itK..:^r'*:^•^■:^^'■tv;;'l';■^^ P, L. 61 - 40-M 2-10-«6. Greece of the Hellenes COUNTRIES AND PEOPLES SERIES Each in imperial 16 mo, cloth gilt, gilt top. With about 30 full-page plate illustrations. Italy of the Italians. By Helen ZiMMERN. France of the French. By E. Harrison Barker. Switzerland of the Swiss. By Frank Webb. Spain of the Spanish. By Mrs. J. Villiers-Wardell. Germany of the Germans. By Robert M. Berry. Turkey of the Ottomans. By Lucy M. J. Garnett. Belgium of the Belgians. By Demetrius C. Boulger. Holland of the Dutch. By D. C. Boulger* Japan of the Japanese. By Prof. J. H. Longford. Servia of the Servians. By Chedo MlJATOVICH. Austria of the Austrians and Hungary of the Hungarians. By L. Kellner, Paula Arnold, and a. L. Delisle. Russia of the Russians. By Harold Williams. Other Volumes in preparation. Greece of the Hellenes By Lucy M. J. ^arnett AUTHOR OF " TURKEV OF THE OTTOMANS," " MYSTICISM AND MAGIC IN TURKEY," ETC. TRANSLATOR OF " GREEK FOLK-POESY " NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 597-599 FIFTH AVENUE 1914 oOU i . g;^3 By the same Author Mysticism and Magic in Turkey AN ACCOUNT OF THE RELIGIOUS DOCTRINES, MONASTIC ORGANISA- TION, AND ECSTATIC POWERS OF THE DERVISH ORDERS. By LUCY M. J. GARNETT. In crown 8vo, cloth gilt, with illustrations. " Miss Lucy Garnett has collected a great store of curious learning about the various monastic orders of Turkey. Here you may read much of their legendary origin, glance at fragments of their symbolical poetry, and follow curious descriptions of their rites of initiation, their singular cults, and their costumes and habits. The author's com- petence and industry are beyond doubt and praise." — Nation. Turkey of Hie Ottomans By LUCY M. J. GARNETT. In imperial 16mo, cloth gilt, with about 30 full-page plate illustrations. TBAJfttFBA P. O, PUBLIC t,l3%AWi O*?^*'^ (•w* ->'«-^*- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA PROPERTIT ^RANSFERRE '8W^W 10 LIBRARY CHAP, I. THE MODERN HELLENES . II. GOVERNMENT . III. ARMY, NAVY AND POLICE IV. JUSTICE .... V. THE MONARCHY VI. EDUCATION .... VII. LITERATURE AND ART VIII. THE CHURCH AND THE CLERGY IX. MONKS AND MONASTERIES X. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND COMMERCE XI. RURAL LIFE AND PURSUITS XII. URBAN AND SOCIAL LIFE XIII. FESTAL LIFE .... XIV. CLASSIC SURVIVALS XV. HOME LIFE AND WOMEN'S W(^RK XVI. FAMILY CEREMONIES XVII. TRAITS OF GREEK CHARACTER . • »• ■ .» INDEX . . ., Jt -i }.] "j-v. PAGE 1 14 29 41 49 60 72 87 100 116 132 146 160 179 193 209 227 243 ILLUSTRATIONS THE HARBOUR OF THERA . A VILLAGER OF ELEUSIS . GYPSY GIRLS .... ISRAELITES OF SALONICA IN HOLIDAY COSTUME M, ELEVTHERIOS VENIZELOS M. GEORGE THEOTOKES M. SPIROS MERKOURIS ONE OF THE ROYAL BODYGUARD A CRETAN GENDARME HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HELLENES HER MAJESTY QUEEN SOPHIA . H.R.H. THE CROWN PRINCE OF GREECE THE ROYAL PALACE, FROM THE PARTHENON THE NATIONAL MUSEUM, ATHENS ATHENS, THE AKROPOLIS . TEMPLE OF THE CARYATIDS, AKROPOLIS A GREEK PATRIARCH A GREEK PARISH PRIEST . THE CHURCH OF ST. GEORGE, SALONICA MONASTERY OF CARACALLA, MOUNT ATHOS THE PORT AND TOWN OF PIRiEUS MACEDONIAN PEASANT WOMEN . VILLAGERS OF EASTERN MACEDONIA . ATHENS FROM THE PROPYLEUM . A STREET IN SALONICA THE THESEUM A WOMAN OF MEGARA RUINS OF DELPHI. THE SACRED WAY AND THE ALTAR .... PEASANT WOMEN OF ELEUSIS A GREEK LADY IN NATIONAL DRESS THE MAMM^ .... MARATHON. TOMB OF THE 129 SLAIN ATHENIANS Frontispiece Pacing page 8 10 12^ 16 22' 28 34- 40 50 52 54 56 76 80 84 88 92 98 106 120 138 142 146 152 166 176 GREAT 180 202 206 216 240 GREECE OF THE HELLENES CHAPTER I THE MODERN HELLENES The question whether the present inhabitants of Greece may claim to be hneal descendants of those who peopled the country in the age of its greatest glory has Mixture of occupied the attention of many eminent Greere*" scholars who, during the last half century or more, have propounded a variety of theories on the subject. Fallmerayer, for instance, maintained the old Greek race to be extinct ; but his theory has been effectu- ally refuted by the subsequent researches of Ross, EUissen and Kopf. Professor Mahaffy and Sir Richard Jebb have declared the modern Hellene to be not less Greek than his language ; while Dr. Philippson and Mr. Hogarth, among a number of other students, seem to agree that the inhabitants of the Hellenic Kingdom are a very mixed race, those among them who may be regarded as undoubtedly of Greek descent forming but one element in a vast Hellenised conglomerate of all the races that have, during the past two thousand years, invaded and settled in South-eastern Europe. Seeing, how- ever, that this Hellenic element was able to impose its language and traditions on all the other elements, it cannot have been very inconsiderable ; and the great number of Greek dialects in existence at the present day would seem to prove an independent continuity of tradition — and also, consequently, of Greek descent — ^in all .the various localities in which they are in use. 1 1— (3385) 2 Greece of the Hellenes The average Greek of to-day, and more especially if he be a townsman, can hardly be regarded as a perfect t5rpe of physical beauty ; but neither probably was the average Greek of Praxiteles' day. Yet one may from time to time meet, ahke in the Hellenic Kingdom, in the islands and coastlands of the iEgean, and in both the higher and the lower strata of society, with a type of quite classical purity — the broad low forehead, the straight nose, dark lustrous eye and firmly rounded chin and throat of ancient statues. The figure, too, of one of these classic survivals will usually be above the middle height, erect and well poised, the hands and feet small, the latter often exhibiting the peculiarity noticeable in Greek statuary of the second toe being of the same length as the first. The mixture of races in Greece is, however, forcibly illustrated by the diversity of types found within the limits of the Greek Kingdom, a certain type being as a rule special to a certain district, though representatives of all may be found among the populations of the larger towns, and the streets of Athens offer excellent opportunities for studying these various t5rpes. For here may be seen — possibly forming a single group in a kafeneion — the swarthy, black-eyed, Asiatic-looking peasant of Thessaly, the brown or fair-haired and blue-eyed Messenian or Arcadian, the long-headed Islander from Chios, and perhaps a further tjrpe seemingly akin to neither, with a skin of clear olive utterly different from that of either the southern Spaniard or the Italian. The blue-eyed type is found here and there in other parts of the Peloponnesos, as also among the Sphakiote highlanders of Crete who so long bravely withstood the armies of the Sultan. And in the remote village of Apeiranthotes in the island of Naxos dwells a community believed to be of Cretan origin, for the most part blonde in complexion, and speaking a dialect of its own, the members of which continue to be regarded by their neighbours as strangers and foreigners. This type is, indeed, most common in the wilder parts of Greece where the inhabitants have had from time immemorial The Modern Hellenes 3 little or no intercourse with the outside world ; and it is in such localities that the most perfect types of the Greek race are still to be met with. Isolated from the rest of the Peloponnesos by geographical boundaries and lack of communication by land, two distinct elements of the population, both presenting _, J curious and interesting features, are to be found respectively on the easternmost and the midmost of the three mountainous southern promontories of the Morea. On the former, the ancient Laconia which terminates in Cape Malea, dwell the Tzakones, a race who formerly occupied all the territory between this cape and ArgoHs, but now number only about 15,000 famihes, two- thirds of whom inhabit the town of Leonidi on the Gulf of Nauplia, the remainder being found in a number of villages between Nauplia and Monembasia. In mediaeval times their vessels traded throughout the Levant and served in the fleets of the Byzantine Emperors, a considerable colony of Tzakone famihes being established at Constantinople, where their skill as mariners was greatly appreciated. At the present day they enjoy the reputation of being an honest and peaceable people, still making use among themselves of an idiom which has been pronounced by philologists to be a survival of a Doric dialect, the digamma being preserved in some words, and the Doric alpha used in place of the Attic eta. The Athenian philologist Dr. Deffner, who has made a special study of the Tzakones and their language, regards this people as the descendants of the ancient Lakonians, and their speech — which is of a more ancient type than any other surviving Greek dialect — he terms Neo-Doric. There is accordingly some warrant for the assumption that the Tzakones are more directly descended from the ancient inhabitants of Greece than is any other section of its present population. And though the Greek schoolmaster is abroad in Laconia as elsewhere, this old Doric speech will probably long continue to be spoken in that province, 4 Greece of the Hellenes ' and especially by the denizens of its remoter mountain hamlets. The narrow rocky promontory of Mane or Maina, ter- minating in Cape Matapan, is the home of another distinct element, the Manidte, or Mainotes, who Ma otes remained pagan until nearly the end of the ninth century, and among whom the clan system still prevails, together with other somewhat primitive social conditions. Notorious as pirates in former centuries were the Mainotes — a certain section of them at least ; but at the present day their roving instincts find no outlet beyond emigration to America, while their fighting instincts lead many into the army both as officers and soldiers by profession. As their native province offers few chances of a livehhood, a considerable number of young men betake themselves to other parts of Greece in search of more profitable employ- ment, and many Mainotes may be found among the miners ,:9,t Lavrion and the factory operatives at the Piraeus. The small amount of agricultural labour called for in Maina is undertaken chiefly by the women, and the sturdy Mainote mother, while about her household avocations, hangs her baby in its sheepskin bag on a peg fixed in the wall, and when at work in the field or garden suspends it from the nearest tree, where it rocks safe from prowhng wolf, fox or eagle. Though to a great extent a land of rocks, Maina is not, however, all barren, its most arid region, Mesa-Maina, Ijnng along the central mountain ridge and the sea-surrounded spur of Matapan, where grain is a luxury and the main articles of diet consist of a black bread made from lupin beans — the " grapes of Maina," and the fruit of the wild cactus. On the lower levels the olive and the vallonia oak flourish, the fruit of the latter and the oil produced from that of the former being exported, as are also the quails caught in great numbers in certain localities one of which, Porto Quaglio, derives its name from these delicious little birds. The Modern Hellenes 5 The Mainotes claim to be descended from the ancient Spartans, and boast that they have never been conquered ; nor have they certainly willingly submitted to foreign control. Villehardouin, however, was able in 1468 to build his castle of Grant Maigne near Matapan ; and in 1601 Mane was ravaged by Catalonian invaders. But though thirteen years later they were compelled by the Turks to acknowledge their supremacy and pay an annual tribute, its inhabitants never permitted a Turkish governor to take up his residence among them. The tribute also would appear, however, to have been merely nominal, consisting of as many gold coins as would cover the blade of a sabre. According to one tradition, it was always thus presented to the Ottoman authorities, though anothel asserts that it was tendered in a purse suspended on a sabre-point. A special system of taxation has also survived in Maina, as in Corfu, the Mainotes con- tributing to the State merely an export duty on olive oil. Like mountaineers generally, the Mainotes are not without many rugged virtues, their notions of hospitality being very strict, and the protection of a guest esteemed a sacred duty. A host will, indeed, deem himself in honour bound to defend even with his life a stranger who may have sought safety under his roof. A considerable number of the once numerous mediaeval fortified towers of Maina have survived the order for their destruction issued by the Government of V ndSta ^^^S Ot^o 6^rly in the last century, and within their loopholed walls the clansmen still take refuge during the terrible blood-feuds that still from time to time arise between Mainote families. For while far less common now than formerly, the vendetta — which would indeed seem to have originated in Maina ^ — still sur- vives, notwithstanding its condemnation by the law of the 1 The vendetta of Corsica is supposed to have been introduced into that island by a colony of Mainotes which settled in 1673 at Cargese, where their descendants are still to be found. 6 Greece of the Hellenes land. And in the opinion of those well acquainted with the country it is owing to the persistence of this unwritten social code that crimes of violence are less frequent in Maina than in the rest of Greece, the consequences being there of such a serious character. For in a case of vendetta, all the male relatives of a murdered man are in duty bound to avenge his death by killing, if not the actual murderer, the most important member of his family, who collectively, according to the local phrase, " owe blood." The unwritten code of the vendetta is, however, regulated by a rigid method of procedure, and a system of strict etiquette is observed in carrying out this local conception of justice. No Mainote, for instance, will enter on a blood-feud without due notice to his enemies, or attack him outside Maina. If a member of a threatened family, or even the actual murderer himself, is under the necessity of quitting his fortified tower in the course of a feud he may do so with impunity if escorted by a friend unrelated to either party, as xevgaltes. ^ Any man also who may be acting as guide to a guest or stranger is allowed to pass on his way unharmed. Under no circumstances is a woman ever molested ; and during the progress of a ven- detta the women and girls of a family or clan go freely forth from the beleaguered strongholds to bring water to their inmates. When it is desired to end a blood-feud, a request to that effect is conveyed to the relatives of the injured family, and, if acceded to, every member of the murderer's clan must accompany their chief to ask forgiveness for the crime. In presence of all, the chief kneels, and the murdered man's nearest of kin asks him " Wilt thou do my behest ? Wilt thou, if I bid thee, cast thyself into the sea ? " The chief replies in appropriate phrase, and the reconciliation effected, the mother of the man last slain in the feud adopts his slayer as her son, he on his side solemnly engaging to regard her as more than a mother. Such a reconciliation is termed an Agdpe, and is never known to be broken. 1 Derived from the verb ^evyda-ai, " I accompany." The Modern Hellenes 7 The Latin element in the Greek population must be looked for chiefly in the islands, and especially in the Cyclades, where it was introduced during the long domination Greeks of jj^ those islands of the Venetian and other Itclian adventurers who, at the time of the Fourth Crusade, carved out for themselves principalities from the decaying Byzantine Empire, and proved formidable rivals of the Turks in the Levant. Naxos, the largest and fairest of the Cyclades, was ruled by Latin Dukes for a period of three and a half centuries ; Mykonos and Tenos also remained in Venetian hands until the end of the seventeenth century ; and Corfu had been a possession of the Republic of St. Mark for 4W years when in 1797 that island was captured by the French Syra contains a mediaeval and Catholic Latin town as iveti. as the modem Greek town of Hermou- polis, which dftes from the beginning of last century only, when Sciote fagitives from Turkish tyranny sought refuge in that island And at Tenos and Mykonos representatives may also be bund of the noble Venetian families by whom they were formerly ruled. Some of these formerly Roman Catholic faiiihes now conform to the national Orthodox creed, though a considerable number have remained faithful to the Church of their fathers which, in these localities, is served by in enlightened clergy of French nationality. Of Latn race must also be considered the Vlachs or Wallachs In Southern and Central Greece this element of the population is chiefly represented by V ads ^^® shepherds who, roaming in summer with their immense flocks of sheep and goats over thf mountains and in winter encamping in the lowlands, fom a strange and picturesque feature of Greek rural life. S) essentially pastoral and nomadic in its propensities is iideed one section of this people that their very name has become among the surrounding races a sjmonym for " shepherd." Previously to the Ottoman Conquest, the Vlachs occupied the plains of Thessaly in such numbers 8 Greece of the Hellenes that the province had acquired the name of " Great Wallachia," while ^toha and Acarnania were termed " Little Wallachia." A considerable section of the Vlachs, however, including all those of the burgher class, retired before the invading Turks into the mountain ranges of Pelion and Olympus w'lere they founded new settlements, the most considerable of which are Voskopoli-^" The Shepherd's Town," Vlf o-Uvadia— " The Meadows of the Vlachs " on the western )pes of Olympus, and Mezzovo in the heart of Pindus. Mt. .ovo is the most picturesque situated town it is possible to imagine, chnging to both sides of a. subhme ravine, and overhung by the highest crests of Pindus which tower so perpendicularly on either hand that noj till long after sunrise is the ProsSlion {irp6f««»s.,^ .H«.. ««.aw«i« ^ffl&>^._.»^aaL4?.. . . , j.^ , ,„ ^,^„ H,ii„^mi§i \ M. ELEVTHERIOS VENIZELOS Prime Minister of Greece Government 17 into the other to check the number of voters, while the clerk at the table also crosses off from a list each member's name as he records his vote. The balls and papers are then respectively counted, and the result is announced by the acting President, who at once yields his place to the newly elected President, Deputies address the Chamber either from the benches or from the President's tribune, as they may prefer. Good speakers, as a rule, adopt the latter position Deputies. for their harangues, though it has the dis- advantage of placing them with their backs not only to the Chair, but to the gallery behind it assigned to the Diplomatic Corps. Though Deputies, as a rule, address each other in courteous phrase, a speaker is liable to be interrupted by political opponents, when an interchange of unseemly personalities may follow, the presi- dential bell requiring to be repeatedly sounded before order is again restored and the business of the House can be proceeded with. Duels arising out of parliamentary criti- cisms are also not unusual, and have indeed been at times of such frequent occurrence as to cause little general excitement, especially as neither of the parties concerned were much, if at all, the worse for the encounter. With the advent to power in November, 1910, of the present Prime Minister, a period of political reform was inaugurated which cannot but prove of the greatest benefit to the Hellenic Kingdom. And a brief sketch of the previous career of this remarkable man will not, I trust, be deemed out of place here. Born in the island of Cerigo in 1864, and educated at the Universities of Athens and Lausanne, M. Eleutherios Venizelos, on returning home, soon became intimately associated with the leaders of all the various Greek political parties among whom he ^* ?^®."*^®'^^°® speedily acquired a position of considerable influence. In 1896 he first identified himself with the aspirations of the Christians of Crete for union with Greece by holding, with a party of friends, the fortress of 2— (3385) 18 Greece of the Hellenes Malaxa, near Candia, against the warships of the Great Powers. On the appointment in 1898 of Prince George as High Com- missioner of that island, M. Veniz^los was offered and accepted a post in the Council formed to assist him in his nevgB duties, and measures for the regeneration of Crete were at" once inaugurated, M. Venizelos continuing to serve the local government with great loyalty and ability until August, 1909, when the unanimous invitation of the Party of Reform opened up to him a wider sphere of political usefulness. Fifteen months later (November, 1910), M. Venizelos and his supporters were returned at the polls with a large majority, and he assumed the leadership of the Chamber with the dual portfolios of War and the Marine. Possessed of a thorough practical knowledge of both military and naval affairs, he speedily gave evidence, as Minister of the sister Services, of unusual administrative talent. The subsequent general election of March, 1912, again resulted in the return to office of the Party of Reform, and this time with an overwhelming majority, having secured 150 out of a possible 181 seats, the remaining thirty-one being divided among no fewer than five different parties, those of MM. Theotokes, Rallis, Mavromichalis, Zaimes, and the small party of so-called " Independents." This powerful and at the same time cohesive majority has enabled M. Venizelos practically to revise the Con- stitution with regard, at least, to all such Political enactments as were found to stand in the way of necessary reforms, and also to make possible further revision, in the future, of its non-fundamental provisions. Among the large number of important adminis- trative changes that have since come into effect may be mentioned (1) the creation of a Council of State entrusted with the double duty of acting as a consultative body, and of drafting Bills for presentation to the Chamber ; (2) the creation also of a special legal tribunal for verifying the mandates of Deputies, which had previously been dealt with Government 19 by a naturally biassed Chamber ; (3) the transference of responsibility for elementary education from the frequently incompetent local Councils to the State ; (4) enlargement of the functions of the Supreme Court in dealing with ad- ministrative abuses ; and (5) the already mentioned reduction in the number of Deputies necessary to form a parliamentary quorum, and removal of the restrictions with regard to residence and age formerly applying to political candidates. Changes in legal procedure, greatly facilitating and expediting the business of the Courts, have also been put into operation. For purposes of revenue, an Income tax and a tax on arable land have been levied, the former, I believe, not yet effective, and the latter, which abolishes the ancient system of tithes, as yet only partially enforced. Various minor enactments, calculated to improve the economic condition of the rural population especially and to facilitate the operations of Local Councils, must also be placed to the credit of the present administration. But more, perhaps, than for all other legislative reforms, does M. Venizelos deserve his country's gratitude for so courage- ously attacking and destroying the system of political appoint- ments which had previously been the bane of Greek adminis- tration, and at the same time establishing the correlative principle of removal from their posts of officials found to be incompetent for their duties or lax in the fulfilment of them. A movement had, it is true, been on foot during the previous decade for promoting the establishment of a permanent Civil Service, and it had been proposed to g ® Civil convene a National Assembly for making the requisite changes in the Constitution. I Rival political interests, however, stood in the way of these proposed measures, desirable though they were on all hands acknowledged to be ; and it was left to M. Venizelos to deal with the evil, his overwhelming majority in the Chamber greatly facilitating the task. Under the old system, which ^nds its counterpart in the Transatlantic Repubhcs, every 20 Greece of the Hellenes Civil Servant, every official paid by the State above the standing of an elementary school teacher — with the exception of Judges of the Supreme Court and University Professors — lived in constant apprehension of losing his post by the fall of the Ministry under which he had obtained it ; and party politics had consequently a much more absorbing interest for these employees of the State than the duties of the posts of which they held so insecure a tenure. All Government appointments are now, on the other hand, obtainable only by competitive examination, and promotion is no longer depend- ent on political influence. To each Government Department is attached an examining Board of seven members, three of whom only are officials holding appointments in such depart- ments, the remaining four being either University Professors or Judges of the High Courts. It is proposed, as soon as finances permit, to erect a Government House spacious enough to accommodate all the Departments of State, the business of which ^^Yff"'"®"* is now carried on in separate buildings, the Foreign Office being located in a handsome house in the " Street of the Philhellenes." The Ministry of the Interior, housed in the Odos Dragazaniou, formerly included Agriculture and National Economy ; but these were, in January, 1911, formed into a separate Ministry with offices in " Stadium Street." The Portfolio of War is, in the present Government, held by the Prime Minister. Each department is divided into several sections, the War Office having a very large personnel ; while the Admiralty has seven different sections, the whole of the naval construction being conducted from this department, together with the Arsenal, lighthouse and beacon regulations, and all such matters as, with us, fall within the province of Trinity House. The working day of Greek Government officials is not only much longer than is usual in more western lands, but their work is also more assiduously performed. Subordinates are at their desks at 9 a.m., and by 10 a.m. the departmental Government 21 heads of sections will also have arrived. Ministers and vSecre- taries are to be found in their offices at an early hour, remaining until noon — the established luncheon hour in hSit?' *^^ country — and returning at 3 p.m. for another five hours or even more of strenuous work. At times of exceptional pressure the day's work of a government department may, indeed, not be com- pleted before midnight ; but in such offices, as also in the Banks, no " overtime " pay is accorded, or even expected. For, it may be here remarked, none of the questions with regard to restriction of the hours of labour and a " minimum wage " have as yet, in Greece, disturbed the relations between employer and employed. And whatever may have been the shortcomings in the past of Greek administrators, it may with truth be said that of all the various politicians who have from time to time held office not one has ever been accused of enriching himself at the expense of the State. And in view of the inadequacy of the emoluments of Hellenic Cabinet Ministers, this is a record of which any nation might justly be proud. Among the leading politicians of the present day may be mentioned, in addition to M. Venizelos, the well-known names of MM. MavromichaHs, RaUis, Koromilas, Leading Gounaris, Dragoumis, Theotokes and Zaimes. M. Kyriakoules Mavromichalis, who held the portfolio for war in 1909-10, is the chief of the famous Mainote clan of that name, his ancestors having been hered- itary Beys during the Turkish domination. A man of wide culture and charming manners, wealthy and hospitable, he represents a party of considerable political strength, not so powerful as