*»,-.* ,0'' ^ * « « ' . V o "•/•.• <5> * o , ^ A. <>\. « N O .^^°- '^ »• a 5^"-. xOv^ ''-^Xo^ • ,1 • • /I* f >-»•'' .!;^ V ♦ » . » ' /.^:^^ Jr^ ^e^ CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES; BEING PART OF THE MANUAL OF CLASSICAL LITERATURE/ FROM. THE GERMAN OF X J. ESCHENBURG, FORMER PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM AT BRUNSWICK. EMBRACING TREATISES ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS: I. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRA- PHY. \^. (^LASStCAL^HRONOLO^Y.^ III. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. IV. GREEK ANTIQUITIES. V. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. WITH IMPORTANT IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS, K wrFi BY KE, A. M. LATE^OFESSOR OF GREEK LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN AMHERST COLLEGE. # k uJIj pllit^ttittd. FOURTEENTH THOUSAND. PHILADELPHIA: W. S. FORTESCUE & CO., (Successors to E. C. & J. Biddle,) No. 811 Arch Street. T)B56 .£73 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by W. S. FOETESCUE & CO., in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. CAXTON PRESS OF SHERMAN & CO., PHILA. PREFACE. For an account of the origin and design of the Manual of Classical Literature, the reader is respectfully referred to the Preface to ttiai u-ork. The present volume is a portion of the Manual, including I'Ut three of its Jive Parts. These three, viz. : Classical Geography and Chronology, Greek ind Roman Mythology, and Greek and JRo- •nan Antiquities, are published separately, from a regard to the ^Yishes of some teachers, especially in the primary classical schools. The reasons for a separate publication of these parts will appear, (\'hen it is considered, that the scholar, in the very commencement of his classical studies, needs some guide and help in each of these oranches, Avhile it is not so essential that he should attend particu- larly at first to the branches with which the two other parts of the Manual are occupied. The whole ground embraced in the Manual, the student must, indeed, go over before completing his classical course ; but the Archaeology of Literature and Art, and the System- atic History and Criticism of the Classical Authors, are not often inchided in the studies at the Academy. In consequence of sug- gestions of this kind, a thousand copies of the three parts contained in this volume were printed in connection with the first and second editions of the Manual, and the demand for them has been such as to induce the publisher to issue another impression. This ncAv edition of the volume styled Classiccd Antiquities is much more valuable than the former, as it corresponds to the fourth edition of the Manual, and is illustrated by numerous engravings. A peculiarity of this volume, which has greatly recommended it m the estimation of teachers, is its comprehensiveness united with a fullness of detail sufficient for all the common purposes of elementary instruction. Ancient Geography with the Topography of Rome and Athens, Classical Chronology, Mythology, Greek Antiquities, and Roman Antiquities, are here presented within the compass of 304 pages. There is not in the English language, it is believed, another work in which these topics, all so essential to the 3'oung classical scholar, are brought into one volume and thus adapted for daily use. If, because the work comprehends so much, any one should be disposed to infer that each part must be defective, he is iii IV PREFACE. requested to examine and compare. The Epitome of Classical Geography will be found to comprise every thing of special import- ance in Butler's work on the subject, with much improvement in several points of arrangement, and an account far more complete of the remains of Rome, Athens, and other cities. The Introduction to Chronology contains what is most essential in the Treatise of Hegewisch, with many things of great importance not found in that, nor in any of the works on Antiquities now in use. The Treatise on Greek Antiquities is by no means intended to exclude such a work as Patterns, which is more minute on some points ; but the competent teacher will discover that this condensed treatise contains important information for which his pupil will search in vam in Potter ; and he will on comparison find it as full on every essential point as any other treatise used in our country, while the Greek Mythology and Topography are given separately and with much greater fullness. In the Roman Antiquities the plan of. the work did not allow that frequent citation of the Latin authors which marks the pages of ^dam ; and the treatise is not expected wholly to super- sede the use of that or some larger work ; but a comparison of the treatise in this volume with any other used in American schools, will satisfy the teacher that it is more full and complete, independently of the Roman Mythology, Geography and Topography introduced separately; and some persons of experience in teaching have expressed their conviction, that the scholar is likely to obtain from the study of a treatise like this, a better general knowledge of Roman Antiquities than from the study of such a work as that of Adam ; on- this point, however, the translator ought perhaps to be silent. There is another peculiarity, which distinguishes this work, viz.: that it presents numerous references to authors treating of the general subjects, and also, in many cases, to works on particular topics introduced. These references are given in such a manner as not to delay or embarrass the youngest student, and yet they may help the more advanced scholar and the teacher to find readily furthei information, if they wish and have the time and means at command. In offering to American teachers and scholars this new edition the author may be allowed to express his hope that it may subserve in some degree the highly important cause of classical and libera education ; from an ardent desire to promote which he originally prepared the Translation of Eschenburg's Manual, \mherst College, July, 1843. CONTENTS. PART I. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Introduction, p. 3, 4. S^^ 1-5. = § 1-3 Portion of earth known to ancients. § 4, 5 Ancient divisions. I. Of Europe, p. 4-43. §§ 6-148. = § 6, 7 Extent and bounda- ries. % 8 General subdivisions. § 9-15 Northern countries of Europe ; Scandina- via, Cirnbrica, Sarmatia, Germania, &c. '5> 16-26 Middle countrits of Europe ; Gal- lia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Iliyri- cum, Moesia, Dacia. § 27-129 Southern coiuitries of Europe. ^ 29-31 Hispania. ^32-50 Italia. § 51-71 Topography of Rome. ^51, 52 Gates and roads. § 53 Bridges and hills. "^ 54 Districts. Re- ferences to writers on the topography of the city. % 55 Campi. § 56 Streets. S> 57 Fora. "^ 58-60 Temples and groves. ^61-63 Curife, basilicae, circuses; theatres, &c. % 64 Baths. ^ 65-67 Schools, por- ticos, columns, trophies, &c. § 68 Aque- ducts. Sewers, "^i 69 Monuments to the dead. ^70 Dwellings. §71 Villas. Sub- urbs. § 72-75 Thracia. § 76 Four na- tural divisions of Grajcia. § 77-81 Mace- donia. § 82-85 Thessalia. § 86-88 Epirus. § 89-103 Hellas. § 104-116 Topography of Athens. § 104, 105 I's situation. § 106 The Acropolis. § 107 Parthenon and other buildings of the citadel. '5> 108-110 The lower city and its temples. % 111 Porches. Odea. Ceramicus. % 112, 113 Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. § 114 Areopagis. Pnyx. § 115 Theatres. Gho- ragic monuments. § 116 Harbors. Re- ferences to writers on the topography of Athetis. § 117-125 Peloponnesus. §126- 129 Topography of Sparta. § 126 Form and situation. § 127 Forum. § 128 Co- himns and statues. § 129 Hippodrome. Harbor. References to writers. §130-148 Eitroprnn IsJa?ids. § 130-136 Britannia and adjoining islands. § 137 BalearicRe. Corsica and Sardinia. § 138-140 Sicilia. § 141, 142 Ionian islands. § 143-148 JEgean islands. II. Of Asia, p. 43-53. §§ 149-172. = § 149, 150 Extent and general division of Asia. § 151-155 Coun- tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, Sinae, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. § 156-171 Countries of the Wester?}, d.ivi- tion. % 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, a Iberia. § 157 Armenia. § 158-165 Asia Minor. § 166 Syria. Phoenicia. § 167-169 Palaestina. §168b. 'i'opography of Jeru- salem. § 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia and Assyria. § 171 Arabia. § 172 Asia- tic islands. III. Of Africa, p. 53-57. §§ 173-183. = § 173 Extent and divisions of Africa. § 174- 176 Egypt. § 177 An- cient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works on the subject. § 178 iEthiopia. § 179 Libya. § 180 Africa Propria. § 181 Nu- midia. § 182 ^Mauritania. § 183 Africa Interior. Atlantis. INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONO- LOGY. Preliminary Remarks, p. 59. § 184. Importance of the subject. De- . sign of present sketch. Two parts. I. Of measuring time and adjusting its divisions, p. 59-63. §§ 185-196. = § 185 The three natural divisions of time ; day, month, and year. § 186, 187 Ancient customs as to be- ginning and dividing the day. § 188 De- vices for marking and making known the parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. ^189, 190 The month. The Grecian system. % 191 a, 191 b. Roman method of reckoning the months, and the days of the month. The week. Names of the days. § 192 The year. The Grecian , Roman ; .Tu- lian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and new style. § 193 Cycles. § 194 The lunar cycle. § 195 The solar. § 196 The cycle of indiction. Julian Period. II. Of fixing the dates of historical events and arranging them in order, p. 63-79. %% 197-215. = § 197 Topics noticed in this part. § 198-201 Methods of ascertain- in g dates. 1. Successive generation.^ ; and successive reigns of kings. 2. Celestial appearances. 3. Coius, inscriptions, &c. 4. Historical testimony. § 202, 203 Epochs and eras. Era of Olympiads ; of Rome ; the Christian ; the Mahometan ; of the French Republic § 204-207 Systems and f aides. § 204 Claims of the Earypiians and Babylonians. § 205 The Hebrew and the Septuagint chronology. Newton's. Usher's. § 206, 207 Various plana for 2 V . VI CONTENTS. charts. The best. ^ 208-215 Actual dales, of most prominent events. ^208 Common complaint of students. Remedy. ^ 209 Brief outline of General Chronology. % 210 Systems of artificial memory. %2\\ Chro- nology of ancient states ; eight principal states of Asia ; references to works on iheiT history ; Assyrian ; Jewish ; Trojan ; Ly- dian; Persian; Syrian; Parthian. ^212 Of the two principal in Africa ; Egyptian ; Carthaginian. ^ 213 Of Greece. ^ 214, 215 Of Rome. PART II. MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. Introduction, p. 83-90. ^§ 1-12. = § 1 Circumstances calculated to give a fabulous character to early tradi- tions. % 2 Mythology in the Greek, and in the modern sense of the term. § 3 Dif- ferent points of view in contemplating my- thological fables. % 4 Changes and addi- tions in mythological stories. § 5 Different sources of mythological fabrications. § 6 Advantages of an acquaintance with my- thology. § 7 Eastern origin of the Gre- cian deities. % 8 The Roman gods bor- rowed from the Greeks. % 9 The Greek and Roman system ofclassifying their gods. % 10 The four classes undt^r which they are arranged in this work. *^ 11 The no- tions of deity entertained by the Greeks and Romans. Abode of the gods. <§ 12 References to works treating on the subject. I. Mythological History of the Superior gods, p. 91-113. §§ 13-67. = § 13 Gods included in this class. "5> 14-17 Saturn. % 18 Janus. % 19-21 Cvbele or Rhea. 4 22-25 Jupiter. <'r 26-28 Jtino. % 29-31 Neptune. § 32-34 Pluto. § 35-37 Apollo. § 38-40 Diana. $ 41-43 Minerva. § 44-46 Mars. § 47-50 Venus. Cupid. §51-54 Vulcan. §55-56 Mercury. % 57-60 Bacchus. Silenus. § 61-64 Ceres. § 65-67 Vesta. II. Mythological History of the Inferior gods, p. 113-124. §§68-96. = §68 Gods included in this class. § 69, 70 Co-his. §71, 72 Sol or Me- lius. §73 Luna. §74. 75 Aurora. § 76 Nox. § 77 Iris. § 78 ^olus. § 79, 80 Pan. § 81, 82 Latona. § 83 Themis. Asir^a. Nemesis. § 84 iEsculapius. § 85 Plutus, § ^G Fortune. § 87 Fame. § 88 Deities peculiar to the Greeks. § 89-95 Deities peculiar to the Romans. § 90 Tiber. Roma. § 91. Terminus. Priapus. Ver- tumnus. Flora. Feronia. Pales. § 92 Gods presiding over various conditions or pursuits of men. Bellona, Juturna, &c. § 93 Victoria. § 94 Deified Roman em- perors. § 95 Vii»tues and Vices. § 96 Egyptian deities wor.«hiped among the Romans. III. Mythical heings, whose history is intimately connected with that of the gods, p. 124-132. §§ 97-1 17. = § 97 Titans. § 98 Giants. Pygmies. § 99 Tritons. § 100 Sirens. § 101 Nymphs. § 102, 103 Muses. § 104 Graces. § 105 Hours. §106 Fates. §107 Furies. . § 108 a. Harpies. § 108 b. Venti or Winds. § 109 Daemons. § 110 Manes. § 111 Lares. §112 Penates. §113 Sleep Dreams, and Death. § 114 Satyrs and Fauns. § 115 Gorgons; §116 Amazons § 117 Minotaur, Chimiera, and various other monsters. IV. Mythical History ef Heroes, p. 132-137. §§ 118-133. = § 118 Three periods ot Grecian story. § 119 General cause of the deification of heroes. § 120 Two classes of venerated heroes. § 121 Inachus, Ox- gyges, Cecrops, and several others, ho- nored specially among their own people. § 122 Perseus. Atlas. § 123, 124 Her- cules. § 125, 126 Theseus. § 127, 128 Jason and the Argonauts. § 129 Castor and Pollux. § 130 Heroes of the Theban war. § 131 Pelops and his descendants. § 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. § 133 Deified Roman emperors. PART III. GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. GUECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction, p. 140-145. 'J§ 1-14. = § ] Origin of the name Grscda. § 2 Countries included under it. § 3 Most important Grecian cities. §4 Po- litical changes. § 5 Fir-st inhahitnnfs. § 6 Their early intercourse. * § 7 Early forms of government. § 8 The Spartan system. § 9 Athens. § 10 Causes of Grecian im- provement. § 11 Utility of study of An- tiquities, and of Grecian in particular. § IS Original sources of knowledge on the sub- ject. § 13 References to authors. § 14 Defects in the common treatises on Greek antiquities. Early and later ages distinct COiMENTS. Vll I. Of the 'Earlier and less cultivated Ages, p. 145-160. ^ 15 The period included Subject di- vided into four branches. I. Religious Affairs. §^ 16-32. = <^ 16 First traces of the reli- gion of the Greeks. § 17 Form and mode of religious instruction. ^ 18 Influence of Lhe poets. § 19 Number and character of the gods. ^ 20 Temples and sacred places. '^ 21 Images and statues. ^ 22 Priests and Priestesses. § 23 Rites; ablutions. § 24 Prayers. § 25 Sacrifices ; the ma- terials; the origin. '^ 26 Altars. '^ 27 Sacrifices ; the ceremonies. § 28 Gifts and offerings. ^ 29 Worship rendered to he- roes. ^ 30 Funeral solemnities. *5> 31 Burning of corpse ; monuments. ^ 32 Oracles and divination. II. Civil Affairs. §§ 33-41 . = § 33 Early rudeness. ^ 34 Power of the kings. ^ 35 Their retinue and councillors. ^ 36 Courts of justice. ^ 37 Laws and punishment. ^ 38 The Cretan laws. "Ji 39 Successive forms of government at Athens. '5> 40 At Sparta. ^> 41 Commerce and Navigation. III. Military Affairs. ^'^ 42-51. =§ 42 Early Greeks warhke. ^ 43 Their armies, how composed. § 44 Weapons; Defensive. .§ 45 Offensive. <5i 46 The materials of which made. '^ 47 War-galleys. § 48 Camps. § 49 Order of Battle. § 50 Division of Spoils. Bar- oarous stripping of the slain. Combat of chiefs. '^ 51 Treaties. IV. Domestic Affairs. ^§ 52-63 = ^ 52 Common food. Daily meals. ^ 53 Social repasts. § 54 Dress. '^ 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of the Hair. § 56 Houses. "5i 57 Hospitality. "5> 58 Employments ; agriculture ; hunting. § 59 Employments of women. '^ 60 Amuse- ments. § 61 Marriage. § 62 Education of children. ^ 63 Slaves. II. Of the Later and more flourishing Ages, p. 160-223. I. Religious Affairs. ^% 64-90. = § 64 Number of gods in- creased. § 65 a. Temples more splendid. ^ 65 b. Alt^ivs. 'S 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. •^v 67 Classes of priests. Purification. 'S 68 Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. ^ 69 Oaths. Leagues. § 70 Oracles. Im- posture at Argos. § 71 Oracles of Jupi- ter; atDodona; in Crete; African desert. ^ 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. ^ 74 Of Trophonius ; of .^isculapius, and others. % 75 Arts and methods of divination. % 76, 77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. ^ 78 Games. § 79 The race. % 80 Leap- ing. ^ 81 Wrestling. § 82 The discus. % 83 Boxing. § 84 Four sacred games. Olympic. ^ 85 Pythian. % 86 Nemeaa '5> 87 Isthmian. % 88 System of athletics. ^ 89 Theatres, and dramatic representa- tions. Masks. Chorus. ^ 90 Theoric money at Athens. II. Civil Affairs. %% 91-134. = §91 Athens and Sparta distinguished by peculiarities. % 92 Draco and Soion at Athens. § 93 The tribes and classes at Athens. % 94 Pisistratus, and his sons. § 95 The thirty tyrants. Form of government after them until death of Alexander. § 96 Buildings of Athens. § 97 The free citizens of Athens. % 98 The foreign residents. % 99 The slaves, % 100 Magistrates. § 101 The Archons. § 102 The Eleven ; Orators ; Ambassa- dors; Notaries, &c. § 103 Athenian re- venues. § 104 Officers of the revenue and treasury. Expenditures. § 105 Amphic- tyonic council. § 106 Assemblies of the people. § 107 Athenian senate. *5i 108 Areo- pagus. § 109 Athenian courts of justice. The EphetEB. MlO The HehEea. § 111 The Forty. The Diaetetae. <^ 112 Dif- ferent kinds of actions. 'Ji 113 Punishments. §114 The Ostracism. § 115 Modes of in- flicting death. § 116 Public rewards and honors. § 117 Attic laws. § 118 Natural situation of Sparta. § 119 Spartan tribes. § 120 Treatment of children at Sparta. § 121 Spartan slaves. % 122 The kings of Sparta. § 123 The Senate. Ephori. § 124 Nomophulakes and other magistrates, § 125 Assemblies of the people. § 126 Pub lie repasts. § 127 Judicial affairs. § 128 Punishments. § 129 Laws of Sparta. § 130 Cretan consthution. % 131 Cretan laws; pubhc meals; slaves. § 132 Con- stitution of Thebes. § 133 Constitutions of Corinth and Syracuse. § 134 Of Argos, of iEtolia, and Achaia. III. Military Affairs. §135-160. = §135 The warlike character retained ; especially by the Spartans, § 136 Persons hable tn military duty. Their support. § 137 Classes of troops. The infantry. §138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants. § 139 Armor. § 140 Various officers. § 141 The divisions of the army. § 142 Forms of Battle-array. Mancpnvres. §143 Declaration of war. Treaties. § 144 Camps. § 145 Standards and ensigns. Signals for battle. § 146 Art of besieging. § 147 MiHtary engines. § 148 Defence of cities. § 149 Treatment of captured places. § 150 Division of spoils. § 151 Military rewards and punishments. § 152 Means of conveying intelligence. § 153 Crossing of rivers. § 154, 155 Ships; Names o7 their principal parts ; Vessels of war. § 1.56 Rowers, sailors and marines ; Manner of placing the seats of rowers. § 157 Instru- ments employed in naval battle. § 158 Naval officers. § 159 Manner of naval battle. § 160 Naval victories and momi ments. Naval punishments. ?U1 CONTENTS. IV. Affaiks of Private Life. ^^ -di -187. = <5> 161 Food. Use of wines. $ 162 The different meals. Manner of spending the day at Athens. ^ 163 Enter- tainments or feasts. '5> 164 Customs at table. ^165 Substances eaten at the prin- cipal meal. ^ 166 Officers and attendants at an entertainment. "^ 167 Drinking ves- sels. Customs in drinking. Amusements accompanying a feast. "^168 Customs of hospitality. Officers called Proxeni. Inns. '^ 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. Use of silk. Adorningof the person. ^170 Bathing and anointing. ^ 171 Houses. § 172 Commerce and Agriculture. § 173, 174 Grecian money and coins. Ratio of Gold and silver. § 175 Greek system of notation. § 176 Grecian weights. "5i 177 Measures. ^ 178 Social amusements. § 179, 180 Music and musical instruments. § 181 Condition of females. § 182 Laws and customs respecting marriage. §§ 183 -186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in honor of the dead, with orations and games. ''> 187 Sepulchral monuments. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction, p. 225-229. '^^ 188-198. = ^188 Origin of Rome. '$189 Principal events which affected the appearance of the city. Comparative splendor of ancient and modern Rome. § 190 Population of Rome. ^ 191 Extent of the Roman empire. § 192 Proportion of soldiers and other citizens. % 193 The time of the regal government. "5' 194 Most briUiant era of Roman history. % 195 Con- dition under the emperors. § 196 Utility of studying Roman antiquities. Original sources of information on the subject. §197 References to modern works and authors. 5> 198 Division of the subject. L Religious Affairs, p. 229-248. §§ 199-239. =V199 Use of the term re- ligio. §200 Origin of the religion of the Romans. § 201 Its connection with poli- tics. § 202 Design of Romulus and Numa. Gods of the Romans. § 203 Temples. § 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. § 205 Altars. § 206 Vessels employed in sacri- fices. §207 Several orders of priests. §208 Pontifices. § 209 Augurs. Various me- thods of augurv. § 210 Haruspices. §211 Epulones. §'212 Feciales. § 213 Rex - 'crorum. § 214 Flamines. § 215 Salii. 216 Luperci. § 217 Galli and others. § 218 Vestal virgins. § 219 Fratres Arva- les, Curiones, and others. § 220 Customs in offering prayers. § 221 Sacrifices ar-d attendant rites. § 222 Vows. § 223 De- dication of sacred buildings. § 224 Expia- tions. The lustrum. §225 Oaths. §226 Oracles. § 227 Lots. § 228 Divisions of time. § 229, 230 Festivals. § 231 Public games. § 232, 233 Ludi Cir.censes. Nau- machia. § 234 Ludi Seculares. § 235 liudi Gladiaforii. § 236 Ludi Florales. ^ 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cereales, and others. § 238 Theatres, Masks, &c § 239 Amphitheatres. IL Civil Affairs, p. 248-270. §§ 240-274. = § 240 Regal governmen §241 Consuls. §242 Imperial governmem. § 243 Praetors. § 244 ^Ediles. § 245 Tri- bunes. § 246 Quaestors. § 247 Censors, § 248, 249 Extraordinary magistrates - Dictator ; Decemviri ; Military Tribunes ; Proefects. Interrex, &c. § 250 Procon- suls, and other provincial magistrates. §25] Tribes. § 252 Six classes of citizens. Cen- turies. § 253 Patricians and plebeians. § 254 The populace. Patrons and chents § 255 Roman nobiUty. Right of images Curule office. § 256 The Equites or Knights. _ § 257 The Senate. § 258, 259 The Comitia. § 260 Right of citizenship Government of conquered cities and na- tions. § 261 Judicial proceedings. Public actions and trials. § 262 Private actions. § 263 Penal offences. § 264 Punishments. § 265 System of laws. Body of Roman civil law. § 266 Regulations respecting grain. § 267 Revenue. Saltworks. Mines. § 268 Various Pursuits. Commerce. Me chanic arts. § 269 Agriculture. Carriages § 270 .Money. Coins. § 271 System of reckoning and notation. § 272 Modes ol acquiring property. § 273 Auctions. Con- fiscations. § 274 Measures of extent, &c. Modes of determining the Roman /oo^ III. Affairs of War, p. 270-285. §§ 275-309. = § 275 Authorities on rhe subject. § 276 Mihtary establishment of the kings. § 277 Persons liable to duty. Time of service. § 278 Consular army. Exempts. § 279 System of levy. '^ 280 Classes of troops. § 281 Subdivision into maniples, &c. § 282 Standards. Music. § 283 Weapons. § 284 Wages. Rewards. § 285 Punishments. § 286 Order of battle. § 287 Modes of attack. § 288 Light troops. § 289, 290 Cavalry. § 291 C( horts. §292 Auxiliaries. § 293 Attendants upon the army. § 294 Order of march. §295 Forms of array. § 296, 297 The Camp. § 298 Watches. Exercises of soldiers. § 299 Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers. Battering ram and other engines. § 300 Modes of defence in a siege. § 301 The fleets. §302 Method of naval battle. §303 Construction and parts of Roman ships. § 304 Different kinds of vessels. § 305 Rewards of generals. § 306 Laws on the subject. § 307 The triumph. § 308 The ovation. § 309 Mihtary system under the emperors. IV. Affairs of Private Life, p. 285-304. §§ 310-343. =§310 The free-horn and \he free-made discriminated. § 31 1 System of applying proper names. § 312 Regula- tions respecting marriage. § 313, 314 Marriage contracts. § 315 Nuptial cere- monies. § 316 Divorces. § 317 The righ, and power of the father over his children § 318 Emancipation of sons. § 319 Adop' CONTENTS. IX tion. § 320 Legitimation. § 321 Educa- tion of youth. ^ 322 Slaves. ^ 323 Slave trade. § 324 Emancipation of slaves. ^ 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of a Roman house. "5> 326 Country seats or villas. ^ 327 Manner of life. Morals. ^ 328 Daily routine of employment. Bath- ing. V 329 Food and meals. Furniture for eating. <$> 330 Different courses at supper. Roman hospitality^ '^ 331 a. Drinking and games at banquets. Dice. >> 3316. Wines. § 332 Dress. The toga. §333 The tunic. Badges. § 334 Ihe stola and other garments of women. § 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. '?> 336 Coverings for the head and feet. § 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personaj ornaments. § 339 Funeral customs. Ex- posure of the corpse. § 340 Funeral pro- cessions. Eulogy. *$> 341 Burning. Place of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. ^ 343 Mourning for the deceased. Games and sacrifices. § 343 Consecration, or deifica- tion of deceased emperors. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 1. Representation of the Oracle of Apollo. ^Facing title page.) Cf. P. III. gg 72, 73. 2. Map of Ancient World. (Page 2.) Tlip. Wirld according to Ptolemy, as giveu in Mur- ray's Encyclopaedia of Geography. Cf. P. I. 3. Plate I (Page 14.) Plans of Atliem aim Rume. See P. I. H 51-71, 104-116. 4. Plate II. (Page 16.) The Tiber, and the City of Rumey symbolized. Cf. P. II. $ 90; P. IV. (J 226. 1. 5 Plate III. (Page 18.) The Pantheon. Cf. P. I. $ 59. 6. Plate IV. (Page 23.) Plain and Acropo- lis ofPhilippi. Cf P. I. $ 80. 7. Plate IV «. (Page 30.) Ruins at Athens 'jf the Temple of Neptune and that of Minerva Paiidrosos. Cf P. I. $ 107; P. III. $ 96. . 6. Plate IV J. (Page 35.) Ruins at Corinth. Ct. P. I $ 120. 9. Plate IV c. (Page 37.) Village of Mis - tra; near the ancient Sparta. Cf P. I. $ 126- 129. 10. Plate V. (Page 39.) Cabirian Temple at Thessulonica. Cf. P. I. $ 80; P. II. J 129. 2. li. Plate VI. (Page 42.) Colossal Statue of the Sun. Cf P. I. $ 147 ; P. II. $ 72; P. IV. $ 180. 1. 12. Plate Via. (Page 45.) ralley of the ancient Thebarmn. Cf. P. I. $ 154 6. 13. Plate VI &. (Page 49.) View of Broosa, the ancient Brusa. Cf. P, I. J 160. 14. Plate VII. (Page 50.) Temple of Janus at Rome, and that of the Sun at Heliopolis. Cf. P. I. $ 166, $60; P. IV. $234.3. 15. Plate VIII. (Page 55.) The Egyptian Sphinx, &.C. Cf P. I. $ 177 ; P. II. $ 117, $ 96. 16. Plate Villa. (Page 58.) A Portion of the Peutivgerian Table. Cf. P. V. $ 497. It is pre- sented here as given in H. Murray's Encyclo- paedia of Geography (Phil. 1838, 3 vols. 4), from which is taken the following explanation of the figures and letters on the Plate; with no change except that of adding in parentheses the com- mon Latin form of some of the names. North Part. Cities. Siscia. Sardona. Aquinoo (Aquincum). . Brigantio Bregetio). Jadera. Ragadone i.Ragondo). Sabarie. Carnunto (CaruuDtum). Celeia. Viiidnbona. Tarsatica. JEmona. Pola. Silvo (Silvium). Parentio (P.irentium). Fonte-Tumaia. Aquileia. Ovilia. Alliiio (Altinum). Regino (Regina). Tndenle (Tridentum). Plarenlia. Aquse Populoniae. Florentia Tuscorum. Sena Julia. Biiuriba. Verona. Mantua. Mutina. Cosa. Adretio (ArretiumV Rivers. Danubius. DriDum. Cities. 32. Bononia, 33. Clusio (Clusium). 34. Volsini (Vulsioii). 35. Aquas-Passaris. 36. Ravenna. 37. Ariminum. 38. Granisca. 39. Centum Cell*. 40. Aquas-Tuari. 41. Ancone (Ancona). 42. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- vum). 43. Aquas-Apnllinaris. 44. Soleto. 45. Pollentia. 46. Reate. 47. CastelloFirmani (Castrum Firmanum). 48. Ad Sem. Petrum. 49. Roma. 50. Hostis (Oslia). 51. Chartagine (Carthago). 52. Utica Colonii. 53. Aquis. 54. Ipponte Diarito. 55. Capsa Colonia. 56 Ad Medera. 57. Theleote Col. 5«. Theneste. .^9. Sicca-Veria.. 60. *'' Afinas Cassiris. Rivers. a. Umbro, 0. Pallia^ c. Savum. d. Arsia. e. Frigido. f. Liceima. g. Afesia. h. Cleusis. i. Unjatia. j. Fad us. k. Paala. I. Aninio. ni. tsex. p. Armenita. q. Marta. r. Tibeiis. s. Rubicon, t Nelurum. u. Malana. V. Miso. w. Flosis. z Tuma. y Nerninuir. z. Anio. South Part. Cities. 1. Ad Pretorum (Praetorium in Pannoiiia). 2. Servitium. 3. Ad Pretorum (PnEtorium in Daliiiatia). 4. Mursa Major. .S. Indenea. 6. Tittoburgo. 7. Ragurio. 8. Siclis. 9. Salona. 10. Epetio (Epetium). 11. Marona. 12. Sirniium. 13. Narona. 14. Tauruno (Taurunum). 15. Ad Matricem. 16. Singiduna (Singidunum). 17. fipitauro (Epidaurus). IS. .Stanedi. 19. Lissus, 20. Viminatio. 21. Dyrratio (Dyrrachium). 22. Aulnnia (Apollonia). 23 Osa Col. 24. Sabrata. 25. Regio(RheglumorRegium). 26. Caulon. 27. Lacenium. 28. Castra Minervae. 29. VibonaValentia. 30 Temsa (Tempsa). 31. Tarento (Tarentum). 32. Brindisi (Brundusium). 33. Gratie. 34. Nerulos (Nerulum). 35. Salerno (Salernum). 36. Nuceria. 37. Oplontis. 38. Benevento (Beneventum). 39. Venusia. 40. Neapnii (Neapolis). 41. Ca|)ua. 42. Cnmas (Cumae). 43. Sylla. 44. Aeras. 45. Prelonium Laucrianum. 46. Siponto (Sipontum). 47. Esernie. 48. Teano Scedicino(Teanum Sidicinum). 49. Sinuessa. 50. Miniurnis (Minturnae). 51. Fundis (Fundi). 52. Terracina. 53. Ferenlinum. Cities. 54. Febralerie. 5s. Istonum. 5(5. Corfinio (Corfininm). 67. Marrubio (Marrubium). 68. Tres Tabernas. b9. Carsulis (Carseoli?). 60. Oslia .aiterni. 61. Pinna. 62. Castro-Novo (Castrum No vum, OD the Hadriatic). 63. Praeneste. 64. Roma. 65. Hostis (Ostia). 66. Chartagine (Carthago). 67. JVtaxula. 68. All Aquas. 69. Misua Clipeis. 70. Gurra. 71. Ad Horrea. 72. Lepteminus(Lepti5M'nofl 73. Thiforo Col. 74. Ad Aquas. 75. Taparura (Tapnrura). 76. Tacape. 77. Drepanis (Drepanum). 78. Lilybeo (Lilybceum). 79. AgrJgento (Agrigentum). 80. Sir.icusis (Syracusae). 81. JE^DTL Mens. 82. Messana. . Kivers. a. Danubius. b. Driuum. c. Savum. d. Margum. e. Genesis (Genusus) f. Hapsum (Apsus). g. Tanno. h. Crater, i. Silarum. j. Color. k. Aveldium. 1. Aufidenus, n). Larinum. n. Clocoris. o. Sannum. p. Creniera. q. Nernum. r. Arno. 8. Tiberis. t. Safe. u. Vulturnus. V. Himera. \v. Niranus. X. Ausere. y. Gerin. 18. Plate IX. (Page 62.) Symbolic Repre- sentations of the Seasons. Cf. P. I. $ 191 a ; P. IV. $ 188.2; P. II. $ 105. 19. Plate IX «. (Page 80.) View of Athens, from the foot of Mt. Anchesmus ; reduced from Hobhouse's Albania. Cf P. I. $ 105. 20. Plate X. (Page 82.) Mythological Illus- trations.— ¥\g. 1. Saturn; cf P. II. $ 14-17.— Fig. 2. Cybele; cf P. II. $ 19-21.— Fig. 3. Pluto; cf P. II. $ 32-34.— Fig. 4. Vulcan ; cf P. II. J 51-54.— Fig. 5. Neptune : cf P. II. $ 29-31.— Fig. 6. Venus, with attendants ; cf P. II $ 47- 49.— Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. II. $ 38-40.— Fig. 8. Bacchus ; cf. P. II. $ 57-60. 21. Plate XI. (Page 92.) Mythological lU lustratiovs.—F\fi. I .Iiino; cf P. II. $ 26-28.— Fig. 2. Meniirv; cf P. II $ 55. 56 —Fie. 3. .Tu piler ; ( f P. ll". J 22-25.— Fig. 4. Apollo; cf P DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. XI II. $ 35-37.— Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. II. $ 61-64 — Fig 6 Minerva; cf. P. II. $ 41-43.— Fig. 7. Mars; cf P. II. $ 44-46 —Fij; 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. $ 18. —Fig. 9. Cupi^l ; cf. P. II. $ 50.— Fig. 19. Vesta ; cf. P". II. $ 65-67. 22 Plate XII. (Page 97.) I'lie Hindoo Triad. Cf P. II. $ 25. 4. 23. Plate XIII. (Page 103.) The Avatars of Vishnu. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4; $ 37. U. 24. Plate XIII a. (Page 111.) Festival of JuTgernaut. Cf P. II. «J 59. 4. 25. Plate XIV. (Puge 121.) Mythological Illustrations.— F\^.. 1. Sol, as represented on a coin of the Rhndians ; cf. P. II. $ 71-72 —Fig.^2. Nox, as represented on a gem; cf. P. II. $ 76. —Fig. 3. Luna; cf P. II. $ 73.— Fig. 4. Hehe ; P. II. $ 27.— Fig. 5. Flora; cf P. II. $ 90. 4m.— Fig 6. .(Esculapius: cf. P. II. $ 84.— Fig. 7. Pan ; cf P. II. $ 79.— Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope ; cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P. II. $ 86.— Fig. 10. Victoria ; cf P. II. $ 93.— Fig. 11. Concordia ; cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 12, Pa.\, or Peace ; cf P. II. $ 95. 26. Plate XV. (Page 124.) Representations from the Mac Table. Cf. P. II. $ 96. 27. Plate XV a. (Page 138.) Table of Greek and Ro?iian Deities classified Cf. P. II. $ 9, 10. 28. Plate XVI. (Page 140) Crowns, Gar- lands, i^c— Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Roman crowns or wreatiis, bestowed as military rewards. Fig. 6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. III. $ 284. 1.— Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands received by vic- tors in the games; ct. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233.— Fig. A. Plan of a Gymnasium or Palaestra after Vitruvius, as given in Burthele-ny's Anachar- sis : cf P. IV. $ 236.— Fig. B. Victorious cha- rioteer; cf. P. III. $ 233.— Fig C. A golden crown found in Ireland ; cf. 1 . III. i> 34. 29. Plate XVII. (Page 155.) Military Wea- pons, ^c. For particulars, see P. III. §$ 45, 137, 283. 30. Plate XVIII. (Page .161.) Tombs arid Sepulchral Remains. —F\g^. 1, 2, 3. Tomb of Cy- rus, Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid of Cestius; cf. P. III. $ 187. 5.— Fig. 4. Gates of a tomb; cf. P. III. i> 187. 5.— Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatoiy and ungnentary vases; cf. P. III. $ 341. 7. — Fig. B. Egyptian Psychostasy, or weighing of the soul; cf. P. II. $ 34b. 4.— Fig. e. Funeral couch; ct. P. III. $ 340. 1.— Fig. hh. Coffin and urns, &c.; cf P. III. $ 341. 6. 31. Plate XIX. (Page 166.) Oracle uf Tro- phonius. Cf. P. HI. $ 74. 32. Plate XX. (Page 168.) Representa- tions of Priests and Priestesses presenting Liba- tions and Sacrifices. Cf. P. I H. $ 24, $ 221. 33. Plate XXI (Page 179.) Temples.— Fig. 1. Parthenon; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. IV. $ 234. 3, P. I. $ 107.— Fig. 2. Temple of the Winds; cf P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 110.— Fig. 3. Temple of Theseus; cf P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 109. -^Fitrs. a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h. Ground-plans of the diff.-rent kinds of temples ; cf. P. IV. $ 234. 2. 34. Plate XXII. (Page 195.) Various Jlrti- cles of .^rmor.— Figs, a, b,c, &c. Helmets; cf. P. HI. $45. — Figs, r, s. Mail and breastplate; cf. P. HI. $ 45, 139.- Fig. M. Greaves; cf. P. HI. $ 44, 45.— Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian warriors; cf. P. HI. $ 45.— Fig. 3. Persian warrior; cf. P. HI. $ 45.— Fig. 4. Trophy ; cf. P. HI. $ 150.— Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with an armor-bearer; cf.P. HI. $ 283.— Fig. 6. Egyptian archer; cf. P. HI. $ 45, $ 288. r.— Fig. 8. Soldier in com- plete n.Hil; cf P. HI. $263. 35. Plate XXIII. (Page 201.) JK-aval Jllus- trafions. — Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat fur rapid moving; cf. P. HI. $304.— Fig. 2. Vessel from a psiiuing at Pompeii ; cf. P. HI. $ 304.— Fig. 3. Liburnian galley; cf. P. HI. $ 304.— Fig. 4. Merchant vessel; cf. P. HI. $ 155.— Fig. 5. War-galley; cf. P.HI. $ 155.— Fig. A. He\i- reme as explained by Holwell ; cf P. III. $ 155, 156.— Fig. H. Views of the relative position of the rowers, according to the explanations of some ; cf P. HI. $ 156. — Figs, a, b, c. Different forms of prows : cf P. HI $ 155 3, 4. 36. Plate XXIV. (Page 205.) Periainirig to Hojisehold .Affairs. — Fig. 1. Plan of a Grecian house; cf P. III. $171. 1.— Fig: 2 \ Grer.ian key ; cf. P. HI. * 171. 2.— Fig. 3. Young mau wearing the petasus ; cf. P. HI. 169. 3. — Fig. 4. A bride sitting with a mirror held before her; cf. P. HI. $ 169. 6. $ 171. 2.— Figs. 5 and 10. Grecian sofas; cf. P. HI. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 6. Pe- culiar head-orr»ainent, worn in oriental coun- tries ; cf. P. HI. $ 34.— Fig. 7. Grecian ladv, from Bos^d's Potter; cf P. HI. $ 169. 