linmtr— «—»«—#— n»o««i twim wMM H ii w m ii i i i wm ii wwtwM M i iwwwt iin i m tMwwtMW MW t w iMM Copyright }^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture with Practical Problems By Aretas W. Nolan, A. M. Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, West Virginia University Chicago Row, Peterson & Company / ^""ii \ .i^- Copyright, 1911, by AKETAS W. NOLAN iv \. ©CI.A297827 TO MY FATHER AND MOTHER, WHO ALL THEIR LIVES HAVE DWELT AMONG THE FIELDS, IS THIS BOOK DEDICATED. PREFACE. The preparation of this book is an effort to combine in convenient form the discussions, directions for labo- ratory and field exercises, note-book work, and farm arithmetic, which the author has found most practical and helpful in teaching elementary agriculture in rural schools. It has been the aim of the author to select from the vast field of agricultural knowledge and practice such subject-matter, materials, and methods as the teacher in the one-room country school, in the grammar grades of a graded school, or in the beginning years of a high school, may find easily practical, within the range of the pupil's understanding, and full of profitable inter- est and educational value. It is a text-book and manual combined for the purpose of leading away from the usual text-book method of teaching to the method of first-hand contact with the real things of agriculture. The fields, the pastures, the groves, the orchards, and the gardens, are the real text-books, — this book is only a "friendly guide-post." If the work is not conducted by means of real things, the educational value is lost, and the information given not permanently retained. Many of the lessons are followed by a set of practical farm problems. These problems have a definite relation 5 6 PREFACE to the subject-matter which they follow, as well as a close relation to farm life. Most of these problems were prepared by Professor Hatch of the University of Wis- consin, to whom we make grateful acknowledgment. The lessons are arranged in the order of actual farm operations and interests, during a year on the farm, and the teacher in the public schools may easily adapt them to local needs, beginning with any month of the year. The seasonal sequence of subject matter in school agriculture is both pedagogical and practical. Illustra- tive material is easily obtained, the interest of the pupils is at once awakened, and cooperation with the farm ac- tivities of the community is natural and inevitable. The Author. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1. Read from other texts the subject-matter treated in these lessons. 2. Collect beforehand the materials needed for the practical exercises, and have everything ready for the recitation. 3. Ask the pupils to assist in collecting the materials, and have them perform the experiments whenever possible. 4. Make many excursions for observations of farm- ing methods. Bring the class to the material when the material cannot be brought to the class. But always obtain permission from the owner of the farm upon which excursions are made. 5. Have a school garden if possible. 6. Write to your State Agricultural Experiment Station, the State College of Agriculture, and to the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, for information, bulletins, and seeds. 7. Require each pupil to keep a permanent agri- cultural note-book in which to write a neat pen-and-ink record of each lesson. The work of recording the re- sults of the practical exercises gives the pupil some- thing definite to do. 8. Have the lesson in agriculture the last period of 7 8 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS the day, and there will be better opportunity for prac- tical work. Some of the lessons of the text may serve for several school lessons. 9. Relate the work in agriculture to the home farms whenever possible. Make "home projects" the basis of many recitations. 10. Make the "Year on the Farm" the work of the school year in agriculture. TABLE OF CONTEXTS September r,Essox. Page. I. — Selecting and Laying Out the Farm 13 II. — Farm Buildings 17 HI. — Map Studies of Life — A-field 22 IV. — Insects That Injure the Crops 24 V. — The Grasshopper 27 YI. — The Butterfly 30 VII. — The Fly 32 VIII. — The Bug 34 IX. — The Dragon Fly 36 X. — Fhe Bee 37 XL — The Beetle 39 XII.— Plant Diseases 42 XIII. — The WHE.VT Crop 44 October XIV. — Selecting and Storing Seed Corn 40 XV. — The Best Corn in the Co.m.munity 55 XVI. — Collection of Farm I'roducts 56 XVII. — Fruit Growing 57 XVIIL— XUT Crops 64 XIX. — Classification of Fak.m Crops 65 November XX. — The Stock on the Far.m 67 XXI. — The Driving Horse 70 XXII. — The Draft Horse 74 XXIII. — The Dairy Cow 78 XXIV.— The Beef Cow 81 XXV.— Fhe Sheep 83 XXVL— The Hog 86 XXVII. — Feeds and Feeding 91 XXVIII. — Test for Food Compounds 94 XXIX. — Determining Rations for Farm Animals 95 XXX.— The Dairy 100 XXXI. — Composition of Milk 104 XXXII. — The Babcock Test 107 XXXIII. — Poultry 110 XXXIV. — A Study of Feathers 114 XXXV.— The Egg. - , 116 9 10 CONTENTS December Lesson. Page. XXXVI. — Farm Accounts 118 XXXVII. — The Year's Account dy Months 121 XXXVIII. — Crop Records 122 XXXIX. — Record of a Good Crop Rotation 123 XL. — Comparison of Agriculture Products 126 XLI. — An Assessment of Farm Values 127 XLII. — Farm Machinery 127 XLIII. — Agricultural Outlook — West Virginia as a Type St.ate 129 January XLIV. — Country Life Conveniences 131 XLV. — The Farmer's Reading 133 XLVL— Soil 135 XLVII. — Plant Foods 143 XLVIII. — Fertilizers 149 February XLIX.— Drainage 158 L. — Fences 162 LI. — Knot Tying in Ropes 165 LII. — A Hot-bed Garden 167 LIII. — Rural Free Mail Delivery 169 LI V. — Agricultural Societies 172 LV. — The Grange 177 March LVI. — Structure of Seeds 181 LVII. — Germination of Seeds and Growth of Seedlings 185 LVIII. .lUDGING AND SCORING SEED CORN 191 LIX. — Testing Seed Corn 197 LX. — rHE Plant and Water 201 LXI. — The Root System of the Plant 205 LXII. — Clover and Other Legumes 208 LXIIL— Crop Rotation 213 LXIV. — Spraying Fruit Trees 221 LX V. — Pruning Fruit Trees 221 April LXVI.— Grafting Fruit Trees 226 LXVII. — Plant Propagation fro.m Cuttings 229 LXVIII. — Propagation of Raspberries 232 LXIX. — School Gardening 234 LXX. — Home Gardening 238 CONTENTS 11 Lesson. Page. LXXI. — Beautifying Home and School Grounds 244 LXXII. — Farm Forestry 249 LXXIII. — Spraying for Codling Moth AND Fungous Diseases. 259 LXXIV. — Pi^ANTiNG Corn 263 May LXXV. — Cultivation of Corn 267 LXXVI. — Tilling the Soil 272 LXXVII. — Transplanting • 277 LXXVIII. — Potatoes 279 LXXIX. — Tomatoes 283 LXXX. — Plant Leaves 286 LXXXI. — The Flower 288 LXXXII. — Plant Stems 291 June LXXXIIL— Weeds 295 LXXXIV. — Truck Crops 299 LXXXV. — The Value of Birds to Agriculture 303 LXXXVL — The Toad, the Farmer's Friend 306 LXXXVII. — Cutting Clover and Alfalfa 309 LXXXVIII. — Five Lines of Agricultural Improvement 312 July LXXXIX. — Roads and Road-making 314 XC. — Timothy Hay 118 XCL — Pastures 321 XCIL — Dry Farming 323 August XCIII. — Alfalfa 326 XCIV. — Budding Fruit Trees 329 XCV. — No Two Plants Alike 331 XCVL — The Water Supply 333 XCVn. — The United States Weather Service 335 XCVin. — Conservation of Natural Resources -. 338 XCIX. — -Agriculture and Education 340 C. — The Farm Home 342 Appendix Notes 345 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE A YEAR ON THE FARM SEPTEMBER LESSON I SELECTING AND LAYING OUT THE FAEM A forty-acre farm. — Let us suppose that it is the first day of September, and that we have moved into a new liome upon a forty-acre farm. Our farm is square — 80 rods by 80 rods — and the buildings are located at one corner of it. We shall do general farming. Our market is five miles away, and we have good roads. The farm is level, with the exception of a V-shaped valley extending across it from north to south, dividing the farm into two nearly equal parts. This valley furnishes excellent drainage facilities and an abundance of good spring water throughout the year. The soil of our farm is a rich, sandy loam for the most part, above a clay subsoil, and is in good physical condition. The fields are free from stumps, stones and waste places. There is an orchard of five acres, a wood-lot of five acres, and the rest of the farm, with the exception of the valley running through it, is tillable. 13 14 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE The climate is temperate, ranging from zero to 90 degrees above zero. The climatie conditions do not in- terfere with stock raising, and the general healthful- ness of the place is assured. The local markets, the school and church facilities, the character of the neigh- bors, are all excellent factors in helping us to decide upon this farm. We shall be very busy all the year, but we shall find great pleasure in our work. The planning, the build- ing, the sowing and reaping, and the beautifying of our home will furnish us interesting work for many years ; in fact, the work will never be finished, and therein is the joy of it all. The month's work. — September is the month for school to begin, and the interests of the farm will enter largely into the activities and lessons of the school. Busy days are ahead of us. Very little planting is to be done at this season, aside from wheat sowing, but we are in the midst of harvest, when we reap the rewards of the year's labor, and begin to plan for the coming winter. The great work of this month is the sowing of the wheat, and we shall learn of this great crop during the month. The second crop of clover is to be cut for seed. Perhaps the wheat from the July harvest has been stacked and is to be thrashed. During this month we shall find many weeds on the farm going to seed, and these should be cut down. The hungry insects will continue their ravages and demand our attention SELECTING AND LAYING OUT FARM 15 Practical Exercises 1. JReport on the Home Farm Make a report in class upon the home farm, using the following topics : 1. Kind of farming done. 2. Size and shape of farm. Courtesy of 0. J. Kern. Fig. 2. At the Grove School 3. Surface condition — level or hilly. 4. General fertility condition. 5. Drainage. 6. "Water supply. 7. Advantages or disadvantages of the location — market, schools, neighbors, etc. 16 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 8. Improvements — house, farm buildings, etc. 9. Trees and landscape features. 10. Climate and healthfulness. S. Map of Home Farm Each pupil in the class should draw a map of the home farm, shoAving fields, woodlot, orchards, gardens and buildings. Draw to a scale of inches. Write the report and draw the map as the first exercises in your agricultural note-book. Fig. 3. Diagram of 40-Acre Farm FARM BUILDINGS 17 LESSON II FARM BUILDINGS Location. — On our farm we have a good house, barn, granary, silo, carriage house, poultry house, and farm laboratory. Attention has been given to the proper arrangement of these buildings, within themselves and in relation to each other. The barn and other farm houses are located back of the dwelling house, and the vegetable garden is convenient to the kitchen, yet well hidden from the front view of the house. The dwelling house is situated upon an elevation sufficient to afford good drainage, several rods back from the road, leaving room for a pretty lawn in front. A drive leads from the road to the barn, passing through the barn-lot, con- venient to the side of the house. A clean, dry gravel walk leads from the house to the barn. A silo is attached to the barn, and the granary is near by. One of the most important out-buildings on our farm is the silo. The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is growing more apparent, but silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed silo. The silo must be air-tight, strong, perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on a strong, solid foundation. The farm workshop. — Every farmer should have a building, or a room in some building, in which he can do experimental work with plants, soils, etc., and in which he can do wood-working, forging in iron, and general shop work, A shop well equipped with car- penter's tools, a forge and anvil, a work-bench and its 18 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE equipments, would save the farmer many dollars and much time in the repairing of his implements and buildings. This same workshop might be provided with apparatus for seed-testing, fruit-tree pruning and graft- ing, soil testing and analyzing, and with various chemi- cals and apparatus used in experimental work with plants and animals. A room so equipped on every farm would furnish interesting and profitable work during the winter months, and the results of the experiments in these lab- oratories might be profitably applied on the farm. The following is a list of materials and furnishings that might be useful in the farm laboratory: 1. Work-bench and carpenter's tools. 2. Forge and anvil, with necessary tools accom- panying. 3. Medicine case with drugs for animals; and chem- icals, such as formalin, sulphuric acid, ammonia, copper sulphate, lime, sulphur, lead arsenate, paris green, hellebore, phosphoric acid, potash, sodium nitrate, etc., etc. 4. Tight case for various seeds. 5. Boxes of clay, sand and humus soils. 6. Table for general experimental work. 7. Water supply and means of heating the room. The pupils and teacher may add other materials to the above list, and, as a part of the work of this lesson, the pupils should draw the ground floor plan of such a room as described above, and indicate in their plan FAEM BUILDINGS 19 where they would place the different furnishings of the shop. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 32.— Silos and Silage. No. 126. — Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. Measurements Rules. 1. To find the area of a triangle multiply the base by one-half the height. 2. To find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter by 3 1-7. 3. To find the area of a circle multiply the square of the radius by 3 1-7. 4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other sides. Note: Make a drawing before attempting to solve any of the following problems. Pig. 4. Model Farm Buildings Problems 1. How many feet of inch lumber will be required to build a pig pen six feet wide, four feet from peak to ground, and eight feet long? (See rules 1 and 4.) 20 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 2. How many feet of inch lumber will be needed to board up the gables of a barn thirty feet wide, the peaks being twelve feet above the eaves? 3. How much lumber will it take to cover a corn crib with four-inch slats, placed one inch apart, the crib being twenty-four feet long, six feet wide at the bottom, eight feet at the top, eight feet to the eaves, and the peak three feet above the eaves ? 4. How long will the rafters need to be for this crib if they are to project one foot? How many feet of 2x4 rafters will be required if they are placed two feet apart? 5. How many feet of 2x4 studding will be needed if they are placed the same distance apart 1 How many feet of roof boards will be required if they are allowed to project one foot at each end I 6. How many cubic feet must a bin contain in order to hold a thousand bushels? Make a list of convenient dimensions for such a bin. 7. How many feet of two-inch plank will be re- quired to build a cylindrical tank fourteen feet across and two feet deep ? What will be the cost of the lumber at $30 per thousand? 8. How many feet of band iron will it require to make three hoops for this tank? 9. How many feet of inch lumber will be required to cover the inner wall of a "round" silo twenty-one feet across and eighteen feet high? How many feet of two-inch plank will be needed for a cover? What will be the cost of all this lumber at $25 per thousand. FARM BUILDINGS 21 10. What will it cost to put a cement floor in this silo at 10 cents per square foot? 11. How many 2x4 studdings eighteen feet long and placed one foot apart will be required, and what will be their cost at $24 per thousand? 12. What will it cost for the lumber to floor a barn forty by sixty feet with two and one-half inch plank at $18 per thousand? Fig. 5. Barn amd Silos 13. The peak of this barn is twelve feet higher than the eaves. What will inch lumber for sheeting the gables cost at $24 per thousand. 14. The rafters are made of 2x4, and twenty-seven inches long, placed eighteen inches apart. How much will they cost at $20 per thousand. 15. What will be the cost of the sheeting for the roof at $16 per thousand if the roof projects two feet at each end? 32 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE 16. What will it cost to shingle this roof with shingles worth $3.25 per thousand, laying thein five inches to the weather and allowing for a double course at the eaves ? 17. This building is placed on a wall twelve inches thick and eight feet high. "What is the cost of the stone for same at $5 per cord? 18. What will it cost to fence a field sixty rods long and forty-five rods wide with a five wire fence, posts one rod apart, worth 5 cents each, staples 6 cents per pound (200 to the pound), wire weighing one pound to the rod, worth $4.50 per cwt., and labor amounting to $6. 19. What will it cost to build a five board fence around the same field, using twelve-foot boards, six inches wide, and worth $16 per thousand, posts 5 cents each, nails and labor, $15. LESSON III MAP STUDIES OF LIFE AFIELD School out-of-doors. — Boys and girls who have en- joyed the free life out of doors all summer may not relish the prospect of sitting indoors during the pleas- ant September days studying from books, while all is life and activity on the farms without. Hence let us begin by bringing some of the life of the farm into the schoolroom, and carrying some of our school prob- lems out to the farm for answer. The fields, the woods, the roadsides, the brooks and the skies shall be our MAP STUDIES OF LIFE AFIELD 33 books when we are out of school, and we shall enjoy our hours in school, telling each other what we have seen and learned in the big books of nature. In all ^^^^^^^^^^^Hf^ ^^^ ^ ■■ ^^^^^^^^feC-'." w ^^^^■7 ^TT^^HI^^I ^^^^^^HRilJ^jl ^^^^■t H ^^^^^^^IP^^Ih B':"!!^ 1 ^^^^H^FN^ - ^ 1 <, m 'i^T^ 1 H^5S!? 'Br ' "* *'» C if*.f-; ■/-•i^^^ H .p^a^J i^ *^ ' * 'J 1^ J:j pR A- ;■, .^^H ^^^^^B^^jL^^^iMytH i^^H Fig. 6. A Boy's Collection our study of agriculture let us learn from real things, and not depend altogether upon books. Practical Exercises 1. Make measurement of a tract of land containing five or ten acres, and draw a map of the same to an 24 LESSONS IN AC4RICULTURE accurate scale. Place in this map the creeks, springs, buildings, etc. 2. Collect bottles of the different kinds of soil found on the tract, and bring to school. 3. Make a list of all the useful plants growing on the plot. 4. Make a list of all the weeds or useless plants known on the plot. 5. Make a list of all the domestic and wild animals seen, 6. Make a list of all the birds and insects observed from time to time. This work may continue through many weeks, and the pupils should keep a neat and accurate record in their permanent note-books of the observations on their tracts of land. LESSON IV INSECTS THAT INJUKE THE CROPS "The farmer may prepare the soil ever so well, he may fertilize with the greatest of care, he may culti- vate thoroughly, the weather conditions may be favor- able, and yet he may lose all or a portion of his crop through the attacks of insects and the ravages of plant diseases." (Hatch.) Extent of injury. — Insects destroy our crops to the value of millions of dollars. The farmer has learned to fight some of these pests successfully, and yet too little attention is paid by the average farmer to methods INSECTS THAT INJURE CROPS 25 of combating insects as well as plant diseases. There is much to learn about insects before we can hope to control them successfully. We must learn when and where the insects lay their eggs, when the eggs hatch, and into what forms they develop, and what they feed upon. Some people make fun of boys and girls when they see them hunting and studying "bugs," but if somebody did not hunt and study bugs, they would eat and drive us all out of house and home. Life history of an insect. — There are usually four stages in the life history of an insect — the egg stage, the grub or caterpil- lar stage, the resting or pupa stage, and the full-groAvn insect. The egg is laid by the full-grown insect in the ground or in any part of the plant. The eggs hatch into what we usually call a grub or w^orm. The grub of most insects is a great eater, and it is in this stage that much dam- age is done to our plants. After it has eaten and grown fat, it hides itself and goes into a pupa or resting stage. From this pod-like affair it emerges as a full-grown in- sect, ready to lay eggs and repeat the life cycle. Some in- sects, such as grasshoppers, do not go into the resting Fig. 7. Section of a Tree-Truxk Showing Gvpsy Moth Lauvak Ascending 26 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE stage, but grow their wings as they hop about in search of food. Feeding habits of insects. — Insects may be divided into two classes, according to their habits of injury to plants: the leaf-eating insects and the sap-sucking in- sects. These habits of the insects furnish the farmer a clue to methods of destroying them. If he finds that a certain insect is eating the leaves of his plants, he can spray them with a poison, such as lead arsenate, and the insects will eat the poison and die. If the insect that is injuring the plants has a beak which it uses to suck the sap from the tree or plant, without eating the leaves, then the farmer can spray with lime- sulphur or a mixture of kerosene and soapsuds, which will stop the insect's breathing pores or destroy its body. Directions for making these mixtures are given elsewhere in this book. The body of insects. — Insects are so called because they are "in sections." There are three main sec- tions of an insect's body — the head, thorax, and abdo- men. The head is provided with a pair of feelers, a pair of strong jaws (or a sucking tube), and two com- pound or two simple eyes. Three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings are attached to the thorax. The abdomen is the back part of the body, made up of segments. Insects breathe through little holes in their sides. In the practical exercises which follow you will note all these points of structures in various insects. Note. The practical exercises on insects will be given as separate lessons and so numbered. THE GBASSHOPPER 37 LESSON V 1. THE GRASSHOPPER General directions. — In making these practical studies of insects, an example of each of the common orders of insects will be taken up. The pupils should provide their own material, and bring the insects to the class for study. The insect net illustrated below will facilitate the catching of winged insects like the grasshopper, butterfly, bee, etc. Bottles and cans may be used to catch such insects as the beetles and bugs. Fig. 8. Insect Net A hand lens to magnify the insect body will be found helpful. A sharp penknife, a pair of sharp-pointed scis- sors, two large needles mounted in wooden holders, and a pair of sharp eyes are essentials in the study of insects. Field and laboratory studies. — In making this study of the insects, the pupils should first draw a whole body view of the insect, and then make such notes and 28 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE answer such questions as are asked in the k\sson out lines. Determine all answers from observation. 