formerly, perhaps, but still a party to be reckoned with. He is said to be the only rich Greek of ancient Hellenic lineage, though his wealth is not derived from his ancestral estates in Maina, but from his mother, a Soutzo, who inherited large landed property in Roumania. His fine mansion at Athens contains an interesting collection 22 Greece of the Hellenes of portraits of bygone Mavromichalis, the originals of which figured prominently in the modem annals of the country — old Petro Bey, for instance, with the brothers who, at Naupha, shot John Capo d'Istria, first President of the Greek Republic, and paid the penalty of their crime on the scaffold ; portraits, too, of the First Napoleon, whom the Mainotes claim to have been of their blood. M. Demetrios Rallis, a member of the Chiote family so well known in commercial circles outside Greece, has repre- sented a constituency in Attica during more ^' p®j^-®*'^*°^ than a quarter of a century, and has also on one important occasion been at the head of the Government of his country. A statesman of con- spicuous ability, distinguished in manner and courteous in bearing, a hard worker and voluminous writer, his many high qualities are generally recognised and admitted by all with whom he comes into personal contact, not excepting his most bitter political opponents. The veteran M. George Theotokes, a favourite Minister of the late King of the Hellenes, and leader of the remnant of the political party created by the late Theot6k^^ eminent statesman, M. Trikoupis, belongs to a good old Corfiote family, is a man of distinguished appearance and courtly manners, and has repeatedly been at the head of the Government. The voters of Corfu have always been most loyal to their eminent com- patriot ; yet even his popularity was eclipsed by that of M. Venizelos who, when landing there to visit his King and the Kaiser, appears to have received a more enthusiastic reception than had ever been accorded to their local political representa- tive. M. Theotokes, who has served the State all his life in some capacity or other, has passed through stormy times. He was the first Ionian to become Prime Minister, and held office on three different occasions, once for a period of three years — an unusually long fife for a Greek Ministry — and once for a fortnight only ; and though times have changed and his M. GEORGE THEOTOKES Ex-President of the Greek Chamber Government 23 countrymen have withdrawn from him their political support, he will ever command their respect, and their gratitude for his past services to the State. M. Lambros Koromil^s, the present Minister for Foreign Affairs, is a man of remarkable attainments and great ability. After taking high degrees at the University ^'oJjmiiir^ of Tubingen (Wiirtemberg), and the " Ecole Libre de Sciences Politiques " of Paris, he travelled in Western Europe and the United States for the purpose of stud5nng their several financial and economic systems. Entering the diplomatic service, he occupied in turn the important posts of Consul-General at Salonica and Minister Plenipotentiary at Washington. Returning from the United States in 1910 he was offered by the King the portfoHo of Finance in the newly formed V6nizelos Cabinet which he retained until the reconstruction of the Cabinet in 1912, when he resumed his diplomatic functions by taking charge of the Greek Foreign Office. Much of the subsequent success of M. V6nizelos' administration has been attributed to the able management of the country's finances and economic resources by M. Koromilas between 1910 and 1912. M. Stephanos Dragoumis, now Greek Governor-General of Macedonia, may be considered one of the most distinguished among modern Hellenes. Though a Macedo- M. Stephanos j^j ^ birth, and consequently without local family mfluence, when contestmg a constituency in Attica in 1905 he was returned at the head of the poll ; and while still a simple Deputy, and independently of any political party, he succeeded in bringing into effect a scheme for granting lands to the numerous peasant families, both natives of Greece and Greek refugees from different parts of the Balkan Peninsula, whom political events had deprived of their all and rendered homeless. An accomplished orator, the efforts of M. Dragoumis in the Chamber were also largely directed towards reconciliation between the then troublesome " Military League " and the Royal Family, as 24 Greece of the Hellenes well as between the various political parties ; he aimed also at general reform, including such revision of the Constitution as has since been effected. An able and forceful writer, M. Dragoiimis had temporarily retired from the political arena, devoting himself assiduously to literary work until the circumstances resulting from the outbreak of the Balkan war summoned him again to public life. M, Alexander Zaimes, the son of a former Prime Minister, has himself twice been, nominally at least, leader of the Chamber, and though a nephew of the late M. Alexander M. DeHyannis, was invariably an ally of his great rival M, Theotokes. Latterly, how- ever, he has supported the reforming efforts of M. Venizelos. Coming as he does of an ancient and honourable stock — the name Zaimes denotes that the family held in bygone days a zaim, or fief, during the Ottoman occupation — he has a considerable following in his native town of Kalyvryta ; for even in democratic Greece a member of an old-established family is preferred to a parvenu ; and M. Zaimes is generally considered to be a man with a distinguished political career before him. On the retirement of Prince George from the High Commissionership of Crete, M. Zaimes was appointed by the King to succeed his son, and, during his term of office appears to have been fairly successful in the extremely difficult position of administrator of that turbulent island. A man of ample means and scholarly tastes, and actively interested in educational progress, he is at the same time of a retiring disposition, speaks little in public, refuses to be interviewed, and when not actively serving his country, divides his time between study and the pastime of fishing. For political and administrative purposes Greece is divided into Nomoi, or prefectures. Originally eleven in number, the Nomoi had, for party purposes, been ^°"orGr°S!''"' gradually increased to twenty-six, thus entailing great additional expense to the State. Under the present Government, however, they Government 25 have been again reduced, and are now sixteen in number of which three are in Continental Greece, five in the Peloponnesos, two in Thessaly, one in Epeiros, three in the Ionian Islands, and two in the Archipelago, thus comprising the additional territory acquired by Greece before the late war. This sweeping reduction in the number of administrative divisions may be considered one of the most important of the many recent reforms. At the head of each prefecture is the Nomarch, an official invested with no little authority, representing as he does every department of State in proportion ., „ ^"® , , , to its relations with the Nomos he adminis- Nomarch. trates. Appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Minister of the Interior, the powers he exercises are regulated by a special enactment dating from the year 1845 which is still regarded as " a model of what a Law should be." The duties of a Nomarch are consequently multifarious. Not only is he responsible for public order and security, for the public health, for the proper administra- tion of prisons and hospitals, asylums and other philanthropic institutions, but also for the maintenance of public buildings, highways, bridges, the preservation of archaeological treasures discovered in his district, the administration of ecclesiastical property, and the enforcement of the Education Act. The improvement of Agriculture, the drainage of the marshlands and reafforestation of the hills are likewise among the duties of a Nomarch, as are also the regulation of the annual levy of youths for military service, the collection of rates and taxes, and the superintendence of the administration of public funds in the various municipal districts comprised within his prefecture. The salary of such an official hardly exceeds, however, including allowances, the modest sum of £300 per annum. The Demes, or municipal districts into which a Nomos is divided, are arranged in three classes according to their respective populations, a Deme consisting of one town, or 26 Greece of the Hellenes large village, or, in the rural localities, of from fifteen to twenty hamlets. A municipal Council of the first class will consist of eighteen Councillors and six deputies ; D^to^te^^ of twelve Councillors and four deputies in the second class ; and in the third, of eight Councillors and two deputies. Elections are held every four years, as for the Chamber, in the month of September, and, under the old system of political patronage, were invariably fought on party lines. Each candidate for office is required on nomination to deposit 25 drachma =:£!, with the returning officer as his contribution to election expenses. The polling stations, which are usually churches or school- rooms, are open from dawn to sunset, this time being extended, if the candidates are numerous, for an hour or two in the evening. " One man one vote " is the rule at all elections in Greece, every male inhabitant who has completed his twenty-first year and performed his military service, or obtained exemption therefrom, possessing the suffrage both municipal or political, illiteracy, which is every year becoming rarer, being at present no bar. The method of voting in use is that instituted by the British in the Ionian Islands. Each candidate has his own ballot-box surmounted by his photograph, BH^ t ^^^ may, if he pleases, preside over it per- sonally. As each elector advances to the ballot boxes, his name is caUed out by an official and checked on the list of those entitled to vote. Two pellets of buck- shot are then handed to him which he drops into one or other of the two compartments labelled respectively " Yes " and " No," the former being painted white and the other black. The shot fall into canvas bags which are subsequently emptied into receptacles holding exactly 500 pellets each, these being subsequently counted by a committee of six persons. At the head of each Deme is the Demarchos, or Mayor, who is elected by public suffrage at the same time as the Council. He receives a small salary, and may, hke the Councillors, be Government 27 represented on occasion by his 'TiroTrpoiSpo';, or Vice-demarch, but is ineligible for the Chamber of Deputies during his term of ofl&ce. In the remoter islands, cut off by lack , ^® ,, of telegraphic and steam communication from the central government, the Demarch is often a more important official within his jurisdiction than the Prime Minister of the day, and his duties will probably be as numerous and varied as those of his above described superior, the Nomarch. The Demarch is, inter alia, Chairman of the Ecclesiastical Commission dealing with the churches in his Deme ; Chairman also of the local Educational Council ; he is held responsible for public works, for the proper manage- ment of the prisons, hospitals, and other public institutions in his district ; and for hghting and scavenging. The pro- vision of hospitality to strangers fall also within his province ; and he may not, should he desire re-election, refuse to stand sponsor at the font for the child of any supporter who may ask this favour of him. The chief local rate levied by these Communal Councils is a 2 per cent, octroi on all articles introduced into the Deme, irrespective of whether such articles have been produced within the limits of the Hellenic Kingdom or imported from abroad. This duty works out at a much higher figure in urban than in rural districts, where all, or very nearly all, the requirements of the peasants are, as a rule, produced and manufactured by themselves. District Councils are also empowered to raise loans for local needs with the consent of the Demarch, and, in the event of his refusing such consent, the Councillors have a right of appeal to the Ministry of the Interior. The Demarch of Athens may be said to occupy a position somewhat similar to that of the Lord Mayor of London, as the Deme under his authority constitutes not ^?^Atti^^°% only the capital of Greece but also the focus * ' of Hellenism and resort of the whole cultured world. Athens is also the only Greek municipality which 28 Greece of the Hellenes provides for its leading citizen an equipage and an allowance towards the expenses of public entertainments. One of the most able and popular Athenian Lord Mayors of recent times has been M. Spiros Merkouris who, during his term of office, has succeeded in bringing about many important and necessary municipal reforms. Among these may be named the substitution of a system of direct collection of rates for the old unsatisfactory practice of tax-farming ; the conversion of the municipal debt ; the introduction of a new system of registration of births, marriages and deaths within the Deme ; the erection of a market-hall ; and the improvement of the municipal roads and thoroughfares. In rural districts the Demarch is not infrequently found to be a well-to-do peasant farmer in blue-tasselled fez and white fustanella, who adds to his municipal duties that of providing under his own roof, or elsewhere, when no decent inn is available, accommodation for the passing traveller or government official on tour. To the former he will also courteously do the honours of his Deme, introducing him to the leading inhabitants, and acting as his guide to the places of interest in the neighbourhood, including the local museum, of which he will probably be the curator. Local self-government, it may be remarked, is no new institution in Greece, though the form of it may have changed somewhat since the creation of the Hellenic Kingdom. The system of Communal administration which the successive conquerors of the country found in operation was never seriously interfered with by them, even the Turks having refrained from interference with the municipal liberties of the subject nationalities. A considerable amount of ad- ministrative experience was, consequently, on the creation of the Hellenic Kingdom, at the service of the new Constitutional Government. ^'j-^^f^^^^^^^^W ^1^ ^H ^ J •i ^^^■^^^^^^1 b ' ' ^ M. SPIROS MERKOURIS Mayor of Athens CHAPTER III ARMY, NAVY AND POLICE Although a regular army was organised on a small scale on the creation of the Greek Kingdom under Otho I in 1833, Greece was so fortunate as to enjoy in peace Army ^^j. ^ period of sixty years the liberty she had so dearly purchased ; and it was not until 1897 that her forces were called upon to show their mettle in the field. The Turco-Greek war of that year making apparent such glaring defects in every department of the army, its reform thenceforward became the unanimous demand of every political party. Not immediately, however, were these reforms seriously undertaken, Greece has not lacked a party corresponding to our own " Little Englanders " which, holding the three " Protecting Powers " responsible for its security against external aggression, has ever opposed the creation of an expensive standing army. One Ministry after another was formed and dissolved, many measures were proposed, but nothing definite was accomplished ; and it was not until the reins of government were placed in the hands of M. Venizelos that actual results were finally achieved. The energy and far-sightedness of this able statesman, however, very speedily triumphed over apparently insuperable difficulties ; and abundantly justified by late events has been the confident anticipation expressed by the President of the Chamber that " Whenever the Greek Army is called upon to take the field, it will be under such favourable auspices as must bring additional glory to our national banner." Nor was the cost of this new military force allowed unduly to bur- den the country. The strong financial position in which Greece had been placed by the administrative reforms of M. Koromilas already alluded to enabled the Government 29 30 Greece of the Hellenes to devote to it the sum of no less than £1,900,000; patriotic Greeks residing abroad have also contributed handsomely ; and the war fund has been further augmented from various other sources. This reorganisation of the Greek Army has been carried out under the direction of the " French Military Mission to Greece " at the head of which is General The French Eydoux. The scheme of reform put forward Missioif ^y ^^^^ distinguished officer was embodied in a government measure passed in 1912, and immediately acted upon, the conscription law already in force greatly facilitating the augmentation of the rank and file. For, with certain exceptions, every male Hellene between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-five, whatever his social position, is liable to conscription, and may at any time until he has attained his fifty-first year be called upon to defend his fatherland. Those entitled to claim exemp- tion fall into three classes. The first includes the clergy of the Orthodox Church and of every other recognised Christian Creed, together with students of the Rizareion and of the Theological faculty of the University ; Rabbis and other Hebrew functionaries of the Synagogues, and the Mohammedan clergy attached to the Mosques. The second class is com- posed of men who are the main, or sole, support of their near relations, as, for instance, an only son, or the eldest of a family of orphans ; an eldest son whose widowed mother has married again and has a second family ; the only or eldest son of a widow ; and the only or eldest grandson of a widow without surviving son or son-in-law. And, if an eldest son be physically unfit to earn his own living and provide for those dependent on him his second brother may claim exemption in his stead, though all who come under this category are required to pay a fine of from 50 to 155 drachmcB {£2 to £Q) in lieu of service. The physically infirm are also of course exempt, and a man who has been convicted of a criminal offence is considered morally unfit to serve in the Army, Navy and Police 31 national army. After deducting all the above mentioned exempts there still remain some 23,000 young men annually available, though only a certain proportion of this number are usually called upon to serve with the colours. This question is settled by lot, those drawing low numbers entering the regular army, while those to whom high National numbers fall are passed into the territorial Servke^ army and pay an exemption fine of about £Q, part of which is refunded should they be subsequently called upon for active service. Under the new regulations from 12,000 to 13,000 recruits are annually called up, and after a year's training are drafted either into the regular army or into the gendarmerie. The term of service with the colours is two years, with ten in the Ephedreia, or Reserve, while the Ethnophroura, or National Guard, who are mobilised only in time of war, serve eight years, with ten in the Reserve. The height standard for the Greek Army is nominally 5 feet 1 inch, the average Hellene being by no means a tall man. Nor is this low standard rigidly adhered to, for a recruit is not rejected on the score of height, if certified as physically fit in other respects. Some of the finest and hardiest soldiers are recruited among the Albanians and the pastoral Koutso- Vlachs of Thessaly, who form an important contingent ; and the healthiest conscripts are found, it is said, in Arcadia, those from the islands, strange to say, being the least physically fit of any. The tallest men in the army are to be found among the Evzonoi — Frontier Guards, or Rifles, a picked corps recruited chiefly from the mountainous districts of Northern Greece. Soldiering as a profession does not seem to appeal to the Hellene generally, and few of the rank and file remain in the army after the completion of their two years' service, preferring to return to their patris and resume their inter- rupted agricultural or commercial avocations ; and even of those who volunteer to remain with the colours, few stay long enough to become old soldiers. On the other hand, no 32 Greece of the Hellenes Greek liable to military service is ever found attempting to shirk this first duty of a citizen. Patriotism being a cardinal virtue with the Hellenes, not only Patriotism. do residents in the Kingdom willingly present themselves at the appointed time and place in every prefecture, but scions of the " Outside Greeks " domiciled in the Ottoman Empire and in European countries come in numbers to acquire the privilege of Greek citizenship ; while the many sons of Hellas who have gone as boys to seek fortune in the far West on attaining to man's estate invariably return home for the same purpose. The nominal daily pay of a Greek private is 46 leptd, or about 4|d., from which is deducted thirty leptd for his food and one leptd for the military chest, the Soldiers Government's contribution to the rations Pay. of each man being 22 leptd for bread, 10 leptd for his other provisions, and 25 for washing. The uniforms now supplied by the Greek War Office to the rank and file generally are made of a rather heavy and serviceable khaki of foreign manufacture, one new outfit, which has to serve for all occasions, being allowed every year. Greek soldiers do not, therefore, as a body, present a very smart appearance, though they at the same time form a great contrast to the tatterdemalion defenders of Hellas of some forty years ago. The Greek soldier generally dislikes carrying his kit in a knapsack, preferring to bestow both it and his ammunition distributed about his person, and this also naturally detracts from the smartness of his appearance when in marching order. The quality of the food is said to be quite as good as that suppHed to the French or German soldier, and much better than that which an Italian coscritto thrives upon. The meals consist of coffee and bread for breakfast, meat or soup with vegetables for dinner, and bread and cheese for supper, special food being provided for fast days. To the generally abstemious Greek this fare is all that could be desired, being perhaps better than he has hitherto enjoyed Army, Navy and Police 33 at home, while his " better class " comrade, having more pocket money, is easily able to supplement it at cookshop or restaurant. The fivzonoi, who receive a slightly higher pay, and still wear the Epirote costume which formerly constituted the national dress, form an infantry regiment A ^^® . of picturesque appearance, the members of which are for the most part riflemen of great skill and high character specially chosen by the Military Council from among the mountaineers accustomed to wear the fustanella. This corps enjoys not only a high reputation for valour in the field, but great prestige generally, and also the privilege of supplying the guard for the Royal Palaces at Athens. When in full dress this Royal Guard presents a very striking appearance. A rusthng pleated fustanella or kilt, over twenty yards in amplitude and of snowy whiteness, is girt round the Evzondki's slender waist, meeting at the knees his hose of white woollen gartered with black. His vest and zouave jacket with its wing-like hanging sleeves showing the wide, loose sleeves of a fine linen shirt, are elaborately embroidered, while round his waist is strapped an arms- belt of leather, wonderfully decorated, and bristling with pistols and other small arms. His feet are shod with Albanian red leather shoes the upturned, pointed toes of which are finished with woollen tufts ; and his costume is completed by a jaunty close-fitting cap with long pendant tassel of dark blue silk. In winter a capa, or overcoat, of blue cloth, cut with a wide skirt to accommodate the fustanella, protects all this mag- nificence from the elements. It is said that the Kaiser, when visiting Athens some years ago, was so impressed by the appearance of this regiment that he advised the late King of the Hellenes to convert all his troops into fivzonoi. All Greek soldiers are required to be able to read and write, and if a conscript on joining has not already acquired those rudiments of education, he is put to school. Not- withstanding the educational efforts of the Government, as 3— (2385) 34 Greece of the Hellenes many as 30 per cent, proved fifteen years or so ago to be com- pletely illiterate, while not more than 25 per cent, had advanced beyond the " three R's." This may be partly Army accounted for by the fact that these Education. . ■' conscripts mclude both Albanians from the settlements in Attica and other parts of the Kingdom and pastoral Koutso-Vlachs, all of whom habitually speak their own dialects, and learn Greek only as a foreign tongue. At the present day, however, owing to the greater extension of compulsory elementary education, nearly all the Greeks who have passed through the army can at least read and write with facility. And as the katharevousa or " pure " form of Greek is alone taught in the army schools, and used in all military orders and regulations, the national military service provides an additional means of propagating this academic form of Modern Greek. Considerable improvement has been made of late years in the accommodation provided for the troops, new barracks being constructed on French models, and B^racks and jj^^^h greater attention paid to sanitation than formerly. The most important military centres have hitherto been the Capital, in the vicinity of which two large new barracks have recently been erected, and the provincial towns of Mesolonghi, Nauplia, Livadia and Larissa. Salonica will also no doubt now become a military station of the first importance. Military hospitals, the most important of which are those of Athens, Corfu and Mesolonghi, are also being brought up to date. Previous to the war of 1897, no woman had ever acted as military nurse in Greece. The principal hospital at the capital has, however, now on its staff several English trained nurses, their appointment being chiefly due to the action of Queen Sophia who takes a personal interest in all that appertains to hospital work. The patients, it is said, greatly appreciate this innovation, though their nurses have some httle difficulty in inducing them to fall in with hospital routine as understood in this country. Young ONE OF THE ROYAL BODYGUARD Army, Navy and Police 35 soldiers from the villages and mountains object, for instance, to undressing and being put to bed, preferring to wrap themselves up in their capas and lie down in a corner. The position of an officer in the Greek army is, owing to the democratic principle prevalent in the country and the absence of class distinctions, somewhat Officers. peculiar. For not only is a senior offiicer not regarded by the rank and file as their social superior, but he will also be judged entirely on his own merits as a soldier by his subordinates generally, and his juniors may not improbably criticise and question, instead of promptly carrying out, any order he may issue. The maintenance of discipHne is, consequently, no easy matter. Officers in the Greek army are also very poorly paid. Brigadier-Generals and Colonels receive only 560 drachmce — ^£22 8s. per month ; a lieutenant-colonel's pay is 480 dr. ; a major's 440 dr. ; a captain's from 240 to 300 dr. according to seniority ; that of a lieutenant 180 dr., and of a sub-lieutenant 160 dr. The age limit for retirement is, however, compared with that of our own country, unduly extended, as a colonel need not retire before he has reached his sixty-eighth year, while the rank of captain in active service may be held by a man of the ripe age of fifty-six. Officers of all grades, as well as the rank and file of the Greek army, now wear khaki on all ordinary occa- sions, distinctions of rank and arms being indicated only by badges and braiding, the brilliant uniforms formerly so much in evidence being now reserved for grand