety of special exemptions, which tacitly allowed, and even authorized, the general use of torture. They protected all persons of illustri- ous or honourable rank, bishops and their pres- byters, professors of the liberal arts, soldiers and their families, municipal officers, and their pos- terity to the third generation, and all children under the age of puberty. But a fatal maxim was introduced into the new jurisprudence of the Empire, that in the case of treason, which in- cluded every offence that the subtlety of lawyers could derive from an hostile intention towards the prince or republic, all privileges were suspended and all conditions were reduced to the same ig- nominious level. As the safety of the Emperor was avowedly preferred to every consideration of justice or humanity, the dignity of age, and the tenderness of youth were alike exposed to the most cruel tortures ; and the terrors of a malicious information, which might select them as the accomplices, or even as the witnesses, perhaps, of an imaginary crime, perpetually hung over the heads of the principal citizens of the Roman world'* * Archadius Charisius is the oldest lawyer quoted in the Pandects to justify the universal practice of torture in all cases of treason ; but this maxim of tyranny, "which is ad- mitted by Ammianus with the most respectful terror, is enforced by several laws of the succr-'jsor') of Constantine.— Gibbon's Rom, H?sf. vol. 3. p. 81. a 114 DR. Johnson's conversation I Dr. JOHNSON S CONVERSATION WITH THE LATE KING. jLN February, 1767, there happened one of the most remarkable incidents of Johnson's life, which gratified his monarchical enthusiasm, and which he loved to relate with all its circumstan- ces, when requested by his friends. This was his being- honoured by a private conversation with his late Majesty, in the Library at the Queen's house. He had frequently visited those splendid rooms, and noble collection of books, which he used to say was more numerous and cu- rious than he supposed any person could have made in the time which the king- had employed. Mr. Barnard the Librarian, took care that he should have every accommodation that could contribute to his ease and convenience, while in- dulging his literary taste in that place, so that he had here a very agreeable resource at leisure hours. His Majesty having been informed of his occasional visits, was pleased to signify a desire that he should be told when Dr. Johnson came next to the library. Accordingly the next time that Johnson did come, as soon as he was fairly engaged with a book, on which, while he sat by WITH THE LATE KING. 11 6 the fire he seemed quite intent, Mr. Barnard stole round to the apartment where the king was, and, in obedience to his Majesty's commands, mentioned that Dr. Johnson was then in the library. His Majesty said he was at leisure and would go to him ; upon which Mr. Barnard took one of the candles that stood on the king's table, and lighted his Majesty through a suite of rooms till they came to a private door into the library, of which his Majesty had the key. Being entered, Mr. Barnard stepped forward hastily to Dr. Johnson, who was still in a pro- found study, and whispered him, ** Sir, here is the king." Johnson started up, and stood still. His Majesty approached him, and at once was courteously easy. His Majesty began by observing, that he understood he came sometimes to the library ; and then mentioned his having heard that the Doctor had been lately at Oxford, asked him if he was not fond of going thither. To which Johnson answered, that he w^as indeed fond of going to Oxford sometimes, but was likewise glad to come back again. The king then asked him what they were doing at Oxford. Johnson answered he could not much commend their diligence, but that in some respects they were mended, for they had put their press under better regulations, and were at that time printing Polybius. He was then asked whether there a 2 116 DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION were better libraries at Oxford or Cambridge ; he answered, he believed the Bodleian was larger than any they had at Cambridge ; at the same i'uue adding, " I hope whether we have more books or not than they have at Cambridge, we shall make as good use of them as they do/' Being asked whether All-Souls or Christ Church library vs'as the largest, he answered, "All-Souls library is the largest we have except theBodleian." " Aye, (said the king) that is the public library." His Majesty enquired if he was then writing any thing, he answered, he was not, for he had pretty well told the world what he knew, and must now read to acquire more knowledge. The king as it should seem with a view to urge him to rely on his own stores as an original writer, and to continue his labours, then said, ** I do not think you borrow much from any body." Johnson said he thought he had already done his part as a writer. " I should have thought so too," said the king, " if you had not written so well." — Johnson observed to me, says Bos well, that " No man could have paid a handsomer compliment ; and it was fit for a king to pay. It was decisive." When asked by another friend at Sir Joshua Reynolds's, whether he made any reply to this high compliment, he answered, ** No, Sir. When the king had said it, it was to be so. It was not for me to bandy civilities with my Sovereign." Perhaps no man who had spent WITH THE LATE KING. 117 his whole life in courts could have shewn a more nice and dignified sense of true politeness than Johnson did in this instance. *« His Majesty having observed to him, that he supposed he must have read a great deal, Johnson answered, that he thought more than he read ; that he had read a great deal in the early part of his life, but having fallen into ill health, he had not been able to read much compared with others ; for instance he said he had not read much, compared with Dr. Warburton. Upon which the king said, that he heard Dr. Warbur- ton was a man of such general knowledge, that you could scarce talk with him on any subject on which he was not qualified to speak, and that his learning resembled Garrick's acting in its uni- versality. The king observed that Pope made Warburton a bishop ; " True, Sir, said Johnson, but Warburton did more for Pope, he made him a Christian;'* alluding no doubt, to his ingenious comments on the ' Essay on Man.' His Majesty then talked of the controversy between Warburton and Lowth, which he seemed to have read, and asked Johnson what he thought of it. Johnson anwsered," Warburton has most general, most scholastic learning ; Lowth is the more correct scholar. I do not know which of them calls names best." The king was pleased to say he was of the same opinion ; adding, " You do not think then, Dr. Johnson, that there was lis DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION much arg-iiment in the case." Johnson said he did not think there was. " Why, truly," said the king, ** when once it conies to calling names, argument is pretty well at an end." His Majesty then asked him what he thought of Lord Lyttelton's history, which was just then published. Johnson said, he thought his style pretty good, but that he had blamed Henry the Second rather too much. '* Why, said the king, they seldom do these things by halves." " No, Sir, answered Johnson, not to kings." But fearing to be misunderstood, he proceeded to explain himself, and immediately subjoined, " That for those M'ho spoke worse of kings than they deserved, he could find no excuse ; but that he could more easily conceive how some might speak better of them than they deserved, without any ill intention ; for, as kings had much in their power to give, those who were favoured by them would frequently, from gratitude, exaggerate their praises ; and as this proceeded from a good motive, it was certainlji excusable, as far as error could be excusable." The king then asked him what he thought of Dr. Hill. Johnson answered, that he was an ingenious man, but had no veracity ; and imme- diately mentioned, as an instance of it, an asser- tion of that writer, that he had seen objects magnified to a much greater degree by using three or four microscopes at a time than by using WITH THE LATE KING. 119 one. " Now," added Johnson, " every one ac- quainted with microscopes knows, that the more of them he looks through, the less the object will appear." " Why," replied the king", *< this is not only telling an untruth, but telling it clumsily; for, if that be the case, every one who can look through a microscope will be able to detect him." I now, (said Johnson to his friends, when re- lating what had passed) began to consider that I was depreciating this man in the estimation of his Sovereign, and thought it was time for me to say something that might be more favourable. He added, therefore, that Dr. Hill was, notwith- standing*, a very curious observer ; and if he wonld have been contented to tell the world no more than he knew% he might have been a very consi- derable man, and needed not to have recourse to such mean expedients to raise his reputation. The king then talked of Literary Journals, men- tioned particularly the Journal des Savnns, and asked Johnson if it was well done. Johnson said it was formerly very well done, and gave some account of the persons who began it, and carried it on for some years ; enlarging at the same time, on the nature and use of such works. The king asked him if it was well done now. Johnson answered, he had no reason to think that it was. The king then asked him if there were any other Literary Journals published in this kingdom, 120 DR. JOHNSON'S CONVERSATION except the Monthly and Critical Reviews ; and on being- answered there were no other, his Majesty asked which of them w^as the best ; Johnson answered, that the Monthly Review was done with most care, the Critical upon the best principles ; adding that the authors of the Monthly Review^ were enemies to the church. This the king said he was sorry to hear. The conversation next turned on the Philoso- phical Transactions, when Johnson observed that they had now a better method of arranging their materials than formerly. " Aye, said the king, they are obliged to Dr. Johnson for that" ; for his Majesty had heard and remembered the cir- cumstance, which Johnson himself had forgot. His Majesty expressed a desire to hate the literary biography of this country ably executed, and proposed to Dr. Johnson to undertake it. Johnson signified his readiness to comply with his Majesty's wishes. During the whole of this interview, Johnson talked to his Majesty with profound respect, but still in his firm manly manner, with a sonorous voice, and never in that subdued tone which is commonly used at the levee and in the drawing- room. After the king withdrew, Johnson shewed himself highly pleased with his Majesty's conver- sation, and gracious behaviour. He said to Mr. Barnard, " Sir, they may talk of the king as tUey will ; but he is the finest gentleman I have WITH THE I.ATE KING, 121 «ver seen.'* And he afterwards observed to Mr. Langton, " Sir, his manners are those of as fine a gentleman as we may suppose Lewis the four- teenth, or Charles the second." Dr. BEATTIE'S CONVERSATION WITH THE LATE KING AND QUEEN. Dr. BEATTIE had been informed by Dr. Majendie, who lived at Kew, and was often at the palace, that the king- havings asked some questions of the doctor respecting* him, and being- told that he sometimes visited Dr.,Majendie there, his Majesty had desired to be informed the next time Dr. Beattie was to be at Kew. What his Majesty's intentions were. Dr. Majendie said he did not know j but supposed the king* intended to admit him to a private audience. A day was therefore fixed, on which Dr. Beattie was to be at Dr. Majendie's house early in the morning", of which the Doctor was to ^ive notice to his Ma- jesty. Of this interesting event, so honourable to Dr. Beattie, I shall transcribe in his own words, says Sir William Forbes, the account he has given in his diary : — "Tuesday, 24th August, (1773) set out for Dr. Majendie's at Kew Green. The Doctor R 122 DR. BEATTIE'S COlS^VERSATrON told me that he had not seen the king yesterday, but had left a note in writing", to intimate, that I was to be at his house to-day ; and that one of the king's pages had come to him this morning, to say, ** that his Majesty would see me a little after twelve." At twelve, the Doctor and I went to the king's house at Kew. We had been only a few minutes in the hall, when the king and queen came in from an airing ; and as they passed through the hall, the king called to me by name, and asked how long it was since I came from town ? I answered about an hour. " I shall see you," says he, ** in a little." The Doctor and I waited a considerable time, for the king was busy, and then we were called into a large room, furnished as a library, where the king* was walking about, and the queen sitting in a chair. We were received in the most (rracious manner possible, by both their Majesties. I had the honour of a conversation with them, nobody else being present but Dr. Majendie, for upwards of an hour on a great variety of topics ; in which both the king and queen joined, with a degree of cheerfulness, affability, and ease, that was to me surprising, and soon dissipated the embarrassment which I felt at'the beginning of '&' the conference. They both complimented me in the highest terms on my " Essay," which they said was a book they always kept by them ; and the king said he had one copy of it at Kew, and WITH THE I.ATE KING AND QUEEN. 123 another in town, and immediately went and took it down from a shelf. I found it was the second edition. " 1 never stole a book, but one," said his Majesty, " and that was your's (speaking to me) I stole it from the queen, to give it to Lord Hertford to read." He had heard that the sale of Hume's *' Essays" had failed, since my book was published ; and I told him what Mr. Strahan had told me, in regard to that matter. He had even heard of my being in Edinburgh last summer, and how Mr. Hume was offended on the score of my book. He asked many ques- tions about the second part of the " Essay," and when it would be ready for the press. 1 gave him, in a short speech, an account of the plan of it ; and said my health was so precarious, I could not tell when it might be ready, as I had many books to consult before I could finish it ; but, that if my health were good, I thought I might bring it to a conclusion in two or three years. He asked how long I had been in composing my Essay ? praised the caution with which it was written ; and said he did not wonder that it had employed me five or six years. He asked, about my Poems. I said there was only one poem of my own, on which I set any value (meaning the " Minstrel") and that it was first published about the same time with the ** Essay." My other poems, I said were incorrect, being but juvenile pieces, and of little consequence, even in my owa R 2 124 DR. beattie's conversatiok opinion. We had much conversation on moral subjects ; from which both their Majesties let it appear, that they were warm friends to Chris- tianity ; and so little inclined to infidelity, that they could hardly believe that any thinking" man eould really be an Atheist, unless he could bring himself to believe, that he made himself; a thoug-ht which pleased the king exceedingly ; and he repeated it several times to the queen. He asked whether any thing had been written against me. I spoke of the late pamphlet, of which I gave an account, telling him, that I had never met with any man vt'ho had read it, except one quaker. This brought on some discourse about the quakers, whose moderation, and mild behaviour the king and queen commended, I was asked many questions about the Scots Universities : the revenues of the Scots Clergy ; their mode of praying and preaching ; the medi- cal college of Edinburgh; Dr. Gregory, of whom I gave a particular character, and Dr. Cullen ; the length of our vacation at Aberdeen, and the closeness of our attendance during the winter ; the number of students that attend my lectures ; my mode of lecturing, whether from : notes, or completely written lectures ; about Mr. Hume, and Dr. Robertson, and Lord Kin- j noul, and the Archbishop of York, &c. &c. ; His Majesty asked what I thought of my new j ac(j[uaintance. Lord Dartmouth ? I said ther« I I WITH THE LATE KING AND aUEENs 125 was something- in his air and manner, which I thought not only agreeable, but enchanting, and that he seemed to me to be one of the best of men f a sentiment in which both their Majesties heartily joined. " They say that Lord Dartmouth is an enthusiast," said the king, " but surely he says nothing on the subject of religion, but what every Christian may, and ought to say." He asked whether I did not think the English language on the decline at present ; I answered in the affir- mative ; and the king agreed, and named the *' Spectator" as one of the best standards of the language. When I told him that the Scots clergy sometimes prayed a quarter, or even half an hour at a time, he asked, whether that did not lead them into repetitions ? I said it often did. "That" said he, "I don't like in prayers; and excellent as our liturgy is, 1 think it somewhat faulty in that respect" " Your Majesty knows," said I, " that three services are joined in one, in the ordinary church service, which is one cause of those repetitions." " True," he replied, *^ and that circumstance also makes the service too long." From this he took occasion to speak of the composition of the church liturgy ; on which he very justly bestowed the highest commendation. " Observe," his Majesty said, " how flat those occasional prayers are, that are now composed, in comparison with the old ones." When I mentioned the smallness of the church livings in Scotland, 126 DR. beattie's conversation he said, **he wondered how men of liberal educa- tion would cluise to become clergymen there," and asked, " whether in the remote parts of the country, the clergy, in general were not very ignorant ?" I answered, no, for that education was very cheap in Scotland, and that the clergy, in general, were men of good sense, and com- petent learning." He asked whether we had any good preachers at Aberdeen ? I said, yes, and named Campbell and Gerard, with whose names, however, I did not find that he was ac- quainted. Dr. Majendie mentioned Dr. Oswald's " Appeal,' with commendation ; I praised it too and the queen took down the name, with a view to send for it. I was asked, whether I knew Dr* Oswald ? 1 answ ered, I did not ; and said that my book w^as published before I read his; that Dr. Oswald was wt II known to Lord Kinnoul, who had often proposed to make us acquainted. We discussed a great many other topics ; for the conversation, as before observed, lasted for up- wards of an hour, without any intermission. The queen bore a large share in it. Both the king and her Majesty showed a great deal of good sense, acuteness, and knowledge, as well as of good nature and aflfiibility. At last, the king- took out his watch (for it was now almost three o'clock, his hour of dinner) which Dr. Majendie and 1 took as a signal to withdraw. We accord- ingly bowed to their Majesties, and 1 addressed WITH THE LATE KING AND aUEEN. 127 the king" in these words : *' I hope, Sir, your Majesty will pardon me, if I take this opportu- nity to return you my humble and most grateful acknowledgments for the honour you have been pleased to confer upon me.'* He immediately answered, " I think 1 could do no less for a man, who has done so much service to the cause of Christianity. I shall always be glad of an opportunity to show the good opinion I have of you.'' The queen sate all the while, and the king stood, sometimes walking about a little^ Her Majesty speaks the English language with surprising elegance, and little or nothing of a foreign accent. There is something wonderfully captivating in her manner ; so that if she were only of the rank of a private gentlewoman, one could not help taking notice of her as one of the most agreeable women in the world. Her face is much more pleasing than any of her pictures ; and in the expression of her eyes, and in her smile, there is something peculiarly engaging. When the Doctor and I came out, " Pray," said I, " how did I behave ? Tell me honestly, for I am not accustomed to conversations of this kind." " Why perfectly well," answered he, " and just as you ought to do." — " Are you sure of that ?" said I. — " As sure," he replied, " as of my own existence ; and you may be assured of it too, when I tell you, that if there had been any thing in your manner or conversation, which was 128 SACKED GARDENS. not perfectly agreeable, your conference would have been at an end in eight or ten minutes at most." The Doctor afterwards told me that it was a most uncommon thing for a private man, and a commoner, to be honoured with so long an audience. I dined with Dr. and Mrs. Majendie and their family, and returned to town in the evening, very much pleased with the occurren- ces of the day." SACRED GARDENS. JL he origin of sacred gardens among the heathen nations may be traced up to the garden of Eden. The gardens of the Hesperides, of Adonis, of Flora, were famous among the Greeks and Romans. " The garden of Flora,'' says Mr. Spence, (Polynietis, p. 251) "I take to have been the Paradise in the Roman Mythology. The traditions and traces of Paradise among the ancients must be expected to have grown fainter and fainter in every transfusion from one people to another. The Romans probably derived their notions of it from the Greeks, among whom this idea seems to have been shadowed out under the i>tories of the gardens of Alcinous. In Africa SIR THOMAS WYAt. 129 they had the gardens of the Hesperides, and in the East those of Adonis, or the Horti Adonis, as Pliny calls them. The term Horii Adonides was used by the ancients to signify gardens of pleasure, which answers to the very name of Paradise, or the garden of Eden, as Horii Adonis does to the garden of the Lord.'* SIR THOMAS WYAT. [died 1541.] 1 HE story of this eminent person, probably one of the principal ornaments of an age unable to discern his merits, or unwilling to record them, has been very imperfectly related. He was born at AUington Castle, in Kent, the ancient seat of his family, in 1503, and was the son of Sir Henry Wyat. He may be said to have finished his education in the society of that eminent character Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, with whom he travelled abroad, and with whom he " tasted in Italy,'* says Wood, ** the sweet and stately measures of the Italian poesy." These, as far as the rude state of our language, and the still ruder taste of the times, would allow, he applied to English verse. His poems were })rinted at London in 1565, and have since been S 130 SIR THOMAS WYAT. frequently republished, in conjunction with those of his noble friend ; but here, as in other points of view, we have but glimpses of him ; for through the ignorance or carelessness of the original editor, his pieces are so confusedly blended with the Earl's, that not many of them can be positively ascertained.* Having been introduced at Court, where his endowments both of body and mind, recom- mended liim to the favour of king Henry the Eighth, he was employed in several foreign embassies, which he discharged with great ability. His influence with the king was pro- * There is an engraving of Sir Thomas in the collection of Holbein Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine. An original picture of him, which has been frequently copiedj is in the collection of the Earl of Romney. It is nearly a profile, and bears a strong resemblance to Holbein's drawing. There is a print of Sir Thomas Wyat, from an engraving on wood, after a painting by Holbein ; it is the frontispiece to the book of verses, written on his death, by Leland, entitled " Nainiaj in Mortem Thomae Viati Equitis incom- parabilis,'" an Elegy on the death of Sir Thomas Wyat, Knt. London, 1542, quarto. This book was reprinted by Hearuc, at the beginning of the second volume of Leland's Itinerary. Under the head is the following inscription ; — '* Holbcnus uitida pingendi maximus arte, " Efiigiem expressit graphice, sed nuUus Apelles " Exprimet ingenium felix, animumque Viati." This print has been copied by Michael Burghers and Mr. Tyson. Granger 1. 110. SIR THOMAS WYAT. 131 verbial. Lloyd tells us that ** when a man was newly preferred, they said he had been in Sir Thomas Wyat's closet." We are informed by Wood (Afhen. Oxon») that Sir Thomas was sent by the king to Falmouth, for the purpose of conducting a Spanish Minister from thence to London. Being desirous of making great expedition, he fatigued himself so much that he was thrown into a fever, and was obliged to stop at Sherborne, in Dorset- shire, where he died a few days after, in the 38th year of his age, " to the great reluctancy,'* sa3^s Wood, " of the king, kingdom, his friends, and all that knew the great worth and virtues of the person." He was buried in Sherborne Church.^ * The first printed Poetical Miscellany, in the English language, is the Collection of Poems, edited and published by Tottel, entitled " Songes and Sonnettes of Surrey, Wyat, and of uncertain Auctors, London, 1557." — Another edition, 1565— others in 1574, 1585, 1587. The last edition was edited by Dr. George Sewell, in 1717. — This Dr. Sewell was a physician in London ; he received his early education at Eton^ which he afterwards completed at Cambridge, where he took the degree of Bachelor of Physic in 1709. From thence he went to Leyden, where he studied under the celebrated Boerhaave. Not being successful in the metropolis, he removed to Hampstead, where he died on the 8th of February, 1726. As an author he possessed a considerable share of genius, and wrote in concert with several of his contem- poraries, particularly in the Spectator and Tatler ; he waa principally concerned in the ninth Tolume of the former, and la 132 THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. He left behind him a son of the same name, Avho lost his head for exciting a rebellion in the reign of queen Mary, from whom our poet is commonly distinguished by the appellation of Sir Thomas Wyat the elder. THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. N Parkhurst's Hebrew Lexicon we have the folio win o' remarks on the Hand as an emblem of strength and power. " The hand was used by the Jews, as a trophy or monument of victory, and placed on the top of a pillar. Thus Saul, after smiting the Amalekites, in the pride of his heart erected to or for himself (not for Jehovah) a hand, 1 Samuel xv. 12. And David smote Hadadezer, king of Zobah, when he was going to erect his hand or trophy, by the river Euphrates, 2 Sam. viii. 3, and 1 Chronicles, xviii. 3. — And this appears to be the most ancient use of these memorial hands ; whence Absalom seems to have taken the hint of erecting one, merely to keep his the fifth of the latter, as he was also in a translation of Ovid's Metamori-hoses, and an edition -of Shakespeare's Poems. He was the author of a Tragedy, entitled " Sir Walter Raleigh," published at London in 1719, and also of another, which he left unfinished, entitled " King Richard the First/' the fragments of which were printed in 1728. THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER* 13^ name in remembrance, 2 Sam. xviii. 