1. Observe in the field : Its method of locomotion. Its protective coloration. Its enemies. Its sounds. Its haunts. Its food. 2. With the living insect, try to find the breathing spiracle, just above the base of the middle legs. Watch the opening and closing of the lips of this breathing pore. Put a grasshopper under a glass and see if it JNB Fig. 9. DiFFEUEXTiAL Locust — After S.\nderson will eat grass or leaves. Perhaps it has spit "tobacco juice" on you. Wliy does it do this? How many times the length of its body can it jump? 3. In what ways do the hind pair of legs differ from the others? Of what advantage are the hooks and spines on the legs? Count the number of joints on each leg. 4. Study the wings. How does the front pair com- pare with the hind jjair? How are the hind wings folded ? By rubbing the upper and lower wings to- gether, the grasshopper sounds are made. Make a drawing of the Avings. THE GRASSHOPPER 29 5. Study the mouth parts. These are the most dif- ficult of all the external parts to see. Find the fol- lowing parts : (a) The upper lip, a two-lobed lab rum. (b) A pair of blackish horny mandibles, covered by the upper lip. (e) A pair of jointed maxillae below the mandibles, (d) A two-lobed lower lip, the labium. 6. The female has at the end of the abdomen, four points called the ovipositor. These are used for making an opening into the ground to receive the eggs. Young grasshoppers are called nymphs, and resemble the adults in every way except that their wings are unde- veloped. 7. Count the segments of the abdomen. Observe on each side of the abdomen a groove, and just above it a row of breathing spiracles. Observe the thin mem- braneous depression on the first segment of the abdo- men. This is supposed to be the ear. 8. Observe the eye. Perhaps you can see that it is made up of many divisions. The grasshopper has two compound eyes and three simple eyes. Try to find these. 9. What other insects belong to the grasshopper family? Are they injurious on the farm? How? Note. — For killing insects, prepare a cyanide bottle as follows: Break potassium cyanide into small pieces and put into the bottom of a wide-mouthed bottle. Avoid the deadly poisonous fumes. Poiir over the 30 LESSONS IX AGEICULTUEE pieces just enough water to cover them. Add plaster of paris until the water is absorbed. Leave unstoppered until the contents are dried ; then cork tightly. Insects dropped into the bottle will die. Keep the bottle from children. LESSON VI 2. THE BUTTERFLY Every country boy or girl knows the white cabbage butterfly, and its associate, the sulphur butterfly. With a freshly killed specimen, take up the study as follows : 1. INIake a drawing of the whole body, showing the characteristic markings. 2. How many segments to the body? What are the appendages from these segments? 3. How do the legs compare with those of tiie grass- hopper ? 4. Write a descriptive sentence about each of the following points of the wings: Action, shape, overlap- ping, scale-covering, and vein-structure. 5. How many segments to the abdomen? Are they like those of the grasshopper? 6. Examine the mouth of the butterfly. Find the coiled tube which it uses to obtain the nectar from the flower.. With a pin uncoil it and note its length. 7. Answer the following points on the observation of a live butterfly : THE BUTTERFLY 31 (a) Its rnanner of flight. (b) The kind of food, and the manner of feeding. (c) The natural enemies of the butterfly. (d) The position of the wings when at rest. 8. What is the damage done by the cabbage but- terfly ? It should be remembered that the common toad is the best friend we have in the garden to rid the ca])bage of this pest. 9. What is the life-history of the butterfly? This question will be asked in connection with all the insects we shall study ; therefore a gen- eral answer should probably be given to make this point clear. The cab- bage butterfly lays its eggs usually on J, , "„ Fig. 10. Cabbage Butterfli the lower surface of cabbage leaves. They are small and are pale-yellowish in color. These hatch into larva, the so-called cabbage worms. After the worms have fed upon the cabbage leaves for some time, they spin from their mouths a silken pod around themselves; this pod is called the pupa. The pupa is usually found on old fences or posts. In a short time the pupa ruptures, and a full-grown cabbage butterfly crawls out, dries its wings and flies away to begin the life history of a new generation. 32 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 10. If you can get a moth compare it with the but- terfly as follows: (a) Difference in the feelers (antenna^). (b) Manner of folding the wings when at rest. (c) Time of flying, day or night. (d) Comparative size of bodies. Note. — Butterflies and moths belong to this order of insects. LESSON VII 3. THE FLY 1. Make a drawing of the common house-fly. 2. Write a sentence on each of the following points, based upon your own observation of a live fly: (a) The rapidity of the wing motion, (b) Its manner of eating. (c) Its favorite haunts. 3. How many wings has the fly? Look under the wings and try to find the little white knobs, called the balancers. 4. Note how rough and hairy the legs and feet of the fly are. Would they hold filth and dirt so that it could be carried? 5. How does the abdomen of the fly compare with other insects we have studied? Count the segments of the abdomen. 6. The life history of the fly family may be studied THE FLY 33 easily in the schoolroom. Expose out of doors a bit of lean meat, so that the eggs may be laid upon it. The blue-bottle fly will lay eggs upon meat. Fill a tin can or box with sand, and on a chip in the center of it place the bit of meat with the eggs on it. Invert a glass tumbler over it, and push the rim of the tumbler down onto the sand to prevent the escape of offensive odors. In a few hours the eggs will hatch, and in a few days the larva will be fully grown. They will probably crawl under the chip to change into pupse. They may come out soon as adult flies, or they may remain over winter in this stage. The house fly lays ^^^- H- the fly its eggs in manure and filth and is transformed through the same stages of life history. Rules Against Flies 1. Flies are very dangerous in the spread of disease, therefore we should not allow any decaying organic matter in which they can breed to accumulate. 2. If the cellar is damp clean out the dark and damp corners and apply lime. 3. Pour kerosene into the drains and also treat with kerosene all waste materials not intended for fer- tilizers. 4. If the kitchen waste is deposited in large cans it 34 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE should be removed at least once a week. The cans should have covers. 5. Kitchen waste intended as food for hogs should be removed and used daily. 6. Haul out the manure and spread it on the soil every day, or put it in a screened box to be emptied over the fields or gardens at least once a week, 7. If inconvenient to haul the manure at short inter- vals, treat it with kerosene or gypsum. 8. Keep up the work of destroying adult flies by the usual methods, and judiciously screen against them. Flies breed in filth ; they are among the worst agencies in the spread of typhoid fever, and every means pos- sible should be used to banish them from our homes. LESSON VIII 4. THE BUG If it is possible to catch a two-year cicada, some- times called "dog-day harvest fly," or improperly, the locust, this will make the best specimen for the study of the true bug. If none of these can be got, a squash bug will illustrate the characteristics of all bugs. 1. Draw the view of the whole body. 2. How many wings are there? Note in the squash bug that the front half of the wing is horny and that the back half is membranous. 3. Note the triangular prominence of the thorax on the back. THE BUG 35 4. Observe the mouth parts. What does the bug's mouth show as to its manner of eating? 5. For what kind of locomotion are the legs adapted ? 6. Find the eyes and feelers. Write a sentence describing each. L ^'i^ ■> '■ m^^ml KHB f^mm i^^f^M f "§ Fig. 12. The Squash Bug — Three St.\ges of Insect Growth 7. What is the life history of the squash bug and cicada ? 8. All the bugs belong in this order, together with plant lice, tree hoppers, scales, etc. 36 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE This is an injurious order of insects, and the kero- sene emulsion spray is the means of combating in most cases. LESSON IX 5. THE DRAGON FLY Both dragon and damsel flies will have to be caught with a net. They are usually seen flying about ponds or streams of water. 1. Answer the following questions from the observa- tion of a living specimen : (a) What is their habit of flight? (b) What is their food? (c) How do the dragon fly and damsel fly diflfer in habits? (d) What is the position of the wings at rest? 2. After killing the dragon fly in the cyanide bottle, straighten its wings and legs and draw the whole body view. 3. How do the legs compare with those of the grass- hopper ? 4. How many wings are there? Write a descrip- tive sentence about them. 5. Note the enormous development of the eyes. What would this indicate as to their habit of life? Find the three simple eyes, and tell where they are located. 6. Write a descriptive sentence about the abdomen. How many segments? THE DRAGON FLY 37 Fig. 13. The Deagon-Fly 7. Does the dragon fly have a sting? 8. The life history. — The eggs are laid in the water. They hatch into a nymph, a form resembling the adult without wings. In this stage they live in the water, and feed greedily upon small water insects. At this stage they are bene- ficial in eating mos- quito larva. When the nymph is fully grown it crawls out of the water upon some convenient rock or reed, fastens its feet firmly, splits down the back, and the adult dragon fly crawls out, dries itself, and is soon ready to fly. The dragon fly is a beneficial insect, be- cause it preys upon other insects that are pests to us. LESSON X 6. THE BEE 1. Answer the following questions on the honey, or biimble bee, based upon field observation : (a) What kind of flowers does it feed upon? (b) Is it shy while feeding? Will it sting then? (c) Does it stay long at each flower? (d) What does it gather from the flower? (e) Explain how it helps the flower. (f) How does its manner of flight compare with that of the butterfly? 38 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 2. Kill the bee in the cyanide bottle, and make a drawing of the body. 3. Note the large body in comparison to the wings. Do you think that the wings wear out easily? How many wings are there? 4. Are the legs of the bee all alike? Explain. 5. Try to find the mouth parts and the tongue. "Write a descriptive sentence about them. 6. Can you see any value in the hairy covering of the bee's body? Worker. Drone. Fig. 14. The Bee Queen, 7. Find the sting of the bee and remove it. There is a poison gland at the root of the sting, which pours a fluid into the wound made by the sting, causing the painful sensation with which every boy is familiar. 8. Where does the bumble bee make its nest? What is it made of? 9. Life history. — The eggs are laid in the cells. The second stage is the worm-like creature, the larva, lying inactive in the cell. It must be fed, and it is a big eater. When it is fully grown it spins a silken cocoon about itself and enters the next stage. The third stage is the pupa. Here it remains quietly concealed within THE BEETLE 39 its cocoon, over which the workers spread a thin layer of wax, making a cell of it. After a time it cuts its way through the top of the cell and comes forth a fully developed bumble bee. 10. To this order belong the wasps, hornets, saw- flies, gallflies, ants, and honey bees. Note. — If it is desired to make an extended study of the honey bee as an insect for farm use, write to Mr. Frank Benton, of the Division of Entomology, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for his Bee Book and other circulars. LESSON XI 7. THE BEETLE 1. Make a drawing of the beetle. 2. How many wings has the beetle? With a freshly killed specimen in hand, extend the two horny, sheath wing-covers, which meet by smooth edges along the middle of the back, completely covering the thin mem- braneous wings beneath. Spread out all four of these wings and make a drawing to show the wing arrange- ment. 3. Write a descriptive sentence about the mouth parts. Are they made for sucking or biting and chewing ? 4. Write a sentence telling of the size and position of the eyes. 5. How many joints in the beetle's leg? Describe the claws. 40 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 6. How many segments in the abdomen? Com- pare the upper and lower surfaces. 7. How do beetles live? Find as many different kinds as you can. 8. Life history. — The beetle has all the four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The eggs of the beetle hatch into grub s, w i r o worms, borers, etc. In this stage they do great damage to the crops, trees, and other vegetation. From the grub stage they pass into a pupa stage similar to all other in- sects. The pupas are usually in the ground, from which emerge adult beetles. Most of the beetles are very injurious insects, the tiger beetles and lady beetles excepted, and, since they are usually chewing insects, the treatment is a lead arsenate or paris green spray. a. Larva, b. Adult. Fig. 15. Ground Beetle Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 38. — Spraying for Fruit Diseases. No. 45. — Some Insects Injurious to Stored Grain. No. 75. — The Grain Smuts: Cause and Prevention. No. 91. — Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. No. 99. — Three Insects Enemies of Shade Trees. No. 127. — Important Insecticides. No. 132. — The Principal Insect Enemies of Wheat. No. 146. — Insecticides and Fungicides. No. 171.— The Control of the Codling Moth. No. 172. — Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. No. 196.— The Usefulness of the Toad. No. 212.— The Cotton Bollworm. THE BEETLE 41 Spraying Mixtures for Plant Diseases (Bordeaux Mixture.) 5 lbs. unslacked lime $0.04 3 lbs. copper sulphate at 10c 30 Total $0.34 Dissolve each thoroughly in 25 gallons of water. When both are thoroughly dissolved, mix. Use wooden vessels. Strain care- fully into spray-pump, barrel, or tank. Lime-Sulphur 11/4 gallons lime-sulphur $0.20 50 gallons water. For Leaf-Eating Insects 1/2 lb. Paris green to 50 gallons water. Spray. Cost \ $0.15 3 lbs. arsenate of lead to 50 gallons water. Cost $0.45 Asenafe of lead sticks to the plant much better than Paris green, and is therefore more useful, especially in rainy seasons. For Sap-Sucking Insects 2 gallons kerosene $0.25 1 lb. hard soap (1 qt. soft soap) 10 1 gallon water Total cost $0.35 Problems 1. Suppose it takes two applications of two pounds of lead arsenate each, and two days' time at $1.00 per day to destroy the bugs on an acre of potatoes, how many bushels of potatoes at 50c per bushel will it take to pay for the treatment? 2. If one house fly lays 80 eggs four different times during the summer, and half of these eggs hatch female flies, each one laying the same number of eggs as the first fly, and so on to four generations, how many flies would come from the first fly during the summer? 3. I^ind out the average yield of honey from hives in your community, and calculate the income from a hive of bees at the prevailing price paid for honey. 42 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE LESSON XII PLANT DISEASES Injury and control. — Perhaps we have noticed during the summer that some of the plants we were interested in grew sickly and died, in spite of all the care and attention we gave them. We are told by the botanists that plants have diseases, just as people do. Rust, blight, smut, rot, and the like, are the common names of diseases which afflict the plant. They spread from plant to plant by means of little dust-like particles called spores. These spores float around in the air and settle on healthy plants. Here the spores may grow and injure the plant by living upon its sap. They must be destroyed or they may kill the plant upon which they feed. The various diseases caused by the spores are called fungous diseases. Some of the most common forms are the fire blight of the pear and apple, the smut of corn and oats, the rust of wheat, the potato scab, potato blight, peach leaf curl, apple scab, club root, black knot of plum, brown and bitter rot, and many other kindred varieties. As soon as the diseases make their appearance in the orchards or on the crops, the farmer should begin his fight. If the leaves of the trees begin to dry up and blacken with the blight, the affected parts should be immediately cut off, at some distance below the blight, and burned. The lime-sulphur, or Bordeaux mixture, spray described in Lessons 11 and 64, are the spray remedies to use on most plant diseases. PLANT DISEASES 43 Practical Exercises 1. Observation of Some Plant Diseases Bring samples of diseased plants to the school and fill out the following outline as you study the speci- mens : Common Names of the Diseases. | Plants Affected. | Remedy. ^. Treating Oats for Smut Bring a half bushel of oats to school in a ''gunny- sack." Soak the oats, sack and all, for about ten minutes in a vessel holding ten gallons of water, to which has been added one-fourth pint of formaldehyde (40 per cent). Then spread the oats out to dry. The formaldehyde kills the spores of the smut that are on the oats, and the crop coming from this treated seed will be free from the disease. It would be a good service to the farmers if the school would treat all the seed oats in the community. Problems 1. Suppose it takes 200 gallons of Bordeaux mixture to spray an acre of potatoes. What is the cost of the mixture? (See Lesson 11.) 2. Suppose it takes two applications to cure the blight and each application requires a day's time, worth $1.00. What is the cost of the cure? 3. How many bushels of potatoes, at 50 cents a bushel, will it take to pay the cost of this spray? 44 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE 4. Suppose two fields of potatoes of an acre each, owned by different farmers. One farmer sprays to cure the blight, and gets 188 bushels of potatoes, worth 50 cents per bushel. The other neglects his field and gets but 75 bushels. What is the difference in the value of the two crops? 5. What did it cost the first farmer to apply the spray? What is his actual gain over the other farmer? Did it pay to spray? 