parades and special functions. Among military colleges, of which there are several, the most important is that termed the Evelpidon — the Woolwich of Greece — in which from fifty to sixty cadets Military undergo a five years' training for the army. Candidates for admission must have passed through a " Gymnasium," be able to produce a certificate of good conduct and application, and to undergo a not very severe entrance examination. The staff consists of about 36 Greece of the Hellenes fourteen instructors ; the course of study lasts five years, and embraces a wide range of military and other subjects, including at least two foreign languages. On passing the final examination imposed by this college a cadet may enter any branch of the army with the rank of sub-lieutenant. Promising young graduates of these military colleges are also occasionally sent by the government to study at St. Cyr, Woolwich, and other famous centres of military education in Western Europe. Great attention is now given, in the Evelpidon Military College, to foreign languages, and especially to French and English, with the result that from 70 to 80 per cent, of the cadets, on leaving, both speak and write these languages with a facility that places them at once on a footing of equality with their fellow-students abroad. Aviation has also of late been occupying the attention of the Greek military authorities. A few young officers were at first sent a couple of years ago, at the sug- Military gestion of General Eydoux, to the French school of this science, this number being subsequently augmented by a group representing various ranks commissioned and non-commissioned. Greece now possesses her little fleet of army aeroplanes, which is continu- ally being added to, considerable funds having been placed for this purpose at the disposal of the Government by wealthy and patriotic Hellenes. A college for officers of the Reserve who have passed through the University of Athens was founded some time ago in the Island of Corfu. The course followed here is naturally restricted to military subjects, and lasts only twelve months. After passing a by no means very " stiff " examination, a student enters either the infantry or artillery with the rank of sub-Heutenant, and after a year's service in either of those arms is passed into the Reserve. Facilities are also provided in another college for the higher military education of men who have served their time in the ranks and desire to embrace Army, Navy and Police 37 the career of arms. To qualify for a commission in either the infantry or cavalry a three years' course in this estabhsh- ment is held sufficient ; but before obtaining such a com- mission in either the engineers or the artillery a further two years' course of special study must be undertaken. The Hellenes, and especially those of the Isles and Coast- lands, being mariners born, Greece has never since its establishment as a Kingdom lacked the The Greek nucleus at least of a Navy. At the beginning ^^^' of last century no fewer than 290 merchant and coasting vessels of various tonnage were found available for service in the War of Independence, to the success of which they largely contributed, their valiant and patriotic crews fighting with no less heroism than success against the united navies of Turkey and Egypt. Greece had, however, been for over two score years an independent kingdom before any attempt was made to provide her with a Navy on the model of those of Western Europe. Finally, in 1866, a number of eminent Greeks and others, among whom were several Philhellenes of British nationahty, having formed themselves into a committee styled the " Society for the Promotion of a National Fleet " were speedily receiving handsome contribu- tions from Hellenes throughout the world with the result that the treasury was ultimately enabled to purchase the corvette Admiral Miaoulis, now converted into a depot ship. Twelve years later (1900) a separate " Treasury of the National Fleet " was created at the Admiralty, to which were appropriated the revenues derivable from A Naval various sources, among the chief of which were harbour dues, amounting to £20,000 yearly, and the proceeds of collections made by the committee, the latter including even the pence eagerly subscribed by children in the National Schools. The society now possesses property of the approximate value of £320,000, About ten years ago, a second State Lottery 38 Greece of the Hellenes was also instituted with the same object, 1,000,000 tickets at 3 drachmcB (2s. 6d.) being annually issued, with 2,000 winning numbers, and a first prize of the value of 100,000 drachmcB, or £4,000. Greece now possesses a Navy composed of four armoured battleships, eight destroyers, five torpedo-boats, eighteen corvettes, and three gun-boats, the vessels now building, which are to be added to her naval forces either this year or in 1915, comprising one battleship cruiser, six torpedo boats, two submarines, and as many destroyers, Greece's single armoured battleship, the George Averoff, completed in 1910, is named after the patriotic Hellene whose munificence contributed towards its construction. In 1912 the number of naval officers in commission was about ninety, and of petty officers and men some 1,500, but these numbers would necessarily have been increased during the late naval opera- tions against Turkey. A new era in Greek N^al M'*' naval organisation may indeed be said to have been inaugurated since the arrival of Admiral Tufnell with the staff of the British Mission, whose knowledge and experience have been during the last two years at the service of the Greek government, important reforms having already been accomplished in various departments. As already observed, Greece possesses splendid material for the formation of an efficient navy in her maritime population, and the great majority of those who man his Hellenic Majesty's ships have lately given a good account of themselves in their encounters with the ships of the Sultan. Already more or less accustomed to a seafaring life, the naval recruits, after taking the oath of allegiance in the Arsenal at Salamis, are sent to the Naval School at Poros, where from 500 to 600 are usually in training. Here the more illiterate receive an elementary education, and become in course R rft ^^ time ordinary seamen ; while the better educated are trained to fill more responsible positions. After three months passed in this school the boys Army, Navy and Police 39 are returned to the Arsenal, whence they are transferred to a division of the fleet about to execute manoeuvres, and subse- quently drafted to the ships on which they are to serve. Naval cadets, who must be under sixteen years of age on entering, have hitherto been educated, forty at a time, on board an ancient vessel, the Hellas, moored in the harbour at Piraeus, learning practical seamanship in the course of periodical cruises in the corvette Admiral Miaoulis. The pay of a Greek naval officer can hardly be said to be on a more munificent scale than that of his military confreres, a vice-admiral's emoluments amounting to less than £600 per annum, and a commodore's to £AAQ ; while a post-captain receives but a meagre monthly pay of 634 dr., a commander 452 dr., a lieutenant 312 dr., a sub-lieutenant 220 dr., and a "middy" UO dr. '~ While the Greek Army and Navy have been respectively reorganised by a French and a British Mission, the creation of a new force of Gendarmerie has been The New entrusted to an ItaHan Mission composed of four officers, two of whom had previously organised the Gendarmerie of Crete. Until quite recently, no adequate police force has existed in Greece, and policemen proper were only to be met with in the capital, where they numbered only some 400, and in the more important provincial towns, this small force being under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. The pohcing of the rural districts devolved consequently upon the soldiery, infantry- men being required to pass a year in this force. The regular police also were recruited among ex-soldiers, and being poorly paid, the best men were by no means attracted to this service. The average Greek pohceman, though as courteous and obliging as our own, cannot compare with him in physique, being usually of very mediocre stature, though no doubt strong and wiry, and capable of considerable endurance. The reforms which are being carried out by the officers of 40 Greece of the Hellenes the Italian mission have, however, already placed the policing of the rural districts on a more satisfactory and efficient footing ; and service in the gendarmerie will no doubt become as popular in Greece as it already is in the other countries of South-eastern Europe and Hither Asia, in which a similar force has of late years been instituted. A CRETAN GENDARME CHAPTER IV JUSTICE 'Greece being a kingdom of modern creation, and conse- quently unhampered by any existing legal code, those responsible for the framing of her Constitution were in a position to adopt or adapt from the judicial systems of other nations what seemed best suited to the special needs of the country. The Greek Civil Code, which contains 1,100 different articles, is in consequence based to a great extent on the Code Napoleon, as also on ancient Roman and modern German law ; while the Criminal Code is remarkably complete and excellent in method, affording ample provision for the protection of accused persons, and at the same time humane in its penalties. The Courts of Law comprise the Supreme Court of Appeal, with five local Courts of Appeal sitting respectively at Athens, Corfu, Larissa, Patras and Nauplia, and Courts of thirteen Courts of First Instance, one at Law. . , , , . . , . ' Athens, and the remammg twelve m as many of the principal towns. Below these tribunals are the Eirenodikeia, corresponding to our " County Courts," with other tribunals answering to our Police Courts. The staff of the High Court of Justice — ^which is still designated by the ancient name of Areopagus — consists of a President, Vice-President and sixteen other judges, together with the Eisangeleus, or King's Proctor and his Deputy, the Registrar, and fifteen Advocates or Counsel, a quorum consisting of seven judges, the Registrar, and the Proctor or his Deputy, the duty of the last named official being to sum up and present the case impartially to the bench after counsel have been heard on either side. The " Areopagites," as the judges of the Supreme Court are 41 42 Greece of the Hellenes termed, are selected from among the judges of the five Courts of Appeal, and appointed by the king after nomination by the Minister of Justice. In addition to its The Supreme functions as a civil and criminal Court Court of Appeal. ^ . , , . of Appeal the Areopagus constitutes a State Council whose duty it is to decide whether new measures passed by the Chamber of Deputies are in accord- ance with the Constitution or contrary to its provisions. The Court sits twice a week, from the middle of September to the middle of June, trying civil appeals on Mondays, and on Saturdays criminal appeals, over 400 of the former and some 300 of the latter being usually dealt with within that period. By no means imposing either architecturally or forensically, notwithstanding its august designation, is the modem Areopagus. The building is quite commonplace, and neither judges nor counsel wear gown or head-gear to denote their profession, nor are the charges of the former or the pleadings of the latter remarkable for rhetoric. The proceedings are, however, expeditious, and law reports are published, as with us. The Epheteia, or local Courts of Appeal, have jurisdiction chiefly, though not exclusively, in civil cases, and to each of these forty-six judges are attached, five ^°f ^^ ^?^^^ being necessary to a quorum in each. Each Prefecture has its Court of First Instance, corresponding to our Assize Court, these having been in the past no fewer than twenty-six in number ; but the adminis- trative divisions having lately been reduced to sixteen, a corresponding reduction in the number of local tribunals has followed. The jurisdiction of the Epheteia includes the more serious criminal cases ; civil cases when the amount in question exceeds £20 ; and commercial cases respecting claims over /32, the special commercial Courts having been abohshed towards the end of last century. When criminal cases are being tried in these Courts the judicial quorum is five, but civil cases may be tried by a bench of three judges only. Justice 43 The County Courts, of which there are as many as 350, are presided over by a single judge who decides, in addition to creditors' claims, all civil cases concerning Polic?*Courte ^^^^ ""^^^ ^^^ ^^- (^^^) ^^ ^^^° commercial cases in which sums under ;^32 are involved. The tribunals answering to our Police Courts are of two classes termed respectively Plemmelodikeia and Ptaismatodikeia, and the justices of the peace who preside in them are under the jurisdiction of the particular Court of Appeal attached to their special district. Candidates for judicial posts are now required to undergo a series of somewhat severe examinations before appointment, the examiners consisting of professors in the legal Faculty of the University and judges of the High Court. This new system is said to work very satisfactorily, a notable difference in capacity being observable between the older and the younger judges, who, though often lacking experience — some being no more than twenty-five years of age on appointment — at least have a thorough knowledge of the laws they are called upon to administer. In common with all government functionaries Greek judges are very inadequately remunerated, the President and Vice-President of the Judges' Supreme Court receiving respectively but ;f280 and ^^240 per annum, and the Eisangeleiis the former amount ; while his deputy, together with the occupants of the bench generally, enjoys the munificent salary of £212, the Clerk's emoluments amounting only to £115. The Presidents of the local Courts of Appeal are paid £240 a year, the other judges £195 ; while the Presidents of the Courts of First Instance receive £194 8s. and puisne judges £132. Full pensions are also granted only on the completion of thirty-five years service on the bench. The inadequacy of judicial salaries is deplored by the majority of thinking Greeks, and may consequently be in time remedied. These meagre rewards of even the most successful legal career do not, however, apparently diminish 44 Greece of the Hellenes the number of those eager to enter the legal profession ; nor, happily, is a reputation for corruptibility — though not unknown — at all common among judges of any class. The legal profession has, as a matter of fact, an ever increasing attraction for the university student, and the supply of barristers annually " called " is out of all proportion to the demand for their services. As a natural consequence, while about half a score of the most eminent may make incomes of over £1,000 a year, many earn a bare livelihood. But, as in other countries, many study law without any intention of practising as advocates, and merely as a stepping-stone to other professions. The system of trial by jury is customary in Greece only in criminal cases, twelve being the number of jurors impanelled. This system is said to work very satisfactorily. Trial by j^ being a provision of the law that no criminal shall be tried either in the district in which he habitually resides or in that in which his crime was committed. The ends of justice cannot consequently be frustrated by the jury being composed of men who are parti- sans either of the accused or his victim, or even neighbours and acquaintances hable to be swayed in their finding by a variety of considerations. Prison administration constitutes one of the three main sections of the department presided over by the Minister of Justice. State prisons fall into two Prisons and categories — Houses of Correction and Prisons Prisoners. ° for Criminals. Of the former there are two in Athens, the " Ephivion " for men, and the " Syngros " for women, with several in the provinces, of which the chief are situated in the islands of .^Egina, Corfu, Zante and Kephallenia. The seven principal criminal prisons are located respectively at Palamidi, Pylos, Rhion, Amphissa, Ithaca, Trikkala and Zante, and in them are confined, on an average, some 1,500 prisoners. There are also a number of penal establishments for persons convicted of minor Justice 45 offences, in addition to those found in all the provincial towns in which the Courts of First Instance, or Assize, are held. Considerable attention has been directed of late years to prison reform, the arrangements in some of the older places of detention being mediaeval rather than modern. New prisons for women and juvenile offenders have since the beginning of the century been provided at Athens, one of these, for women only, being erected in 1901 by the efforts of Queen Olga, and another and larger female prison with part of the 2,000,000 of drachmcB bequeathed for that purpose by the patriotic and philanthropic M. Syngrds ; while further prisons on the most improved models are also in course of construction. A certain number of the more ancient prisons are located in some of the old fortresses built centuries ago by the Frank conquerors of the isles and shores of Greece, and though no doubt greatly deficient in all that appertains to well equipped places of detention, present curious and interesting features. Among these may be noted the prison in the Castle of Corfu and that of Palamidi at Nauplia. The former is a relic of the four- century- long Venetian occupation of that island, and the latter was also originally of Venetian construction. This fortress is in the form of a pentagon and includes seven towers, one of which, known as Fort Michael, contains the prison. The visitor, after mounting what appear to him 1,000 steps cut in the rock, is led to the rampart overlooking the prisoners' recreation ground which resembles somewhat the interior of a Martello tower. The convicts occupy their leisure in manufacturing different objects for sale, heads for walking sticks, cigarette holders, etc., most skilfully carved in a variety of designs, together with rosaries, eikons and other small portable articles likely to tempt the visitor, A purchase is not, however, effected without a good deal of bargaining, one of the prisoners being allowed to ascend and act as sales- man, while the prisoners below hold up little money boxes fixed to long poles to receive the price agreed upon or the 46 Greece of the Hellenes gratuities of the charitably disposed. The number of prisoners incarcerated here was formerly very large. When visited by Mr. Miller about ten years ago they numbered 612 ; but as prison accommodation has since been so largely increased only some 120 are now to be found in this fortress- jail. The State allows 35 leptd — about 3d. — ^per day for the maintenance of each prisoner. In some prisons the inmates are required to perform a certain amount of manual work, but in others there is no compulsory labour and the prisoners are allowed to work, if so inclined, for their own profit. The Greek penal code imposes capital punishment for such crimes as deliberate murder and brigandage, the guillotine being made use of for executions, ^p® ^1^*^ '^^^ death penalty is, however, not frequently carried out, the Royal clemency usually modifying the sentence to perpetual imprisonment. The most frequent offences among men are homicide and crimes of violence, due rather to the excitable Hellenic temperament than to the use of intoxicants, drunkenness not being a prevalent vice in any of the countries of South-eastern Europe ; and offences against property are, notwithstanding a hitherto not too efficient police force, singularly rare. The majority of male criminals appear to be between the ages of twenty and thirty, and according to prison statistics, the largest number of prisoners belong to the peasant and shepherd class — ^the least educated of the whole community, the prosperous provinces of Achaia and Messenia, together with the currant-growing Elis, contributing the largest number of criminals, while the poorer and more mountainous districts are for the most part comparatively free from crime. Brigandage, so far as foreigners are concerned, was effectually stamped out by the Greek authorities after the affair in 1870 which had such fatal results Brigandage, for two English travellers. Isolated cases, of which wealthy Greeks were the victims, have, however, since occurred, one even so recently as the Justice 47 beginning of this century ; but as the captive escaped with his Hfe, the brigand, a certain Panopoulos, was allowed to escape the death penalty, and condemned only to perpetual imprisonment. The majority of women convicts are confined in the two above named female penitentiaries at Athens. These are supervised by a committee composed of ladies Women ^^ ^^jj ^^ ^^^^ . ^^^ ^^l the prison officials, with the exception of the Chaplain, a clerk, and a gardener, are women, a lady doctor being in charge of the infirmary. The crime of which women are most commonly convicted is murder, and murder from motives of jealousy, the victim being usually an unfaithful husband, and it appears that a very large proportion of such cases comes from the province of Maina, whose inhabitants, as already remarked, habitually take the law into their own hands. Of these women the great majority are illiterate. In prison, however, this defect is remedied, all those who cannot at least read and write being required to learn. Every inmate is also obliged to work at some handicraft, the product of her labour being disposed of by the authorities and half its monetary value deposited in the prison bank to her credit. From such deposits a prisoner is allowed to remit sums to her family, provided enough remains to pay her fare to her home on discharge, but no allowance is made to her personally. Visits are allowed twice in every week, when the women convicts may hold intercourse with their friends through a grating, but no contributions of food or wine are, under the new system, allowed. The prisoners are said to be, on the whole, very well behaved, orderly, and obedient to rules, those who have received life sentences appearing resigned to their hopeless fate. Notwithstanding, however, the admirable legal system of Greece above indicated, it is only within late years that justice can be said to have been administered without reproach within her borders, this regrettable state of affairs having been 48 Greece of the Hellenes largely due to the liability of judges to removal, if not dismissal, with every change of Ministry. The new regime has happily inaugurated a fundamental change in this respect, and it may be confidently anticipated that the further reforms now about to be carried into effect wiU eventually endow the modern Hellenes with the blessings of a high-minded and incorruptible magistrature dealing out justice to rich and poor alike without respect of persons. CHAPTER V THE MONARCHY The Greeks, as a nation, are essentially democratic in their ideas and habits, and hereditary rank is now almost non- existent in the kingdom, the use of titles of j^ "^^^j^ nobility being exphcitly prohibited by an Article of the Constitution. The Monarchy, consequently, differs from monarchies generally, and has hitherto been regarded merely as a convenient political institution, calling for no particular display of loyalty, though the diplomatic advantages accruing to Greece from the connection of its dynasty with so many of the Royal Families of Europe have long been recognised by the nation. The late King some years ago conferred on his heir apparent the title of "Duke of Sparta"; but finding this supposed attempt to introduce a foreign aristocratic system into the State regarded with disfavour, he judiciously refrained from creating Dukedoms for his younger sons. The Crown Prince's new title was, indeed, never officially adopted either by the Chamber or the press, and he continued until his accession to the throne to be styled simply " Diodochos " — the " Successor." The new political situation created by the successes of the Hellenic army under the leadership of King Constantine, who, born and bred in Greece, is the first King Greek sovereign to profess the creed of the National Church, has excited in the Hellenic nation an extraordinary degree of loyalty not only for their monarch individually, but also for the dynasty generally. The question as to whether the King will at his coronation next spring be styled Constantine I or XII is being eagerly discussed in Athens, popular opinion leaning to the latter number which would imply that the new King of the Hellenes is the direct successor of the last Byzantine Emperor, 49 4— (2385) 50 Greece of the Hellenes Constantine XI, slain at the taking of Constantinople in 1453. The King of the Hellenes is, it is reported, likely to comply with the wishes of his people in this respect, and already, in imitation of the Emperors of Byzantium, writes after his name the initial letter of BacnXeix;. Born at Athens on the 21st July, 1868, King Constantine, together with his brothers the Princes Nicholas, Andrew and Christopher, received a military education. Having devoted more than the usual number of years and the average amount of application to military studies, he has long been credited with an exceptional knowledge of military matters, and while Crown Prince, held the position of Honorary Commandant of the Infantry Regiments and Inspector-General of the forces, the latter being a post of somewhat recent creation. His position as General Administrator of the army was, however, during the years immediately following the disas- trous war with Turkey in 1897, rendered one of extreme difficulty by the personal attacks made against him both in the Press and the Chamber of Deputies, the major part of the blame for the disasters of that campaign being unjustly directed towards him. The slanders then spread against the Crown Prince having, however, been subsequently recognised as baseless, he speedily regained his former popularity, and for some years past has been idolised equally by the people and the army, being invariably hailed on the occasion of his every public appearance with demonstrations of the utmost loyalty and affection. This change in the popular attitude towards the Prince was the more remarkable, seeing that the Greeks are not as a nation addicted to displays of enthusiasm with regard to royal personages generally, whether native or foreign.