18, where it may be observed that this monument is ex- pressly called not only a hand, but a pillar, which shews that the hand was wont to be put on a pillar. *' Neibuhr (Voyag-e in Arabia, torn. 2. p. 21 1. French edition) speaking of All's mosque at Mesched Ali, says, that *' at the top of the dome,, where one generally sees on the Turkish mosques a crescent, or only a pole, there is here a hand stretched out, to represent that of Ali." And another writer informs us, that at the Alhambra, or red palace of the Moorish kings in Granada, '* on the key-stone of the outward arch [of the present principal entrance] is sculptured the figure of an arm, the symbol of strength and dominion." " It may not be amiss to observe, that to this day in the East Indies the picture of a hand is the emblem of power or authority. Thus I am assured, says Parkhurst, by a gentleman of un- doubted veracity, who resided many years on the coast of Coromandel, that when the Nabob of Arcot, who in his time was governor oijive pro- vinces, appeared on public occasions, several small flags, with each a hand painted upon them, and one of a large size with five hands, were solemnly carried before him." The hand was used as an ensign of royalty by the kings of France and England. In Sandford's 134 THE HAND A SYMBOL OF POWER. Genealogical History, there is the following* note on the counter-seal of king* Edward the third : *' In the margin of this counter-seal, near the point of the king's sword, is represented the hand of justice, being an ensign of royalty peculiar only to the kings of France, for though they in com- mon with other princes carry in their right hand a sceptre of gold, yet in the other they bear the hand of justice, being a short rod, and having on the top of it a left hand, wide open, made of ivory, on account of the elephant being the only qua- druped observable for his devotion, love of his governors, and for his equity. The left hand it is said, is preferred to the right for this purpose, because not being employed in working so many wicked actions as the right, it became more pro- per than the other to represent the symbol of justice. This hand is also placed in the counter- seals of his successors Richard the second, and Henry the fourth ; king Henry the fifth omitted it in his seal, and conquering France both placed that crown on the head, and the French sceptre and hand oj justice i\\ the hands of his son, king- Henry the sixth." Queen Elizabeth used the hand as one of her mint marks. aUE^N HENRIETTA MARIA, IS-'^ HENRIETTA MARIA, aUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. Our royal martyr," says Dr. Kennet, " by taking a consort from the Bourbon family, did apparently bring* over some evils and mischiefs that disturbed his whole reign. For within less than one year, the French servants of that queen grew so imperious and insolent, that the king was forced to discharge them, and to humble them by a return into their own country." " A very sad doom it was certainly to the French,*' says L'Estrange in his annals of king Charles, " but as the animadversion was ex- tremely severe, so their offences were in like degree heinous. The bishop of Mende, the queen's almoner, stood charged for putting in- tolerable scorn upon, and making religion itself do penance, by enjoining her Majesty, under the notion of penance, to go barefoot, to spin, and to wait upon her family servants at their ordi- nary repasts, to walk on foot in the mire on a rainy morning, from Somerset House to St. James's ; her confessor, mean while, like Lucifer himself, riding by her in his coach ; but, which is worst of all, to make a progress to Tyburn, there to present her devotions for the depaited 13(3 llLNRlEi?rA MARIA, souls of the Papists, who had been executed at that place, on account of the Gunpowder Trea- son, and other enormous crimes. A most impi- ous piaculary, whereof the king said acutely, that the action can have no greater invective than the relation. The other sex were accused of crimes of another nature, whereof Madam St. George was, as in dignity of office, so in guilt, the prin- cipal ; culpable she was in many particulars, but her most notorious and unpardonable fault was, her beinof an accursed instrument of some unkind- ness between the king and queen. These incen- diaries were cashiered, the queen, who formerly shewed so much waspish protervity, soon fell into a mode of loving compliance. But though this renvoy of her Majesty's servants, imported domestic peace, yet was it attended with an ill aspect from France, though our king, studying" to preserve fair correspondence with his brother, sent the Lord Carleton with instructions to re- present a true account of the action, with all th^ motives to it ; but his reception was very coarse, ])eing never admitted to audience. Louis des- patched Monsieur the Marshal de Bassompierre. as Extraordinary Ambassador to our king, to dc- \ mand the restitution of the queen's domesticks ; which he at last obtained for most of them." I ** It was this match," adds Dr. Kennet, *' that I began to corrupt our nation with French modc^ uluA vanities 3 which gave occasion to Mr. Prynnc atJEEN or CHARLES THE FIRST. 137 to write that severe invective, called Histrio- mastix, against stage plays ; to betray our councils to the French court; to weaken the poor Protestants in France, by rendering ineffec- tual the relief of Rochelle ; nay, and to lessen our own trade and navigation. These ill effects, beyond theking's intention, raised such a jealousy and spread such a damp upon the English sub- jects, that it was unhappily turned into one of the unjust occasions of civil war, which indeed began more out of hatred to that party, than out of any disaffection to the king. The people thought themselves too much under French coun- sels, and a French ministry, or else, they could never have been drawn aside into that great rebellion. This interest when suspected to pre- vail, brought the king' into urgent difficulties; and in the midst of them the aid and assistance, which that interest offered him, did but the more effectually weaken him. On this side the water the French services betrayed him ; and on the other side, the French policies were at work to betray him." And, indeed, as queen Henrietta had a mighty, if not a supreme sway over King Charles's coun- cils, so did her mother, Mary de Medicis, who came over by her invitation, administer great cause of jealousy to this nation. " The people,'* says L' Estrange, " were generally malecontent at her coming, and wished her farther off. For T 138 HENRIETTA MARIA, they did not like her train and followers, which had often been observed to be the sword of pestilence, so that she was beheld as some meteor of evil signification. Nor was one of these calamities thought more the effect of her fortune than inclination ; for her restless and unconstant spirit was prone to embroil all wheresoever she came. And besides, as queen Henrietta was extraordinary active in raising money among the Roman Catholics of this kingdom, to enable King Charles to make war against his subjects of Scotland, so was she extreme busy in foment- ing the unhappy differences between hisMajesty and his English Parliament." Sir John Reresby, in his Memoirs, asserts that queen Henrietta Maria was married after the king's death to Lord St. Alban's. " The abbess of an English college in Paris, whither the queen used to retire, would tell me,*' says Sir John, ** that Lord Jermyn, since St. Alban's, had the queen greatly in awe of him, and indeed it was obvious that he had great interest with her con- cerns ; but that he was married to her, or had children hy her, as some have reported, I did not then believe, though the thing was certainly so.'* Madame Baviere, in her letters, says, " Charles the First's widow made a chuidestine marriage, with her Chevalier d' Honnenr, Lord St. Alban's, who treated her extremely ill, so that whilst she had not a faggot to warm herself, he had in his QUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. 13^ apartment a good fire, and a sumptuous table. He never gave the queen a kind word, and when she spoke to him, he used to say, Que me veiit cetle femme ? To what a miserable state the queen was re- duced may be seen in the following extract from De Retz's Memoirs, (vol. 1. p. 261.) '' Four or five days before the king removed from Paris, I went to visit the queen of England, whom I found in her daughter's chamber, who hath been since Duchess of Orleans. At my coming in she said, ** You see I am come to keep Henrietta company. The poor child could not rise to-day for want of a fire." The truth is, that the car- dinal for six months together had not ordered her any money towards her pension ; that no trades- people would trust her for any thing ; and that there was not at her lodgings in the Louvre one single billet. You will do me the justice to sup-^ pose that the princess of England did not keep her bed the next day for want of a faggot ; but it was not this which the Princess of Conde meant in her letter. What she spoke about was, that some days after my visiting the queen of England, I remembered the condition I had found her in, and had strongly represented the shame of aban- doning her in that manner, which caused the Parliament to send 40,000 livres to her Majesty. Posterity will hardly believe that a Princess of England, grand-daughter of Henry the Great, T 2 J 40 HENRIETTA MARIA, hath wanted a faggot in the month of January, to get oat of bed in the Louvre, and in the eyes of a French court. We read in histories, with horror, of baseness less monstrous than this ; and the little concern I have met with about it in most people's minds, has obliged me to make, I believe, a thousand times this reflection — that examples of times past move men beyond com- parison more than those of their own times. We accustom ourselves to what we see ; and I have sometimes told you, that I doubted whether Caligula's horse being made a consul would have surprized us so much as we imagine." As for the relative situations of the king (Charles II.)and Lord Jermyn, (afterwards St. Alban's) Lord Clarendon (Hist, of the Rebellion, vol. 3. p. 2) says that the " Marquis of Ormond was compelled to put himself in prison, with other gentlemen, at a pistole a week for his diet, and to walk the streets a-foot, which was no honourable custom in Paris, whilst the Lord Jermyn kept an excellent table for those who courted him, and had a coach of his own, and all other accommodations incident to the most full fortune ; and if the king had the most urgent occasion for the use but of twenty pistoles, as sometimes he had, he could not find credit to borrow it, which he often had experiment of.'* The Lord St. Alban's above mentioned was Henry Jermyn, second son of Thomas Jermyn, aUEEN OF CHARLES THE FIRST. 141 of Rushbrooke, near Bury St. Edmund's, in Suffolk. In 1644 he was created Lord Jermyn, with limitation of the honour to the heirs male of his elder brother Thomas. In 1660 he was further advanced to the dignity of Earl of St. Alban's, and Baron of St. Edmund's Bury, but on his death in 1683, the earldom became extinct. The barony of Jermyn devolved on Thomas (son of his elder brother Thomas) who became second Lord Jermyn : he died unmarried in 1703. — Lord St. Alban's was master of the horse to Queen Henrietta Maria, and one of the privy council to Charles the second. In July 1660 he was sent ambassador to the court of France, and in 1671 was made Lord Chamber- lain of his majesty's household. — " He was a man of no great genius," says Grammont, " he raised himself a considerable fortune from nothing, and by losing at play, and keeping a great table, made it appear greater than it was." "It is well known what a table the good man kept at Paris, while the king his master was starving at Brussels, and the queen dowager his mistress, lived not over well in France." This earl lived in London at Jermyn heuse^ which stood at the head of St. Alban's-street, Pallmall, which street and Jermyn-street had their names from him. l42 LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON, LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON.* JL HE nineteenth of April, 1560, was the last day of the mortal existence of this great reformer and pious christian. After the usual medical inquiries of the morning, he adverted to the cala- mitous state of the church of Christ, but intimated his hope that the genuine doctrine of the gospel would ultimately prevail, exclaiming, ** If God be for us who can be against us." After this he presented fervent supplications to heaven for the * Melancthon was born at Brette, a Tillage of the Palati- nate, on the 16th of February, 1497. In his childhood he ! lit made an astonishing progress in the acquisition of languages. Jiif Luther, and his doctrines, appeared about this time, and ;i;l| Melancthon stood forward as one of their most strenuous ,i,t supporters ; indeed the Lutheran system was in a great ;j!!j ! measure planned by him, and the famous instrument by " which it was publicly declared, called the Confession of Augsburg, was the production of his pen. Melancthon was the intimate friend of Erasmus, and Erasmus the patron of Holbein. This connection will account for his appearance in a Collection of Portraits, drawn by Holbein, of the prin- cipal personages in the Court of Henry the Eighth, though I'J" Melancthon never was in this country. An engraving of him is among the Holbein Heads, published by Mr. Chamberlaine, „ . and there is a full-length portrait of this great Reformer, with a facsimile of his writing, in his Life, published by the t' He?. F. A. Cox, London, 1815, 8vo. LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON. 143 welfare of the church, and in the intervals of sleep conversed principally upon this subject with several of his visiting* friends. Soon after eight in the morning awaking from a tranquil sleep, he distinctly, though with a feeble voice, repeated a form of prayer which he had written for his own daily use. An interval of repose having* elapsed after repeating this prayer, he lifted up his eyes to heaven, and turn- ing to his son-in-law, he said, *^ I have been in the power of death, but the Lord has graciously delivered me." This was supposed to refer to some deep conflicts of mind, as he repeated the expression to others. When one of the persons who visited him said, " There is now no con- demnation to them that are in Christ Jesus," he soon added, " Christ is made to us wisdom, righteousness, sanctification, and redemption." " Let him that glorieth glory in the Lord.'' The coldness of death was now creeping over him, but his mental faculties continued unim- paired to the very last breath of mortal existence. Having expressed a wish to hear some passages from the Old and New Testaments, his ministerial attendants read the 24th, 25th and 26th Psalms; the 53d chapter of Isaiah ; the 7th chapter of John, the 5th of the Romans, and many other passages. The saying of John respecting the son of God, he said was perpetually in his mind, " the world knew him not but as many as 144 LAST MOMENTS OF PHILIP MELANCTHON. received him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God, even to them that believe on his name." Upon being- asked by his son-in-law if he would have any thing- else, he replied in these emphatic words, " NOTHING ELSE — BUT HEAVEN !" and requested that he mig^ht not be any further inter- rupted. Soon afterwards he made a similar request, begging those around him, who were endeavouring with officious kindness to adjust his clothes, "not to disturb his delightful repose.'' After some time his friends united with the Minister present in solemn prayer, and several passages of scripture, in which he was known always to have expressed peculiar pleasure were read, such as '* Let not your heart be troubled, ye believe in God, believe also in me." — " In my Father's house are many mansions." — ** My sheep hear my voice, and I know them, and they follow me ;" particularly tlie fifth chapter of Romans, and the triumphant close of the eighth chapter, commencing " If GoD be for us, who can be against us?" Many other parts of scrip- ture were recited, and the last word he uttered was the German particle of affirmation, la, in reply to one of his friends, who had inquired if he understood him while reading. The last motion which his friends who surrounded him to the number of at least twenty, could discern, was a slight motion of the countenance which was HOUSE OF COMMONS. 145 peculiar to him when deeply affected with religi- ous joy 1 — " Mark the perfect man and behold the upright, for the end of that man is peace !" At length, " in the midst of solemn vows and supplications," at a quarter before seven, in the evening, at the age of sixty-three, he gently breathed his last. No distractions of mind, no foreboding terrors of conscience agitated this attractive scene. His chamber was ** privileged beyond the common walks of virtuous life — quite in the verge of heaven" — and he expired, like a wave scarcely undulating to the evening zephyr of an unclouded summer sky. It was a " depar- ture" — a " sleep" — " the earthly house of this tabernacle was dissolved." HOUSE OF COMMONS. A CONSIDERABLE number of treatises were written in the middle and latter end of the seventeenth century, and a few in the beginning of the eighteenth, respecting the period at which the House of Commons asserted that indepen- dence which it is so material to the security and happiness of the country it should possess, and obtained that share in the legislature it now u 146 HOUSE OF COMMONS. enjoys ; but the writers on both sides,* eager in the maintenance of the cause they espoused, and * SeTcral of these were men remarkable for their talents and learnipg : among whom were Petyt, Tyrrel, Sir Robert Filmer, Dr. Brady, Prynne, Rymer, &c. &c. Petyt and Prynne wire keepers of the Records in the Tower ; and Rymer, who was the king's Historiographer, had a warrant not only to search the Records in every ofl&ce in the kingdom, but to make copies of such as he should select for publication. How diligent he was in using this authority is evident from the invaluable collection of Records, &c. published by him, and from a large collection of others in manuscript, now in the Museum. Petyt makes a direct charge, and not unfounded, against Prynne, for an intended omission of a reference to the Rolls of Parliament (2d Hen. V. p. 2. No. 10.) in the Abridg. ment of the Rolls made by Sir Robert Cotton, and printed by Prynne. Even Sir Robert Atkyns, a man eminently distinguished for his integrity and learning, as well as for his de^^p research into the ancient History of Parliament, who had been a Judge of the Common Pleas, and was afterwards Chief Baron of the Exchequer and Speaker of the House of Lords, in his learned and elaborate argument in the year 1680, in the case of an information by the Attorney General against Williams, Speaker of the House of Commons, in asserting the antiquity of that House, fell into some mistakes, from not having re- sorted to the original records. He states, and insists much on it, that the Speaker of the House of Commons, Sir Thomas Hungerford, 51 Edwardlll. was Speaker of the Parlia^ ment ; whereas the words in the Record are, " Monsieur Thomas do Hungerford, Chivaler, q'i avoit les Paroles pur Ics Communes d' Engleterrc." Rolls of Pari. vol. ii. p. 374, a. In the firiit of Richard the Second, the Speaker, Sir Robert HOUSE OF COMMONS, 147 taking" advantage of the scanty means the public had of knowing what was contained in the early Rolls of Parliament* and other ancient records, suppressed from partiality and interested zeal, much of the information themselves possessed, which rendered of little use to the public an in- quiry that might otherwise have been attended with considerable advantage. It might be supposed indeed, that when men so remarkable for diligence and learning, as Prynne and Petyt, (w ho were both keepers of the records in the Tower, among which are most of the Rolls of Parliament, and all the Claus Rolls) took opposite sides of the controversy, about the says again, was termed the Speaker oj the Parliament ; the words in the Record are, Mons. Pere de la Mare Chivaler q'avoit les Paroles de Par la Commune." — Vol. iii. p. 5, 6, The same with respect to Sir John Bussey, 20 Richard II, The words in the Record are, " les Communes presenterent Mons. John Bussej pour lour Parlour." — Page 338, a. — 339, b. * In 1766, the late Thomas Astle, Esq. was consulted by the Sub-Committee of the House of Lords, concerning the printing of the Rolls of Parliament, and in 1768, on the death of Mr. Blyke, Mr. Astle introduced his father-in-law, the Rev. Philip Morant, author of the History of Essex, to succeed that gentleman in preparing the Rolls for the press. Mr. Morant died in November, 1770, after proceeding in them as far as the 16th of Henry the fourth, when Mr. Astle was appointed by the House of Lords to carry on the work, which he completed in 1775. They are printed in 3i:L f olumes, folio, u 2 148 HOUSE OF COMMONS. time when the Commons first formed a part of the legislature, whatever could have made for or against either side of the question would have been produced. And yet with all their opportu- nities and their eagerness for research, those who have attentively looked through the Rolls of Parliament, will find amongst them much matter of importance respecting the questions those writers discussed at different periods, to which neither of them referred, either in support of his own, or in contradiction to his opponent's argu- ment. Rymer was equally zealous in supporting the side he took, in the beginning of the last century. Any thing therefore having been brought to light by the publication of the Rolls of Parliament, which appears to have escaped the industry and research of such men, is a strong proof of the utility of printing those valuable documents. As early as the 46th of Edward the third, a statute was made, ordaining that all persons should be entitled to search for, and have exem- plifications of records, as well such as proved contrary to the interest of the king, as such as were favourable to it. Great and eminent men, however, not more distinguished by their high stations, than for their talents and research, stated opinions, some on points of magnitude, in the pursuit of mere legal investigations, different from those which are HOUSE OP COMMONS. 149 probably entertained by such as have carefully perused the Parliamentary Records, which were printed during the reign of his late Majesty. In corroboration of this assertion, it may be sufficient to mention two opinions of Lord Coke's. The first that the Lords and Commons sat together late in the reign of king Edward the third* and until the Commons had a perpetual Speaker. The direct contrary of this opinion it is thought is evident from the Rolls of Parlia- ment. It does not appear from any Records that the two Houses ever sat for deliberation in the same assembly, from the time the Commons were regularly summoned in their representative capacity to Parliament. On the contrary, so early as the 1 8th of Ed- ward the firstjf (Rolls of Par. vol. L p. 25, a. ♦ Some reliance was placed by his Lordship on the Trea- tise '^ de Modo tenendi Parliamentum ;" the authority of -which, if not entirely destroyed by Prynne, will not at least in future have much weight. — Prynne's Animadversions on 4 Inst. p. 1. to p. 8. and p. 331. f In the Parliament of the 18th of Edward the first there -were no Citizens or Burgesses. There is a bundle of writs yet extant, by which this Parliament was summoned. They are directed to the sheriffs of several or most of the counties of England, by which two or three Knights were directed to be chosen for each county, and accordingly the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge and Huntingdon^ and Cunberland returned each of them three Knights, and the other counties two each. This Parliament gave the King a t", 150 HOUSE OF COMMONS. the earliest Roll extant) there is a Grant* to the king for the marriage of his eldest daughter, by several Peers named, " et caeteri Magnates et Proceres tunc in Parliamento existentes, pro se et Communitate totius Regni Angliae quantum in ipsis est ;" that is, ** and other Lords and Nobles for themselves and the Community of fifteenth of all their moveables as appears by the account of the same which is entered upon the Great Roll of the 23cl of that king, in which account we have the style of this Parliament, namely, " The account of the fifteenth, granted to the king in his 18th year, by the Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, PriorSjEarls, Barons, and all others of the kingdom, assessed, collected, and levied," &c. We may here observe that the two or three Knights, chosen by the several counties, did represent those counties, and according to the form of the writ, consulted upon aad consented to this grant of a fifteenth. So also in the 22d of Edward the First there were neither Citizens nor Burgesses summoned to the Parliament of that year. On the 8th of October the king issued writs directed to every sherifi' in England to cause two discreet Knights to be chosen for each county, with full powers, " so that for de- fect of such powers, the business might not remain undoDC.% And on the following day the king issued other writs to the sheriffs to cause to be elected two knights more, to be added to the former two, making four for each county, and these four Knights for each county, and the Earls, Barons, and Great Men, on the day of their meeting gave the king a tenth part of all their goods. * This was only a grant of forty shillings for evefy Knight's fee.— See Rolls of Parliament, vol. 2. p. 112, a. hereinafter referred to in 14 of Edward III. HOUSE OF COMMONS. 151 the whole kingdom of England, as much as they were able." In the 19th of Edward the second (p. 351. a.) there is a grant to the king for car- vying on the war with Scotland, by the Citizens, Burgesses, and Knights for counties, of a fifteenth of the moveables of the Citizens, Bur- gesses, and men of the counties, cities, and towns. In the 14th of Edward the second (p. 371.) complaint was made by the Knights, Citizens and Burgesses of felonies for which they besought a remedy : and the Record concludes " Et Con- cordatum est per Dominam Regem de Consilio Prelatorum, Comitum, Baronum, et aliorum Peritorum, in dicto Parliamento existentium quod,'' &c. that is, " and it was agreed between our Lord the king and the council of Prelates, Earls, Barons, and other great men in the said Parliament assembled, &c.'' The Entries in the sixth of Edward the third, 1331, (to the Parliament Rolls of which year Lord Coke particularly refers for proof of the Lords and Commons then sitting together) which appear to bear on the point in question, are in vol. ii. p. 66, At the first meeting at Westminster, the Prelates by themselves, and the Knights for counties by themselves, deliberated on the business opened to them at the beginning of the Parliament, and answered by advising the king not to go in person to Ireland to quell the rebellion there. 152 HOUSE OF COMMONS. And in the third meeting" in that year at York, when a statement was made by Geoffrey \e Scroop, in the presence of the king", and " de touz les Grantz en plein Parlement," of all the Lords in full Parliament ; and afterwards it was agreed by the king and the whole in full Par- liament, that certain Bishops and Peers named, should meet on the business in discussion by themselves, the other Prelates, Earls and Barons, and the Proxies by themselves ; and the Knights of the shire and Commons by themselves. The business was discussed accordingly during some days ; after which the Commons had leave to return to their counties, and the Prelates, Earls, and Barons, were to remain till the day following. In the 13th of Edward the third (vol. 2. p. 104.) a grant was made to the king, *^ par les Grantz," of a tenth of the grain of their demesne lands, and of their fleeces, with certain reserva- tions. The Commons, however, after represent- ing their having heard the statement of the king's necessities, the extent of which they were aware of, and were willing to relieve as they had always done ; said, that as the aid must be a great one they dated not assent to it without consulting* with *< les Communes de leur Pais," the Com- mons of their counties. And they desired another Parliament to be summoned. At which subsequent meeting, in the same year, (p. 107. b.) the occasion of summoning the Parliament HOUSE OP COMMONS. 153 was explained to the Commons, on which they said they would deliberate. They afterwards proposed to grant 30,000 sacks of wool on certain conditions, which if not agreed to by the king, the aid was to be withheld. The Earls and Barons the same day granted for themselves and the Peers of the land who held by Barony, the tenth sheaf, the tenth fleece, and the tenth lamb. In the 14th of Edward the third, (p. 112, a.) grants were made by the Prelates, Earls, and Barons, for themselves and all their tenants, and by the Knights of shires for themselves, and for the commons of the land, of the ninth sheaf, the ninth fleece, and the ninth lamb ; and by the Citizens and Burgesses of a real ninth of their property ; and merchants not inhabiting cities and towns, and other people who reside in forests and wastes, and who do not live by their gains or their flocks, a fifteenth of all their pro- perty according to the true value. In the 15th of Edward the third (p. 127, a.) on occasion of a Grant made to the king in a former Parliament, to enable him to purchase friends and allies for the recovery of his rights, havino^ not been as available as it ou»-ht to have been, it was proposed that consideration should be had, ** par touz les Grantz et Communes," '* by all the Lords and Commons," how the grant should be made most profitable to the king, and least burthensome to the people, ** les Grantz de X 154 HOUSE OF COMMONS. par eux, et les Chivalers des Counteez, Citeyens, ^t Burgeys de par eux," that is, " the Lords by themselves, and the Knig-hts for counties, Citizens and Burgesses by themselves." In the 17th of Edward the third,(p. 136,a.)"les ditz Prelatz et Grantz assemblez en la Chambre Blanche (the court of requests)responderent,"&c. (p. 136, 6.) '' Et pour vindrent les Chivalers des Counteez et les Communes et responderent par Monsieur William Trussell en la dite Chambre Blanche qi' en Presence de nostre Signeur le Roi et les ditz Prelates," &c. that is, " on vi^hich day the said Prelates and Lords assembled in tbe Chambre Blanche, answered,'' &c. " And then came the Knights for counties, and the Commons, and answered by Monsieur William Trussell in the said Chambre Blanche^ and in the presence of our Lord the king, and the said Prelates,** &c. There can be little doubt but that this William Trussell was Speaker of the House of Commons. He is styled by Higden, who wrote in the reign of Edward the third, in his " Polychronicon," " Procurator of the Parliament,'* when he, in the name of all the men in the land of England, renounced allesfiance to kinof Edward the second in the last year of that king's reign. The Speaker of the Comm6ns was indeed styled <* Parlour and Procurator," so late as the first of Henry the fourth. (Rolls of Pari, vol 3. p. 424, b.) HOUSE OF COMMONS. Ii55 In the 18th of Edward the third, when the king was going to France for the recovery of his rights, the grants by the Lords and Com- mons were quite distinct ; the former to accom- pany him in the war, " les ditz grantz granter- ent de passer et lour aventurer ovesque lui ; the Commons granted, for the same cause, two fif- teenths of the commonalty, and two tenths of the cities and boroughs. (Rolls of Pari. vol. 2. p. 150, b.) There are other grants in this reign by the Commons ; 20th of Edward the third, (p. 159, b.) and 21st of Edward the third, (p. 166.) In the 22d of Edward the third, (p. 200.) the Com- mons grant an aid, after several days consider- ation, but under certain conditions. In the 29th of Edward the third, (p. 265, b.) there is a separate grant by the Commons. In the 40th of Edward the third, after the occasion of summoning the Parliament had been explained, the Lords and Commons were direct- ed to depart, and to meet again on the day follow- ing, the Lords " en la Chambre Blanche," and the Commons in the painted Chamber. (Vol. 2.. p. 289.; In the 42d of Edward the third (p. 227, a.) a Petition of the Commons, and the answers there- to, were read in the Court of Requests, in the presence of the King, Lords, and Commons; and a statement was made to the king in this Parlia^- 156 HOUSE OF COMMONS. ment '^ par les Grantz et Communes," by the Lords and Commons, all the former and many of the latter having dined with the king ; after which John de la Lee was put on his defence before them in the said place. In the 50th of Edward the third, (p. 283.) the Commons profess the utmost loyalty and goodwill to the king ; but add, that if he had faithful ministers about him, he must be rich enough to do without subsidies, especially con- sidering the sums of money brought into the kingdom by the ransoms of the king of France, the king of Scotland, &c. They then proceed to the impeachment of a considerable number of persons. And in the 51st of Edward the third, (p. 363.