6. If formaldehyde costs 50 cents per pint, and a pint will treat 40 bushels of oats, how much will it cost per acre to treat the seed oats, sowing three bush- els to the acre? 7. Suppose it takes a day's work, worth $1, to treat the seed for 12 acres, what is the total cost of the treat- ment? 8. How many bushels of oats, at 30 cents per bushel, will it take to pay for the treatment? Suppose the treatment increased the yield 20 bushels per acre, how much does the farmer gain on his crop ? LESSON XIII THE WHEAT CROP General cultural requirements. — Wheat has been cultivated from the earliest times. The crop ranks third in value in the United States. It grows in cool, tem- perate, and warm climates, and in many kinds of soil. It does best in clay loam, and poorest in sandy loam. WHEAT CROP 45 The soil must be well drained, and in a good physical condition — that is, it must be open, crumbly, and mellow. Hard clay soils can be made valuable for wheat by ma- nuring, by good tillage, and by crop rotation. Cow peas or red clover make a valuable crop to precede wheat ; for they add nitrogen to the soil, loosen it, allow free circu- lation of air, and add liumus to the soil when plowed under. ^^^^^^ - -. -«■ 9ViP^fflRllffMiiipH|^H| ^^^i-^-^M^^^ "a^ j^"^^ Mmm t Pig. 16. — Wheat Field in Shenandoah Valley Soil preparation. — The method of preparing the soil for wheat will depend on the previous crop and the na- ture of the soil. Where wheat is to be sown in standing corn, the most practical soil preparation consists in thor- ough cultivation of the corn crop, keeping the soil mellow and free of weeds throughout the summer. It is much better to cut off the corn and thoroughly disk and harrow the ground before drilling the wheat. Wheat requires an ideal seed bed and a firm, sub-soil. Seeding the wheat. — The time to sow wheat in the 46 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE central states varies from the second week in September to the first week in October. On account of the Hessian fly it is advisable to sow wheat as late as possible. The seed drill is the best implement for sowing wheat. The amount of seed per acre required to get the best results depends upon a number of conditions, such as the fer- tility of the soil, the condition of the seed bed as to fineness and moisture, and the size and quality of the seed used. "With medium-sized seed of good quality on a well prepared fertile soil, six pecks per acre will usually be sufficient. The selection of good seed is an important means of increasing the yield of wheat. Seed should be selected from the best portions of the crop, graded and cleaned in such a way as to get the largest and plumpest grains for sowing. In Indiana, the highest yielding varieties of wheat are the Ruby, Pearl's Prolific, Michigan Amber, Farmer's Friend, and Abundance. Feeding the wheat crop. — Wheat responds to the use of fertilizers more readily than most of the ordinary crops. A study of the crop will show what sort of fer- tilizer is needed. If the straw is inferior and short, the soil may be deficient in nitrogen ; but if the straw be luxuriant and the heads small and poorly filled, the soil may contain too little phosphoric acid and potash. Purdue Experiment Station recommends for wheat the application at seeding time of about 300 pounds per acre of a fertilizer containing two per cent nitrogen, eight available phosphoric acid, and two to four per cent pot- ash. If the farmer wishes to mix his own fertilizer and WHEAT CROP 47 thus save several dollars per ton, 200 pounds per acre of the following mixture is advised : 900 pounds steamed bone meal, 300 pounds high grade acid phosphate, and 200 pounds muriate of potash. These may be purchased from fertilizer companies and can be easily mixed with a shovel on the barn floor. The average yield for wheat in the United States is but little over thirteen bushels per acre. In view of the fact that the acreage of wheat is decreasing, and the population of the country increasing, there is occasion for alarm over the future bread supply. The future wheat supply must come, not so much from increased acreage, as from increased production per acre. Practical Exercises 1. Study of the Wheat Plant. Take a walk into a wheat field. Note whether the stand is good. Is there a luxuriant growth of stem ? Have the heads filled out well ? Pull up a single wheat plant, root and stem. Take several wheat plants and a hand- ful of wheat into the schoolroom. Make a drawing of the wheat and its root system. Separate your handful of wheat grains into two piles — one containing the plump, large seeds, and the other, the smaller, inferior seeds. ^. The StooUng Habit of Wheat Plant a few wheat seeds in pots in the schoolroom, and after they have grown into stems and begun to fall over, dig out a few of the plants without breaking off many of the roots. Volunteer wheat may be found growing 48 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE in the fic4ds. Try to find the grain from which the plant started. Find the first joint. Do you find more than one plant starting from this joint ? All but the central one of these are stools. Do the stools seem to be as strong as the central plant ? Does the thickness of the stand seem to have anything to do with the amount of stooling ? Is the stooling greater in rich soil or in poor soil ? Is a large amount of stooling desirable ? Why ? 3. A Visit to the Mill If practicable, visit some mill to see how the flour is made. Write a paragraph describing your visit. Problems 1. How much wheat will we have on our farm at 30 bushels per acre? What will it be worth at the prevail- ing price? 2. Calculate what it will cost to raise this crop at the present price of labor and seed and fertilizer. What will be our profit ? 3. At the price of flour, will it pay the forty-acre farmer to raise wheat, or buy the flour ? References: The Cereals in America. — Thos. Hunt. How the World is Fed. — Industrial Reader, Carpenter. Circular 23, Purdue Experiment Station, Lafayette, Ind. OCTOBER On the Farm. — While the trees are preparing for win- ter, shedding their beai^ifully colored leaves, we too must prepare for the winter, by filling our barns, cel- lars, and granaries with the grains and fruits of our fields. After the silo is filled, we shall cut and shock a part of our corn, but the greater part we shall husk and leave the fodder in the field for ' ' stalk pasture. ' ' Our apples will be piled in cool places until time to store in the cellar. We shall have pumpkins to gather, po- tatoes to dig, sauerkraut and cider to make, and fall vegetables to store away. If there are any more shrubs and trees to plant on the farm, October is a good month for this work. Of course, we shall set some hyacinth, tulip, daffodil, and crocus bulbs for early spring flowers. LESSON XIV SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN The good farmer in husking his corn will have by him a special box or basket into which he can throw ears of corn selected from the stalk for next year's seed corn. Position of ear on stalk. — The first point to notice in selecting an ear for seed is its position on the stalk. The ear should be set about midway up the stalk, not 49 50 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE too near the bottom nor too near the top. The shank that holds the ear should not to be too long, so that it holds the ear far from the stalk. On the other hand, it should not be so short that it causes the ear to stand upright against the stalk. The stalk should be of medium size, strong and tapering with strong brace roots and plenty of leaves. * Shape of ear. — The next point to observe is the gen- eral shape and development of each ear selected. For the first selection of the corn in the field be governed by the following points: 1. Length of ear, between eight and ten inches. 2. Circumference of the ear, about three-fourths the length. 3. Rows of kernels, straight and running well out to the tip and butt of the ear. Kernels well shaped, firmly set in place, deeply dented and all of the same purity of color. Governed by these points in the field selection of ears, the farmer may select more corn than is really needed for his seed, so that a closer selection and grading may be made in the spring before planting. Storing seed corn. — In storing the corn, it should either be hung by the husks torn back from the ear, or be placed in racks made of narrow strips with spaces between. Whatever the device used to store the corn may be, it should provide for free circulation of air about the ears, and a dry, cool place, protected from mice, rats and poultry. The scoring, judging, and final testing and se- SELECTING AND STORING SEED CORN 51 lection of seed corn are treated in the lessons for March, but if desired may be taken up in the schools at this time; in which case it would be advisable to re- peat them in the spring. Practical Exercises 1. Observational Study of Stalls of Corn Bring a half dozen stalks of corn into the school- room. Let each stalk have its roots, leaves, ears and all ^fff^ffff?*** ^m^ima :<■::■■'*:■'' « ttiiiiiiiiii. Fig. 17. Reid's Yellow Dent complete. Make notes of your observations of each stalk on the following points: 1. Leaf growth. 2. Size and vigor of stalk, 3. Brace roots. 53 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 4. Height of ear. 5. Length of shank. 6. Ear — good or poor type. Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 229. ■ 2. Selecting the Seed Corn in the Field Go to a corn field in the vicinity of the school and select at least fifty desirable stalks of corn bearing the ears as explained in the discussion above. First select the strong, medium-sized, stocky stalks having the ears properly located and bending from the stalk. Husk enough of the ear to see whether the other points of selection mentioned as (1), (2), (3) above, are up to a good standard. Husk ten or twelve ears and take them to the schoolroom for further study. If it is not practical to go to a corn field, a dozen or more stalks of corn should be brought into the school- room for a study of the points in field selection of seed corn. Make notes criticizing the stalks. 3. Storing Seed Corn Construct a swinging shelf in the attic of the school- room by means of four wires and a board about six feet long by one foot wide. Lay the corn you have se- lected for seed on this shelf, cording it up like wood sev- eral layers deep. Such a swinging shelf may be made in the barn or crib at the farm, and several bushels of seed corn stored upon it. 4. Selecting Exhibition Corn Arrange for an exhibit day as a practical lesson under this topic. Each pupil should bring ten of the best ears SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN 53 of corn he can select from the home crop. One very important thing in choosing corn for an exhibit is the principle of uniformity. In order to get a high rating on an exhibit, all the ears in the set must look alike as nearly as possible. Pick out the best ten ears you can find, which by careful measurement and comparison Fig. 18. Drying Rack fob Seed Coen are nearest alike. Arrange all the exhibits which are brought to school, so as to show them to the best ad- vantage. See the lesson on corn judging and scoring. Have some outside person judge the corn, invite the parents in, award prizes, talk corn, and make a great day of the corn exhibit. Save the ten ears that won first prize and bring them to the county and state corn shows. 54 LESSONS IX AGKICULTURE — ' 5. Field SUidies of the Corn With note-book, pencil, and rule, go to the corn field, and answer from observations the following points: 1. Name of the variety of corn. 2. Date the corn matures. 3. Average height of corn. 4. Average number of leaves on a corn stalk; the number of joints. 5. Length of ear shank on an average of ten plants. 6. Husks ; abundant or scarce ; close or loose. 7. Number of corn plants on an acre (10 rods x 16 rods). 8. Average height of ears from the ground. 9. The number of ears of corn on the acre measured ; the number of bushels on the acre. 6. Study of an Ear of Corn With an ear of corn on the desk before you, describe it, using the following outline : 1. Name of the variety. 2. Color of grain and cob. 3. Surface, smooth or rough. 4. Rows of kernels; number, straightness, spacing, and completeness. 5. Grains, firm or loose. 6. Shape of the ear. 7. Butt; even, shallow or deep. 8. Tip ; exposed or covered, nature of kernel at tip. 9. Kernels; square or rounded at top, shoe-peg or rounded form. SELECTING AND STOEING SEED CORN 55 10. Length and circumference of the ear. 11. "Weight of ear, of kernels, and of cob; per cent of grain. 12. Number of kernels on the ear. Problems 1. The corn crop for the last five years in the United States has been over 2,500,000,000 bushels a year. How much is that for each person in the United States? 2. What is the value of this corn at the prevailing price ? 3. How much corn was grown in your state last year? What was the yield per acre? (See Year Book of the Department of Agriculture. If the school does not have the latest copy, apply to your member of Con- gress.) LESSON XV THE BEST CORN IN THE COMMUNITY Practical Exercises Let each pupil weigh out one bushel of corn in the ear at home, and bring the weights to school. Then each one copy the weights and data of all the others, and tabulate the results as follows : Pupils ' Names. Weight of Bushel. No. of lbs. Overweight. Per ceut Overweight. Lbs. of Underweight. Variety. 56 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Problems 1. How much should we expect to gather from our ten-acre lot of corn as shown in Lesson I, and what is it worth at the present price? 2. How many ears of corn will it take to make a bushel ? 3. How many bushels of corn in a wagon box 10 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 27 inches deep, filled to round- ing and gauged by bushel measure 12x12x27 inches? 4. How many bushels of corn in a bin 10 feet long, 10 feet wide, and 10 feet high, using the same gauge? LESSON XVI COLLECTION OF FARM PRODUCTS Practical Exercises Try to get small bundles of each of the grains raised in the community, viz., wheat, oats, rye, corn, cowpeas, clover, and any other crop raised for its seed. Pupils should each bring a few culms of these and a collec- tion will soon be made. Each bundle should be labeled as follows : Name of plant. Date of collection. Name of collector. The collection should be accompanied by samples of the mature seed, put up in bottles of uniform size, and labeled as above. All the grasses and clovers used as hay may be col- lected in the same way. Arrange the exhibit on the wall or in a frame in as artistic a manner as possible. A day could be set apart when the fruits and vege- CO X X UJ H FEUIT GEOWING 57 tables, as well as the farm products of the neighborhood, can be exhibited. Awards and prizes might be offered, thus making the school a new center of interest in the community. As much of the collection as can be made permanent should be made so and kept at the school during the term. The collection and arrangement of this material ■j Hi ! 4 "ii.^ |l i Hi iH m HII^^H^fe ► "■"■ - ^^Hl ^^^■1 lii^H^Miil BB Fig. 19. A West ^■II;|jI^•IA Cokn Exhibit will furnish a valuable lesson, and give opportunity to develop skillful exhibitors. A farm product show would be an excellent activity for the boys and girls of the agricultural society men- tioned in a later lesson. LESSON XVII FRUIT GROWING Interest in fruit. — During October it is easy to be interested in fruit, both in the planting and the har- vesting. It is easy to resolve, when one sees the splendid 58 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE harvest of apples, peaches, and other fruits ripening in the autumn in our neighbors' orchards, to share in this bounty by planting fruit trees on our own farms. And this is a commendable resolution, for fruit is a most wholesome food, and the demands for it in the markets of the world are annually increasing. Extension of orchards. — Many hillsides and rolling fields, poorly adapted to grain culture would produce profitable orchards of apples, peach, cherry, or smaller M .. ' ^^3 . «^t^<' 1^1 -' -T^H Iv\ ■ i^ §|jfc^- > -^'4^B 2^T ,4 ^ w^^ H^nB ^^^^^aHB 1 1 i |f|| m H IpM P^ [- -^-"l ■il'iiLtl^ S' ' '-a M ^ "'"EWPWrii!^*^ ' ^^ Fig. 20. Modern Methods in Orchard Cultivation fruits. It would be better for the soils of many farms, and for the purses of many farmers, were their hillsides planted to fruit trees rather than to grain, for in the former case the harvest will be barrels of fruit, while in the latter it is too often scattered grain and weeds in a badly washed and gullied field. FRUIT GROWING 59 Setting and caring for the orchard. — For various reasons which we shall not discuss here, the young or- chard should be set on high, rolling land. After a site has been chosen, the land should be prepared as thor- oughly as for a corn crop. If it is not practical to plow the ground, large holes, about four feet in diameter and two feet deep, should be dug for places in which to set the little trees. It is best to buy trees at least one or two years old for planting. During this month the fruit trees may be set. Follow the principles of planting dis- cussed in Lesson 72, and mulch the trees well with strawy manure as they go into the winter. Apple trees should be set about forty feet apart each way, and peach trees from eighteen to twenty feet apart. They may be set in squares or in triangles. The trian- gular arrangement will give more trees to the acre. Just as the young forest described in Lesson 72 is plowed in the spring, so should the young fruit orchard be cultivated, if possible. After cultivating the fruit orchard until the middle of June, it should then be sown to a clover or cow pea crop, which would act as a winter mulch for that season. Such care, together with the pruning and spraying that is discussed later, will start the young orchard well on the way to fruitfulness. The fruits. — The trees may be divided into pome and stone fruits. The apple, pear, and quince are called pomes, because they contain a core in which are the seeds. The cherry, plum, peach, prune, and apricot are called stone or drupe fruits, because the seed is enclosed in a hard stony shell. The grape is our only vine fruit. 60 LESSONS IN AGRJ CULTURE Of the small fruits the currant, gooseberry, raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry, are commonly called the bush fruits from their habit of growth. The strawberry is a small fruit in a class by itself. Picking, marketing, and storing the fruit. — Whether Fig. 21. Harvesting Apples the apples and peaches are to be gathered for home use or to be sold on the market, it is always best to care- fully pick them from the trees rather than to shake them down and allow them to become bruised or injured. Fruit with bruised or broken skin will rot much sooner, and sell for less in the market. Apples and peaches FBUIT GROWING 61 should be picked by hand and placed in baskets by the pickers. Apples should be kept in a cool, well ventilated place until freezing weather before storing in the winter cellar. Winter apples will keep much longer and in bet- ter condition if each fruit is wrapped in thin paper of some sort. Apples for the market are carefully graded and packed in attractive packages, either in barrels or bushel boxes, and shipped to all parts of the country and to foreign lands. Practical Exercises 1. Types of Fruit 1. Let each pupil take an apple and a pear and ob- serve the blossom end, opposite the stem. Here is a depression called the basin. This was the base of the apple and pear blossom. Compare with the blossom end of the peach or plum. Explain the difference. 2. Let each pupil cut the fruits through the center in a plane perpendicular to the main stem. Examine the core, the cells and the seeds. How many cells are there? How are they arranged? Observe the parch- ment-like walls of the cells. How many seeds in each cell? Make a drawing of the cross section of the pear or apple. 3. Compare the structure of the plum or peach pits with the apple seeds. Note the hard shell-like covering of the pits. Crack the shell and observe the seed. In this meaty portion lies the embyro, which will grow into a new plant under proper conditions of air, heat, and moisture. Draw cross section of the peach. 62 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Answer the following questions : 1. 2. end? 3. 4. 5. What fruits have a depression at the blossom end ? What fruits are more or less round at the blossom What common fruits have seeds ? What three common fruits have pits? How much space does the core take up in the apple ? 6. How many cells in the core of the apple ? 7. How do pits and seeds differ in structure ? 8. What are the general differen'^es between a pome fruit and a drupe fruit? References: U. S. Dept. Bulletin, No. 178. 2. Judging and Scoring Apples Each pupil should bring four or five apples of the same variety to exhibit and use for scoring. The apples should be of standard size, all alike in shape, size, and color. Each apple should be free from insect, or fun- gous blemish, and as nearly perfect in every respect as it is possible to find. If only one plate of apples can be obtained, set it before the class and let each pupil mark the score for the apples, using the following score card: Score Card for Judging Apples Owner of the exhibit Date Points Noted. Perfect Score. Pupil 's Teacher 's Score. Score. Size of the exhibit Color 20 15 15 15 20 100 Form Quality Freedom from blemishes.. Total FEUIT GROWING 63 When single plates or apples are scored, the first point may be graded the full 20 points. ^. Decay in Apples ^Select three ripe apples of the same variety and of equal degree of ripeness, and bring them before the class. 1. Strike against the side of one so as to bruise the surface but not break the skin. 2. Bruise the second apple so that the skin is broken. 3. Leave the third apple uninjured. Place the three apples away somewhere in the room where they will not be disturbed, and observe the results from day to day. 1. "Which apple decays first? 2. Of what use is the skin of the apple ? 3. Take two apples of nearly the same size, and weigh both. Peel one and leave the other untouched. Weigh both apples again in twenty-four hours. Which has lost the most in weight ? Explain the cause. Note. If there are no scales in the school, ask some pupil to bring his instrument from his home. Problems 1. On our farm is an apple orchard of three acres. If the trees are 40 feet apart, and are about 15 years old, wiiat cash return should we expect from the sale of apples at $3.00 per barrel? 2. What will it cost per acre to set out a young apple orchard, if we have to pay 25c a tree? Plant trees in squares, 36 feet apart. 3. Deduct from the price received above for apples, the expenses of spraying, determined in Lesson 73, and 64 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE give the net profit we shall have on our three-acre or- chard. References: Bailey's Principles of Fruit Growing. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 178. Waugh's American Apple Orchard. Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113 and 33. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 154. LESSON XVIII NUT CROPS Value of the nut crop. — Nuts are not usually thought of as a farm crop, yet every country boy and girl knows that the autumn time without nuts would lose much of its charm. Nuts are valuable food. They are rich and nutritious, and should always be counted as a part of our winter's store. There are several kinds of nut trees which are highly esteemed as ornamental shade trees, as well as for the valuable fruit they yield. Some of the leading kinds of nuts are English walnut, almond, white walnut or butternut, black walnut, hickory nut, pecan, chinquapin, chestnut, hazel nut, cocoanut, and Brazil nut. Nuts to plant. — The planting of nut orchards is to be encouraged on the farm. Several varieties of valuable nuts, such as the pecan, English walnut, and hickory nut, are widely adapted to temperate as well as sub-tropical regions, and should be planted on more of our farms. The pecan, especially such varieties as Mantura and Ap- pomatox, the English walnut, and the little shell-bark or shag-bark hickory, have been successfully grown as far north as latitude 40°. If the boys and girls who read this lesson would plant a few nut trees this month, they CLASSIFICATION OF FARM CROPS G5 would be rewarded, even before they were full grown men and women, by profitable and gratifying returns of a most delicious food. Practical Exercises 1. Tabular Study of Nuts Bring to the school samples of as many different kinds of nuts as you can find this month. Fill out the follow- ing table from your observation and study of these nuts : Kind of Nut. | Nature of Shells. | Kind ol Kernel. I Price in the Markets Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 332, LESSON XIX CLASSIFICATION OF FARM CROPS Outline Beview By the end of October all the farm crops for the year have been planted and most of them harvested. It will be well for us to classify these crops into a few groups by which they are commonly mentioned. The following outline should be copied into the pupils' note-books, and filled out as indicated : I. Cereals. Those crops which belong to the grass family, and whose seeds are made into flour which is used for bread. 1 4 2 5 3 6 QQ LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE II. Legumes. Plants with blossoms similar to the sweet pea and garden pea. 1 4 2 5 3 6 III. Roots. Crops having a slender or fleshy root which is used for food both for live stock and man. 1 3 2 4 IV. Tubers. An enlarged underground stem, used for food. 1 2 V. Bulbs. An enlarged and thickened leaf-stock or petiole, on which are thickened scale leaves. 1 : 2 VI. Fibre Crops. Any plant that furnishes material out of which cloth or rope is made is called a fibre plant. 1 3 2 VII. Forage Crops. The term forage crops is used for a good many crops. It usually means those crops that are used for coarse feed for live stock. 1 4 ... 2 5 3 6 VIII. Miscellaneous Crops. Various other crops that cannot be classified with the above. 1 4 2 5 3 6 NOVEMBER On the farm.— When the harvest is over and the winter stores are properly put away, we shall look to the stock on our farm. We must decide what stock we shall keep over winter and what we should sell. The barns and sheds must be in good repair, the mows and silos full of feed, and fill conveniences possible provided for the care and feeding of the live stock. The most im- portant work on the farm during the winter months is the care and feeding of the farm animals. LESSON XX THE STOCK ON THE FARM The good farmer in most cases avoids "scrub" stock. He has learned that it pays to take good care of his stock, and that it costs no more in care and feed to raise a good animal than to raise a poor one. The successful farmer has also learned that it pays to keep plenty of live stock on the farm. Farm animals are kept primarily to sup- ply the demand for meat, milk, eggs, wool, and to fur- nish motive power for certain kinds of labor, but they also make possible a larger production of grain year after year, and a complete utilization of everything grown on the farm, besides returning to the farm a large per- centage of the feed in the form of valuable fertilizers. 67 68 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Feeding farm animals. — Animals must be fed to make them grow, to keep them warm and active, and to furnish special products, such as milk, eggs, wool, etc. Animals must be fed regularly and with the proper food in sufficient quantities. Shelter against the heat and storms of summer and the cold of winter must go along ; ^'^■''^M' " ■'."'.' -- "^ '- , ^'VT^- \- ■ Fig. 22. High Grade Beef Cattle with the proper feeding of farm animals. If the stables are cold or the animals are allowed to stand out during the winter days, then the additional heat required to keep them warm must be supplied by additional food. Animals, like people, suffer in extremes of temperature. It is not right to allow stock to suffer, either for food or shelter. Animals that are poorly fed, left unsheltered, or allowed to become filthy and dirty, grow unhealthy, THE STOCK ON THE FAEM 69 sicken, and die. No one can doiiht that it pays to take good care of stock. Value of good stock. — It takes no more room and costs no more in food and care to raise a good farm ani- mal than it does to raise a "scrub." A scrub cow eats as much hay, takes as much stable room, and requires as much work to care for as a cow of good breeding, and Fig. 23. A Heed of Jerseys it has been shown that the scrub cow does not pay for her keep. A scrub colt or a scrub sheep is no better than a scrub cow; it eats as much or more, and will not sell for as much as a good animal. And a "hazel-splitter" hog certainly requires as much food and care as a genuine "porker." If the pupils who read this lesson are convinced that it pays to keep good stock instead of scrubs, the purpose of the lesson is already attained. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 41. — Fowls: Care and Feeding. No. 51. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 64. — Ducks and Geese: Breeds and Management. No. 100. — Hog Raising in the South. 70 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE No. 141. — Poultry Raising on the Farm. No. 179. — Horseshoeing. No. 200. — Turkeys : Breeds and Management. No. 205. — Pig Management. Extracts. No. 1.5. — Some Practical Suggestions for the Suppression and Prevention of Bovine Tuberculosis. Table showing value of manure, per head, produced, annually by farm animals: Horse $27.00 Cow 19.00 Hog 12.00 Sheep 2.00 Table showing value of manure, per animal, saved annually from animals by the average farmer: Horse $10.00 Cow 6.00 Hog 4.00 Sheep 75 Practical Exercises Note. • The practical lessons on farm animals will be given and numbered as separate lessons in this series. LESSON XXI THE DRIVING HORSE By comparing the horses Ave see on the road, we can observe that there are different forms or types. Some have a form that enables them to draw a heavy load at a slow pace, while others have a form adapted to drawing light loads at a rapid pace. These represent two distinct types, and are called draft horses and driv- ing horses. In this lesson we are to study the driving horse. You will observe that the driving horse has a long graceful neck, a narrow chest, long body and legs. In this horse THE DRIVING HOESE 71 weight is not so important as in the draft horse. Speed and endurance seem to be the principal points sought in the roadster. The driving horse varies widely in height and weight. The following points any school boy should recognize in a good driving horse : Fig. 24. A General Purpose Horse 1. The color is not so important in this type of horses. The dark colors are generally preferred. 2. Geldings are to be preferred. 3. The horse should be fifteen to sixteen hands high at the withers. 4. Conformation. The horse should be harmoni- 72 LESSONS IN AGKICULTURE ous, unblemished, withers rather low, and loins slightly weak, but powerful croup, thighs, buttocks, legs and hocks are essential. 5. The neck should be long, chest large and deep, limbs clean and long, and muscles and joints showing graceful prominence. 6. The animal should have good life, and not be afraid of ordinary objects. The teacher should study the following score card for light horses, and if the . proper explanations be made, pupils of the eighth grade will be able to mark the card and score the horse fairly well : Have a horse before the class for this lesson. The class should gather about the horse, with this book in hand, and opened at the score card. Each pu- pil should read each point of the score card, then look at the horse to see how it measures up to the description given. Mark lightly with lead pencil the grade you would give on each point, opposite the perfect grade given on the score card. THE DEIVING HOKSE 73 Score Card for Light Horse Description. PerfectI Students' Score. I Score. Frame — Smooth, evenly proportioned Quality — Bone clean and hard, tendons well de- fined, veins prominent, skin and hair fine Temperament — Active but kind Head — Lean and symetrical Forehead — Full and broad Eyes — Large, clear, open, and bright Ears — Close together, medium in size, pointed to carry well forward Muzzle — Clean and fine, nostrils large, lips thin and even Neck — Muscular, crest high, windpipe prominent. Shoulders — Long, oblique, well muscled Arms — Short, thrown forward Fore-arms — Long, wide Knees — Wide, straight, and clean Cannons — Short, wide, sinews large Fetlock — Wide, straight Pasterns — Strong, angle with ground 4.5 degrees. Feet — Medium and even in size, horn dense, frog large, elastic, bars strong, sole concave, heel wide Legs — Viewed in front, a perpendicular from point of shoulder should cut the center of knee cannon, pastern and foot viewed from side, a perpendicular from center of elbow should cut the center of knee and pastern joint and the back of hoof Withers — Well finished and muscled at top Chest — Deep, low, large Ribs — Long, sprung, close Back — Straight, short, broad, well muscled Loin — Wide, short and thick Underline — Short, straight Hips — Wide, level Croup — Long, wide, muscular Tall — Attached high, well carried Thighs — Muscular, long, and spread Quarters — Deep and heavily muscled Gaskin — Muscular, long and wide Hocks — Clean, wide, straight Cannons — Short, wide, and clean Fetlocks — Wide, straight Pastern — Strong, sloping Feet — Same as fore feet Legs — From behind, perpendicular from point of buttock cuts center of hock, cannon, pastern and foot; from side, perpendicular from point of hip should fall on center of foot and di- vide gaskin in the middle and perpendicular from buttock should be parallel with cannon.. Action — Walk quick, elastic, trot rapid, straight, regular and high 4 20 I Total .J ^100 74 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON XXII THE DRAFT HORSE Have a draft horse in the school yard for this lesson. Note the short legs, heavy body, short, thick neck, broad, deep chest and shoulders, strong hocks and rather large joints and feet. With the draft type weight is o^e of the most important considerations. A draft horse may weigh from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds. The heavy horse in harness brings greater power into the collar than does the light one. There are several different breeds of draft horses. The Pereherons, Belgians, Clydesdale, and English Shires are the common breeds. The following points any school boy should recognize in a good draft horse : 1. The best selling colors are: bay, chestnut, brown, roan, black, and iron gray. 2. Body conformation, massive, low-set, ample, very muscular, short-flanked, cylindrical, large and broad limbs, good feet, good face, ardor, and endurance. 3. The horse should be at least sixteen hands high at the withers. 4. The animal should be sound, and the following blemishes should always be in mind in examining a horse: Spavin, curb, thorough-pin, sidebones, splints, Sweeney, sprung knees, faulty hoofs, poor eyesight, string halt, poor wind, parrot mouth, blindness, etc. 5. The horse should have good life but be gentle. While the horse is present for this lesson, some in- teresting and profitable measurements may be made. THE DRAFT HORSE 75 which should teach the pupils to recognize good pro- portions in the horse. Three important points for measurements are, length of the head, total length of the body, and the total height of the body. Fig. 25. A Perciieron Team Use an ordinary tape measure in this part of the exercise. 1. The height of the horse, from the top of the withers to the ground. 2. The height of the horse from the hips to the ground. 3. Length of the body from the point of the elbow to the back of the buttock. 4. The length of the head. It will be found in a horse of good proportions that 7C LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE the first three measurements each equal about two and one-half times the length of the head. If we take the total length of the horse's head, and compare it with the body of a well formed horse, we will find that there are four other measurements al- most exactly equal to it as follows : 1. The length of the neck from the top of the withers to the poll. If there is much difference between these measurements, we say that the head is too long or the neck is too short. 2. The height of the shoulder from the top of the withers to the point of the elbow. 3. The thickness of the body from the middle of the abdomen to the middle of the back. If there is a great variation in these measurements, we say the horse has poor form. 4. The width of the body from one side to the other. A better instrument for taking the measurements of a horse, as suggested by Mr. Harper in the Cornell Rural School Leaflets, is as follows: A piece of soft white pine two inches wide, one-half inch thick, and four feet long ; to one end of this, and at right angles to it, tack a similar piece of pine 18 inches long; to the other end strap loosely an ordinary carpenter's square so that it may slide back and forth. Now mark off the long piece into inches, beginning at the inside of the right angle. ' ' Ay ! gather your reins and crack your thong. And bid your steed go faster ; He does not know as he scrambles along. That he has a fool for a master.'' — Holmes. THE DEAFT HORSE 77 The Horses' Plea Please give us water often. Please give us a moment's rest on the way up the hill. Please do not overload us. We are doing our best. Please do not use the whip. It is seldom necessary. ^^J mBF^^i ^^ ^Jf^^''''-m^l^f^M^M &( Fig. 26. Four F.^ithful Friends Please remember that we will respond to a word as quickly as to a blow. Please look out for our health, and don't work us when we are sick. Please see that we are properly shod. Please be sure that we have enough to eat, and that we are fed regularly. Please see that the harness fits, and does not chafe sore or tender spots. Please remember that two weeks' vacation each year will make us more serviceable and valuable. Remember, we ivork hard for you. 78 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE LESSON XXIII THE DAIRY COW For this lesson bring a dairy cow into the school yard, and as the class observes the cow the teacher should speak briefly upon the following points. Cattle are kept for two main purposes ; for the pro- duction of milk and for the production of beef. These two purposes make different demands upon the energies Fig. 27. A Typical Jersey Cow of the animal, and thus through many generations of selection and development, there have arisen two types of cattle, the beef form or type, and the milk form or type. These two forms are not entirely distinct or separate, but they tend to merge into intermediate forms. The chief differences that distinguish the beef and dairy types are : 1. Outline of bodv- THE DAIRY COW 79 2. Depth and smoothness of flesh. 3. Size of udders. In the dairy type the general outline of body is wedge-shaped from before backward. This is due to a large development of the hind quarters, and sometimes to low thin shoulders. The height of the animal at the hip is from one-half to one inch greater than at the shoulders. The wedge-shaped appearance is increased % for each per eent beUnv the standard. Practical Exercises 1. Scoring Seed Corn Copy the foregoing score card in your permanent note- book. Select ten ears of corn, keeping the idea of "mates'' in mind. The ears should look as much alike in every way as it is possible to tind them. Find ears all the same kuigth, the same circumfereuee, the grains the same size and shape, without any indii'atious of mix- ture, the rows running straight from tip to butt, and measuring up to the standard of the score card as much as possible. Grade each ear of corn on each of the points, and put down on the score card your estimate of how the ear measures up to the perfect grade. It is not ex- pected that you will become expert in one lesson, but you will enjoy the improvement you make in this work. S. Selecting Seed Ears Using the ear of corn which you have graded the high- est on your score card as a model, look over your entire lot of seed corn, and select one hundred ears which ac- cording to your judgment most closely resemble this sample ear. Number all these ears from 1 to 100, by tying to each a numbered tag, or by sticking a numbered TESTING SRFF) TORX 197 peg into the butt of each eob. These are now to be laid away for the germination test described in the next les- son. LESSON LIX TESTING SEED CORN We have now selected the ears of corn with which to plant our ten acres on the farm. We have numbered each ear and jjlaced it by itself, and we are now ready to make the germination test, for we wish to be sure that every grain we plant will germinate vigorously. Value of good seed. — One of the most important modern movements for the improvement of agriculture in this country consists in the proper selection, care, and testing of the seeds to be planted. When we remember that the seed carries with it all the characteristics of the parent plants from which it came, we want to be sure that these parent plants are just as nearly perfect as possible. When we remember that the seed is a liv- ing thing, containing a young and tender plant, we see the necessity of properly caring for the seed during its resting period. And when we understand that sickly or dead seeds cannot grow into valuable plants, we shall no longer be willing to put them into the ground, which we expect to cultivate, and from which we expect to gather a full harvest. Testing seed corn for life and vigor. — It has come to be true that almost every farmer and country school boy now understands the importance of testing seed corn before planting — and testing it in the ear rather than 198 LESSONS Ix\ AGRICULTURE after shelling. But many farmers fail to do as well as they know in this matter, as well as in many other mat- ters, because it is "too much trouble." Many farmers say that they can tell whether a kernel of corn will ger- minate by cutting or biting off the tip cap and examining the germ. No doubt most experienced corn growers can do this, but even by this simj^le method they can not tell which ears of corn will germinate most vigorously, and it is the sure and healthy germination that counts most throughout the entire life of the growing corn plant. The boys and girls of the school will want to use the surer and better method of testing seed corn. Practical Exercises 1. The Germinating Test Box Make a shallow box about two inches deep inside, fif- teen inches wide and twenty-three inches long. Partly fill the box with fine sand. The box may now be di- vided into small squares by a checkboard lacing of wire or twine across the top. It is convenient to have these squares about IV2 inches on a side, ten of them in a row across the narrow way, and fifteen the other way. Another way to obtain the squares, is to place over the sand a cloth which has been checked into 100 squares by an indelible pencil, or better still, with ink. Num- ber each square from one to one hundred. The figure below shows the manner of wiring and numbering when the first method is used. Now take each ear separately, and with the point of a pocket knife remove five kernels from the ear. The kernels should be taken in succession from about an TESTING SEED COBN 199 inch above the base of the ear to the same distance be- low its tip, passing spirally around and lengthwise of the ear, so that no two grains are taken from the same row. Place the kernels in the square corresponding in number to the number of the ear, place the germ side of the kernels against the wet cloth or sand, and lay the ear away in its place. When the box has been planted i ! ^M l P^3EISIt i KS^ SlEr- Fig. 57. A Germinating Test Box the sand should be thoroughly watered. If the cloth has been used, the corn should be covered with a second wet cloth, and this with a dry cloth to prevent excess of evaporation. The box should be kept in a warm room where it will not be disturbed until the test is finished. The planted tray should not be allowed to dry out until the young corn plants are an inch or two above the sand. The ear that does not show all five kernels germinating 200 LESSONS IN AGRICULTUEE vigorously should not be planted in the field. • Every poor ear planted spoils about one-fifteenth of an acre in the cornfield — and yet some farmers would blame it on the crows or the weather, or something else which they could not help. This is certainly a better way to get a ' ' stand ' ' of corn than to plant ' ' one for the black- bird, one for the crow, one for the cut-worm and two to grow." After selecting the ears that will be used as seed, place them where they will be protected from freezing, moulding, or getting wet. Each pupil should bring sam- ples of seed corn from his home and make the germinat- ing test at school, or have a box of his own at home and test the seed corn there and report the results at school. Keep a note-book record of the results of these tests. Note. The practice of smoking the seed corn before shelling and planting has proven an effective preventive against the corn-root louse and other insect pests of the sprouting grain. References: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 253, No. 409. LESSON LX THE PLANT AND WATER We are now ready to study the growth of the plant from the seed into root, stem and leaf, and to under- stand how the plant gets its food. We have already learned that the seed furnishes the food for the little plant until it is large enough to get food from the soil. THE PLANT AND WATEK 201 We also learned in a former lesson that the most im- portant plant foods are: Water, lime, iron oxide, soda, ammonia, silicon, magnesia, potash, carbon dioxide, phos- phoric acid, etc. Water as a plant food and solvent. — Perhaps the most important plant food is water. Every one knows that plants cannot live without water, but few persons stop to think of the enormous amount of water consumed daily by an acre of growing vegetation. Plants make use of water in two ways. In the first place they use it as a food, just the same as animals do. In the sec- ond place a plant cannot eat solid food. It has neither mouth nor teeth, and it must take in its food in liquid form through its roots, or in gaseous form through its leaves. The solid foods mentioned above dissolve in wa- ter, just as sugar dissolves in coffee, and in this dissolved condition they are easily taken in by the plant roots. The plant fluid containing these dissolved foods is called sap. The solid food and some of the water taken up by the plant roots and carried through the stem to the leaves is used by the plant for growth, and the re- maining water not used for food is thrown off into the air through little pores in the leaves. This is :he rea- son why plants need so much water. Grains, grasses, and orchards use up hundreds of tons of water during the growing season. Control of water for plants. — We have also learned that the farmer can regulate the amount of water in the soil to a certain extent. If there is too much water. 