^ An alleged 1 It is said that the Kaiser, during his first visit to Athens, expressed surprise at the little attention accorded him while driving through the streets of the capital. His fears that he had in some way offended the Greeks were, however, set at rest on being informed that it was usual for the Royal Family to pass among their people almost unnoticed. HIS MAJESTY THE KING OF THE HELLENES The Monarchy 51 mediaeval prophecy to the effect that the City of Constanti- nople will be wrested from the Turks and again become Greek when a King Constantine, wedded to a Queen Sophia, shaU sit on the throne of Hellas has, during the course of the recent war, had a great vogue among the Greek populace ; and this tradition, combined with the able and successful generalship of the Crown Prince in the conduct of the war, tended greatly to increase the popular enthusiasm for his person when suddenly raised to the throne by the act of an assassin. One good result of King Constantine's position as Com- mander-in-Chief while heir apparent has been that it was part of his official duty periodically to inspect the various mihtary stations distributed throughout the kingdom, and he has thus visited and become acquainted with every part of the country, a duty which, it may be observed, was un- fortunately almost entirely neglected by the late King George. King George was, however, considered by his people to be their best ambassador in Europe ; and during his frequent absences from his kingdom for reasons both of health and diplomacy the heir apparent usually acted as Regent, though he appears to have refrained as much as possible from making use of the powers with which he was temporarily invested. King Constantine has also frequently visited the Courts of western Europe as the guest of one or other of his royal kinsmen ; and he a year or two ago paid a series of official visits to the Sultan of Turkey and the sovereigns of the neighbouring Balkan States, in the course of v/hich his sjnn- pathetic character and great personal charm gained for him wide popularity as well in military as in political circles. Queen Sophia, who was wedded to the King of the Hellenes in 1889, is a sister of the Kaiser, and has been ever since her arrival in Greece the most popular and Queen -j^^^^ beloved lady in the Kingdom. The Royal couple have five children, the Crown Prince George, born in 1890, the Princes Alexander and Paul, 52 Greece of the Hellenes and the Princesses Helen and Irene. Within two years of her marriage Queen Sophia renounced the Protestant faith and formally declared herself a membei of the Orthodox Greek Church, a step which, though it still further endeared her to the Hellenic nation, caused an estrangement of some years duration with her Imperial brother. The Queen is a woman of great ability, and the active interest always taken by her while Crown Princess in every new scheme for promoting the welfare of her adopted country led to the entertainment of lively hopes of her future usefulness when its sphere should be enlarged. Kind, gracious, and tactful, she is able to maintain an attitude of considerable dignity in her intercourse with all classes of the population without at all offending their democratic prejudices. During the disastrous war with Turkey in 1897, the Queen used her utmost endeavours with the Kaiser on behalf of the Greeks, towards whom his attitude, together with that of his ministers, had been, to say the least, in the last degree unsympathetic. In every movement organised for the betterment of the country generally she has invariably taken a prominent part ; and to her intelligent initiative, or active co-operation, the progress made in the reafforestation of Greece, the spread of education, the improvement in hospital organisation, and the foundation of many charitable and philanthropic institutions are in great measure due. The widowed Queen Olga has also, ever since her arrival in the country in 1867 as the bride of King George, invariably shown herself to be a kind-hearted, benevolent Queen woman, ever ready and anxious to help in the relief of distress and suffering, qualities which could not fail to endear her to a certain section at least of the people. Unlike Queen Sophia, however, she has never been able to identify herself with her adopted country, having always remained at heart a Russian. Nor has she, as a rule, taken pains to disguise this partiahty for the land of her birth, her action on certain occasions having, unfortunately, HER MAJESTY QUEEN SOPHIA The Monarchy 53 caused extreme provocation to the more Chauvinistic section of the Hellenes. Of the four brothers of the King, the eldest, Prince George, who was born at Corfu in 1869, and married in 1902 the Princess Marie Buonaparte, holds the honorary ^^^ !5*"^'^ rank of Vice- Admiral in the Greek navy. Brothers. , . , . ., ., . . ,, . together with a similar position m the navies of Russia and Denmark. After commanding in 1897 a torpedo flotilla operating in Cretan waters, this Prince was in the following year appointed to the Governorship of Crete ; but after six stormy years in that island he retired into private life. It is, however, hoped that in the new conditions created by the successful issue for Greece of the late war, Prince George may find it possible again to serve his country either in his former position in Crete where, it is said, he would be warmly received, or in some other capacity. Prince Nicholas, who is three years younger, and is acting at present as Governor of Salonica, had previously held the appointments of Inspector of Artillery and Aide-de-Camp to his late father. His wife is the Grand Duchess Helene Vladomirovna of Russia, and they have three little daughters under ten years of age. Prince Nicholas is credited with literary and artistic tastes and a certain talent for dramatic writing. He is also an enthusiastic tennis player, and when not occupied with more strenuous duties, as at present, is a frequent figure in the courts situated below the Temple of the Olympian Zeus. The Princess was a great heiress, and the establishment of this royal couple at Athens consequently displays a certain degree of splendour in its appointments, the entertainments there given maintaining the traditions of hospitahty for which the Princess's fatherland is justly renowned. Prince Andrew, who is now thirty-one years of age, is an officer of cavalry, and also holds honorary rank in the Guards of the Grand Duke of Hesse, with whose family he is closely connected by his marriage with Princess Alice, a 54 Greece of the Hellenes great granddaughter of the late Queen Victoria, and daughter of Prince Louis of Battenberg. This fourth son of King George I overtops, physically, all his brothers and most of his fellow Hellenes, as he measures no less than 6 feet 3 inches in height. He is also considered very good-looking and, together with his wife, is most deservedly popular. The Princess Alike, as the Greeks call her, had acquired the Neo-Hellenic tongue before her arrival in the country, and has ever since thoroughly identified herself with the nation among whom she has made her home, being always ready to give not only her patronage but her practical support to every benevolent undertaking brought to her notice ; and there are also few social or literary movements with which her name is not associated. Prince Christopher, who is a frequent and welcome visitor to this country, also holds a commission in the Greek army. Of the two sisters of the King, the elder, ^^|. ^^"S's Princess Alexandra, died in 1901, a few years after her marriage to a Russian Grand Duke by whom she had a son and daughter. She was greatly beloved and sincerely regretted by her father's subjects who were wont to describe her as " a real Greek Princess." The second sister, Princess Marie, is the wife of the Grand Duke George of Russia, and with her two children resides chiefly in that country. The King's Civil List of ^^45,000 is a fairly handsome one considering the size of the country, the few expenses attached to his position, and that in addition to this C'^"i i/^t'^ sum he receives an annual grant of £4,000 from each of the three " Protecting Powers " — Great Britain, France, and Germany who undertook, in accordance with the Treaties of 1863 and 1864, to hand over this sum out of the annual amounts payable by the Greek Treasury for advances made to it. And as the late King was a -good man of business and in a position to command sound financial advice, he found himself able during his reign H.R.H. THE CROWN PRINCE OF GREECE The Monarchy 55 of nearly half a century considerably to increase his private fortune by judicious speculations and investments. With the exception, however, of the Crown Prince, who enjoys an allow- ance of ;^8,000 per annum, no separate provision is made for the rest of the Royal family, though the question of grants to the Princes Nicholas and Andrew has already been mooted in the Chamber. This is a question which may, however, be expected to assume greater proportions with the numerical increase of the Royal family of Greece, and more especially if the holding of important Civil and Military posts by its members continues to be unfavourably viewed by the nation. The Royal Palace at Athens is well situated, overlooking the spacious " Constitution Square," which, with its fine hotels and numerous cafes, forms the centre ^Palac?*^ of outdoor hfe in the capital. Being the property of the State whose representatives are apt to keep the public purse-strings somewhat tightly drawn, the Palace is not always kept in such good repair either within or without as might be desired by its occupants. Built by King Otho about 1835, in true Bavarian style, of limestone and Pentelicon marble, the Palace forms almost a square, its walls pierced with a plethora of windows and a modicum of doors which give to the fagade an appearance neither artistic nor pleasing. The beautiful gardens which surround the edifice atone, however, in some measure for its unattractiveness. Originally laid out under the super- intendence of Queen Amalia, the Consort of King Otho, to whom the Capital owes not a few of its most pleasing features, the palace gardens now contain avenues of lofty trees affording cool and shady walks, flanked by flower beds, bosky groves and shrubberies gay with the variety of flowering plants indigenous to the soil of Hellas, and are generously thrown open to the public at certain hours. A handsome mansion situated in the Boulevard d'Herode, in the vicinity of the Royal Palace, constituted the town residence of the King while Crown Prince. 56 Greece of the Hellenes King Constantine purchased some years ago the fine estate of Manolada, situated in the currant-growing districts lying between the towns of Patras and Pyxgos, and containing also valuable oak forests. The Royal Family also possess, in addition to a villa at Corfu, the country mansion amid the vineyards of Tatoi in which the late King invested part of his capital. The wines from these vineyards are much esteemed, as are also the butter and milk, etc., supplied by the model dairies on this royal demesne. The Households of the King and Queen are organised on an extremely modest scale, the officials of the former being very few in number, and the entourage The Roy^l of the Queen comprising only one Lady of the Bedchamber, four maids of Honour, and a Chamberlain. And though these ladies and gentlemen form a class apart from the politicians and are occasionally the recipients of polite attention from foreign sovereigns, they are accorded no special status by the nation. With their attendants generally of every degree the Royal Family are exceedingly popular, and appear to possess the gift of securing the faithful service of those by whom they are surrounded in their daily home Hfe. The Court has hitherto entertained httle, resembling in this respect rather that of a small German State than of a kingdom ; nor are any important changes Court jjj ^jjjg respect at present to Jje looked for. As a rule, only one important Palace function is held annually, this being the State Ball on the morrow of the Greek New Year, to which about 1,200 guests are bidden. Comparatively few ladies belonging to the military and pohtical circles of the capital avail themselves, however, of the invitation. For the crowds of men with whom the great ball-room is filled to repletion make dancing an impossibility for the general company, and as no other opportunity is hkely to occur during the year for wearing a second time the ex- pensive court dress obligatory on this occasion, few Greek The Monarchy 57 ladies avail themselves of the privilege of being present. The majority of those who gather at one side of the ball-room to be presented to the Queen belong consequently either to the few wealthy Greek families resident in the Capital, the Diplomatic Corps, or the small foreign colony. The mascuhne section of the assemblage consists for the most part of uniformed officers, naval and military, and " decorated " civilians wearing ordinary dress clothes ; and the only picturesque feature throughout the function is sup- phed by the detachment of Evzonoi, or riflemen, who, wearing their striking costume already described, stand on such occa- sions in double hne at the entrance of the Palace. The members of the Greek royal family generally appear to care httle for pomp and ceremony, and take after their Romanoff forebears in their fondness for romping and such Hke uncon- ventionalities. The princes and princesses are fairly frequent guests at the houses of wealthy Athenians and foreign residents, and may be met with every day walking, riding, or driving in the streets of Athens. Titles of nobihty being, as above remarked, legally tabooed in Greece, there exists consequently between the throne and the nation generally no intermediate Absence of aristocratic class, the old Athenian famihes, ns ocracy. ^^^ members of which were designated by the classic term of Archontes,'^ and who constituted in bygone times a sort of hereditary noblesse, being now almost extinct. Representatives may, indeed, still be found of a few of these old Athenian families, possessing pedigrees of more than respectable length. The family of Chalkokondyles lays claim to descent from the historian of that name ; and the family of the Venizeloi, who are reputed to have been of Venetian origin, may claim the honour of having kept learning aUve at Athens during the Ottoman domination. Repre- sentatives are also to be found in the Qreek capital of certain 1 This term occurs frequently with its old signification in popular ballads and in the Festival Songs described on page 160. 58 Greece of the Hellenes old Phanariot^ Greek families, a certain number of whom, being despoiled by the Turkish government of their possessions at Constantinople at the time of the War of Independence, took refuge in Greece. The Latin lords who so long held sway in the Greek islands, where many of their ruined fortresses may still be seen, were termed Archontes. Venetian, Genoese, and Spanish surnames are likewise fairly numerous in the islands — Foscolos, Vitalis, and Crispis, Leones, Delendas and Vallis ; and disguised under its Greek form of Dekigallas — the noble Spanish name of De Cigalla. Illustrious Byzantine names also have survived — Palseologos, and Comnena and Laskaris, the last being not uncommon. Among the mass of the people, however, surnames seem hardly to have existed before the liberation of Greece from Ottoman domination, and modern patronym- Modern ics have been created by various methods. Surnames Families settling in new localities would frequently be designated by their patns, or place of origin, in its adjectival form. Trades, also, as with us, have furnished many surnames. The direct forefather of a modern Metaxas will have followed the calling of a weaver of silk ; and a blacksmith progenitor has supplied the Petalas with their surname. A considerable number have originated in Christian names to which have been added the terminations opoulos, ides, akes, or akos, which are equivalent to the Enghsh " son," the first being characteristic of the Peloponnesos, the second of Crete, the third of Maina, while the fourth is more or less general. The Turkish prefix Hadji denotes that a forebear has made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; that of Pappa, combined with a Christian name and the termination of opoulos, proclaims descent from a parish priest ; while not a few heads of families ''■ The " Phanariots " are descendants of the Byzantine Greek community who, after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, were settled by Sultan Mahommed I in the quarter of the capital termed the Phanar, or " Beacon," situated on the southern shore of the Golden Horn. The Monarchy 59 have bequeathed to their descendants the Greek or Turkish soubriquets acquired in consequence of some physical defect or pecuHarity. Karatheodory, for instance, signifies " Black Theodore,"^ Mavromichalis, "Black Michael," Deliyanni, " Mad Johnny," Kambouroglou, " The Lame Man's Son," and so on. Diminutives of Christian names, for the formation of which the Greek language possesses a curious facility, have also been made considerable use of in the coining by the people of patron5niiics, masculine diminutives being usually formed by the addition of aki. In common parlance, however, baptismal names are still much more generally used than surnames, and one may, for instance, hear the house of a wealthy man familiarly referred to — ^but without any disrespectful intention — as " Jack's House." ^ The Turkish Kara, and Greek Mivro, though meaning literally " black," when coupled with proper names usually denote some moral quality and signify " brave," " famous," " notorious," etc. The city of Bucharest is, in one folk-ballad, alluded to as Mdvro Bucharisti. CHAPTER VI EDUCATION Enthusiasm for learning would appear to be quite as characteristic of the modern as it was of the ancient Hellenes. Alike under Slav and Venetian rule and during the dark days of Ottoman domination a continued effort was made to keep alive learning among the nation generally; and on the final expulsion of the Turks the establishment of an adequate national system of education was one of the first cares of the new Government. Notwithstanding the financial difficulties with which the State has had to contend, its educational system has been gradually developed and extended until the Greeks can now claim to be, with one exception, the most highly educated nation in Europe. In organisation the Hellenic system of education now established resembles that of Germany, on which it was _- chiefly modelled, and is controlled, in common Educational with Ecclesiastical affairs, by the Ministry System of of Public Instruction, which recognises three Greece. classes of public schools — (1) The Deme, or primary schools ; (2) " Hellenic " schools, and (3) " Gymnasia," the courses of instruction in all of which form one single series. There are now in the Greek kingdom over 1,400 primary schools for boys, and 400 for girls, together with nearly 900 rural schools for young children of both sexes, funds for the maintenance of which are obtained by three different methods. In Athens and some other large towns the Deme schools are, for instance, supported entirely from the municipal chest ; in other less wealthy municipalities, the expense is shared by the State ; while in the poorest class of Demes the entire support of the schools is undertaken by the State. The general supervision of these schools in each Prefecture is vested in a council composed of the bishop of the diocese, 60 Education 61 the director of the local " Gymnasium " or " Hellenic " school, a school inspector, and two leading inhabitants one of whom must be either a merchant or a manufacturer and the other a professional man. The inspectors are almost always men, three ladies only being employed in this capacity in all Greece. Individually the Deme schools were formerly managed by the local council ; but this proving unsatisfactory in rural districts owing to the ignorance of educational requirements most frequently displayed by its members, the control of these schools has now also been centralised. Elementary education at a Deme school is both compulsory and gratuitous, parents being only required to pay for school- books with a nominal fee for the diploma State granted at the end of the course. These ^Schooir^ Deme schools are of two grades, termed respectively " common " and " complete." In the former, which consist of only four classes, the pupils pass out at the end of as many years, while in the latter, which have the full complement of six classes, the pupils remain for six years. " Complete " schools exist, however, only in the larger towns of the kingdom. All children on attaining the age of six are required to enter the Deme schools in which they are taught, in addition to the " three R's," geography, ancient and modern Greek history, singing and drawing, the further subjects taught in the two higher classes of the complete schools including botany, geometry, and the elements of geology, the study of some of the least difficult classics, such as JEsop and Xenophon, being also included in the curriculum. In addition to the state-supported Deme schools there exist also in various parts of Greece over 200 private elementary schools having a total attendance Private of some 9,000 children. Of these nearly ^sSooS.*^^ three-fourths are for girls; and parents living in the neighbourhood of any such school are at Uberty to send their children to it, instead of to the 62 Greece of the Hellenes public school, the subjects taught being precisely the same. Boarders being received as well as day pupils, these private schools have proved a great boon to children whose families live in districts of " Enslaved Hellas " ^ possessing few educa- tional advantages ; and even in democratic Greece there are many parents of the wealthier class who prefer that their children should not mix with " the common herd." In the case of girls these schools no doubt offer certain advantages ; but the general opinion is that boys who have attended the public schools are better equipped for the battle of life than those thus privately educated. The " Hellenic " schools are so termed because of their specially classical curriculum on the analogy of the German Lateinschulen. Of these there are some 280, " Schods " '^^^^ ^^ attendance of from 18,000 to 20,000 pupils averaging in age from twelve to fifteen years. At these schools attendance is voluntary ; but as they are state-supported, and a first-rate education is here obtainable for a nominal fee of 8 drachmce — 6s. 6d. — expense is no bar to entry. Hellenic schools consist of either two or three " forms," the latter being designated Scholarcheia, and the full course extends over three years. The curriculum, which is arranged by the Ministry of Edu- cation, provides for from twenty-seven to thirty hours of study a week, modern and ancient Greek occupying seven or eight hours ; and among the other subjects studied are mathematics, physical science, geography, orthography, and drawing. In these, as in all other State schools, Roman Catholic and Orthodox Greek pupils read Bible-history in class, theology proper being imparted to the former at home by their own priests, and to those of the Jewish persuasion by their own Rabbis. Pupils in the second class begin the study of French, the only modern language taught in the National schools, to which two hours a week are devoted, one hour only being 1 'H Aov\7i "HA.XOS the ancient Hellenic lands still under Ottoman rule are thus termed by the Greeks, Education 63 set apart for Latin, which it is, indeed, proposed to exclude altogether, its literature bein. considered as at best but an excellent copy of the Greek classics. Boys who have passed through the two highest forms of the " complete " Deme schools, which are considered as equivalent to the two lowest of a " Hellenic " school, on entering the latter usually find themselves placed at least in the second, if not in the highest form. The " Gymnasia " form the highest class of public schools, and, with the " Hellenic " above described, afford a sound secondary education to the Greek youth "Gymnasia." of all sorts and conditions. For in the Gymnasia, as in the Hellenic schools, the entrance fees are merely nominal, fifteen drachmcB being payable for the first six months of each year and ten for the second, the only additional expense involved being the purchase of class books. The curriculum occupies a period of four years, during which the pupil passes from the lowest to the highest of as many corresponding forms, from thirty-one to thirty-five hours' attendance per week in the lecture rooms being required of him. The course of study in the Gymnasia being pre-eminently classical and theoretical, ten hours per week are devoted to ancient Greek, two or more to Latin, and as many to French, the only modern language taught, while the remaining hours of study are occupied with general and scripture history, botany, zoology and mathematics, or theology, philosophy and logic, according to the standing of the pupils, the seniors in their last year mastering the geography of the world. The necessity for physical, side by side with intellectual training having some years ago been recognised by the educa- tional authorities, gymnastic exercises were made compulsory in all schools, private as well as public, and for girls as well as for boys, the physically defective only being exempt from attendance at the classes which occupy an hour of every alternate day in the Deme and Hellenic schools, and five hours 64 Greece of the Hellenes per week in the Gymnasia. The same enactment provides that, wherever possible, swimming shall also be taught to all schoolboys, those in the senior classes of the intermediate schools being required in addition to practise rowing and target shooting, all the schools taking part in the annual gymnastic competitions. Concurrently with this inclusion of gymnastics in the curriculum of the public schools an official School of Gymnasts was created for the training of those who would be called upon to teach these exercises. The formation of gymnastic clubs soon followed, of which there are now a great number, partly supported by government subsidies. With these they are, however, by degrees able to dispense, as athletics are yearly growing more popular with the rising generation. An organisation calling itself the " Central Union of Athletic and Gymnastic Societies " arranges for the participation of these clubs in the Panhellenic games held every spring in the Stadium, an enormous roofless erection which occupies the site of its prototype constructed in 330 B.C. Weekly half-holidays not being customary in Greece as in European countries generally, school routine is during nine months of the year diversified only by Holidays. the whole holidays with which the greater festivals of the ecclesiastical year are honoured. Like all southern peoples, the Greeks are early risers, and the schools open betimes — ^the hour varying according to season, the major part of the day's work being already accomplished by noon, when the church bells of the neighbourhood announce the national dinner hour. The long vacation, which extends from mid- June to mid- September, applies equally to schools of all three grades, as also to the University. The director of a " complete " Deme school is required to have undergone a three years' training at one of the colleges established for that purpose in the capital, in Corfu, and in the provincial towns of Tripolis and Larissa respectively. Education 65 There is also another class of elementary school teacher who has studied only one year in those establishments, and still a third category who has qualified by passing through a secon- dary course of study at a " Hellenic " school, Elementary though this lower class of masters is happily Teachers. tending to disappear. From a pecuniary point of view there is little to induce a man of any ability to enter upon a scholastic career, the director of a first-class Deme school receiving little more than £10 a year ; while the salaries of directors of Hellenic schools, whose attainments and training are naturally of a higher quality, range between £8 and £10 per month, those of assistant-masters not exceeding half those sums. The necessity for a technical in addition to a purely literary education of the Greek youth of to-day having for some time past been recognised by the more Technical practically minded among Hellenic statesmen and philanthropists, a certain number of institutions have been established with this object. Among these are two Schools of Commerce subsidised by the Govern- ment, one at the Capital and the other at the thriving seaport of Patras, with a third at Kephallenia — an island noted for the keen commercial instinct of its inhabitants — privately founded and endowed. In another island, Naxos, there is also a Commercial school conducted by the French " Brother- hood of the Holy Cross " which is under the special protection of the Republic in the person of its Minister at Athens. Another important institution of this class, the " Rousopoulos " Industrial and Commercial Academy of Athens, privately founded about twenty years ago, provides a good general education in addition to technical instruction. For the latter six special schools are provided, dealing respectively with