5 ; $ 171. 2. -Figs. 8, 9. Chairs ; cf. P. HI. $ 171. 2. $ 52.— Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various forms of coverings for the feet; cf. P. HI. $ 169. 2; $ 336. 37. Plate XXV. (Page 211.) Costume.— Figs, a, b, c, d. Modern Egyptian and oriental dresses; e, /, Greek Bacchantes, ^, an Egyp- tian spinner; A, i, Grecian female fluters ; k, Grecian lady in the more ancient costume; ?«, peculiar head-dress; n, o, Egyptian princess and priestess in transparent garmenis ; y, w, veils and head-dresses. See P. HI. $ 169. 5. — Fig. 1. A box worn on the neck: cf. P. HI. $ 337. — Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Egyptian monuments ; figs. 3, 4, toilet-table and mirror ; cf P. HI. $ 338. 38. Plate XXV a. (Page 215.) Tubhs of Grecian Moneys, &c. Cf P. HI. $$ 173-177. 39. Plate XXVI. (Page 219.) Mn.-ical In- strumevts. For particulars see P. HI. $ 180. 40. Plate XXVI a. (Page 224.) Tabular view of Civil Institutions uf Athens. Cf P. HI. $$97-116. 41. Plate XXVII. (Page 231.) Jilt ars and Sacrificial .Apparatus. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various articles as given in Monifaucon; fig. A. including 1, 2, &c., articles drawn from sculpture at Pom- peii; fig. B, representation of a sacrifice, from the same source ; cf. P. 111. $ 206. — Fig. C. Sa- crifice to Bacchus; cf. P. HI. $ 205. 1; $67. — Fig. D. Sacred utensils from Egyptian re- mains; rf P. HI. $ 206. 2.— Figs. E, H, Altars; cf. P. HI. $205. 1. 42. Plate XXVHI. (Page 236.) Priests and Priestes.^es. Cf. P. HI. $ 219; P. II. $ 67 m ; P. V. $ 16. 43. Plate XXIX. (Pagt^ 240.) The Snuve- taurilia, from an ancient bas-relief. Cf. P. HI. $ 224. 2. 44. Plate XXX. (Page 245.) Gladiatorial Contests. — Fig. 1, two uvdabaice or horsemen; fig 2, a horseman and footman (cf P. HI. $ 283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on tool ; fig. 5, wounded bull; fig. 6, two secutures and two retiarii: see P. HI. $235. 2, 3.— Fig. 7. Plan of an amphitheatre at Pompeii; cf P. HI. $ 239. — Fig. n. A Dacian horseman in scale-armor; cf. P. HI. $ 283. 45. Plate XXXI. (Page 255.) Pertaining to topics noticed under the head of Roman Civil .Affairs. — Figs. 1 and 3. Roman fasces, and Egyptian scepters; cf P. III. $ 240 1 — Figs. 2 and 9 Roman official chairs; cf P. III. $ 255. 2.— Figs. 4, 5, 6. Chariots ; cf. P. HI. $ 269. 3.— Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight ; cf P. HI, $270. 1.— Fig. 10. Sedan; cf. P. HI. $ 255. 2.— Fig. A, a kind of stoc-ks ; fig. B, the Mamerline prison at Rome ; rf P. HI. $ 264. 1. 46. Plate XXXIl. (Page 265.) Pertaining to housthohl and Jla riciiltural .Affairs. — Fig. 1, plan of a Roman hnuse ; figs, a and b. a key and bolt from Pom|)eii ; cf P HI $ 325. 6.— Fig. c, Egyr)tian door; cf P. IV. $ 231. I.— Fig. (/, Couch ; fig. E (including 1, 2. 3, &c.), Lamps ; cf P. Ill $ 325 7.— Fig ii. Roman plow; fig. iii. Syrian [ilows; figs iv. 6, 7, instruments for threshing ; figs. 5, 8, sickle, pruning-knife &c. See P. III. $269. 2. 47. Plate XXXII//. (Page 269.) Tables of Roman Movevs. S^-c. Cf P. HI. $ 271, $ 274. 48. Plate XXXIII (Page 273.) Jirmnr,Aft. litary Standards, d^-c. — Figs. 1 and 2. Legionai* Xll » DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. soldiors with shield and sword, baggage, &c. i of a consular camp; R, sectional view of the of. P. III. J 283. — Fig. 3. A Medo-Persian, from ag^er and fossa ; see P. III. $ 197 1. sculptures iit Pe>-se[)i)lis; hearing a sort of ham- I 50. Plate XXXV. (Page 301.) Pertaining iner, or l>attle-a,\, probably a token of some | to Feasts and the use of (Vive. — Fig. I. Plan military rank, perhaps however of some civil ! and view of a triclinium fonnd at Pompeii; of otficH ; the two hands nf another are seen bear- ii g the same token; fig. 4, another tVom the sculptures at Persepolis, with a sword and other arcouternients. Cf. P. IV. $ 171. — Figs. A. H, C, &c. A variety of standards and flags ; cf. P. III. $ 282. 1.— Fig. E. Part of the tri- nniphal procession represented on the Arch of P. III. $ 329. 2.— Fig. 2, carriage and vessel foi transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera, used in libations ; cf. P. 111. $ 331 b.— Fig. 4. Two per- sons interchanging the pledge of hospitality; cf P. 111.$ 330^ 3.— Fig. 5, a Bacchanal revel- ing alone, taken from ren»ains at Poenpeii ; fig 6, a wine press, from Egyptian monumetits ; 'funs ; cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2. ; fig. 7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cms t ; figs 49. Platk XXXI V. (Page 279.) War-en- | a, b, c, d, e, f, &.C., various cups and vessels; rines, Roman Camp, .^•c.— Fig. 1, tesiudo ; fig. 2, ' cf. P; 111. $ 331 b. vivecE ; 3, movable tower; 4, 5, 10, batleriiig- j 51. Pl.4TE XXXVI. (Page 302.) Monnmen- ram ; 6, scurpia ; 7, balista ; 8. pluleus; 9,fiilx ^ tal Structure, dedicated to the IJii Manes ^ Re- viuralis ; see P. 111. $ 299.— Figs. a. b. Archer presentations of Death, ^c. Cf. P. II. $$ 76, 83 and slinger; cf. P. 111. $ 288. 1.— Fig. P, plan ! 110, 113. EXPLANATIONS. The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from £he author and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered so as to differ more or less from the original. All the matter in the largest of the four sizes of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as may have one or the other of those marks. All the matter in the smaller type is added by the translator, with the following exceptions: (1) sections or paragraphs having the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Eschen- burg; and (2) part of the mere references to books and authors, a majority perhaps of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not seem of much con- .«equence to discriminate carefully between those given by the author and those introduced by the translator; if any one should find some of them irrelevant or un- important, he may safely charge such upon the translator rather than Eschenburg. In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one place to another; and the division into Parts, sections, and sub-sections, all sepa- lately numbered, makes the reference very easy; thus, e. g. the abbreviations cf. P. III. § 182. 4. direct the reader to the paragraph numbered 4, under section 1^2, in Part III. Instead of the word see, or the abbreviation v. (for the Latin vidc\, the abbre- viation cf. (for the Latin confer^ is commonly used. In order to facilitate the turn- ing to any passage, the number of the Part is continued as a sort of running title on the top of the even or right-hand page; in following the reference above given, e. g. the reader will first turn to Pattt III., denoted by P. III. seen at the top of the right-hand page; then, under that Part, will look for § 182; then, under that sec- tion, look for the paragraph numbered 4. Whenever the section to which a reference is made belongs to the same Part with the section in which the reference is made, the abbreviation for the Part is omitted ; thus, e. g. the abbreviation cf. § 3, occurs on p. 40 in § 136 of Part I., and it directs the student to § 3 of the same Part I. In some instances i sub.section is itself divided ; thus, cf P. III. § 268. 4. (c), directs to the paragraph marked (c), under the subsection 4. in § 268, of P. III. The references made to the Plates need no explanation, except the remark that the abbreviation Sup. always indicates one of the Supplemental Plates, contained in a separate volume. A copious Index was essential to accomplish the design of this book; and in order to secure greater copiousness, and at the same time give the student the advantage of a very obvious and useful classification, four distinct Indexes are furnished at the close of the work: an Index of Greek Words,- an Index of Latin Words; a Geo- graphical Index ; and a General Index ; besides which, the Contents (in a systema. tic view prefixed to tht l>o(ly of the work) are exhibited so fully, that the inquirer may easily ascertain in what section any topic is noticed. When one seeks informa- tion on a particular point from this volume, he is requested not to conclude that it contains nothing on the subject, until he has carefully examined the Indexes, the Statement of Contents, and the Description of Plates. PAET 1. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGy. S5 -: .9 rt " ■~ ^ >. s=-l ^ ^ P< p^ (4 1-^ t^ bD p— 1 O-i rH IS ■*J •s bJD S ri ' 1 » ^ o es o f=) fl 1—3 M 1=4 ^ ^ E=3 u W S t^ •^ ._ « - (U ^ s: c. — o»eo^iO<© EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOdRAniY. INTRODUCTION. ^1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of" the neighboring coun .ries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of ihe Odyssey were withui a lew hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition furnishes a still stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are de.-cribed as having departed by the Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules ; whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that tnere was a connection between the Palus Maeotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. In those early ages the earth was supposed to be a great plain, and the ocean an immense stream which flowed around it and thus returned back '.nto itself {dipoppnui). In later times, however, the commercial eiitprpri?e of the Athenians corrected these errors Tlieir ships sailed throueh the seas to the east of Europe and brought home such accurate infor- mation, that we find the description of these seas and the neigiihoring coasts nearly as perfect in ancient as in modern writers. — 'I'he expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the Anabasis of Xenophon (cf. P. V. ^243), and still more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opporl unities of becoming acquainted with the distant regions of the east. — The west of Europe was visited and described by the PhcEnicians, who had penetrated even to the British Ishinds. ^ 2. All the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients was emboc-en, in the second century after Christ, in two principal work? by Claudius Ptolemy ; one styled iM^yiiA*? SilvTa^t?, and the other TeajyoaipiKT] 'Yq)fiyri(Tii. From the latter we de rive our chief information respecting the Umits of the ancient world, and the attain- ments of the Greeks and Romans in geography. (Cf. P. V. §§ 206, 207, 216, 218, 480—483.) ^ 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an imperfect sketcii of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched deserts of Africa prevented their advance to the south ; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these lim.its were perfectly known; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name. Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Perm, one of the Insvlm FnrtuvattB (Canary Islands^, which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy for his fixed meridian. Our line extendinsr hence nnrtherly would include the British Isles and the Shetland Isles ; the latter are proliably designated by ihe T/iule of the ancienis, accoi-iing to d'Anville, althoush some have supposed it was af)plied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles ^ne line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably: perhap* around the \orlh C:i| e, a.s it has been thouiiht that this must be the Rubeas Promnntorimn of Ptolemy. The line wouid, in either case, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be descrihpd by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it woul I extend to the TTral Moun- tains, which were jiartially known bv the name of Hyperburei ; near which the [ioets located a people of the same name {T^ircr. Georg. i. 240), said to live in all possible felicity. From these mountains tlfe line would pass alone through Scytliia to the northern part of the Beliir Tag mountains, ihe ancient Tmnus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Karl: gar (in Chinese Tar- tary), called by Ptolemy Casio Rei/in ; a region of which, however, he evidently knew litll'». Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera; which is most pro- b ibly the modern Kan or Kan-trlienu, near the north-west corner nf China and the terr.;inafion of the immense wall Sf parating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must he carried over a reg\on, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thyv(F in the country of the Sints; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the Semi'*, which is siipposed i. be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterlj p >int (that is particularlv mentioned) is thought to be Point Covd.ir, th- southern extremity of Cambodia; this was called the Promovtnriuni Satyrnrnm. s.\u\ s.ime .small isles adjacent Tn sidcB Sat7iri)rum, because monkevs were found here, whose appearance resembled the fableO Satvrs. The general ignorance resp-^cting this region is obv'ous from the fact, that it was ima- gined, that beyond Ihe Pmwnntor,/ nf Snt'ijrs t>.e coast turopo ..rst to the south, and ll'jn com- pletely to the "west, and ttins proceeded until it joined .Africa. From the point oi cape jii9t named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Jiurea Chersonesus, or peninsiil.i o( Malaya or M.-iIacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jab/ulii fnsula. and pass tt T^vrobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence swijeping around the .Maldives, called "ly P'r 3 4 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. lemy fnsul(r ante Taprobanaw, and crnssing the equator, it vvniild strike Africa at Cape Delgrado. Biipposed t.T corret5p<)nd to the l^raginn Proiinnituriuiii, I.eiiifr ahoiil 10 decrees S. laiiliide. 'I iie boundary would exclude Ma^ugascar, as the ancient JV/eHM///u;,s(lesij,'Mates, not Madnj^ascar aw has been conjectured, but rnnst probably the inoossi(»le to irace {he line across Africa ; of the interior nf which the ancients knew ;tn)re liian one vvouhi suppose, judfring from the i<;noranre of the nnxlerns on the subject. The line would pass south of the Mountains of the Moon, /-«««■ >/'/r//e.s, wiiic'h are tnentioned by IMolciny ; am! also, in part, of the river Niiier, which, as d\'ivville remarks, was km>wn even in the time of Herodotus. On the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape rtl Ann's, about JO deL'rees N. latitude; this point ansvverinj: to the ancient JVi/^e Cnrnu, Souttiern Horn, otl' against which lay the islands called lusulie. Hcsperiduni. From this cape our line passes up the shore of the Atlantic to the InmiUv Ftntuiiatw. From this it is obvious, that the pnrtion oC the earth known to the ancients was small in pro- portion to the whol^-. It has been said, with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one- third of the lavd, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles : and of the 155 millions of square miles of loater, cov«iriiig the rest of the globe, they knew almost no- thing. On tlie knowledge of the ancien's respecting the earth, Class. Journ. v. 103. ix. 133. For the principal helps in studying Clis- Mcal Geography, consult the references given in P. V. ^ 7. 7 (6) ; see also P. V. ^^ 206-208, 371 ss. — On the history of Geography, rf. P. IV. § 27. § 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is of very ancient date ; but although the t'lames have been preserved, the boundariea in several particulars difiered. Egypt was lornierly reckoned among the Asialic kingdoms: at. present it is esteemed part of Airica : 3armatia was esteemed part of Europe : a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia. § 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the ancients believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat of the Torrid and the extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal' lite. Another division, intrf)duced by Hipparchiis, was that of climates. A climate is a space in- cluded betweeti two purallnls of latitude, so that the longest days of the itihabitants at oiip extremity e.vceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were ktiown. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexamiria in Ei-'ypt, Carthage, Alexatidria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and the British Islatids. NO'IE — 111 studyiig this Epitome, it is iiidis|)ensable to success that some Atlas should be used. That of Butler is very suitabls for the purpose. The editor of this Manual has it in contemplation to prepare an Atlas adapted to the Epitome of Ge<>graphy hers jiretented. — The student need not commit to memory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of th^ countries or provinces included m the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, tracing every thing, as far as possible, on his maps For recitation, let Uie Teacher question hini on the maps of the Atlas, or on large maps in mere outline, prepared fo« the purpose, which will be far better. I. OF EUROPE. ^ 6. EtJROPE, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most import- ant division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its name from Europa, the daughter of Agenor. a FhcBnician king, who being earned away, according to the mythological tales (P. II. § 23), by .lupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her name to this quarter of the globe. ^ 7. The boundaries of ancient Europe were nearly the same as those of modern Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of Europe. The northern o;:ean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saiurnian. bounds it on the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is traced by ancient writers; the reiniinder of i^s eas'ern boundaries are the Pains Maeotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus. Euxine sea, Thrat-ian Bosphorus, Propontis, Helles- pont, and iEgean sea; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic ocean the wes'ern boundary. ^ 8. The countries -of the MAtNt-AND of Europe may be arranged, for convenience, in the present geographical sketch, in three divisions; the northern, middle, and southern. The !si,a.vds may be considered in a separate division. The north of Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients until the unwearied arribition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new conquests in lands previously unnoticed. From these countries, in after times, came the barbarian hordes who overran Europe, and punished severely the excessps of Roman ambition. — The southern division contains the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most dis tmguisiied in Europe for their civilization and relineinent. The. i^f M'f hern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the follow no Rr:t iN^otNAViA, iVorwa?/ and Sweden; Chersonesus Cijvibrica, /(tf/aMi^, or Den P 1. 'i;UROPE. NORTHERX COUNTRIES. . \i mark; Sarm'TIA, F.ussia ; Ger^iama, Germany. — The Middle countries were the following. Gai.ua, Fra?ice and Sv^iizerland ; Vixdelicia, Suabia ; Rh.t;tia. rciuntry oi /h Grisofis ; Noricum, Austria; Pa^vxcxta, Hungary; Illyricu.m, Craalia and i^alnuitia ; M^sia. Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria ; Dacia, Transylvania and Wala(h a. In th/; Southern division we include Hispaxia, Spain and Porlu- g'll ; It^j a, f.fily ; Thracia, Macedonia, and Gr.ecia, all lately comprehended under iJiP fw i\sh Empire. I. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. ^ 9. SjANriNAVTA, or Scandia. by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely supposed to be a large island. The inhabi:ants were remarkable for their number and ferocity they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country came the Goths, the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the Normans, who subjugated the Bourh of Europe. % 10. The Chcrionesus Cimbrica. a large peninsula at the entrance of the Baltic, was the native co'^nlry of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after devastating Gaul invaded the ncr*njrn part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the safety of their capital. They defea'ed the consuls Manlius and Servilius with dreadful slaugh- ter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius. ^11. Sarmat.a included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is frequently confotmded with Scythia. "^I'his immense territory was possessed by several inde- pendent tribes', who led a wandering life like the savages of North America. The names of the principal tribes were the Sauroma'ae. near the mouth of the Tanais, and the Gcloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and the Borysthe/ies. The latter were called Hamaxohii from their living in wagons. Virgil gives them the epithet ■picli, because they, like the savages of America, painted their bodies to give them- selves a formidable appearance. — From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and Roxolanians, who aided the barbarians formerly meniioned C^s 8) in overthrowing the Roman empire. The peninsula, now known by the narne of the Crimea, or Crini Tartary, was anciently called the Chersonesus Tat^rica. Its inhabitants, called Tauri, were remarkable for their cruelry to strangers, whom thev sacrificed on the altar of Diana. From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was called Euxine {favorable to stra7igers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The principal towns of the Tauric Chersonese were Pantieapcpum (Kerche). where Mithridates the Great died; Saphioe (Procop), and T/ieodosia (KafFa). — At the south of this peninsula, was a large pro- montory, called from its shape Criu-Metopon. or the Ram's Forehead. ^ 12. Ancient Germany. Germaxia. is, in many respects, the niost singular nnd interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, and the accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, the origin of the English language and consritu*ion may be distinctly traced. The inhabitants called themselves fFer-men, which in their language signifies War-men, and from this hoas'-ing designa'ion the Romans named them, with a slight change, Gcr-men. The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately ascertained, but the name is generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the Baltic Sea and the Danube. § 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia. possessed by several tribes, of whom the principal were the Hermiones and Snevi, who possessed the middle of Germany. ■ The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. The chief of these were the Fr/.«//. through whose country a canal was cut by Drusus, • which being increased in the course of time formed the present Zuyder Zee ; the. Cherusci. who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions of Quintiliua Varus; the Sicambri, who were driven across the Rhine by the Catti, in the lime of Augustus; the Catti. the most warlike of the German nations, and most irreconcila ble to Rome ; the ^Inrcomanni . who were driven afterwards mto Bohemia by tht. Al.lemonni, from which latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allemagne Near the Elbe were the AnsH and Saxnnes. progenitors of the English, and tlu Longobardi. who founded the kincrdom of Lombardy. in the north of Italy. Tlie nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii. s'eadfast allies of the Romans ; the ^lar comanni. who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine; tho Narisci and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during: the reign of Marcus Aureli'is. "^ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses was forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, forts built bv the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives A great part of German) was occupied by tiie Ilercynian forest, which expended, as was said, nine days' jout poy from south to north, and more than sixty from west to east. A portirin of tin SyJva Hercynia is now called the Black Foreat, which still has its fabled terrors. ^ 1.5. The largest river in the northern division of Europe was the Ehn, now Won^u It was called Atel or Etel bv the Bvzantine write. = ,P. V. ^ ?39a) mi others in 'h". '#• , CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. middle aj^es. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with more water formerly than now mto the Mare Caspiuvi. It was in part ihe eastern boundary ol Europe, separating Sarmatia trom Scythia. — "^1 he river next in size was the Borysl/it?ies, called in the middle ages Danapris, whence its modern name Dnieper. Just at its entrance into [heFonius Euxinus,\i was joined by the i/(i/;;aw/s, called in the middle ages Bogus, and now the Bog. The long narrow beach ai the mouth of the Borysthenes was called Drcmuft Achillfi. — Between the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Taiiais, the prtsent Don, which separated Sarmaiia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, and flowed mto the Falus Mocotis or modern sea of Azoi ; near its mouth was a city of extensive commerce, called Tanais Emporium. The strait connec ting the Palus Maeotis with the Euxine was called Bosphorus Cimrnerius. — Another river dischargiiig into tlie Pontus Euxinus, was the Tyras, the modern Dniester: it flowed between Sarmatia and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boundary of what is included in our northern division of Europe.-— Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyras, flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus Codanus ; they were the Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal streams discharging into the Oceanus Germanicus were the Aihis, Elbe, and the Ehenus, Rhine, which formed the western boundary of the division of Eurooe now under notice, dividing Germania and GaUia. II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE MIDDLE OF EUROPE. ^ 16. We will begin with Gallia, which is at the western extremity of the division The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalp.na, to distinguish it from the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The Greeks gave it the name of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, to distinguish it from- Galatia ui Asia Minor, where the Gauls had planted a colony. Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flanders, Hol- land, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its boundaries were the Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the Pyrenees. — The country, in the time oi Juhus Caesar, was possessed by three great nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. Of these the CelfcB .y,vere the most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached from the Sequa?ia, Seine, to the Garumna, Garonne ; the Belgce lay between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where they united with the German tribes ; the Aquitani possessed the country between the Garumna and the Pyrenees. <5) 17. Augustus Csesar divided Gaul into four provinces; Galha Narhonensis, Aqut tauia, Gallia Celtica, and Btigica. Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea coast irom the Pyrenees to the Alps; including the terrhory of the modern provinces, Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the prin- cipal of which were the Allohroges, Salyes, and Volcag. The principal cities were Narho Marlins, the capital, (Narbonne) ; Massilice (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian colony, from Phocaea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Julii (Frejus) ; Aqucs Sexlice (Aix) ; and Nemausus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grand :inr of its still existing remains. Among Ihe interestin; monuments at Nismes are, tlie Square House, and the Jirena; the latter being an anijihitheatre, or circus, of the Doric order, with walls composed of enormous masses of stnne r.nited with wonderful skill, 1200 feet in circumference, i-apable of holding, it is said, 16,000 or 17,000 persons ; the former, a temple, 76 feet long, 38 broad, and 42 high ; adorned with 30 beautiful Corinthian columns. (Cf. Seyna and Menard, cited P. IV. § 243. 3. — Millin, Voyage dans les Dcpartements du Midi.) Aquitani a extended from the Pyrenees to the Ligcr (Loire). The principal nations were the Tarbelh, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pictones, and Lemovices, north of that river. The chief towns were Mediolanuvi (Saintes) ; Forties Sanlonum (Rochelle) ; and Tlxellodunum. Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — The country along the coast was called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce and warlike. — 1 he principal nations were the Segusiani, ^dui, Mandubii, Parish, and Rhcdones. The prircipal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius Flancus after the dea*h of Julius Caesar; Bihracte, cdWedi afterwards A ugustoditmim (Autun) ; Alesia (AHse), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms of Cassar; and Partus Brivates (Bres*), near the Promontorium GobcBum (Cape St. Malo). Lutelia Par islnrn m (Paris) was built by the Parisii, on a swampy island, before Ihe time nf Christ, but was of no iniportanc* Hntr. A. I). 360. when the Emperor Julian went into winter quarters there, and erected a palace for himself. The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. This contained a grea+ number of powerful states; the Helvptii occupying that part of modern Swit- zerland included between Lacus Lemanus (the lake of Geneva) and Locus Brigmiti' nus (the lake of Constance) \ the Sequojii. possessing the present province of Franche ''omte ; and the Bafavi, who inhabited Holland. — -That part of Belp;ic Gaul adj >ining ho Rhine l>el 'W Helvetia was called G er m a nia, from the nun:ber of (ierraan tribes p. I. EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. V- who had settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, tlie part nearer the sources of the Rhine, B.nd Inferior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal of these tribes were the Treveri, Ul)ii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country of tae Treveri was the extensive forest Ar(luen7ia (Ardennes), traces of which still remain. ^ 18. The princijal mountrins of Gaul were Gehenna (the Cevennes), in Langue- doc ; Vogesus (the Vauge), in Lorraine; and Alpes (the Alps). — The Alps were subdivided into Alpes Maritimcs, joining the Etruscan sea ; Cottice, over which Han- nibal is supposed to have passed ; GrcBcm, so called from the passage of Hercules ; PennincB, so called from the appearance of their tops (from pni7ia, awing) ; Rhcp.ticcb, joining Rheetia ; Noriccs, bordering Noricum ; Pannonic(B ; and JnlicB, the eastern extremity, terminating in the Sinus Flanaticus (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. The chief rivers of Gaul were Rhenus (the RTiine) ; this river, near its mouth, at present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the Newlssel ; the last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the ancient mouth of the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked up by some concussion of nature not mentioned in history ; Bhodanus (the Rhone), joined by the Arar (r-aone) ; Garumna (Garonne), which united with the Dura?iius (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), joined by the Elaver (AlHer) ; and Sequaita (the Seine). The principal islands on the coast of Gaul vv'ere Uxanlos (Ushant) ; Uliarus (Oleron) ; CcEsarea (Jersey)^ Sarnia (Guernsey); and Eiduna (Alderney) ; on the south coast were the Slcechades or Ligustides insulce (isles of Hieras). $ 19. The gnvprriment of ancient Gaul, previous to tlie Roman invasion, was aristocralical, atid so preat was tiieir liatred of royalty, that those who were even suspected of aiming at sove- reiarn power, were instantly put to death. The priests and nol)ies. whum they called Dniids and knights, possessed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ; •n most of the states an annual magistrate was elected witn powers similar to those of the Ro- tian consul, hut it was orda'ned that hoth the magistrate and the electors should be of nohle birth.— n person, the Gauls are said to have been generally fair complexinned, with long and ruddy .air, whence their country is sometimes called Gallia Conmta, or Hairy Gaul. In disposition .hey are described as irascible, and of ungovernable t'liry when provoked ; their tirst onset was very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with equal steadiness. $ 20. The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in obscurity; we only know that it must have been very populous from the numerous tiordes who at different limes emigrated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They se zed on the north of Italy, which was from them called Cisalpine CJaul ; they colonized part of Germany ; they invaded Greece ; and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where, mingling with the Greeks, they seizi^d on a pro- vince, from thence called Galatia or Gallo-Graecia.— Another body of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, seized and burned Rome itself; and though they were subsequently routed by Camil- lus, the Romans ever looked on the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, and designated a Gallic war by the word Tamultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war. $ 21. The alliance between the people of Massilise (Marseilles) and the Romans furnished the latter peo[)le with a pretext for intermeddling in the affairs of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced. The first nation whom they attacked was the Salyes, who had refused them a passage into !>|)ain; the Salyes were subdued by Cains Sextius, who planted a colony called after his name, Aquae SextiiE; about four years after, the greater part of Gallia Narhonensis was subdued by Quinttis Martins Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Martins, and made it the capital of the Roman province. — After the subjugation of Gallia \arbonensis, the Gauls remained uiunolested until the time of Ccesar, who after innumerable difficulties conquered the entirt; country, and annexed it to the Roman dominions. Though grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the emperors made rapid advances in civilization ; they are particularly noticed for their success in eloquence and law. A curious circumstance of the mode in wliich these studies were pursued is recorded by mauy historians; an annual contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished weie com- pelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of the victors, or else be whipped and plunged into the Arar.— See Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. ^ 22. The country called V i n d e 1 i c i a was situated between the sources of the Rhenus (Rhine), and the Doimhius or Isler (Daiiube). Its chief town was Augusta Vindelicoritm (Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, pre- sented by Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the Reformation). — Between Vindelicia and the Alps \''as Rh.t:tta, containing rather more than the present territory of the Grisons. Its chi'^f towns were Curia (Coire), and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assembled. ^Vindelicia and Rhce'ia were originally colonized by the' Tuscans, and for a lo"g time bravely maintained their independence. They were eventually subdued during the reign of Augustus Caesar, by Drusus the brother of Tiberius. § 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by the rive JF!nus (Inn). Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the Roman terri tories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. The iron ot Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country were highly valued. — East of Noricum was Pannonta, also subdued by Tiberius. It was divided into Superior, the chief town of which was Vindobona (Vienna); and Inft'rior, whose eapiial was Sirminm, a town of great importance in the later ages of the empire. Noricum is now called Austria, and Pannonia. Hungary. % 24. The boundaries of Illyricum have, not been orenisely ascortahied ; it occ»« 8 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. j'ied the north-eastern shores of" the Adriatic, and was subdivided into the tliree provinces of Jnvydii, Lihumia, and Dalmatia. It included the modern provinces, (Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — '1 he chief towns were Salona, near Spcdalro, where the emperor Dioclesian retired after fiis resignation of the imperial power; Epidaurua or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Bagusa. The Tliyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with whicti tliey treated theii captives; they possessed great skill Iti ship-building, and the light galleys of tlie Lihiirniiipg con- tributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actiurn. — The Roinans drchind war Jijirainsi the Illyrians, in consequence of the murder of their arnhMssadors, who had been basely niassacrt'd by Teuia, queen of that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg-a peace on the nmst humiliaiing conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they were finally subduep hy the praetor Anicius, who slew their kingGentius, and made the country a Roman province. '5*25. M CESi A lay between Mount //ffw/is (the Balkan) and the Danube, which after its junction with the Savus was usually called Jster. It was divided into Superior, the present province of Servia, and Inferior, now cal ed Bulgaria. Part of MoBsia Supe- rior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian tribe; next to which was a distric* called Dard.aiiia ; that part of Moesia Inferior near the mouth of the Danube waa called Pontvs, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. — The principal cities in Ma-sia Superior were Siiisidunum (Belgrade), at the conflu- ence of the Save and Danube ; Nicopoli^, built by Trajan to commemorate his victory over the Dacians; and Naisaiis (Nissa), the birthplace of Constarttine the Great. — In Mccsin Inferior were Marcinnopolh, the capital ; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banish- ment ; Odessus, south of Tomi, and ^si'^'-'^us, near which was the bridge built by Darius in his expedition against the Scythians. ^ 26. Dacia lay'between the Danube and the Carpates, or Aipea JBas/aryj/cffi (Carpa- thian or Krapack mountains) ; including the territory of the modern provinces. Tran- sylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia. The celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercynia (cf. § 14) , stretched over the north and west part of it. Dacia was inhabited by two Scythian tribes, the Daci and Geice, who for a long time resisted every effort to deprive them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan. After having conquered the cou try, Trajan joined it to Mojsia !)y a magnificent bridge over the Dnnuhe, traces of which still exist. His successor, Adrian, influenced either by jealousy of his prtdecessor's glory, or believing it more exfiedient to contract than to extend the bounds of the empire, broke down the bridge, and left Uacia to its fate. — This country was of considerable importance fo the Romans on account of i's gold and silver mines. In 1807, an interesting monument of Roman writing was found iu one of these mines. (Cf. P. IV. § 118. 3.) A people has been found among the Wallachian?, that now speak a language very similar to the Latin, and are therefore supposed to be descended from the Roman colonists.— Mr. Brewer says he found so many words common to 'he Latin and the Wall ich:an, that 1 y means of the Latin he could converse on common subjects with a Waila'chian merchant at Constfinlinople.— 7. Brewer, Resi- dence at Constantinople in 1827, &c. New Haven, 1830. 12. — Cf. Walshes Journey from Constantinople. III. THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF EUROPE. % 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most western country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of Spain and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, and (to distinguish it. from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western situation,) Hesperia Ultima. The Romans at first divided it into Hispnnia Citerior, or Spain at the eastern side of the Iberus, and Hiapania Ulterior, at the western side; but by Augustus Caesar, the country was divided into three provinces; Tarraco?iesis, Bcelica, and Lusilania. Like the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. § 28. Tar raconensis exceeded the other two provinces together, both in size and importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Durius, on the Atlantic, and to the Oroapedo Mons separating it from Baetica, on the Mediterranean ; and re- ceived its name from its capital, Tnrmco (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani. The other principal towns were Sngunlum, on the Mediterranean, whose siege by Hannibal caused the second Punic war; some remains of this city still exist, and are called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veleres (old 7valJs) ; Carthago Nova (Carthagena), built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Mediterranean : in the interior, north-east of the capital, Il.erda (Lerida) , the capital of the Ilergetes, where Caesar defeated Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius ; Numantia, near the sources of the Durius, whose inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and, when unable to hold out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to :he conquerors; Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, among the Celtibeii; Ccssarea Auguafa (Saragossa) , capital of the Edetani ; Toletum (Toledo); Complutum (.Alcala), and Kihora (Talavera) , in the same district ; Calagurris, in the territory of the Vascones, whose inhabitants suffered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war, being reduced to such straits, that the inhabitants (as .Tuvenal says) actually devoured each other. -Near the modern town of Segovia, retaining the name and site of Segovia among the Arevac!, are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto), at tlie mouth of the Durius, was also called Tortus Gallorum, from some Gauls whc Mfttiled thTP, and hence the name of the "present kingdom of Portuifa! — -I'lie north p. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 9 of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantnhri, a fierce tribe, who for a long time resisted the utmost efforts ot the Romans ; their territory is the modern province of Biscay. ^ 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, was called BiEtica, from the river B^tis. Its chief towns were Cordaha (Cordova;, at first called Coloiiia Patricia, the birthplace of the two Senecas, and the poet Lur,an ; ir this town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Almanzor; it ismoi-e than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richly ornamented, and supported by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble: Hi.sjjulis (Seville); Italicc, the native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus ; CusLu,lo,ca.\ied also Parnassia, because it was founded by a Phocian colony; al4 on the Basis. — f'he south-western e.xiremity of Baetica was possessed by a Phoinician colony, called the Basiuli Pceni, to distinguish them from the Libyan Poeni, or Carthaginians; their capual was Gudes (Cadiz), on an island at the mouth of the Boetis; near it were the little island Tarles- BUS, now part of the continent, and Junonis P romsntorium (Cape 'f'rafalgar) . — At the entrance of the straits of Hercules or Gades, stood Carteia, on mount Calpe, which is now called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel 'I'arik, i. e. the mountain of 'i arik, the first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast of Africa) were named \he pillars of Hercules, and supposed to have been the bounda- ries of that hero's western conquests. North of this was Manda, where Caesar fought his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. Lusitania, which occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of Portugal, contained but few placesof note ; the most remarkable were Augusta Emerila (Menda) and Olislppo (Lisbon), said to have been founded by Ulysses. ^ 30. 'I'he principal Spanish rivers were, Iberus (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajo) ; Darius (Douro) ; BcBtis (Guadalquiver) ; Anas (Guadiana). — The promontory at the north- western extremity of the peninsula was named Arlabrum or Cellicum (Finisterre); that at the south-western, Sacrum, because the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there; it is now called Cape St. Vincent. ^ $ 31. Spain was first made known tn the ancients by thf* conquests nf Hercules. In later times tt)e- Carthaiiinians became masters of ttie greater part of the country; they were in their turn expelled by the Romans, who kepi possession of the peninsula for several centuries.— Dur- ing the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the contending parties. Here Sertorius, after the death of Marius, assembird the fugitives of the popular |»ariy, and fir a long time resisted the arms of Sylla : here, Afraniiis and Petreius, the lieutenants of Pompey, ina^le a gallaiu stand against Julius Csesar ; atnl here, after the death of Pompey, his sons made a fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their fatlier's misfortunes.— Upon the overthrow of the Romm empire, Spain w^is conqm-red by the Vandals, who gave to one of the provinces the name Vandalusia, n^w corrupted iiuo Andalusia. ITALIA. ^32.' Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both by ancient and modern writers, Irom the beauty of its climate and the fertility of its soil, 'f'he Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaliered ; on the north are the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the South the Sicilian strait, and on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the country was called Saturnia, Ausonia, and CEnotria; by the Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the west of their country. Italy has always be(>n subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less independent of each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two pans, denominated the nurtheru and eiiutheru ; and as the chief city and capital of the country is of such celet)rily, shall enter itiio a nmre particular description of^ Rome; ; adopting the following arrangement ; 1. The Geography of the northern portion of Italy ; 2 The Geography of the southern portion; 3. The Topography of the city of Rome. § 33. (I) Geography of the Northern portion of Italia. The principal ancient divi sions of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latiuni. Gallia Cisalpina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting, after tiio Social war, the toga, or distinctive dress of tffe Romans, lay between the Alps and the river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, into Transpadana, at the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; these were subdivided into several smaller districts. North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief town, Augusta Taurinorum, is now called 'I'urin ; next to these were the Insubres, wiiose principal towns were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticinus, •vhere Hannibal first defeated the I^onians, after his passage over the Alps; the Ceno- manni, possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia); Cr?mo7ia; and Ma/nlua, the birtb place of Virgil; and the Euganei. whose chief towns were Tridenium (Trent; j anU Verona, the birthplace of Catullus — Next to these were the Veneti and Carni tht't chief towns were Palavium (Padua) , the birthplace of Livy, built by the Trojan \nte- Aor, after the destruction of 7'roy : and Aquihia, retaining its former 'fm-K? '^•i» not 10 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. former consequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to AttUa king oi th« Huns. Next to iliese was tlie province Hisiria, or Isiria chief town, Tergeste 'Trieste). Soutii of the Po where the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua (Genoa), on the Sitius Ligusticiis (Gulf of Genoa); Por.us Hertulis Moikbci (Moi.aco), and Nicata (Nice); tlie territory of the Boii, containing Bononiu (Bologna); Mutma (Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma, and Placentia; and the country of the Lingones, whose chiet town was liavenna, where the emperors of the wesi held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians. §34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus (Maggiore) ; Benacus (Di Gardi), and Larius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from the vilhige Comnm, near Pliny's villa. 'I'he rivers of this province were the Eridanus or Podus (Po), called by Virgil the king of rivers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary streams, especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincius (Mincio), ialls into the Adriatic; th« Alhesis (Adige), rising in the Rhsetian Alps; and the Rubico7i (Rngone), deriving its source from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. $ 35. Thfi ii\habitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hostile to the power of Rome ; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when he invaded Italy, and in the Social war they were the most inveterate of the allied states in their hostility. — When the empire of the west fell before the northern tribes, this province was seized by the Lonjrobardi, from whom the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom was banished from the rest of Europe. § 36. E tr uria extended along the coast of the lowei or Tuscan sea, from the small river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria were: the town and port of Luna, at the mouth of the river Macra; Pisce (Pisa); Florenlia (Florence); Portus Herculis Lebur?ii (.Leghorn); Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeated ; Perusia, near the lake 'I'hrasymene, whernrfiannibal obtained his third victory over the Romans; Clusium, the city of Porsenna; Vohinii (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the infamous minister of Tiberius, was born ; Falerii. (Palari), near mount Soracte, the capital of the Falisci, memorable for the generous conduct of Camillus while besieging it ; Veii, the ancient rival of Rome, captured by Camillus after a siege of ten years ; Ccsre, or Agylla (Cer Veleri), whose inhabitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from the Gauls, in reward for whirh they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed the privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was said to be erirolled among the Casrites; Centum Cellcp (Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. § 37- The principal rivers of Etruria were the Ar?ius (Arno) , rising in the Apennines and falling into the sea near Pisa; and the Tiber, which issuing from .the Umbrian Apennines, and joined \>y the Nar (Nera) and A?i,io (Teverone\ running in a south- westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome. The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, Tyrrhevi; they are said to have come originally from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces oi' their eastern origin, to a very late period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of theii Buperstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsaying They attained distinguished excellence in art (cf. P. IV. $ 109, 110); inlereating monuments of which still exist (cf. P. IV. $ 173). ^ 38. Umbria was situated east of Etnn-ia, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurui (Metro) , where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns; Ariminum{^\xn\n\) , the first town taken by Cogsar, at the coinmencement of the civil war; Pesaurum (Pesaro) Seftna GaUica (Senigaglia), built by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum; Spolelium (Spo letto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at 'I'hrasymene. The memorv of this repulse is still preserved in an inacriplinn over one of the g;a'es, thence called Porta di Fuga, " Here also ij a beautiful aqueduct carried across a valley, three hundred feet high." !V. Fiske, p. 343, as cited P. IV. § ISt. 6. § 39. Picenuni lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic. lis principal towns were, Asculum vAscoli), the capital of the province, which must not be confound- ed with Asculum in Ap'lia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; Corfinium (San Ferino). the chief town of the Peligiii ; Sahno, the birthplace of Ovid ; and Ancona, retaining ita ancient name, founded hy a Grecian colony. Close to the harbor of Ancona is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan ; the pillars are of Parian marble, and s a colony IVom Chalcis in Euboea, the residence ot the celebrated Curnean ^^ibyl, ano near it the town and promontory Misiiinin, so named i'rom Misenus, the trumpeter of ^neas, who was buried there. — Below ilie cape were Buicp., lamous lor its niinera waters ; Puteoll (Puzzoli) , near which were the Fhlegra^i-campi, where Jupiter is said to have vanquished the giants ; Cimmerium, whose eaily inhabnarus are said, by Ho- mer, to have lived in caves. After these we come to Farlhennpc or Neapolis (Naples). This beauliiul city was founded by a colony trom Cumae, and tor a long time retained the traces of a Grecian original; it was called Fanheuope trom one ot the sirens said ?o have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain t'ausilypus (Pausilippo), ihrough which a subterranean passage has been cut, hall a mile in lengrh and twenty- 'wo feet wide ; neither the time ot making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said to ie that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the villa •>/" Luciillus. — At the southern extremity of the Si?ius Paleolunus (bay ot Naples), were Slahice, remarkable lor its mineral waters, and Surretitnni, celebrated lor its wines; near the latter was the Promonlorium SurretUini/m or AtUenantm (Capo delta Minerva); east of Naples was Nolu, where Hannibal was tirst deleated, and wh^re Augustus died. In the south of Campania was Sdler-^Aim (Sale'-no', the capital ot the Picentini. — Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius w^rc Hercalav.um and Pompeii, destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. The reiiMiiis of these towns were accidfntally discovered in Ihe beg^nn'tng of the last century, and the numerous and valuable reniains of an'ie)uity give us a erealersi^ht into the domestic habits of the Romans iliaii could previously be obliinrd. "Above ihiity streets of Poiii|ieii are now (IMO) restored to light. The walls vvhicfi formed its ancient enclosures have been recogn zed ; a mag- nificent amphitheatre, a theatre, a forum, the temple of Isis, tliat of Venus, and a number of olhrr buildings, have been cleare.l." Housis, shops, cena*^, with all their various tLrniture, are found just as they were when buried under the volcanic mas-. — See the worUs on Herculaneum and Pompeii cited P. IV. § 243. 2 — Cf. P. 111. § 329. ^43. The principal Campanian rivers were the V^dtvrvus (Vuhurno) ; Sihelhvs 'Sebeto). now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions ot Mount Vesuvius; and the Sarnvs (Sarno). — 'the principal lakes were the Luvrinus, which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with a volcanic mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre ; and the Avenuis, near which is a cave represented by Virgil as the entrance of the internal regions. It was said that no birds could pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ; whence its name, from a (not) and op^i^ (a bird). Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of riifferent barltaroiis trit>es ; at length it was seized liy the Saracens in the tentli century. These were ex- pelled by tlie Nornfians, under Tancred, who founded the kiiii;doin of the Two Sicilies. § 44. East of Labium and Campania was S a m n i u m, including the country of the Hirpini. — 'I'he chief tqwns were Sainnls, the capital ; Benevm.ium (B-enevento), at first called Maleventum, from the severi'y of the winds, but when the Romans sent a colony here they changed the -name, from moMves of supers i'ion ; near this town Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the assistance of the Samnies. was totally defeated hy the Roman army, commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caiidium, near which are the Cnudincp. FurcalcB. (Forchia d'Arpaia). a narrow and dangerous defile, in which the Roman army, being blocked up by the Samnire general, Pontius, were obliged to surrender on disgraceful conditions; viv\(\. AlfmicB. remarkable tor its manufactory of earthenware — Among the Hirpiri, were Ec/uofulicmn, whose unpoetical name is eelebrated by Horace ; Trixiaim and Herdonio (Ordonia), on the borders of Apulia.— Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of AmsanctuK, surrounded by hills, and re- markable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs ; on a neighboring hill stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, w^hence the valley is now called Muffeta. § 4.5. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sahatua (Sabato), and Color (Ca- tore), both tributary to the Vidturnus. The Sainnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many years contended with tlie Romans for the empire of Italy ; at leneth. after a war of more than seventy years, during which the Romans were freqticntiy reduced to great extremities, the fortune of Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. "^ \Q>. Apulia, called ako Daunia ard .Tapygia, but now La PusUa, occupied the greater part of the cast of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta- rentum. Its chief towns: Tenm/ni. named Apiilum to distinguish it from a town of the same name in Campania; A rpi said to have I een lutilt by Diomede. after his return from the Trojan war; north of Arpi is Mount Gargaiius (i^aint Angeln). in the spur of the boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; east of Arpi were Vria, which save the Smcieiir name to the Sinua Urius, and Sipnnfi/m (Manfredonia. which cave to the Si?n's Uriuft its modern name, GliK of Manfredonia); on the borders of Pamnium stood Lnrerii. celebrated for its. wool ; Salap'o (S^alpe): and AsciiJum. called Apulum. fc li-ituuMjish ii from a town ot the same name in Picenuin. — Near the rver Autiduji P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 13 Stood the village of CannoB, where Hannibal almost annihilated the povvc/ of Rome; through tlie fields of Cannas runs the small stream Vergelliia, which i.s said to have been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a bridge to Hannibal and his soldiers; Cnnusium, a Greek colony, where the remains of the Roman army were received afier their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), near Mount Vultur, the birthplace of Horace; Barium (.Bari), where excellent fish were caught in great abundance ; and Eff?ialia, on the Matinian shore, lamous tor bad wa er and good honey. The principal Apulian rivers were Cerhalus (Cerbaro), and Aufdus (Ofanto), remark- able for the rapidity of its waters; both falling into the Adriatic. ^47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed m the fifteenth centuiy; from iliis the Italians who wished to pass into Greece gene- rally sailed ; Hydruntum (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; Castrum Minerva: (Castro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called Capo Saiila Maria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tare/tttim (I'arento), built by the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudice. the birthplace of the poet Ennius; and Calllpolis (Callipoli), built on an island and joined to the continent by a splendid causeway. The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of Tarentum. '^ 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to the bay of Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the empe- ror Basil ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost. The principal towns on the Mare Tyrrhenum (Tuscan sea), were, Laus, on the river of the same name flowing into the Si?ius Laics (Gulf of Policastro) ; Buxeiduvi, called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; Velia or Elea, the birthplace of Zeno, the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, that built Marseilles (cf.§ 17): in the vicinity of Elea, near Mount AJhurnus (Postiglione, or Alburno), PcBflum. called by the Greeks Posidonia, celebrated in ancient time for its roses, in modern for its beautiful ruins. On the ruins nf/'xsfum, cf. Evttace, as cited P. IV. ^ 190. l. — JViru:hdmann, Histoire, &c., vol. iii. as cited P. IV. § 32. 4.— Di lagardetle, Les Ruines de Psstum, cited P. IV. § 243. 1. In the interior of Lucania, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus ; Alei num, on the Silarus : Grumentum, on the Aciris ; and Las^aria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the franier of the Trojan horse.— On the shore of the Si?ius Tarenlinus (Tarentine bay), were Metapontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble ; Syharis, on a small peninsula, infamous (or its luxury; and T'/jMr/«»t, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their ovv i city was destroyed by the people of Crotona The plains where these once flourishing cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural re- mains contribute to the melancholy of the scene, by recalling to memory the days ol former greatness. The principal rivers oT Lucania were the TanagriLs (Negri), which, after sinking in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and uniting with the Silarun falls into the Sinus PoEstanus (Gulf of Salerno) ; Melpiis (Melfa), which 'empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro. so called from the number of ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanus, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into the Tarentine bay ; the Aciris (Agri), and the Syharis (Coscile), small streams on the Tarentine coast. ^ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-telhis or B rut tiu m, but is now called Calabria-ultra.— The principal cities of the Bruttii, on ■.he Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, who waged war in Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; CoiiseiUia (Cosen/a), the capital of the Bruttii; Terina, on the Sinus Termffi?/.* (Gulf of St. Eiiphemia) ; pnd Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). — On the Sicilian btrait, were the town and promontory ScyllcBum (Scylla). whose dangerous rocks gave rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf P. II. *S 117); opposite to the celel)rated whirlpool Charyhdis on the coast of Sicily : Eheginm {Reggio). so named by the Greeks, because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, ana broken off here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony from Chalcis, in the island of Euboea, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its fertility ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopefra, so named from the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell' Arnai. On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes Cro'nia. found<^d bv 3ome Aohaeans on their return from thp Trojan war, where Pytiiagor-- .•"UolichetJ W PLATE I- _^ J2 8-i'5 /O PLAN OFANCIENT ATHENS. (According to thil given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis.) Porta Flami- nia. Porta Collina Porta Viiniiia lis. Porta Ksqiiili 5. Porta Nsvia. 6. Porta Carmen- ^ talis. -^ 7. Porta Capena. — --^ 8. Poita Trium- phalii. 9. Aqua Clacdi^. 10. .Aqua Appia 1 1. Aqua Marcia. 1'2. Aqua Julia. 13. Aqua Virgo. a. KX\3M Bridge. b. Triumphal Bridge c. Janiculensian Bridge. Bridg*; of Cestus. Bridge of Fsbricius. Palatine Bridge. S'Jti iciap Bridge PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. 'As publishad by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) J4 1. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. \ celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for '.heir skill in athletu exercises, that it was commonly said *'the last of the Crotoniafos is the first of the Greeks"; south of this was the Promonlorium Lucinium, wheie a very celebrated temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacaum (Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name; Caiilon (Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; sotith of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the Proviontorluvi Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy.^'l he cape at the southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Herciilis, now Spartivento. The principal rivers of ihe Bruttii were the CratMs (Craii), and NfCB'Jics i'Neu), which received its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. J 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who coloriizHd the south of Italy, were generals, who on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects' and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost coritinual.y devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at difTer^nl times, and utider various leaders, sought to obtain, in a foreign country, thai tranquillity and liberty that had i)een denied them at home.— These ditferent stales were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an annual congress similar to the Am[)hittyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclca, and united the several communities in one great confederacy. Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading stnte. but after a bloody war, it was destroyed by Ihe jealousy of the people of Grotona ; the Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five times they rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thuriuin. — The Crotoniates did not long preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their < iiy, and they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. — To secure their superiority, the Locrians entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable influence in the south of Italy, tintil Ihe attempt ot the elder Dionysius to set ure to himself a pari of the country by building a wall from the Terineean aulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the in- gratitude of the younger Dionysius, eave them a distaste for Ihe connection. — After breaking off their alliance with the Siciliairs, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans ; during the war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity ; but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined Hannibal. — It is remarkable, that in all the other Italo-Grecian states the people embraced the Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division of parties was directly the contrary. The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but beine enervated by riches and luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, kitig of Epirus, to secure their city from the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans. After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su- periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods of the Roman empire. ^ 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — The Gates (PortcB) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were thirty-seven; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most noted; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tihurtina, CcRlimontana, Latina, Capena, Fla- mifiia, Ostie?isis. For a plan of ancient Rome, see our Plate I., from which the reader may learn the position of, many o the important object! ibout to be noticed. "5> 52. Thirty-one great Poads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via Sacra, Appia, Emilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roadc "issuing from the Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the fron- tiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called Milliarium aureum{Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were reckoned. " This curious monument was discovered in 1S23." Butler's Geogr. Clas.? p. 39.) " They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest, Bioups, mixed with cemenl, statumen ; the middle, gravel or small sUmes, r-ndtra, \o prepare a level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consistud of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighb'irhood (>'. cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, viarirines, protected by curb-stones, which deflned the e.xtent of the central part, auser, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that no water might lie upon it." — "T e public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united the subjects of the most distant pri-vinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object har the public service, it was sonietiuies iiuiulged to the business ot conveiiierw y of private citizens." — Dr. Rnbinsmi noticed three Roman mile-stones on his route (in I808) from Tyre lo Beiruc in Syria; one of them "a large column with a Latin inscription containing ihe names of St'(»iimiiis !?everus ami Pertinax." Traces still exist of a Roman road leading from Dimasciis to Peira, and thence even tn Ailah. The rimst ancient and cele- brated of all the Roman Vive w.is the Appiati way, called Rclocks -^^ houses and buildings ; these being separated by intervening streets and by iTrmi if nTPriirr?i!i ilil/ili!;lililliiil;l ;iM;/;!(ii)i|!i;riiJl;.: ;',. .Aii^ iiiiHUiiyiimniMKii (iUfrrnTlmmlJ .Mlii p % EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. H lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occu pied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici; of these ihere were, it in -Baid. 424. They had particular names; e. g. Vicus albus, jugarius, lanarius, Tiberti.ius, Juncitis, AliiiervcB, &c. 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably trans- acted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it became convei.ient to make a sepc:-".tion ; and the Fora \Jtre divided into two sorts, Civ.lia and Vtiialiu. The Roman Fora were not hke the ayopai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ; the breadth not more than two-thirds of the length; the difl'erence between the length and bread'h of the chief Forum discoveied at Pompeii is greater. Until the time of Juhus Caesar there was but one P'orum of the first mentioned class ; that generally called Forum Romavum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. This gave name to the 8th region (^ 51), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine hills ; it was 800 leet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by TarquiniTjs Priscus, v/ith porticos, shops, and other buildings. On the public buildings around the Forurn great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments, so that it presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle: here were the Basilicce, Curice, and Tahularia ; temples, prisons, and public granaries : here too were placed nume- rous statues (cf. P. IV. 'S 182. 2), with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum was the place called the Curliaii Lahe, where Curiius is said to have plunged into a mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and orators addressed the people ; usually called the Rostra, because adorned with the beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum called the Comit'um, where some of the legislative assemblies were held, particularly the Comitia CAiriata. In or near the Comilium was the Puteal Atfii ; Q. ■puteal was a Httle space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square, and roofed over : such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Trihuiud, for hold- ing courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Lihonis, near which usurers and bankers were accustomed to meet {Hor. Sat. ii. vi. 35). The milUariianinthe Forum has already been mentioned (^ 52). Besides this ancient Forum, there were four others built by ditFerent emperors, and designed for civil purposes ; the Fumm Jnliinn, built by Julius Cssar. with spoils taken in the Gallic war; the Forum ^uffnsii, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latiiim 59. The temple next in rank was the Pan'heon, buih by Marcus Agrippa, scn-in- law of AusfusMis, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor. or, as its name imports, \o all the gods (TravTwv dtcov). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside are either solid marble or incrusted. The front on the outside was covered with bmzen plates gilt, and the top with silver plates; but now it is covered with lead. The gate was of brass, of extraordinary size and work. It has no yvindows, but only an opening in the top, «>f about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof i» curiously vaulted, void snaces being left here ind *hor6 *br the greater slrengrh 18 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. " The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circum- tVrence, and thirty-nine feet in height, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental granite, having bases and capitals of whi e marble." The Pantheon is one of the most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda, hiving been consecraed by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and all the Saints. Dr. .^dain, in his account of the Paniheon, says, "they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in $ 53, writes, "the statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one a.tcends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true P)ur centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in H."?!."— For a view of the Paniheon, see Plate HI. ^ 60. There were many oher temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. III. ^ 203), which cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving for the public treasury; perhaps thus used because one of the strongest places in the city ; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, among them the Librl Elephatitini, or ivory tablets containing hsts of the tribes. The temple of Janus was built, or finished at li?ast, by Numa; a square edifice, wi'h two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of war, and shut in time of peace. So continually was the city eneaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, in the reign of Numa; secon.ily, at the close of the first Punic war, R. C. 241 ; three times in the reign of Augustus ; the last lime near the epoch of Christ's birth ; and three times afterwards, once under Nero, once under Vesp.isian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350.- The gates were opened with formal ceremony {Virir. Mi\. vii. 707). — For a view of the temple of Ja- nus, see Plate VII. Sainte Cruix, Sur la cloture du teaiple de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 3S5. The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library, (P. IV. ^ 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — Besides these, we may name the temple of Concord ; of the goddess of Peace {Pad ceterncp) ; of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, built by Marcellus. The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves [luci) are enumerated, chiefly within the city of Rome. ^6\. The Curias were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated, some of them for assembUes of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curiae ; viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallc^ts is, Pompeii, &c. Th; term Curia, as de'i;natin^ an edifice or apartment, seems to hive been originally applied to the halls or places where the eitizens of the respective Cufix (cf. P. lU. § 2l9 a. § 251) assembled for religious and other purposes; each of the thirty had its com moQ hall or place of meeting. The BasiliccB were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers also had rooms for transacting their business. There were fourteen (according to some, twenty or twenty-one) of these buildings ; among them. Basilica vetus, Cori' stanti?ila7ia, Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicae and the Curiae were chiefly around the Forum. It should oe remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so much resenibleJ the Basiii'-a: just described. The eirlirst churchfs bearing this name were erected under Cnnstantine. He gave his own palace on ihe Coelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next waa that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, ejected A. D 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars ; it stood »bout twelve centuries, and was then pulled down by Pope Jiiliiia 2.1, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same name. —On the structure of the early Cliiislian churches, see /.. Co/emaTi, Antiquities of ihe Christian Church. And. 1841. 8. chap. iit. v^ 62. The Ctrn were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right angles with the sides, anl the other carved, and so forming nearly the shape of an ox-bow. A wall exte'dei quite round with ranges of seats for the spectators. There were eigh* of these buildi i^s. besides the Circts Maximus, described in anofher place situated in th'=' vicinity of the Forum. For an account of these, see P III. '5> 232. The Stadia were s'ructures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but less in size and cost (cf, P. IV. § 23^i. y—Hippoironu were of the same charac'er, and seem to have bee*^ some'imes built for private use. vS 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constru-^ted for the purpose of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were termed theatra (cf P. III. i 23S). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pom- pey, of hewn stone, capable of accomoda ing 40.000 persons ; near this, in the vici- iiity 01 the river, were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbns hf-^cp .nr 5ncu p. I. ETTROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPH^' OF ROME. iC phrase applied to them, tria theatra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows were termed Amphilhealra (P. til. v> 239), of which the most remarkable wa£ the Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — I'he Odta were buildings eircn ar in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars, and statues, where trials ol musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary compositions were exhibited, after the manner of the Greeks (P. IV. *$* 65). Those established by Domitian and Trajan were the most celebrated. 9» 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (balnea) were very numerous ; such as were ot a more public character were called IhermcB. In the time of the republic, the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been the first to erect warm and hot ones for public use. '1 hey were ihen called ihermae, and placed under the direction of the (sdiles. Agrippa, while he was aedile, increased the number of thermcB to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than 800 in imperial Rome. The Ihenncc Diodetia7iiv,'ere especially distinguished ior their extent and magnificence (cf. P. IV. jramid of Cestius (cf. P. IV. ^ 2-26, P. III. <5> 187. 4). ^ 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosius, tu 48,382, including the domus and the insulcs ; the former of which classes comprised, according to Gibbon, the " great houses," and the latter the "plebeian habitations" (cf. P. III. '^325). Among these buildings were some of great splendor, partly of marble, and adorned with statues and colonnades. 1. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Csesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Neri, fhe pahce of Licinius Crassus, Aquilius, Calulus, ^inillus Scaiirus, Trajan, Hadrian, &c.— " The Imperial palace (Palativm) wa, the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon tlie Palatine hill, and gave name to the tenth region of the city. The froo was on (he Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesia, and also that of ApoHo, which Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero ''Utnl it, but rebuilt it of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Coelian and Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its linii's. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, .silver, statues, paint- ings, and treasures of every description, that it received the raiiie of durmis auren. The following emperors stripped it of its orna- wenls ; Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Domitian afterwards destroyed the main building. In the reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt ; but it was n stored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric it needed Btill further repairs ; but this huge edifice substquently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and the Villa Spada." 2. Before the conflagration of the city under Nero, fhe streets were narrow and irregular, and the private houses were incom- modious, and some even dangerous from their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofly stories In the time of Nero, niore than two-thirds of the city was burnt. Of the ft)urteen districts, only four remained entire. The ci'y was rebuilt with more regularity, with streets broader and less crooked (cf. Tac Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were measured out, and the height restricted to seventy feet. $ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive that its neighborhood was almost one immense village; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Cnwpa^va diRoma, is a coiiiplele desert. Modern Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martins. The accumulation of ruins has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from whHt has been said respecting the entrance of the Pantheon ($59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock ($53). For notices of Modern Rome, see Piranesi, Vedute dj Roma, 2 vols. fol. (Cf P. IV. § 243. 2 ) — Rome in the Nintleenth Century. — W. Fish, as cited P. IV. § 1S6. 6. — Encyclop. Americana, under Mod. Rome, and under Travels in Italy ' and the works there cited THRACIA. ^ 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Europe (cf. ^27); and we might include the whole under the term GrcBcia, taken in a very com- prehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but alsoEpirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, and even Thracia. The victories of Phihp having procured him a vote jn the Amphic- tyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked among the Grecian states. The valor and policy of the Epirdte kings procured the same honor for Epirus not long after; and finally, '1 brace was raised to the same dig- nity, when it became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Grrecia is rarely used in so large a sense : and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and include the other countries under Grcecia. Thkacia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which separated it from Ma'sia; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont, which divided it from Asia; on the south by ihe iEgean sea ; and on the west by the river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In consequence of the conquests of Philip, the river Nessus becanje the mutual boundary of 1 hrace and Macedon, the interme- diate district being annexed to the latter country. — The peninsula contained between the Bay of Melas and the Hellespont was called ThracicB Chersonesus ; celebrated in the wars between Philip and the Athenians. § 73. The capital of Thraco, and at one time of the civilized Morld, was Byza-itium, or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from its beauty Chrysoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a mat- ter of dispute; but it was greatly enlarged and beau'ified by Constantine the Great, who, in the fourth century of the Christian era, transferred the seat of government hither from Rome. On the division of the Roman empire, this city became the capital of fhe Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from the vires of the inhabitants, and the imbeciUty of their rulers, it was captured by the Turks on the 29th of May. A, D. 1453. On the topneraphy of B\rantium, and the changes made by Constantine, see Ducans;e, Histor. Byzanlina. Par. I6S0. fol — G. Co- Imus, De Antiquitatibus Coiis'aniinop. Par. 16^5 — Am. Banduri, Imper. Orient, sen Atitiqiiiia psCoisMntinnpoli'anae. Par. 1711. 1 vols, ffit.— These work« are included in the C'rptis vf Byzandnt fi'Story, noticed P V ^ 239 * — Cf. (Hhhon, ch. rvW.—Jamts UaUaway, Constantinople, ancient and modern, — L,^n^• 1797. 4. ffjrth Aoitr. Rto. I6th vol. or Tth of New Jerie*, p. 433. The other principal towns were, Salmydessus (Midiieh), celebrated for shipwrecks; Thi/itia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni. who colonized Bithynia ir \sia Minor; Apollonia, called afterwards Sizopolis (Sizeboli), and Mesemhr'a, built I \ 1,1 EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRliiiS. GR^CIA. 21 a colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea. — Silymhria (Selibria), and Perinfhus, or Heraclea (Erekli), on the Propontis. — Callipolis (Gallipoli), at the junction of tho Propontis and Hellespont; the small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little rwev ^gos FoLa7nos ioins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysandcr de- stroyed the naval power of the Athenians; and Sesios (Zenunie), where Xerxes built his bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos on the Asiatic side are also celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander. Tlie possibility of swimming across ihe Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron.— » On the doubts here alluded to, see De la Name, and Mafiudel, as cited P. V. § 49. 4. On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into it, were Cardia, destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants tor a new town ; Lysimachia, that he had built a little farther south; and Eion, which was burned by its governor, Boges.— In the interior were Traja?iopolis, built by Trajan; and Adrianopolis, its suc- cessful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second city of the Turkish empire. — At the east mouth of the Hebrus, stood JEnos^, said to have been founded by .^neas. near the territory of the Cicones; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his im- mense armament after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- erous as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nes- sus was Abdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. § 74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated for the clearness and rapidity of its waters; Nessus (Nissar), and Strymoji (Jamboli.) — The principal mountains were Mount HcBimts, extending from the Euxine sea in a western direction between Moesia and Thrace; Rliodope, exiending from the Euxine sea to the sources of the Nessus; and Fangceics, extending thence to the north of Maeedon. It was on the Pangceus that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have been performed (P. V. $ 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, approach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, which were defended by walls.' — The principal seas and bavs adjoining this extensive maritime country were, Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thrachts, Propoiilis, Hellespontus Melanis Sivus (Gulf of Saros), and Slrymonicus Shius (Gulf of Contessa). $ 75. Thrace v/as anciently possessed by several independent tribes ; ore of these, the Dolovei, being hard pressed by the JIbsynthi, their neiglibors, sent lo Delphi to consult the oracle about the event of ttie war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the person who shoiilrf first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hospitably entertained by Miltiades, the son of Cypseliis; they immediately requested him to accompany them to the Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accepted the invitation. — On his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians were soon after defeated. He fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous reign beqtieathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stesagoras dying after a short reign, his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratida; as his successor. He had not reigned long, when Darius, king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoenicians against the Chersone.se, and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens. — The ('heisonose, after the defeat nf the Persians, was princi|)ally posse.«sed liy the Atheniiins, who colonized all the coast. The interior of Thrace ri'mained subject to the native princes, until the whole country was united to Maeedon by Philip and Alexander. GR.ffiCIA. 76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already remarked ($ 72), under G RiE 01 A , using this name in what is commonly considered its most comprehensive sense (cf. P. III. $ 2). '^Jhe extensive region ihtis included in Graecia presents /owr general divisions, which are obviously suggested by the na:ural face of the country. The 1st is that part which lies north of the chain of mountains called Carntmnii, which are connected by the Stymplioei Monies with the Aero Ceraunii . the 2d is the part between the Cambunii on 'lie tH)rth, and another line of highlands and mountains on the south, which may he traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to the Sinus Aitibracius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it I'orms the pass of T lier- mopyla3, and the chain is in this portion of it -called CEfo ; as it stretches back in a northerly and then westerly direcuun, it is called Findus; this sends down a spur from the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Atniiracius, where ii forms another pass corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east : ihc 3cl is the part between the mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth. Si7ius Co- rbithiachs and Sinua Sarnniciis : and the 4th is the peninsula connec'ed to the main by that isthmus. The fir tU is Macedonia; the second, Epi;us and 'ihessulia; the third, Hellas; ^he fourth, Peloponnesus. V^ 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the na:ural divisions above described, was bounded W. Itythe Mare Hadria iciim ; N. by lilyricum and i^ op sia; E. by 1 hracia, from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nes tus flowing from Rhodope; S. by the JE.^scum Mare, the Cambunii Monies and iho other mountains forming the chain already mentis ed, which terminates in the Acp" Ccaunii on the western extremity. 22 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. IIcBtnui and Mt. Iihodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a single chain; this was called Orbehis Mons ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed running down south through Macedonia, and forming a connection with the Slymphoii, or Mons Stymphn, already named, between the Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters cast of this spur flow to the ^Egean ; those west of it, to ihe Hadriaiic. "^t 78. 'The principal river of the west was the Vr'do (Drino), which runs through Lake Lyc/midus, and empties imo a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called Ni/mphanun Promo7itoriinn. — One of the most important places in this western por- tion \vas Apollnnia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek hterature (P. V. § 9) for its cultivation,, and said to be the place where Augustus ac- quired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy of notice, Epidanmus, further north, called Dyrrachlum by the Romans, the place where travelers from Italy to Greece generally landed, 'i his portion, west ot the spur, was taken from Illyricum by Philip {RoWu, B. 14. § 1). ^ 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice three most considerable rivers; the HaHacmou (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to the Sinus Thermaicus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising in the heigh's between Macedonia and Moesia, and running S. to the head of the same gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west before it? discharge; the Strymon, n^mg in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus Sfrymunicus (Gulf of Contessa). — Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the peninsula sometimes called Chntcidice, and presenting pecuhar features, having a cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two bays, the Toronaicas (G. of Cassandra), and the Singelicus (G. of Monte Sancto). The western of these smaller peninsulas was Pallene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the oattle between Jupiter and the Giants {Ov. x. 151); the eastern was marked by Mt. AihoSy extending several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of Darius. ^80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are not important, even if they ("ould be accurately traced. Pceonia was in the northern part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. The southern part on the w^est of the Sinus Thermaicus was Pieria. Emaihia was north of Pieria, and of the same gulf. E m at hi a was the most important province. In this was situated Edessa, the ori- ginal capital of the country, on the Erigon; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequent!)! made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus 'i'her maicus, was ThermcB, afterwards called Thessalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment and the capital of the country as a Roman province. At Thessalonica there still remains an ancient structure which is supposed by some to have been A-Cahirian temple (cf. P. "J 5 129. 2) ; a vievv of it is ^iven in our Plate V. On the peninsula which has been described (§ 79) were Pofidcea, or Cassandria, on the neck oi' Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under king Cassander; Oly?ithus, memorable for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; Chalcis, which gave name lo the region; Slagira (Stagros), on the eastern coast, the birthplace of Aris- totle.— In Pieria. one of the most memorable places was Pyrf^io. (Kitra), where Olym- pias was murdered by Ca&sander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmihus made a pris'jner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B. C. 168. North of this, on the coast,, was Melhone, at the seige of which Philip lost his right eye. — In Edonis were two important towns; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an Athenian colony; Philippi, further east, near Mons Pangeeus, a branch from Rho- dope. The lattpr was built by Philip, fcr the same purpose for which the Athenians bnilt Antiphipoiis ; tn secure the valuable gold and silver iiiin^s found in this region. It is celebrated for the battle ih which Bnittis and Cassius were defeated by Anjiistiis and Antony, B. C. 42; and memorable as (he place where Paul and Silas, having been "thrust into the inner prison, with their feet Tist in the stocks, {Jlcis xvi. 25) at midnight sang praises unto God." The si'e of Phi ippi is still niarkerl by ruins (Miss. Hanld, Se[it. 1836, p. 334). — Like most of Ihe Grecian cities, if was at the foo. of a hill or mount nn which was its Acropolis A view of the Acropolis and of the plain t-elow is given in our Plate IV. A traveler nn li.:rspback is advinrins on the road froin Neapolis to Philippi ; he is just passinir a mouern Turkish buryin^ground on his right iian I under a near hill ; Ihe Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at the right ; at the base of this eniinence, wa« Ihe lov.er city, on the south and souili-west ; farther to the south is an open plain ; the moun'ain on the left is the southern extremity if Pansxtts J 81. The kingtiom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caramis. a descendant of Her ftiles, B C. 81t ; but it did not acquire consennence until the reign of Philip, who ascended the Ih'OMe B. r. ;?60. It has been stated, that 150 different nations or tribes were finally included vithin its limits. , ^8? (2) Epirus and-THESSALiA, embraced in the second natural division pointed ' n C^ 7b), are next to be* noticed. Thessalia is described by Herodotus as a very extensive plain embosomed ii: PLATE TV. 24 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. mountains. The Camhunii and Olymjms were on the north; Pelion arid Ossa on the rast ; Pindus on the west ; and QLiu on the south : so that only the small portion of coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus ar;d the Sinus Maliucus is without the guard of mountains ; and even this has a guard a httle in the interior, by I\Ll. Olhrys, which strikes across irom Pindus to Pelion. The extensive plains of Tliessaly were peculiarly fiivornhle tn the lireeriinrs separating it -from Euboea. It was north-east of Phocis and Boeotm, divided '"•om t>ern by a chain of mountains, and exter.ding from Mount CEla oti the north tc p. 1. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 2? the Platanms, a small river flowing to the channel of Eubcea, and separating Locris from BoBOtia, on the south. This part was inhabhed by two tribes. — The Opuutii were in the southern region, so called from their principal chy Opus, which gave name also to the bay adjacent, Sinus Opunlius, containing a small island, Alalatila. The port of Opus, called Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or people were the Epicnemidii, so named from Mount Cnemis. On this there was a small town of the same name : other places of note were Naryx, the city of Ajax, son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Aiithela, where the Amphictyonic council'assembled annually in a temple of Ceres or Thesmophora [the lawgiver) as she was here called, in allusion to the council. Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of ThermopyloB, deriving their name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This celebrated pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated between the ridge of Mount (Eta and the Mahan gulf, at the junction of the three countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful of men, bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather than violate the Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king of Syria, was defeated by the consul AciUus. DMring the struggles of the modern Greek revolution (cf. P. IV. § 85. 2), two signal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks ovei their Turkish oppressors on the same inspiring spot.— A plan of the pass, illustrating the contest between Leonidas and the Persians, is given in EarlheUniy^s Anacharsis, cited P. V. § 153. 2. §97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian gulf to the borders of Thessaly. The capital was Elafea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Phihp firs' awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian monarch. West of Elatea w^as Delphi, on mount Parna?sus, celebrated for the oracle of Apollo (P. in. "?> 72), and for the annual meetings of the Amphictyonic council (P. III. % 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village called Caslri. Parnas- sus (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus; the town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring emiiiencea, close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha, on the small river Plistus, falUng into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Delphi ; near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and sometimes the whole gulf, was called Crissaeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated for the production of hel- lebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, which is sometimes con- founded with a river of the same name in Attica. a A view rf Delphi and the heigh-tg of Parnassus is presented on page xii. of this Manual, as given by Bocoge, in Barthelemy's Ana- charsis. — A plan of Delphi, with explanations, is found in Dissen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 628, as cited P. V. § 60. 4. $ 98. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for t!ie common liberties of Greece; in revense, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by earthquakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder. About 2S0 B. C, a large body of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated under cir- cumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. § 99. Boeotia occupied the north-east of Graecia Propria, on the shores of the Euripus, a narrow strait between the island of Euboea and ihe continent. The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first introduced let- ters into Greece (cf. P. IV. § 45). The city stood on the river Isnic-m/s, and was ornamented with seven gates, whence it is called Hepfapi/los. It was the birthplace of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was. from its founder, called Cadmea. — South of this was PlalcBu, where the Persian army were totally destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, andPlateans : it was after- wards destroyed by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuc- tra, near lake Copais, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas; Coronea, near mount Helicon; Chaeron'o, where Phihp, having defeated the Athenians a'ld Thebans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lehadea, remarkable for the tempie of Trophonius ; and Orchome?ius, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to Venus. — Nearthe Corinthian gulf was Thespicp., sacred to the Muses, having a por* named Creusa; and Asc-n. the birthplace of the poet Hesiod — On the Euripus wert; Aulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of Ipliigenia's sacrifice ; Tanasra. where ihe celebrated poeiess Corinna was born ; and Deliiim, a village which derived its name from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation of that at Delos, and was the place wliere Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved the life of his pupil Alcibiades. ^ 100. The chief mountains of BoBO*ia were Helicon, with the fountains Aganippe ^nd Hippncrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Phocis, dedicated 5 28 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 10 the same divinities , Dirce, near Thebes ; and Cithceron, on the borders of Mega- ris, sacred to Bacchus. The people of Boeolia were usually described as riaturally stupid, but with apparently little JHsiice ; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and ihe barbarous custom of ex- posing children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. In the heroic aees, Thebes seems to have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the discovery of the truth is very ditiicult. Ii certainly declined in after times ; probably the misfor- liines and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed the spirit of the people. § 101. Megaris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight miles square, south of mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megaru, situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far Irom the Sinus Saro?iicus; its port was iVi.sy or Victory, constructed of white mar- ble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. • ^ § 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately trample of 'Minerva, called Parthenon, because tha' goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was dedicated by the daughters oi Rrechtheus, who v>'ere particularly called Trap^ivoi, vir- gins. It was also denominated ' EKardimedov, hecause it was one hundred feet square. It was burnt by the Persians, but restored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on each side. It was of the Doric order, and built ot that beautiful whiie marble found in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this tetnple was the statue of Minerva, so celebrated tor its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquisite beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. A view of the Parthenon is given- in our Plate XXI. fig 1. cf P. HI. §%. On Ihe bas-relief taken from it by Lord Elgin, cf. P. IV 5 190. On the works of Phidias, cf P. IV. § 179. Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. This was a double building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'Epex^^i''*^ which was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple was consecrated to JNeptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed TloXiag, the protectress of the city, and HavSpocTos, Irom one of the daughters of Cecrops of that name. Here, so late as the second century of the Christian a^ra, was the sacred olive- tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as the foundation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by dragons, called oiKovprn o(pei<;, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl be- fore it. The whole structure was called 'Epix^tiov. Both these buildings still rernain. The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 2] feet 3 inches in t)readth. The larger is 63^ feel in length, and 36 feet in breadth. The roof is supported by channeled-Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a. Behindnhe temple of Minerva stood the piihlic treasury, which from its situation was called 'O7rtAt? dyopuy the fish-monger's market ; TwakKcia dyopa, the market for wo- men's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called wXrj^ovo-a dyopa, full market, from the great number of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to main- tain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superin- tend what passed. Bov'Sev-rfipia were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, and deli- berated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encou- raged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citizen, with living by the profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of slander. § 113. Aqueducls were not common at Athens before the time of the Romans ; al- though one is said to have been built by Pisistratus. The want of them was supplied by wells ((j^peara), some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the pub- lic expense; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels a-rose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. The stadium was an oblong area, semicircular at one end, designed originally for the foot-race, but used for other games and exercises ; and for the accommodation of spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium (Srd^ioi- Xldva^rfva'CKov), erected near the river Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards en- larged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen telic marble, with such magnificence that Pausanias did not expect to be credi'ed, even in his brief description of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken for a mountain of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geo- metrical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium, a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile. •^ 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acro- polis. On this, the court or sena'e of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. P. III. ^ 108). A space \yas leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and tho steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the natural soHd stone. There was originally neither enclosure nor roof; but merely an altar to Minerva, and two stone seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by temporary erection. — The. Pnyx, n^ij^, was another eminence, opposite the Areo- pagus, not far from the -citadel, celebrated as the place where the Athenians ue.d their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a F. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 33 recent removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The 0fjtta, on which the orators stood to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet remains. Before this was a semicircular area, of which the part most distant from the orator's stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surlace ot the rock, facing this area, are niches for votive tablets. North-east from the Acropolis, on the street of the tripods (cf. ^ 115), was the Upvrai'elov, where was a pubUc hall, and where the laws of Solon were deposited. Near it was the BovXelov or senate-house. ^ IfS. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One ot the most celebrated was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators. (Cf P. ]V. § 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the place where the dramatic contests were decided : it was near the Acropolis, at its south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, si ill appears a cavern or grotto, formerly termed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Chorugic monument of Thrasyllus ; having on its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained in the theatre. Over this building, and higher up the rock, are the two Columns of the tripods, or Chorogic pillars. 1 here were several other edifices in Athens, erected for the same purpose; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acro- polis, commonly called the Lantern of Dimosthenes, but proved by its inscription to be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of the tripods, so called from the circumstance that in it were erected (on choragic monu- ments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been obtained as prizes in the musical or theatrical contests. Respecting the dmmatic and musical contests above allu!ed to, see P. IV. § 66. — A view cf the Monument jf Thrasyllus is given 111 Plate XLIX. fig. C ; and of that of I^ysicraies, in the same Plate, fig. A ; the designation Lantern of Demoslhetics is said to have been applied by the modern Greeks, under the groundless supposition that it was the study of that illustrious orator. ^ ] 16. Athens had three harbors for ships : — 1. Ueipauvs, Pirteus, which belonged tj the tribe of Hippothoontis. and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city, before the building of the naKpa Tcixn or long walls. Alter that time, the Athenians, by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained thfee opuoi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, which being joined together formed a very large one, called on that account ^laKpa aroa. The Pirseus also con- tained two forums. Here the productions of all countries were accumulated ; and this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hun- dred gallies have sometimes been collected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by The- mistocles when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and maga- zines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing neces- sary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Mowvxin, Munychia, which was a promontory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, and was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed Movvvxi«- — 3. ^aXripSv, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from the city 35 stadia, or as some say, only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the three harbors; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus for Troy. For further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer 1o the worlvs cited P. IV, § 243. I. ; P. V § 7 (b).— We may add fVaddington's Visit to Greece. — Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4.—Knise, Hellas, ode' D.irstellung des alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's pro ceedings (cf. P. IV. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern worlds illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general. — ( f . Stuart'$ Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture ; cf. also Chateauhiand's Travels, in Introduction. — E. D. Clarke, Travels \u various countries, S:c. Part II. sect. 2. — BartheleniyU Anactiarsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description. — IV. M. Leake, Topography 01 Athens. Lend. 1821. with an Atl. fol. Cf. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kinsdv7n,\o\. iii. p. 183. — fVurdsworth, Athens and Attica. — Rienllcher, Topogrnphie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). Halle, 1829; with notes of Muller and Me er. — C. 0. Muller, De Munimentis Athenarum, &c. Gott. 1837. 4. with plates. — L. Ber^mann, Die AlterhUmer von Athen. nach Stuart und Revett, &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates.— /rirt'j Plan des Athen.— i;77>c/i ^- Gruber, Encjr- clopidie, under Attika (written by MUller). — There is a glance at some of the most interesting objects, in IV. Collon, Visit to Con- »tantinople and Athens. N. York, IS36. 12 ch. 18, 19. ^ 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, \he fourth division of Graecia (<5i 76), remains to be noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract ot country which was called Arcadia. From this circle of elevated .summits, various branches aie sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running out to each of the principal promontories; to JR/iium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinlhiacus ; to Cheloni- tes Prom, on the western side of the penin.sula ; to Acrilas Prom, west of the Smua Messeniacus ; to Tanamm, to Malea, and to Scyllcrtim, the other {loinis, which occur in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were fruitful vaileys, watered by numerous streams descending from the m^mntaiii^ ». eveiv direction. 34 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPH\ ^ 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the con- quests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, UeXonoi vfjaoi ; it was also called Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance to a mul- berry-leaf in shape, or from the nutnber of mulberry trees that it produces. — It may l)e considered in six divisions : Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laco- nia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes added to these ; bat ihey may be included under Achaia. ^ 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole north coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus ol Corinth, by which it is joined to Hellas Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent, and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean league ; they were Dyme. Olenus, Pharae, Tri'aea, Pdtrce (now Patras), Rhype, JEgium the place where the deputies of the league met, Helice, Bur.i, .3^ge, JEgina, and Pellene. In the resistance to the Ro- :nan; made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially Corinth took part. It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mnmmiiis reduced Greece to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole country. Cf $ 213. I. 6. ^ 120. Sici/on was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded B. C. 2089. — But CorirJh has obtained greater notoriety: it was on the isthmus, at nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once called Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports; Lecnce- um, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and CeitchrecB, on the Sinus Saronicus. Althougii destroyed by Muromius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and licentiousness. The isthmus of Corinth was an import:irit pass. Several attempts have been made, at differ- ent periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure of them all, " to cut ihroui^h the Corinthian isthmus" has become a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated : and here a stand haa frequently been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting of regular fortification. ^121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of rne Peloponnesus. Its chief town was Argos, on the river Inachns, more celebrated in the heroic than the historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his grandfather Acri- sius, he transferred the seat of government to Mycenm ; this latter city retained its power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives, through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. — ■ North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and TirT/nthus, a tavorite residence of Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Sinus Argo- licus (Gulf di Napoli) were, Navplia (NapoH di Romania), in ancient and modern times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated temple of i5^sculapius (P. II. § 84) ; and Trcezene, whither the aged inhabitants of Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. ^ 122. Elis was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea. Its chief tov/n was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have pro- voked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it was on the Peneus (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pisa, de- stroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheus (Rouphia or Rufeas), a larger rivei flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olympia, the place near which the Olym- pic games were celebrated. Olympia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- formed. Here was the grove ^Itis, with splendid monuments scattered in it ; the temple of Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf. P. II. $24); the Cronium or Hill of Saturn; also a famous hippodrome and stadium. Barthdemy. ch. xxxviii. as cited P. V. § 153. 2.—Choiseul-Gauffier, Sur I'Hippodrome d'Olympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vol. xllx. p. 122. — Dusen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 630, where is a plan with explanations. — Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece, vol. v. p. 401. —J. S. Stanhope, Olympia, &c. as cited P. IV. § 243. I. ^123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus; and being entirely de- voted to agriculture was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns were Tegcua, the capital ; Orchomenus, near the lake Stymphalus. where Hercules destroyed the Harpies, on the river Ladon, which flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell, near the ruins of which is Tripolitza, the metropolis of the Morea; Megalopolis, near the Helissus. a tributary to 'he Alpheus, built by Epaminondas to repress the incursions of the Lacedasmonians. — From the ruins of Phigalia (Pdulitza), in the territory of the Parrhasii, were taken the bas-reliefs called the Phigallan Marbles (cf P. IV. ns of the barbarians, the ernperor Adrian erected a rainpnrt of ^reat strengih an(i dimensions. — The wall of Adrian extended from JEstvarium ItuvcB (Snlway Frith), on the western roast, to Seifediivum (Consin's House), a village north of Pov.s ^lU (Newcastle-upon-Tyne), on the easterti coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart atid ditch, -iiid was strengthened by forts erected at short intervals. — Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoni- nus rebuilt the wall of Asricola, which was nfearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neg- lected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. $ ]35. But the last and trreatest of these structures was the wall erected by the emperor Seve- 'us, A. I). 200. — It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eiabi feet iiigh, binll of stone and cement ; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-ou'^ castles, and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison this itnmense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred itiariners, appointed to guard the points where the ramparts conununicated with the shore. ^ 136. "^I'he islands adjoining Brilain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides (Western Isles), Muna Taciti (Anglesea) , Moiia CcBsaris (Man), V(ctis (Isle of Wiglit), and Cas- siterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was called lerne Juverna, or Hibernia. The Irish say that they »re descended from a Scythiau nation, and that at an early period, part of the country was colonized hy th» Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been ureed that the specimens of the Funic langu tge preserved by plautus, are ilniost purHs race of people, almost extirpated by the different tireek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's eiluation intluced to settle in this island. ^ 140. Near the western angle or corner of Sicily are three small islands called Agates, opposite one of which, ^gusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of Sicily were the InsulcB ^oUcb (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Lipara, which was once a place of great consequence; the next in size is Stro7/gyle (Stromboli), where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated volcano. — South-east of Sicily is Melite (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem to Rome. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient station for commerce on account of its excellent harbor. — Near Malta is the small island of Gaulos (Gozo). •^141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corcyra '.Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesproiia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or Phmacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous and Cassiope. Near the promontory of Fhalacrum was a remarkable rock, said 'o have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his nativo country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phceacians for aiding Ulysses. Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Lcucna, in earlier ages called Nericicm, and the neighboring country Neritis ; it was founded by a Co- rinthian colony, and was joined to the continent by a bridge, as the strait was here very narrow — At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named Leucafe, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Lcucoptlra, from which unfortu- nate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. The Echinadea (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dalichiiim. part of the empire of Ulysses. — Near Dulichium was Ilhaca (Thaki), the birthplace of Ulysses; the capital was also called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Nerilus. $ 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — Its chief town vvas Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that ni^me ; there were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; from which circumstance it is called 7.\t7npoli.^. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure. _ South of this vvas Zncynlhiis (Zante), with a capital of tlie same name, celebrated foj ite fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues from thf oily matter that floated on its surface. West of the Peloponnesus were the S/rophndes (Strivoli), at first calle I PIoIcb, tne residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphaclerin (Splidgiae), takei; by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponne.su* was Cylhera, or Porphyrce (Ceriso), sacred to Venus. It contained two exc( Uent towna and harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with ^^reat c»rp . but the Athei;ians destroyed both in the first Peloponue.«!an war 42 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. § 143. W 3 may include among the ^gean Islaitds all that remain to te noticed. The 1 hracian islands occupy the northern part of the .-Egean, and were named Thusiis, Sanioihrace, and Inibrus. — Thasus ('J'a&se), opposite the mouth of the Nessus, was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named ^thria. It produced wine and mar- ble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the Ben with the Athenians, but alter a severe contest of two years they were compelled to surrender at discretion. — Samolhrace (Samandrachi) derived its name irom Samos, by a colony from which it was first peopled. P'rom this place Dardanus brought the worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies lo the south of Samothrace. ^ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, be- cause he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Sminthae in the Phry- gian language. South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, HephiEstia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Thessalian coast, was Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sci- atia) ; Scopelos (Scopela) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where i^chilles was concealed by his mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcoeus, and the poetess Sappho; its chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylene, from whence the island has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great public sympathy. § 14.5. The largest island of the ^gean was Eubcsa (Negropont), opposite the coast of Boeotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait called the Euripus. Into this strait Aristotle (P. V. "^ 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. The chief towns were Clialcls, joined to Aulis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euri-" pus; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war; Oreus, on the Euripus ; the town and promontory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystics, in the south, between the promontories Geraestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of EuLcea is not very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. In the Saronic gulf were ^gina (Engia), anciently ^none, strongly fortified by nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea; here were discovered the monu- ments called the ^ginetan sculptures or marbles (cf. P. IV. ^ 190. 3). The iEgine- tans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salainis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia- des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was CaJauria (Foro), w^here Demos- thenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the suc- cessor of Alexander the Great. % 146. South-east of Euboea was the large cluster of islands called the Cyclades, from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana; on which, near Mount Cynfhus, stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which* pil- grimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Paralus Jfi rrapaXos), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and dur- ing its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. T'r.e other remarkable islands in this group were Myconns, Gyarus, and Seriphuf!, small islands whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals ; Andros and Tenos, south-east of EubcRa; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cylhus, Siphnus, and ?Telos (Milo), south of Ceos ; Faros, celebrated for its white marble, the birthplace of the statuaries Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was imgratefully deserted by Theseus; los, where Homer was said to have been buried; Thera, and Anapke. ^ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the ^Egean were called the Sporades, and more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed by the Greeks. I'he chief of these were Samos, sacred to Juno, the birthplace of Py- ihagoras ; Icdria, which gave name to the Icarian sea ; Patmos (Palmossa), where the Apostle John wrote the Revelations; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Car- •jvithus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Ehodus (Rhodes).— I'his latter island containecl three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus. \t the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. 11 J 7*. It held in one hand a light*'ou9e. This splendid statue (cl.P.IV.J 180. 1) was thrown wu liPiwi Frnnrmi or ifnrnmiTniiii)( 31P mimm TTTnni ii (TMI rm%1lfmiil!ll{IOnifrll iHi MlilM p. I, ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. INDIA. PERSIA. 43 down by an earthquake about B. C. 225, and having long lain prostrate was broken upbj Iha Saracens when tiiey became masters of the island, in tlie seventh century. ^ 148. Greta {Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the ^Egean. was the most cele- brated island of ancient times: it is said to have contained a hundred cities, the princi- pal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the iionh side o. the island : Gortynia. on the opposite side, where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus;, and Cydofita, by some esteemed the capital. The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idasi Dactyli. who lived near Mount Ida, and exercised mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Ciiretes, wliu directed iheir attention to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was ihe legislator of Cretn, and from his laws the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally burrowed. The fabulous legends resppciniff this monarch, his wife Pasiphae,and his daughter Ariadne, are mentioned in ani'ther place (cf.P. II. $ 117. (a), and $ 125). Tlie Cretao Lityrintti is generally represented to have been near Gnossus ; but some suppose if to have been found in the remark- able excavations or caverns near Goriynia, consisting of several chsnibet^ atid galleries. It is not improbable thai some such cavern near Gnossus gave rise n ihe storj' of aii artificial labyrinth. — See H^ckh't Cret?. — Cochet-ell, on the Cretan Labyrinth, in Walpole'* Memoirs. — Smith, Diet, of Antiquit. art. Labynnthut. IT. OF ASIA. ^ 149. Asia, the la.gest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is cele- brated as the birthplace i^+" the human race ; the quarter where the true God was wor- shiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism ; the scene of our Savior's life and suffering""; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive sway (cf. § 211) before the commence- ment of authentic European history. — Frorn Asia the first principles of the arts and sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation had attained a high degree of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. § 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the Eastern, and Western ; the boundary between them being the river Rha or Wolga, the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinaru.ai Regio, India, Persia, Media, and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Faropamisus. — The Western includes Sarmatia, with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pon- tus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, with the cotintries in the valley of the Tigris. I. THE COUNTRIES OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. % 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scythia intra linaum, and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, v/hich unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — Scy- thia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in I'artary), and the Regio Se- rica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia. There has l)een much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Strica,. — Cf. WAnvillt, and GoiseHn, sur la SeriqM ■ des Ancieos, in the Mem. Acad, liuar. vol. xxxii. p. 573, and xlix. p. 713. — Clasi. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. 32. — Anlfion'i L«mpriere, article Seres, The SiN,i: occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients; sup- posed to be the coutitry now named Cochin China. Their capital was ThyncB, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. % 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in their northern part Parueti. on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or Menan, which empties into Magnus Sinus {G\i\{ of Siam). It was divided by tne ancients nto India i?itru Gangem. and htdin extra Gangem : the boundary betweerf thein be- ing the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangrticus (Bay of Bengal). This country was but little known before the expedition of Alexander. The southern part of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Com<.i- rin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the \\v^,r I'haheris (Cavery), was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Anrea Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called xdagnum Pro' monforium (now cape Romania). ^ 153. Persia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river Tigris, between Media on the north and the Persian ^ulf on the south. But t'lie nam* 44 CLASSICAL GrLOGRAPHY. IS sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the Faropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zugros chain and the river Tigris on the west, to the Parueti and Arhiti Muntes separating it from India on the cast. Thus it includes several provinces. Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and Susa; the latter, called in the Bible Shushu?i, was the winter residence of the Per- sian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes mountains into the Tigris. — Fersis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the Si?ms Fersicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capi- tal was Fersepolis, represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his mistress Thais. The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain six niilea wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E which is now crowded with numerous villages.— Through this flowed the Praxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir disc harming into Lake Baktegian. The principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehid-Minar, CIdL-Minar, or Skehel-Mivar, or palace of furiy r.olumvs. See a description, with plates, in Roh. Ker Porter's Travels. — G. Keppel, Journey from Indii to England, by Persia, &c- in 1824. LonJ. 1827. 4. — J. E. Mexander, Tra.ve\s from India to England, through Persia, Asia Minor, &c. in 1826. Lend. 1S?27. 4. — C£ Heidur, The Univ History, kc. ciled ^211. VI. Previously to the founding of Persei»olis, the royal residence was at Pasargada, which was in CoBle-Persis, on the river Cyrus, flowing southerly into a small lake ; here king Cyrus is said to have erected a tomb for hiujself, in a high narrow lower. A monument still exists, which has been supposed to be the tomb of Cyrus : it is represented in our Plate XVIII. fig. 1. — Cf. P. III. § 187. 4. The other provinces were C a r m a n i a (Kerman), south-east of Persis, also border- hig on the Smus Persicus ; G e d r o s i a (now.Mekran), lying on the Erythroeum More and extending from Carinania to India ; A r a c h o s i a and D r a n g i a n a, which in- clude the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the south and the Faropamisus on the north. — This latter territory was watered by the Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east, and south, flowed into the Aria Faltis, a lake or sea on its western limiis ; the whole territory was often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of the Paropamisus. § 154 a. Media was situated south of the ])lare Caspium; its northern limit was the rivei Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia; on the south were Susiana and Persis. Its piincipal river was the Mardus or Amardus, rising in the south-western part, where the Orontes chain of mountains is connected with the Zogros chain, and flowing by a cir- cuitous course into the Caspium Mare in the country of the Mardii. Media was sepa- rated from Armenia on the west by Moiis hnbarus, a chain extending from Mt. Ararat on the north to the Zagros on the south The capital was Ecbataiia (now Ramadan), in the region south of the mountains termed Orontes. Ecbatana was made the summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and afterwards of the Parthian Two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character, are still shown to travelers as being those of Mordecai and Esther. — Raffce, or Rages, mentioned in the apocryphal book of Tobii, was a place of some importance, north-east from Ecbatana. See Rtnnell, Geog. of Herod, sect. v. II, as cited P. V. § 241. 5. — Hock, Vet. Med. et Pers, Monumenta, cited P. IV. § 171. — Mai coZm, as cited §211. VI. % 154?). The northern portion of Media, lying on the river Araxes, was formed, after the death of Alexander, into an independent kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and thence called Atropatene; having as its capital Gaza (now '^I'ebriz or Tabreez), and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropatin on a stream flowing into the Mardus. In the western part of this i)rovince was the Lacus Spauta or Marcianus (lake of Orootniah), near which on its western side was Thebarma (Oroomiah), said to be the native place of Zoroaster or Zcrdusht. This region, now a part of AderMjan, and belonging to Persia, has become intensely interesting, on account of the American mij sion p'talilished anion? the Nestorian Christians, who reside in the plains of Oroomiah and in the mountains on the west, and whosf existence was first uiije kuown to the western woild.about thfe year 1826. — See Snath and Dwight, Researches, &c. as cited P. IV 5 36. \.—Miss. Herald, vol. xxi. p. U. xxxiv. p 289.— .4. Grant, The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes. N. Vork, 1841. 12.—/. Pfr kini, AccouLt of a Residence iu Persia, &c. Bost. 1843. 8. with colored plates. (See Plate VI a.) ^ 155. Under Partiiia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian sea; between Media on the south and the river Oxus (Gihon). which flows to the north into the sea of Aral, although it was once supposed to flovv into the Caspian, and is so delineated on some maps. It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a pro- vince belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, after the time of Alexander, it wag inade the seat of a new state, which under his successors, called Arsacidcp,, grew into a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resistance to the Romans (^211. viii.,. Ore of its principal places.was Niscea (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ochui, 'Margab), which empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place »n the small river Socanda. — But the royal residence of the x\rsacidcp was Hecatcmpylos, PI.ATE VI a. This MAh gives I he lodern names of vil- lasfes, &c. ill llie I'a ley of tl.e ancient THERARMA. Q7 The Mis. on the West, a pail of the Zaifros ciniii.are occupieil by Koords or Curds, the ancieni Carditchi (,c( § 170). Suppost^ nionninenis of ihe ancient fire- worship exist in Ihe valley ; cf. J. Pcrhiru, p. 8, as cited § 1 5-1 4. 45 46 CLASSICAL G20GRAPHY. in the south- western part ; although the later Parthian monarchs sometimes resided ai Ctesipkon on the 'I'igris. ■^rhe remaining countries, between Parthia and Scylhia, were Aria, Baciriana, and Soji^diana.— A r i a was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, al- though the name was often extended, so as to include C^ 153) a large region south of that chain of mountains. The principal place was Artacoana (now Herat). — B a ctri ana was east of Ana and south of the river Oxus ; its capital was Zariaspa or Bactro (Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — S o gd ia n a includes the territory between the Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir; corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. Its chief place was Maracanda {Samarcand) , on the Polyiimelus, a branch of the Oxus. CyropoUs was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied lhi« region ; in the north-eastern part were the SaccB. II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. § 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first S a r m at i a, called Asiatica to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was sepa- rated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited by roving and uncivilized tribes; particularly the Ala?ii, and the Cimmerii: from the latter, the strait connecting the Pains Moeotis with the Euxine received its name of Bosphorus Cimm.ericus.—Hu\Hh of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the west, and the Mare Caspium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Col- •'.his, Iberia, and Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places 'jvuh ■Ea, on the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — 'A I b a n i a was on the Caspian, extending south IS far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An imporiantplace was one of the two celebrated passes of the Caucasus, called Pylce Albntiics or CaurasitB, between a northern spur of the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the strong city of Derbend. — Iberia was between Colchis and Albania, a high valley, watered by the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine; it was the defile through which the river Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus; it is now called DarieZ. — • These passes, and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed Pylce Caspice ; but the pass properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern pass ot Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. On ttiess passes, cf. Walcken^r, de Fortes Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c. in tlie Mem. de Phistitut, Classe d'Hist, rt Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 210, with a map. — £ibl. Repository, No. xxii. p. 370. ^ 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount Mas'ms and the Carduchi Monies on the south, and from Media on the east to the northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, that on the north-east, watered by the Araxes^ also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summat called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Pains ; third, the south-western, smaller, separated from the central by the Niphates Mantes, and watered by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an easterly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the an- cient capital : Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Eu- phrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by Lucullua in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been ascended, for tht first lime, by Prof. Parrot, in 1829. See Bill. Repos. No. xxii. p. 390. ^ 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countriea bordering on the Propontis and ^gean, and divided it irito Asia intra Taurum and Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Mi- nor, included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different periods. — The northern provinces of Asia Minor, beginning at the iEgean sea, were rhrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. — The middle provinces were Lydia, Pnrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia Minor. —The southtrn provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and PamphyUa. See Reunell, Geography of Western Asia. Lond.. 1831. 2 vols. 8. f 159, PLrygia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the en- trance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern travelers are not agreed about ihe situation of the city of Troy, called also fliiim. !!ium was hiiilt at some distance from the sea, above the junction of the Scamander, or Xan- »hus, and Simois, two small streams, risinjr from mount fda. and falliti? into the Hellespont; th« ritadel was ral'«sd Pergamus, and was erected on a little hill included within the walls. Th** P.I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 47 plain between the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scaniander and Simois, and there the battles mentioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was hounded by the Hellea- pont, which here forms an extensive bay, betwet^n the promontory of RlnBteum on the north, ana Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the ramp. Ajax was buried on the Rhselean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. See P. 11. § 132, and P. V. § M.—Rmnell, and others, oa the Topography of Troy, as cited F. V. § 30. 7. Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to Biihynia. The principal towns of the former were, Abydos (§ 73); and Lampsacus, dedicated to Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury^ — The principal city in Mysia Major was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in the Froponf.is, ai^.d joined by two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when be- aisged by Mithridates ; near this is the river Granicus, where 4^1exander'defeated the army of Darius, and where LucuUus obtained an equally important victory over Mithridates. 'S 160. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bosphorus and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were, Apamea, at the mouth of the river Rhyndacus; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Kadi Keui, or Cadi's village), called the City of the Blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Chrysopolis (Scutari, directly opposite to Constantinople), v.'here the Athenians stationed a fleet imposing tribute on all vessels from the iiiuxiae ; Libyssa, where Hanniba' was buried ; Calpas and Hera- dea, on the Euxine ; Nicu:a (Nice), where the first general council was assembled ; and Prusa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found refuge with king Prusias. Prusa attained great importance under the name oi Bursa, when Olhman, founder of the Ottoman empire, made it his capital. It continued to be the chief residence of the Sultans until the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It still retains, in the modern Broosa, an important rank among the cities of Asiatic Turkey (See Plate, VI J.) Paphlagonia, lay between the rivers Farthenias and Halys. The chief towns were Sinope (Sinube), the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of the kingdom o^ Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. P on tus, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halya to Colchis. The principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys ; Eupatoria, on the confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopolis ; Amasia, the birth- place of the geographer Strabo; Themiscyra, on the river Tkermodon, where the Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence Lucullus brought the first cherry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of Colchis, greatly celebrated by the romance-writers of the middle ages. Near the river Halys the Leleges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron-works, resided. The Christian scholar will feel a peculiar interest respecting Pontus and Bithynia, from the circumstance that here occurred those bitter persecutions of the early converts to Christianity which are noticed in the letters of Pliny the younger, governor of these pio- vinces under the Emperor Trajan. See P. V. § 441. 1. ^ 161. Lydia, called also Maeonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and Mysia, and to the east of the ^gean sea. The northern part of the coast was called iEolia, and the southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — ^Eolia w'as colonized by the .^olians, soon after the termination of the Trojan war ; its chief towns were Adramyttium, founded by an Athenian colony; Pergamus (Bergamo), the capital cf a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithri dates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus its last king; its port was called Elea; be- tween Elea and Adramyttium was Lyrnesstis ; south-west from Pergamus, Thyu' tira : and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the same name, near which are the jEginusan islands, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely defeated the Spartans.— Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the principal were Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born; a cave here used to be shown to travelers as his birthplace, and another as the spot where he wrote his poems (cf. P. V. ^ 50) ; north and east of Smyrna was Mt. Sipylus, the residence of Niobe (cf. P. II. ^ 131); ClazomeiKS, on a peninsula of the same name, celebrated for its wealth ; ErythrcB. near mount Mimas, the residence of one of th« Sybils ; Corycus, near which the fleet of Aniiochus was defeated by the Romans ; Teos, the birthplace of Anacreon. — South of the peninsula of Clazomenae, were Colo phon, on the river Ilalesus, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo, Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degene- rated into a paltry village, remarkable for the splendid temple ui' Diana; ]\fyrale, opposite Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks; Priene, on the Blceander, a river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birthplace o*" Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, a branch of the Tlermus. Not far east from Sardis was Thymbra. celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Croesus. On 48 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, \yas overthrown by th« Romans. WiHiin the limits which we have above given to LycJia, were sjx uf the seven churc'ics addressed m the Apocalypse; viz. in the ordef in which the apostle John introduces Iheni — Ephesus, Sniyrnn, Perijanius, Thyatira, Sirdis, and Philadelphia : the other, Ijio dicea, was in Phry^ia Mijor — See Milner, History of the Seven Churches. Loud. 1832. %.—ArundeU, Visit to the Seven Churche* of Asia. Lond. lh2S. 8.— On the ruins of Sardis, cf. Miss. Herald, for 1839, p. 2. 8. ^ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, extending from the river Lycus on the south to the Sangar'ms on the north. Its chief town.s were Ptssinas, near the foot of ^noant Bindtimua. sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose image was conveyed thence to Rome at the end of the second Punic war (P. II. § 21) ; Gordium, celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander; Apamea, on the river M'irsj/as, where Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas; Lnodicea, cele- brated in sacred history, on the river Lycus; and Colos^ce. Galatia, or Gallo- Grsecia, lay north of Phrygia, of which it originally formed a part. The chief towns were Ancyra (Angoura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamer- lane ; Gangra, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. The principal towns of the former were IsaurcB, the capital ; Lystra and Derhe, men- tioned hi the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town of the latter was Iconium. Both of these provinces were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. % 163. C a p p ad ocia lay between the Halys and the PJuphrates Its most remark- able towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony; Tyana, the birthplace of the impostor ApoUonius (cf P. V. ^ 255 b) ; and Muzaca, named by Tiberius, Ccesarea ad Arg^um, (o denote its situation at the foot of Mount ArgcBus, from whose summit, as ancient writers assert, the Euxine and the Mediter- ranean might both be seen. — -The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the name of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cahira or Sebaste, a well fortified city captured by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novas, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and Ni- copolls, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates. The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad Kappas, or nations whose names began with that letter ; the other two were the Cretans and Cilicians. <^ 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was C aria. Its chief towns were Halicarnassus, the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monument, one of the seven won- ders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of G'aria, to the memory of her hus- oand Mausolus ; Cnidus,'\n the. peninsula of Doris, sacred to Venus; Alahanda, on the Moeander; and Stratonicea, on the southern coast. L y c i a lay to the east- of Caria. Its chiel' towns were Telmessus, on a' gulf of the same name, called also Si?ms Glaucus, from the river Glaucus flowing into it ; Xauthus, celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed them- iselves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Putara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the volcano ChimcBra, fabled by the poets to have been a monster subdued by Bellerophon (cf. P. II. § 117). Some hills at the Fromontorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the commencement of Mount Taurus, and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their middle in water. See Fellovoes, Account of Discoveries in Lycia. — Cf. Amer. Eclectic, Jan. 1841. § 165. Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and P a m p h y li a, two mountainous districts, whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were Antiochia; Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer ; and Creirma, a Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia were Perga, the capital ; Aspendus on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coracesiiun, where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. G i I i c i a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the emperor Trajan died ; Anamurium, opposite Cyprus; and Seleucia (Seletkeh), on the river Calycadnus. — In Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have received its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth- place of the Apostle Paul ; Tssus. where Alexander obtained his second triumph over the Persians : and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Amanus, be- tween which and the sea were Pylce SyricB, a celebrated pass. — The river Cydnus is -emarkable for the coldness of 'its waters, by which Alexander was almost killed, and '.or the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks when Antony visited Cleopatra. % 166. Syria was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by tho P'uohraies ; on ♦he south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. It was 50 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. divided imu rive profnices, Comagene, Seleucis, Ccelo-Syria, Phoenicia, and Ju.lea, or Palestine. The principal city of Comagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the birthplace of Lucian. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian goddess Astarte (cf. P. II. ^ 48), on the Euphrates ; Bercea, previously Chahjbon (now Aleppo), on the Chalcis, flowing into a small lake ; Antiochia, where Christians first received their name, on the river Oronles ; near it DayJme, with its delighiiul grove sacred to Apollo; Apamea (Famieh), higher up the'Orontes, which rising in the ele- vated regions on the eastern side of Libanus, flows by a north-west course to the Mediterranean; still further up, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, the worst of the Roman emperors ; and "on the opposite side of the Orontes," near the hmiis of this province, Heliopolis (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract admiration. From the map of Syria accompanying Eobinson's Researclies, Bilbec appears to be on the Leontes. — " Among the cities whicli are enumerated by Greek and oriental names in the geogr?phy of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, and Heliopolis or Bal- bec. Under the last of the Caesars, they were strong aud populous ; the turrets glittered from afar ; an ample space was covered with public and private buildings; and the citizens were illustrious by their spirit, or at least by their pride ; by their riches, or at least by their luxury. In the days of paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted to the worship of Baa!, or the sun ; but the decline of their superstition and splendor has been marked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a vestige remains of the temple of Emesa, which was equalled in poetic style to the sommits of mount Libanus; while the ruins of Balbec, invisible to the writers of antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European traveler. The measure of the temple is two hundred feet in length, and one hundred in brtadth : the front is adorned with a double portico of eight columns ; fourteen may be counted on either side ; and each column, forty-five feet in height, is composed of three massy blocks of marble. The proportions and ornaments of the rorinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks."— See the view given in Plate VU. — fi. IVood, Ruins of Balbec. Lond. ■»7.57. fol.-e. B. Elliott, Travels in Austria, Russia, aud Turkey. Loi.d. rSSS. 2 vols 8. Ccelo-Syria was so named because it lay between the two -parallel chains of mountains, Libanus and Anti-Lihanus ; and the name is sometimes applied so as to include the valley of the Orontes, and also the whole valley of the Leontes, which rises near the western sources of the Orontes, and flows by a south-western course to the Mediterranean. But it is limited, in our division, to the upper part of the latter valley, north of mount i^ermow, the principal peak of Anti-Ubanus ; including alsa another valley on the east (now called Gouteh Demesk, or Orchard of Damascus), watered by the rivers Chrysorrhous (Pharphar) and Abana, flowing into a large lake below Damascus, which was the chief town of the province. — The territory east and north-east of these valleys as far as the Euphrates, is mentioned in connection both with Seleucis and with Ccelo-Syria; but more commonly under the general name of Syria ; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should be mentioned ; as Thapsacus (El-Der), the celebrated ford, passed by Cyrus in his expedition against Artaxerxes, by Darius after his defeat by Alexander at Issus, and by Alexander in pursuit of Da- rius ; and Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as the boundary of the' Roman empire when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region was. Palmyra, or " Tadmor in the desert," said to have been built by Solomon, the resi dence of Longinus (cf. P. V. ^ 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the em- peror Aurelian ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ruins. On the ruins of Palmyra, see R. IVbod, as cited P. IV. § 2i&. 3.— The Mudtrn Travelier.—lrl/y and Mangles, Travels in Egypt, &j'ria, &c. Lond. t(f22. ». P hcEnicia contained the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their exten- sive rx)mmerce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate defence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the besiegers. Berytns (Beirut), north of Sidon, was the seat of a distinguished school for the study of law in the age of Justinian. Beirut has been for several years a very interesting Hiissionary station. In its vicinity, on mount Lebanon, dwell the Maronlte »nd the Druzes. — Se« ./otocH's Researches. — Miisionary Herald; from the year 1823, passina. — Bmid's Memoir of PliTiy Fisk. § 167. J u d ae a, or P a 1 se s t i n a, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan, of Israel, andof Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes;- it was afterwards separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally the Romans divided it into four reffiofts, Galilsea, Samaria,- Judaea Propria, and Peraea or Transfluviana, the country beyond Jordan. Galilaea was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews; and Su- perior, which, from its proximity to Coelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the Gentiles. — The chief towns of Upper GaHlee were Cepsuren PhiJippi, so called to distinguish it from another town of the same name in this province ; its original name was Laish, uf'erwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Caesarea Philippi, by Herod's son Philip; Gabara and Jofopata, bravely defended l)y the historian Josephus, when be- sieged by Vespasian. I'he principal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace, or Ptolemais (.Acre), memorable for its siege \ y Richard Cceur de Lion in the time of the Crusades; Ca7Uc ; Scjyphoris, afterwards called Dio Ca^sarea; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large lake in Galileo was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesare'h; at its northern ex- iremity was Choazin; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, find Bethsaida; Ml the o])posite side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmel and p. 1. ASIA. WESTE IN DIVISION. JUD^A. 51 itahynus or Tahor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguraiion. — Between Galilee and Samaria stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten confederate cuies called Decapolis, which, dreading the power of the .1 \-s, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean princes, who then governed J idea. § 168 a. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the capital, destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Heroi, who called it Sebaste, in honor of Augustus; CcBsarea, first called Turris Stralonices, a celebrated seaport, the residence of the Roman governors ; Joppa, a seaport south of CjEsarea, where An- dromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Perseus (P. II. "^ 122) ; Sichem, in the interior, the ancient capital, between the mountaios Ebal and Gerizim; it was in later times called Neapolia ; Lydda, called by the Greeks Diospolis; and Arimathea. Judaea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we shall notice particularly in the next section. North-west from Jerusalem was J£?n- maus or Nicopolis, where the Jews were defeated by Vespasian ; directly north was Bethel; north-east was Jericho; south from Jerusalem was Bethlehem, the birthplace of Christ ; further south, Hebron, where Abraham was buried ; still further, some- what to the west, Beemheha, often mentioned as the southern limit of the country of Israel; south-west, Eleutheropolis, a very flourishing city in the time of Eusebius. $ 168 b. Hierosolyma, or Jerusalem, originally belonged to the Jehnsites, from whom it was taken by David, who made it his residence. 'J he Arabians now call it El-Kuds, the Holy. — It is situated on a broad elevation, having higher hills all around it ; the Mount of Olires on the east j on the north a ridne extending from the Ml. of Olives and bending around to the west, at the distance of more than a mile : on the west, hills at a greater distance sloping gently, beyond a ain ; on the south, the Hill of Evil Counsel rising directly on the further side of the V'alley of Jinnom. It is surrounded by walls presenting a stately appearance, of hewn stone, with towers and battlements, of a height varying according to the inequalities in the ground, from twenty to fifty feet; in circumference about two and a half geogra[>hical miles. The avrievt trails formed a larger circuit of about three and a h.ilf geo!ir:iphic,al miles according to Joseph us j and Jerusalem is said to have been anciently fortified by three walls ; but this statement must not be understood to mean that there were three walls around the whole ciiy. one within another; since the two inner walls were merely walls intersecting the city and joining the outer wall ; the hill of Zion was first of all enclosed within a wall : then Moriah, with Ophel, was added, and afterwards Akra, and a second wall was extended from the old one so as to include these ; subsequently Bezetha was annexed, and to protect this a third wall was constructed joining the others. Of the eight former gates, only the four larger are now open : the Gate of the Pillar, or Da- mascus Gate, on the north ; the Gaie of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west ; the Gate vf David, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Gate of the Tribes, or St. Stephen's Gate, on the Dast. The principal streets now run nearly at right angles to each other. The surface of the ground is diversified by five hills : the largest is Zion, in the southern part, rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom ; north of this and in the western part of the city its Jikra, separated from Zion by the valley of the Tyr'ipoeon ,' north-east from JJlira^wA east of the Damascus Gate is Bezetha, in the north-western part of the city ; soiuh-east from this and in the eastern part of the city is Moriah, which, with Bezetha, rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat ; south of Moriah, and at the south eastern corner of the city, is Ophel: Bezetha, Moriah, and Ophel n)ay be considered as parts of one ridge which extends to the south beyond the walls. These hills are closely encompassed on three sides by narrow valleys ; on the east the f^alley of Jehotihaphat ,' on the west, the Valley of Gihon, which is contitiued into the Volley of Hinnom on the south : at some distance from the soiuh-eastern corner of the city, the Valley of Jehoshaphat and that of Hinnom are connected. The Brook Kidron is but the bed of a torrent which during the rains of winter flows through the Valley of Jehosha[)hat to the south. The valley in which was the bed of the ancient Tyropceon commences in the depression between Zion and Akra (near the western or Hebron or Bethlehem gate), and descemiing easterly bends to the south between Zion and Ophel, and meets with the other two valleys at their common point of junction. The hill Zion was the part first occupied by David, and hence called " the city of David." Only the northern part of it is now within the walls ; much of the rest is literally "a ploughed field ;" on the north-western part is the present citadel, the lr)wer portions of the walls of whicu are probably the retnains of the ancient Tower of Hippie us. — On the summit of Akra is the churcn of the Holy Sepulchre, on the spot designated tiy d.ubttul iradilinn ;is being the Goljrotha and the Calvary of (he Scriptures. — Bezetha is mostly covered with low buildings or hovels, with no obvious traces of ancient ruins. — On .Moriah, which at the first was apparently a mound "f soliil rock, the Temple of Solomon was built ; the surface of the rock being leveled for the purpose ; and then imuiense wails were erected from the base of the rock on the four sides, and the interval between filled in with earth or built up with vaults so as to make on the top a large area, which firmed liie Court of the Temple. To this the present area of the grand iNIysque of Omar, or enclosure called " EI-Haram-esh-Sherif," nearlyif not wholly corresponds ; being a plateau or terrace neatly in the firm of a paralleloirram, supported by arul wiihin massive walls built up from the lower ground on all sides; the luwer portions of the walls are probably thr very WcJIs on which the ancient Temple rested ; ns seems to be shown by some remains of nn immense arch which supported the Brids's that formerly extended from the Temple across tin; Tyropce m to a celebrated Xystus or portico on MiMinl Zion.^In the northern p^rt of the present area of the .Mosque of Omar was the fortress railed the Tower of Jivtonia. rendered meinorabl.; in the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, who captured the city, A. 1). 70 ; at which time the Templo was lUterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque now on its site was built by Omar in the seven**i tentury. The ancient inhabitants depended for water, as do the modern, chiefly on cisterns ; alinnsi every house having now one or more excavated in the limesione rock on which the city stand."*. Immense cisterns also still e.xiat within the space under the area of \he Tempie. Large opei 52 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. reservoirs or tanks, or pools, were likewise constructed in and around the city. The Upper Poo, and the Lmier Pool still exist ; the former west of the city, in the A'alley of Gihon ; the latter, on the south-west, in the Valley of Hinnom. The Pool of Bath.fluba, the Pool of Heitkiah, and tiie Pool of Bei/iesda, are names given to three reservoirs within the present walls : the latter ia at the north-east corner of the Harani-esh-Sherif ; hut there is no evidence that it is the p«;ol mentioned in the New Testament by the same name {lhi6eo6a), having five porches. — The only Fountaivs of living water now accessible are three; that now called the iVeli of JSTeheoiiah, pro- bably the En-Roatl of the Old Testament (Jo>h. xv. 7, 8; xviii. 16), a deep well just below the junction of the Valley of Hinnom with that ot Jehosliaphat ; the Fountain and I'ool of Si/oaiM, which is in the valley of the Tyropa3on, just above its junction with the Valleys of Hinnom and Jehoshaphat ; and ih*'. FuimUnn of i lie ^j/'o-i??, which is some distance from that point of jiinc- lion, up the Valley of Jehoshaphat : the water of the latter is accessible only by descending sixteen steps down an excavation in the solid rock; and an artificial subterranean passage extends from it ihrou{.'h Mount Ophel to the Fountain of Siloam, winding so ;is to make the distance 1750 feet, by which the waters of Siloam i)roceed from the Fountain of Mary the Vir- gin. — A fountain is said lo exist at the depth of seventy or eighty feet below the area of the grand mosque, flowing by some artificial passage. An j?9«er/«c<. supposed to be ancient, carries water across the Valley of Hinnom, around the sides of Mount Zion, and conveys it, as is supposed, to the Haram-esh-Sherif, or area of the mosque. East of Moriah, on the rocky elevation just beyond the Brook Kidron, are the sepulchral monuments called' the Tovib of Jjbsalom or J^bsalum's Pillar (of. P. HI. $ 187. 5), and Tovib of Zachorias. — South-east of these, on the south-western declivity of tlie Mount of Olives, are the excavated sepulchres called the Tombs of the Prophets. — Those called the Tombs of the Judges, are further up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rather west of north from the city. — The remarkable excavations commonly called the Tombs of the Kin^s, are about north frotn the city, on the nearer side of the valley : they are probably the celebrated sepulcher of the mother of Constantine, the Etnpress Helena, who, having embraced Christianity, spent the latter part of her life at Jeru- Halem, and died there at the age of eighty, about A. D. 325. The above outlines of the Topography of Jerusalem will be of service lo the student in reading the Scriptures, and the intense!} nteresting story of the siege and destruction of the ci'y by the Romans.— See Jnsephus (of. P. V. ^ 248). — Milman, as cited § 211. ii For fuller details as to the '1 opography, see F. G. Crinne, Jertsalem, in Ersch wid Gruber's Encyclopddie. — E. Robinson, Biblical Researches, as cited \ 171. In vol. iii. is a fuM list of works on Palestine. For details respecting the Temple, with Plant, Sc , see H. Prideaux, Connexions, &c. N. York, 1840. 2 vols. 8. with engravings — Cahriet, Diet, of the Bible, Fragments 242 — 249. vol. iii. p. 346. Cnarlest. 1813. 4 vols. 4. — For Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, &c., see also Calmet, vol. iii. p. 164. ^ 169 a. The southern district of Judaea was called Idiimea, or the land of Edom ; he chief tovCns w^ere Gera, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot oi Mount Seir. Bui this dis- trict, or the principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, under Arabia Pe- '.rcBa (^ 171). — The sea-coast was called PhilistcBa, or the land ot the Philistines, from A^hom the whole country is now called Palestine ; its chief towns were Gath, Ekron, Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. § 169 b. Perse a is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. The chief towns were Ramoth-Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites ; Gadara, on the tor- -ent Hieromas, where- the Christians were severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, a fortress of remarkable strength ; Gamala, near the Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth- Ammon, in the district Ammonitis, afterwards called Philadelphia. — The Jordan rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through the Sea of Tiberias, falls into the lake Asphaltites, whence there is no exit for its waters. This lake is supposed to occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It has been said that, from its extreme saltness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. K. Robivson, who visited the region in 1838, states that the water is intensely salt and bitter : but that trees and bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor was perceived, and nmny birds were singing among the trees, and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Rcpus. Apr. 1839, p. 419. '^ 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and Eu- phrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were Nisibis, on a branch of the Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romars against the Parthiaiis; Edessa, near Syria; Seleucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence ot the Tigris with a branch of the Euphra- tes ; and Carrhep., called in Scripture Charran, for a time the residence of Abraham, and the scene of the miserable overthrow of Crassus. On the borders of Chaldaea were the plains of Cunaxn, where Cyrus was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and • where the ten thousai.d Greeks commenced ihat retreat so memorable in history. Babylonia and Chaldsea were districts separate from Mesopotamia, lying below it to the soufh-east. Their chiet "town was Bi.h'jlon, the most ancient and remarkable city of antiquity. Belus, its founder, rornmenred his building near the tower of Rabel, which by profane writers IS called after his name ; but to t»ptniramis, the wid<;an8 P.I. AFRICA. _ iEGYPTUS. 53 were celebrated astronomers, but they debased the science by the admixture of judicial astro, logy, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated. On the topography and ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, see X M. Kimieir. Geographical Memoir on Perfla — Rermdl, Remark* on the Topography of Babylon. Lond. 1816. — Rich, Memoir on Babylon. &c. Lond.iSIS. — Bill. Repos. No, xxii. 3a5 ; No. ixiii. 158,246^ No. xi-v. 139. East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdista?t from the Carduchi, a tribe that inhabited the northern part of the country; they are neniioned by Xenophon as having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand ; they are supposed still to exist in the modern Koords, various tribes of whom occupy the mountains of this country, and who are generally of a savage character. — Its chi^f towns, Niyius or Nineveh, fre- quently mentioned in Scripture ; the ruins of this celebrated city he opposite the mo- dern jl/os?/Z/ and Arhela, near which is the village Gaugamela, where Alexander overturned the Persian empire, by the defeat of Darius. ^ 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which was the large peninsula between the Srnus Persicus (Persian Guli), and the Sinus Arabiciis (Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta (desert), Petrcea (stony), and Felix (happy). Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldaea, and extended along the Sinus Persicus. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the southern part border- ing on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarkable among its inhabitants were the Sabcei, who cultivated frankincense. Macoraba was the name by which the Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious in the Mohammedan history; here is the famous building called Kaba or Kaaba, with the fabulous black stone of Gabriel. — Arabia Pe t rae a was a smaller portion lying south of Judea and at the head of the Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea, which is here divided into two bays, the eastern called ^Lanites Sinus, and the western Heroopolites Sinus. Between these bays or arms were the mountains Horeb and Sinai. On the eastern was the seaport Berenice or Asiongaber, the Ezion-Geber of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Peira ^called Sela by the Hebrews), embosomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea, in tlie district called Idumea. The ruins of Petra have been discovered recently, and have excited great interest from their striking peculiarities (being entirely excavations from the solid rock), and from the evidence they furnish of the fulfilment of prophecy. See Laburdt's Journey to Arabia Petraea, l.ond. 1S36. 2 vols 8. with 65 plates — Cf. Lond, Quart. Rev. No. cxvii, — North J}mer. Rev. for Jan. \S3'.—BM. Repository, vol. ix. p. 43\ .Stephens, Incidents of Travels, kc—E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Petrasa, Bost. 1841. 3 vols. 8. The observations ana inquiries of Robinson seem to have settled the question as to the mountain on which the Ten Command- ments were given by God to Moses; showing satisfactorily that it wai not the summit poiuted out by tradition under the name of Sinai or Jebel-Musa, but another suhimit a little norlh-west from it, belonging to what is called Horeb.—See the very interesting acconnt. vol. i. p. 87-212. The celebrated Smaitic Inscriplionu, which have attracted the attention of travelers, in an unknown and pectiliai alphabet, have lately been deciphered by .Beer, of Leipzic— See Robintmi, vol. i. p. 188, Sol.—Grty, in the Transact, of the Royal Soc. of Litera- ture, vol. iii. Lond. 1832. § 172. The Asiatic Islands were not very important, except those in the Mare JEgaeum already named (^ 147). The principal other in the Mediterranean was C y- prus, sacred to Venus; the chief towns of which were Pup/ios, where stood the celebrated temple of Vetius, infamous for the debauchery and prostitution it sanc- tioned ; Cifium, the birthplace of Zeno, the Stoic, on the west coast ; Salamis (Fama- gusta), built by Teucer, on the east ; Lapethus, ArsinoH, and Soli, in the north ; and Tamassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, in the interior. — The other islands were Broconnesus (Marmora), in the Propontis; Taprobane (Ceylon), and .^abadi (Sumatra), in the Indian ocean. III. OF AFRICA. 9 173. The name .Vfrica was applied strictly and properly by ancient geographers, at least until the time of Ptolemv. to a small part of that vast peninsula of the eastern continent which h now de.'jignafes ; and by them Egvpt was reckoned among the Asiatic kingdoins. But we here use the term as including all that was knovvn to tho ancients of that whole country. We shall consider it under the following divisions ; McyW-vvs. or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, Africa Pro'ria, Numidia, Mauriia.nia, and Africa Interior. •^ 174. The general boundaries of iEoYPTUS were the Mediterranean on the nv»rih, S3'ria and the°Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Lyhia on the west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torrens JEsypti. or river of Egypt as called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called Pahis Sirbotiis. The 54 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. limit between Egypt and Lybia on the west was the great dechvity and narrow pass Termed Cataballunos (KaTa0adixdi). Its southern limit was the smaller cataract of the Nile. One of the most striking features of Egypt was lis river, Niliis. This has two prin- jipal sources; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called Abys- sinia, and the western in the Luilites, or Moiinlains of the Moon. Having passed through the ancient Ethioi)ia, it flows through the whole length of Egypt to the Medi- terranean ; not receiving a single tributary tor the last 1000 miles of its course, and at last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular island called Ddta from its shape. It had seven mouths ; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the others in their order proceeding towards the east, were the Balbytinum, Sebemiiti- cum, Phatnicum, Wendesium, Taniticum, and Pclusiacum. — Its annual inundations were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in great num- bers to convey the water over the whole country ; where the land was too high to allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the water ; almost every vil- lage, It is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many thousand cities and villages. § 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt ; the northern part on the Me- diterranean was called JEgyptus Inferior; the southern part on tlu^ confines of Elhio pia was JEgypftis Superior or Thehais; and the portion between these, Heptanomis. — ■ The capital of Lower Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart of Indian merchandize ; during the middle ages, caravans continually passed from thence to Arsino'e. (Suez), on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the har- bor was an island named Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was built ; south of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egypli'xn wine was made. In Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been buined by the Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. ^ 76). — In the interior of the Del'a was Sais,. the anc'ent capi- tal, remarkable for its numerous temples. Between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus were Heroopolls, the city of the shepherd kings; and Onion, founded by a colony of Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple. Ill Lower Ezypt, east of Ifie Delta, was the land of Goshen, accorlin? t-o tlie views nf the best modern authors. — Cf. E. JWinsoti, on the Exodus of the Israelites, &c. ijiW. /Jcp(.s. vol. ii. 744. Also, Researches, vol. i. "J^ 176. In the middle portion or Heptaitomis. one of the chief places was Memphis, near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands; it was the ancient metropolis of all Egypt; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoe south-west of Memphis was an important place ; near this was the famous lake Mosris. said to have been exca- vated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birhel-el.