^ on the opening of the Parliament, the Commons were directed by the king to retire to their ancient place of meeting, in the Chapter House of the abbey of Westminster. To this record Lord Coke himself refers. It will be seen in the note p. 146, that Sir Thomas Huiigerford is mentioned as Speaker of the House of Commons ; and in the first of Richard the second, that Peter de la Mare was Speaker of the Commons. The second opinion of Lord Coke's to which allusion lias already been made, is, that if an act mentions only that the king enacts, and the Lords assent, without naming the Commons, the omis- HOUSE OF COMMONS, 157 sion cannot be supplied by any intendment. Lord Coke expressly says, if an act be penned, that ^* the king with the assent of the Lords," or *^ with the assent of the Commons,'' it is no act of Parliament, for three ought to assent to it, the King, the Lords, and the Commons ; or otherwise it is not an act of Parliament ; and by the record of the act it is expressed which of them gave their assent ; and that excludes all other intendments that any other gave their assent. (Lord Coke, 8th Report, p. 20, b.) How dangerous it would be to decide on the validity of our statutes, on such ground, will be seen by a single instance. The act of the first of Edward the sixth against exporting horses without a licence, after the reci- tal in the preamble, runs thus ; ** For remedy whereof, be it therefore enacted by our sovereign lord the king, and by the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, and by the autho- rity of the same," — the Lords being not once mentioned in the statute, which is accurately printed from the original act. Now it appears by the Lords' Journals, (vol, 1. p. 303, a,) that this act had not only the assent of the House of Lords, but that it had its origin in that House, where it passed unanimously, (p. 306, a.) was returned from the Commons with a proviso, which was agreed to by the Lords, (p. 312, a.) and is in the Journals among the acts passed that session, (p. 313, a.) 158 HOUSE OF COMMONS. There has not been found in the Records, the slightest foundation for an opinion, that there was any election of representatives of the Commons earlier than the 49th of Henry the third, 1 265, except in the entry respecting the borough of St. Alban's, so often referred to by different writers. It is, however, certain that those who held m capite of the king, were a necessary part of the great council, as early as king John's time, when aids and escuage were to be granted to the sovereign. In the 52d of Henry the third, 12G8, a parlia- ment, or more properly a great council, of Barons only, was held at Marlborough, where the great charter was confirmed. The members of this parliament or council were such of the great Barons and Tenants in capite, as the king pleased to summon thereto. King Edward the first, at Easter, 1276, held a parliament at Westminster, of Archbishops, Bishops, Abbots, Priors, Earls, Barons, and Commons, wherein many excellent laws were made, called the Statutes of Westminster the first. It is proper to mention that the Commons here spoken of, were not Knights of shires, or Bur- gesses, but the smaller Tenants who held in chief of the king, or Tenants in capite. It is generally said by our Historians, that the first time that any Citizens, or Burgesses were summoned to parliament by the king's authority, was in the 23d year of king Edward tl>e first, HOUSE OP COMMONS, 159 1294, but the editors of the Parliamentary History (vol. 1. p. 87 J have shewn that the same king, in the eleventh year of his reign, 1283, called a parliament to be holden at Shrewsbury, on occa- sion of taking prisoner, David, brother of Lle- wellyn, prince of Wales, the latter having lately been killed in battle. The king in summoning this Parliament was more explicit than he had ever been before. The writs of summons are still extant. The first is directed to the Barons to meet the king at Shrewsbury, on the 30th of September. The second writ is directed to the sheriffs of every county in England, to cause to be chosen two Knights for the commonalty of the county, as also a third directed to the several cities and boroughs mentioned, and a fourth writ to the Judges. Mr. Tyrrell observes, that " neither Prynne nor Dr. Brady, with all their diligence, have taken any notice of these writs to summon this Parliament. ** The writs were directed to all the Earls and Barons by name, to the number of 110; but the writs to the cities and boroughs are more remark- able, especially as they are the first upon record, requiring the attendance of the Knights of the shire, Citizens, and Burgesses, except those issued in the name of the late king Henry the third." 160 HOUSE OF COMMONS. The cities and boroughs to which these writ^; were directed were the following : — Bristol, Canterbury, Carlisle, Colchester, Chester, Exeter, Grimsby, Hereford, Lynn, Lincoln, Newcastle (Tyne,) Norwich, Northampton, Nottingham, Scarborough, Shrewsbury, Win- chester, Worcester, Yarmouth, (Norfolk) and York. In the 23d of Edward the third, 1294, a Par- liament was summoned to meet at Westminster, and writs were sent to the several sheriffs of England to cause to be elected two Knights for each county, two Citizens for each city, and two Burgesses for each borough, to be at the said Parliament, to consent and agree to such things, as the Earls, Barons, and Peers of the Realm should ordain ; and from this year is to be dated the first regular general summons of Knights, Citizens, and Burgesses to Parliament. It is proper to observe that in this Parliament, the Earls, Barons, and Knights of the several coun- ties, sat, treated, and consulted altogether, and gave the king an eleventh part of all their move- able goods ; the Citizens and Burgesses acted separately, and granted a seventh part of all their moveables, Li the more early period of the history of the House of Commons, M^hen the Parliament fre- quently sat only for a single day, the whole business being to grant the king a subsidy, it is HOUSE OF COMMONS. 161 probable that the Speaker might with more pro- priety be called the chairman, for sometimes one of the members was appointed to the chair, and sometiaies another ; some resolutions were or- dered to be made by one member, and others to be reported by another. In the 19th of Edward the second, 1325, Wi kind, checked the improvements of those bar- barians. The slothful effeminacy of the former, exposed them to the contempt ; the sullen feroci- 174 BR. HERSCHEL. ousness of the latter, excited the aversion of the conquerors. Those nations had submitted to the Roman power, but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city ; and it was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years elapsed after the ruin of the Ptole- mys, before an Egyptian was admitted into the Senate of Rome, the first instance of which happened under the reign of Septimius Severus. Dr. HERSCHEL. J.N the History of Doncaster, written by Dr. Miller, we find the following account of the early years of this eminent astronomer : — " It will ever be a gratifying reflection to me,'* says Dr. Miller, " that I was the first person by whose means this extraordinary genius was drawn from a state of obscurity. About the year 1760, as I was dining with the officers of the Durham militia, at Pontefract, one of them informed me, that they had a young German in their band, as a performer on the hautboy, who had been only a few months in this country, and yet spoke English almost as well as a native ; that exclu- sively of the hautboy, he was an excellent per- former on the violin, and if I chose to repair to ^mother room, he should entertain me with a solo* DR. HERSCHEL. 175 I did so, and Mr. Herschel executed a solo of Giordani's in a manner that surprised me. After- wards I took an opportunity to have a little private conversation with him, and requested to know if he had engaged himself to the Durham militia for any long" period ? he answered, " No, only from month to month.'* Leave them then, said I, and come and live with me; I am a single man, and think we shall be happy to- gether; doubtless your merit will soon entitle you to a more eligible situation. He consented to my request, and came to Doncaster. It is true, at that time, my humble mansion consisted but of two rooms; however, poor as I was, my cottage contained a small library of well chosen books ; and it must appear singular, that a young German, who had been so short a time in Eng- land, should understand even the peculiarities of our language so well, as to adopt Dean Swift for his favourite author. I took an early opportunity of introducing him at Mr. Copley's concert; and he presently began " Untwisting all the charms that tie " The hidden soul of harmony.'* For never before had we heard the concertos of Corelli, Geminiani, and Avison, or the overtures of Handel, performed more chastely, or more according to the original intention of the com- posers, than by Mr. Herschel. I soon lost my companion ; his fume was presently spread abroad, 176 DR. HER8C11EJL. he had the offer of scholars, and was solicited to lead the public concerts at Wakefield and Halifax. " About this time a new organ, for the parish church of Halifax, was built by Snetzler; which was opened with an oratorio, by the late well- known Joah Bates. Mr. Herschel, and six others, were candidates for the organist's place. They drew lots how they were to perform in rotation. Herschel drew the third lot — ^the second perform- er was Mr. (afterwards Dr.) Wainwright, of Manchester, whose finger was so rapid, that old Snetzler^the organ builder, ran about the church exclaiming : — " Te tevil, te tevil, he run over te keys like one cat, he will not give my pipes room for to shpeak !*' During Mr. Wainwright's per- formance, I was standing in the middle aile with Herschel ; — What chance have you, said I, to follow this man ? He replied, " 1 do not know, I am sure fingers will not do.*' On which he ascended the loft, and produced from the organ such an uncommon fullness, such a volume of slow, solemn harmony, that I could by no means account for the effect. After this short extempo- rary effusion, he finished with the old hundredth psalm, which he played better than his opponent. " Aye, aye," cried old Snetzler, " tish is very goot, very goot inteet ; I will luf tish man, for he gives my pipes room for to shpeak V' Hav- ing afterwards asked Herschel by what means, in the beginning of his performance he produced PARODIES, 177 such an uncommon effect? he replied, "I told you fing'ers would not do,'* and producing two pieces of lead from his pocket, *' one of these," said he, " I placed on the lowest key of the organ, and the other upon the octave above ; thus by accommodating the harmony, I produced the effect of four hands instead of two. However, as my leading the concert on the violin, is their principal object, they will give me the place in preference to a better performer on the organ ; but I shall not stay long here, for 1 have the offer of a superior situation at Bath, which offer I shall accept/' PARODIES. X HE present use of this word is strictly con- sonant with that of the ancients, who applied it to the giving a ridiculous turn to passages in Homer and the tragic Poets. There are many in Aristophanes. One of the happiest modern instances is the parody of the speech of Sarpe- don to Glaucus in the Rape of the Lock. The genealogy of Agamemnon's sceptre is also parodied in the same poem, canto 5, v. 87. A a 173 MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. J.N the Mosaic lavy the Israelites were com- manded not to cut themselves for the dead. The original Hebrew has, however a more extensive meaning- than cutting, and includes all assaults on their own persons, arising from immoderate grief, such as beating the breasts, tearing the hair, &c. which were commonly practised by the heathen, who had no hope of a resurrection, particularly by the Egyptians, which might afford a particular reason for the Mosaic prohi- bition. We may also observe, that among the Romans, it was ordained by one of the laws of the twelve tables, " Let not women tear their faces, or make lamentations at funerals,'' which proves that this v^^as the custom with the Romans, previously to making this law. No doubt the law itself was immediately borrowed from the Athenian code, of which it is a literal translation. The Priests of Baal, (\ Kings, ch. 18, v. 28.) assaulted themselves with knives and lances, which was indeed equivalent to cutting them- selves. Nor was this frantic custom confined to the Priests of Baal; the Gcdli, and other devotees of the Syrian goddess, cut their arms. GARRICK. 119 and scourged each others backs, according to Lucian. ** Baal's Priests", says Dr. Leland, ** were wont to cut and slash themselves with knives and lances. The same thing was prac- tised in the worship of Isis, according to Hero- dotus, and of Bellona, as Lucan mentions. Many authors take notice of the solemnities of Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose priests in their sacred processions, made hideous noises and howlings, cutting themselves till the blood gushed out, as they went along." GARRICK. J. HE genius of Garrick seems to have been particularly calculated to introduce Shakespeare on the stage. He knew how to alter hihi so as to fit him for the audience of the present day, without divesting him of any of his excellencies, and the few additions he has ventured are in the spirit of the original. These Plays, so altered, are likely to keep possession of the theatre, while every other attempt at change or improvement are forgotten, except Gibber's Richard the Third, and Tate's Lear, which, with some correction of Garrick's, are still acted, though the alteration of the last is directly in opposition to the precepts of Aristotle and Mr. Addison. A a 2 180 GARRICK. Gibber, though versed in the province of the drama, w^hich is perhaps essential to make a good dramatic writer, since the knovi^ledge of stage effect is of great consequence, possessed a genius not above mediocrity; and Tate ^ was a very indifferent poet. Yet there is a line in Gibber's Richard, written by himself, so charac- teristic of the manner of his archetype, that it has often been cited as one of Shakespeare's beauties. I mean the exclamation of Richard, on Buckingham's being taken, *^ Off with his head ! so much for Buckingham." And I heard, says Mr. Pye, (Comment, on Aristotle,) Mr. Pitt, afterwards Lord Ghatham, quote the following verse of Tate's, in the House of Gommons, undoubtedly taking it for Shake- speare's, '^ Where the gor'd battle bleeds in every vein." The tragedy of Hamlet was, by order of Mrs. Garrick, thrown into Garrick's grave. Though he was undoubtedly great in that character, he was equally so in many of Shakespeare's charac- ters, and superior in Lear. The comic characters it is presumed were thought too light for so solemn an occasion. If by burying that tragedy with Garrick it was meant to infer that it was lost to the stage with him, a complete edition of Shakespeare might, with the utmost propriety have been interred with that inimitable actor. LEMONS. 3i8l LEMONS. ThEOPHRASTUS, who studied under Plato and Aristotle, says of lemons, that they were culti- vated for their fragrance, not for their taste; that the peel was laid up with g-arments, t6 preserve them from moths; and that the juice was administered by physicians medicinally. Virgil in his second Georgic, describes agree ably the Lemon-tree. Pliny mentions the lemon- juice as an antidote ; but says that the fruit, from its austere taste, was not eaten. Plutarch, who flourished within a generation of Pliny, witnessed the introduction of lemons at the Roman tables. Juba, king of Mauritania, was the first who exhibited them at his dinners. And Athenaeus introduces Democritus as not wondering that old people made wry mouths at the taste of lemons ; for, adds he, in my grand- father's time, they were never set upon the table. And to this day the Chinese, who grow the fruit, do not apply it to culinary purposes. The great use of lemons began with the intro- duction of sugar, which is said to have resulted from the conquest of Sicily, by the Arabs, in the ninth century. Sestini, in his letters from Sicily and Turkey, thinks that the best sorts of lemons, 182 ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. and the best sorts of sherbet, were derived from Florence, b}^ the Sicilians. Probably Rome continued, even in the dark ages, to be the chief seat of luxury and refinement j and had domesti- cated the art of making lemonade, before either Messina or Florence. In Madagascar slices of lemon are boiled, and eaten with salt. Pomet, in his History of Drugs, gives the pre- ference over all others to the lemons of Madeira ; but according to Ferrarius, there grows at the Cape a sweet lemon, to which he gives the name incomparahilis. ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. Tt E meet with inexplicable enigmas in the codes of the laws of the barbarians. The law of the Frisians allowed only about the value of a farthing, by way of compensation, to a person who had been beaten with a stick ; and yet for ever such a small wound it allows more. By the Salic law, if a freeman gave three blows with a stick to another freeman, he paid about three halfpence; if he drew blood, he was punished as if he had wounded him with steel, and he paid about seven-pence halfpenny ; thus the punish- ment was proportioned to the greatness of the ORIGIN OF THE POINT OF HONOUR. 183 wound. The law of the Lombards established different compensations for one, two, three, four blows, and so on. At present a single blow is equivalent to a hundred thousand. The constitution of Charlemagne, inserted in the law of the Lombards, ordains, that those who neve allowed the trial by combat, should fight with clubs. Perhaps this was out of regard to the clergy ; or, probably, as the usage of legal duels gained ground, they wanted to render them less sanguinary. The capitulary of Louis the Pious, added to the Salic law in 819, allows the liberty of chusing to fight either with the sword or club. In process of time none but bondmen or slaves fought with the club. Here may be seen the first rise and formation of the particular articles of our point of honour. The accuser began with declaring, in the pre- sence of the judge, that such a person had committed such an action, and the accused made answer that, he lied; upon which the judi^^e gave orders for the duel. It became then an established rule, that whenever a person had the lie given him, it was incumbent on him to fight. Upon a man's declaring he would fight, he could not afterwards depart from his word; if he did, he was condemned to a penalty. Hence this rule followed, that whenever a person had engaged his word, honour forbade him to recal it. Gentlemen fought one another on horseback, 181 ORIGIN OF THE POINT Ol^ HONOUR. armed at all points ; villans fought on foot, and with clubs.* Hence it followed, that the club was looked upon as the instrument of insults and afFronts,t because to strike a man with it, was treating him like a villan. No one but villans fought with their faces un- covered; J so that none but they could receive a blow on the face. Therefore a box on the ear, became an injury that must be expiated with blood, because the person who received it, had been treated as a villan. The several people of Germany were not less sensible of the point of honour. The most * The club was in use at the Norman Conquest, and in the succeeding ages. St. Louis had a band of Guards armed with clubs, and was himself very dextrous in the use of it. Pennant, in describing the customs of the ancient Bards and Minstrels of Wales, says, that the lowest of the musical tribe was the Datceiniad pen pustzon^ or he that sung to the sound of his club, being ignorant of every other kind of instrument. When he was permitted to be introduced, h^ was obliged to stand in the middle of the hall, and sing his cowydd or awdl^ beating time, and playing the symphony with his pasfzcn or club ; but if there was a professor of music present, his leave must be first obtained before he pre- sumed to entertain the company with this species of melody. Wherever he came he must act as a menial servant to the bard or minstrel. + Among the Romans it was not infamous io be beaten with a stick. J They had only the club and buckler. GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 185 distant relations took a very considerable share to themselves in every affront, and on this all their codes are founded. The law of the Lombards ordains, that whoever goes attended with servants to beat a man by surprize, in order to load him thereby with shame, and to render him ridicu- lous, should pay half the compensation, which he would owe if he had killed him ; and if through the same motive he tied or bound him, he should pay three fourths of the same com- pensation. GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. OeOFFREY of Monmouth was the first person, after the conquest, who attempted to write any thing concerning the ancient history of Britain. Although the century, in which he lived, is known, yet neither his family, the time of his birth, nor the place of his education has been ascertained. We are only informed that he was born at Monmouth, and became archdeacon of that place, and that he was consecrated bishop of St. Asaph, in llo2, which he resigned to live in the monastery of Abingdon. By some writers he is called a monk of the Dominican order, but, according to Leland, without sufficient authority. Warton says that he was a Benedictine monk. Bb 186 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. Tlie history which has made his name cele- brated, is entitled Chronicon sive Historia Bri- iofium. This history, written in the British or Armorican language, was brought into England by Walter Mapes, otherwise Calenius, archdea- con of Oxford, a learned man, and a diligent --/dbMion'5 Lives of Iht Poeis^ Art. Milton, D d ^02 GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. of making the early period of the British history, from Brutus to Arthur, the subject of an Epic Poem. The poetical language of Milton was peculiarly suited to this species of romance ; he would have exalted the legends of Geoffrey, and enriched with the finest imagery the incanta- tions and prophecies of Merlin, the heroic deeds of Vortimer, Aurelius, and Uther Pendragon. The fables of Geoffrey have been clothed in rhyme by Robert of Gloucester, a monk of the abbey of Gloucester. He has left a poem of considerable length, which is a history of Eng- land in verse, from Brutus to the reign of Edward the first. His rhyming chronicle is, however, destitute either of art or imagination, and Geoffrey's prose, frequently has a more poetical air than this author's verses. It was evidently written after the year 1278, as the poet mentions king Arthur's sumptuous tomb, erected in that year, before the high altar of Glaston- bury abbey, and he declares himself a living witness of the remarkably dismal weather which distinguished the day on which the battle of Evesham was fought in the year 1265. From these and other circumstances this piece appears to have been composed about the year 1280, It is full of Saxonisms, which indeed abound more or less, in every writer before Gower and Chaucer. Geoffrey was also copied by an old French GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH. 20S poet, called Maister Wace, or Gasse, from which Robert de Brunne in his metrical chronicle of England translated that part which extends from JEneas to the death of Cadwallader. Wace's poem is commonly called Roman de Rois d'Angleterre, and is esteemed one of the oldest of the French Romances. With respect to the materials this chronicle has afforded to other writers, I will here give an instance or two. Tyrrel, in his history of England, acknow- ledges that his first book is an epitome of Geoffrey's pretended history ; but at the same time says that if it had not been more for the diver- sion of the younger sort of readers, and that the work would have been thought to be imperfect without it, he should have been much better satisfied in wholly omitting it. In the preface to S tow's chronicle, (folio, 1631) the editor observes that Neubrigensis had written several invectives against Geoffrey, but more out of spleen than judgment. He charges that writer with maliciously endeavouring to destroy the credit of Geoffrey, because he himself having been a supplicant for the bishoprick of St. Asaph, had been rejected by the Prince of Wales, and had thus become the opponent of the Welsh his- tory. His observations. Stow says, have been confuted by Sir John Price, Dr. Powel, and also by Lambard, in his perambulations of Kent. 204 GEOFPEEY OF MONMOUTH. Stow then mentions John of Whcthamsted, Polydore Virgil, and others, who have written against Geoffrey, and afterwards enumerates a long list of writers, as having uniformly supported him, or in other words, who have copied his history into their own chronicles. — Hume occa- sionally refers to Geoffrey, as an authority for some matters respecting the Saxon period of his history. The History of Geoffrey was printed at Paris, in quarto, in 1508, and again in the same size, by Ascensius, in 1517. It was also printed with five other British historians, in folio, at Ley den? in 1587. Ponticus Virunnius, an Italian author, made an abridgment of it, in six books, which was printed at London, by Powel, in J 585, and also in the edition just mentioned. A translation of Geoffrey's chronicle was made by Aaron Thompson, and published at London in 1718, to which was prefixed a long preface, relating to the authority of the history. Thomp- son's vindication of his author is elaborately written, and he defends him with great skill and learning ; but after refuting the charge of forgery, he has failed in his attempt to establish Geoffrey ^s work as an historical performance, for he him- self invalidates its authority, by acknowledging that it was only such an irregular account, as the Britons were able to preserve in those times of destruction and confbsion, with the addition J-UPTING UP THE HAND IN SWEARING. 205 of some romantic tales, which indeed might be traditions amonar the Welsh, and such as Geoffrev mi^ht think entertaining stories for the credulity of the times. Thompson, in his preface, says that in making his translation, he used two editions of Geoffrey. The first was the Paris edition of Ascensius, 1517, which abounds with abbreviations of words, sometimes rendering their reading ambiguous* The other was the edition of Commeline, printed in the year 1587, which is much the most correct. These two were printed from different manu- icripts, and there is a considerable variation between them, especially in the orthography of persons and places. This observation extends to the several ancient abridgments of Geoffrey, by Alfred of Beverley ,^ Ralph Diceto, Matthew of Westminster, Ralph Higden, and Ponticus Virunnius. LIFTING UP THE HAND IN SWEARING. ?T E find this significant ceremony of lifting up the hand in swearing, practised by the Greeks and Trojans. Thus Agamemnon swears in Homer, (Iliad, 7, 412) << To all the gods his sceptre be uplifts." 