agriculture, manufactures, commerce, engineering, mining, and the mercantile marine, the French, English, and Itahan languages — all necessary in Levantine commerce — ^being taught in the preliminary school, and Latin 5— (2385) 66 Greece of the Hellenes to the students in the technical schools. Turkish, however, though equally necessary, is neglected. For the course in any one of these departments, which lasts for two years, the fees are about £8 yearly, and in the preliminary school £13, board costing an additional £48 per annum. In this academy 200 or more pupils are usually found in training, drawn from all parts of the kingdom, and also not infrequently also from the neighbouring Ottoman empire, a staff of thirty- six professors being provided for the various schools. The pupils on completing their respective courses readily find employment ; and the importance of the work done by the institution is both publicly and practically recognised by the municipalities of Athens and the Piraeus, from each of which it receives an annual subsidy. Another, but smaller, institution of the same class as this Academy, the " Athens school of Trades and Industries," has also preparatory, commercial, and technical departments. But although universal education for boys is now the rule in Greece, the proportion of girls who receive a similar systematic and complete course of instruction Ed "^f * is by no means yet very large. The only " mixed " schools found in the country are those for infants and the smaller Deme schools of sparsely inhabited villages ; and a striking disparity is evident in the number of those specially provided for girls in all the three grades of Deme, Hellenic and Gymnasia, even primary schools exclusively for girls being still, as compared with those for boys, only about one in five. The chief reason for this lack of girls' schools is the lack of demand for them by parents. Marriage being considered a Greek girl's vocation in life, education — and especially higher education — is deemed super- fluous by the Hellenic paterfamilias, the old-fashioned prejudice that it unfits them for domestic life dying very hard among the nation generally. This is more especially the case in the provinces of Northern Greece added to the kingdom some thirty years ago, where lack of funds has Education 67 prevented the thorough carrying out of the educational system estabhshed in the rest of the kingdom. The first regular training college for female schoolmistresses, the " Pallas," was founded in 1874, and in the following year, thanks to the munificence of M. M. Training Zappas and the exertions of the " Ladies' Women °^ Syllogos," a second was organised and named, in honour of its chief benefactors, the " Zappeion." In each of these institutions the curriculum resembles in all essential particulars that of similar colleges in Western Europe, and their Greek graduates have not been inferior in intellectual attainments to those of France and Germany. Training colleges with equally advanced methods were subsequently established in various provincial towns with a view to providing teachers for the Deme schools of their districts which had hitherto been supplied from the Athenian colleges. Another important institution combining High School and Training College is the " Arsakeion," which has flourishing branches at Patras, Larissa and Corfu, the total average attendance at these four establishments reaching the respectable number of 1,800. This valuable institution owes its origin to the munificence of, and is named after, a patriotic Greek of loannina, to which Epirote city, so long under Ottoman domination, Greece owes, in the opinion of the late eminent historian, M. Paparregopoulos, " the regeneration of education." ^ ^ In the ancient basilica of St. Demetrios at Salonica — once the cathedral church, but converted by the Turks into a mosque in 1397 — is still to be seen an ancient mural tablet bearing a Greek inscription in which are extolled the charity and munificence of a Greek lady of loannina, named the Kyria Spandoni ; and the excellent Greek schools of Salonica owe their prosperity to another lady of the lake-girt capital of Epirus, the Kyria Kastrissio, who bequeathed to them the whole of the large fortune she inherited from her husband, a native of Salonica. The memory of this benefactress is annually honoured with a Mnemdsynon, or Commemoration ceremony, by the Greek community of Salonica ; and when residing in this city I never failed to avail myself of the invitation courteously extended to me by the Ephors of the schools. 68 Greece of the Hellenes Education in the Arsakeion colleges is not, however, gratuitous, though the fees are low, day-pupils pajring accord- ing to age from 20 to 40 drachmce (16s. to ^^Cd[ege^^'°" 32s.) per month, and boarders 100 dr. (£4) which includes the cost of school-books. While providing instruction for girls of all ages these institutions at the same time constitute training colleges for teachers. Infants enter first the Kindergarten class, and after passing through the four classes corresponding to those of the Deme schools, are admitted to the secondary course. This includes such advanced subjects as psychology and philosophy, ancient Greek and modern languages, French being compulsory, as is also singing, and, in the higher classes, drawing and painting. Instruction is also given in domestic economy and needlework of various kinds, as also in hygiene, and the same number of hours per week are devoted to g5nnnastic exercises as in the Government schools. The organisation of these colleges is essentially democratic, and partly on this account, and partly owing also to the establish- ment in the capital and its neighbourhood of some good private schools, the Arsakeion, which was originally very well attended, has of late years somewhat lost favour with the wealthier section of Athenian families. Of private schools for girls, the oldest established is that called — after its missionary founder — the " Hill " school, which was founded at Athens so long The "Hill" ago as 1831, before that city became the Girls capital of the Hellenic kingdom. Originally a very modest enterprise, it met with deserved success, and has been for some time past located in a pleasant house built for the purpose which usually accommodates about three dozen boarders and from 160 to 171 day pupils, the majority of the former being, as in many of the private schools for boys, either natives of Thessaly — the most back- ward educationally of all the Greek provinces — or of " Enslaved Hellas." The present directress of the Hill school is Miss Education 69 Mason, a niece of its founder, and under her able management the institution continues to prosper. But though nominally a Mission school, no attempt is made to proselytise the pupils ; and the religious difficulty is met by the provision on the pre- mises of a chapel in which services are held on Sundays and festivals according to the Orthodox rite, Mass being said and a short sermon based on the Gospel for the day being preached by a Greek chaplain, while the girls act 'in turn as readers and servers at the altar. The pupils range in age from five to seventeen, and are divided into seven classes, the hours of study being the same as those of the National schools. The Hill school offers considerable f acihties for the acquisition of foreign languages, all the pupils learning English and French in addition to Modern Greek, and in its five senior classes Ancient Greek forms also one of the subjects of study. The University of Athens, which forms one of an imposing group of buildings, was founded so long ago as 1837, very shortly after the seat of Government had T^^^j University ^^^^ transferred to that city from Tripohs, the first capital of Greece. Its seventy- fifth anniversary coinciding with the visit of the Congress of OrientaHsts to the Greek capital in 1912, the double event was celebrated with great public rejoicings. The University of Athens comprises five faculties — Law, Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics and Theology, the first being the most numer- ously attended, and the last — for reasons elsewhere alluded to — ^the least popular ; and the course extends over a period of four years. The fees are so moderate as to place University education within the reach of all who can devote to it the necessary time, the total expense in fees for the four years' course not exceeding £30 ; and the youth of Hellas were, during the past century, in every way encouraged to graduate at this seat of learning. The result has been the creation of an intellectual class far too numerous for the professions for which they had qualified themselves, and unfitted to earn a living by honest manual toil. Within the last quarter of a 70 Greece of the Hellenes century, however, the grave national danger of this state of affairs — of which the wiser Hellenes have long been conscious — has become more generally recognised ; and simultaneously with the establishment of technical schools there has been a great falling off in the number of aspirants to a University career. Between 1890 and 1903 the number of students had diminished by more than a third, and there are now on an average under 600 freshmen a year, the sons of " Outside Greeks " constituting about a third of this number. As in Continental countries generally, there are no colleges as at our English Universities, and the students live where they please, without any supervision ; nor is any difference in status recognised between men in their different years, a freshman being, in this democratic community, the equal of any other undergraduate. Little corporate life is found consequently among the alumni generally, such as exists arising merely from the clannishness observable among those hailing from the same patris — ^to use the term by which a Greek designates his native town or village — and resulting in the formation of particularist clubs similar to those organised by the cosmopolitan students of the University of Lausanne. No cricket, football, or other sporting matches take place, however, between these clubs, as games occupy by no means the same place in Athenian University life as at Oxford and Cambridge ; even the gymnastic drill which is compulsory for undergraduates in their first and second years was, on its introduction, regarded by many as a nuisance. Though Greek undergraduates constitute on the whole an inoffensive element of the Athenian public, from which they are undistinguished by college gown, cap, or S^dent^ badge, student riots have on two occasions since the beginning of the present century disturbed the peace of the capital, one of these having led more or less directly to a change of Ministry. This was the so-caUed " Gospel Riot " of November, 1901, which was due chiefly to the indignation of the students and others at Education 71 the publication of a translation into the vernacular of the New Testament ; the second series of disturbances being also connected with the linguistic question. It is no unusual thing for the more seriously minded Greeks, after graduating at their own university, to complete their studies abroad, not a few of these subsequently quahfying for degrees in the most famous centres of learning in Western Europe. Especially is this the case with those who propose to embark on a literary, scientific, or professorial career ; and among occupants of Chairs in the various faculties comprised within the University of Athens may be found many whose names are well known in academic circles throughout Europe. CHAPTER VII LITERATURE AND ART The Greeks are great readers of newspapers ; the majority oi * the nation may, indeed, be said to read nothing else ; and in Greece the Press plays consequently a ^*PrM^^^^ more important part in the Hfe of the people than in any other country. It is estimated that every Greek man, woman, and child either reads, or hears read, at least one paper every day, all without exception finding his or her chief interest in its political columns. Nor are they exclusive as to their daily news-sheet. A Greek will read anything that comes to hand in the shape of a journal, and it is estimated that every copy of a newspaper sold is read by at least a dozen persons. The first Greek daily paper was printed at Mesolonghi, nearly ninety years ago, before Greece became a kingdom, an Englishman, Col. Leicester Stanhope, being responsible for its production. Fourteen or fifteen morning and evening papers are now published daily in Athens, consisting of four, or at the most six pages of moderate size, the price of several being but five U'ptd, or one halfpenny. Halfpenny journalism was first introduced by the Skrip and the Embros, this innovation obliging some other sheets for a time also to lower their prices. The result proved, however, so financially disastrous, that several leading journals reverted ere long to their original price of ten leptd, a penny. The great demand for news notwithstanding, journalism is by no means a profitable enterprise in Greece. For the art of advertising is yet in its infancy ; paper, being a foreign pro- duct, and consequently highly taxed, is expensive ; and the daily circulation of the most widely-read journal does not exceed 15,000. The distribution and sale of all newspapers 72 Literature and Art 73 is, besides, centred entirely in the hands of an agency organised and controlled by a single man, M. Zangaris, who began life as a shoeblack and newsboy, and is now the " W. H. Smith " of Hellenic journalism ; and as the vendors are allowed by this agency from 20 to 25 per cent, on the price of the papers, the profits to the proprietors would seem to be but infinitesimal. Office expenses are, however, not very considerable. Office rents are low, the staff is small, and though it works seven days a week — for Sunday issues are customary — is not liber- ally remunerated ; telegrams cost next to nothing, and the foreign newspapers which arrive three times weekly contribute largely, with the help of paste and scissors, to the contents of an Athenian daily. Certain journals are printed in parti-coloured inks, red as well as black, flaring headlines stretching across the pages, and the most ordinary pieces of news are sensationally announced. Home politics are given the greatest prominence in Greek journals, the politics of foreign countries coming next in importance, daily telegrams being received by the " National Agency," an association corresponding to Renter, which is sub- sidised by the Government. With regard to social matters there is little sensationalism and less scandalmongering. A column is usually devoted to " Athens day by day," record- ing the arrival and departure of distinguished strangers, audiences held by the king, the movements of the royal family, and similar social events of public interest ; another, under the heading of Me liga logia, gives in condensed form items of interesting information selected from the world's press. In the opinion of the Greeks themselves the literary style of the Press is improving with every year, both as regards political articles and those dealing with social topics. ^ At the ^ The long sustained and hotly debated controversy with respect to the form of Greek to be officially accepted appears at last to have been decided in favour of the Kaeapevovaa, or " pure " form which is now used in all government departments and State-directed educational establishments, as also more or less by writers for the Press. The language which finds most favour in the higher literary circles of 74 Greece of the Hellenes present day the Athenian Press is represented by a number of high-class newspapers, the morning daihes including the AkropoUs, Athenai, Asty, NeonAsty, Kairoi, Chronos, and Skrip, and the evening issues the Hestia, Esperini, and Ephemeris. Greek politics having hitherto been a question of party leaders rather than of principles, journals are not as a rule un- compromisingly partisan in their attitude with Political regard to questions of the day. Several have. Journalism. o t. j _ » indeed, been known to change sides with remarkable rapidity, censuring one day a statesman whom they praise on the morrow, and vice versa. Each has, however, its peculiar characteristic. The oldest established is the Kairoi, or " Times," one of the smaller papers, now in its forty-sixth year of publication. A leading and very reputable Conser- vative paper, patronised by the Palace, is the Asty, edited by M. Annin6s. This journal is always well-informed on sub- jects relating to England, and represents the old journalism, its rival, the Neon Asty, edited by M. Kaklamanos — which owed its origin to a schism which took place about ten years ago among the staff of the Asty — usually taking diametrically opposite views both in politics and other matters ; while such papers as the Skrip and the Embros are bought for the " latest news," that being their specialty. Other journals, the morning AkropoUs and the evening Hestia, for instance, often contain in addition to news carefully-written and often brilliant articles on social and literary topics. As the Athenian journals circulate everywhere in Greece and the Islands, only two provincial towns, Volo Provincial ^^^ Patras, have their local dailies, such out- Journals. Ijring centres as S5nra and Corfu contenting themselves with a weekly or bi-weekly issue, while other journals cater specially for the needs of the " outside Greeks " Greece is, however, rather an amalgamation of the puristic and the demotic forms. And it will probably be long before Academic Greek completely supplants the popular form of the language, which, amus- ingly enough, is often, in unguarded moments, used even by its fiercest opponents. Literature and Art 75 domiciled in Turkey and elsewhere. One of these, the Krdtos, a bi-weekly published in Athens, is the only Greek newspaper belonging to shareholders. Among the contributors to the Krdtos are many eminent men of letters, it is non-partisan in politics, and in its pages the pan-Hellenic propaganda is strenuously carried on. Another Hellenic organ of equally high standing catering for Greeks abroad is the Neon Hemera, or " New Day," pubhshed at Trieste. A certain number of weekly magazines and reviews are also produced in Greece. The two deahng with economics are Economic Greece, and the Economic Professional Chronicle, the former directed by the banker, ^"'organs"*^^^ M. J. J. Minettas, a recognised authority on Greek financial and industrial questions, whose opinions are frequently quoted in foreign financial pubUcations, The legal profession is catered for by the Themis ; the medical by a journal pubhshed at Sjn-a ; while the bi monthly Nautical Greece constitutes the organ of the navy. There are also periodicals dealing with subjects of special interest for the large communities from outl^ring parts of the kingdom who have made their home in the Capital. Of these may be mentioned the Voice of the Cyclades, which caters for the ^gean Islanders, and the Voice of Epiros, dealing more particularly with the affairs of that province. Among minor weekly publications of a more popular character may be mentioned a little magazine entitled the Patria, pubhshed with the object of inculcating sentiments of patriotism to the Fatherland and of loyalty to the Church. This magazine, which is largely distributed among soldiers and sailors, contains among other matter, biographies of national heroes, and articles of a high religious and moral character. An admirable bi- weekly of high reputation is the old-estab- French lished Messat'er d'AtMnes, written in academic XvCVlCWS French, and edited by a lady, Mdlle. Ste- phanopoh, the daughter of its present proprietor. This interesting review deals ably, and from an international rather 76 Greece of the Hellenes than an exclusively Hellenic standpoint, with political, literary, archaeological and financial questions affecting Greece. Lately enlarged, it now appears in good up-to-date form, and is well printed. Another publication in the French language, Les Nouvclles de Grece, is a long-established, high-class illustrated weekly, treating chiefly of politics, literature, and finance, which has entered on a new epoch of success since it came into the hands of its present proprietor, M. Zographides, a barrister and distinguished writer, its political and financial, as well as its literary and social articles being all brightly and ably written. Le Pr ogres and Le Courrier d' Orient, both bi-lingual, are also well-edited periodicals. Of illustrated magazines the best is the fortnightly Panathenaia, which is well got up, and contains good literary matter in addition to illustrations of a high order. There are also several monthly artistic literary and scientific reviews of merit, such as the Propyloea, the Orient, etc. Though the Greeks can hardly, as a nation, be said to be endowed with a keen sense of humour, they possess at least one comic journal which calls for special " P ^^h^'^ notice as being quite unique of its kind. This is the weekly Romeos, to which its editor, M. Soures, is a sole contributor. It is written entirely in verse, chiefly in the so-called " political " metre of the majority of Greek ballads, interspersed here and there with lyrics, and in a diction composed of all the various tongues which make up the lingua Franca of the Levant mingled with Athenian slang and phrases from classical Greek. In this curious jargon every topic of the day, every public man, every current incident is made the subject of facetious dia- logue between M. Soures' two puppets, " Phasoulis " and " Perikletos," whose remarks have been characterised as " never stale and never insipid." Next to newspapers, no form of literature is so largely read in Greece as history, for which — and more especially, of course, for that of his own country — ^the modern Hellene iz; ^ w o m ■g H s < -^ „ «i ^ ■s tD w ^ [/) g -« -&- r-i ? h-l So <; o ?^ D -« o •^ H 5S as of thick homespun. The social organisation of these "\^ach shepherds is of a quite patriarchal character. They form small communities termed siania, or " Sheepfolds." consisting of Chieftains twenty or more families under the headship of an hereditary fst'Uingas, or chieftain, who governs his little clan on aristocratic principles and himself conducts all its transactions with the outside world. In his o^^•n family, too, he is an absolute autocrat, and his sons and vounger brothers may not sit at table ^rith him, but must stand and wait upon their elders and his guests. Many of these tsc'Uitigiis are men of substance, and possess valuable and interesting heirlooms in the shape of silver cups, cartridge- cases, etc., which are marvels of art ; while their women, on holiday's, wear ^^^th their native costtmies wonderful belt- clasps, bracelets, and hanging necklaces of silver, ponderous certainly, but of beautiful workmanship. Rural Life and Pursuits 145 These wealthy flock-masters were, in the old days of Otto- man oppression, frequently despoiled both of coin and gear, not only by brigands, but also by local Turkish governors; and the popular muse records as follows a harrying by the latter species of brigand which took place in 1770. " Rides a Pasha along the road, another in his wake. And to the town of Trikkala themselves do they betake, The elders and headmen to seize — it is for this DemAke of the they go — " White River. ' ' And take Demak6, chief 'mong them of the Aspropotam6. Demake's warned and fast he flees up to the mountain high. He Kriki's towers has reached which are to Mezzovo anigh ; Roast meat upon his table's served, sweet wine is in his cup. But nor for food nor wine cares he, he has no heart to sup. To him his son Nik61a comes and says with cheering voice, 'Eat now and drink, A f^ndi mine, and let thine heart rejoice I — E'en if they should our houses burn, soon shall we build us more I If they of us piastres ask, we'll give them gold galore ! If of our sheep they rob us now, we'll still have flocks enow. For lucky still shall be the Vlachs of the Aspropotamd ' " The Demake, whose memory is kept alive in this song, was a wealthy Vlach proprietor and head-man of the district lying along the banks of the Aspropotamos, the " White River." Having been induced by Turkish promises to quit his refuge at Mdzzovo, he and his sons were murdered in their house at Trikkala. 