203 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE he can drain it away. If there is need of saving all the rainfall possible, he can by deep plowing and Fig. 58. Diagram of a Plant, Showing Its Most Important Rela- tions : Sunlight, Moisture, Oxygen, and Soil careful cultivation save a large share of the moisture in a time of drought. THE PLANT AND WATER 203 Practical Exercises To Prove that Plants Throw off Water Put the same amount of water into similar vessels — tumblers or glass fruit jars. Pull up any thrifty growing plant and put its roots into one of these vessels of water. Stand both vessels on a table side by side. Note the dif- ference in the amount of water in each vessel day by day. What has caused the loss of water in each vessel? Why the difference? The same fact may be shown by placing a clean dry glass vessel over a grow- ing plant. Where does the moisture come from that appears on the inner surface of the glass? How can you show that this does not come from the soil? ^. Air-derived and Soil-derived Foods Select a dry plant or a piece of dry wood. Weigh it carefully. Now burn it and weigh the ashes. What per cent of the plant burned? What per cent is ashes? The ashes represent the food derived from the soil when the plant was growing, and the part that burned repre- sents the food derived from the air. 204 LESSONS IX AGRICULTUEE Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins No. 46. — Irrigatiou in Humid Climates. No. 116. — Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 138. — Irrigation in Field and Garden. No. 158. — How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Table showing proportions of water in farm crops: One bushel of root crops contains about 55 pounds of water. One bushel of potatoes contains about 45 pounds of water. One bushel of corn (dry, shelled) contains about 5 pounds of water. One bushel of wheat contains about 6 pounds of water. One bushel of oats contains about 3 pounds of water. One ton of dry hay contains about 300 pounds of water. One ton of green feed contains from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of water. Note. This represents only the water left in the plants and seeds as a part of them. By far the greater amount used by the plant passes off to the air through the pores in the leaves. Problems 1. If rain falls an inch deep on the level, how many cubic inches is that per square foot ? Per square yard ? Per square rod ? How many cubic feet per square rod ? Per acre ? 2. About how many barrels of water fall on an acre with one inch rainfall? 3. How many tons will this water weigh? 4. The total rainfall during the year in West Vir- ginia is about four feet. What does the water weigh that falls during the year on a square yard of ground? On a square rod ? How many tons to the acre ? 5. Suppose the plants use one-eighth of this, what is the weight of the water used by a square yard of vegetation ? A square rod ? An acre ? 6. Suppose potatoes contain three-fourths of their BOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT 205 weight of water. How many pounds of water in a bushel of potatoes? 7. If 150 bushels per acre of potatoes is a good yield, how many pounds of water in the potatoes grown on an acre? LESSON LXI THE EOOT SYSTEM OF THE PLANT Kinds of root systems.— The root system of the plant consists of the entire group of roots upon the plant. There are two kinds of root systems : (1) Tap-root — central main root with smaller roots coming out from it. Examples may be found in the beet, radish, and turnip. (2) Fibrous root — many roots of nearly the same size. Examples of this type are seen in the grasses, such as timothy and blue grass. Either of these two types may have many modifications. Roots and tillage. — Methods of cultivation should take into account the nature of the roots of the plants. Tap-rooted plants require depth of soil, and will permit deeper and closer cultivation than fibrous rooted plants. On the other hand, fibrous rooted plants, such as the corn, are often injured by too deep cultivation during the growing season. The fibrous roots of such plants are near the surface of the ground, and when destroyed by deep cultivation, much of the food supply of the plant is cut off, and to that extent the plant is injured or retarded in its growth. 206 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Root-hairs. — On the roots of the corn in our germina- tion test box, we saw great numbers of fine root-hairs. These are the principal feeding organs of the plant. They have the power to transfer the water and the plant food from the soil to the rootlets. If water does not exist as capillary water in the soil, the root-hairs are unable to do their work. Purpose of roots. — The root system in all its mod- ifications serves three purposes to the plant : (1) It absorbs and conducts water and plant food dissolved in the water. Fig. 81. Root Systems of Plants (2) It reaches long distances in the ground and thus holds the plant firmly in its place. ( 3 ) It furnishes a storehouse for much food material, as in the case of the radishes, beets, and turnips. Practical Exercises 1. A Study of Boots Dig up a clover plant and remove the soil from it. Observe that it has a strong central root which joins the stem. jMake a drawing of the clover root system. Dig up a single timothy plant with as many of its EOOT SYSTEM OF PLANT 207 roots as possible, and remove the soil from them. Ob- serve the many similar roots projecting from the stem. Make a drawing of the root system of the timothy. Examine the beet, turnip, or carrot. Observe that these vegetables are a thickened or fleshy tap-root, and contain large quantities of stored food material. Make a drawing of this type of "root. Make a list of the common plants of the farm, and classify them as to the character of their root system under the following divisions : 2. The Boot System of the Corn Plant Carefully remove as much of the entire root system of a growing corn plant as possible. Wash all the soil away from the roots. Remove and measure each root separately, and find the total length of the whole root system. Place a corn seedling with its root system in a glass of water, which has been colored with red ink. Note the rise of the colored liquid into the stem and leaves. Explain. 208 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON LXII CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES On some mild day in JNlareh, when the wind is not blowing and the ground is thawing, we shall sow clover seed in our wlieat field, number 2, on the farm. It will require about one bushel of seed to sow the ten acres, and our seed will cost about $7 or $8. We must charge this to our expense account to be balanced up with profits later. Restoring nitrogen to the soil. — Nitrogen is the element which under ordinary conditions of farming is likely to be soonest exhausted. The farmer's atten- tion must early be turned to methods of restoring nitro- gen to his soil. Of course the best method of restoring all elements of fertility to the soil is by the use of barn- yard manure, but it is not always possible to do this. There is a class of plants, however, called legumes, that have the power of adding nitrogen to the soil. Peas, beans, clovers, alfalfa, etc., belong to this class. It is the purpose of this lesson to discover how these plants add nitrogen to the soil. Nitrogen in the air.— Air is composed largely of two gases, nitrogen and oxygen. About one-fifth of the air is oxygen and the other four-fifths is nitrogen. It is the oxygen that causes iron to rust, coal to burn, or wood to decay. On the other hand, nitrogen does not combine readily with other substances. It dilutes the oxygen of the air by being mixed with it, and prevents the oxygen from burning up everything in the world, CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES 209 and thus makes the air fit for animals to breathe. Farm erops cannot use this "free" nitrogen that is in the air. Nitrogen - gathering bacteria. — Little plant - like germs, called bacteria, live in the soil, and these feed upon this free nitrogen in the air. These germs fasten themselves to the roots of the legumes, such as clover and cowpeas, and build little colonies that are called tubercles. These tubercles are about as large as pinheads, and may easily be seen on the roots of clover, beans, and peas. The interesting thing about these germs is that they do not seem to grow without the clover, and the clover does not thrive without the germs. In most soils the germs will find the clover, but occasionally soils from old clover fields have to be sprinkled over the new clover fields in order for the young clover to ''catch." These germs found in the tubercles on the roots of legumes, in feeding upon the nitrogen of the air, store large quantities of the nitrogen in the plant and in the soil about the plant. If this crop is plowed under, additional nitrogen is added to the soil, and Fig. 59. Tubercles on the Roots OF Soy Beans 210 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE the physical properties of the soil are also im- proved by the humus which the clover affords. This is the secret of clover-growing on the farm. Crimson clover, cowpeas, soy l)eans, and vetch will serve the same purpose to the farmer as the red clover, and each farmer must learn which of these legumes are best suited to his locality. Fig. 60. Leaves op Legumes Practical Exercises 1. Ohservational Studies of the Legumes Find in the fields and bring to the school for study the following legumes, or as many of them as possible: Clovers, cowpeas, vetch, beans, alfalfa, black locust, etc. Be sure that you find roots of clover showing the tuber- CLOVER AND OTHER LEGUMES 211 eles or nodules on them. The following outline for study is suggested. (Make all records of your observation and your drawings in your notebook) : 1. Observe the number, size, shape, and arrangement of the leaves. Make a drawing of each kind of legume leaf you have. 2. Observe the number and length of the stems from a common root. Are the stems erect, spreading, trailing, or twining ? 3. Are there many, few, or no branches? 4. If in bloom notice the place, size, form, and color of the blossom. Make a drawing of the blossom of each legume. 5. If in seed, note the kind, number, and shape of the seed pods. Note the number of seeds in the pods, and the size and form of a single seed. Draw a seed pod, and an enlarged sketch of a single seed. 6. Observe the form, size, number, and length of the roots. Look closely for nodules on the roots. Make a drawing of the roots of one legume. 2. Solving Legumes Write a paragraph describing the methods of sowing clover seed, alfalfa, cowpeas, or any other legume which you have seen sown at home or in the neighborhood. Problems (See page 1^8.) 1. How does clover compare with other kinds of hay in the amoant of nitrogen it contains? Phosphoric acid? Potash ? 212 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 2. If two tons of hay per acre is an average yield, how much of each fertilizer is removed yearly with the crop from eight acres of ground? 3. Wliich kind of hay makes the richest manure? Why? 4. How much more of nitrogen in a crop of twenty- five acres of clover hay, yielding three tons per acre, than in the same number of acres of mixed hay yielding two tons per acre ? Where does this extra nitrogen come from ? 5. How many tons of each kind of hay did you raise on the farm last year? 6. How many tons of hay did you sell last year? How many pounds of each of the three important kinds of "soil fertility" did you sell? How many pounds altogether ? Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 89. — Cowpeas. No. 194.— Alfalfa Seed. No. 214. — Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. No. 215.— Alfalfa Growing. LESSON LXIII CROP ROTATION Necessity for crop rotation.— The sowing of clover seed on our wheat ground and the spring planning for corn, suggests the subject of crop rotation. If we are to farm wisely and be prosperous, we must study and practice crop rotation. The farmer tries to raise those crops which will give him the largest returns in money. CEOP ROTATION 213 but in doing this he often loses sight of the future. He may reason thus : "If corn is a high price and my soil will raise good corn, then corn is the crop for me to raise." So year after year he raises corn on the same fields until he finds that his soil will not raise a good crop of corn. The cause is not far to seek. Corn requires the same kind of plant food year after year, and unless this food is restored in some way, the soil becomes exhausted of some of its fertility. So the farmer needs to consider, not only the returns he will get from his crop this year, but the effect that the crop will have upon the soil. Cover crops. — On all sloping lands, if neglected, the soil may wash into gullies, and in a few years a fer- tile field may be completely ruined. Such lands should be kept in grass as much as possible, and when such lands are cropped, the rows should run lengthwise the hill and not up and down the slope, thus checking the tendency to wash. One of the best means of preventing washing of the soil is to plant a crop in the fall that will cover the ground thickly before freezing weather, and thus not only hold the soil, but prevent its being packed by the rain. Such crops are called cover crops. Rye or the clovers are especially used for this purpose. A system of crop rotation. — Crop rotation consists in growing one kind of crop on the ground this year, another kind of crop requiring different plant foods the next year, still another the year following, and so on, the crops following each other in succession, and at regu- lar intervals. For example, our field number 2 (see 214 LESSOAS IN AGRICULTUEE map of the farm) at present in wheat will be sown to clover this spring. After the wheat is cut in July, the clover will be allowed to grow all summer and fall, and to go into the winter as a cover crop, with all the ad- vantages mentioned above. Next spring the clover will be allowed to grow into blossom, and will then be cut for hay. A second crop of the clover will spring up, and we allow this to go to seed and to be thrashed out in September, or to go into the winter as a cover crop again. The following spring we shall plow under the clover, and plant our field to corn. The following September we may sow the field to wheat, and the next spring return to clover again. This system of rota- tion is well suited to the central states. Of course, there may be special reasons for modifying it, and other methods of rotation equally good will occur to the thoughtful farmer. Results of rotation. — During this rotation period a cover crop has been plowed under, and a sod of clover two years old has been turned into the soil. The clover has added to the food supply for the two grain crops, and has improved the texture of the soil by the humus it will produce, besides it has furnished pasture, hay, cover crop, and seed in the meantime. If the clover sod be treated with lime and phosphoric acid, just be- fore it is turned under for the corn crop, the yield of the corn will be greatly increased, and the wheat fol- lowing the corn in the rotation, will be favorably affected by the additional fertilizer. CEOP ROTATION 215 Practical Exercises 1. Systems of Crop Eotations Copy the two following systems of crop rotation in your notebook and memorize them : (a) Sow clover seed in the wheat in March or April. (b) Harvest the wheat as usual, and allow the clover to remain as a cover crop for the winter. (c) Plow up the clover sod the following April. (d) Plant to corn. (e) Sow wheat in the corn in September. (f ) Sow clover seed in the wheat again in March. II If the land is much reduced or of a poor soil, the rotation begins and proceeds as in (I) above, except at (c), instead of plowing up the clover for corn in the spring, allow it to stand another season. A hay crop may then be harvested in June or July, and a seed crop in the following September, after which proceed as in (I). Tabulate the following in your notebook : Rotation of Crops Series a. Series b. Series c. Series d. Values of Rotation. Clover Corn Wheat Clover Clover Hay and seed Corn Wheat Clover Clover Corn Oats Wheat Clover Clover Corn Potato Wheat. Clover. Preserves food supply. Increases food supply. Eradicates weeds. Exterminates insects. Enlarges the resources. 216 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 2. Crop Eotations on the Home Farm Describe the system of crop rotation used on your father's farm. Give in detail each step as the outline suggests above. Compare the system used at your home with those described by the other members of the class. Criticize and discuss the various methods. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 289. — Practices in Crop Rotation. No. 320. — Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. Problems 1. If corn is planted in rows four feet apart each way, how many hills to the acre? With three good ears to the hill, how many ears to the acre! 2. If it takes 100 ears to make a bushel, how many bushels to the acre ? 3. Which is the better crop ? Five stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 200 to make a bushel, or three stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 100 to make a bushel 1 4. How many bushels per acre is one crop better than the other ? 5. Suppose a ten-acre field produces sixty bushels of corn per acre the first year, but falls off five bushels per acre yearly when corn is continually grown on it, what will be the yield the fourth year ? 6. What will be the total loss in the four years? With corn worth 30 cents per bushel, what is the money loss? 7. Suppose this loss can be avoided by rotation of SPRAYING FOR SCALES 217 crops. What is saved yearly, per acre, on this basis from rotation of crops? 8. "What is the value of one acre of tobacco, 1,500 pounds, at 8 cents per pound? 9. What is the value of one acre of oats, sixty bush- els, at 30 cents per bushel? 10. What is the value of one acre of clover, three tons, at $6 per ton? , 11. AVhat is the value of one acre of corn, fifty bushels, at 40 cents per bushel? 12. What is the value of one acre of peas, twenty bushels, at $1.50 per bushel? LESSON LXIV SPRAYING FOR SCALES During this month we must spray our peach and apple trees to rid them of San Jose and other scale insects, or to insure against them should there be none present. The reason for doing this work in March is because the insecticides we must use against the scale would be injurious to the foliage of the trees. San Jose scale. — The San Jose scale is one of the most dreaded enemies of the fruit trees. In most states it is an illegal act to sell fruit trees infested with it. This insect is very minute, yet it spreads rapidly and soon covers the branches of the trees with a grayish scale, beneath which is the living pest, sucking the life from the tree. Probably the best thing to do when one 218 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE finds that the scale has almost completely covered his fruit trees, is promptly to cut down and burn the trees that are in a dying condition. If taken in time there are several insecticides that may be successfully used. There are a number of reliable firms that put up ready Fig. 61. a. Oyster Shell Scale Scale Coiirtcny of W. E. Rumsey B. Scurfy Scale, c. San Jose mixed preparations, such as the lime-sulphur solutions, whale-oil soaps, and the miscible oils, and where only a few trees are to be sprayed, it is best to buy the ready- made mixtures. Full and easily followed directions for use accompany the materials. SPRAYING FOR SCALES 219 Lime-sulphur. — If one wishes to prepare his own spray material, the best insecticide for scale when the plant is in the dormant season is the lime-sulphur wash, prepared as follows : Lime 8 pounds. Sulphur 16 pounds. Water 10 gallons. Boil together for about forty minutes, then dilute one gallon of the mixture with ten of water. The solution is now ready for the spray pump. Practical Exercises 1. Spraying for Scale It may not seem possible for the school to do the prac- tical work suggested in this exercise, but every effort should be made to make it possible. If any farmer in the neighborhood has a spray pump, ask him to loan it for use at the school. He may have a gallon of ready-mixed lime-sulphur solution which he would let you have. Dilute the gallon to about ten or twelve gallons with water, place in the spray pump, and spray a few trees in the vicinity of the school. Make a notebook record of this lesson. f. Spraying House-plants against Lice The following mixture is often used for scale and plant lice when the foliage is on the trees, or it may be used to rid house plants of the plant lice or scale : Hard soap 1 oz. Water 1 pt. Kerosene 2 pts. 220 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Shave the soap into the water and heat almost to boiling. Remove the soap solution from the fire, and add the kerosene. Stir the mixture into a creamy con- sistency. Now dilute this mixture with two gallons of water, and it is ready to apply to the foliage. This mixture is called kerosene emulsion. Both the lime-sulphur and the kerosene emulsion de- stroy the sucking insects by corroding their bodies and stopping up their breathing pores. Problems 1. Fifty gallons of properly diluted lime-sulphur so- lution will spray about twenty young fruit trees. The material for a fifty-gallon barrel will cost about $1. How much will it cost to spray 100 trees? 