206 LIFTING UP THE HANB IN SWEARING. And Dolon requiring an oath of Hector, (Iliad, 10, 321) <' But first exalt thy sceptre to the skies, *' And swear " So in Virgil, (JEn. 12, 196) we find Latinus, when swearing, looking up to heaven, and stretching his right hand to the stars. And we even meet with traditionary traces of their gods swearing in like manner. Thus Apollo, in Pindar, orders Lachesis, one of the Fates, to lift up her hands and not violate the great oath of the gods. Giving one's hand under, or to another was a token of submission. It was acknowledging his own power subject to that of the other. In this manner all the princes submitted to Solomon, (1 Chron. 29, 24) and Hezekiah commands the children of Israel, (2 Chron. 30, 8) to give the hand to Jehovah, that is to submit them- selves and ascribe the power and the glory to him. Homage is still performed in many places by the homager's kneeling down and putting his hands between those of his lord, then taking an oath of fealty to him ; after which they kiss each other's cheek, in token of friendship and fidelity. Giving the hand, was also a token of promis- ing ; it was a kind of staking their active powers for the performance of some promise or engage- ment. (See Ezra, 10, 19.) The joining or taking of hands, among the VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 207 ancients, betokened confederacy, or confirmation of some promise. This is illustrated by Homer's expression, (Iliad, 21, 286) where Neptune and Minerva appear to Achilles, in a human shape, and confirm their promise, by taking his hand in their's. So (Iliad, 6, 233) Glaucus and Diomed took hold of each other's hands, and plighted their faith. On which line, Eustathius remarks, they plighted their faith to each other, by the accustomed ceremony of joining their right hands.* We observe the same mode of joining hands in our marriage ceremony ; and the custom of shak- ing hands, has also reference to some engagement for the future, as well as being a token of friend- ship and amity. VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. A TREATY of marriage between Charles, prince of Wales, (afterwards Charles I.) and the Infanta of Spain, having been a long time in agitation, Buckingham, in JG23, persuaded Prince Charles to make a journey into Spain, and to fetch home his mistress, the Infanta, by representing to him^ how brave and gallant an action it would be, and how soon it would put ♦ ParkhuTSt's Ueb, Lejc. ^71. 208 VILLIERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. an end to those formalities, which, though aii substantial matters were already agreed upon, might yet retard her voyage to England many months. It is suggested by Lord Clarendon, that Buckingham's motive for this journey, was an unwillingness that the Earl of Bristol, the ambassador in Spain, should have the sole ho- nour of concluding the treaty of marriage. How- «ver, the king was vehemently against this journey, and indeed with good reason; but the solicitations of the prince, and the impetuosity of Buckingham, prevailed. It appears that Buckingham, during his stay in Spain, behaved with great insolence to the Earl of Bristol, the English ambassador at that court. In a letter, written by the Earl to king James, we have the following particulars: — ♦' Let your Majesty call some certain men unto you, and sift out of them the opinion of the more moderate parliament-men ; and enquire of those that come out of Spain, who did give the first cause of falling out? Whether the Duke of Buckingham did not many things against the authority and reverence due to the Prince? Whether he was not wont to be sitting, whilst the Prince stood, and was in presence ; and also to have his feet resting upon another seat, after an indecent manner ? Whether, when the Princ<* was uncovered whilst the Queen and Infanta looked out at the window, he uncovered his head VILLTERS, DUKE OF BUCKINGHAM. 209 or not? Whether, sitting at table with the prince, he did not behave himself nnreverently ? Whether he were not wont to come into the prince's chamber, with his clothes half on, so that the doors could not be opened to them that came to visit the prince from the king* of Spain, the door-keepers refusing* to go in for modesty sake ? Whether he did not call the prince by ridiculous names ? Whether he did not dishonour and profane the king's palace with base and con- temptible women ? Whether he did not divers obscene things, and used not immodest gesticula- tions, and wanton tricks with players in the presence of the prince ? Whether he did not violate his faith to the Duke d'Olivarez, the Spanish prime minister ? Whether he did not presently communicate his discontents, offences, and complaints, to the ambassadors of other princes ? Whether in doing of his business, he did not use frequent threatenings unto the catholic king's ministers, and to apostolical nuncios ? Whether he did not affect to sit at plays presented in the king's palace, after the manner and exam- ple of the king and prince, being not contented with the honour that is ordinarily given to the high steward or major-domo of the king's house ?" There is sufficient reason for believing, that most of these queries may be answered in the affirmative. E e 210 KING ARTHUR, KING ARTHUR. In a century (A. D. 400 to A. D. 500) of perpetual, or at least implacable war, much courage, and some skill, must have been exerted for the defence of Britain, on the departure of the Roman legions, against the Saxon invaders. Yet if the memory of its champions is almost buried in oblivion, we need not repine; since every age, however destitute of science or virtue, sufficiently abounds with acts of blood and mili- tary renown. The tomb of Vortimer, the son of Vortigern, was erected on the margin of the sea- shore, as a landmark formidable to the Saxons, whom he had thrice vanquished in the fields of Kent. Ambrosius Aurelian was descended from a noble family of Romans, his modesty was equal to his valour, and his valour, till the last fatal action, was crowned with splendid success. But every British name is effaced by the illustrious name of Arthur, the hereditary prince of the Silures, who inhabited South Wales, and the elective king or general of the nation. According to the most rational accounts, he defeated, in twelve successive battles, the Angles of the North, and the Saxons of the West ; but the declining ago of the hero was embittered by KING ARTHUR. 211 popular ingratitude and domestic misfortunes.. The events of his life are less interesting, thaa the sinofular revolutions of his fame. Durinof a period of five hundred years the tradition of his exploits was preserved, and rudely embellished, by the obscure bards of Wales and Armorica, who were odious to the Saxons, and unknown to the rest of mankind. The pride and curiosity of the Norman conquerors, prompted them to enquire into the ancient history of Britain ; they listened with fond credulity to the tale of Arthur, and eagerly applauded the merit of a prince, who had triumphed over the Saxons, their common enemies. His romance, transcribed in the latin of Geoffrey of Monmouth, and afterwards trans- lated into the fashionable idiom of the times, was enriched with the various, though incoherent ornaments, which were familiar to the experience, the learning, or the fancy of the twelfth century. The progress of a Phrygian colony from the Tyber to the Thames, was easily engrafted on the fable of the >^neid ; and the royal ancestors of Arthur derived their origin from Troy, and claimed their alliance with the Caesars, Hi* trophies were decorated with captive provinces and imperial titles ; and his Danish victories avenged the recent injuries of his country. The gallantry and superstition of the British hero, his feasts and tournaments, and the memorable institution of his knights of the romid table, were Ee 2 212 KING ARTHUR. faithfully copied from the reigriing* manners of chivalry, and the fabulous exploits of Uther's son, appear less incredible than the adventures which were achieved by the enterprising valour of the Normans. Pilgrimage and the holy wars, introduced into Europe the specious miracles of Arabian magic. Fairies and giants, flying dragons, and enchanted palaces, were blended with the more simple fictions of the west ; and the fate of Britain dt^pended on the art, or the predictions of Merlin. Every nation embraced and adorned the popular romance of Arthur and the knights of the round table : their names were celebrated in Greece and Italy ; and the volumi- nous tales of Sir Lancelot and Sir Tristram were devoutly studied by the princes and nobles, who disregarded the genuine heroes and historians of antiquity. At length the light of science and reason was rekindled ; the talisman was broken ; the visionary fabric melted into air, and by a natural, though unjust reverse of the public opinion, the severity of the present age is inclined to question even the exislence of Arthur. ALCHEMY. 213 ALCHEMY. About the year 290, the Emperor Diocletian published a very remarkable edict which instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence and humanity. He caused a diligent enquiry to be made for all tjie ancient books which treated of the art of making gold and silver, and without pity committed them to the flames ; apprehensive, it is remarked, lest the opulence of the Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against tlie empire. But if Diocletian had been convinced of the reality of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the memoirs, he would have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the public revenue. It is much more likely, that his good sense discovered to him the folly of such magnificent pretensions, and that he was desirous of preserving the reason and fortunes of his sub- jects from the mischievous pursuit. It may be remarked that these ancient books, so liberally ascribed to Pythagoras, to Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent adepts. I'he Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the abuse of chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited the 214 NOBLE FAMILIES discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind; there is not the least mention of the transmu- tation of metals, and the persecution of Diocle- tian is the first authentic event in the history of Alchemy. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the globe. Con- genial to the avarice of the human heart, it was studied in China as in Europe, with equal eager- ness, and with equal success. The darkness of the middle ages ensured a favourable reception to every tale of wonder, and the revival of learn- ing gave new vigour to hope, and suggested more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the aid of experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy ; and the present age, however desirous of riches, is content to seek them by the humbler means of commerce and industry. ACCOUNT OF SEVERAL NOBLE FAMILIES IN ENGLAND WHO OWE THEIR ELEVATION TO THE PEERAGE TO THEIR ANCESTORS HAVING BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. J.T is a striking and peculiar feature in the constitiition of England, that men who render themselves eminent in the liberal sciences, in the arts, or in commerce, frequently find their pur- WHO HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. 215 suits conduct them to a high degree of rank and estinnation in the state ; and the sovereign has, in numerous instances, conferred the honour of the Peerage on certain individuals, who ha\e con- tributed by their abilities to enlarge and promote the manufactures and conmierce of the nation. Among the families whose ancestors have deserved well of their country, and who owe their elevation to the Peerage to their forefathers having been engaged in trade, the following are honourable instances. The Earls of Coventry are descended from John Coventry, son of William Coventry, of the city of that name. The former \\?is an opulent mercer, and resided in London, of which city he was Lord Mayor in 142-3, and one of the executors of the celebrated VVhittinofton. He was a resolute and determined magistrate, and was highly commended for his spirited inter- ference in the dreadful quarrel between Hum- phrey Duke of Gloucester, and the insolent Cardinal Beaufort, which he successfully quelled. The family of Rich, Karls of Warwick and Holland, arose from Richard Rich, an opulent mercer, sheriff of London in the year 1441. His descendant, Richard, was distinguished by his knowledge of the law ; became Solicitor General in the reign of king Henry the eighth, and treacherously effected the ruin of Sir Thomas More ; was created a baron of the realm in the 216 NOBLE FAMILIES reign of Edward the sixth, and became Lord Chancellor by the favour of the same monarch. The HoLLEs's, Earls of Clare, and afterwards Dukes of Newcastle, sprung* from Sir William Holies, Lord Mayor of London in 1540, son of William Holies, citizen and baker. His great- grandson was the first who was called to the House of Peers, in the reign of James the first, by the title of Lord Haughton, and soon after was advanced to the dignity of Earl of Clare. The fourth peer of that title was created by king William, Duke of Newcastle ; but the title became extinct in his name in 1711. Sir Thomas Leigh, Lord Mayor of London, in 1558, furnished the Peerage with the addition of two. He was the son of Roger Leigh, of Wellington, in Shropshire. Sir Thomas's grand- son, Francis, was created by Charles the first, Lord Dunsmore, and afterwards Earl of Chiches- ter; and Sir Thomas's second son. Sir Thomas Leigh, of Stoneleigh, had the honour of being called to the House of Peers by the title of Lord Leigh, of Stoneleigh. The Pleydell-Bouveries, Earls of Rad- nor, descend from Edward De Bouverie, an opulent Turkey merchant, who died in 1694. DuciE, Lord Ducie, is descended from Sir Robert Ducie, who belonged to the company of merchant tailors, and was sheriff of London in 1621, and Lord Mayor in 1631. He was WHO HAVE BEEN ENGAGED IN TRADE. 217 immensely rich, and was made banker to king Charles the first, and on the breaking out of the rebellion, lost ^80,000, owing to him by his Majesty, Nevertheless he is said to have left at the time of his death, property in land, money, 3-2 JOHN RAY. not appear what other property he possessed, except his fellowship of Trinity. Though the o-eneratious which have followed him have pro- duced a Linnaeus, a BufFon, and a Pennant, yet Ray*s fame is too well established ever to be sup- planted. He was a wise, a learned, as well as a pious and modest man, and ever ready to impart that knowledge which he had taken so much pains to acquire. He died in 1705 with a devout humility that had ever distinguished him, wishing- that he had spent much more of his life in the immediate service of his Creator. There was no task too arduous for Ray ; if Lister, a con- temporary naturalist, would have gone to the bottom of the ocean for a shell, Ray would have climbed to the extreme point of the Alps for a new plant. In the church-yard of Black Notley, his native place, there is a long and elegant inscription to the memory of this great man, and in the library of Trinity College, there is a fine marble bust of him, in company with Bacon and oth(r splendid ornaments of that magnificent foundation. LONDON BANKERS. 233 LONDON BANKERS, AND THEIR ORIGIN. JL HE company of Goldsmiths, in London, appeared as a fraternity, as early as 1 180, but it was in the reign of Edward the third, that they were first incorporated. They became, in time, the bankers of the capital. The Lombards were the first and greatest, and most of the money contracts, in old times, passed through their hands. Many of our monarchs were obliged to them for money. — The three blue balls, now used by pawnbrokers, but converted by them into golden ones, are, in reality, the arms of the Lombards. Lombard-street, in the metropolis, took its name from being the residence of the LomF)ards, the great money-changers and usurers of early times. They came out of Italy into this kingdom before the year 1274; at length their extortions be- came so great, that Edward the third seized on their estates ; perhaps the necessity of furnishing himself with money for his Flemish expedi- tion, might have urged him to this step. They seem quickly to have repaired their loss; for complaint was soon after made against them, for persisting ia their practices. They were so H h HM LONDON BANKERS. opulent in the days of Henry the fourth, as to be able to furnish hira with money, but they took care to get the customs mortgaged to them, by way of security. They continued in Lombard-street till the reign of queen Elizabeth, and to this day it is filled with the shops of eminent bankers. The shop of tlie great Sir Thomas Gresham stood in Lombard- street; it is now occupied by Messrs. Martin and 8tone, bankers, who are still in possession of the original sign of that illustrious person, the Grasshopper. The business of goldsmiths was confined to the buying and selling of plate, and foreign coins of gold and silver, melting them, and coining others at the mint. The banking was acciden*- tal and foreign to their institution. Regular banking by private persons resulted in 1G43 from the calamity of the times, when a seditious spirit was incited by the acts of the parliamentary leaders. The merchants and tradesmen who before trusted their cash to their servants and apprentices found that mode no longer safe ; neither did they dare to leave it in the mint at the tower, by reason of the distresses of majesty itself, which before was a place of public deposit. \\\ the year 1645, they first [)i;iccd their cash in the hands of goldsmiths, who then began publicly to exercise the two professions of goldsmiths and bankers. Even of LONDON BANKERS. 2.3-5 late years there were several very eminent bank- ers who kept the goldsmith's shop -, but they were more frequently separated. The first regular banker was Mr. Francis Child, goldsmith, who began business after the restoration. He was the father of the profession^ a person of large fortune, of most respectable character, and he was knighted by the king. He lived in Fleet-street, in the house adjoining Temple-bar, where the banking business is still carried on in the same firm, though by different persons. Granger, in his Biographical History, mentions that Mr. Child succeeded Mr. Back- well,* a banker in the time of Charles the second, noted for his integrity, abilities, and in- dustry ; who was ruined by the shutting up of the Exchequer in 1672. f His books were placed in the hands of Mr. Child, and still remain in the family. * He was an alderman of London, and after the Ex- chequer was shut retired to Holland, where he died, and was brought over to be interred in the church of Tyringham, in Buckinghamshire, where he lies embalmed. A glass is placed over his face, so that it is likely he may even be seen at this time. There is a small portrait of him at Tyringliam House, in which he is represented in long hair and a flowered gown, with a table by him. + A part of the national debt, amounting to £664,263, is as old as this iniquitous transaction of Charles the second and his ministers. This sum was all that those persons re- ceired, who had placed their property and their confidence in that monarch, for the loss of j£l, 328,526, and 26 years interest thereon at 6 per cent, about j£2, 100,000 more» 236 LONDON BANKERS. The next ancient shop was that possessed at present by Messrs. Snow and Co. in the Strand, a few doors westward of Mr. Child's, who were g-oldsmiths of consequence in the latter part of the same reign. Mr. Gay cele- brates the predecessor of these gentlemen, for his sagacity in escaping the ruin of the fatal year 1720, in his epistle to Mr. Thomas Snow, gold- smith, near Temple-bar : — O thou whose penetrative wisdom found The South Sea rocks and shelves where thousands drowned. When credit sunk and commerce gasping lay, Thou stoodst ; nor sent'st one bill unpaid away. To the westward of Temple-bar the only other house was that of Messrs. Middleton and Camp- bell, goldsmiths, who flourished in 1692, and is now continued with great credit by Mr. Coutts. From thence to the extremity of the west end of the town there were none till the year 1756, when the respectable name of Backwell rose again, con- joined with those of Darel, Hart, and Croft, who with great reputation opened their shop (after- wards the house of Devaynes, Noble, and Co.) in PallmaJl. ELUCIDATION OF THE OKNAMENTS, kc. 237 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS WITH WHICH THE GREEKS AND ROMANS ADORNED THE HUMAN HEAD ON COINS AND MEDALS. THE DIADEM. M. HE chief of these ornaments is the diadem, or vitta, which was a ribband worn about the head, and tied in a floating knot behind. This was anciently the simple, but superlative badge of king-ly power. It is observable upon the Greek monarchical medals, from the earliest ages, to the last, without any other ornament, and is almost an infallible sign of kingly power, and that the portrait, if there be no other characteristic, is that of a prince. In the Roman coins it is seen on the Consular ones with Numa and Ancus ; but never afterwards till the time of Licinius. So great an aversion had the Romans to this kingly distinc- tion, that their emperors had for more than two centuries worn the radiated crown, peculiar to the gods, before they dared to assume the diadem, which was considered as the symbol of tyranny. In the family of Constantine, the diadem becomes common, though not with tiie 238 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. ancient simplicity, being ornamented on either edge with a row of pearls, and various other deco- rations. The Greek queens used the diadem, but the Roman empresses never appear with it ; however, the variety of their head dresses more than com- pensates for the want of this ornament. THE RADIATED CROWN. The radiated crown was, at first, as on the posthumous coins of Augustus, a mark of deifi- cation, and in little more than a century after, was put upon most of the emperors' heads on their several medals. THE CROWN OF LAUREL. The crown of laurel was at first the honorary prize of conquerors, but was afterwards com- monly worn, at least on their medals, by all the Roman emperors, from Julius C^sar, v^ho was permitted by the senate to wear it always, to hide the baldness of his forehead. This per- haps gave rise to the first emperors always ap- pearing with it on their coins, a circumstance continued even to our times, and looking at its origin is now a little laughable. The laurel employed by the ancients in forming their crowns, is apparently what we term the Alexandrian laurel, a most beautiful evergreen, of a fine tender verdure. In the lower empire the laurel is often held by a hand above the head as a mark of piety. ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 239 THE ROSTRAL CROWN. Agrippa appears on his coins with the rostral crown, a sign of naval victory or command, being made of gold, in resemblance of prows of ships, tied together. THE MURAL CROWN. Agrippa is likewise seen with the mural or turretted crown, the prize of first ascending the walls of an enemy's city. THE CIVIC CROWN. The oaken or civic crown is frequent on reverses, as of Galba and others ; and was the badge of having saved the life of a citizen, or of many citizens. THE HELMET. The helmet appears on coins; as in those of Macedon under the Romans, which have a head of Alexander, sometimes covered with a helmet. Probus also has often the helmet on his coins ; and Constantine the first, has helmets of diflferent forms curiously ornamented. THE NIMBUS OR GLORY. The nimbus or glory, now peculiar to the saints, was formerly applied to emperors, A nimbus appears round the head of Constantine the second, in a gold coin of that prince ; and of Flavia Maxima Fausta, in a gold medallion ; and of Justinian in another. But the idea is as ancient as the reign of Augustus, and is found in Roman authors, before it appeared on coins. 240 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. Oiselius gives a coin of Antoninus Pius, with the nimbus, but this however is doubtful, and may have been some flaw in the coin from whicji he engraved his representation. OTHER ORNAMENTS OF THE HEAD. Besides the diadem, the Greek princes some- times appear with the laurel crown. The Arsacidae, or kings of Parthia, wear a kind of sash round the head, with their hair in rows of curls like a wig. Tigranes and the kings of Armenia, wear the tiara, a singular kind of cap, but the well known badge of imperial power in the ancient eastern world. Xerxes, a petty prince of Armenia, appears in a coin extant of him in a conical cap, with a diadem around it. Juba, the father, has a singular crown, like a conical cap, all hung with pearls. The successors of Alexander assumed by way of distinction, diff'erent symbols of the Deity, to be observed on the busts of their medals, such as the lion's skin of Hercules, which surrounds the head of the first Seleucus ; the horn placed behind the ear, an image of their strength and power, or of their being the successors of Alex- ander, called the son of Jupiter Ammon 3 the wing placed in like manner behind the ear, jsymbolic of the rapidity of their conquests, or of their being descendants from the god Mercury. Some authors, however, have doubted if all these heads be not of gods, except those with ELUCIDATION OP THE ORNAMENTS, &C. 241 the horn. Eckhel observes, that even the horn and diadem belong to Bacchus, as on a coin of Nuceria Alfaterna. Bacchus, according to Diodorus Siculus, invented the diadem, to cure his head-aches, and was horned like his father Jupiter Amnion. The only king who appears on coins, according to Eckhel, with the horn, is Lysimachus. Pyrrhus had a crest of goats' horns to his helmet, as we are informed by Plutarch, in his life, and the goat was the symbol of Macedon. It is likely that the successors of Alexander took this badge of the horn in consequence. Besides the distinctions of supreme power, or honorary reward, there are other symbolic orna- ments of the head, observable on some Roman coins. Such is the veil, or, more properly, the toga drawn over the head, to be seen on the busts of Julius Caesar, when Pontifex Maximus, and others. This shews that the person bore the pontificate or the augurship ; the augurs having a particular gown, called laena, with which they covered their heads, when employed in observing omens. Latterly the veil is only a mark of consecration, and is common in coins of empresses, as Faustina, Mariniana, and others. In the coins of Claudius Gothicus we first find it as a mark of the consecration of an emperor ; and it continued in those of Constantius the first, Maximian the first, and Constantine the first. The remarkable part of the Roman head dross I i 242 ELUCIDATION OF THE ORNAMENTS, &C. among the ladies, was the sphendona, or sling*, on the crown of the head ; answering to the modern hair cushion. But it was of gold, and 4JO prominent as to be even remarkable in a coin. The hair appears in many fashions, as now. Some- times the bust of an empress is supported by a crescent, to imply that she was the moon, as her husband was the sun of the state. Generally, only the bust is given on ancient coins ; but sometimes half the body or more. In the latter case the hands often appear, with tokens of majesty in them. Such is the globe, said to have been introduced by Augustus, to express possession of the world. The sceptre, sometimes confounded with the consular staff. The roll of parchment, symbolic of legislative power; and the handkerchief expressing that of the public games, where the emperor gave the signal. Some princes even hold the thunderbolt, shewing that their power was equal to that of Jupiter in heaven. Others hold an image of victory. Most queens of Egypt, on their coins, have the sceptre. It appears at the top of their head ; and would seem part of the dress, were it not that in other coins, it passes beneath the neck transversely, so that both ends appear. The victors, at the sacred games among the ancients, had bound round the head, an orna- ment called anademoy which has sometimes been confounded with the diadem worn by the ancient Persian kings. THE TRADESCANTS. 