10— (2385) CHAPTER XII URBAN AND SOCIAL LIFE Though in some of its aspects quite western and modern, Athens, in common with certain provincial towns, still retains many Oriental characteristics. Very inter- ^n A^hens^^ esting are indeed its streets at all times. Closely in touch with the surrounding country as is the capital and unsophisticated its system of provision- ment, the eye is arrested at every turn by some fresh blending of rural and urban, of East and West. Now it is a herd of the milch goats who twice a day stroll through the streets browsing by the way on the orange peel and paper bags they find in the gutter. The muffled tinkle of their bells which accompanies the fustanella-clad herdsman's cry of Ghdla J Ghdla ! brings to their doors one housewife or maid- servant after another with their pitchers, into which the sweet warm milk is directly drawn. Presently the little shoeblack from Southern Greece comes up with his cry of Loustro verniki! and, seeing a stranger, offers him tickets in the State lottery before he sets to work on the couple of pairs of men's shoes which have been thrown out to him. Athens possesses quite a little army of boot- Shoeblack blacks who may be seen in every street with their boxes, which they knock with a brush to attract the attention of the public; and between the prevalance of dust in dry and of mud in wet weather and the Athenian's pride in his immaculate footgear, the loustroi, numerous as they are, manage not only to make a living, but to earn enough to send money to their relatives at home. Bright, capable, and obliging, with Greek adap- tiveness they earn also many a lepton by selling papers as well as lottery tickets, carrying parcels and running errands ; 146 ATHENS FROM THE PROPYLEUM {From a photograph by the Author) Urban and Social Life 147 and, when their day's work is done, evening finds a goodly number assembled at the night-schools provided for boys of this industrial class. An ancient crone, wrinkled, tanned and bent, with black handkerchief tied under her chin, who might have been Homer's mother, is presently overtaken bearing on her back in a dilapidated hamper the wild herbs and salad stuffs gathered at early morn on one of the surrounding hills. Ten leptd (Id.) is the price of the heaped-up dishful of dgria radikia she now disposes of to a customer. To-day being a fast-day, the salad, boiled and then dressed with oil and lemon juice — will probably constitute the most important dish at the midday meal. " Cold, cold figs ! " cries a vendor of that delicious fruit, borne, covered with broad green leaves, in panniers slung over a donkey's saddle, implying that his wares have been gathered at dawn, fruit being considered unwholesome if heated by the sun before being plucked ; and as he passes us, an islander in rustling, baggy blue breeches, braided jacket and close cap with long tassel, stops him to purchase a pennyworth — as many as will lie on his broad strong hand. Though the Greeks have accepted the decimal system of Western Europe as regards the coin of the realm, in the matter of weights and measures they have w'^^ht'^^ A ^^°^^ ^ truly Oriental conservatism. For & Measures. notwithstanding the fact that the decimal * system was imposed by a State ordinance as long ago as 1836, commerce still continues to be carried on to a great extent by means of the Turkish oka (about 2| lbs. avoirdupois) divisible into 400 dvdmia, every comes- tible — including wine and oil — being soldby weight. And the equally Oriental irixn o^ ^^^ (22| inches) still reigns 1 supreme among the linendrapers of Greece, as among those of Constantinople and Smyrna. Among the Greeks generally, and especially in the provinces and the islands, it is every man's ambition to own 148 Greece of the Hellenes the house he lives in and transmit it, together with its adjoining garden and vineyard, to his descendants. The insecurity of tenure of any state-paid post which, as mentioned in a previous chapter, prevailed during so many decades prior to the recent reforms introduced by M. Venizelos, by creating a large class of migratory employees who could never hope to have settled homes until they had earned their pensions, resulted in a large demand for temporary dwellings. In the provinces rents are very moderate, but at Athens, where the demand for houses is ever on the increase, rents tend to increase proportionately. Annual leases are the rule, the landlord being responsible for repairs and the occupier for the house tax of 5 per cent, on the rental, or the estimated letting value if occupied by the owner. Tenants of yearly houses would appear to change their abodes pretty frequently, as about term day — ^which in Greece is September 1st — endless loads of furniture may be seen on their way from one house to another. As in all the larger centres of the Levant, gambling is a diversion which has a considerable attraction for the Greeks, and more especially for those of the Capital, Gambling. where a number of gambling " hells " are said to thrive. The institution of State lotteries, even for such praiseworthy objects as archaeological exploration, and, more recently, for the increase of the Greek Navy, can also hardly fail to have the undesirable result of encouraging the gambling spirit in the nation generally. As, however, the conversion of the delightful island of Corfu into an Oriental Monte Carlo — proposed some years ago — was strongly opposed in other parts of the Kingdom, the tendency of the nation generally would seem to be averse to gambling, and there is reason to believe that this vice is, so far, confined chiefly to certain circles in the capital. Among outdoor winter amusements at Athens that most in vogue among the " fashionable " set is the equestrian sport termed " fox- hunting," in which one person takes the part of the " fox " Urban and Social Life 149 and is pursued by a number of other riders who are the " hounds." Race meetings are also held in summer on the Podoniphte course in the direction of ^porte'^ Mount Fames, this name being ironically applied to the locality on account of its lack of water and consequent terrible dust. Dust is, indeed, the chief characteristic of Athens and its neighbourhood generally in the dry weather, and it is only of late years that any at all adequate measures have been taken by the municipal authorities to cope with it. On suburban roads, as for instance that between the Piraeus and Athens, the writer has seen it in autumn lying six inches deep ; and the condition of the traveller on arriving at Athens after driving in an open vehicle through five miles of this may perhaps be better imagined than described. Lawn tennis, introduced together with golf by the foreign community of Athens, is also popular in fashionable circles, and there are good courts at the club Athletics. estabUshed near the temple of the Olympian Zeus. Football and cricket present no attractions to the youth of Greece, and the latter game, introduced into Corfu during the British occupation, has gradually died out even there. The old manly sports of wrestling, " putting the stone," etc., once so common a feature of Greek holiday life, now survive only among the denizens of remote villages. The athletic exercises of late years made compulsory in the schools — which already seem to have improved the physique of the rising generation to a marked degree — will, however, no doubt in time revive a liking for manly games and diminish the loafing tendencies hitherto characteristic of the golden youth of the Greek capital. For, unlike his kinsmen of the hill-regions of Greece, who are untiring walkers, the average Athenian, like South-European townsmen generally, will never put himself to this exertion if he can possibly drive, or ride in a tram, and seems unable to understand why anyone should walk for pleasure. The 150 Greece of the Hellenes capital is, accordingly, well supplied with public conveyances, the little two-horsed carriages which ply for hire in the streets and carry four persons, conveying fares up and down Stadion Street for a penny a head. Athens has no public park, and the chief promenades of her citizens are the gardens surrounding the Zappeion Institute, those adjoining the Royal Palace, Promenades ^^^ ^^^ large open space beyond known as " Constitution Square," where one finds the principal hotels, the best cafe, and Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son's useful office. This square constitutes the centre of outdoor life, and on sunny winter afternoons and serene summer evenings hundreds of Athenians saunter up and down or occupy the numerous chairs and tables which impinge on the pavement outside the cafe Zacharatos. Of suburban resorts, the most frequented is New Phaleron, on the Bay of that name, connected with Athens by a fine road called after that benefactor of the nation, the late M. Syngros, who provided the funds for its completion. Phaleron is now not only the marine suburb of the capital but the chief watering-place of Greece, being easily reached either by train or steam tram. The place lacks shade certainly, but the seaward view is ex- quisite, and the bathing delightful. And here, in the summer months, the Athenian gymnasts may be seen in numbers, rowing, diving, and swimming, at which latter exercises they show themselves remarkably expert. Athens possesses two large theatres, the more modern of which was erected about a dozen years ago with funds sub- scribed by Greeks domiciled in London and placed at the disposal of the late King, who also contributed to its support an annual subsidy of ;^4,000. Constructed on the model of the Theatre Royal in the Danish capital, it is comfortable and well appointed, has seating accommodation for a thousand persons, a fireproof stage, and a foyer sufficiently spacious to serve as ball-room. Here a permanent company is maintained possessing a considerable repertory, and a variety of pieces Urban and Social Life 151 are staged during the course of each winter season. The acting is also very creditable notwithstanding the modest salaries paid to actors, even of the first rank, and French, German, and Itahan " stars " also visit the Greek capital from time to time. With the arrival of the warm weather, when the regular theatres are closed, begins the season of the " summer theatres," of which a number are to be found in Athens and its suburbs. In these, light comedy is usually provided by travelling troupes, both native and foreign, who during the winter months make the tour of the other cities of the Levant ; farces and httle plays by minor Greek dramatists being also occasionally represented. Provincial theatres are, as yet, but few and far between. Corfu, however, possesses two, one of which, erected at great expense, is admitted to be the finest in the kingdom ; and at Hermoupolis, the new capital of Syra, may be found both a " winter " and a " summer " theatre. Plays produced in Greece must, in order to be well received, be of good moral tone, as the nation generally has no taste for drama of a questionable character, and foreign artistes who offend in this respect run the risk of being pelted off the stage. There exist in Greece no establishments answering to the public-houses of this country with their adulterated and The Greek stupefying beverages and debasing atmos- Wine Shop, phere ; and though cases of intoxication are not uncommon among men of the labouring class, there is, on the other hand, a total absence of the habitual drunken- ness which degrades so considerable a proportion of the same class in Western Europe. Nor are women ever seen in Greek wine-shops, either as vendors or consumers. The typical " public-house " of Greece is a small tavern owned by the man behind the counter, whose stock-in-trade is in many cases the product of his own vineyard and winepress. Adjoining many of these humble wayside tavernas are gardens roofed with spreading vines and furnished with rough tables and rush-bottomed chairs, and here the 152 Greece of the Hellenes Greek workman or labourer spends a considerable part of his evening leisure, but at little cost, and as a rule with no bad results. For a penny will purchase for him a big tumbler of wine and a handful of olives, in the consumption of which he may spend as many hours as he pleases, and this he will probably supplement with copious draughts of pure water. A Greek also never drinks without partaking of at least a modicum of food. And the oinemboros will have ready on small plates a variety of such small edibles as olives and chick- peas, haricot beans, cubes of young cucumber, or green peppers, fresh cheese, shell or dried fish, with fruits and nuts according to season. In the open air, with the leaves rustling overhead, the Greek workman will make merry for hours over his pint of wine, discussing politics with his companions, or raising his voice from time to time in one of those dismal ditties, pitched in a minor key, in which his contentment finds expression. When he finally decides to leave, and not till then, does the customer offer to pay his score, and as he parts with his modest dhekdra, or penny piece, a cordial " good- night " will be exchanged between him and his genial host. Food and wine are also frequently provided by the same establishment, the bakal — as a grocer and chandler is still termed, as in Turkish times — frequently in^Greece*^^ combining that calling with tavern-keeping, when his shop will be provided with chairs and tables for the accommodation of the customers seeking refreshment, these being by no means always of the humbler classes, for a Greek, whatever his station in life, is always ready to sit down and talk. A cookshop also often forms part of the premises of a bakal, who lets off a room or garden to a cook. Or a cook will go into the same kind of partnership with a vintner who supplies table wine for the customers of the cookshop. Such a combined provision and wineshop will be found in every village, at which the traveller, if not too exclusive in his gastronomic tastes, may satisfy his hunger and thirst, the bakal being quite Urban and Social Life 153 as likely to extol the local spring as to vaunt his own retsindto ; for the Greeks are as great connoisseurs of " Adam's ale " as are their Turkish neighbours, and, like them, distinguish between " light " and " heavy " varieties. The piece de resistance of a Greek bill of fare is almost invariably lamb — lamb stuffed with rice, currants, and koukoundria, or pine-kemels, and roasted whole on the spit in brigand fashion, boiled lamb, or ragout of lamb in which figure Cookerr various succulent vegetables, as also in their turn such fruits as quinces and prunes. Macaroni and pilaf are also common dishes, though the latter as prepared in Greece compares very unfavourably with the product of the cookshops of Smyrna and Stamboul. Most excellent likewise are the young vegetable marrows filled with a farci of rice, minced lamb and savoury herbs, and especially when smothered in a sauce of golden hue composed of yolk of egg and lemon juice, the form in which they are usually presented to the hungry guest. Among the array of edibles displayed in the open-fronted shop of the bakal is usually found a block of that popular and excellent sweetmeat helvd, a compound of crushed sesame seed and honey of a peculiar flaky consistency, on a halfpenny worth of which, eaten with a piece of bread, a Greek working man will contentedly dine. Honey, which is plentiful and usually of excellent quality, is largely employed in the Near East in the preparation of native sweets and cakes in lieu of sugar, unobtainable in Greece at less than 9d. per pound, owing to the high duty, and only used as a great luxury for sweetening coffee. The cakes and sweet dishes of the Greeks, which are excellent, are for the most part very similar to those of the Turks and Armenians, and known by Turkish names, Dishes ^^^ ^^^ ^^^Y ^ound at their best m private houses, where they are prepared with great care, frequently by women who make a living by going from house to house for this purpose. Among these cakes may be mentioned haklavd and katalf. The former is composed 154 Greece of the Hellenes of innumerable layers of the lightest puff-paste, laid one by one in a shallow copper baking-pan, honey and almonds being spread between every few layers ; and the latter of a kind of soft home-made vermicelli formed into little rolls which are baked brown in the oven, the contents being either fruit preserve or goats'-milk cheese. Compotes of fruit also figure largely in the daily menus of private families of the better class. The preserves termed collectively glyko — elsewhere alluded to as being invariably served to callers — are also most carefully prepared by, or under the immediate superintendence of the lady of the house. One of the commonest as well as the most delicious is made with the morella cherry, or sultana grape ; and among the choicer and more luscious varieties are conserves of rose-petals — rodozdchari, of tiny bergamot oranges floating in a clear sugar syrup, of kolokfthi — an attentuated species of vegetable marrow, cut into narrow strips and blended with honey and almonds, and a mysterious compound flavoured with mastic, like white ice-cream in appearance, the ingredients and mode of preparation of which I have hitherto failed to ascertain. Hotels are, of course, now to be found in all the seaports and larger towns of Greece, and at Athens there are at least two de premier ordre. The latter are, however, <( Hotels of Sleeo " patronised chiefly by foreigners. For the humbler class of folk whom business or pleasure occasionally brings to town there are hostelries termed " Hotels of Sleep," where no meals are served, the guests providing themselves with food at one or other of the cookshops always found close by. These hostelries are usually in the vicinity of the railway stations, and together \yith those which in the provincial towns provide accommoda- tion of the same class, are a survival of the han of Turkish days, modernised to the extent of providing such amenities as beds and towels, slippers, and even hair-brushes. The foreigner, however, is seldom under the necessity of Urban and Social Life 155 availing himself of these caravanserais — which, to him, will probably present many drawbacks. For he will almost certainly have taken the precaution of obtaining letters of introduction to the demarch or some other notable of the locality, of, it may be, to the prior of a neighbouring monastery where he will be hospitably welcomed, and — if lucky enough to arrive at a season when the good Fathers are not observing one of their rigorous fasts — entertained with the best fare at the disposal of the convent. The Hellene is indeed uniformly courteous to the foreigner, and especially if he be of British nationality ; and there is in Greece a notable absence of that expectation of tips so prevalent in the neighbouring Italian peninsula, as in the majority of tourist-overrun countries. The Greek language, indeed, appears to possess no name for this institution, for which the Turkish term bakshish has to do duty. In provincial towns, as also in the islands, well-to-do tradespeople and others will, where there Hospitality ^^ ^^ decent inn, gladly take the traveller into their houses, cook for him their choicest dishes, and place their services in everyway at his disposal; while the village priest deems it a favour when his poor hospitality is accepted, and even the peasant will offer the fruits of his garden and a draught of wine of his own vintage. Hospitality in the shape of entertaining friends and neigh- bours at one's own table has, on the other hand, no place in Greek social life — save, of course, among the Europeanised elite of the Capital. One may, for instance — as in the writer's own experience, — be for years on quite intimate terms with Greek families without ever being bidden to partake of either luncheon, dinner, or tea with them. On one occasion I was asked by a Greek friend to a birthday tea she was giving for her young son and his little pla5nnates ; but though my presence at this function involved a journey into the suburbs, my share of the entertainment consisted in watching the little lions feed, for neither a cup of tea nor a slice of the 156 Greece of the Hellenes birthday cake came my way or the way of my companion, whose hospitality the hostess herself frequently enjoyed. On meeting the same lady some years later in England, however, she appeared to have adapted herself to her new environment, and showed herself quite as hospitable as the average Briton. Hospitality as understood in the West, must not, therefore, be looked for in Greece, it being contrary to the customs of the country. Light refreshments are, of course, served at christenings, weddings, and such ceremonial functions, and, as in Turkey, one never pays a call without being offered glykd and Turkish coffee — but that is the hmit. The construction of railways in a country so intersected with mountain ranges as Greece has naturally been a very costly undertaking, and previous to 1869, in^^reec^ when a short line connecting Athens with the Piraeus was opened, the kingdom possessed no railway communication whatever. All journeys to places within a moderate distance of the coast had conse- quently to be made by sea, and even now the coasting steamer is the most popular mode of conveyance. This local passenger traffic is, however, exclusively by the Greek lines of steamboats which possess the monopoly ; and the disregard of time tables, together with the irregularity of their intinerary — which depends entirely on the cargo — prevent European travellers making sea journeys save when visiting the islands, at which hardly any of the foreign lines of steamers call. Nor do the native steamboats ever lie alongside the quays, but anchored at a little distance, thus respecting the time-honoured privileges of the local boatmen to take their toll also of the traveller, however humble. At the present day, however, Greece possesses at least half-a-dozen different railway systems, respectively constructed (1) at the cost of the State, (2) by independent private enterprise, and (3) by private capital with a kilometric guarantee from the Government, which takes a share of the profits. One of these systems. Urban and Social Life 157 besides making the complete circuit of the Peloponnesos, has branches connecting most of the important towns and places of archaeological interest in the peninsula with the Capital. Northern Greece has also now three distinct systems of which that of the Thessahan Company has the reputation of being the best both as regards rolhng stock and punctuality of service. Nearly all these lines, in common with those of Southern Greece, afford the traveller glimpses of magnificent mountain scenery. The Kalavryta branch, for instance, R^lwavs which connects that town with Diakophto — the only cogwheel railway in Greece and a splendid piece of engineering, — winds through a deep gorge, crossing and recrossing the ravine by bridges at dizzy heights, darting through tunnels in mountain sides clad with forests of oak and pine, and spreading before the traveller's delighted gaze a panorama of ever-changing grandeur and beauty. One peculiarity of Greek railways is the lack of proper station accommodation and supervision, as also of any protection by means of fences or otherwise of the lines even in the neighbourhood of towns. Travelling from Athens to Patras, for example, as the train slows down on nearing the latter town where the line passes through the streets to the station — or rather stopping place, a mere shed for the col- lection of tickets — a noisy swarm of hotel touts, porters and loafers crowd the platforms, free fights over the passengers and their luggage being by no means uncommon when at last the train comes to a standstill. Neither is great speed at any time attained on these railways. But we are in the East, where time is no object and no one ever in a special hurry. The management of the passenger department, however, leaves little to complain of, the officials are specially courteous to the foreigner, the fares are not exhorbitant, and the refreshment buffets are now fairly numerous. In the immediate neighbourhood of the Capital there exist also considerable railway facilities for reaching the suburbs. 158 Greece of the Hellenes and steam-trams run to Old and New Phaleron. The attempt made some years ago to introduce motor omnibuses proved a failure ; and, save in the Capital, private motor- cars are as yet unknown in the country, having there been introduced either by members of the Royal Family or by foreign residents. In the country districts the usual vehicle for passenger conveyance is the sousta, an uncovered light spring-cart which carries four persons, its brilliant Travelf colouring recalling the painted carts of Sicily. The artistic decoration of a sousta, however, consists merely of a human hand with outstretched forefinger painted on one or both sides, probably a talisman against the " Evil Eye," though the Greek, when questioned on the subject, is loth to admit the superstition. While the roads of Greece have greatly improved during the last half century, the nature of the country renders many parts still inaccessible to wheel traffic. If one travels at all away from the beaten track it will generally be necessary to avail oneself of the services of an agoydte, as the attendants on hired saddle-beasts are termed. In hilly or mountainous districts the mule is, indeed, the only available means of conveyance, and must often be had recourse to in many parts of the interior where the roads are still mere bridle-paths on torrent beds. The muleteer is usually a chatty, communicative fellow, who walks alongside, the goad he carries in his hand making little difference to the rate of progress, which, whether going uphill or downhill, seldom exceeds three miles an hour. Donkeys are also very numerous, both on the mainland in^GreeceT ^"^ ^^ ^^^ islands; but, unhke the saddle donkeys of Alexandria and Smyrna, they are usually very small, though of late some attempts have been made to improve the breed by the introduction of foreign varieties. They are also largely used as pack-animals, all kinds of merchandise, from garden-stuffs and grain-sacks to building materials, being transported on the backs of these Urban and Social Life 159 much abused, but patient and useful little beasts of burden. In the island of Andros, which possesses no wheeled con- veyance of any description, the donkey is also called upon to perform the function of dust-cart, the refuse of the streets being thrown into huge panniers slung on either side of his wooden saddle. Save at more civilised Syra, where the saddle donkeys are, as at Smyrna, supplied with a smart carpet-covered sella studded with brass-headed nails at peak and crupper, the rider also must bestride the high wooden samdri similar to that carried by the beasts of burden, for which a loop of rope does duty as stirrup, another serving for rein. But the hempen headstalls of donkeys, mules, and horses alike will invariably be found decorated with strings of blue glass beads as charms against the baleful influence of that most dreaded of all occult powers — the " Evil Eye." CHAPTER XIII FESTAL LIFE The observances connected with the numerous festivals of the Greek Church play an important part in the social life of the country. Utilitarians may "Ho^rda^." exclaim against their frequency and the consequent interruptions to business occa- sioned by them. Seekers after the picturesque, on the other hand, would regret to see them fall into desuetude, consecrated as these festivals are by traditions extending in some cases over 2,000 years. And among the peasant population, at least, these time-honoured customs are likely long to endure. For rehgion, in its outward forms, at any rate, still possesses as firm a hold as ever on the nation generally, and a Greek would as soon think of feasting on a fast day as of failing to honour by abstinence from labour any of the Saints' Days of the Calendar. If requested by a foreign employer to per- form any pressing service on such a festival, the workman's reply is, " We dare not, Afendi, the Saint would strike us ! " Though Christmas is, with the Orthodox, a much less important festival than Easter or the New Year, it is every- where in Greece celebrated with various Christmas observances, some of which are peculiar to the season, and others similar to those attending all the greater Church festivals. CaroUers pervade the streets on Christmas Eve singing their odes descriptive of the incidents which attended the wondrous events of the " Christ-births," ^ carrying little boat-shaped collecting- boxes for the coins expected in return for the good wishes to the archontes with which these odes invariably terminate. Among the peasants of Albanian origin Christmas is, however, observed with ceremonies that recall those of more northern countries as well as with others similar to those 160 Festal Life 161 of the Vlach and Bulgarian neighbours of the Greeks. In the Albanian villages the housewife will make, in addition to other sweet cakes, a batch in the shape of rings Christmas which are called kolendhra, the one first Customs. shaped being termed the " cake of the oxen," this being hung on the wall of the byre " for luck." There it is allowed to remain until the farmer has yoked his oxen for the spring ploughing, when it is taken down and broken on the yoke, the pieces being divided between the pair. Fire ceremonies also play an important part in the Christmas observances of the Albanian peasantry, and on Christmas Eve a great log is brought into the house at sunset, when all the members of the family rise to greet it with the words, " Welcome, our log ! — God has destined thee for the fire. Bring with thee good luck to us and to our beasts!" Before the family sit down to supper a spoonful of food from every dish provided is placed upon the burning log. Some branches of a cherry-tree are also put on the fire, and, when half consumed, are removed and kept till the Eve of Epiphany, when they are again thrown on the hearth, the ashes being on the following day strewn on the vineyards to ensure a good harvest. The Greek New Year's Day is dedicated to St. Basil, who, hke St. George, is specially connected in popular and religious legend with Caesarea — or, as it is locally Day^* ^ called, Kaisariyeh — in Cappodocia ; ^ and on the Eve of St. Basil children go from house to house singing odes in honour of the Saint, which invariably 1 Pilgrimages are made twice a year by the Orthodox to the monas- tery of this saint, situated on a mountain in the neighbourhood of Caesarea, the first on Saturday in Holy Week, and the second at Pentecost, and to the preformance of this religious duty the following beliefs are attached : If the pilgrimage is made barefooted, it absolves the penitent from any special sin that may be troubling his mind. If made seven times on foot during a person's lifetime, it ensures the forgiveness of all his sins. And to partake of the Eucharist at the monastery church is deemed far more meritorious than to observe this rite at the church at Csesarea dedicated to St. Basil. II— (2385) 162 Greece of the Hellenes conclude with some complimentary lines to the occupants, wishing them " A good year," and requesting largesse. St. Basil is described in these songs as a school-boy whose touch quickens inanimate objects with new life, as in the following — " The month's first day, the year's first day, the first of January, The circumcision day of Christ, the day, too, of St. Basil ! St. Basil, see, is coming here, from Cappadocia coming, A paper in his hand he holds, and carries pen and inkhorn. With pen and inkhorn doth he write, and reads he from the paper. ' Say, Basil, say, whence comest thou, and whither art thou wending ? ' ' I from my home have now come forth, and I to school am going.' ' Sit down and eat, sit down and drink, sit down and sing thou for us ! ' ' 'Tis only letters that I learn, of singing I know nothing.' ' O then, if you your letters know, say us your Alpha, Beta,' And as he leant upon his staff, to say his A Ipha, Beta, Although the staff was dry and dead, it put forth shoots and branches," etc. By the Athenians the Eve of St. Basil is observed as a species of Saturnalia which in some of its aspects recalls the festival of the " Befana " at Rome. Throughout the afternoon of this day Hermes Street more especially is thronged with pedestrians of all ages armed with rattles, whistles, penny trumpets and other ear-torturing devices, and passers- by find themselves assailed with paper confetti and other harmless but annoying missiles. Towards evening the boat-hke collecting-boxes are thrust by bands of youths at every well-to-do person met with, while later bands of musicians serenade both private houses and hotels with their " Song of St. Basil," to which improvised lines are often added to suit each particular circumstance. Those niggardly with their largesse on such occasions may indeed occasionally be exposed to no very gentle criticism by these Hellenic satirists. Cakes somewhat similar to our " Twelfth- cakes " have been prepared for the occasion New Year's Cakes ^^ every household, some being also presented to friends and neighbours, and towards midnight are cut with great ceremony by the head of the household. Like our Twelfth-cakes, they also contain a coin, Festal Life 163 varying in value according to the worldly wealth of the family ; and the recipient of the lucky slice containing this may look confidently forward to a prosperous year. In some localities the cake-cutting ceremony is supplemented by the throwing on the ground of a pomegranate — the emblem of plenty — the seeds of which as it bursts being scattered in all directions. The dawn of the New Year is heralded by the sounding in Constitution Square of the reveille by the drums and trumpets . of the garrison, sunrise being subsequently Ceremony"^ greeted by a salute of twenty-one guns from the battery on the " Hill of the Nymphs," and the streets soon resound with the cheerful strains of military bands. Towards ten o'clock the King and the Royal Family, attended by their bodyguard of Evzonoi, with the members of the corps diplomatique, the Ministers and Deputies, and crowds of townsfolk of every degree, betake themselves to the Metropolitan Church, at the doorway of which the Archbishop presents a copy of the Gospels to each member of the royal party who in turn reverently kiss the sacred book. After the conclusion of the Te Deum the King returns to the Palace to receive the New Year congratulations of all the State functionaries, from members of the Holy Synod and Cabinet Ministers to college professors. At noon a levee is held, at which only mihtary and naval officers attend ; and half an hour later the Queen holds a drawing room — ^termed in Greek hesomdna, or hand-kissing — at which some of the ladies of the Royal family, as also some of the company, make a point of wearing the Greek national dress. The afternoon is occupied with visits and card-leaving, every- body being occupied in wishing everybody else not " a Happy New Year," but " many years." Bonamddes, or New Year's gifts, are also de rigueur between friends, the shop windows being crowded with articles suitable for presents, and every servant and shop employee expects, and receives, a gift of money. 