2. What are the proportions necessary to make up a barrel of kerosene emulsion, using the same as suggested in the second exercise given above? 3. How much will it cost to spray the five acres of orchard on our forty-acre farm, counting one acre in peach trees and four acres in apple trees? The apple trees are ten years old, and the peach trees seven years old. Determine the number of trees of each that should occupy the ground. Reference: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 127. PRUNING FRUIT TREES 221 LESSON LXV PRUNING FRUIT TREES Time to prune. — Before the buds of the trees begin to swell and the leaves to appear we must prune our vines and fruit trees. Perhaps there are old trees that should be renewed, young trees that have dead or crowd- ed limbs to be removed, or mild prunings to be made on very young trees and vines. Proper pruning requires much skill and study, and each tree is a separate problem in pruning. Reasons for pruning. — We prune for the following reasons : 1. To modify the vigor of the tree. 2. To produce larger and better fruit. 3. To keep the tree within manageable shape and limits. 4. To remove superfluous or injured parts. 5. To facilitate spraying and harvesting. 6. To facilitate tillage. 7. To produce new wood growth. Mild pruning every year tends to maintain the bal- ance of the tree, aids the fruit grower more easily and surely to shape the tree to his ideal, and makes the tree more fruitful. Pruning young trees. — In pruning very young trees, that is, one- and two-year-old stock just set out, two methods are usually pursued : First, the method of cutting off all the side branches to one or two buds, leaving a straight central stem which 222 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE is headed back severely. This method is used especially in pruning young peach trees. Second, the method of cutting away all of the branches but one leader and three or four main side branches, cut back to four or five buds, left to furnish the bases of the lower spreading limbs. This method is used with two-year-old apple trees in starting the first main branches. It is best to leave tiie branches growing rather low down on the trunk of the young tree in order to af- ford shade for the trunk and ground beneath, and to facilitate the spraying and the gathering of the fruit. Fruit trees are not grown for lumber, but for fruit, and peaches and apples will not grow on the trunks of trees. Renewing- old orchards. — It is a fascinating pleasure to buy and set out young trees, and to look forward to the time when they will repay us for the long wait and careful tending. But there is that long interim between the planting and the harvesting which we must expect. Perhaps while we are waiting for the young trees, we are forgetting the old orchard that stands neg- lected, though still trying to renew its life wfth the com- ing of every season. Let us turn to these old trees with the same skill and labor that we are bestowing on our young trees, and they will repay a hundredfold, yielding us an abundance of fine fruit before our young trees have learned to blossom. The tops of the trees are old and high, and from their unexplored and unsprayed heights, only a few PEUNING FEUIT TREES wormy apples drop prematurely or one-half of this top, and the new life of the tree will manifest itself in a vigorous growth of water sprouts, lower down on the tree. These should then be cut away the next year, except a few which should be pruned and left to form new branches. All cut surfaces should be painted with white or red lead to prevent decay. The dead and dying branches, which are always found in old trees, should be removed, and all such branches should be cut close to the main stem from which they branch. The dead branches are a menace to the rest of the orchard, for in them live and breed the in- sect and fungous pests. Perhaps in our old trees there are bad forks. These should be bolted together. Perhaps there are great rot- ten cavities. These should be Cut away one-third Fig. 62. Young Apple Tree Properly Pruned for Setting Out cleaned out, washed with copper sulphate solution, and 224 LESSONS IX AGE [CULTURE filled with cement. The rough bark should be scraped off, and the trunk of the tree washed with lime or soap suds. The trees should then be sprayed for scale, as suggested in the last lesson, and when the blossoms fall next month, the trees should be sprayed for codling moth, as will be explained in a later lesson. If the soil in our old orchard is poor and has not been cultivated for many years, a top-dressing of stable manure and lime worked into the soil will help to renew it, and bring the old trees into new fruitfulness. Practical Exercises ' 1. Pruning a Young Apple Tree Bring to the schoolroom young nursery stock — ap- ples and peach trees, one and two years old. Select a good specimen of apple tree that has grown several side branches and a strong leader. Prune back the side branches to four or five buds, leaving an outside bud just below the cut surface on each pruned branch. Head back the leader to six or seven buds. The little tree is now ready to enter its season of growth. Next ^larch the portion of the tree left as a leader the year before would have to be pruned as the little tree was at first, and so on until a scaffold of strong, stocky branches were formed low down on the trunk of the tree. See figure 62. S. Pruning an Old Apple Tree Go to an old orchard where the trees have been neg- lected and have grown tall and unshapely. First cut out all dead and dying branches. Remove all limbs PEUNING FEUIT TREES 225 that cross each other and rub together, or that grow toward the center of the tree. Cut all the top branches down at least one-third or one-half of the crown of the tree. Always notice to cut a large limb off just above a branch that is to be left, in order that the leaves on this branch may help to heal the wound. Cover" all wounds with paint. Be careful in sawing large limbs that they do not split down as they fall. Saw an inch or two into the limb on the under side and back of the cut which removes the limb. All limbs re- moved should be cut close to the main branches from which they are taken in order that the wound may heal properly. Experience has shown that this is the l)est way to renew the old trees. Within three years after such severe treatment, if properly followed up with careful pruning of the water sprouts, the tree will bear large quantities of fruit on a newly formed tree-top. (See cut beloAv.) Eeference: Farmers' Bulletin No. 181. Fig. 62a. Old Apple Trees Pruned APRIL On the farm. — During this month we shall be very busy on the farm. There is spring plowing to do, gar- den to make, trees and shrubs to plant, fruit trees to propagate and spray, and corn to plant. LESSON LXVI GRAFTING FRUIT TREES In the early April when the sap begins to flow in the fruit trees, we shall propagate some new varieties of apples in the tops of the older trees. By a process known as grafting, we can force trees to produce dif- ferent varieties of fruits. There are two common meth- ods of grafting — the tongue or whip graft, and the cleft graft. Practical Exercises 1. The Tongue Graft If the class cannot go to an orchard for this lesson, bring several branches of apple tree into the school- room. Choose a stock upon which you intend to graft the desired variety. Then select from the variety de- sired a twig that is about the thickness of the young tree at the point where you wish to graft. Be careful to select the shoot or scion from a healthy part of the tree. Cut the scion and stock as you would the mouth parts of a boy's whistle, then make a vertical slit across the cut surface. Join the cut end of the scion to the 226 GRAFTING FEUIT TREES 227 cut end of the stock and wrap with raffia or waxed cord. When you join them, notice that under the bark of each is a thin layer of soft, juicy tissue. This is called the cambium. To make a successful graft, the Fig. 63. Whip Grafting a, Scion ; b, stock ; c, united ; d, tied. cambium in the scion must exactly join the cambium in the stock. 2. The Cleft Graft For the grafting of larger scions or for the grafting of scions of various kinds of apple trees upon the branches of one stock, the cleft graft method is used. 228 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE The stock is cut square across, and the scions, either one or two, are cut into wedges at the end, and slipped into a cleft of the stock. The cambium of the scions must come in contact with the cambium of the stock as in the former method. After the scions are forced Pig. 64. Cleft Grafting Prepared scion ; b, scions in place ; c, graft waxed over. into the cleft of the stock, the whole exposed surface, and the cleft left open, should be covered with the graft- ing wax. (See figure.) (1 part tallow, 2 parts beeswax, and 4 parts resin. ) Trees may. be budded or grafted upon one another only when they are nearly related. There are some rare exceptions to this rule. Have pupils write a description of these methods and make drawings of the grafts. Each pupil in the class should make these grafts for himself, and if possible, the work should be done in the orchard. Eeferenees: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 113, 161, 154, and 157. PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS 229 LESSON LXVII PLANT PROPAGATION FROM CUTTINGS Purposes of plant propagation. — The purpose of all plant propagation is to obtain more individual plants or newer strains of plants; to perpetuate a particular variety; or to renew the generation and keep the stock from dying out. Most farm crops and garden vege- FiG. 65. Stem Cutting, or Slip, of COLEUS tables reproduce the varieties wanted from seeds; but most fruit trees and shrubs do not, and in such cases the plants have to be reproduced by buds, grafts, layers, or cuttings. We have already learned how plants propa- gate by seeds, and how fruit trees may be made over to the desired varieties by grafting. There remains an- other common method of plant propagation to study, known as cuttings. Cuttings may be made from soft or 230 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE unripe wood, or from hard and fully matured wood. Of the soft kinds are cuttings (or slips) of geraniums, fuchsias, and the like. Of the hard kinds are cuttings of grapes and currants. Soft cuttings. — Soft cuttings are made of shoots which are sufficiently mature to snap when bent double. They are composed of from one to three joints of the plant. The leaves of cuttings are removed from the Fig. 66. Leaf Cutting — Whole Leaf lower end, and if the upper leaves are large, they should be cut in two to prevent too rapid drying out. Sandy soil free from vegetable matter is best for soft cuttings. Hardwood cuttings. — Hardwood cuttings are usually taken in the fall or winter. They are composed of two or more buds. If these cuttings are taken in the fall, they are buried in sand to be kept until spring, when they are set in the ground up to the top bud. However, such cuttings may be taken and placed during this month. PKOPAGATION FEOM CUTTINGS 331 Practical Exercises 1. Soft Cuttings Provide a neat painted window-box; fill it with moist sand and keep in a warm place. Bring stem cuttings of geraniums, coleuses, fuchsias, begonias, or other house plants, which may be obtained from home, insert the slips into the moist sand, and firm the sand well about the cuttings. Remove all but two or three of the leaves. Keep the sand warm and moist, and watch the growth from day to day. Fig. 67. Guapevine Well Trellised The leaves of the Rex begonia and wax plant may be propagated by inserting the edge of the leaf or even a piece of the leaf in sand and supplying it with plenty of moisture and warmth. A leaf may be laid flat, right side up, on the surface of the sand and fas- tened down at intervals by splinters through the veins. Plants will spring up at the bottom edges of the leaf or at cut places in the veins. S. Hardwood Cuttings Select a dozen or more freshly made cuttings of grape vines, taken from the previous year's growth. The cut- tings should consist of three or four buds. Spade up and thoroughly pulverize the soil in some warm rich 332 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE corner of the school grounds, making a plot about three feet square. Insert the grape cuttings in a slanting position in the fine, loose soil, leaving one bud exposed. Press the soil very firmly about the cuttings, and cover the plot with a mulch of hay or grass, except the ex- posed buds of the cuttings. If the plot could be kept well watered all summer, and free from weeds, a fine lot of new grape plants would grow, ready to be set permanently the next spring. Poplar and willow trees may easily be propagated from hardwood cuttings. References: Farmers' Bulletins, Nos. 157 and 218. LESSON LXVIII PROPAGATION OF RASPBERRIES Layering'. — The black raspberry illustrates a method of plant propagation, known as layering. A layer is a shoot or root, which while still attached to the plant, is made to take root with the intention that it shall be severed and form an independent plant. In the case of the black raspberry, the tip of the stem or the whole stem is bent to the ground and covered with earth. At the tip or the joints, as the case may be, roots are emit- ted. The layers are usually allowed to remain one sea- son before they are severed and set out as new plants. Almost any plant having shoots which can be bent to the ground can be propagated by layers; but the best result in layering is obtained in plants which have rather soft wood. PROPAGATION OF RASPBEREIES 233 Practical Exercises 1. Field Practice in Layering Go to some neighboring garden or berry patch and find black raspberry plants that have bent over during the previous summer and taken root at the tips. Pull up one of the tips and- note the beginning of a new root system. See if you can find where a new stem has already begun to grow from a tip layer. Cut off the stem that has bent over, about six or eight inches above where the tip has rooted. Dig up the roots at the tip, Fig. 68. Raspberry Layering and 3^ou have a little raspberry plant that is ready to be transplanted. j\Iake some tip layers by bending down other stems and covering the tips with earth. To prune the raspberry vines, cut away the last year's bearing canes. Cut back the present year's growth to about three feet during the month of July. Notice that the red raspberry does not bend over and root at the tip as the black raspberry does, but that new stalks spring up at intervals from the root under- 234 LESSOiXS IN AGRICULTUKE ground. The red raspberry thus spreads rapidly and if left to itself will spend its energy in growing canes rather than producing berries. This can be prevented by cutting off all the new shoots but two or three for the next year's growth. Make a notebook record of all these observations, and write a paragraph describing the difference between the methods of propagation of the black and red raspberries. LESSON LXIX SCHOOL GARDENING Awakened interest in school gardens. — It may be of interest to the ])oys and girls who read this lesson to learn something about the value, the development, and the nature of school garden work in this country. It has been a common practice in several European coun- tries for fully a century to conduct gardens in con- nection with the work of the public schools, and the idea of making gardening a part of the school work is rapidly growing in favor in our own country. In gardening, two practical lessons in agriculture arc taught first hand : first, the thorough preparation of the seed bed; and, second, the results of good cultivation in providing the surface mulch and in killing the weeds. Essentials of gardening. — The ground for the garden should be of a warm, rich, sandy loam, and be well under-drained. In preparing the ground for planting, great care and patience should be exercised in enriching it and thoroughly pulverizing the top soil. The seeds SCHOOL GAKDENING 235 should be pure and healthy, and not planted too deep, and the surface of the soil should not be allowed to become too dry while the seeds are germinating. These are fundamental requirements in all gardening. Practical Exercises 1. Selecting and Preparing the Garden The size and shape of the school garden will, of course, depend upon the amount of land available. The school garden should not encroach upon the playgrounds. If the school lot is too small, perhaps a farmer whose land Fig. 69. School Garden adjoins would be willing to give or rent a plot for school garden purposes. If the teacher and pupils are willing to have a school garden, there need be no trouble to find land enough for it. If the school is in session this month, a school garden should by all means be begun. If it is not feasible to have a large garden with in- dividual or group plots, select a corner of the school 236 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE grounds, on which to make a sample garden plot, as a demonstration lesson from which the pupils may learn how to make similar garden plots at home. Select a space with rich soil, about four feet wide by sixteen feet long, and thoroughly clean away all weeds and trash from this plot. Spade up the ground as deeply as possible. About a pound of commercial fertilizer may now be sprinkled over the plot, or a few shovelfuls of well-rotted manure may be worked into the ground. Rake over the plot and break up all the clods. It is a good plan to go over the ground with the hands, crumbling the soil as fine as meal. Level the bed up slightly higher than the rest of the ground. Stake the four corners and mark off a sharp, clean-cut edge for the bed, and make a neat, clean path around it. The garden is now ready for planting. 2. Planting the School Garden In plenty of time before this lesson is given the teacher should take a penny collection from the pupils, and send to the Home Gardening Association, Cleveland, Ohio, for seed packages. Many of the seeds may easily be obtained at the homes of the pupils. Under the direc- tion of the teacher, the garden plot prepared in the pre- vious exercise should be marked off for planting. The accompanying diagram should be drawn on stiff card- boards by each pupil, before going to the garden for this exercise. The plot, which is four feet wide, should be cross- furrowed, according to the scale shown above. Make SCHOOL GARDENING 237 the furrows about two inches deep. Place the seeds in the furrows, as shown by the stars in the diagram. Cover with the soil according to the size of the seeds, and press it down firmly with the hands. Now we are ready for the seeds to grow. Each pupil should now make * t * * * c * * • *«•***** »«•*»••**** Sweet corn, three rows. (Three grains in each place.) Dwarf bunch beans, two rows. Potatoes, three hills. Cucumbers, three hills. Optional. Optional. Optional. Beets, three rows. Dwarf peas, two rows. Onion sets, two rows. Radishes, three rows. Lettuce, three rows. Flower seeds. Fig. 70. Garden Plot. One-Fourth Inch Equals One Foot a garden plot similar to this one, at his home, and re- port daily to the class the progress of his garden. As the garden grows, weeds must be pulled, insects watched for, and replanting done, if necessary. 238 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE The following table should be copied in the notebooks and filled out in connection with the exercises of this lesson : Plants I When Planted How Deep Distance I When Apart I Appear I Injuries Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Farmers ' Bulletins. No. 218.— The School Garden. Extracts. No. 113. — Experimental Gardens and Grounds. LESSON LXX HOME GARDENING Importance of the garden. — What has been said about school gardens will, much of it, apply to the home garden. Every family in the country should have a garden because of the profit and satisfaction which it affords. The garden is, or should be, the best part of the farm, but it is often neglected by the farmer for other work which he thinks more important. Every dweller in town or city could very materially lessen the cost of living as well as promote the health of the family, by having a home garden. By the use of flow- ers and shrubs in the proper relation to the vegetable garden, the whole garden may add much to the beauty of the home grounds. HOME GARDENING 239 Some essentials of gardening. — 1. The soil of the garden should be a warm, well-drained, sand loam. It should be well fertilized with barn manure. 2. The ground should be plowed deeply and well, so that all litter and manure will be turned under. The ground should be harrowed and raked until the top soil is fine. All sticks and trash should be removed. Fig. 71. Type of Home Garden 3. Seeds should be pure, fresh and viable. Small seeds should be covered only slightly with finely pul- verized soil. Larger seeds should be planted deeper. Full directions are usually given on seed packages. 4. Seeds should be planted on a level in rows far enough apart to allow for easy cultivation, and not up 240 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE on elevated beds to dry out more easily during the hot summer days. 5. The time of planting will depend upon the nature of the vegetable. Onions, peas, radishes, lettuce, and potatoes may be planted as early as the ground can be worked. Flower seeds, beans, cabbage, melons, to- matoes, etc., should be planted later when the ground is thoroughly warmed. 6. In transplanting tomatoes, cabbages, etc., care should be taken that the plants are set deep and are well shaded for a while from the direct sun light. On cloudy days or towards evening is the best time to do transplanting. 