24S THE TRADESCANTS. X HE Tradescants, father and son, were among- the first eminent g-ardeners, and were the very first collectors of natural history in this kingdom. John Tradescant the elder was, according to Anthony Wood, a Fleming, or a Dutchman. -We are informed by Parkinson, that he had travelled into most parts of Europe, and into- Barbary, and from some emblems remaining upon his monument in Lambeth church yard, it appears that he had visited Greece, Egypt, and other Eastern countries. In his travels, he is supposed to have collected not only plants and seeds, but most of those curiosities of every sort which formed his collec- tion, which afterwards became celebrated, and is now the Ashmolean museum, at Oxford. When he first settled in this kingdom, cannot at this distance of time, be ascertained; perhaps it was towards the latter end of the reign of queen Elizabeth, or the beginning of that of king James the first. His portrait, engraven by Hollar, before the year 1656, represents him as a person very far advanced in years, and seems to coun- tenance this opinion. He lived in a large house at South Lambeth, li 2 244 THE TRADESCANTS. where, there is reason to think, his museum was frequently visited by persons of rank, who became benefactors thereto; among these were king Charles the first, to whom he was gardener, Henrietta Maria, his queen. Archbishop Laud, George, Duke of Buckingham, Robert and William Cecil, Earls of Salisbury, and many other persons of distinction. John Tradescant may, therefore, justly be considered as the earliest collector in this king- dom,^ of every thing that was curious in natural history, namely, minerals, birds, fishes, insects, &c. &;c. He had also a good collection of coins and medals, besides a great variety of extraor- dinary rarities. Some of the plants which grew ^n his garden are, if not totally extinct in this country, at least become very uncommon. This able man, by his great industry, made it manifest, in the very infancy of botany, as a science, that there is scarcely any plant existing in the known world, that will not, with proper care, thrive in this kingdom. The time of his death cannot be ascertained, no mention being made of it in the register of Lambeth church. John Tradescant the son, and his wife, joined in a deed of gift, by which their friend Elias Ashmole was entitled to this collection after the decease of the former. On that event taking * Tradescant was the first English collector of curiosities iu a private rank. Thoresby was the second. Gough's Topogr, THE TRADESCANTS. 245 place, in 1662, it was accordingly claimed by him, but the widow Tradescant refusing" to deliver it, was compelled so to do by a decree of the court of Chancery. She was, a few years after, found drowned, in a pond, in her own garden. His house at South Lambeth, then called Tradescant's Ark,* thus coming into the pos- session of Ashmole, he came to reside there in 1674, and added a noble room to it, adorning the chimney with his arms, impaling those of Sir William Dugdale, whose daughter was his third wife. Ashmole was much respected by his contemporaries, and was frequently visited at South Lambeth by persons of very exalted rank, particularly by the ambassadors of foreign princes, to whom he had presented his book on the Order of the Garter. It is well known that Tradescant's collection was given by Ashmole to the University of Oxford, where it forms the principal part of the museum that goes by his name, the horse, in which it is contained, having been built for its reception, t * The late James West, Esq. told Mr. Bull, thatoDeof the family of Roelans^ of which there are four or five prints by Hollar, lived a long while at Lambeth, in the house that afterwards belonged to Tradescant, to whom Roclans sold it. Granger's B. //. 2. 371. + In the year 1656 the younger Tradescant, published a small volume, entitled ^' Museum Tradescantianum, or a 246 THE TRADESCANTS. A monument was erected in the south east part of Lambeth church-yard, in 1662, by Hester, the relict of John Tradescant, the son, to the memory of her husband, and the other members of his family. This, once beautiful monument has suffered so much by the weather, that no just idea can now, on inspection, be formed of the north and south sides ; but this defect is supplied from very fine drawings* in the Pepysian library, at Cam« bridg'e. On the east side is Tradescant's arms ; on the west a hydra, and under it a skull; on the south, broken columns, Corinthian capitals, &c. supposed to be ruins in Greece, or some other Eastern country ; and on the north, a crocodile, shells, &c. and a viewof some Eg-yp- tian buildings ; various figures of trees, &c. in relievo, adorn the four corners of the monument. In a visit made by Sir W. Watson and Dr. Mitchell to Tradescant*s garden, in 1749, an Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth. London^ 1656, small octavo." This book is divided into two parts, the first containing a catalogue of the museum, and the second an enume ration of the plants, shrubs, and trees, growing in the garden at South Lambeth. Among the natural curiosities here preserved are *' a dragon's egg — the claw of the bird Rocky which, as authors report, is able to trusse an elephant," &c. &c. * These drawings are engraven in the Philosophical Trans, ▼ol. 63, p. 88; and printed from the same plates, in Bibl. Topogr. Brit. toI. 2. in Dr. Ducarel's Hist, of Lambeth. THE TRADESCANTS. 247 account of which, is inserted in Philos. Trans, vol. xlvi. p. J 60, it appears that it had been many years totally neglected, and the house belonging to it empty and ruined, but though the garden was quite covered with weeds, there remained among them manifest footsteps of its founder.* They found there the Borago latifolia sempervirens of Caspar Bauhine ; Polyyonatum vulgar e latifolium, C. B ; Aristolochia dematitis recta, C B, and Dracontium of Dodoens. There were then remaining two trees of the Arbutus, which from their being so long used to our winters, did not suffer by the severe cold of 1739—40, when most of their kind were killed in England. In the orchard there was a tree of the Rhamnus catharticus, about 20 feet high, and nearly a foot in diameter. There are at present no traces of this garden remaining. The Tradescants were usually called Trade- skin by their contemporaries, and the name is uniformly so spelled in the parish register of Lambeth, and by Flatman the painter, who in a poem mentions Tradescant*s collection ; * Tradescant^s was the next botanical garden ia England after Gerard's. Gerard seems to hare been the first that cultWated a botanical garden. He had a large one near his house in Holborn, London, where he raised nearly eleven huadred different trees and plants. He published his history of plants in 1597 under the patronage of Lord Burleigh. His herbal iras republished in 1636 by Johnsou. 248 THE TRADESCANTS. " Thus John Tradeskin starves our wond'ring eyes, " By boxing up his new-found rarities/* The following is a list of the portraits of the Tradescant family now in the Ashmolean Mu- seum ; both father and son are in these portraits called Sir John, though it does not appear that either of them were ever knighted. 1. Sir John Tradescant, sen. a three quarters piece, ornamented with fruit, flowers, and garden roots. 2. The same, after his decease. 3. The same, a small three-quarters piece, in water colours. 4. A large painting of his wife, son and daughter, quarter-length. 5. Sir John Tradescant, junior, in his garden, with a spade in his hand, half length. 6. The same with his wife, half length. 7. The same, with his friend Zythepsa of Lambeth, a collection of shells, &c. upon a table before them. 8. A large quarter piece inscribed Sir John Tradescant's second wife and son. These pictures have neither date nor painter's name. They are esteemed to be good portraits, but who the person was, who is called Zythepsa is not known. He is painted as if entering the room, and Sir John is shaking him by the hand. Hollar engraved two portraits of the Trades- cants, father and son, which are placed as ORANGE TREES. 249 frontispieces to the little volume, mentioned in the preceding note. Granger (2. 370) says he saw a picture at a gentleman's house in Wiltshire, which was not unlike that of the deceased Tradescant, and the inscription was applicable to it : — Mortuus haud alio quain quo pater ore quiesti Quam facili frueris nunc quoque nocte doces. ORANGE TREES. Jl. HE first orange trees seen in England, are said to have been planted by Sir Francis Carew, at Beddington, in Surrey. Sir Francis died in 1G07, aged 8J. Aubrey says they were brought from Italy by Sir Francis, but the editors of the Biographia Britannica speaking from a tradition preserved in the family, tell us that they were raised by him from the seeds of the first oranges which were imported into England by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had married his niece. The trees were planted in the open groimd, and were preserved in the winter by a moveable shed. They flourished about a century and a half, being destroyed by the hard frost in 1739—40. In the transactions of the Linnaean Society there are some notices relating to the progress of botany in England, written by the late eminent K k 25{) ORANGE TREES. naturalist, Peter CoUinson. Speaking of the orange trees at Beddington he says — " In the reign of queen Elizabeth the first orange and lemon trees were introduced into England by two curious gentlemen, one of them Sir Nicholas Carew, at Beddington. They were planted in the natural ground, but against every winter an artificial covering was raised for their protection. 1 have seen them some years ago* in great per- fection. But this apparatus going to deca}', without due consideration a green-house of brick work wa:s built all round them, and left on the top uncovered in the summer. I visited them a year or two after in their new habitation, and to my great concern found some dyeing, and all de- clining ; for although there were windows on the south side, they did not thrive in their con- finement ; but being kept damp, with the rains, and wanting a free, air}^, full sun, all the growing months of summer, they languished, and at last all died. '* A better fate has attended the other fine parcel of orange trees, &c. brought over at the same time, by Sir Robert Mansell, at Margam in South Wales. My nephew counted 80 trees of citrons, limes, burgamots, Seville and China orange-trees, planted in great cases all ranged in a row before the green-house. This is the finest sight of its kind in England. He had the * This was written in the year 1754. ARTICLES OP USE AND LUXtJRV, 2&1 curiosit)' to measure one of them. A China orange measured in the extent of its branches fourteen feet. • A Seville orange-tree was four- teen feet high, the case included, and the stem twenty one inches round. A China orange-tree twenty two inches and a half in girt. " I visited the orangery at Margam, in the year 1 766, in company with Mr. Lewis Thomas, a very sensible and attentive man, who told me that the orange-trees, &c. in that garden were intended as a present from the king of Spain to the king of Denmark ; and that the vessel in which they were shipped, being taken in the channel, the trees were made a present of to Sir Robert Mansell." ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY INTRODUCED INTO EUROPE BY THE ROMANS. TT HATEVER evils either reason or declama- tion have imputed to extensive empire, the power of Rome was attended with some beneficial con- sequences to mankind ; and the same freedom of intercourse which extended the vices, diffused likewise the improvements of social life. In the more remote ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The east was in the imme- K k 2 252 ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY. morial possession of arts and luxury ; whilst the west was inhabited by rude and warlike barbari- ans, who either disdained agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the protection of an established government, the productions of happier climates, and the industry of more civi- lized nations were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe, and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable com- merce, to multiply the former, as well as to im- prove the latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the articles, either of the animal or vegetable kingdoms which were suc- cessively imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt ; it is only intended here to touch on a few of the principal heads. It is also not impro- bable that the Greeks and Phoenicians introduced some new arts and productions into the neigh- bourhood of Marseilles and Cadiz. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign extraction, which in many cases, is betrayed even by their names ; the apple was a native of Italy, and when the Romans had tasted the richer flavour of the apricot, the peach, the pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common denomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the additional epithet of their country. ARTICLES or USE AND LUXURY. 253 2. In the time of Homer, the vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the skill, nor did it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage inhabitants. A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that of the fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more than two thirds were produced from her soil. The blessing was soon communicated to the Narbonnese province of Gaul ; but so intense was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that in the time of Strabo, it was thought impossible to ripen the grapes in those parts of Gaul. The intense cold of a Gallic winter was even prover- bial among the ancients. This difficulty, however, was gradually vanquished ; and there is some reason to believe that the vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. In the beginning of the fourth century, the orator Eu- menius speaks of the vines in the territory of Autun, which were decayed through age, and the first plantation of which was totally unknown. 3, The olive, in the western world, followed the progress of peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries after the foun- dation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were strangers to that useful plant; it was naturalized in those countries; and at length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of the ancients, that it required a certain degree of 254 ARTICLES OF USE AND LUXURY. heat, and could only flourish in the neighbour- hood of the sea, were insensibly exploded by industry and experience. 4. The cultivation of flax was transported from Eg^ypt to Gaul, and enriched the whole country, however it might impoverish the par- ticular lands on which it was sown. 5. The use of artificial grasses became fami- liar to the farmers both of Italy and the provinces, particularly the lucerne, which derived its name and origin from Media. The assured supply of wholesome and plentiful food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of the flocks and herds, which, in their turn, contributed to the fertility of the soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous attention to mines and fisheries, which by employing a multitude of laborious hands, serves to increase the pleasures of the rich, and the subsistence of the poor. The elegant treatise of Columella describes the advanced state of the Spanish husbandry, under the reign of Tiberius ; and it may be observed, that those famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, were seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately relieved by the plenty of its more fortunate neighbours. ESCAPE OF THE EARL. OF NITHSDALE. 255 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE, FROM THE TOWER, IN THE YEAR, 1716. iiORD Nithsdale was one of the Scottish noblemen who were concerned in the rebellion headed by the Earl of Mar, in the year 1715. Tlie House of Commons preferred articles of impeachment against him, and several others, who all, except the Earl of Wintoun, pleaded guilty, and on the 9th of February, 1716, received judgment of death. The countess of Nithsdale and lady Nairne threw themselves at the king's feet as he passed through the apart- ments of the palace, and implored his mercy in behalf of their husbands; but their tears and entreaties were of no avail. The 'countess finding that nothing would appease the king but the death of her husband and the other lords, planned the earl's escape from the tower in woman's apparel, which she safely effected. The letter, of which the following is a copy, written by herself and addressed to her sister lady Lucy Herbert, abbess of the Augustine nunnery at Bruges, giving an account of that transaction is still preserved in the family, and was in the possession of the late Marmaduke Constable Maxwell, Esq. of Everingham in Yorkshire. 256 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE " Paiais Royal de Rome^ ISth Jpril^ 1718. ** Dear Sister, " My Lord's escape is now such an old story, that I have almost forgotten it; but since you desire me to give you a circumstantial account of it, I will endeavour to recal it to my memory, and be as exact in the narration as I possibly can ; for I owe you too many obligations to refuse you any thing that lies in my power. " 1 think I owe myself the justice to set out with the motives which influenced me to under- take so hazardous an attempt, which I despaired of thoroughly accomplishing, foreseeing a thou- sand obstacles, which never could be surmounted but by the most particular interposition of Divine Providence. I confided in the Almighty God, and trusted that he would not abandon me, even when all human succours failed me. "I first came to London upon hearing that ray Lord was committed to the Tower, I was at the same time informed that he had expressed the greatest anxiety to see me, having, as he afterwards told me, nobody to console him till I arrived. I rode to Newcastle, and from thence took the stage to York. When I arrived there the snow was so deep that the stage could not set out for London. The season was so severe, and the roads so extremely bad, that the post itself was stopt ; however, I took horses, and rode to London through the snow, which was generally OF THE EARL, OF NITHSDALE. 257 above the horse's girth, and arrived safe and sound without any accident. ** On my arrival I went immediately to make what interest I could amongst those who were in place. No one gave me any hopes ; but all to the contrary, assured me, that although some of the prisoners were to be pardoned, yet my lord would certainly not be of the number. When I enquired into the reason of this distinction, I could obtain no other answer, than that they would not flatter me ; but I soon perceived the reasons which they declined alleging to me. A roman catholic, upon the frontiers of Scotland, who headed a very considerable party — a man whose family had always signalized itself by its loyalty to the royal house of Stuart, and who was the only support of the catholics against the in- veteracy of the Whisfs, who were very numerous in that part of Scotland, would become an agreeable sacrifice to the opposite party. They still retained a lively remembrance of his grandfather, who de- fended his own castle of Carlaverock to the very last extremity, and surrendered it up only by the express command of his royal master. Now having his grandson in their power, they were de- termined not to let him escape from their hands. ** Upon this I formed the resolution to attempt his escape, but opened my intentions to nobody but my dear Evans. In order to concert mea- sures I strongly solicited to be permitted to sec 1.1 258 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE ttiy lord, which they refused to grant me, unless I would remain confined with him in the Tower. This I would not submit to, and alleged for excuse, that my health would not permit me to undergo the confinement. The real reason of my refusal was, not to put it out of my power to accomplish my design ; however, by bribing the guards, I often contrived to see my lord, till the day upon which the prisoners were condemned ; after that we were allowed for the last week to see and take our leave of them. " By the help of Evans, I had prepared every thing necessary to disguise my lord, but had the utmost difficulty to prevail upon him to make use of them ; however, I at length succeeded by the help of Almighty God. " On the 22d of February, which fell on a Thursday, our petition was to be presented to the House of Lords, the purport of which was to intreat the lords to intercede with his majesty to pardon the prisoners. We were, however, disappointed the day before the petition was to be presented ; for the Duke of St. Alban's, who had promised my Lady Derwentwater to present it, when it came to the point, failed in his word : however, as she was the only English countess concerned, it was incumbent upon her to have it presented. We had one day left before the execution, and the duke still promised to present the petition; but, for fear he should fail, I OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 2of> engaged the Duke of Montrose to secure its being done by the one or the other. I then went in company of most of the ladies of quality wha were then in town, to solicit the interest of the lords, as they were going to the house. They all behaved to me with great civility, but par- ticularly my Lord Pembroke, who, though he desired me not to speak to him, yet promised to employ his interest in our favour, and honourably kept his word; for he spoke in the house very strongly in our behalf. The subject of the debate was, whether the king had the power to pardon those who had been condemned by parliament ? And it was chiefly owing to Lord Pembroke's speech, that it passed in the affirmative : how- ever, one of the lords stood up and said, that the house would only intercede for those of the prisoners who should approve themselves worthy of their intercession, but not for all of them indis- criminately. This salvo quite blasted all my hopes ; for I was assured it aimed at the exclu- sion of those who should refuse to subscribe to the petition, which was a thing I knew my lord would never submit to ; nor, in fact, could I wish to preserve his life on such terms. ** As the motion had passed generally, I thought I could draw some advantage in favour of my design. Accordingly, I immediately left the House of Lords, and hastened to the Tower, where, affecting an air of joy and satisfaction, I 1. 1 2 I 260 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE told all the guards I passed by, that I came to bring- joyful tidings to the prisoners. I desired them to lay aside their fears, for the petition had passed the house in their favour. 1 then gave them some money to drink to the lords and his majesty, though it was but trifling ; for 1 thought that if I were too liberal on the occasion, they might suspect my designs, and that giving them something would gain their good humour and services for the next day, which was the eve of the execution. " The next morning I could not go to the Tower, having so many things in my hands to put in readiness ; but in the evening when all was ready, I sent for Mrs. Mills, with whom I lodged, and acquainted her with my design of attempting my lord's escape, as there was no prospect of his being pardoned ; and this was the last night before the execution. I told her that I had every thing in readiness, and I trusted that she would not refuse to accompany me, that my lord might pass for her. I pressed her to come immediately, as we had no time to lose. At the same time I sent for Mrs. Morgan, then usually- known by the name of Hilton, to whose acquaint- ance my dear Evans had introduced me, which I looked upon as a very singular happiness. I immediately communicated my resolution to her. She was of a very tall and slender make, so I begged her to put under her own riding-hood, one OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 261 that I had prepared for Mrs. Mills, as she was to lend her's to my Lord, that in coming* out he might be taken for her. Mrs. Mills was then with child ; so that she was not only of the same height, but nearly of the same size as my lord. When they were in the coach, I never ceased talking", that they might have no leisure to reflect. Their surprise and astonishment, when I first opened my design to them, had made them con- sent, without ever thinkinig of the consequences. On our arrival at the Tower, the first I intro- duced was Mrs. Morgan; for I was only allowed to take in one at a time. She brought in the clothes that Were to serve Mrs. Mills, when she left her own behind her. When Mrs, Morgan had taken off what she had brought for my purpose, I conducted her back to the staircase ; and in going I begged her to send me in my maid to dress me ; that I was afraid of being too late to present my last petition that night, if she did not come immediately. I des= patched her safe, and went partly down stairs to meet Mrs. Mills, who had the precaution to hold her handkerchief to her face, as was very natural for a woman to do when she was going to bid her last farewell to a friend on the eve of his execution. 1 had indeed desired her to do it, that my lord might go out in the same manner. Her eyebrows were rather inclined to be sandy, and my lords were dark and very thick ; however. 262 ACCOUNT Off THE ESCAPE I had prepared some paint of the colour of her's, to disguise his with. I also brought an artificial head-dress of the same coloured hair as her*s^ and I painted his face with white and his cheeks w^ith rouge, to hide his long beard, as he had not time to shave. All this provision I had be- fore left in the Tower. The poor guards, whom my slight liberality the day before had endeared to me, let me go quietly with my company, and were not so strictly on the watch as they usually had been ; and the more so, as they were persuaded, from what I had told them the day before, that the prisoners would obtain their pardon. I made Mrs. Mills take off her own hood, and put on that which I had brought for her -, I then took her by the hand and led her out of my lord's chamber ; and in passing through the next room, in which there were several people, with all the concern imagi- nable, 1 said, " Mj^ dear Mrs. Catherines, go ia all haste, and send me my waiting maid ; she certainly cannot reflect how late it is ; she forgets that 1 am to present a petition to-night, and if I let slip this opportunity I am undone, for to- morrow will be too late. Hasten her as much as possible, for I shall be on thorns till she comes.'