164 Greece of the Hellenes The next great Church festival is that of the Epiphany, or, as it is termed by the Greeks, the " Feast of the Lights." On this day also takes place in many localities the^"L^hts°" ^ ceremony termed the "Blessing of the Waters," which is perhaps most effective when witnessed in the picturesque and busy harbour of Syra. On the Eve of this festival the priests go round their parishes " blessing " all the houses with holy water, a sprig of sweet basil being used as aspergillus. In the evening, companies of boys carrying lanterns parade the streets singing " Odes " dramatically describing the accomplishment of this rite on the person of Christ, receiving in return for their songs the usual gifts of sweet biscuits and leptd, or small coins. The following literal translation of one of these quaint odes, current in loannina — " St. John's Town " — may serve as a specimen of this class of religious ballads. " O come and learn the wonder great, the marvel great that happened. How Christ did condescend for men, for them did greatly suffer ; How down to Jordan's brink He went, and into Jordan's waters. With the desire to be baptised there by St. John the Baptist. ' Come, O my John, come hither now, do thou straightway baptise me — For in this awful wonder thou mayst serve me and attend me.' ' My Lord, I all unworthy am to gaze upon Thy beauty, Or to behold the holy Dove that o'er Thy Head is hovering. Ah Lord ! 'tis not for sinful me to touch thy Heaven-sent Person, For the wide earth and all the heavens submit them to Thy orders.'' ' Come hither, O my John, to me, nor do thou longer tarry. For to this Mystery we perform thou shalt become the sponsor ! ' Then John baptised his Lord forthwith, that might be cleansed and purged. The sin that Adam first had sinned, and that it might be cancelled ; Confounded, too, that Enemy, foiled that Thrice-accursed^ Beguiler of Mankind, in Hell enchained to dwell forever ! " By eight o'clock on the morn of this festival, the great Church of the Transfiguration at Syra will be densely crowded with the Orthodox of all sorts and conditions, from local ^ This is a very common name for Satan, and occurs as the title of a Greek folktale, included in my translations of Greek Folkpoesy, Vol. II, pp. 99, etc., and Annotation No. 21. 1 Festal Life 165 dignitaries in dress suits and white ties, to rough sailors and fishermen. On a platform erected in the nave is placed, adorned with leaves and branches, a pictorial representation of the Baptism of Christ, together with a large silver bowl of water over which is suspended a dove. On the termination of the Liturgy the officiating clergy in their gorgeous vest- ments, served by a layman in swallow-tailed coat, mount the platform, and the Epistle and Gospel of the day are read. The bishop or archimandrite then blesses the bowl of water, after which there ensues a rush on the part of the congregation to secure some of the sanctified fluid in the cups and glasses with which they have come provided. A procession is then formed, a band strikes up, and the clergy, the Wat«-s. bearing the great Cross and the symbohcal six-winged angels and preceded by acolytes with silver censers and lamps, move majestically down to the water-side between a double file of soldiers with fixed bayonets. In front a space has been left clear of the shipping which, moored around, is gay with bunting and crowded with excited spectators. The bishop then casts into the open water the great Cross. This is eagerly dived for, seized, struggled for, captured and recaptured, until one lucky swimmer finally succeeds in bringing the precious object to land. For the rest of the day the Cross is the property of this much envied man who, escorted by a number of his friends, carries it through the streets of the town, receiving contributions in money at every door in acknowledgment of his feat. As between New Year's Day and the " Blessing of the Waters " — which is held to ensure the setting in of fine weather — ^no sailing-master will steer out of the harbour of Syra, it is at this season usually crowded with shipping. The Greek observance of Carnival varies according to locality, and it is only in the Capital and the larger provincial towns that it is at all observed as in Roman Catholic countries. During the last week of this festal season there may, however, be seen in the streets of Athens, in addition 166 Greece of the Hellenes to the usual Carnival features, improvised stages on which are enacted rude little dramas, possibly a survival of Thespis and his cart ; while a possible reminiscence of Customs. ^^^ Bacchic processions may be found in the stage camel which is made to perambulate the main thoroughfares. Every evening parties of men in fancy dresses parade the streets on foot or in carriages with music and song, and according to accepted custom, may — as also at Smyrna — request admission to any house if vouched for by one of the party, usually a relative or friend of the family. Sometimes such a visit is expected, and provision will then be made beforehand for the entertainment of these self-invited guests. In the afternoon and evening of the last Sunday of Carnival — ^which with the Greeks constitutes also the last day of that season — Constitution Square is the nucleus of gaiety, being crowded with masquers on foot and in hired carriages, for which exhorbitant prices are charged, the festivities culminating in a masked ball at the Theatre. The first day of Lent is termed by the Greeks " Clean Monday," the Orthodox having on the morning of this day been shriven ; and at Athens the whole Monday"" population repairs about midday to the various suburban resorts to keep the simple festival of the Koulouma. The groves of Kephisia and the hills in all directions are thronged with family parties picnick- ing on Lenten fare of bread and olives, and in the afternoon the shepherds and milkmen, together with groups of fivzonoi, perform their country dances in the vicinity of the Theseum and the Temple of the Olympian Zeus, as in olden days did the votaries of the goat-footed sylvan deity. No Greek festival approaches, however, in importance that of Easter in which the various solemnities of the preceding Holy Week culminate. The Eve of Palm Week. Sunday is sacred to Lazarus, and the songs sung in the streets on this occasion present a curious medley of dialogue between Christ, Martha, Mary, and Festal Life 167 Lazarus, and complimentary speeches and good wishes to the neighbours. On the following day, which is called Vaia, it is permissible to eat a certain kind of fish called kolio,'^ and on Holy Thursday every housewife boils a number of eggs with cochineal for the approaching Easter festival, and bakes a quantity of cakes and sweet biscuits, many of which have in the centre one of these dyed eggs. At the hour when the Gospels are read, eggs to the number of the house- hold, including the servants, and one over, are placed in a napkin, and carried to church to be blessed by the priest, the supplementary egg being laid before the Eikonostasion, or place of the Holy Pictures, and afterwards kept as a remedy against all kinds of ills. Many of these eggs have traced upon them in elegant characters texts of Scripture and other sacred words, together with the date. The services of Good Friday — " The Great Friday," as it is termed by the Orthodox — ^begin before midnight on Thursday when the so-called " Twelve Friday ^^ Gospels " — ^twelve passages relating to the Passion selected from the four Gospels — are read, while on " the Great Friday " the " Great Hours " take the place of the ordinary Hours in the services of the Church. On this day every Orthodox man, woman and child visits a church to reverence the epitdphios, a silk or satin cloth on which is pictorially represented the entombment of the Saviour, stretched on a sort of bier placed in the nave and decorated with flowers. The first time I had an opportunity of witnessing this Easter Eve service was at the Metropolitan Church at Salonica, while still an Ottoman city. On entering, we were conducted to stalls facing the archiepiscopal throne, where sat the Archbishop in his resplendent sacerdotal robes 1 On Palm Sunday children may be heard singing a ditty which may be thus rendered — " Palm, Palm, Palm Sunday, Koli6 fish we eat to-day. And when comes next Sunday round We'll eat red-dyed eggs so gay ! " 168 Greece of the Hellenes and mitre, glittering with gold and gems. Near us was extended the epitdphios to which the Orthodox worshippers, as they entered the sacred building, advanced reverently to kiss the semblance of the dead Saviour. Every class of the Orthodox community was represented in the congregation, from the polished Russian and Roumanian diplomat and Greek notable to the ragged and bare-footed gamin, who, unreproved by pompous verger or beadle, pushed his way through the throng to take the place to which, as a son of the Church, he had an equal right with every other worshipper. When the ritual of chant and prayer had been performed, lighted tapers were distributed, the dead Christ was taken up by the clergy, and carried outside and round the walled courtyard of the Church, followed by the whole congregation. As we again approached the great western doors, after making the circuit of the church, the light of the many tapers disclosed what we had not previously observed, a dozen or so of zaptiehs seated, rifle in hand, within the courtyard gateway — the guard sent by the Turkish authorities to prevent any dis- turbance of the rites of the Christians by the Jewish populace, here made bold by their superior numbers. At Athens, how- ever, when the Easter Eve Burial Dirge has been sung, the procession, preceded by torchbearers and a military band with muffled drums playing appropriately lugubrious music, issues from every church of importance. On its route the windows, balconies, and in some cases also the walls of the houses are illuminated. The priests wear their most gorgeous vestments, one carrying a copy of the Gospels from which he at intervals intones a passage, another bearing aloft the Great Cross. Behind the clergy is borne the sacred Bier, and ever and anon rises on the air the doleful refrain of Kyrie eleison ! Kyrie eleison ! AU the spectators in the streets carry lighted tapers and, as the procession approaches, raise them on high, thus giving to the ceremonial a setting of enthusiastic solemnity. The Resurrection is commemorated by the Eastern Church Festal Life 169 in a service which begins shortly before midnight on Saturday, when a ceremony takes place similar to that performed in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. On the stroke of midnight the Archbishop or chief officiating The priest presents to the congregation a lighted ^^Morn ^°" taper with the words, " Arise, and take the flame from the Eternal Light, and praise Christ, who is risen from the dead ! " " Truly is He risen ! " enthusiastically respond the congregation as those in front eagerly advance and, lighting their tapers from his, pass on the flame to those behind them until the taper of every wor- shipper is kindled. And then through the church resounds the triumphant Resurrection-song — " Christ has arisen from the dead. By death He death hath trampled on, To those laid in the graves Life having given ! " ^ The bells now ring jubilantly, cannon and small arms add to the glad uproar without, and, as the congregation disperse, the Easter greeting, " Christ is risen," accompanied by a kiss on the cheek, is given by one friend to another, responded to by another kiss and the words, " Truly He is risen ! " At the hour of early Mass the churches are again crowded with worshippers who have been shriven on the previous day and now partake of the Communion. At its conclusion more salutations of " Christ is risen " are exchanged as they wend their way homewards to breakfast on red eggs, Easter cakes, and coffee. The Paschal lamb will already in every household have been slain in readiness for the noontide feast, and its blood sprinkled on the doorposts. And now, as an old English writer says, " they run into such excesses of mirth and riot, agreeable to the light and vain humour of that people, that they seem to be revenged of their late sobriety, ^ XpurrSi aviari) ^K veKpwv Oavdrcf) ddvarov irar'fitTas Kal raits iv rots fivfi/xas fw^»' x*/""'''/* **'*'*• 170 Greece of the Hellenes and to make compensation to the devil for their late temper- ance and mortification towards God."^ The day is given up to relaxation and feasting, the most important event for the women and girls especially being the public promenade in the afternoon, for which they don their new summer dresses, the preparation of which has, it may well be sup- posed, much occupied their minds during the season of mortification. The Greeks would seem to have assimilated to a greater extent than any other Christian nation the heathen festivals and observations of their ancestors, and the Survfvals classical genii loci have, in many instances, only slightly changed their names. At sanctuaries formerly dedicated to the Sun {'HXto?), homage is now paid to the Prophet — or rather " Saint " — Elias, and many a mountain summit and sea-girt promontory is, as of old, sacred to him. Power over rain is also attributed to this Saint, and in time of drought people flock to his churches and monasteries to supplicate the Sun-god in his other character of " The Rainy (ofi^pio^) Zeus." Athena, the divine Virgin {'rrap0evo<;) , is now the Panaghia {Travayla), the "All Holy" Virgin Mother, who has also usurped the place of Eos, the Dawn or " Mother of the Sun," who opens for him the gates of the East. The Christian cele- brations of the annual festivals of these saints are, conse- quently, in many cases merely survivals of pagan anniver- saries, held at the church or monastery dedicated to the saint who has replaced the heathen divinity. At the more celebrated of these Panegh^ria, as they are termed, a kind of fair is held, resorted to by crowds of visitors from the country round and the adjacent " Paneghf na. ' ' ^^^j^g^ ^j^q j^a^y ^g geen wending their way along the mountain-paths leading to the monastery, men and women mounted on mules or donkeys, 1 Sir Paul Ricaut, The Present State of the Greek and Armenian Churches. Festal Life 171 or leading horses laden with panniers full of little ones. On arriving, the devotees at once repair to the church, and, after lighting the customary taper, their first care is to pay to the shrine of the Panaghia or other tutelar saint any vow which they may have made during the past year in earnest of benefits asked or received through his or her mediation. These offerings often take the shape of a gold or silver aureole for the eikon of the Saint, or a hand or arm of thin silver, which is fastened on that part of the painting. Gold coins, too, are often stuck on the cheek of the Panaghia, and napkins, embroidered with a representation in gold thread of the Queen of Heaven, presented to her shrine in return for favours received. As the accommodation afforded by the neighbouring villages is generally quite inadequate for the number of pilgrims, many sleep in the church, and the votive offerings which the visitors leave behind in return for this indulgence constitute quite a little revenue for the monks or priests who are the custodians of the shrine. Their pious duties accomplished, the pilgrims turn their attention to feasting and merry-making. For at meal-times the whole company, throwing off for the time being their ordinary exclusiveness, unite in a gigantic picnic on the green-sward, the good things they have brought with them being supplemented by purchases from the numerous hawkers of fruits, sweets, and cakes whom such an event is sure to attract to the neighbourhood. Dealers in other wares, too, are not lacking, who find plenty of customers among the female portion of the assembly for their gum-mastic, combs, little mirrors and cosmetics; purchasers of the last- mentioned articles may occasionally be found hidden behind the giant bole of a plane-tree putting a few finishing touches to their eyes or cheeks before joining in the revelry. Music, singing, dancing, and story-telling are the chief amusements, which are kept up to what is considered in the East a late hour. At dawn, however, they are all astir again for early Mass, to which they are summoned by the convent 172 Greece of the Hellenes bell, or the s^mandro,^ a suspended board struck by a mallet. Family Panegh^ria are also celebrated in some parts of the country and in the islands on the " name-day " of the paterfamilias. The housewife on the eve of << The Beggar's Cake " ^^^^ ^^y bakes five loaves which, after having been taken to church and blessed, are cut up and distributed to the poor. On certain feast days a large cake, called a peta, is prepared for the use of the family, and a similar one is made for the beggars who may call during the day. To refuse a piece to any one who may ask for it would, it is believed, bring all manner of misfortune to the house. A beggar is, indeed, never at any time sent away from even the poorest cottage door without at least a handful of olives or an onion. And I have heard that, during a period of scarcity caused by the failure of the grain harvest in Thessaly some years ago, it was no uncommon thing for a beggar to exchange the pieces of bread which he had received at the doors of the wealthy for some fruit or vegetables from a cottager. The Sacred Fountains (^K'^iaajxaTo) have also their yearly festivals, held on the day dedicated to the patron saint who has supplanted the local divinity. Circum- Fomiteins. stances of various import have conferred upon many springs within the walls of Constantinople the reputation of possessing healing power, but a romantic and solitary situation in the neighbourhood of a cavern or grotto is the usual characteristic of an ' Aghiasma. On the occasion of these festivals, multitudes flock to the fountains, bringing with them their sick to drink the waters. ^ Various writers on Greece and Turkey have asserted that the use of the symandro is due to the prohibition of bells by the Turks. That the s'^mandro was however in common use prior to the Turkish conquest is illustrated by the following lines from a contemporary Greek ballad describing the Conquest of Constantinople — " Haghia Sofia is taken, too, they've seized the famous Minster Which has three hundred svmandro, bells sixty-two of metal." Festal Life 173 These springs do not, however, as a rule, possess medicinal qualities, but owe their healing virtues solely to belief in the patronage of the tutelar saint. The shrubs and bushes in the vicinity are usually found decorated with tufts of hair and scraps of clothing, affixed as reminders by suppliants for the saint's favours. The caves in which the crystal drops of water appear to be distilled from the living rock were no less delighted in by the nymphs of antiquity than were the perennial springs ; but all such natural temples are now appropriated by the Virgin Queen of Heaven, and a Panaghia Spelaiotissa, or " Virgin of the Grotto," now receives from the Greek peasant women honours similar to those paid in classical times to the nymphs of whose temples she has usurped possession. The Feast of the Annunciation, on which the Orthodox generally make high holiday, assumes in certain localities the character of a Paneghyri, and especially Day^arSs. ^* Tenos, that island being honoured with the possession of a miracle-working Virgin whose image was, in 1821, discovered in the waters of a fountain near the Cathedral church of the Evangelistria. Thither flock twice every year, on Annunciation Day and on the Feast of the Assumption, the sick and the afflicted, together with a larger number of those who are whole. Already on the eve of the festival the courtyard and steps of the Cathedral are crowded with votaries, while down in the crypt lie huddled in their rags on the stone floor those who hope to obtain healing by passing the night there in a foetid atmosphere.* Within the church some of the clergy hold platters for contributions, and at intervals, crosses to be kissed by the devout, while the deacons take down the names of those desirous of participating in certain special ceremonies. After nightfall, the church, the houses of the little town and ^ Cures similar to those effected at Lourdes, are, it is said, of not infrequent occurrence at Tenos when the disorder is merely of a nervous character. 174 Greece of the Hellenes the ships in the harbour scintillate with myriads of Hghts reflected in the surrounding waters, while in and around the church, as also in the streets and in the surrounding gardens and fields, lie, wrapped in their cloaks, singly, or in family groups, the pilgrims for whom no accommodation can be found in the overcrowded inns and private houses. _ At dawn all this great concourse — which not infrequently ■ numbers some 60,000 souls — are already astir and performing their religious duties preliminary to the chief function of Annunciation Day, the grand procession. With crosses, banners, swinging censers and chanting priests in gorgeous vestments, it emerges from the church, descends the wide marble steps between the marble lions of St. Mark — a legacy of Venetian rule, — ^winds slowly through the streets of the little town down to the shore and back to the sacred portals, amidst a surging crowd of the Orthodox representing many different tj^pes, and an even greater divergence of costume. For as this festival at Tenos draws pilgrims not only from the Greek mainland but from all the coastlands and islands of the iEgean between Crete and Constantinople, it offers the most favourable opportunity possible for obtaining an idea of how varied and picturesque was national costume generally in the East in the first half of last century. With the return of the procession to the church the crowd breaks up, and its various elements abandon themselves to the above described diversions, which are common to all Paneghyria. The sacred banner of Greek Independence having been in 1821 unfurled at Kalavryta by Bishop Germanos on the Feast of the Annunciation, this festival is " Independence j^ade by the Hellenes generally the occasion of a double celebration, national as well as religious. In Athens, for instance, eloquent patriotic addresses are annually delivered to various gatherings of townsfolk, there is great firing of cannon from the batteries of the city, flags flutter in the breeze in all directions, while in the Cathedral a solemn commemorative service takes place, at Festal Life 175 which the King and Royal Family attend in state. A levee is subsequently held at the Palace at which all the notabilities of Athenian Society, native and foreign, and all the chief State functionaries, civil as well as naval and military, assemble, as on New Year's Day, to pay their respects to the Hellenic monarchy. St. George being the patron saint of the Greeks, his festival is also duly honoured. During the reign of the late King, whose name day it of course was, St. George's ' DaT^^ ^ ^^y received at Athens additional honours. Notwithstanding, however, his distinguished position in Orthodox haghiology, St. George is, in the popular songs and stories relating to him, chiefly remarkable for his exceedingly acquisitive disposition and amenability to bribery in the shape of oil and candles, ever ready to give his saintly aid to the highest bidder for it whether implored by human beings or animals, and whether for a good purpose, or for one in the highest degree questionable. The chief diversions of the pilgrims and holiday-makers on these festive occasions, as also of the rural population at all times, are dancing and singing ; for the dance and the song are still at the present day as common characteristics of sunny Hellas as they were in olden times. In the larger towns and in some of the islands the dances in vogue are more or less those of Europe generally. But in the rural districts the native dances are still popular, the most common varieties of these being the Syrtos, the Tsamikos, ^ and the Leventikos, all of which are, as a rule, danced in the open air. In the first, in which both men and women take part, either together or separately, the dancers stand in a curved line connected by handkerchiefs of which each holds a corner. The steps are few and the movements slow and sedate, the women and girls invariably dancing with modest mien and downcast eyes. The leader, who stands at the right extremity of the line, ^ The dance of the Tsams, or Chams, as the southern Albanians are termed. 