7. Seed beds should not be allowed to dry out on the surface during germination. After the plants have come through the ground, the soil should be frequently stirred, to provide the surface mulch, and to keep down the weeds. The plants should be thinned out where they are overcrowding each other. 8. All vegetables should be carefully watched as they begin to develop leaves, to protect them from the bugs. Professor Hatch recommends the use of Hammond's "Slug Shot," sprinkled dry on such vegetables as mel- ons, cucuhibers, cabbages, etc., to kill the insect pests appearing on these plants. The spray to use on po- tatoes will be described in a later lesson. Practical Exercises 1. To Grow Early Melons or Cucumbers Cut several turfs of sod, about six inches square, as many pieces as you mean to have hills of melon. If the grassy side is firmly matted, slightly loosen the fibers, but not enough to allow the turf to fall apart. HOME GAEDENING 241 Place the sod, bottom side up, in a shallow box of wood or pasteboard; if the earth is not thick enough, add a few handfuls of good mealy soil. Plant about six or eight seeds in this soil. Place in a sunny window and keep warm and moist. This will constitute the first part of the lesson, but the germinating seeds will keep up the interest in the experiment for many days. When the green seed leaves have freed themselves from the shell, notice which are the thriftiest plants, and remove all but the best two. Care for these tenderly, and they will thrive well, free from frost and the striped beetle. They may safely acquire three or four true leaves, and be five or six inches tall, before they are planted out of doors. When the warm late IMay days come, dig holes about eight inches deep and six feet apart in the sunniest part of the garden ; put in the bottom of each hole a spadeful of old well-rotted manure; cover this with two inches of sand or fine soil; and on this place the sod with the growing melons, so gently that they will not know they have been moved. The sod should be level with the ground, and well firmed in place. See that the plants never suffer from thirst. Keep the weeds pulled, and stir the surface soil about the hill often until the vines begin to run. When each vine has set about a half dozen melons, pinch off all blossoms that form, and also the tips of the branches, so that all plant food may go into the melons first chosen. 242 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 2. Growing Cucumbers Intensively Select a fertile spot and dig a hole in the ground large enough to sink a barrel midway. Knock the bottom out of the barrel, and set it in the hole in the ground. Fill the earth in about the outside of the bar- rel, and mound the soil up to the rim of the barrel on the outside. Now fill the barrel with manure, packed firmly, and keep it covered to prevent the house flies from breeding in it. The bed is ready for planting. Plant five or six hills of cucumber seeds in the mound heaped up about the outside of the barrel. Put about ten seeds in a hill, and when the plants get large enough to vine, re- move half of them. Pour several pails of water into the barrel of ma- nure each day, and the water leaching through the manure will furnish the best of fertilizer for the plants, and the necessary moisture for their thrifty growth. These few hills will furnish an abundance of cucum- bers, and upon a very small space of ground. 3. Cultural Requirements for Vegetables Learn to fill out the following table from memory „ when the column of vegetables is given; HOME GAEDENING 243 The Vegetable. 2. Beet. 3. Turnip. 4. Potato. 5. Sweet potato. C. Onion. 7. Cabbage. 8. Spinach. 9. Lettuce. 10. Celery. 11. Pea. 12. Bean. 13. Tomato. 14. Cucumbers, Melons, etc. 15. Asparagus. Soil Requirement. Loose, deep cool, rich soil Sandy loam soil, loose and rich. Cool moist soil. Deeply Pulver- ized, cool soil, rich in potash. Loose, warm soil, sandy loam. Moist rich soil with loose surface. Cool deep soil. Cool moist soil. Mellow, moist soil. Cool, rich, moist soil, well pre- pared. Light soil. Light, sandy loam. Rich. "quick" soil. Loose, rich, well prepar- ed seedbed. Deep, rich, moist, cool soil. Ferti- lize often. Season Requirement. Short season crop. Full season. Short season. Early planting, full season. Long season. Sunny. Cool season. Early and late. Full season. Spring and Fall crop. Short season. Full season. Short season. Warm season, partial. Long, warm season. Long, warm season. Full season. Perennial. Care Requirements. Clean cultiva- tion. Protect from maggot. Good tillage. Weeds kept down. No care after sowing. Level culture, frequent til- lage, spray against beetles. Clean tillage, wood ashes fertilizer. Good surface tilth. Good seed needed. Frequent till- age. Destroy the worm. Grow in drills. Good soil prep- aration. The best sur- face tillage, blanching. Grown in drills. Easy culture. Clean tilth. Poles for tall varieties. Hill planting. Careful prun- ing and frame supports. Frequent till- age until vines run. Combat melon beetles. Cut in fall and top dress with manure. Caase cutting in early sum- mer. 244 LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture No. 94. — The Vegetable Garden. No. 1-54. — The Home Fruit Garden: Preparation and Care. No. 156. — The Home Vineyard, with Special Reference to Northern Conditions. No. 198. — Strawberries. No. 213. — Raspberries. LESSON LXXI BEAUTIFYING HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS During this month we shall plant trees, shrubs, and other ornamental plants about our home grounds. Ear- lier in the season, and in plenty of time for planting, we should have ordered our stock from some reliable house, and when the plants arrive, we should plant them at once. Our home grounds on the farm, as shown in Lesson I, contain about two acres. See prac- tical exercises and problems for further plans. Beautiful home grounds. — It does not require wealth nor rare plants to beautify the home or school grounds. With little expense, good taste, a knowledge of the above principles, and a willingness to work, the homes and schools of our country could be made more at- tractive and more natural. The woods are full of wild shrubs and flowers that could be growing on our home and school grounds, if we would only transplant them there. On Arbor day every school should revive the in- terest of the community in tree planting and other means of beautifying the home grounds. Back yards with barren ground covered with old tin cans and broken down chicken coops are not the surroundings in which boys and girls can grow up into beautiful and useful BEAUTIFYING GEOUNDS 345 characters. Our minds are influenced by what we con- tinually look upon, and if we must look upon ugly land- scapes, we tend to grow sordid and ugly in spirit; on the other hand, if we grow up in a home and school surrounded by beautiful natural scenes, our lives must grow more refined and appreciative. FIG. BEAUTIFi:!. Hume fc. ^ '** ■- ' "'-■• „. :.-^'"^- ".ail i .^:^"^ IHwf^^' " '^W,^v''>i ■ ._,; 1 - -^I- ''*■''' •.X if- • %' . : ■»**■ < * , "i |«*«A „:*«■"> TL M C"^''" '^'''' ' "■■ HKp^HM'J'-- — •••■ *-.r^ ^^^^HniMHIiilli^'^^ " _... ..,-!*>*■-., ^^^^^^^H ^^^^w 1 Fig. 100. The Tasture clover, and 2 pounds of white clover. Total, 24 pounds. ' ' The purpose of combining all these grasses in one field is to have plants ripening at various periods throughout the season, and adapting themselves to varying soil con- ditions. The above mixture would not be suitable for meadow purposes, because none of the plants would de- velop and ripen together. In limestone regions the Ken- tucky blue grass furnishes a permanent and ideal pas- ture throughout the entire season: IMr. AV. D. Zinn, of DRY FARMING 333 Philippi, West Virginia, has been of great service to farmers of this country through his Pasture Clubs, or- ganized for mutual helpfulness in the improvement of pastures. Problems 1. How much seed would be needed to renew the pas- ture on our forty-acre farm, using the amount quoted above on each acre ? 2. How many head of stock should we allow on our pasture, if in good average condition of growth ? 3. Examine the pastures at home and report how much stable manure it will require to cover the bare and poor spots, at the rate of six tons per acre. 4. J\Take a list of the pasture grasses grown in your community. References: Farmers' Bulletin, No. 66. Forage Crops Other Than Grasses. — Shaw. Elements of Agriculture. — Warren, LESSON XCII DRY FARMING The problem. — At this season of the year the farm- er's crops are most likely to suffer from dry weather. During the summer the plants are making heavy drafts upon the earth's moisture, and the hot, dry atmosphere is evaporating all the water and moisture exposed to it. In certain semi-arid sections of the country the farmers have met this problem of conserving moisture by a sys- tem known as ''dry farming. " Tt has been demonstrated that a certain amount of water is indispensable. To pro- duce a single pound of dry substance in wheat, 1.200 324 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE pounds of water are necessary. It would, therefore, be impossible to produce a crop year after year on the same dry area. The question is not one of fertility of soil, but of conservation of moisture. The conservation of moisture. — By the system of dry farming the solution of the problem consists in sum- mer fallowing of the land, which tneans that the ground is plowed as deep as possible and left to rest and absorb all the rainfall it can. A person with a two-hundred acre farm would by this method use only one-half of his land at a time for crops and allow the other half to lie fallow. A crop every year on all the land would hopelessly dry up all the soil. In addition to the deep plowing and summer fallowing, a loose surface mulch must be kept over the fields to prevent the moisture from evaporating. In this way the twelve or thirteen inches of rainfall, characteristic of many semi-arid regions, is caught and held to supply the moisture for the crop of a single season. Certain crops have been bred up to be adapted to the dry farming system, among which are the macaroni wheat, Turkestan alfalfa, dwarf Milo maize, and Swedish oats. At the present time wheat is the principal crop in dry farming. Practical Exercises 1. See Exercise 5, Lesson 46. 2. Hotv Moisture is Saved by the Dry Earth Produced 63/ Frequent Shalloiv Cultivation. Suspend a tin can from each end of a small stick four- teen to sixteen inches long and balance over a nail driven through a hole at the middle of the stick. DEY FAEMING 325 Fill one can full of moist soil and the other to within about one inch of the top with a portion of the same soil. Pour dry dust over the surface of the soil in the second can to the depth of about an inch. Adjust the amount of soil in the two cans so that the system exactly bal- ances. Allow the apparatus to stand over night. The amount of water that must be added to one can to restore a balance represents the water that has been saved by the protective covering of dust — the dry earth mulch. Hold the bar horizontally while adding the water. The effect of mulches of cut straw, leaves, or other material may be studied in the same way. AUGUST On the farm. — This is the month when the farmer may take a little vacation, and every farmer should leave his farm, if possible, for a short vacation at least once a year. There are plenty of things to do, however, in August, if the farmer wishes to find work. Perhaps he is planning to sow an alfalfa field, or he may have to break his wheat ground. If the weather is rainy he may have to dig his potatoes. He will probably sow a patch of tur- nips. There will be fence corners to mow and clean out. Perhaps he may have some melons or cucumbers or other truck to market. Of course he should help the housewife to pick blackberries, peaches or apples, for she is very busy at canning this month. The teacher and pupils will think of other work going on during August. LESSON XCIII ALFALFA Essentials in growing alfalfa. — It is worth the trial for most farmers to begin the production of alfalfa. There are a few essentials in alfalfa culture that are re- quired for success. 1. The seed bed must be in perfect "onion tilth." 2. The ground should be inoculated with the bacteria necessary to produce the root-nodules. This may be done 326 ALFALFA 327 by sprinkling the soil of the field with soil from an old alfalfa or sweet clover field. 3. There must be plenty of lime in the soil. 4. Weeds must not be allowed to choke out the young alfalfa plant. 5. The ground must be well drained and have a por- ous sub-soil, for alfalfa has a long tap-root and must grow deep into the soil. 6. The seed must be pure and viable, and sown at the rate of 25 pounds per acre. With these conditions pro- vided alfalfa may be grown much more widely than at present. Practical Exercises 1. An Alfalfa Plot Test If the required amount of land cannot be obtained on the school grounds, a farmer living near the school will probably be glad to furnish the land. Select the site in any plowed-up ground, lay out the following plats, each one rod square : 1 3 INOCULATION LIME 2 LIME 4 INOCULATION Drive stakes at each corner of each plat. 328 LESSONS IM AGRICULTUEE Sow about eight quarts of lime on plats 2 and 4, four quarts on each plat, which is equivalent to about twenty bushels on an acre. Obtain some soil from a place where alfalfa or sweet clover is growing, and scatter a few quarts of this on plats 3 and 4, being careful not to get it on the other plats. This is inoculating the soil with the bacteria of the alfalfa. Then sow a light seeding of oats or barley over all the plats, a little more than a quart is sufficient. Then sow about three-fourths of a pound of alfalfa over the four plats and rake it in. Be care- ful not to rake any of the soil from the inoculated plats into the others. No further care need be given the plats until the bar- ley or oats is headed out, when it should be mowed off above the tops of the alfalfa plants. The oats or barley should not be allowed to mature in the alfalfa. School may be closed before this experiment is finished ; but the teacher should appoint a committee to study and report the observations of the summer, and all living near should be encouraged to watch the experiment. This is getting lessons from the real source and not from books alone. Draw the plats in the agricultural note-books, and an- swer the following questions : How soon does the barley or oats come up? The al- falfa? In six weeks observe the roots of the alfalfa in each plat. In which plats are swollen nodules found on the alfalfa roots ? What is the effect of the lime and in- oculation ? Observe the difference in growth in the four plats. BUDDING FEUIT TBEES 329 The surest way to get alfalfa to grow on a poor soil is to manure the soil, cultivate it, and sow about August the 1st, applying lime and inoculation, if necessary. This work may be carried on at the students' home if there are no plats for it near the school. The home work of these lessons is to be greatly encouraged. References: Alfalfa Book. — Coburn. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 215. LESSON XCIV BUDDING FRUIT TREES August is the month when young peach and apple trees are usually budded. Purpose of budding. — Budding is such a simple and important farm operation that every boy and girl should know how to do it. Think of changing the little apple- trees in the orchard to any variety of apples you wish ! This is exactly what budding is for. This change can be made on branches as small as lead pencils, or as large as the thumb. The nurseryman buds the little trees a few inches above the surface of the ground. The fruit grower top buds the little trees, two or three feet above the ground. And when, above this apple-tree. The winter stars are quivering bright And winds go howling through the night, Girls, whose young eyes o'erflow with mirth, Shall peel its fruit by cottage-hearth, And guests in prouder homes shall see. Heaped with the grape of Cintra 's vine 330 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE And golden orange of* the line, The fruit of the apple-tree. — Bryant. Practical Exercises 1. Budding the Peach The class may go to a young orchard near the school for this lesson, or several branches of young trees may be brought into the schoolroom. 1. Choose the place for the bud. Make a horizontal Fig. 101. Budding cut across the stem, just through the bark. Then be- ginning in the middle of the horizontal cut, draw the knife straight down making a Vertical cut. (See figure b). Twist the knife sidewise before drawing it out, in order to loosen the bark. The stock is now ready for the bud. 2. Take the buds from bearing trees of the variety you wish. Cut twigs that have grown this year. The leaves are still on them. At the base of each leaf, and between the leaf and the branch, you will find a little NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE 33I bud. This is the bud to insert into the tree which has been prepared as above described. 3. Cut the leaf off about a quarter of an inch above the bud, thus leaving the leaf stock as a handle for the bud. The end buds should not be used. Beginning with a sharp knife below the bud, cut upwards just through the bark, beneath the bud and above it about half an inch. Be sure to cut through the bark, but not into the wood. (See figure a.) 4. Push the bud down into the cut made into the stock, using the leaf stalk as a handle. Be sure that the entire bud is shoved into the incision. If a piece of bark should project above, cut it off. (See figure c). 5. The bud is now ready for tying. Raffia is the best material to use, but ordinary string may be used. Be- gin below the bud and wrap the wound entirely, except where the bud is. Wrap it snugly and tightly, and then tie securely. (See figure d). 6. In two or three weeks the bud will have "stuck," and the string may then be removed. The bud will re- main dormant during the winter and begin to grow the next spring. Eef erences : Farmers' Bulletins^ Nos. 157 and 218. LESSON XCV NO TWO PLANTS ALIKE Variations and resemblance. — It is a common observation of everybody that no two things are exactly alike. This is especially true of plants. Plants like ani- 333 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUBE mals, produce offspring which resemble the parents very closely in many respects. If it were not for this resem- blance to parents in plants, our crops would not come true to seed, and we could not depend upon fixing de- sired characteristics in improving the crop. On the other hand, it is a good thing that no two plants are exactly alike, for the variation might be an improvement over the parent plant, and thus enable the plant breeder to select points for improvement. Practical Exercises 1. Variations in the Corn Plant. Select two corn plants that most nearly resemble each other, and note the following points in comparison : 1. Height of the plant. 2. Does it branch? How many secondary stems or suckers from one root? 3. Shade or color. 4. How many leaves? 5. Arrangement of leaves on the stem. 6. jMeasure length and breadth of six main leaves. 7. Number and position of ears. Color of silks. 8. Size of tassel, and number and size of its branches. 9. Stage of maturity or ripeness of the plant. 10. Has the plant grown symmetrically, or has it been crowded by other plants, or been obliged to struggle for light or room? 11. Note all the unusual marks or features. 12. Note the comparative vigor. These points may be used with any two plants with slight modification. WATEE SUPPLY 333 (Adapted from Bailey in the Cornell Rural School Leaflet. ) Keference: Farmers' Bulletin, 229. LESSON XCVI THE WATER SUPPLY We are likely to have little rainfall in August and our attention is often called to the quality as well as the quantity of our water supply. Pure water. — There is nothing of more importance to the health, comfort, and convenience of a farm and household than an abundant supply of pure water. It is not easy to find absolutely pure water. Some of the impurities in drinking water are harmless ; others are very injurious. The most dangerous impurities in water are the minute plant forms, called bacteria. One kind of bacteria occasionally found in drinking water, causes the typhoid fever. It is impossible to judge by the appear- ance or taste, whether water contains these dangerous bacteria. It may be perfectly clear and have the finest taste, and yet be unsafe to drink. Sources of drinking water are: 1. Springs. Spring water is almost always pure if the spring is deep and a good distance from foul places, such as barnyards and open drains. 2. Lakes and reservoirs. Water supplied to cities is often taken from rivers and lakes, and purified to a cer- tain extent and stored in reservoirs. If there is any doubt about the purity of the city water, people are ad- vised to boil it in order to kill all the dangerous bacteria. 334 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 3. Wells. If wells are on a lower level than the barns or outhouses, they are likely to contain water with the dangeroiis bacteria in it. If any surface water can drain into the well it renders the water impure and unfit to drink. The land should not slope to the well from any house or barn, and the well cover should be perfectly tight to prevent animals from getting into it. Good rules for drinking water. — 1, If there is any doubt about the purity of drinking water it should be boiled. 2. Allow no standing water about the farm premises, for it may be the source of contamination for the drink- ing water. 