* Every body in the room, who were chiefly tlie guards' wives and daughters, seemed to com- passionate me exceedingly, and the sentinel very officiously opened the door to me. When I had OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 263 seen her out I returned back to my lord, and finished dressing him. I had taken care that Mrs. Mills did not go out crying as she came in, that my lord might the better pass for the lady who came in crying and afflicted, and the more so, because he had the same dress she wore. When I had almost finished dressing my lord in all my petticoats excepting one, 1 perceived that it was growing dark, and was afraid that the light of the candles might betray us, so I re- solved to set off j I went out leading him by the hand, and he held his handkerchief to his eyes; 1 spoke to him in the most piteous and afflicted tone of voice, bewailing bitterly the negligence of Evans, who had ruined me by her delay. Then, said I, " My dear Mrs. Betty, for the love of God run quickly, and bring her with you; you know my lodging, and if ever you made despatch in your life, do it at present, I am almost distracted with this disappointment." The guards opened the doors, and I went down stairs with him, still conjuring him to make all possible despatch. As soon as he had cleared the door I made him walk before me, for fear the sentinel should take notice of his walk, but I still continued to press him to make all the des- patch he possibly could. At the bottom of the stairs I met my dear Evans, into whose hands I confided him. I had before engaged Mr. Mills to be in readiness, before the Tower, to conduct 264 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE him to some place of safety, in case we sue- ceeded. He looked upon the affair so very im- probable to succeed, that his astonishment, when lie saw us, threw him into such consternation, that he was almost out of himself, which Evans perceiving-, with the greatest presence of mind, without telling him any thing, lest he should mistrust them, conducted him to some of her own friends, on whom she could rely, and so secured him, without which we should have been undone. When she had conducted him, and left him with them, she returned to find Mr. Mills^ who, by this time, had recovered himself from his astonishment. They went home together, and having found a place of security, they conducted him to it. In the mean while, as I had pretended to have sent the young lady on a message, I was obliged to return up stairs and go back to my lord's room, in the same feigned anxiety of being too late, so that every body seemed sincerely to sympathize with my distress. When I was in the room, I talked to him, as if he had been really present, and answered my own questions in my lord's voice, as nearly as I could imitate it. 1 walked up and down, as if we were con- versing together, till I thought they had time enough thoroughly to clear themselves of the guards. I then thought proper to make off also. I opened the door, and stood half in it, that those OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 266 in the outward chamber might hear what I said, but held it so close, that they could not look in. I bid my lord a formal farewell, for that night, and added that something more than usual must have happened to make Evans negligent on this important occasion, who had always been so punctual in the smallest trifles ; that I saw no other remedy than to go in person ; that if the Tower were still open when I finished my busi- ness, I would return that night ; but that he might be assured I would be with him as early in the morning as I could gain admittance into the Tower, and I flattered myself 1 should bring favourable news. Then, before I shut the door, I pulled through the string of the latch, so that it could only be opened on the inside. I then shut it with some degree of force, that I might be sure of its being- w^ell shut. I said to the servant as I passed by, that he need not carry in candles to his master till my lord sent for him, as he desired to finish some prayers first. I went down stairs, and called a coach. As there were several on the stand, I drove home to my lodg- ings, where poor Mr. Mackenzie had been waiting to carry the petition, in case my attempt had failed. I told him there was no need of any petition, as my lord was safe out of the Tower, and out of the hands of his enemies, as I hoped ; but that 1 did not know where be was. I discharged the coach, and sent for a sedan M m 266 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE chair, and went to the Duchess of Biiccleugh, who expected me about that time, as I had beg- ged of her to present the petition for me, having taken ray precautions against all events, and asked if she was at home; and they answered, that she expected me, and had another duchess with her. I refused to go up stairs, as she had company with her, and I was not in a condition to see any other company. I begged to be shewn into a chamber below stairs, and that they would have the goodness to send her grace's maid to me, having something to say to her. I had dis- charged the chair, lest I might be pursued and watched. When the maid came in, I desired her to present my most humble respects to her grace, who they told me had company with her, and to acquaint her that this was my only reason for not coming up stairs. I also charged her with my sincerest thanks for the kind offer to accompany me when I went to present my peti- tion, t added, that she might spare herself any further trouble, as it was now judged more advisable to present one general petition in the name of all; however, that I should never be unmindful of my particular obligations to her grace, which I would return very soon to acknow- ledge in person. I then desired one of the servants to call a chair, and I went to the duchess of Montrose, who had always borne a part in my distress. When I OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 267 arrived, she left her company to deny herself, not being able to see me under the affliction which she judg-ed me to be in. By mistake I was, however admitted ; so there was no remedyo She came to me ; and as my heart was in extasy of joy, I expressed it in my countenance as she entered the room. I ran up to her in a transport of joy. She appeared to be extremely shocked and frightened ; and has since confessed to me that she apprehended my trouble had thrown me out of myself, till I communicated my happiness to her. She then advised me to retire to some place of security; for that the king was highly displeased, and even enraged at the petition that I had presented to him, and had complained of it severely. I sent for another chair, for I always discharged them immediately, lest I might be pursued. Her grace said she would go to court to see how the news of my lord*s escape was received. When the news was brought to the king he flew into an excess of passion, and said he was betrayed; for it could not have been done without some confederacy. He instantly despatched two persons to the Tower to see that the other prisoners were well secured, lest they should follow the example. Some threw the blame upon one, some upon another. The duch- ess was the only one at court who knew it. When I left the duchess I went to a house which Evans had found out for me, and where she pro- M m 2 268 ACCOUNT OF THE ESCAPE mised to acquaint me where my lord was ; she got thither some few minutes after me, and told me that when she had seen him secure, she went in search of Mr. Mills, who, by this time, had re- covered himself from his astonishment; that he had returned to her house, where she found him, and that he had removed my lord from the first place, where she had desired him to wait, to the house of a poor woman, directly opposite to the guard- house ; she had but one small room up one pair of stairs, and a very small bed in it. — We threw ourselves upon the bed, that we might not be heard walking up and down. She left us a bottle of wine and some bread ; and Mrs. Mills brought us some more in her pocket the next day. We subsisted on this provision from Thurs- day till Saturday night, when Mrs. Mills came and conducted my lord to the Venetian ambas- sador's. We did not communicate the affair to his excellency 3 but one of his servants concealed him in his own room till Wednesday, on which day the ambassador's coach and six was to go down to Dover to meet his brother. My lord put on a livery, and went down in the retinue, without the least suspicion, to Dover, where Mr. Mitchell (which was the name of the ambassador's servant) hired a small vessel, and immediately set sail for Calais. The passage was so remark- ably short, that the captain threw out this reflec- OF THE EARL OF NITHSDALE. 269 tion, that the wind could not have served better if his passeng-ers had been flying- for their lives, little thinking it to be really the case. Mr, Mitchell might have easily returned without being* suspected of being" concerned in my lord's escape; but my lord seemed inclined to have him continue with him, which he did, and has at present a good place under our young master. This is as exact and full an account of this affair, and of the persons concerned in it, as I could possibly give you, to the best of my memory, and you may rely on the truth of it. I am, with the strongest attachment, my dear sister, your's most affectionately, WINIFRED NITHSDALE. ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF FAIRS IN ENGLAND, AND \ THE MANNER OF LIVING IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. xSEFORE the necessaries or ornaments of life from the convenience of communication and the increase of provincial intercourse could be pro- cured in towns, through the medium of shops, goods and commodities of every kind were chiefly sold at fairs, to which, as to one universal mart, 270 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF the people resorted periodically, and supplied most of their wants for the ensuing year. Fairs and markets were at first held near the castles of the great barons, and near the cathe- drals and principal churches in the cities and great towns, not only to prevent frauds in the king's duties or customs, but also as they were esteemed places where the laws of the land were observed, and as such had a very particular privilege. The display of merchandize and the conflux of customers at these principal and only emporia of domestic commerce were prodigious, and they were, therefore, often held on open and extensive plains. It appears from a curious record containing the establishment and expenses of the Earl of Northumberland in the year 1512, that the stores of his lordship's house at Wressle, for the whole year were laid in from fairs ; " He that stands charged with my lord's house for the whole year, if he may possible, shall be at all fairs, where the gross emptions (that is the principal articles) shall be bought for the house for the whole year, as wine, wax, beeves, muttons, wheat and malt." This quotation is a proof that fairs were at that time the principal marts for purchasing necessaries in large quantities, which now are supplied by trading towns, and the mention of buying beeves and muttons, (oxen and sheep) FAIRS IN ENGLAND, &C. 271 shews that at so late a period they knew but little of breeding" cattle. The great increase of shops in the retail trade in all the towns and villages through the kingdom since the commencement of the eigh- teenth century, by means of which the inhabi- tants are supplied with every article necessary for subsistence as well as for luxury, has in a great measure rendered useless the purposes for which fairs were originally established. This change in the domestic trade of the country may be attributed partly to the facility of payment given by the notes of the bank of England and inland bills of exchange, and partly to the more speedy and certain intercourse which has been produced by the regularity of the post office. The latter may be looked upon as the cause and the former the effect of this chang-e whi<5h has so completely altered the state of fairs throughout the kino^dom. Connected with fairs as furnishing the neces- saries of life may be given an account of the living of the people in England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. From the household book of the Earl of Nor- thumberland above-mentioned it appears, that his family, during winter, lived mostly on salted meat and salt fish, and on that account there was an order for providing 180 gallons of mustard. On flesh days through the year, breakfast for the 272 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF earl and his lady was a loaf of bread, two man- chets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, half a chine of mutton, or a chine of beef boiled. On meagre days, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, a dish of butter, a piece of salt fish, or a dish of buttered eggs. During Lent, a loaf of bread, two manchets, a quart of beer, a quart of wine, two pieces of salt fish, six baconed herrings, or a dish of sprats. The other meals had as little variety, except on festival days. At that time capons, chickens, hens, pigeons, rabbits, plovers, woodcocks, quails, snipes, partridges, and pheasants, were accounted such delicacies as to be prohibited except at the earl's table. From the same book it appears that the earl had only two cooks for dressing victuals for his household which consisted of 229 persons. Hollinshed, who wrote about 1577, observes that white meats, i. e. milk, butter and cheese, formerly the chief food of the English people, were in his time degraded to be the food of the lowest sort, and that the wealthy fed upon flesh and fish. Feasts in those times were carried beyond all bounds of moderation. There is preserved an account of a feast given by Archbishop Nevill at his installation, 1466, in which are mentioned, among a great variety of others, the following FAIRS IN ENGLAND, &C. 273 articles, viz. wheat 300 quarters, ale 300 tuns, 80 oxen, 6 wild bulls, 1000 sheep, 300 calves, 300 swine called porks, 2000 pigs, 200 kids, 4000 rabbits, upwards of 400 harts, bucks and roes, 3000 geese, 2300 capons, 2000 chickens, 4000 pigeons, 100 peacocks, 200 cranes, 4000 mallards and teals, 500 partridges, 400 wood- cocks ; 1500 hot, and 4000 cold venison pasties, 2000 hot custards, and 4000 cold ones. On the tables at this feast it is mentioned there were 4 porpoises and 8 seals. There were 62 cooks and 515 servants to assist them, and not less than e3000 persons in all were at this feast. At the above period there was not discovered in society, any pleasure but that of crouding to- g-ether in hunting and feasting. The delicate pleasures of conversation, in communicating opinions, sentiments and desires, were wholly unknown. About the year 1512 the breakfast hour was eight, and at ten they sat down to dinner ; at three in the afternoon they had a drinking, and four was the hour for supper. The gates of the Earl of Northumberland's castles were shut at nine in the evening throughout the year, *• to the intent tliat no servant shall come in at the said gate, that ought to be within, who are out of the house at that hour.'* By a household establishment of Lord Fairfax's, N n 274 ACCOUNT OF THE FIRST RISE OF about 1650, it aopenrs that eleven had then become the hour of dining', and towards the end of that century the hour was twelve, but from the beginning of the last century it has gradually grown later to the present times, when seven has become the fashionable hour in noblemen's houses. In the country, and in moderate families in the metropolis, one and two are the more gene- ral hours for dining. From the Percy household book it may be observed, that several dishes w^ere then in use which have been long banished from our tables; among these may be reckoned cranes, herons, sea-gulls, bitterns and kirlews, and at archbishop NevilFs feast, porpoises and seals were served up. After the accession of Henry the seventh to the throne, the nation began to rest from the scenes of war and blood which for several years had subsisted between the Houses of York and Lancaster, and in the next reign the people turned their attention more to trade and the arts of peace, so that we find the mode of living con- siderably changed, for luxury being ever the attendant of extended commerce, this brought us acquainted with the produce of foreign countries till then unknown in England. Previously to 1509 the principal vegetables used at the tables of the great were imported from the Netherlands, so that when Catherine^ queen of Henry the eighth wanted a sallad, she was obliged to despatch a messenger to Flanders. FAIRS IX ENGLAND, &C. 275 Asparag-us and artichokes were introduced into England about 1578, and cauliflowers somev/hat later. Celery was not introduced into England till after 1709, when Marshal Tallard being" made prisoner at the battle of Malplaquet, and brought into England, first introduced this plant on the English tables. There is an article in the Percy household book which says, " That from henceforth there be no herbs bought, seeing that the cooks may have herbs enough in my lord's gardens." Since the introduction of tea into England at the close of the seventeenth century the living of all classes of the people has experienced a total change, but it was not till about 1740 that tea came to be generally used in the country, for previously to that time those who made use of it got it by stealth, each being afraid of being known to be in possession of what was then termed a great luxury. Waller has a poem addressed to the queers Maria d'Este, wife of James the second in 1G83, ^* On Tea commended by her Majesty," whereby it seems it was even then a new thing, though Mr. Hanway in his Essay ou Tea says that Lord Arlington and Lord Ossory introduced it into England in 1666, and that it was then admired as a new thing. Their ladies introduced it among the women of quality, and its price was then £3 per pound, and continued the same till 1707. In 1715 green tea began to be used, and 276 FAIRS IN ENGLAND. the practice of drinking- tea descended to the middling classes of the people. In the Tatler (No. 86, Oct. 27, 1709) the author mentions inviting his friends, seemingly as though tea was common, to drink a dish of tea, which they refused, saying they never drank tea in the morning. The same author observes, that dinner had in his memory, crept by degrees from twelve o'clock to three, and in the Spectator it is said that coffee houses were frequented by shopkeepers from six in the morning, and that the students at law made their appearance in them in their night gowns about eight. A lady who sends her jour- nal to the Spectator represents herself as taking chocolate in bed, and sleeping after it till ten, and drinking her Bohea from that hour till eleven. Her dinner hour was from three to four, and she did not sit up later at a card party than twelve. A citizen out of trade, in the same work, describes himself as rising at eight, dining at two, and going to bed at ten if not kept up at the club he frequented. The history of Taverns in this country may be traced back to the time of king Henry the fourth, for so ancient is that of the Boar's Head in East Cheap, London, the rendezvous of prince Henry and his riotous companions. Of little less antiquity is the White Hart without Bishopsgate, which now bears in the front of it, the date of its erection, 1480. SIR mCHARD CLOUGH. 277 SIR RICHARD CLOUGH. JSiR Richard Clough was a man of distinguished character, who raised himself by his merit, from a poor boy at Denbigh to be one of the greatest merchants of his time. He was first a chorister at Chester, than had the good fortune to become apprentice to the famous Sir Thomas Gresham, and afterwards his partner, with whom he may be considered as joint founder of the Royal Exchange, having contributed several thousand pounds towards that noble design. His residence was chiefly at Antwerp, where after his death his body was interred ; his heart at Whitchurch, in the vicinity of Denbigh. He is said to have made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and to have been a knight of the holy sepulchre ; and he accordingly assumed the five crosses, the badge of that order, for his arms. His wealth was so great, that his name became proverbial, and the Welsh have a saying, on any person's attaining great riches, that he is become a do ugh. Sir Richard left two daughters, but it is probable that they enjoyed but an inconsiderable part of his wealth, which is said to have gone to Sir Thomas Gresham, according to an agreement in case of survivorship. Sir Richard died first, but the time is unknown. Sir Thomas survived till the year 1579. 278 SIR RICHARD CLOUGH. The original hint of the Royal Exchange was given to Sir Thomas Gresham by Sir Richard Clough, who in the year 1561, had been advanced by the former, to be his correspondent and agent in the then emporium of the world, Antwerp. Clough wrote to his master, to blame the citizens of London for neglecting so necessary a thing ; bluntly saying that " they studied nothing else but their own private profit ; that they were content to walk about in the rain, more like ped- lars than merchants, and that there was no kind of people but had their place to transact business in, in other countries." Thus stimulated, Sir Thomas, in 156(5, laid the foundation, and the next year completed what was then called the Bourse, which three years after on being visited by queen Eliza- beth, was dignified by her with the title of Royal Exchange, An original picture of Sir Richard Clough is preserved at Llany wern, the seat of Sir Thomas Salusbury, Bart. It is a half length extremely well painted on board, his hair is very short, and of a dark brown. He is dressed in a short close jacket, black, striped with white, and great white breeches. In his right hand a glove ; his left on his sword ; on liis right side is a dagger. The arms of the holy sepulchre, which he had assumed, are on one side of the picture. It was probably painted at Antwerp, which at this period abounded with artists of the first merit. KOYAL CLEMENCY. 279 KOYAL CLEMENCY. JLEWIS the thirteenth of France being desir- ous to sit as judg'e at the trial of the Duke de la Vallette, assembled, in his cabinet, some mem- bers of the Parliament, together with some counsellors of state, to consult on the propriety of such a step. Upon their being- compelled by the king" to give their opinions concerning the decree for his arrest, the president, De Believre, said, ^' That he found it very strange that a prince should pass sentence upon one of his subjects; that kings had reserved to themselves the power of pardoning, and left that of condemning to their officers; that his majesty wanted to see before him at the bar, a person, who by his decision was to be hurried away in an hour's time into another world. That this is what a prince's countenance, from whence favours flow, should never bear; that his presence alone re- moved ecclesiastical censu.'es ; and that subjects ocight not to go away dissatisfied from their prince.'' . When sentence was passed, the same president said, ** This is an unprecedented judg- ment, and contrary to the example of past ages, to see a king of France, in the quality of a judge, condemning a gentleman to death." — It may be proper to add, that the sentence was afterwards revoked. 280 LOTTERIES. It has always been urged against king James the second, as a proof of the inveterate cruelty of his disposition, that he should have ordered the Duke of Monmouth into his presence, and not pardoned him. Wehvood, in his Memoirs, says, that James, in this instance, made an excep- tion to a general rule observed inviolably by kings, " never to allov^^ a criminal, under sen- tence of death, the sight of his prince's face, without a design to pardon him." The custom of pardoning criminals, by admit- ting them into the presence of the sovereign, is of very ancient date. When Agag, king of the Amalekites, had been taken prisoner by Saul (1 Sam, XV. 20 — 33) and his life spared by that monarch, contrary to the divine command, and was afterwards brought into the presence of Samuel, he exclaimed " Surely the bitterness of death is past," evidently in allusion to this custom. But Samuel executed the command of God, by putting Agag to death, which ought to have been done by Saul, on taking him prisoner. LOTTERIES. iVS a source of revenue, this is only a modern invention ; and it is evident, were it not for the monopoly of this species of gambling, which the government insists on enjoying, that it could not LOTTERIES. 281 possibly prove of any material advantage ; for individuals would soon set up private lotteries, could afford to carry them on with less profit, and would soon draw all the benefit of such speculations to themselves. The Romans had lotteries, particularly whilst they were under the government of the emperors. The tickets were distributed gratis among those guests who attended their entertainments, and all of them gained some prize. Heliogabalus took pleasure in making the prizes of very dis- proportionate value. Some of the prizes w^ere ten camels, others ten flies, some ten pounds of gold, ten eggs, and the like. The plays which Nero gave, were concluded by lotteries, consist- ing of prizes of wheat, wine, stuffs, gold, silver, slaves, ships, houses, and lands. In England, lotteries certainly took place in the reign of queen Elizabeth. According to Raynal, the two American companies in her reign, were favoured with the first lottery that ever was drawn in her dominions. The first however, of which we have any regular account was drawn in the year 1569. It consisted of 400,000 lots, at ten shillings each ; the prizes were plate, and the profits were to go towards repairing the havens of this kingdom. It was drawn at the west door of St. Paul's Cathedral. The drawing began on the 11th of January, 1509, and continued incessantly, day and night, o 282 LOTTERIES. until the sixth of May, following*. There were then only three lottery offices in London. It was at first intended to have been drawn at the house of Mr. Derricke, the queen's jeweller, but was afterwards drawn as above mentioned. The proposals for this lottery were published in the years 1567 and 1568. Dr. Rawlinson shewed the Society of Antiquaries in 1748, " A proposal for a very rich lottery, general, without any blanks, containing" a great number of good prizes, as well of ready money as of plate and certain sorts of merchandizes, having been valued and prized by the commandment of the queen's most excellent majesty's order, to the intent that such commodities as may chance to arise thereof, after the charges borne, may be converted towards the reparations of the havens, and strength of the realm, and towards such other public good works. The number of lots shall be 400,000 and no more, and every lot shall be the sum of ten shillings sterling and no more. To be filled by the feast of St. Bartholomew. The shew of prizes are to be seen in Cheapside, at the sign of the Queen's Arms, the house of Mr. Derricke, goldsmith, servant to the queen." In the year 1612, king James in special favour for the plantation of English colonies in Virginia, granted a lottery to be held at the west end of St. Paul's, whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 28^ tailor of London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns in plate. Lotteries were revived in the reign of William the third, and as all our evils were then attributed to Dutch counsels, the blame of lotteries, those banes of industry, frugality, and virtue, was as- cribed to an imitation of the example of Holland, and a wish in the natives of that country to ruin our morals, as well as to cramp our trade. In the reig-n of queen Anne it was thoug-ht necessary to suppress lotteries as nuisances to the public. They have, however, been revived of late years, and are now carried forward in a more extensive manner than at any former period. HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. i HE following account of the ancient rolls of Papyrus, discovered at Herculaneum, and the method employed to unrol them, is extracted from a letter written in 1802, by the Hon. Henry Grey Bennett, addressed to the late Rev. Samuel Henley, D. D. " The papyrus of the Greeks and Romans was the inside coating of a plant of the same name ; which was formerly common in various parts of Sicily ; a small river now choaked up near o o 2 284 HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. Palermo was called the Papyrus, probably from the number of that species of plant which grew in its bed ; the same name was also given to various rivulets in the island. It is however most common in the neighbourhood of Syracuse, where a Sicilian a few years ago established a manufactory of that article, more indeed to gratify the wishes of the curious, than to reap any immediate profit. The texture is not so line as in the Egyptian or eastern manuscripts, w hich exist in the libraries of Paris. This may be owing probably to the method of preparation, and not to any difference in the plant. " The papyri are joined together, and form one roll, on each sheet of which, the characters are painted, standing out in a species of has relief, and singly to be read with the greatest ease. As there are no stops, a difficulty is found in joining the letters, in making out the words, and in discovering the sense of the phrase. The manuscripts were found in a chamber of an ex- cavated house, in the ancient Herculaneum, to the number of about 1800, a considerable part of which were in a state to be unrolled. That city was buried for the most part under a shower of hot ashes, and the manuscripts were reduced by the heat to a state of tinder, or to speak more properly, resembled paper which has been burnt. Where the baking has not been complete, and where any part of the vegetable juice has HERCULANEUM MANUSCRIPTS. 285 remained it is almost impossible to unroll them, the sheets towards the centre, being" so closely united. In the others as you approach to the centre, or conclusion, the manuscripts become smoother, and the work proceeds with greater rapidity. A manuscript, by Epicurus, was un- rolled in March, 1802, twenty seven sheets of which were taken off, not indeed so well as could have been hoped, but a great part suffi- ciently intelligible, to judge of the style of the author, and the nature of its contents. It unfor- tunately fell to the lot of a young beginner, who in his hurry to conclude, spoiled much more than he saved. " The papi/ri are very rough on the outside, and in some there are great holes. All the inequali- ties are made smooth, previous to unrolling them, with facility ; in consequence much must inevi- tably be lost. Great care, however, is taken to preserve all the pieces, and when broken off, they are placed in the same sheet, preserving their original position. " When first Mr. Hayter began this process, there was one man tolerably expert, and three only who had ever seen the manner of it ; con- sequently, all were to be taught. This may serve as a reason why, as yet, so little has been done. One Latin manuscript was found, but it was in too bad a state to promise any chance of 286 WOLVES IN ENGLAND. success. They are of different sizes, some con- taining- only a few sheets, as a single play, others some hniidreds, and a few, perhaps, two thousand. We may hope from the first, Menander, and from the others, the histories of Livy and Dio- dorus Siciilus, perhaps the Doric poetry of the Sicilian muse, or the philosophy of the schools of A^rigentum and of Syracuse. We are led from the nature of the manuscripts to trust, that the indefatigable labours, the attention, and in- dustry of Mr. Hayter will not be thrown away, and that the assistance to be derived from the English minister, Mr. Drummond, as well on account of his classical knowledge, and his love of literature, as the advantages arising from his situation, may command ultimate success, and secure to those who are engaged in this business, the protection of the Neapolitan government, and the thanks of the literary world." WOLVES IN ENGLAND. J^ING Edward the first commissioned Peter Corbet to destroy the wolves in the counties of Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford, and ordered John Gifford to hunt them in all the forests of England. WOLVES IN ENGLAND. 