176 Greece of the Hellenes draws it this way and that, the figures of the dancers swaying with the rhythm of the accompanying song. At Megara and some other places this dance is varied by the hands of the performers being Unked together across each alternate dancer, the leader grasping with her left hand the left hand of her neighbour who, with her right hand takes the right hand of the third, and so on. This method is termed the klistos horos, or " closed dance," and men, married women and girls form respectively separate sets for its performance. On the Tuesday of Easter week crowds of visitors from Athens repair to the township of Megara to witness the perform- ance of this dance by the women, who here still wear the brightly-coloured and picturesque native dress. The Tsamikos is danced by men only. The performers are connected by handkerchiefs, as in the syrtos horost but the dancing is all done by the occupant of the right-hand extremity of the line, the rest, as they follow him, merely marking the rhythm with their feet and singing. The leader meanwhile moves backwards and forwards performing a variety of steps — ^leaping, falling on one knee, performing feats of equilibrium, and waving a handkerchief with his free hand. When fatigued with these exertions he cedes his place to the performer on his left, and each in turn endeavours to surpass his fellows in feats of agility. This dance has many local varieties with special names, one of which is supposed to be a survival of the Pyrrhic dance of Albania. This has all the characteristics of a war dance, and is much affected by soldiers of both races. At the bivouac, or before the wayside hostelry, wherever indeed an opportunity offers, will gather a group of youths with lissome bodies, and it may be long classic faces, who, forming a ring, circle round interminably, leaping and shouting to the rhythm of their own wild songs. The Leventikos is of a quite different character. Two men, or women, stand a few feet apart facing in the same direction and perform steps consisting of forward and backward movements with occasional upward leaps, the dancers clapping Festal Life 177 their hands throughout to mark the measure and maintaining their original distance from one another, at intervals returning to the spot from which they started. The music with which these rural dances are most generally accompanied is supplied by a primitive kind of mandolin, the three-stringed oval viol, the reed pipe and the drum, and also by the voice. Indeed, when women and girls dance by themselves on ordinary occasions it is, as a rule, to the accom- paniment of their own voices alone. The songs reserved for such occasions are different for men and women, those peculiar to the men being often of a martial nature, especially in the case of the Tsamikos, or Pyrrhic dance. The dancing-songs of the women and girls are often of a humorous, and occasion- ally of a pathetic character ; but for the most part they deal with the romantic side of rural and pastoral hfe, and are full of the rich imagery of flowers, fruit, gold, silver and jewels, characteristic of Greek love-songs generally. The majority are sung antiphonically by two sets of voices, or in the form of a solo and chorus. Very frequently they form a dialogue between a youth and maiden as in the following-^ [Strophe.) " O Lassie mine, with dusky brow. Wilt thou no pity for me show ? [Antistrophe.) Why still stand with scornful air, While I am dying of despair ? Lean from, thy lattice, lassie mine. They steal the blossoms from thy bine ! (Ant.) If forth I lean, what think' st to gain ? Thou wilt get naught to ease thy pain. Come, lassie, to thy doorway then. An eagle's carrying off thy hen ! {Ant.) And if I do, what gain have you ? — Rake, with your fez cocked all askew ! Come to thy porch, and be not coy. Long may'st thou live, thy mother's joy ! {Ant.) And if I come, what wilt thou gain ? — That will not rid thee of thy pain I O lassie mine, with dusky brow. Why art so cruel to me now ? {Ant.) Who has kissed thy lips, my dear? — Lips extolled both far and near I 12— (2385) 178 Greece of the Hellenes One who so sweetly sang to me, But now has journey'd o'er the sea. (Ant.) Say, what can I find to send, To my love, my faithful friend ? Should I an apple send, 'twould dry ; A thirty -petalled rose, 'twould die ; (Ant.) A quince, it soon would shrivelled lie, And he would gaze on it, and sigh. My tears unto my love I'll send. Which from my eyes stream without end, (Ant.) Upon this rose-red kerchief, see, And let him send it back to me I " In another class of dancing-songs every line is alternated with a refrain ; and in the following specimen from Thessaly will be found expressed the idea contained in Shakespeare's exquisite lines beginning, " Tell me, where is Fancy bred ? " (Strophe.) " Now would I set a dance a-foot, — (Antistrophe.) My early-wedded lassie! That all the world may learn it, — Betrothed so young, my lassie / May learn it, and take heed to them,^ — My early-wedded lassie ! How Love doth seize upon us : — Betrothed so young, my lassie I It through the eyes takes hold on us, — My early-wedded lassie ! And roots itself within the heart, — Betrothed so young, my lassie I Puts forth its roots and lifts its crest, — My early-wedded lassie I It's green and leafy branches, — Betrothed so young, my lassie ! Bursts out in blossoms red and gay. My early-wedded lassie ! The flowers of Love these blossoms, — Betrothed so young, my lassie ! And in the bosoms of these flowers, — My early-wedded lassie I The bees are ever sipping, — Betrothed so young, my lassie I " CHAPTER XIV CLASSIC SURVIVALS Transformed though we have found so many of the old classical divinities to have been into Madonnas and Christian saints, a goodly number still survive in their ancient forms and endowed with exclusively pagan attributes. The " Genius " (o-toix^Iov) still haunts " Spring and vale. Edged with poplar pale," and is often both heard and seen by lonely shepherd, belated traveller, or village maiden who has put off until sunset her daily task of drawing water at the sylvan spring. To the first he may appear as a man-eating monster, but the last he invites in seductive language to visit the beautiful palace in which he resides beneath the water of his well or fountain. Some Stoicheia, like the hamadryads of old, dwell in the trees, but have the same propensities as their brethren inhabit- ing the mountains, rocks, and waters, and can only be slain by that popular hero of Greek folk-song, " The Widow's Son," or by the youngest of three brothers ; and many accounts of such contests are to be met with both in folk- ballad and folk-tale. These Stoicheia are evidently the sur- vivors of the beings referred to by St. Paul as " the weak and beggarly elements whereunto ye desire again to be in bond- age " ; the " rulers of the darkness of this world " ; the " rudiments of the world," etc, ; and the translation of the word aroLx&la as " rudiments " or " elements," which has also been followed in the Revised Version, completely obscures what appears to be far more probably the meaning of these 179 180 Greece of the Hellenes passages. '^ In the Apostle's use of the phrase rh arotxeia rov Koa-jxov, he seems to attribute a distinct personaUty to these genii, or spirits of the universe. The Drakos, though he resembles the Stoicheion in his characteristics of haunting mountainous and lonely places, and waging war against mortals, in other respects closely resembles the Rakshasa of Deccan tales, the Troll of Scan- dinavia, and the Giant of our own nursery stories. Like the generahty of these creations of popular fancy, he is big and stupid, and easily outwitted by a crafty and courageous hero. These heroes are, like the slayers of Stoicheia, generally widows' sons, or the youngest of three brothers, but a Beardless Man also plays a prominent part in such adventures. The Drakos has also sometimes a wife, the Drakissa, who is endowed with propensities similar to those of her husband. The Nereids, Lamias, and Sirens have also survived, and display very much the same propensities as their classical prototypes. The Nereids, though they occupy in the popular imagination of the Greeks a place similar to the Fairies of more northern countries, and are like them proverbial for their beauty, differ from them in being always of the full stature of mortals, and also in being almost universally malevolent. Like the Stoicheia, they haunt fountains, wells, rivers, mountains, sea-caves, and other lonely places, and generally shun human society. Though, as a rule, solitary in their habits, they may occasionally be seen dressed in white, dancing in companies in moonlit glades, or on the glistening sands of lonely isles and promontories. It is fatal to see them crossing a river, unless a priest be at hand to read passages of Scripture, and so counteract the spells of the " Devil's Daughters," as they are sometimes called. It is usual, however, to propitiate the Nereids by some complimentary epithet, such as " the Beautiful " or " the Good Ladies," in the same way as the Furies were formerly termed the Evmenides, and as the ill-omened owl is, at the 1 See Geldart, Modern Greek, pp. 201-5. I Classic Survivals 181 present day, euphemistically called the " Bird of Joy " {xapoTrovki). They are said to have the power of banefully affecting women of whose beauty they are jealous, and to be in the habit of carrying off young children, if they are allowed to approach their haunts unprotected. Their fancy for new-born infants is, as I have already noted in the chapter dealing with family ceremonies, a source of great anxiety to mothers and nurses. All kinds of maladies are attributed to the malevolence of the " Beautiful Ladies," and the women and children thus afflicted are termed " possessed" {vvfji And Charon thinks within himself by treachery he'll conquer. Then trips he up young Digenes, and on the ground he throws him, And his poor mother, left forlorn, the draught of poison swallowed." Very significant of the turbulence of the great vassals of the Emperor are the concluding lines of a ballad from Amorgos relating the imprisonment of a certain Konstantino, of whom the other nobles were jealous. His father hears of this, and releasing him from prison — " His son he seizes by the hand, and to the king he leads him. ' O see'st thou here, my lord the king, see'st thou this Konstantino ? If thou should'st do him any harm, or if thou should'st destroy him, Then will I slay thee, O my king, yea, with thy queen I'll slay thee, Constantinople, thy fair town, with herds of swine I'll fill it ! ' " So far as they as yet have been collected, the historical ballads are more numerous than the historical legends. But of one of these last, belonging to Thrace and to the approaching end of the Byzantine Empire (1370), I must give at least some outlines in a few brief passages. It is a story of the betrayal to the Turks of the castle of a Greek prince, betrothed to a daughter of the Emperor of Constantinople — " There had come to Stenemacho from beyond the Balkans a Bul- garian family who gave out that they were relatives of the Krai of Bulgaria, but having found the Ottoman yoke insupportable, they had left their country to seek an asylum with the Christian King of Kale. Some doubted the truth of this story. . . The King, however, received the strangers kindly, and promised them his protection. The family Traits of Greek Character 237 consisted of an old man, whose lips were never seen to smile, a young and beautiful woman, and a fair-faced youth. . . Twice had the Moslems besieged the fortress of Kale, and twice had the waters of the dammed-up torrent that rushed below the castle swept away the besiegers, strewing the Thracian plain with their dead bodies. The Ottomans at length seemed to be out-worn, their camp was broken up, and they retired from Kale towards the east. . . Mass was chanted by the priests, and the people gave heartfelt thanks to God and the Panaghia for their deliverance from the enemy. But before the service was over ... a messenger arrived, breathless, at the foot of the tower, and was drawn up by a rope. He brought a letter for the King con- taining these words : Beware of the Bulgarian woman — she is a spy. Looking up, and across the ravine, the King beheld, standing on a jutting rock above the torrent, the figure of a woman who, with out- stretched hand, pointed out to the enemy the secret path. ' Accursed be the Bulgarian ! ' he cried. And at the same moment a well-aimed arrow pierced him to the heart. As the soldiers standing near received the dying hero in their arms, and looked with rage and grief in their hearts towards the traitress, they saw that the King's curse had, indeed, fallen upon her. For what had been the figure of a woman was now but a black and motionless pillar of stone. And there, to the present day, above the rushing torrent, stands the Anathematismine ." Coming now to the ballads of the Ottoman period, I must first give an extract from " The Death of Konstantine Dragases," as he is called, the last of the Greek Emperors, * whose memory is thus commemorated — ' Thousands of Turks had entered in by the Romano gateway ; And Konstantino Dragases is fighting like to Charon. He strikes to right, and strikes to left, and naught can stay his ardour ; Amid the Turks he throws himself, and death he sows around him. Like a dark cloud he falls on them, and no man can escape him ; 'Twould seem as he'd the Turks destroy, and save Constantinople, Until a Turk, a stalwart Turk, at last slew Konstantino. O weep, my brothers, weep amain, weep for the orphaned city ! Our Konstantino they have slain, slain him who was our standard I " ^ Amid the swarm of Turks assailing the walls of Constantinople, " the Emperor who accomplished," says Gibbon, " all the duties of a general and a soldier was long seen, and finally lost. . . The prudent despair of Constantine had led him to cast away the purple : amidst the tumult he fell by an unknown hand, and his body was buried under a mountain of the slain." — Decline and Fall, viii, p. 171. 238 Greece of the Hellenes But another ballad of " The Taking of Constantinople " ends thus — " A message came to them^ from heaven, by mouths of holy angels, ' Cease ye your psalms, and from their place take down the Holy Objects.' And when the Virgin heard the words, all tearful were her eikons. ' O hush thee. Virgin ! eikons, hush ! mourn not, and cease your weeping ; After long years, the time shall come when ye once more shall dwell here ! ' " And the passion with which this prophecy is still believed in may possibly some day accomplish its fulfilment. As here it would be manifestly impossible even to mention the historical events commemorated in the Greek ballads of the Ottoman period, I will give only one more illustration in extracts from a Cretan ballad, entitled " How the Turks entered Sphakia " — " It was the morn of Friday, and it was the first of May, When into Sphakia came the Turks, and sword in hand came they. Cursed be the hour in which the Turks thus into Sphakia came, They ravaged all the country round, and set the towns aflame. " When up into the market-place the Turks had won their way, A Herald to the Sphakiots they sent these words to say : ' Come now, and your submission make the Sultan's feet before. That he may favours grant to you, and give you gifts galore ! ' " ' Your gifts we're well acquainted with, with tears they aye o'erflow ; For ye have given them full oft to men of Crete ere now ; And rather than accept your terms, we one and all will die ; Rather than our submission make — life with dishonour buy ' " ' Then, then, ye Sphakiots my troops to fall on you I'll send ; Nor shall they leave your land again till summer hath an end. Your children 'mong the rocks you've hid, lest evil them betide ; But I will find and take them, and with me they'll e'er abide,' The clergy of St. Sophia. Traits of Greek Character 239 "'Take, then, our wives and children all, our maidens young, take tool- Belike ye may the victors be, for miscreants are you I ' And so the parley ended, and began the battle's din. The fighting fierce and terrible the earthworks from within," etc. The ballads of the Hellenic period relate partly to historical events, but chiefly to klephtic exploits in the guerilla war which has been kept up continuously since the partial emancipation of Greece in 1829. The following lines are from a Thessalian ballad celebrating a victory over a Turkish force obtained by the famous patriot Rhigas Pherraios, a life of whom was, some years ago, published in this country. 1 " ' What is this evil that's befall'n, and what is this great tumult ? ' ' Rhigas Pherraios has fall'n upon, and beaten yon Moustam Bey I ' As many Beys as heard his words donned straight their mourning garments. The Sultan ,too, that wretched Prince, still crying is and shouting : ' O cease ye from the battle, boys ! O cease ye now the firing. And I will grant to every one the boon his heart desireth I' " Here the ballad very significantly ends. Distrust of the fulfilment of Ottoman promises of reform could not be other- wise more scornfully expressed. And those who have com- plained of the perversity of the Greeks in not thankfully accepting all the fine things promised them may profitably reflect on the distrust of promises which has been only too justifiably ingrained in their hearts, and expressed in their ballads, for the last two hundred years. My next extract is from a ballad commemorating an incident which took place during the rising on Mount Olympus in 1878. In the charming way so common in Greek folk-poesy, an eagle and a partridge are the interlocutors, and even the decapitated head of a hero takes part in the dialogue. 1 Rhigas Pherraios. M. E. Edmonds. 240 Greece of the Hellenes " Three Partridges did tell the tale, they wept and sadly sang they ; And on a ridge far, far away, :n Eagle sat and questioned : ' Tell me, dear little Partridge mine, why wailest thou and weepest ? ' ' What shall I, golden Eagle mine, what shall I now relate thee ? Far better on the rocks to die than by Turks' hands to perish 1 The bitter tears the branches burn ; the sobs, the wailing anguish The very earth do rend, and run with Insurgents' blood the torrents.' The Eagle heard it, and he cried, ' O head of Hero ! I saw thee, wounded as thou wert, thy dear dead brother carry ! ' O head, dear head, what hast thou done that they have sent thee rolling ? ' ' As, golden Eagle, thou hast asked, to thee I fain would answer : Aweary grown of slavery, I shouldered my tophaiki, 'Gainst Turkey I rebelled and fought, and Liberty I sought for. Here, high on old Olympos' side, here is our native village. Where e'en the women bravely fight, and gladly strive for freedom. And Turkey, 'mid the battle fierce, and with my gun beneath me. Did slay and stretch me on the earth, and she my head sent rolling ! ' " As a last extract from these ballads of the Hellenic periods I shall give three stanzas of the popular Insurgent song Zijrm "E\\a<;—" Hurrah for Hellas 1 " " O thou, my sword belov'd, so keen, I gird. And shoulder thee, my Gun, my flaming Bird ; O slay ye, slay the Turks again. The tyrants scatter o'er the plain. Live thou, O sword I gird. Long life to thee, my Bird ! " And when, O my good Sword, I hear thy clash, And when, O my black Gun, I see thy flash. That strew the ground with Turkish slain. And ' Allah ' cry those dogs amain. No sweeter music's heard. Long life to thee, my Bird 1 " The hour has come, and loud the trumpets sound ; Now boiling is my blood, with joy I bound ; The bam, the boom, the glin, glin, gloun Begin, and loud will thunder soon ! While Turks around me die, ' Hellas! Hurrah ! ' I cry." A passionate patriotism is indeed one of the leading characteristics of the Hellenic nation at large. And every Traits of Greek Character 241 true Hellene cherishes the idea of a New and Greater Greece which at no far distant date will, it is hoped and believed, consolidate the now widely dispersed forces of Hellenism into a united and powerful State. Great are the sacrifices which have already been made to this end by the nation, and more especially with regard to the liberation from Ottoman rule of Crete and Macedonia. Nor have the " Out- side Hellenes " proved themselves less self-sacrificingly patriotic than the dwellers within the limits of the Greek Kingdom. Many of the finest public buildings which now embellish Athens have been erected and presented to the nation by private individuals who have amassed fortunes abroad, several among whom have also bequeathed enormous sums to the fatherland for national, educational and philan- thropic purposes. The forces of national character are usually but little studied by statesmen, and with the consequence that the elaborate schemes on which they plume themselves are constantly shattered to pieces by the forces they vainly despise. And such ignoring of the forces of national character has been shown to be especially inexcusable in the case of the Hellenes. For a nation whose mythical heroes are such as we have seen them to be, whose family life is so exceptionally strong and pure in its mutual ties, whose political memories are of such an unparalleled vigour, and whose patriotism is so intense, cannot be permanently crushed. i6— (3385) INDEX Academy of Science, 85 Acciajuoli, Antonio, Duke of Athens, 9 Admiralty, the. 20 Agricultural Society, 125 Aigina, Isle of, 9 Albanians, 9-10 Alice, Princess, 53 Amaleion, the, 206 Amalia, Queen, 50, 53 Andrew, Prince, 50, 53 Annunciation, Feast of the, 173 Apeiranthotes, Village of, 2 Archaeological Society, 84 Museum, 84 Archontes, 56, 57 Areopagus, The Modern, 41 Army. The. 30 Athens, 146 Athletics, 64, 149 Ballads of Byzantine Period, 234-5-7; of Ottoman Period, 238-40 Baptismal Ceremonies, 211 Bavurians, 11 Ben Jonson, quotation from, 210 Bishops, 88 Blessing the Waters, 164 Brigandage, 46 Byzantine Art, 107 Cabinet, The Greek, 15 Carnival Observances, 163-5 Catholics, Roman, 7 Chalkis, Jews in, 11 Chamber of Deputies, 14 Charon, 221, 232 Christmas, 160 Christopher, Prince, 50, 53 Church, The Orthodox, 87 Civil Code, The, 41 List, The King's, 53 , The Crown Prince's, 55 Civil Service, The, 20 Clergy, The Greek, 89 Colleges, MiUtary, 36 ; Technical, 65 ; Theological, 91 ; Training, 67-8 Communal Councils, 26-7 Conscription, 30 Cookshops, 152 Conservatism, religious, 92 Constantine, King, 49, 50, 57 Constantinople, The taking of, 238 Constitution, The Greek, 14 ; reform of, 18 Corfu, Isle of, 5, 7 ; Albanians in, 9 ; Gypsies in, 13 ; Jews in, 11-12 Cotton Culture, 124 Councils, Municipal, 26-7 Court functions, 56 Crete, Isle of, 2 ; Moslems of, 1 1 Criminal Code, 41 Currant-growing, 119 et seq. Cultivation, primitive methods of. 135 Cyclades, The, 7 Death Customs, 220 Penalty, The, 46 Demarchos, The, 26 , , of Athens, 27 , Rural, 28 D ernes, 25 Dhrakos, The, 180, 231 Digenes Akritas. Epic of, 236 Dirges, 221 et seq. Divorce, 193 Donkeys, 158 Dowries, 197 Dragoiimis, M. Stephanos, 21, 23 Drama, The Modem Greek, 82 Easter Observances, 166-9 Education. Female, 61, 66-8; national, 60; primary, 61, 64-5 ; secondary, 62 243 244 Index Elections, Parliamentary, 15, 26; Municipal, 26 Eleusinian Mysteries, 213 n. Emigration, 133 Episcopal Courts, 89 Evangelismos Hospital, The, 207 Evil Eye, Superstition of the, 186 Evzonoi Corps, 31, 33, 57 Eydoux, General, 30 Family Ceremonies, 209 et seq. ; solidarity of the, 195 Fasts, 93-5 Fate, The Good, 228 Fates, The, 182, 209-10 " Feast of the Lights," The, 164 Festivals, 160-70 Fiction, Modern Greek, 80 Food, 153 Forests, 140 Folk-literature, 227 et seq. Folk-lore Society of Greece, The, 86 Folk-songs, 177, 235-240 Folk-tales, 228 Fountains, Sacred, 172 Funeral Ceremonies, 220 et seq. Gambling, 148 Gendarmerie, The, 39 George, The Crown Prince, 18, 24, 53 ; the late King, 49, 54 Gounaris, M., 21 Government, The, 14, 15 " Great Wallachia," 8 Greek character. Traits of, 227 et seq. ; type, 2-3 ; language, 74 Gymnasia, 63 Gypsies, 13 HAiDiE, The Klepht, 206 Helene B6tsaris, 203 Heroines, Greek, 200-3 Historical and Ethnographical Society, The, 85 Holidays, 160 Holy Mountain, The, 103 Holy Synod, The, 15 Home Industries, 139 Horse and Cattle-breeding, 141 Hospitality, 155 Hospitals, 34 Hotels, 154 Household, The Royal, 56 Hydra, Isle of, 9 " Independence Day," 174 Jews in Greece, 11, 12 Judenhetze, 12 Jury, Trial by, 44 Justice, Courts of, 41 ; Ministry of, 42 Kalyarites, 8 Karyes, 108 Klithdna, The, 190-1 Kdlyva. The, 224 Koromilis, M. Lambros, 21, 23, 29 Labourers, Agricultural, 137 Laconia, 3 Lake Copais Co., The, 125 Lamia, The, 180 Latin Dukedoms of the Levant, 7 Lavra, Convent of the, 109 Lavrion, Mines of, 4 Law, Courts of, 41, 42 Legends, Historical, 234 ; Byzan- tine, 236 Lenten Observances, 94, 166 Literature, Modern Greek, 77 " Little Wallachia," 8 Liturgies, Greek, 97 Main a. The " Grapes of," 4 ; Heroines of, 203 ; the Vendetta in, 5 Mainotes, The, descendants of ancient Spartans, 5 Malaria, 138 Marriage, 193-6, 213 Mavromichalis, M. Kyriakoules, 14, 18, 21 Mavroyennos, Modena, 204 May-day, 190 Megaspelaion, Convent of, 100 Index 245 Merkouris, M. Spiros, 28 Mesolonghi, Heroines of, 204 Metayer System, The, 136 Meteoron, Monastery of, 102 Mezzo vo, 8 Military League, The, 23 Mission, The French, 30 Mining, 127 Monarchy, The, 49 Monasteries, 100 et seq. ; The " Mid-Air," 101 ; of Mt. Athos. 103 et seq. Morals, Rigidity of Social, 193 Moslems, 10 " Mother of the Sea," The, 229 Mykonos, Isle of, 7 Naval Mission, The British, 38 Navy, The Hellenic, 37 Naxos, Isle of, 2, 7 Nereids, 180, 209, 219 New Year, The Greek, 162 Nicholas, Prince, 50, 53 ; Princess, 208 Nobility. Titles of, 56 Nomarch, The, 25 Nomas, The, 24 Nuns, 115 Officers, Military, 35 ; Naval, 39 Olga, Queen, 52 Ohve-culture, 123 Olympus, Mt.. 8 ; brigands of, 206 Otho, King, 5, 55 " Outside Hellenes," The, 241 Pagan Survivals, 170 Painters. Modern Greek, 83 Panselenos, Manoel, 107, 108, 110 Parish Priests, 90 " Parnassos " Society, The, 86 Parren, Mdme., 207 Pastoral Life, 142 et seq. Patriarch, The CEcumenical, 87 Patriarchal Customs, 196 Patriotism, 240 Peasants, 132-5 Pelion, Mt., Heroines of, 205 Periodical Literature, 75 et seq. Phanaviots, 58 Phaskelon, The, 189 Physical Culture. 63 Politics. 74 Porto Quaglia, 4 " Preachers." 88 Press, The, 72-5 Prisons, 44-7 Products, 116 et seq. Prohibited Degrees, 213 " Punch," The Greek, 76 Races, Mixture of, 1 Railways, 156 Rain, Invocation for, 192 Rallis. M. Demetrios. 18, 21, 22 Ritual Murders, Jews accused of, 12 Romaika and Romeot, signification of, 203 n. Royal Family, The, 57 Palaces, 55, 56 Sailors, Greek, 130 St. Anne, Hermitage of, 110 George of Greece, 175. 206 John's Day, 190 Paul, Convent of. 112 Salonica, Jewish population of , 12 School of Needlework, " The Royal Hellenic," 208 Schools, Foreign, 85 Service, Domestic, 200 Sheep and Goats, 141 Shipping, Greek, 130 Silk-culture, 126, 140 Sirens, 180 Social Life, 146 et seq. Soldiers, Greek, 32 Sophia, Queen, 51-2 Spano-Vanghelli, 206 Sphakiotes of Crete, The, 2 Sponge-fishing, 128 Sport, 149 State Lotteries, 37 Stoicheion, The, 179 Students, University, 70 Surnames, 58 246 Index " Swallow Song," The. 190 Symbolisms, religious, 95 Syra, Isle of, 7 Tends, Isle of, 7 Theatres, 150 Theotokes, M. George, 14, 18, 21-2 " Three Evils of Destiny," The, 182, 209 " Three Precepts," The, 233 Tobacco Culture, 125 Tolerance, 10 Travelling, 158 Tsakones, The. 3 Turks in Greece. 10 University. The, 69 Urban Life, 146 et seq. Vampirism, 183, 226 Vatopedion. Monastery of, 105 Vendetta, The, in Maina, 5 V6niz61os. M. Elevtherios. 14, 16, 17-19. 29 Vlachs or Wallachs, 7-8 ; shep- herds, 143 ; encampments, 144 ; chieftains, 144 Voskopolis, 8 Wedding Customs, 213 et seq. Zacharias, Constance, 204 Zaimes, M. Alex.. 8, 21. 24 Zante, Isle of, 12 THE END Press of Isaac Pitman & Sons, Bath, England (2385) K Hir Isaac Hitman H, Sons Lc