3. Do not drink out of the cup at public drinking places, nor from the common cup or dipper often used in the schoolroom, for many disease germs are carried from one mouth to another, through the common drink- ing vessel. Pupils should have their own individual drinking cups. 4. Always have clean fresh water for the farm ani- mals, for their health and growth depends as much on the water supply as does our own. Practical Exercises 1. Simple Tests of Water If this lesson is given in a school that has the material named, the following tests will prove interesting and val- uable : 1. Test for animal or plant matter : Fill a clean test-tube half full of the drinking water, Add a drop or two of concentrated sulphuric acid, and UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE 335 .sufficient potassium permanganate solution to color the water. Heat gently to the boiling point. If the color changes to a brownish tint, it indicates the presence of organic matter. 2. Test for chlorides : To a test-tube half full of water, add a few drops of nitric acid, and then a few drops of silver nitrate solu- tion. If there is any cloudiness, it shows that the water had traces of chlorides in it. 3. Test for sulphates : To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of barium chloride solution. If there is a whitish precipitate, it indicates the presence of sulphates in the water. 4. Test for lime compounds: To a test-tube half full of water add a few drops of fresh solution of ammonium oxalate. A white precipitate indicates the presence of calcium or lime compounds. As a note-book record of this lesson, the pupils should write an essay on the Water Supply, bringing out the facts they have learned, and showing the attitude they have toward the subject. LESSON XCVII THE UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE Farmers dependent upon weather. — There is no sub- ject of more vital interest to the farmer than the weather. Especially is this true in the month of August, In the corn belt the condition of the weather either makes or mars the crop. As the rain falls "on the just and on the 336 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE unjust, ' ' SO does the dry weather come to both alike, and . the farmer, to whatever class he may belong, is more de- pendent upon the state of the weather for success in his business, than perhaps upon any other force. Weather reports. — The Department of Agriculture, through the Weather Service, has made provision for KEY TO COLORS ^[] WHITE JblUE (blACK Weather service flags. KEY TO COLORS BLACK i1 S Wind and storm signals. Fig. 102. United St.\.tes Weather Signals iaily weather reports to all parts of the country. These reports are sent out by rural telephones, by bulletins car- ried by the rural mail service, by means of signal flags of certain designs and colors, and by steam whistles blown sufficiently strong to be heard some distance away. The flags used for this purpose are as follows : No. 1. White flag indicates clear and fair weather. No. 2. Blue flag indicates rain or snow. UNITED STATES WEATHER SERVICE 337 No. 3. White and blue flag indicates local rain or snow. No. 4. Black triangular flag is a temperature signal. No. 5. White flag with black square in the center in- dicates that a cold wave is expected. When No. 4 is placed above Nos. 1, 2, and 3, warmer weather is expected; when placed below these signals, colder weather is expected. A red flag with a black cen- ter indicates a storm of great violence. A red pennant signifies an easterly wind, while a white pennant indi- cates a westerly wind. When either of these pennants is placed above other flags, it signifies a northern wind, but when placed below, a southern wind is promised. Practical Exercises 1. Reeving Weather Records Make daily weather observations for one week and record your observations in the following table : Date I Temperature I Moisture Conditions I Sky Aspect I Wind Direction II II 2. Study of the Weather Signals Ask your rural carrier to expose the Weather Service Signals on his wagon, and keep a record each day of what the signals indicate. Note whether the report is correct or not. Draw upon the blackboard of the school each day the flag shown by the weather report, which foretells the weather for the next twenty-four hours. 338 LESSONS IN AGETCULTUEE LESSON XCVIIT CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES Study needed. — A text-book in agriculture would fail in an essential duty if it did not call attention to the great need of the conservation of our natural resources. In a recent conference, Hon. Gifford Pinchot advised the preparation of text-books on conservation, and strongly urged that the problem be presented to the children of the public schools. Americans wasteful. — AA^e have been concerning our- selves about every other subject under the sun, while we ate, drank, and made merry over the abundance of our natural resources. As a nation we have wasted our sub- stance by riotous living, and now we hear our President sounding the alarm by saying, that the question of the conservation of our natural resources is one of the most important problems before the American people. The natural resources. — Disregarding the question of moral purposes, the prosperity of our people depends directly upon the energy and intelligence with which we use the soil, the forests, the mines, and the waters of the earth. Frdm the sea, the mine, the forest, and the soil, must be gathered everything that can sustain the life of man. How stands the inventory of our property at the beginning of the twentieth century? The sea and forests. — The sea furnishes 5 per cent of our food products. The forests are fast disappearing. "We are consuming wood three times faster than the for- CONSEEVATTON NATUEAL RESOURCES 339 ests grow, aiid without reforestation, the present century will see the end of our timber. The mines.- — The mines of coal, oil, and gas are in- capable of restoration. The wealth of these resources can be used only once. When fuel becomes scarce, as far as we can now foresee, man will suffer as he would if the air were gradually withdrawn. One has only casually to observe to note the great waste of coal, oil, and gas that is continually going on unchecked. The soil. — Our greatest source of wealth is the land — the soil. How are we caring for it? The last census shows that the average annual product per acre of the whole country was $11.38, a little more than a respectable rental in some places, where the land is well cared for. We are robbing the soil in order to get the largest re- turns in the shortest time. We have done this in two ways — by single cropping and by neglect of fertilization. We need the intelligent treatment of smaller areas, rais- ing the productivity to three or four times the present rate. Thirty-six per cent of our people live directly by agriculture, and the rest depend upon it. We shall have 200 million people here by 1950. Hoav shall they be clothed and wherewithal shall they be fed? Time was when the son of the farmer could go West, when his father's farm was run down, now all this 'is changed. The son of the farmer, if he follows his father's vocation, must make his living on his father's farm. This can be done, if the father exercises wisdom. No wise use of the soil exhausts its fertility. Ignorance and selfishness. — And, finally, the great- 340 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUKE est waste of resources is the loss that comes to all our material development, through ignorant minds and un- skilled hands. It is the old curse of ignorance together with the primal sin of selfishness that has led to the waste of the world 's substance. LESSON XCIX AGRICULTURE AND EDUCATION Educational value. — The boys and girls who have been studying these pages and the plants and animals of the farm to which we have constantly referred them, may be sure that they have not been neglecting their education in this study of agriculture. We have seen that the science of agriculture deals not only with the common things and processes of everyday life in the country, but that it reaches out and touches all the great branches of science and learning. In all that goes to give one a modern education of culture, agriculture plays a large and efficient part. Practical value. — Agriculture has also its practical value as a school subject, in that its study enables the farmer to gain larger profits in his business. This value may not be realized at once by the boys and girls in thej, public schools, but in the extension schools and in the short courses at the colleges of agriculture, the profitableness of studying agriculture is often concrete and immediate. An actual saving of over $1,000 in horse feed resulted from the information gained by a prominent business AGEICULTUKE AND EDUCATION 341 man and farmer of Salem, Ore., in the winter short course at the Oregon Agricultural College. Last year he came himself to the college, and this year, being unable to attend, sent his ranch foreman. The knowl- edge gained in the course on feeding of horses alone netted him a saving of over $1,000 in his feed bills, and his animals are in finer condition, he says, than ever be- fore. Here is another concrete illustration of the value of scientific agricultural information. Moral value. — The study of agriculture in the school and on the farm cannot help but make us better men and women. The boys and girls who love and care for plants and animals, surely cannot think or do as evil things as those who do not care for them. There is so much to learn, so much suffering and inconvenience because of ignorance, and so much service to be done, that the world is looking to the boys and girls in the public schools, who are learning how to think and to do things, to render the greatest service for country life. It remains for you, teachers and pupils, who love the country life and desire its best interests, in the spirit and intelligence with which you have pursued these lessons, to go forth as leaders, where leadership is so much needed — in the open country. Be leaders in the grange. Be leaders in boys' and girls' clubs. Be lead- ers in country school and church. Uphold and advance every movement that will bring larger measures of jus- tice and education to the farmer and his family. 342 LESSONS IN AGEICULTURE LESSON C THE FARM HOME Home industries. — Our lessons in agriculture would not do justice to rural life if we did not refer to the country home and its works and influence. The devel- opment of the material and industrial side of the home life has not kept pace with the progress of men's work on the outside. Many of the industries of the early homes have been wisely taken from them and given over to the factories and shops. Two industries yet remain — cooking and cleaning. These are not much further ad- vanced in their development than they were a thou- sand years ago. The time may come — it is to be hoped that it will, when women of the home will be relieved from most of the drudgery of cleaning and cooking, and these industries be turned over to specialists who will do them better and cheaper than they are now done, and that the home may become a place of rest and culture for the lives within. It will be long years be- fore such ideals can be realized in the country, yet much can be done in the country home to lighten the labors of the mother, and enlighten the members of the house- hold. Some conditions making- for the betterment of the farm home: 1. Beautiful natural surroundings, as brought out in a former lesson. 2. Absolute cleanliness from cellar to garret. 3. The absence of all carpets, lace curtains, and FARM HOME 343 bric-a-brac, and their places supplied with smooth, hard- wood finish of window and door casings; hardwood, waxed floors; and furniture of plain, uncarved, smooth type. 4. Few pictures, well selected, in plain, modest frames, placed upon walls of restful tints. 5. Good books, daily papers, magazines, and farm journals in the library. 6. Musical instruments and members of the family who can appreciate good music. 7. Ample, shady porches, screened doors and win- dows, and well ventilated rooms. 8. Pure, clean food, well prepared and cooked, and cool, clean kitchen and dining rooms in which to pre- pare and eat the meals. 9. A bathroom with hot and cold water supplied. 10. A telephone and rural free mail service. 11. All the labor-saving machines that can be af- forded. 12. Good roads, good schools, good churches, good markets available, and good people to live in the homes. A stronger and better country home ! — That is what we want. That is what we must have. The "New Earth" that is coming, will bring its rural homes of good cheer, of culture and education. In these homes will be strong men, sensible women, and happy children. Love will be law and wisdom chief ruler, and the child that is born in them is sure of all that the highest thought can secure for him in body, soul and spirit. This is the stronger home, and in that home must be 344 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE seen all the graces and gentleness in thought and word that make the happy illumination which, on the inside of the house, correspond to morning sunlight outside, falling on quiet dewy fields. Out of such homes nei- ther knaves in politics, nor tyrants in business competi- tion can ever come. With such homes, the golden age already dawning as the new century opens hastens its steps. And for the woman in that home : "A woman, in so far as she beholdeth Her one Beloved's face; A mother — with a great heart that enfoldeth The children of the race ; A body free and strong, with that high beauty That comes of perfect use is built thereof; A mind where reason ruleth over duty. And justice reigns with love ; A self-poised, royal soul, brave, wise, and tender, No longer blind and dumb ; A human being of unknown splendor, Is she who is to come. ' ' APPENDIX NOTES 345 APPENDIX NOTES Suggestive List of Materials and Equipment Needed in Using This Book 1. Three boxes of soil, one each of clay, sand, and humus loam. 2. One dozen Mason pint fruit jars. 3. One dozen tumblers. 4. Four lamp chimneys. 5. Sach's plant food tablets. 6. Samples of commercial fertilizers. 7. One-half dozen wide-mouth bottles. 8. Germination test box. 9. A fifty-foot tape line. 10. Hoe, spade, rake, axe, etc. 11. One pint of formaldehyde. 12. One spray pump. 13. Five gallons of lime-sulphur spray material. 14. Resin, beeswax, and tallow or linseed oil. 15. A pruning knife and saw. 16. An insect cage. 17. A Babcock tester. 18. One dozen test tubes. 19. One pound of potassium cyanide (deadly poison). 20. Window boxes. 21. A set of economic seeds. 22. Kitchen scales, weighing to twenty-four pounds. 23. Vessels for dry measure. 24. Bricker's drainage apparatus. 25. Animals and plants easily supplied from the farms. 346 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE Cornell University Score-Card for Farms IStandard I Students I Score Score 10. 11. 12. 13. Kind of Farming — | Adaptation as affecting value | Size— I As adapted to kind of farming to be used..| Shape — I As affecting shape of fields As affecting' nearness of farmstead | Topography — As affecting production As affecting ease of cultivation | As affecting loss of soil fertility Fertility — Natural Condition Physical Properties — As affecting economy of cultivation As affecting number of days of labor As affecting loss of soil fertility Drainage — Natural or artificial Condition — Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc Climate — As affecting production of live stock As affecting number of days of labor Healthfulness — As an economic factor Water-supply — Running water and wells Location — Local markets Nei.ghbors Shipping facilities Roadways Improvements — Location of farmstead House as adapted to farin needs Other buildings as adapted to size of farm and kind of farming Fences, character, condition, arrangement.. Timber, orchards, vineyards, etc 15 5 Total The above score card, worked out for the pupils' home farms, would make valuable lessons in Elementary Agriculture, DIAGEAMS 347 Diagram of Cow 1, Muzzle; 2, Nostrils; 3. Face; 4, Fore-head; 5, Cheek; 6, Jaw; 7, Neck; 8, Withers; 9, Back; 10, Loin; 11, Pinbone; 12, Rump; 13, Hips; 14, Tail; 15, Chest; 16, Brisket; 17, Throat; 18, Shoulder; 10-20, Fore Arm; 21. Knee; 22, Pastern; 23. Foot: 24, Chest; 25, Ribs; 26, Belly; 27, Flank; 28, Milk Veins; 29, Udder; 30, Quarters: 31, Thigh; 32, Escutcheon; 33, Cannon; 34, Fetlock. 12 ■^ 19 '18' Diagram of Sheep 1, Face; 2, Muzzle; 3, Nostrils: 4, Ej^e; 5, Neck; 6, Top of Shoulder; 7, Cheek; 8, Back; 9, Loin; 10, Twist; 11, Rump; 12, Dock; 13, Brisket; 14, Cannon; 15, Fore-leg; 16. Shoulder: 17, Knee; 18, Foot; 19, Toe; 20, Fore flank; 21, Ribs; 22, Belly: 23, Flank; 24, Hip; 26, Leg. 348 LESSONS IN AGEICULTUEE 1, Comb. 2, Beak. 3, Wattles. 4, Lobes. 5, Neck. 6, Body and Fluff. 7, Back. 8-9, Tail Coverts. 10, Tail Primaries. 11, Tail Fluff. 12 ■13, Wing Coverts. 14, Wing Primaries. 15, Breast. 16, Thigh. 17, Heel. 18, Tarsus. 19, Spur. 20, Toes. Diagram of Chicken Diagram of Horse 1, Neck. 2, Withers; 3, Back; 4, Loin; 5, Hip; 6, Dock; 7. Throat; 8, Shoulder; 9, Breast; 10, Fore-arm; 11, Arm; 12, Wart (x); 13, Knee; 14, Cannon-bone; 15, Fetlock; 16, Pastern; 17, Hoof; 18, Toe; 19, Chest; 20, Ribs; 21, Belly; 22, Flanks; 24, Gaskin; 25, Quarters; 26, Stifle; 27, Thigh; 28, Hocks. INDEX Accounts, farm, 118. Agricultural outlook, 129 ; products, 126 ; societies, 172. Agriculture and education, 340. Alfalfa, 309, 326. Animals, farm, 67. April on the farm, 226. Apples, 57, 59, 60, 63, 221, 259 ; judging, 62. Arsenate of lead, 41, 259. Ash in food, 106. Assessment of farm values, 127. August on the farm, 326. Automobiles, 132. Babcock test, 107. Bacteria, 103, 105, 209. Beautiful home grounds, 244. Beetles, 39. Bees, 37. Birds, 303. Bird boxes, 305. Books, farmers', 133. Bordeaux mixture, 4i. Boys' corn clubs, 172, 269. Bugs, 34. Buildings, farm, 17. Budding fruit trees, 329. Butter, 100, 103. Butterflies, 30. Cabbage, 243. Carbo-hydrates, 92. Carbon, 144. Catalpa, 253, 254. Celery, 243. Clover, 208, 309. Conservation of natural resources, 338 Codling 'moth, 259, 261. Corn contests, 265. Corn, best, 55 ; testing seed, 197 ; selecting and storing, 49 ; judging and scoring, 191 ; planting, 263 : cultivating, 267 ; Crop records, 122 ; rotation, 123, 213. Crops, classification, 65. cover, 218 ; farm, 65. Cotton seed meal, 95. Cow, beef, 81 ; dairy, 78. Country life conveniences, 131. Cucumbers, 242, 243. Cultivators, 268. Cuttings, 229. Dairy, 100, 78 ; cow, 78. barn, 103. December on the farm, 117. Diagram of forty-acre farm, 16 Drainage, 158. Dragon flies, 36. Dry matter, 95. Ear-to-row plot for corn, 265. Eggs, 116. Embryo, 182. Excursion to the woods, 256. Farm, accounts, 118 ; books, 133 ; buildings, 17 ; crops, 65 ; forty acre, 13 ; home, 342 ; machinery, 127 ; selecting, 13. Farming, dry, 333. Fats, as food, 93. Feathers, 114. February on the farm, 158. Feeds and feeding, 91. Fences, 162. Fertilizers, 148, 149, 154. Flies, 32 ; dragon, 36. Flowers, 288. Food compounds, 94. Forestry, 249. Forty-acre farm, 13. Fruit, growing, 57, 129 ; trees, 221, 226, 329. Fungous diseases, 42, 259. Fungicides, 41. Gardening, home, 238 ; school, 234 : landscape, 245. 349 350 INDEX Girls' tomato chibs, 283. Grafting. 226 ; wax, 228. Grange. 177. Grape cuttings. 2.31. Grasses, 320. 321. Grasshoppers, 27. Grazing, 129. Hav, alfalfa, 310. clover, 300 : timothy, 318. Hens, 111, 112. Hogs, 86. Home, farm, 342 ; gardening, 238 ; grounds, 244. Horse, draft, 74. driving, 70. Horses' plea, 77. Hot-bed, 167. H'lmus, 136. Hydrogen, 144. Insects, 24, 308. Insecticides, 41. 219. Improvement, lines of, 312. Iron, plant food, 144. ■January on the farm, 130. Jersey cattle, 78. July on the farm, 314. Kentucky blue grass. 96, 321. Kerosene emulsion, 41. 22(i. Knot-tying, 165. Laboratory equipment, 345. Larva, 25. Layering, 232. Lead arsenate, 41, 259. Legumes, 208. Lettuce. 243. Lime, 152, 326. Listing corn, 264. Machinery, farm, 127. Magnesium, plant food, 144. Manures, 150, 153. 156. Map Studies of life a-fleld, 22. March on the farm, 181. May on the farm, 267. Meadows, 320. Melons, 240, 243. Milk, caring for. 101 ; composition of, 104 ; testing, 107. Modern farm-home conveniences, 343. Mulch, dust, 141. Muriate of potash, 152. Natural resources. 338. Nitrate of soda, 150. Nitrogen, 144, 150, 209. November on the farm, 67. Nut crops, 64. Nutrients, 96. Nutritive ratio, 93, 95. Oats, treatment of, 43. October on the farm, 49. Onions, 243. Orchards, extension of, 57 ; planting. 58 ; renewing, 222. Out-of-door school. 22. Oxygen, 144. Paris green, 41. Pastures, 321. Patrons of husbandry, 178. Peaches, 59, 61, 221, 330. Peas, 243. Pecans, 64. Perennials, 247, 295, 296. Phosphorus, 144, 151. Pistil, 289, 290. Plant diseases, 42 ; foods, 143 ; leaves, 286 ; propagation, 229. Plants and water. 201. Potatoes, 279. Poultry, 110. Products, farm, 50. Protein, 92, 93. Pruning trees, 221. Pupa, 25. Radishes, 243. Raspberries, 232. Rations, balanced, 92 ; determining, 95. References, list of, 170. Roads and road-making, 169, 314. Root systems, 205. Root hairs. 206. Rotation of crops, 213, 214. Rural mail delivery, 169. Rural progress, 132. Sample letter for bulletins, 172. San Jose scale, 217. School, gardening, 238 ; grounds, 244 : out-of-door, 22. Score card, cattle, 80, 82 ; corn, 1 93 ; farm, 346; hogs, 87 ; horses, 73 ; sheep, 85. Seedlings, growth of, 185. Seeds, structure. 181 ; germination of, 185 ; testing, 197. Separator, cream, 100. INDEX 351 September on the farm, 14. Sheep. 83. Shrubs, 247. Siios, 17, 21. Sodium nitrate, 150. Soil, capillarity in, 140 ; elements of. 135, 150. tillage, 272. Spray, lime-sulphur, 41, 217, 259. Spraying for scale, 217 ; for codling moth, 259 ; for fungous disease, 259. Stamen, 289, 290. Starch, as food compound, 94. Stock, on the farm, 67 ; pure bred, 69. Stomata, 287. Stooling, 47. Sugar, as food compound. 94. Suggestions to teachers, 7. Sulphur, 144. Sweet Potatoes, 243. Toad, the farmer's friend, 306. Tomato clubs, 283. Tomatoes, 243, 283. Transpiration, 288. Transplanting, 277. Tree planting, 248, 255. Truck crops, 130, 299. Vegetables, 243. Variations, 331, 332. Walnuts, English, 64. Water, supply, 333 ; in farm crops, 204 ; and the plant, 201. Weather service, 335. Weeds, 295. Weights, for bushel, 189. Wheat, composition of the plant. 146; crop, 44. Wood, lots, 252 ; usage, 249. Wool, 83, 85. Work shop, 17. Tear's account, 121. WOV 2 ^^^^ One copy del. to Cat. Div. JCV 2 !9n Wmmm