287 The forest of Chiltern was infested by wolves and wild bulls in the time of Edward the Con- fessor. William the Conqueror granted the lordship of Riddesdale, in Northumberland, to Robert de Umfraville, on condition of defending* that part of the country ag-ainst enemies and wolves. King' John gave a premium of ten shillings for catching two wolves. In the reign of king Henry the third Vitalis de Engaine held the manors of Laxton and Pitch- ley, in the county of Northampton, by the service of hunting the wolf, whenever the king should command him. In the reign of Edward the first, it was found by inquisition that John de Engaine, held the manor of Great Giddingin the county of Huntingdon by the service of hunting the hare, fox, wild cat, and wolf, within the counties of Huntingdon, Northampton, Buck- ingham, Oxford, and Rutland. In the reign of Edward the third, Thomas de Engaine, held certain manors by the service of finding at his own proper cost, certain dogs for the destruction of wolves, foxes, martins, and wild cats, in the counties of Northampton, Rutland, Oxford, Essex, and Buckingham. ^88 PROFESSOR PORSON PROFESSOR PORSON. JL HIS eminent scholar and acute critic was born at East Ruston, in the county of Norfolk, on the 25th of December, 1759. At a very early period he displayed talents which gave promise of future excellence, and some gentlemen who admired his acquirements in learning, sent him to Eton, from whence he was afterwards entered of Trinity College, Cambridge. The following account of Mr. Porson, when an Eton boy, is extracted from the evidence of Dr. Goodall, the present Provost of Eton, given before the Education Committee of the House of Commons. Dr. Goodall being asked if he was acquainted with what happened to the late Professor Porson to prevent his election to King's College, replied as follows : — " Every account that I have read about him, in relation to that circumstance is incorrect. When he came to the school he was placed rather higher by the reputation of his abilities, than perhaps he ought to have been, in conse^ quence of his actual attainments ; and I can only say that many of the statements in the life of Porson are not founded in truth. With respect to prosody, he knew but little, and as to Greek he had made comparatively but little progress when he came to Eton. The very ingenious PROFESSOR PORSON. 289 and learned editor of one account of him, has been misinformed in most particulars ; and many of tlie incidents which he relates, I can venture from my own knowledge to assert, are distorted or e aggerated. Even Porson's com- positions, at an early period, though eminently correct, fell far short of excellence ; still we all looked up to him in consequence of his great abilities and variety of information, though much of that information was confined to the know- ledge of his schoolfellows, and could not easily fall under the notice of his instructors. He always undervalued school exercises, and gene- rally wrote his exercises fair at once, without study. I should be sorry to detract from the merit of an individual whom I loved, esteemed, and admired ; but I speak of him when he had only given the promise of his future excellence ; and in point of school exercises, I think he was very inferior to more than one of his contempo- raries ; I would name the present Marquis Wellesley as infinitely superior to him in com- position. " On being asked whether he wrote the same beautiful hand as he did afterwards. Dr. Good- all replied he did, nor was there any doubt of his general scholarship. <* To a question whether he made great progress during the time he was at Eton, or after he left ? Dr. Goodall said he was advanced as far as he could be with propriety, but there were certainly pp 290 PROFESSOR PORSON. some there who would not have been afraid to challeno'e Porson as a school-bov, thouirh thev would have shunned all idea of competition with him at Cambrido^e. The first book that Porsou ever studied, as he often told me, was Cham- bers*s Cyclopaedia ; he read the whole of that dictionary through, and in a great degree made himself master of the algebraic part of that work entirely by the force of his understanding. ** Dr. Goodall was then asked if he considered there was any ground for complaint on the part of Porson, in not having been sent to Cambridge, to which he answered no ; he was placed as high in the school as he well could be ; as a proof however of his merits, when he left Eton, contributions were readily supplied by Etonians in aid of Sir George Baker's proposal, to secure the funds for his maintenance at the university." In the year 1793, Mr. Porson was elected professor of Greek in the University of Cam- bridge, that office being then vacant by the death of professor Cooke. The following letter relat- ing to this election from Mr. Porson to the Rev. Dr. Postlethwayte, master of Trinity College, is now first printed : — " Essex Court, Temple, 6th October, 1792. " Sir, — When I first received the favour of your letter I must own that I felt rather vexation and chagrin than hope and satisfaction. I had looked uj)ou myself so completely in the light PROFESSOR PORSON. 291 of an outcast from Almna Mater, that I had made lip my mitid to have no farther connection with the place. The prospect you held out to me gave me more uneasiness than pleasure. When I was younger than I now am, and my disposition more sanguine than it is at present, I was in daily expectation of Mr. Cooke's resignation, and I flattered myself with the hope of succeeding to the honour he was going to quit. As hope and ambition are great castle-builders, I had laid a scheme, partly as I was willing to think, for the joint credit, partly for the mutual advantage, of myself and the university. I had projected a plan of reading lectures, and I persuaded myself that I should easily obtain a grace, permitting- me to exact a certain sum from every person who attended. But seven years' waiting will tire out the most patient temper, and all my ambition of this sort was long ago laid asleep. The sud- den news of the vacant professorship put me in mind of poor Jacob, who having served seven years in hopes of being rewarded with Rachel, awoke, and behold it was Leah. " Such, sir, I confess were the first ideas that took possession of my mind. But after a little reflection, I resolved to refer a matter of this importance to my friends. This circumstance has caused the delay, for which 1 ought before now to have apologized. JMy friends unanimously exhorted me to embrace the good fortune which they conceived to be within my grasp. Their 292 PROFESSOR PORSON. advice, therefore, joined to the expectation I had entertained of doing some small good by my exertions in the employment, together with the pardonable vanity which the honour annexed to the office inspired, determined me; and I was on the point of troubling you, sir, and the other electors with notice of my intentions to profess myself a candidate, when an objection which had escaped me in the hurry of my thoughts, now occurred to my recollection. '' The same reason which hindered me from keeping my fellowship by the method you obligingly pointed out to me, would, I am greatly afraid, prevent me from being Greek professor. Whatever concern this may give me for myself, it gives me none for the public. I trust there are at least twenty or thirty in the university, equally able and willing to undertake the office ; possessed, many of talents superior to mine, and all of a more complying conscience. This I speak upon the supposition that the next Greek professor will be compelled to read lectures ; but if the place remains a sinecure, the number of qualified persons will be greatly increased. And though it was even granted that my industry and attention might possibly produce some bene- fit to the interests of learning and the credit of the university, that trifling gain would be as much exceeded by keeping the professorship a sinecure, and bestowing it on a sound believer, as temporal considerations arc outweighed by PROFESSOR PORSON. 290 spiritual. Having only a strong* persuasion, not an absolute certaint}^ that such a subscription is required of the professor elect ; if I am mistaken, I hereby offer myself as a candidate, but if I am right in my opinion, I shall beg* of you to order my name to be erased from the boards, and I shall esteem it a favour conferred on. Sir, Your oblig-ed humble servant, R. PORSON." Letter from the Rev, Joseph Goodall, D. D, Upper Master (now Provost) of Eton College, to Mr. Porson. ''Eton, Nov. 16M, 1806. *' Dear Porson, — The bishop of Rochester [Dr. Dampier] has wi'itten to me requesting my assistance on the following subject. " On sum- *' ming' up matters the Oxford people find no ** account of the Eton MS of Strabo, of which ** use has been made, and want one for their ** preface." Now the said bishop, urged by his brother of Oxford [Dr. Randolph] at the same time he hints that you have examined the MS in question, and advises me to enter upon the subject with you, which 1 most gladly do, pray- ing for such information as you may be disposed to give me, being fully persuaded that you are not likely to forget what you have once seen. " 1 write to the bishop by this post to acknow- ledge my incompetence. How glad should Mrs. Goodall and myself be, if you would take 204 PROFESSOR PORSON. the trouble of once more inspecting' the MS and dating" your kind communication from the Eton library. Should you be a prisoner in street will you sufter me to bring- the MS to town about the middle of December, and then give me your opinion of its value, age, &c. The master of the Charter-House, [Dr. Kaine] whom I hope soon to greet by some other title, will I am sure, have the goodness to forward this petition to you. " Charles Hayes, who, with his wife is now on a visit to us, desires his kindest remembrance. Mrs. Goodall is fatigued to death with nursing a sick nephew and niece, and I am sorry to add that I am on the invalid list myself, but we hope to be all well in the course of a few days. She unites in every good wish with Dear Porson, Yours most faithfully, J. GOODALL." From Mr, William Laing of JEdinhurgh to 3Ir, Porson. " Edinburgh, 3d of Jan. 1807. <* Sir, — The edition of Herodotus being now compleated after the plan you proceeded on, I have taken the liberty of dedicating to you, which I hope will meet your approbation. Mr. Dunbar who has succeeded poor Mr. Dalzel has paid the utmost attention to it. I shall order Cuthell to forward a copy for your use. A PROFESSOR PORSON. 295 selection has been made of the best notes from Wesselinof; which with his Index Reriim, will make it very compleat. I return you my best thanks for the trouble you voluntarily undertook in pro- motin;^- this speculation. 1 hope soon to see you in town, and shall personally repeat my obliga- tions- " I am about to print a new and eleg-ant edition of Pindar in two volumes from Heyne's — You see there is still some spirit for enterprize existing here. " I hope all my little editions will possess beauty and correctness. I believe you have still a volume of Herodotus which belongs to a person here who vi^ants it. Please deliver it to my son who will call for it. I remain with the highest respect, Sir, your very obedient servant, WILLIAM LAING. " From Dr, Charles Burney to Mr, PorsQu. '^ Greenmch^ June 20th, 1808. '* My dear Porson, — My friends at Cambridge idirect me to request you will go down as spee- dily as may be, to vote, and collect votes, for a degree of M. A. to be conferred on me. Now though I know your objections to expeditions of such a nature, yet I cannot help intreating you, if you have not sound reasons against it to go ilown and aid my cause. 296 PROFESSOR PORSON. " Kaye tells me that no time is to be lost. So if you can, pack up a small portion of wardrobe and visit alma mater, so will you greatly oblige and favor Your's affectionately, C. BURNEY/' From Dr. Davy, blaster of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, to Mr. Porson, " Caius Coll. Tuesday ^\st June^ 1808. ** My dear Porson — I take the liberty of telling vou, in case it should affect any of your move- ments, that Dr. Burney's mandamus will be voted for on Friday next, at 2 o'clock precisely. Every thing seems in his favour. Your's most truly, M. DAVY." From. Thomas Tyrrvhilt, Esq. to Mr. James Perry, 3Iorning Chronicle office, Strand. " Carlton House, Feb. 12M, 1805. '« Dear Sir, — Do pray at your convenience in- form me of the address of Mr. Porson, as some papers have been found in the collection of the late Sir William Hamilton respecting the Papiri, which are very interesting ; and several MSS so t iearly written out, as to be ready for the opinion of Mr. Porson, the only person in my opinion fit to inspect them in the whole kingdom. Your very faithful and obedient servant, THOMAS TYRWHITT." HISTORY OF SEPULCHRAL MONU3IENTS. 297 HISTORY OP SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. JIN the early ages of Christianity the honour of being deposited within the walls of the church was reserved to martyrs ; and it was the request of the emperor Constantino in imitation of this holy mode of interment, that after his death, his remains might be allowed to lie in the porch of the basilica of the Apostles, which he himself had erected in Constantinople. Hence the eloquent Chrysostom, when speaking of the triumphs of Christianity, exultingly observes, in allusion to this circumstance, that the Caesars, subdued by the humble fishermen whom they had persecuted, now appeared as suppliants before them, and gloried in occupying the place of porters at the doors of (heir sepulchres. Bishops and priests distin- guished by their learning, zeal, and sanctity, were gradually permitted to share the honours of the martyrs, and to repose with them within the sanctuary itself. A pious wish in some to be deposited in the neighbourhood of such holy persons, and to rest under the shadow of the altars ; in others an absurd love of distinction even beyond the grave ; to which may be added, that the clergy, by making such a distinction expensive, rendered it enviable; so that by aq 298 HISTORY OF degrees, all the wholesome restrictions of antiquity were broken through, and at length the noblest public edifices, the temples of the Eternal, the seats of holiness and purity, were converted into so many dormitories of the dead. Our present business is to investigate the antiquity and variety of sepulchral monuments, which have been erected as memorials of the illustrious dead, in the cathedral, conventual, and parish churches of this island. During the time of our Saxon ancestors, it is probable, that few or no monuments of this kind were erected ; at least, being usually placed in the churches belonging to the greater abbeys, they felt the .stroke of the oeneral dissolution, and it is believed there are now scarcely any extant. Those we meet with for the kings of that race, such as Ina at Wells ;* Osric, at Gloucester ; Sebba and Ethelbert, which were in Old St. Paul's, or w here-ever else they may occur, are undoubtedly cenotaphs, erected in later ages by the several abbeys and convents of which these royal person- ages were the founders, in gratitude to such generous benefactors. The period immediately after the conquest was not a time for people to think of such memorials for themselves, or friends. Few could *■ In the centre of the nave of Wells Cathedral there is a large stone that had formerly upon it an effigy in brass, which was generally ascribed to king Ina, the founder of that church. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 29f) then tell how long the lands they enjoyed would remain their own; and most indeed were put into the hands of new possessors, who, frequently, as we find in Domesday Book, held thirty or forty manors, or more, at a time. All then above the degree of servants, were soldiers, the sword alone made the gentleman, and accordingly on a strict inquiry, we shall meet with few or no monuments of that age, except for the kings, royal family, or some few of the chief nobility and leaders, among which, those for the Veres, Earls of Oxford, at Earl's Colne, in Essex, are some of the most ancient. It is probable that this state of things, so far as regards sepulchral monuments, continued through the troublesome reign of Stephen, and during the confusion which prevailed while the barons' wars subsisted, and until the ninth year of king Henry the third, 1224. In that year Magna Charta being confirmed, and every man's security better established, property became more dispersed, manors were in more divided hands, and the lords of them began to settle on their possessions in the country. In that age many parish churches were built, and it is not improbable that the care of a resting- place for their bodies, and monuments to preserve their memories, became more general and diffused. In country parish churches, the ancient monu- ments are usually found either in the chancel, or in small chapels, or side ailes, which have been built by the lords of manors, and patrons of 300 HISTOKY OF the churches, (which for the most part went together,) and being designed for burying places for their families, were frequently endowed with chantries, in which priests officiated, and offered up prayers for the souls of their founder and his progenitors. The tracing out, therefore, of such founders, will frequently help us to the knowledge of an ancient tomb which is found placed near the altar of such chantries. If there are more than one, they are, probably, for succeeding lords, and where there have been found ancient monu- ments in the church, also, besides what are in such chapels or ailes, they may be supposed to have been erected in memory of lords, prior to the foundation of the buildings, CROSS-I.EGGED MONUMENTS. The first species of monument, of which I pro- pose to give the history, is that denominated crosS'leggedy from its having the recumbent effigy of the deceased upon it, represented in armour, with the legs crossed. During the Norman pe- riod of our history, the holy war, and vows of pilgrimage to Palestine, were esteemed highly meritorious. The religious order of laymen, the knights templars, were received, cherished, and enriched throughout Europe, and the individuals of that community, after death, being usually buried cross-legged, in token of the banner under which they fought, and completely armed in regard to their being soldiers, this sort of mouu- SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 301 ment ^rew much in fashion, and though all the effigies with which we meet in that shape are commonly called knights templars, yet it is cer- tain that many of them do not represent persons of that order ; and Mr. LethieuUier says (Ar- ch(Bolo£fia, vol, 2. p. 292) that he had rarely found any of these monuments which he could with certainty say had been erected to the memory of persons who had belonged to that community. The order of knights templars had its rise but in the year 1118, and in 1134, we find Robert duke of Normandy, son of William the conque- ror, represented in this manner on his tomb in Gloucester cathedral.* — Henry Lacy, Earl of * This is one of the earliest specimens we have of the cross-legged monument. It is made of Irish oak, as well the table part, as the ei^gy* On the pannels are the arms of several of the worthies, and at the foot the arms of France and England, quarterly, which shews these escutcheons to have been painted since the reign of king Henry the fourth. This monument stood entire until the parliamentary army, during the Cromwell usurpation, having garrisoned the city of Gloucester against the king, the soldiers tore it to pieces, which being about to be burned, were bought of them by Sir Humphrey Tracy, of Stanway, and privately laid up until the Restoration, when the pieces were put together, repaired, and ornamented, and again placed in their former situation by Sir Humphrey, who also added a wire screen for their future preservation. There is an engraving of this monument in Sandford's Genealogical History, page 16, which Rudder, (//w^ory o/ G'/tfMcc^/er, p. 126.) calls a noble representation of it. 302 HISTORY OF Lincoln, was represented thus on his fine fomb, which was in St. Paul's cathedral, before the fire of London. And in the Temple church there still remain the cross-legged effigies of William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke, who died in 1219 ; William his son, who died in 1231 ; and Gilbert, another son, who died in 1241 ; none of whom it is believed were of the order of Templars. If these monuments were designed to denote at least, that the persons, to whose memory they were erected, had been in the Holy Land, yet Gibbon has left us the following account of this prince, (Rom, Hist. vol. 11. p. 32) — " Robert, Duke of Normandy, one of the chiefs of the first crusade, on his father's death was deprived of the kingdom of England, by his own indo- lence and the activity of his brother Rufus. The worth of Robert was degraded by an excessive levity and easiness of temper ; his cheerfulness seduced him to the indulgence of pleasure, his profuse liberality impoverished the prince and people; his indiscriminate clemency multiplied the number of offenders ; and the amiable qualities of a private man, became the essential defects of a sovereign. For the trifling sum of ten thousand marks (the one hundredth part of its present yearly revenue) he mortgaged Normandy during his absence in the first crusade, to the English usurper ; but his behaviour in the Holy War, announced in Robert, a refor- mation of manners, and restored him in some degree to the public esteem." There is an engraving of Robert, Duke oif Normandy, in Ducarel's Anglo-Norman Antiq. Plate 5. The monument of William, Earl of Flanders, son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, as also two of his seals, are engraven in Sandford's Genealogical Hist. p. 17. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 303 all who had been there did not follow this fashion, for Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Lancaster, second son of king' Henry the third, had been there, and yet, as appears by his monument, still in being in Westminster-abbey, he is not repre- sented cross-legged.* However, it seems to have been a prevailing fashion till the sixth year of Edward the second, 1312, when the order of Templars coming to destruction, and into the highest contempt, their fashions of all kinds seem to have been totally abolished. By this it may be determined that all those effigies, either of wood or stone, which we find in country churches, whether in niches in the walls or on table tombs, and represented in com- plete armour, with a shield on the left arm, and the right hand grasping the sword, cross-legged, and a lion, talbot, or some animal couchant at the feet, have been set up between the ninth of * The monumGnt of Edmund Crouchback has been Tery lofty ; it was painted, gilt, and inlaid with stained glass. The in- side of the canopy has represented the sky with stars, but, by age, is changed into a dull red. On the base, towards the area are the remains of ten knights, armed, with banners, surcoats of armour, and cross-belted, representing, undoubtedly, his expedition to the Holy Land, the number exactly correspond- ing witii what Matthew Paris reports, namely, Edmund and his elder brother, four earls and four knights, of whom some arc still discoverable, particularly the Lord Roger Clifford, as were formerly in Wayerly's time, William de Valence and Thomas de Clare. • 304 HISTORY OF Henry the third, 1224, and the seventh of Edward the second, 1313, and what corroborates this opinion is, that whenever any such figures are certainly known, either by the arms on the shield, or by uninterrupted tradition, they have alwayi^ been found to fall within that period, and when- ever, says Mr. LetliieuUier in the before men- tioned paper, I have met with such monument, totally forgotten, I have, on searching for the owners of the church and manor, found some person or other, of especial note, who lived in that age, and left little room to doubt but it was his memory which was intended to be preserved. It must, however, be acknowledged that this sort of monument did not entirely cease after the year 1312, for there is one in the church of Leekharapton, in Gloucestershire, which, by tradition, is said to be for Sir John Gifford, who died possessed of that manor, in the third of king Edward the third, 1328. The Rev. Dr. Nash, in his History of Worces- ter, has the following observations on this sort of monument : — " It is an opinion which universally prevails, with regard to the cross-legged monu- ments, that they were all erected to the memory of knights templars; now, to me, it is very evident that not one of them belonged to that order, but as Mr. Habingdon, in describing those at Alvechurch, hath justly expressed it, to " Knights of the Holy Voyage," for the order of SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. 305 knights templars followed the rule of the canons regular of St. Augustin, and as such were under a vow of celibacy. Now there is scarcely any one of these monuments which is certainly known for whom it was erected, but it is as certain that the person it represents was a married man. " The knights templars always wore a white habit, with a red cross on the left shoulder. I believe not a single instance can be produced of either the mantle or cross being carved on any of these monuments, which surely would not have been omitted, as by it they were distinguished from all other orders, had these been really de- signed to represent knights templars. ** Lastly, this order was not confined to Eng- land only, but dispersed itself all over Europe, yet it will be very difficult to find one cross- legged monument any where out of England ; whereas no doubt they would have abounded in France, Italy, and elsewhere, had it been a fashion peculiar to that famous order. "But thouo'h for these reasons I cannot allow the cross-legged monuments to have been erected for knights templars, yet they have some relation to them ; being memorials of those zealous devotees, who had either been in Palestine, per- sonally engaged in what is called the Holy War, or had laid themselves under a vow to go thither, though perhaps they were prevented from it by death ; some few indeed might possibly be R r S06 HISTORY OF erected to the memory of persons who had made pilgrimages thither, merely out of devotion ; among" the latter probably was the lady of the family of Metham, of Metham in Yorkshire, to whose memory a cross-legged monument was placed in a chapel adjoining the once collegiate church of Howden, in Yorkshire, and is at this day remaining, together with that of her husband on the same tomb. " As this religious madness lasted no longer than the reign of our Henry the third, (the seventh and last crusade being published in the year 1268) and the whole order of knights templars dissolved in the seventh of Edward the second ; military expeditions to the Holy Land, as well as devout pilgrimages thither had their period by the year J 31 2, consequently none of those cross-legged monuments are of a later date than the reign of Edward the second, or the beginning of Edward the third, nor of an earlier than that of king Stephen, when those expeditions first took place in this kingdom." THE FOLliOWIlSa RULES WERE OBSERVED UY ANCIENT SCULPTORS IN ERECTING SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS.* Kings and princes, in what part, or by what means soever, they died, were represented upon ^ These rules are extracted from the Antiquarian Reper- tory, vol. ii. p. 124; and from the Introduction to Gough's " History of Sepulchral Monuments," p. 115. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. ^(^7 their tombs clothed with their coats of arms, their shield, bonrlet or pad, crown, crest, sup- porters, lambrequins or mantlings, orders, and devices, upon their effigies, and round about their tombs. Knights and gentlemen might not be repre- sented with their coats of arms, unless they had lost their lives in some battle, single combat or rencontre with the prince himself, or in his service, unless they died and were buried within their own manors and lordships ; and then to shew they died a natural death in their beds, they were represented with their coat of armour, ungirded, without a helmet, bareheaded, their eyes closed, their feet resting against the back of a greyhound, and without any sword. Those who died on the day of battle, or in any mortal conflict on the side of the victorious party, were to be represented with a drawn sword in their right hand, the shield in their left, tlieir helmet on their head, (which some think ought to be closed and the vizor let down, as a sign that they fell fighting against their enemies) having their coats of arms girded over their armour, and their feet resting on a lion. Those who died in captivity, or before they had paid their ransom, were figured on their tombs without spurs or helmets, without coats of arms, and without swords, the scabbard thereof only girded to, and hanging at their side. 308 HISTORY OF Those who fell on the side of the vanquished in a rencontre or battle were to be represented without coats of arms, the sword at their side and in the scabbard, the vizor raised and open, their hands joined before their breasts, and their feet resting against the back of a dead and over- thrown lion. Those who had been vanquished and slain in the lists in a combat of honour were to be placed on their tomb armed at all points, their battle- axe lying by them, the left arm crossed over the right. Those who were victorious in the lists were exhibited on their tombs armed at all points, their battle-axe in their arms, the right arm crossed over the left. It was customary to represent ecclesiastical persons on their tombs clothed in their respective sacerdotal habits. The canons with the surplice, square cap, and aumasse or amice, that is the undermost part of the priest's habit. The abbots were represented with their mitres and crosiers turned to the left. The bishops, with their great copes, their gloves in their hands, holding their crosiers with their left hands and seeming to give their bene- diction with the right, their mitres on their heads and their armorial bearings round their tombs supported by angels. The popes, cardinals, patriarchs, and archbi- SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. S09 shops were likewise all represented in their official habits. The editors of the Antiquarian Repertory (vol. 2. p. 226.) have given the following addi- tional particulars relating to these monuments : — *' Although the figures represented on tombs with their legs crossed, are commonly stiled Knights Templars, there are divers circumstances which intitled other persons to be so represented. The first, having served personally, though for hire in the Holy Land. Secondly, having made a vow to go thither, though prevented by sickness or death. Thirdly, the having contributed to the fitting out of soldiers or ships for that service. Fourthly, havmg been born with the army in Palestine. And lastly, by having been con- siderable benefactors to the order of Knio^hts Templars, persons were rendered partakers of the merits and honours of that fraternity, and buried with their distinctions, an idea which has been more recently adopted abroad by many great personages, who have been interred in the habits of Capuchins. Indeed the admission of laymen to the fraternity of a religious order was no uncommon circumstance in former days. <* So long as the Knights Templ-.irs remained m estimation it is probable that persons availed themselves of that privileged distinction, but as at its dissolution the Knights were accused of div^ers enormous crimes, it is not likely any one would 310 HISTORY or chuse to claim brotherhood with them, or hand themselves or friends to posterity as members of a society held in detestation all over Europe, so that cross-legged figures, or monuments, may pretty safely be estimated as prior to the year 1312, when that dissolution took place, or at most they cannot exceed it by above sixty or seventy years, as persons of sufficient age to be benefactors before that event, would not, accord- ing to the common age/ of man, outlive them more than that term." CROSS-LEGGED MONUMENTS IN THE TEMPLE CHURCH.* Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex. (1148.) He is represented in mail with a surcoat, and round helmet flatted on the top, with a nose piece, which was of iron to defend the nose from swords. His head rests on a cushion placed lozenge fashion, his right hand on his breast, a long sword at his right side, and on his left arm a long pointed shieliJ, charged with an escar- buncle on a diapered field. This is the first in- stance in England of arms on a sepulchral figure. This Earl, driven to despair by the confisca- tion of his estates by king Stephen, indulged in every act of violence, and making an attack on * This account of these monuments is extracted from Gough's « History of Sepulchral Monuments." SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 311 the castle of Burwell, was there mortally wound» ed, and was carried off by the Templars, who as he died under sentence of excommunication, declined giving* him Christian burial, but wrap- ping* his body up in lead, hung- it on a crooked tree in the orchard of the Old Temple, London. William, prior of Walden, having- obtained ab- solution for him of the Pope, made application for his body, for the purpose of burying it at Walden, upon which the Templars took it down, and deposited it in the cemetery of the New Temple. William Marshall, JEarl of Pembroke. This monument represents a knight in mail with a surcoat, his helmet more completely rounded than the adjoining* one, and the cushion as in all the rest laid straiter under his head. He is drawing* his short dag-ger or broken sword with his rig-ht hand, and on his left arm has a short pointed shield, on which are his arms, per pale, or and vert, a lion rampant, gules, armed and langued, gules, below his knees are bands or g*arters, as if to separate the cuisses from the greaves ; his legs are crossed, and under his feet is a lion couchant. The first account of this William is in the 28th of Henry the second, when Henry son of that prince, who had behaved himself rebelliously against his father, lying on his death .bed, with great penitence delivered to him, as to his most 312 HISTORY OF intimate friend, his cross to carry to Jerusalem. He obtained from Richard the first on his first coming to England after his father's death, Isabel, daughter and heiress of Richard, Earl of Pembroke, in marriage, and with her that earl- dom. He died advanced in years at his manor of Caversham, near Reading, in 1219. His body was carried first to Reading abbey, then to Westminster, and last to the Temple church, where it was solemnly interred. Robert Lord Ros of Hamlake. The most elegant of all the figures in the Temple church represents a comely young knight, in mail, and a flowing mantle, with a kind of cowl; his hair neatly curled at the sides, and his crown appearing to be shaven. His hand$ are elevated in a praying posture, and on his left arm is a short pointed shield, charged with three water-bougets, the arms of the family of Ros. He has at his left side a long sword, and the armour of his legs, which are crossed, has a ridge or seam up the front, continued over the knee, and forming a kind of garter below the knee ; at his feet a lion. This Robert Lord Ros was sur named Fiirsan, and incurred the displeasure of king Richard the first, but for what offence is not said. He was one of the chief barons who undertook to com- pel king John's observance of the great charter. At the close of his life he took upon him th^: SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 313 order of the Templars, and died in their habit. He was buried in this church in 1227. William 3Iitrshall, Earl of Pembroke, The next figure but one to that of the Earl of Pembroke, may be for William Marshall, eldest son of that Earl. It is a cross-legged knight in mail, with a surcoat, his helmet round, surmounted with a kind of round cap, and the mouth piece up, his hands folded on his breast, his shield long and pointed, and now plain : a very long sword at his right side ; the belt from which his shield hangs studded with quatre-foils, and that of his sword with lozenofes. This William Marshall died without issue in 1231, and was buried in this church near the grave of his father. Uncertain Monuments in the Temple Church, The five figures in the north groupe of this church are not ascertained absolutely to whom they belong. Camden and Weever ascribe one of them to Gilbert Marshall, third son of the first William, who on the death of his brother suc- ceeded to the whole of the paternal inheritance, and lost his life at a tournament at Ware in 1241. His bowels were buried before the high altar of the church of our Lady at Hertford, and his body in the Temple Church, London, near his father and brother. In the present state of these monuments it is almost impossible to ascertain the property of s s ^14 HISTORY OF more than one of the Marshall family. The two effigies whose belts have the same ornaments were it is probable of one family. It may be observed that Magnaville, William Marshall, jun. and the last figure in the north groupe have their legs crossed in an unusual man- ner. They lie on their backs and yet cross their legs as if they lay on their sides. So were those of Henry Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, 1312, in old St. Paul's. The spurs of all are remarkably short, and seem rather straps with rowels. Not above two or three have the long pointed shoe, and two have their surcoats exactly reaching to the knee, whereas the others are of different lengths and fall more easily. Weever informs us that sepulture in this church was much affected by Henry the third j^nd his nobility. Stowe has determined that four of the cross-legged figures belong to the three earls of Pembroke and Robert Ros : " and these are all,'' says he, "that I can remember to have read of." Mr. Gough relates, (he says from good authority,) that a Hertfordshire baronet applied for some of these cross-legged knights to grace his newly erected parochial chapel, but the society of Benchers, discovered their good sense, as well as regard to antiquity, by refusing their compliance. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 315 TABLE TOMB. To the cross-leo'ged monument it is higlily probable, says Mr. Lethieullier, succeeded the table tomb, with figures recumbent upon it, with their hands joined in a praying posture, some- times with a rich canopy of stone over them^ sometimes without such canopy, and again, some very plain without any figures. Round the edge of these for the most part were inscriptions on brass plates, which are now too frequently de- stroyed. The table monument, however, came in more early than Mr. L. supposes. The most ancient monument of this kind that is extant, in England at least, of the sovereigns of this kingdom, is that of king John, in the choir of Worcester Cathedral.* His effigy lies * This monument was asserted by Green, in his History of Worcester, to have been a cenotaph, and accordingly the Dean and Chapter had determined on its removal^ intending to place it over the supposed remains of the king in the lady chapel. Bat on opening the tomb oa Monday, July the ITth, 1797, the royal remains were found therein in a stone coffin, the internal measure of which from the feet to the top of the excayation hollowed out for the head, was 5 feet 6 inches and a half. The body was doubtless originally placed in the coffin, nearly in the same form, and arrayed in such a robe as the figure on the tomb, with his sword in his left hand, and booted, but it was so much deranged as evidently to shew that it had been disturbed, and that perhaps at its removal from the place of its first interment in the lady chapel, if ever that event had taken place, which seems to have been a coutro* 316 HISTORY OF on the tomb, crowned ; in his right hand he holds the sceptre, in his left a sword, the point of which is received into the mouth of a lion couchant at his feet. The figure is as large as life. On each side of the head are cum bent images, in small, of the bishops St. Oswald and St. Wulstan, represented as censing him. — This monarch died in the year 1216. His bowels were buried in Croxlon abbey, and his body, which was conveyed to Worcester from Newark, was according to his desire, buried in that Cathedral. GRAVE STONES. At the same time came in common use the humble grave stone laid flat with the pavement, sometimes with an inscription cut round the border of the stone, sometimes enriched with costly plates of brass, as every person who has examined our cathedral and parish churches cannot fail to have observed. But either avarice, or an over zealous aversion to some words in the inscription, has robbed most of these stones of the brass which adorned them, and left the less room for certainty when this fashion began. verted point with historians. The most perfect part of the l)ody seemed to be the toes, on some of which the nails were still distinguishable, but of what the dress had originally been composed, could be only matter of conjecture. The influx of people, eager to see the royal remains after an interment of nearly 600 years, was so great as to be the cause of the tomb being closed on the following day. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 317 Earlier than the fourteenth century very few have been met with, and even towards the beginning of that century it is thought they were but rare. Mr. Lethieullier says that one was produced at a meeting of the Society of Antiquaries, dated 1 300.* Weaver mentions one in St. Paul's for Richard Newport, anno 1317, and gives another at Berkhampstead in Hertfordshire, which he by mistake dates 1306, the true date bein^^ 1356. Upon the whole, where we have not a positive date, it is hardly probable that an}' brass plate met with on grave stones can be older than 1350, and few so old, but from about 1380 they grew into common use and remained so even to the time of king James the first. Only after the reign of Edward the sixth we find the old gothic square letter changed into the roman round hand and the phrase Orate pro anima universally omitted. Towards the latter end of the fourteenth century a custom prevailed likewise of putting the inscription in French and not in Latin. These inscriptions are generally from 1350 to 1400, and very rarely afterwards. John Stow has indeed preserved two, which were in St. Martin's in the Vintry, dated 1310, and J 311. * The monument of Walter de Langton, Dean of York, who died in 1279, was the first in that Cathedral that had an inscription upon it. It was destroyed hy the Puritans during the Cromwell Usurpation. 318 HISTORY OF The late editor of the Antiquities of Westinin- ster affirms (from what authority he does not say) that stone coffins were never or rarely used after the thirteenth century.* If this * Coffins formed of a single stone, hollowed with a chissel, arc an improvement which has been attributed to the Romans. Sometimes they were of marble. Some contained two or more bodies, others only one, in which case, it was not unusual for them to be made to fit the body, with cavities for the reception of the head and arms, and other protuberances. The solid stone or marble coffin, often curiously wrought, was in use among the first christians in England, who, in all probability, copied the customs of the Romans, after those conquerors had quitted our island. — Stone coffins were dis- used in the fifteenth century. None but opulent persons were interred in coffins of this description; the body was wrapped in fine linen, attired in the most honourable vest- ments, and laid in spices. The coffin was placed no deeper in the ground, than the thickness of a marble slab, or stone to be laid over it, even with the surface of the pavement. The coffin shaped stones which are frequently seen in churches at the present day, have, in general, been the covers of stone coffins. The leaden coffin was also in use among the Romans, not only for the reception of the body, but in many instances, for the ashes and bones. It was adopted by the christians, and continues in frequent use to the present time, among the more opulent. Alexander was buried in a golden coffin, by his successor Ptolemy; and glass coffins have been found in England. The oldest instance, on record, among us, of a coffin made of wood, is that of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak. It was not till the latter end of the seventeenth or the begin- SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 319 assertion had been correct we should have had an aera from whence to go upwards in search of any of those monuments where the stone coffin appears, as it frequently does, but there is reason to doubt the accuracy of this author's statement. As Grecian architecture had a little dawning in Edward the sixth's time, and made a further progress in the three succeeding* reig-ns, we find, in the great number of monuments which were then erected, the small column introduced with its base and capital, sometimes supporting an arch, sometimes an architrave, but every where mixed with them, may be observed a great deal of the Gothic ornaments retained, as small spires, ill carved images, small square roses and other foliage, painted and gilt, which sufficiently denote the age which made them, though no inscriptions are left. HERALDIC SYMBOLS. Some knowledge of heraldry is very neces- sary in monumental researches, a coat of arms, device, or rebus, very often remains where not the least word of an inscription appears, and where indeed very probably there never was any. ning of the eighteenth century, that coffins became in general use in England. Before that time^ there was, in every parish church, a common coffin, in which the corpse was placed and conveyed on a bier, from the residence of the deceased, to the grave ; it was then taken out of the coffin and interred. Some of these common coffins yet remain in country churches. 320 HISTORY OF Armorial bearings seem to have taken their rise ill this kingdom in the reign of king Richard the first, and by little and little to have become hereditary ; it was accounted most honourable to carry those arms which the bearers had displayed in the Holy Land, against the professed enemies of Christianity, but they were not fully established until the latter end of the reign of king Henry the third. King Richard the first after his return from his captivity in Austria, had a new great seal made, on which seal he first bore three lions passant guardant for his arms, which from this time became the hereditary arms of the kings of Ensfland. The arms assigned or attributed to the kings of the Norman dynasty, namely (jules, two lions passant guardant, or, Mr. Sandford, in his Gene- alogical History of England, says he could not ^nd had ever been used by those Princes, either on monuments, coins, or seals, but that historians had assigned or fixed them upon the Norman line to distinguish it from that of their successors the Plantagenets, who hove gules, three lions pas- sant guardant, or,"^ According to the opinion of modern genealogists, king Henry the second, who * The gold noble, or half mark, struck by king Edward the third, in the seventeenth year of his reign, is the first money on which the arms of England appear, namely, three lions passant guardant. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 321 bore two lions for his arms, in the manner before mentioned, added, on his marriage with Eleanor of Aqnitaine, the arms of that dutchy, namely ^USf a lion, or, to his own, and so was the first king- of England who bore three lions ; but for this there is no better proof than for those assign- ed to the Norman dynasty, for the arms of king Henry the second upon his monument at Fontev- raud in Normandy, are on a shield of a modern form, and on the same monument are escutcheons with both impalements and quarterings which were not used till a hundred years after his death* King Edward the first was the first son of a king of England that differenced his arms with a file, and the first king of England that bore his arms on the caparisons of his horse. Margaret of France, second wife of king Edward the first, was the first queen of England that bore her arms dimidiated with her husband's in one escutcheon, that is, both escutcheons being parted by a perpendicular line, ov per pale ^ the dexter side of the husband's shield, is joined to the sinister side of the wife's, which kind of bearing is more ancient than the impaling of the entire coats of arms. King Edward the third, in the year 1339, having taken upon him the title of king of France, was the first of our kings who quartered arms, bearing those of France and England, quarterly, and so careful were the kings, his successors, in T t 322 HISTORY OF marshalling the arms of both kingdoms in the same shield, that when Charles the sixth, king of France, changed the sem6e of fleurs de lys into three, our king' Henry the fifth did the like,* and so it continued till the union of Great Bri- tain with Ireland in 1801, when the arms of France w^ere relinquished. The first example of the quartering of arms, is found in Spain, when the kingdoms of Castile and Leon were united under Ferdinand the third, and was afterwards imitated, as above described, by king Edward the third. Eleanor of Castile, * The three fleurs de lys were used, on some occasions, much earlier than this, both in France and England. There is an angel of Philip de Valois, coined in 1340, with the three fleurs de lys, which was probably done for the sake of variation, king Edward having then lately taken the arms semee de lys. Le Blanc mentions a charter of Philip, in 1355, with a seal of the arms in like manner. There is also a groat of king John of France, with only three fleurs de lys, though he used them likewise semee. But Charles the sixth, who began his reign in 1380, constantly bore the Mrt'^ lys for the arms of France, as they have been continued ever since. As the Englisli kings altered the arms of France, in imitation of the French king, it is most likely that our Henry the fourth who was contemporary with Charles the sixth, began this practice. He did indeed bear the fleurs de lys semee^ upon his great seal, because it was his predecessor's, but that he bore i}iQ three lys upon other occasions is most likely, for so they are seen at the head of his monument, at Canterbury, and his son Henry, afterwards Henry the fifth, in like man- ner, bore the three fleurs de lys upon his seal, annexed to an indenture, so e^rfy as the sixth year of his father's reign. SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 323 liis queen, introduced this mode of bearing arms into England, in which she was followed by the king, her husband. Until the time of king Edward the third, we find no coronets round the heads of peers. The figure upon the monument of John of Eltham, second son of king Edward the third, who died in 1334, and is buried in Westminster abbey, is adorned with a diadem, composed of a circle of greater and less leaves or flowers, and is the most ancient portraiture of an earl, says Sandford, that has a coronet. For the effigies of Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, on his tomb in Old St. Paul's, had the head encompassed with a circle only, and that of William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, half brother of king John, who died in 1304, and is buried in St. Edmund's chapel, in Westminster abbey, has only a circle, en- riched and embellished with stones of several colours, but without either points, rays, or leaves. John Hastings, earl of Pembroke, who died in 1375, was the first subject who bore two coats quarterly. Richard the second was the first of the English kings, who used supporters to his arms. Henry the sixth was the first of our kings who wore an arched crown, which has been ever since continued by his successors.* * The coins of king Henry the sixth, both goltl and silver^ are supposed to be distinguished from his father's, by the T t2 324 HISTORY OF Henry the eighth was the first king of England that added to his shield, the garter and the crown, in imitation of which, the knights of the garter, in the latter end of his reign, caused their escutcheons on their stalls at Windsor, to be encompassed with the garter, and those who were dukes, marquesses, or earls, had their coronets placed on their shields, which has been so practised ever since. Queen Elizabeth was the first sovereign who used in her arms, a harp crowned, as an ensign for the kingdom of Ireland. King James the first was the first of our mo- narchs, who quartered the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland in one shield. arched crown, surmounted with the orb and cross, being the first of our kings who appears with an arched crown upon his coins ; but upon his great seal he has an open crown, Jieurtf with small pearls, upon points, between. This is likewise the first time we see the orb with the cross upon the money, though it had been used upon other occasions, by almost all our kings, down from Edward the Confessor. The arched, or close crown, is not of ancient use, except in the empire, and thence, perhaps, called imperial. Some think Edward the third first used it, because he was vicar-general of the empire, and it is said that Henry the fifth had an imperial crown made, but Henry the sixth had certainly the best pre- tence to it, of any prince in Europe, of his time, being crowned king both of France and England. But why he did not bear it upon his great seal, as well as upon his coin, is not easily resolved any more than that his successor should bear it upon his great seal, and not upon his coins. SEPULCHRAI. MONUMENTS. 325 The number of princes of the blood royal of the houses of York and Lancaster, may easily be distinguished, by the labels on their coats of arms, which are different for each, and very often their devices are added. Where the figure of a woman is found with arms both on her kirtle and mantle, those on the kirtle are always her own family's, and those on the mantle, her husband's. The first instance of arms on sepulchral monu- ments, in England, are those on the tomb of Geoffrey de Magnaville, first Earl of Essex, (so created in 1148,) in the Temple church, in Lon- don. Armorial bearings were used in France, on monuments, forty years before we find them in England. Very intimately connected with the ornaments and devices upon sepulchral monuments are the figures and dresses of our early monarchs found on their great seals, and of the principal nobility of those times on their seals. King Henry the third was the first English sovereign who wore upon his helmet a crown, and he is also the first king who is depicted upon his great seal as wear* ing rowels in his spurs in the manner in which they are now used, all the former kings using^ spurs with a single point or spike from the heel.. Sandford, in his Genealogical History of England, says, that the arms upon the seal of 326 HISTORY OF John, Earl of Morton, (afterwards king John,) namely, two lions passant, are the first which he had seen upon any seal of the royal family. This was in the reign of king Henry the second. MONUMENTS FOR ECCLESIASTICS. As to monuments for the several degrees of churchmen, as bishops, abbots, priors, monks, &c. or of religious women, they are easily to be distinguished from other persons, but equally difficult to assign to their true owners. Among these, as among the before-mentioned monu- ments, for the most part the stone effigies are the oldest, with the mitre, crosier, and other proper insignia, and very often wider at the head than feet, having, indeed, been the cover to the stone coffins in which the body was deposited. When brass plates came in fashion they were likewise much used by bishops, &c. many of whose grave stones remain at this day, very richly adorned, and in many, the indented mar- ble shews that they have been so. In Salisbury cathedral, says Mr. Lethieullier, I found two very ancient stone figures of bishops, which were brought from Old Sarum, and are consequently older than the time of king Henry the third. In that church, likewise, the pompous marble which lies over Nicholas Longespee, bishop of that see, and son of the Earl of Salisbury, who di^d in the year 1297, appears to have been richly plated, though the brass is now quite gone, and is one of SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 327 the most early of that kind which has been met with. Frequently, where there are no effigies, crosiers or crosses denote an ecclesiastic. The latter have been met with, but with little difference in their form, for every order from a bishop to a parish priest. THE SKELETON MONUMENT. One sort of monument more may be mentioned,,; which is somewhat peculiar; this is the repre- sentation of a skeleton in a shroud, lying either ^ under or upon, but generally under a table tomb. A monument of this kind is to be met with in almost all the cathedral and conventual churches throughout England, and scarcely ever more than one, but to what age the unknown ones are to be attributed, we have no clue to guide us, since there is one in York cathedral for Robert Claget, treasurer of that church, as ancient as 1241, and in Bristol cathedral, Paul Bush, the first bishop of that see, who died so late as 1558, is repre- sented in the same manner, and some of these figures may be found in every age between. These skeleton monuments represent the figure of a man emaciated by extreme sickness, or taken immediately after death ; they are usually of ecclesiastics, and placed with another figure of the same prelate, as a contrast to his pride, in pontificals. The art of the sculptor is more apparent in the first mentioned, because much anatomical accuracy was required. 328 HISTORY OF SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. One of the earliest monuments of a warrior so contrasted is that of John de Arundel, slain in the French wars, under the Duke of Bedford. It remains in the sepulchral chapel of that noble family at Arundel, and is finely sculptured in v/hite marble. The dead figure is indeed a masterly performance, and has every appearance of having been originally modelled from nature. In Exeter Cathedral there is an altar tomb, upon which lies the effigy of bishop Marshall, who died in 1203, dressed in his episcopal robes, with a mitre on his head, his right hand lying upon his breast, with the palm upwards, the fore finger, ring finger, and thumb extended, and the other fingers closed. Near this monument in a low niche, lies the figure of a skeleton, cut in free stone, with the following inscription over it : — ^' Ista figura docet nos omnes premeditari quali- ter ipsa nocet mors quando venit dominari." The tomb of bishop Beckington in Wells Cathedral, who died in 1464, has his effigy in alabaster, habited in his episcopal robes ; and underneath is a representation of his skeleton. FINIS. \ ( i ^t " !o 020 691 909 7 T '^'^^ u:m ^iiy^**:! S^>^ '« Ss:)'«Wii' "V*f-'r' J 7;^ A# :?%l ^mn;. W -ji^'^-*- Ji3?^ ■S^\<^v^uys(vvi I g^v.^'^v,^ ^' ^l^vS (WVVVyVvyy,,