-Kurun. and believed to have been wholly or chiefly the work of nature; at the southern end of this lake was the still more celebrated Labyrinth. — Oxyryndnis was a consideralile place, said to have derived its name from a sharp- rosed fish (o|"f f'vyxoi) worshiped by the inhabitants.— Ir, Upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thehais to this division; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos ; although de- stroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying a space of 27 miles in circumference, including the modern Karnak, Luxor, and othei villages; near it was the famous statue of Memnon. — Tenlyra (Denderah). was north of 'I'hebes, and also presents interestins ruins ; especially the large temple of Isis, from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transported to France and made the subject of much speculation (cf. Amer. Qiiarl. Rev. vol. iv). — Between Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Cop- Ins: from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert to Berenice on the Simis Arahicus. Considerably to the south of Thebes was 0?ribi made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the wor ship of the c'lcodile. Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the place of Juv nal's exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer sols:ice, its bottom beii i, then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over it. Not fai from Syene was the island on which Elephojifine stood, of which interest- ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Movs Basaiiiles, mountains of touch- stone, from which the Egvprians used to make ornamental vases. — South of Syene were the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red eranite (Syenite) cross the bed of the river, and throw its waters in'o ati impetuous and foaming torrent. In this region were the quarries whence the vast obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyp- tian. temples w(M-e taken. There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus. which should be mentioned; Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt ; Arsin-^e (now Suez), at the head of the Sijius Heronpolites, the western arm of the Red Sea; and Mvoshormvs. called also. Po'rtus Veneris, midway between ihem ; they were commercial places, goods. being transported from them to the Nile. A canal, called Fossa Trajani connected Arsinoe with that river. '^onr liiiifflEgBiiii mmsm iii^lMzMi jga^Sl(gg\|g ■^. ©^'i^S"!!:!^'^!'!!!!'''^'''''^'' p. I. AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. 55 In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the cuUivuted and inhabited spots called Oasis Magna, and Oasis Parva, the Great and the liittle Oasia. The latter was in the division termed Hepranomis, south of lake Mceris. The Greav Oasis is in ihe part that was called Thebais. It was a place of banishment in the time of the later Roman empire ; yet said to have been a delightful residence, and some times called by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed. '^ 177. 'i'he ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest interest in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various teinples and other edifices, of v/hich splendid remains are found in various places, the following rank high among the objects of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of 'these were removed to Rome; of the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks called CleopaSra' s Needles at Alexandria, and Pompey'' s Pillar, also at Alexandria. An obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be ereced in that city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the seven wonders. They are numerous at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the ancient Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. 'i'hose at Gize are the most cele- brated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. Several others have been opened in recent times. They all contain chambers evidently used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. IV. § 231. P. II. ^ 96. 3.)— 3. Catacombs. These are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most re- markable are near Thebes, at a place now called Gournou, a tract of rocks at the foot of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks, and extend, it is said, over the space of two miles. From these, many mummies have been taken. — The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included numerou? subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead ; over these was an iintnense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris (J 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images a?i.d statues. ()ne of the most re- markable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. II. *$> 117) is near the great pyra- mids. A very celebrated colossus is that cornmonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. P. II. ?i 74. p. IV. "5i 169. 2. § 231. 1).— The Egyptian monuments are covered with inscriptions in Hieroglyphics (cf. P. IV'. § 16). Much researcli has been empltiyeit in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A new decree of interest wai awaliened in the whole suhject by Ihe celebrated expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion nf Eizypt, he took with him a de'achnient of no less than one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (vaLOJis) selected for the purpose. "Thii body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invadini^ army, was liberally supplied with books, philosophical instruments, and all the means of prosecutin? the several departments of knovvledie." — The splendid work, published under the emperor's patronage, and style! Descriplimi de VEgypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. IV. § 169). Manv other valualsle works illustratin? the his'ory and monuments of Eaiypt have been published during the present century, some from members of the company of savans above named. That of Down holds a hi^h rank ; entitled Trajelx in Upper ana L(ywer Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates. — The following works relate to this subject. Leigli's Travels in E»ypt. — BdzonCs Travels. — Joinard's Description de I'Esypte. — Hamilton's .'Egyp'iaca. — Letronne. Reclierches sur I'Egypte. — Russell's View of Ancient and Modern E^ypt, in Harper's Fain. Library. No. xxxiii. — /. .Miot, Memoires de /'Expedition en E»ypte, &c. Per. 1?I4.— / G. Wilkinson. Topt-.sraphy of Thebes, and aeneral View of Esypf Lond. 1836. 8.—/. G. IVilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Lond. IS37. 3 vols. 8. — We may add, the T ra ve 1 s of CVarftc. A'orrferi, S/iau), Pococke. Cf. Sappkment to Eucyclop. Britann. article Egypt. — Lond. Quart. Reu. vol. xiii. I. xvi. 1. xvii. ISl. xix. 178. xxiv. p. 139. — imer. Quart. Rev. No. vii. — For. Quart Rev Nos. xxxii and xxxiii. — .im. Bilil. Repns. No. xxiii. — See also references given P. IV. § 216. i. § 2'!0. 1. § 238. 3. § 243. 3.— A history of Pompey's Pillar is given in /. IVhite's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1S2I. ^ 178. tEthtopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the coun- try lying south of Egypt ; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient rimes; on the coast were the TroglodytcB. said to inhabit caves of the earth. It seems also to have contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. The most important places were Napata. Meroe, Auxume. and Adulis. — Anxw/ie (Axum) was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazzi;). 'he eastern branch of the Nile. Its ruins still exist. " In one square, Bruce found 4-0 obelisks, each formed of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscriptions, hut no hieroglyphics. One of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — Here was found the monument usually called the Inscription of Axum (cf. P. IV. "Ji 92. 5.). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus Arabicus; having some celebrity from two inscriptions there found (cf. P. IV. §92. 5). — Meroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction wiih ihe Astaboras ; near the modern .S'/)pnr/y, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract . between these rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand emporiuiii of the caravan trade l)ctween Ethiopia and Egypt and the north ot Africa. The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone still mark its site. — JVapata waa farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. These rejions have also been explored in modern times, and splendid ruins have been found scattered along 'he valley ot u.e Ni!t The following are some nf the snurce^ of infnrma'ion on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, cited P. IV. § 1 18 I. — Tr*vsli of Salt and Lord Vnlentm ; of Burckhardt : Franc. Oaii {P. IV. § 243. 3), and especially of CatlUaud — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xvi. 13 lix. 174 —//osfeinj' Travels in Ethiopia, Lond, 1835, 8. •{i 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from Msijplns on the east" to the Svrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite portion on the fsouth. TiiP 5fi CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. teiin was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most limited sense, it included only the region beiweeu Egypt and the Syrlis Major (Gull of Sidra). — 'In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast only the two districts Ma^- marica and Cyrenaica. We include under Libya also the portion farther west called Regie Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named. Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents; some of them, named PsylU, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom out of the wound. In an Oasis, now El Wah, south of Marmarica, stood the cele- brated temple of Jupiter Amnion (P. III. § 71), and near it \h.e fountain of the sun, whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having encountered great difficulties, suc- ceeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. "Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wah {the bushes), the northe.Ti Oasis. He found, as Hornesiiann iiad, the tops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salt, and wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus related two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has heen considered as the temple of .lupifer Ammon ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him see this 'work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet water, whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown was told by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni ; who says he proved the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this sprmg is warm in the mornings and evenings, much nmre so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni pos- sessed a thermometer, he would have found that it was the temperature of the air which had changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lujtd. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 95. Cyrenaica, or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and. the Syrtis Major, or altars of the Phileeni. It contained five cities ; Cyrene, founded by a Greek colony, the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades ; Apollonia, a celebrated seaport ; Ftole- mais, at first called Barce ; Arsinoe, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the gardens of the Hesyerides, famous lor their golden apples, and the residence of the Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf. P. II. ^ 115. Ed. Rev. No. 95, p. 228).— West of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, from its three cities, Tripolit ana (Tripoli) ; its cities were Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name near Carthage ; CEa, the present city of Tripoli ; and Sahrata, a Roman colony; and Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast ; he says that they fed on the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it imme- diately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quick- sands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners ; here, also, was the lake Tritonis, sacred to Minerva. There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — The situation of Cyrene is dpscrihed as exceedingly beautiful. — "It is built on the edge of a range of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the summit of a lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may be estimated at 1000 feet; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of which it commands an extensive view over ihe table land, which, extending east and west as far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward, and then descends abruptly to the coast. Advantage has heen taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instances by narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep fiir- rowins the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, were ornamented with sarcophasi and snonumental tombs ; and the whole sloping space between Ihe galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble, ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmansliip, was found in a large cxcavaiion. In seviral of ihe excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, repre- eenting historical, alieg"rical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of Hercu- laneum and Pompeii. (<'f P IV. J 226). — In Ihe region of Cyrenaica are several caverns con- taining stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that this fact, together with the e.vistence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may have given ri*e to the story of the petrified city, of which, under the name of Ras Sevt, marvelous accounts have been related to travelers in Africa." See Modem Traveler.— F. IV, Sc H. Beechy, Expedition to Northern Coast of Africa. Lond. 1828, 4. At Tysdrvs are still found ruins of Roman structures ; particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, " consisting formerly of fiur rows of columns in tiers one above another, and sixty-four arcades." The inner area is said to be 300 feel in length and 200 in breadth ; and the whole circumference 1570 feet ; the height is estimated to have heen at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved. ■^ee Pev. C. F. Ewald's Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine, Jan. 13, 1838. *o 180. Next to Tripojitaha was the province of Africa Propria, of which the capi- ta, was (^'trthago. This-city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and '»v Its extensive cotnmerce became one of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its iftadel was called Dyrsa, because it was said that Dido, on coming here, purchased p. I. AFRICA. NUMIDIA. MAURITANIA. 57 as much ground as she could encompass with a ^vpcra, or hide, and then, having cut the hide into strips, took in the space originally covered by the city. Carthage is immnilalized by pnets and historians on account of the three wars which it sus- tained ajrainst the Romans. The last of these wars resulted in the total destruction of the city by Scipio Africnnus the younger, B. C. H6. The city is said to have been above twenty niilea in circumference; it being set on fire by the Romans, the conflagration lasted seventeen days. A new city was built by ihe emperor Augustus at a small distance from tliC s:te of the ancie'nt. The new Carthage was taken from the Romans by Genseric, A. I). 4h9, and for more than a cen- tury afterwards was the capital of the Vandal empire in Africa. It was finally destroyed by the Saracens towards the end of the seventh century. A single aqueduct is said to be the chief trace of it found in n)odern times. The other remarkable towns in this district were Times or Timeta (Tunis), where Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner ; Clupea, near the Promoniorlum Mercurii (Cape Bona) ; Adrumetum ; Thapsus, where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba ; and (Jlica, where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, where Regulus slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. § 181. NuMiDiA was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, ruled by Massinissa, and that of the Masssesyh, under the government of Syphax ; but after the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom under Massinissa. The capi- tal was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable for its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small river Eubricafus, the episcopal seat of Saint Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the interior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zama, where Han- nibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of The desert were Thala and Capsa. '^' 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Its chief towns were C/Bsarea, whence the eastern part was called Cassariensis; and Tingis (Tangiers), from which the western received the name Tingit ana. This country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating it from Numidia. to some dis- tance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after their conquest over these regions, planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Ex- ploratio ad Mercurium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this terri- tory were named Oceanus Allanticiis, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, which bounded Mauritania on the south, and terminated at two different points on the coast, the northern ridge being termed Atlas Minor, and the southern Atlas Major. — Mo7is Ahyla wa.s the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Medi- terranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled pillars of Hercules {Herculis Columncp). % 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Afkica In- ferior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — The Ga^.tuh, and Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dweUing within it. The Nigritce were placed about the river Niger. I'he Great Desert was called Desert a LibycB In- terioris. On the coast west of this were the IilsuIcb Fortunatoc; called also Cana- ria, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence their modern name Canaries. — South of these were the Insulcs Hesperidum. the mo- dern Cnpe Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides (cf. ;pt?. Its invention was attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos ; it was universally adopted, and was followed in civil matters, even after the more perfect cycle of Meton was known ; one reason may have been the reciprocal adaptation between the Octaetens and the Olympiad, the former including exactly two of the latter. ^ 190. " The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with thosn of the corresponding Juhan months, as near as they can be given. In this Hst Scali- per's account has been followed, which, upon the whole, we believe the most cor- rect. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised but a few days of the latter part of our June, and the greater part of July, the latter month will be given as the corresponding one. — 1. 'EKarnixPaicJv, July; so called from the great number of Heca- tombs which were usually sacrificed in this month. — 2. Msrayeirvicjv, August; so called from the sacrifices which were then offered to Apollo Msrayetrviog, because on this .month the inhabitants of Melite left their island and removed to Attica. — 3. Bor/^po/itw*/, S rpt ember ; which was so called from the festival termed Bor,Sp()ma. — 4. Uvaveil'tdjv, p. I. DIVISION OF TIME. THE MONTH. 61 T^owmher; so called from Jupiter Mat/iia/crr/j, the boisterous, because in this moiith the weather was very tempestuous. — 6. Uoaeiosow, December; in which month sacrifices were offered to YloaeiSan', Neptune; as if it were called Nepfime's month. — 7. rajjLrjXtwv, January; which was sacred to Juno TajjrjXwi, the goddess of marriage. — 8. '^vdearr)- piwv, Fehriiury; which took its name from the festival of the sa ne name. — 9. 'EXa- h4>^i>^^v, June ; so called from a festival of the same name celebrated in this month in honor of Mi- nerva. Every month was divided into -rpia oexnixepa, three decades of days. '1 lie Itirst of which was called ^'?>'o? dpxou'evov or laraixiuov, the decade of the heglnuing ; the fcecond, t^nvdi ixtcovvros, the decade of the middle; and the third, i-^nvui (pBiuovrog, or navu^uvooj the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was called veojxrivia, because it happened on the nevv moon; the second, devrepa iaTaixivov, and so on to iEKarrj larauevov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the eleventh day, was called ttpmtti neaovvroi, the first of the middle, or n-pwrrj Im 6iKa, the first after ten; the second, SEvrepa ixeGovvros, and so on to the twentieth day (ei^ai), or the last day of the second decade. The first day of the third decade was called Tpwr,-/ in' eU-dSi, or TrpcJTt] cpdii^ovTo^, and so on. The last day of the mouth was denominated by Solon hrf Kai via, the old and nev), as one par' of the day belonged to the old, and the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the last day of the month received from him the name of A»?m'7''P"»j." {Cleaveland.) On Ihe Attic months, cf. Classical Journai, ix 324, 559 — L. Ideler, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c). ^ 191a. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months; but Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — But as thi? formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, an extra- ordinary month {mensis intercalaris, called also Macedonius) was to be inserted every other year. The intercalating of this and the whole care of dividing the year was en- trusted to the Pontifices (P. III. *^ 228), and they managed, by inserting more oi fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they for any reason might choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, so that the winter months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into sum mer {Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speaking of the year C?' 192). — The names of the Roman months were the following; Martius, March, from Mars, the supposed father of Romulus, in whose arrangement of the year this month was the first ; Aprilis, derived by some from the verb aperio, the month in which trees and flowers ope?i their buds; JSlaius. May, from Maia, mother of Mercury, Junius. June, from Juno; Quintilis, the fifth month, afterwards named Julitis, July, from Julius Caesar; Sextilis, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, Ironi Augustus Caesar ; September, seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; De- cember, tenth; Januarius, January, from Janus; Februarius, February, so called from the purifications Ftbrua performed in this month (P. III. ^ 230), being the last of the year. The ancient Greeks and Romans personified the Months and the Seasons as well as the Hours , a further account of these personifications is given in P. II. $ 105. In Plate IX. are representations of tlie Four Seasons, as sculptured on tlie Arch (.f Severus (cf. P. IV. § 18?. 2). "5> 191 b. The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Ka lenda; or Calendce, Nonce, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month ; the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month, excepting March, May, July, and October; in which four months the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted backwarus from these three fixed points, including always the day from which the reckoning began : 8. g. the last or thirty-first day of December was called the second from the Calends of January, ■pridie [ante] Kalendas Januarii ; the last day but one or 30' h of Decem- ber, was called the third from or before the Calends of January, tertio [die ante] RcL Jan.; and so on back to the 13ih day. which was called hliis; the 12th was pridie Idns, and soon back to the 5th. which was the Nonce; the. 4th,, by this plan ol reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. u'. La Name, CalenHrier Rnmain, in Ihe Mem Acad lixcr. vol. xxvi. p. 219. A finnian Calendar, compiled frnm Ovid, Cnlumelln. and Pliny, ivhirh no'es the risiiie and SPttin? of Ihe stars, the Roman (tM \als, &€., is eiven in Paulys Encyclopadie (cited P. III. ^^ 13. h) ; it may le seen in Smtlh's Diet, of Aiitiq. art. Ca/e?idar.— See Hist Foggini, as cited P. IV 5 133. 6. The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division pronerly answering 10 our weeks ; althouph l!ie foHiier had their decailc of davs (J 19()i : and the latter their vumliiKr, or market days occur ring every vivth tiny (P III. ? 229). But the Egyptians and orientnl natl.');is had a u eei< of sevsr days. This division {liehdomades) was introduced among the Romans, it ia said, not far from «1jm J»2 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. noginnlng of the third century aftpr Clirist. The days were named after the planets or pagan gods: Dies Solis, Sunday; LuntB, Monday; Martis, Tuesday; Alercurii, Wednesday; Juvis, 'I'hursday ; F'eneris, Friday ; Satiirni, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the days had a similar origin, as is seen by observing tlieir Saxon derivation ; SunnadcBg, Sun's day ; ^(jvanrhca-. Moon's day ; Tuesd/c^r, (la\ of Tuisco (i. e. Mars) ; H''udensda;ir, day of Wodin or Hdin, a norther?) deity; Thursdcrg, day of Tlior, a deity answering to Jupiier; Frii-dirg, day of Frigga, the Venus of tlie north; Sceterdao-, day of Saster or Sealer (i.e. Saturn, cf. P. 11. $16.2.) § 192. T/ie year. This division was pfo!)ably not formed until some considerable advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long afier its first adop- tion before it attained to any thing like aii accurate lorm. — The most ancient year of which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured that this gave rise to the divi- sion of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is slill preserved. But it was soon found that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the earth ; and an addition of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days; this IS ascribed to the Thehans. The Grecian year, however, as established by So- lon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a quarter. The niaiiner in which the Greeks made their computation by the lunar months to agree with the solar year, has already been expl-.ned (§ IS9) Cf. Gibert, L'annee Grecque, in the Mem. Acad. Imcr. vol. x.xxv. p. 133. The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their com- putation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned C^ 191), and hke- wise the confusion which resulted from it. This Cassar attempted to remedy (cf. P. W % 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of co».fasio?i. And to' secure a proper allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in ;he reckon- ing of every 4th year; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after the 6th (sexfus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called bissexlus; hence the phrase bissextile year still in use. Rut in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. bef >re a whole day had been gained ; because conipuleJ time, instead of gainina: 6 hours a year, 6;ained only 5 hours 48 m. 57 sec., and in four years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 48 sec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted too soon by 44 minules and 12 seconds ; of course, computed tin)e, by this p!an, lost 44 m, 12 sec. every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of com|)Uteil lime, of one day ; i. e. com- puted time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 1582 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 1.1th attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the hisserrtile., every lOOth yeir except- ing each 400th yt-ar. By the Julian year, computed time loses 11 m. 3sec. a year, which makes about 19 hours in 100 years; drop- ping the mlercalary day on the lOOth year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours.; dropping it on the next lUOlh year gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third lOOih year ; and in this way computed lime gains cf actual lime, in 300 years, 15 hours; if on the next lOOlh year, i.e. lie fourih, the iniercalary day be inserted, computed time loses for that century 19 hours; but to meet this loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each, and in all 15 hours, so that the loss is only (19—15) 4 hours at the end of 400 years By tliis method the dift'erence between computed and actual time cannot amount to a day in 25(X) years. In thisjsystem, called the Grei^O'ian Calendar, the years 1600, 200n, 2400 are intei'- ealary ; and the years 1700, 1?00, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, &c., not —The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Portu- gal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic Germany, in I5S3 ; in Proiestant Germany and Denmark, in 1700; in Sweden, 1753. In Englaiid H was adopted in 1752, by act of Parliam nt directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14lh, as computed lime l.ad lost 1 1 days. This was called the change from Old loNew Style. — In i8:'2, Russia was said to be the only coi:ntrj where the Julian yt-ar or the Old Style was used. II is, however, rp'aiiied in the Greek and Armenian churches. (.T/iss. Hirald, fo) Dec 1835, p. 454.') — On the Gregorian Calendar, see Ch. Claviis. Romani Calendani a Gregorio XIII. P. M. reslituti Explicalio. Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one tiin* considered it as beginning in Marcii, but afterwards in .Taniiary. 'Ihe Greeks placed its com- mencement ill HecatombKon, at the summer solstice The Christian clergy used to begin it af the 25tli of March. The same was practiced in England and the American coionies until A. D. 1752, on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. ^ 193. Cydex. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division of time into days, months, and years, great advantage is derived from the inven- tion of Cycles. Tnese are periods of time so denominated from the Greek kvkXos, p circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period of 4 years; the Ocfae- feris. or period of 8 years; and the Roman LuxirKin. a period of 5 years; and also iht Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, compre- beiided in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed ihe cycle of irregory. — Besides these, it seems important fo mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar Cycle, the Cycle of Inrliclion, and. the Juliaii Period. See F. Nolan, as cited § 20'> — H. Dodwell, de veteribus Graecorum Romanorumqiie Cyclis, &c Di'sert. decern. Lond. 1701. 4 — ^itbuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist of Rome, vol. i. p. 2 9. el. Phil. 1835. "^^ 194. The Lunar Cycle is 6 period of 19 years. Its object is to accommodate the computation of time by the. moon to the computation by the sun or adjust the solar tnd Uina: vears. THe nearest divi.sion of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve ES ^is^r^Tiix^sri^^^ . vV\VV^\n ][T^>t»4m^m'\T \v<'"\\ X XXV vv\-^v\^-^\ ^v ^ ■^m»i\\%sk.^' p. I. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 63 lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of the solar year by about 11 days. Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it did on the preceding year; e. g. if in September of the present year fall moon occurs on the I6th, the corresponding full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th ot Sep- tember. — Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the sauje time. This Cycle was invented by Melon, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 430. Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar jears ($ 189), and this im- provement was at the time received with nniversal a-ppro!iation ; but not being perfectly accu- rate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it v.-as discontinued when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. "TheCouiicil of Nice, however, wishing to establish souie method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of the sun, with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the purpose ; and from its great utility they caused the numbers of it to he written on the calendar in golden letters, which has obtained for it the name of the Golden Number. " The name of Golden J^imi- ber is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanac. ?i 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consis^ts of 52 weeks and one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let the seven letters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A will stand for Monday, and Sunday coming on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th let- ter. The year will end with Monday, as it began with it; and A, the next year, will stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6lh day of the year, and be represented by F. Thus the year will com.mence one day later every common year, and Sunday will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retrograde order, G, F, E, &c., and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year, or there were no leap year, the year would, after seven years, again begin on Monday, the same iay with the first year supposed. But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the Dominical Letter. Chronologers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the seven days of the week; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter which represents Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- nomical books. § 196. The Cycle -of hidiction is a period of 15 years. The origin and primary use of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have been established by Constantine the Great, in the fourth century, as a period at the end of which a certain tribute should be paid by the different provinces of the empire. Pub- lic acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle. The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the Julian Feri^d, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a com- mon language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years might be easily applied. To accomphsh this, he combined the three cycles of the moon, sun, and in- diction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which produces 7980, after which all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin church, and tracing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year ol the Chris- tian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowiedsed epoch, or fixed year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch', it seems to be unnecessary Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixer standard 11. — Of fixing the Dates of historical events and arranging thein in order, ^ 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign "he proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of this par'. A'e shall notice ihe following topics ; {A) The method? employed io ascei;tain the dates of events, or the time when they occurred ; (B) The epochs and eras which have been employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological tables qind charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical C.hronology. ^ 198. (^1) Methois employed to ascertai?) the dales of ev(7ils, — Here we obserV'- 64 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we wil! notice that furnished by observations on generations of nun or successions of Kings. — It has been supposed that the average length of a king's reign, or ot a generation of men, may be estimated by comparing a sufficient numl)er of tacts. — When this average is taken, and \vc are told by a writer how many g°.neralions lived, or how many kings reigned, between two events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either event is known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest writers, and is used in the Bible. l"he Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it. Gene- rally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; three oi them equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Newton employed this means of ascertaining dates, and maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 years; and for generations, 29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33, it reckoned by others. On these principles he attempted to rectify ancient chronology, giving to many events a date more recent than other authors. It may he desirable to give a further expliination of this method by two illustratiovs. {a) The date of the return of the Heraclida to Peiopotiiiesiis is disputed ; but the date of the Battle of riiermopylaR is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a suc- cessi(m ni^ 17 kings ; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return nf the fferaclidse B. C. (480 plus 340) 820 ; a date 2b0 years later than as given by other chrono- logers. — (b) The dale of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelo- ponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hi[)pocrates, living at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from j4:]sculapius by father's side, and 19ih fiom Hercules by mother's side, and that ^sculapius and Hercules were both Argonauts ; that is, there werG 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two events. Taking the niediun) 17^ and multiplying by 29 gives 567; making the dale of the Argonautic Expedition, R. C. (431 plus 567) 998; ;^26 later than by other chronologers. But there are two grand objections to this m^ihod of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccuracy and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Secuvdly, the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kinirs or giving a genealogy, often om.it several of the series. This is done in Matthew, cli. i., for the sake of reducing the number of generations between the great epochs mentioned in tlie 17th verse, to exactly /w?trtec7i. ^ 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and cltanges. This method is in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomical principles perfectly settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes. (a) Eclipses, 'the ancients were very superstitious as to eclipses. Many are re- corded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events in history, and described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who can calculate with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. We will give illustrations. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syra- cusans, says that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, determined to sail out of the harbor of.SyrHCUse ; but when everything was ready fur sailing, the tnoon was eclipsed, for it was then full moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation, that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf P. V. $218). In a similar way, Ferguson, in his Astronomy, proposes to fix the time of llie birth of Christ. It is evident froni Matthew ij. 13- 15, 20, 21, that Cluist was born only sonie months before tho death of Herod ; and from Josephus (B. xvii. ch. 8) we learn that there was an eclipse of ihe moon at the time of Herod's last sickness ; astronomical calculation shows that the eclipse occurred March 13, m Ihe year 4710 of Ihe Julian Period ; hence the birth of Christ could not have been later than about the close of the 4709th of the Julian Period. — The same author refers to the mention m;ide by Phlegon (cf. P. V. § 23S) of a most extraordinary eclipse of the sun as occurring; in the 4th year of Ihe 202d Olympiad, and would employ it as a help in deiermining the dale of Christ's death ; since no natural eclipse could occur the year specified, which corresponds, according to Ferguson, lo Ihe 4746lh of Ihe Julian Period, he thinks the event mentioned by Phlegon was Ihe supernatural darkness that market the Savior's crucifixion. In Playfair^s System of Chronology, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c), is a list of eclipses that were observed before the Christian era, also, in Ferguson''s Astronomy. Mere Lunar appearances may be employed in the same way. By comparing Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xviii. 28, ft would seem evident that Ihe crucifixion was on Friday, and at the time of the Passover; it is known from other sources (cf. Jose- phus, Ant. B. iii. ch 10) that Ihe Passover vi'as kept nn the day nf Ihe first full moon after the vernal equinox. Ferguson says he found by calculation that " ihe only Passover full moon that fell on Friday, for several 5'ears before or after the disputed year of the cr.icifixion, was on April 3d, in the 4746lh year of Ihe Julian Period." — Cf. Ferguson, as cited § 203. (b) Precession of the Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same trom year to year ; but they move back- ward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree m 72 years. If, then, the place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the ]ilace it then held, and allowing 72 years tor a degree. The only objection to this method is llie diffir-iilty. perhaps impossibility of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history Sir 1. Newton applied this p'ri.nciple also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A sphere, representmt ..le heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient wmers to have been "ormed fur the Argonauts, by Chiron ; nn this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed ni ae middle point in the siyn Aries. In the year 1089, the equinox had gone back from that point p. I. EPOCHS AND ERAS. 05 3fi degrees 44 minutes : this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years betw<^en the year 1689 and the Expedition ; niKi enough, each pvent to tte located in its exact place in the line of lime. The chief objection (0 this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to iticlude all the important events of sntue periods without incre;isitig too much the size of the chart, and retiderittg it iii- conveiiietit for portalile use —(/?■) A seoevth plan unites geography with the history and chrono- li>gy. This method is exhibited in Priestlei/s '•Specimen i>f a New Chart of History," given in his Lectures on History. — {h) The device of a combitiatioti of streams or rivers is employed in a rfcceiit chart ity /. /. /yi'r/(C(*c&,' called History made vi.< 209. With these views the bllowing outline, in which it seemed desirable lo include modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. The learner is advised to draw it ofFnn a roll of paper prepared for the purpose; using a hori- zojual line to represent the flowing or progres.-; of time. I, r ; 7,8 sh ; 8, t. ch ; 9, v w j, used as consonants ; 0, th ph wh, and alsoVy xy z. In forming words the vowels are used just as may be convenient, without having any sisnificancy ; the con- sonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thw^ church [c/t rcA] signifies 86S ; troop [t r p], 866. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is formed ; The deluge comes and vse>.) — For Ibe period after Alexander, l^aillanl. Hislciria Plole nia;oruiii, cited P IV. ^93. l.—Champolliuii F'^cac, Ani:alcs des Ijigides, &c. Par. 18:9 2 vols. 8. Cf. MauotU Universal History, vt.l. i (erl. N. V. IS04. 25 vols 12.)— Also, Ibe Universal History before cited, vol. i. and viii.— .V. Russcl, View of E^ypt -Cf. § 177, also P. IV. 5 16 ; § 91. 8 ; § 231. II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally diWded into A/cee periods. 72 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. The l&t period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880. to the beginning of the v>ars of Syracuse in the time of I he Syracusan king Gelon, B.C. 480. In this period the following points are worthy of notice : (a) the origin of the city Carthage^ by a Tyrian coiony under Dido, in wiinse story much fahle is mingled : (b) the purpnits of the people , commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had inlercourse by sea with Britain and Gtjinea, oy caravans with the interior of Africa, and throuah Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) iheii covqiiesis ; their (;oinmercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the Mediierranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, tiie Baleares, also the Canary Isles anft Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in S[)ain, and the northern coast of Africa; the chief con(iuests were effected by JlJatro, and his sons and grandsons; (d) the form of guvervment ; it was a republic, but of a strongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an Jtssfmbly of the peo[ile ; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an aristocratic [larty ; (e) the revenue; its sources were, 1. tributes from the subject cities and states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds of the mines in Spain. 'i'he 2(1 period extends from tlie beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse to the beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, B. C^ 264. The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in almost constant wars. The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruction of Carthage, B. C. 146. The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both desired to own, furnished the occasion. — There were three wars called Panic ,' each disastrous to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and splendid victories of Hannibal; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third !ast«d only about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Cartilage had existed about 700 years. For the Carthaginian history; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. Vu—Hendrich, De Republics Carlhaginiensium. 1664.— Heercjl, as cited ibove —The Uriiverml History, vol. xv. of the Ancient.— Bdtliga-^s Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. ^ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned. Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will oe ac- compUshed by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Rome. I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years, from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. This whole s^pace may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into six successive periods., each limited by distinguished events, and characterized by pro- minent circumstances.- 1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civilization to the Trojan War, 1184 B. C, and from its peculiar characteristic may be denomi- nated fabulous. Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ; yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the founda- tions of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Lit- tle advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, other colonies were planted, at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, ai)out the time of Moses (P. IV. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable progress must have been made in cultivation. We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period; particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic Council. — 'The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had been mtroduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was suflJiciently studied to enable Chiron to furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibitinff the constellations. The ac- counts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in the various arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan t/oar to the time when the regal form of government was abolished, about 1050 ■B. C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the period of colonization. The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such without encountering peculiar difliculties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this we find the country .nvolved in fatal civil wars, n which the people, under a number P I STATES OF EITROPE. GREECE. 73 of potty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and opprcs- eion. These evils seem to have led to the change in the torm of Government, and the substitution of the popular instead of the rigal system. '1 he same evils also probably contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as o\ three separate classes. The earliest were the ^olians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north- western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the principaL The second were the Ionian?, who went from Attica (originally called Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the jEolians, where Ephesus was one of their chief cities. The third were the I)oria?is, who migrated to Iialy and Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four princi- pal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf P. V. <> 4.) 3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the abolition of monarchy to the BEG1N^^IN& of the Persian War, about 500 B. C. In this period tw^o of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta; and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable pohtical constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as the period of laws. Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. § 167; P. III. §§ 8, 9.) — The other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suf- fered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame poet of Athens, Tyrtaeus. (Cf P. V. ^ 53.) In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to pro- mote the glory and welfare of the state. Of the sons one was assassinated at a public festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge by instigating the Persians to invade his native country. 4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persiax War, 160 B. C, a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked back whh pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may properly be called the period of military glory. The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occa- sion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, the capital of Lydia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three suc- 'cessive kings. Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Mycaie, and Plata^a, secured immortal honor to the Greeks.— A succession of splendid iiames adorns the history of Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the Greeks. Before it, thet. existed little union comparatively between the different states, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were arotised to effort agairst the common enemy. In the confederation which followed. Sparta %vas the norr.inal head, but the talents, wdiich ac.ually controlled the public affairs, were found in he stales- men of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily tran.-ferred, and before the close of the war she stood, as it w^ere, the mistress of Greece. 5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian mar to the Supremacy of Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affair? of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — But a spirit of luxurious refine- ment soon took the place of the disinteres'ed patriotism of the preceding age, and fhr *l CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGf. manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This may be designated as the period of luxury. The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One ol these is the protracted war between Athens and iSparta, termed the Felopon^iesiun. Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon lell a vic.im to the terrible plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suc- cessively gained the predominant influence. '1 he war was continued with shght in- termissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle of iElgos Potamos, B. C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in Greece, and was deprived even of her own hberties. Her walls were thrown down, and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. 'I'o this, however, the Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B. C. the Thirty were expelled. The same year was remarkable for two other events. The lu'st was the accusation of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial tor some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V. § 171). The other memorable event was the expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of Persia. Ten thousand Greeks accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simpli- city. — The assistance which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This war was terminated by a treaty, B.C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, and was ahke dishonorable to all the Greeks. The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the as- cendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — But a war with Sparta shortly consummated her glory and exhausted her strength ; she gained a brilhant victory in the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C, but was in the same instant ruined by the death of her general Epaminondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states, Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith, reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B C. 357. (Cf. P. III. ^ 72.) This commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in which the council of Amphictyons appointed Philip, king of Macedon, as general and leader of their confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of Demosthenes was lifted to v/arn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse them to united resistance. A feeble aUiance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. The battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece. 6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chae- ronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent his- tory exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent orovince. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fall. Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and aiitocrat of Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus; but every reader will regret his follies at Per- sepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels 4mong his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests weve terminated, and the empire vv,as then divided \n\o four kingdoms, one comprising Ma- cedonia and Greece; a second Thrace and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, Palestine, anc Cq^losyria ;'and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, includ\ng all tht r«3st of Asia, even to the Indus. • 1 o the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to p. I, STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 75 arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousy between the states and the universal corrupt on of morals rendered their exertions fruitless- All that is really honorable and memorable in the proper affairs ot the Greeks at this period, is found in the history oi the Achaean league. — 'I'he Achaean league was origi- nally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, established very early, when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was4ieutrai even in the Peloponnesian war. The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B.C. Subse- quently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presi- dency of Philopcemen, B.C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the oilier states at this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced the opportunity, and shortly alter this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C. • Kothing but the Achjean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an in- stant prey to Roman ambition. 'J'he remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this destiny for twenty years; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed to the flames and consumed to ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a province of Borne. The principal helps in the study of the Grecian history are mentioned, P. V. § 7. 7. (d). — A good elementary work is Pinnoek'i imprnved edition of G o! d s ni i th's History of Greece. &.C. philad. 1^36. 12.— A valuable lex'-book and guide to deepei research ; j1. H. L. Heereii, States of Autiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1S2S. 8. — For the later periods of Gre- cian history ; J Gast, Hist, of Greece from accession of Ale.-ander till the final subjection to the Romans. Loud. 17Si. 4. — Bititet' bauch, Geschicbte der Achler und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 1782. § 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 years; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, to llie Expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be called th.- Period of the Kings, or of Eegnl Power. The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from ^Eneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether fabulous. (P. V. § b\0.)— Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. §*i 193, 240). One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution effected by the sixth king, Servius TuUiiis, introducing the Comiiia Centuriata. He divided the citizens into cFasses, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. 111. '^ 252.) — The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was of very limited extent, and the people v/ere often involved in war with the several states in their immediate v cinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged ih the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and the overthrow of the regal government. 2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the Ple BEiANS were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning ol this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had bo- come a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as th« period of the rieheian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised alin«x 5u. The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid in the idea, which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the first ages, conversant only v/ith objects of sense ; viz, that every thing in nature was endued wiih an appropriate activity and spontaneity like that in man. In con=:equence of this idea, wherever an unusual appearance or agency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being or existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of personal existences out of natural phenomena, this personification of physical objects and events was, in all probability, one of the most prolific sources of table and of idolatry; for which ihe stars and the elements seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. Many of the pagan stories are Ingeniously solved by referring their origin to synfibnlical or allegorical descriptions of physical priu' ■siples and changes. Cf. P. IV. § 41.— On the rise of idolatry, we refer to FaUr, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. Lond. 1816. 3 toIs. 4. Cf. also SImckfurd, Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. v.—£anier, cited ^ 12. 2. (a).— See references, P. V. § 364, 3. The following remarks, on the sources of fable, are frorn the Traite des Etudes nf Rollin. They were translated by Mr. WeUivgton H. Tyler, who has consented to their insertion here. 1. ^'■One source of Fable is the ■perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred History 5 and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of Noah, perfectly instructed bv him in religious matters, preserved for considerable time the worship of the true God in all its purity. But when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower of Babel, the members of this family were separated and scattered over different countries, diversity of language and abode was soon followed by a change of worship. Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, subject to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed oy the use of writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured by an infinite number of fables, the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the more ancient had en- veloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved among all nations; not, indeed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces of truth, marked and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had a common origin. Hence the notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, all- powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of external worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and general assent to certain great facts •, the creation of man by an immediate exertion of Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as the golden age, in which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of his brow or cultivated by painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abundance ; the fall of the same man, the source of all his woe, followed by a deluge of crime, which bro ignt on one of water; the human race saved by an ark, which rested upon a mountain; and after- wards the propagation of the human race from one man and his three sons. — But the detail of particular actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was soon altered by the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the family of Noah itself The historical fact that he was the father of- three sons, and that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose three sons, if we may believe the poets, shared between them the empire of the world." On several of Ihe points above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coinr.df iiCK. with facts in sacred history These are pointed out by several writers; we mention particularly Grotius, De veritate Rel. Chr.st (L i. c. 17.) — De Lavaur, Hia foire de la Fable conferee avec I'Histoire Sainte. Amst. 1731. — Faber, Horas Mosaicae. — Collyer, f ectures on Scripture Facts. 2d ed Lend. \it09.—Stillineflee:''s Origines Sacrae.— Cf. Manna, History of Hindostan. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. (bk. i.) 2. " A second source of Fable was fiirnished by the miniatru of a7igels in human affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, his inteUigence and his immortality ; and he was farther desirous of associating them with his providence in the government of the world, as wgU in the departments of nature and the elements, as in reference to the conduct of men. 'i'he Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed with their glittering swords, ravage all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an innumerable multitude of people, and entirely extirpate the army of an impious prince. Mention is m.ade of an angel, the prince and protector of the Persian empire; of • another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the people of God {Da7i,. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the world, as we learn from the Cherubim stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise to guard its entrance. — Noah and the other patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this truth, which to them had an intense interest : and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct their families on a subject of such importanre ; but these by degrees losing the more pure and spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the agents through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence it is '.hat men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits of the earth, others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so of all the rest; of gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries an^i nations, and who i\-ere themselves under th'^ dominion of the supreme God.' 3. " A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds ■»• all penpir , this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, tha', Protidtnce fre p. 11 INTRODUCTION. 85 tides over all human events great and small, and that each, without exception, expe riences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the immense detail to whii-h the Divine Being must condescend, have felt bound to reHeve him, by giving to each of a number of deities some particular, appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria dispertientes officia numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve", too many concerns upon a single deity; the soil was intrusted to one, tlie mountains to another, the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augusnn {de Civiiate Dei, iv.8) recounts a dozen different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which each, according to his office, takes a special care at different times, from the first mo- ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. — Besides the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable duties of such affairs, there were others which were regarded as of a higher grade, because supposed to take a more noble part in the government of the world." The niunber of gods admitted in tiie Groek inytholoey wns irnmense, if we may take Hesiod'a testimony for aiitliority. He says t/iere are 30,000 irods on earth, jsnardians nf men. Warburtori (in The work cited P. IV. $ 12. ^) contends that the filtle.-^ re.^pectinii nietamnrphnses, which are recorded hy ancient authors, had their oriirin in the common l)eliet"of tlie doctrine of metevipsyckosis ; and the latter he atlirms to tiave been a " t>:eihod of explaining the ways of Providence, which, as they were seen to be iine^^oal here, were esipposed to be rectified iiere- after;" thus, he says, nieteinpsyc/in^iig naiiirally suggested meln'r-'irplnisis ; "as the way of pu- nishing in another state was by a transmigratiunof the suul ; so in this, it was by a tTunf^funna- tion of the budy.'" 4, " A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which ever strives to auihorize its crimes and passions. The more imporiant and renowned of these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and deinmed by attri- buting to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the most detestable, murders, adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human heart has been ready lo multipK'^, distort, and pervert the fictions of myihology, for the purpose of palliating and excusing practices the most vicious and frightful by the example of the gods themselves. There is no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by the worship which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the viotltei of the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian would have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous man in the republic, to gn and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that his own mother should have been made a goddess to take the place aiid honors of Cybele." 5. " I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from whi'-h Fable takes its rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a ffih source, we may refer to a natural sent immt of admiration or gratitude, which leads men to associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which particularly attracts their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which seems to procure for them some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon, and the stars; such are parents in view of their children, and children in that of their parents; persons who have either in- vented or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinguished themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared ihf. land of robbers, enemies to public repose; in short such are all who, by some viri.te or by some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It will be readily perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, has given rise to all those demigods and heroes A'hom Fable lias located in the heavens, , by associating, with the person and under the narine of a single individual, aciions widely separated in respect to time, place, and person." — Cf. P. V. *?> 222. 4. § 6, The advantages of an acquaintance with mytholoory are many. One g* the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient philosophy, re- licrion, and history, is the better understandintr it enables one to obtain of the Greek and Roman writers and of the works of their artists. It is obviously ne- cessary to the cultivation of classical learrrino-, which is of such acknowledged importance in modern education. — Cf. P. IV. § 29. On the benefi's of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract ivomKullin, as cited under the last section. 1. "It apprizes us hovv much we are indebted to Jesiis Christ the Savior, who has rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful light of the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men? Even the wisest and most upright men, those celebrated philosopl>ers, those great politicians, those renowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome? In a word, what were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the most enlightened? Fal)le informs u-^. They were the blind worshipers of some demon, and bowed 'he knee before gods of gold, silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues, deaf and mute. They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. Thev did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuour J'jno, a 86 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason to hold the first rank among tlie gods. — :See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves should have been, had not the light of the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in Fable, every circumsiance m the hie of the gods, ought at once to fill us with confusion, admiration, and gratitude. 2. " Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to us the absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of Paganism, it may inspire us with new respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its morals. Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishop «, in order to render idolatry odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the eyes of the pubHc, all which was found in the interior of a temple that had been demolished ; bones of men, limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other ves- tiges of the sacrilegious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the effect which the study of Fable must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; and this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of the Christian religion. I'he great work of St. Augustin, entitled 'The City of God, which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same lime a proof of what I now advance, and a perfect model of the manner in which profane studies ought to be sanctified." " This bishop was Tfieophihis of Alexandria ; respecting whom, see Murdoch's Translation of Mosheim, i. 392. We would here refer to a very atiie and interesting treatise by Tholvck, on The nature and moral influence of Heathevism amonpr the Greeks and Romans. — "Whosoever," says Tholiick, "stands on a lofty mountain should look not merely at the g;oid which the morning suri pours on tlie grass and flowers at his feet, hut he should sometimes also look behind him into the.di^ep valley where the shadows still rest, that he may the tuDre sensibly fe^l that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it is also salutary for the disciples of Christ, at times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a glance over the dark stage, where men play Cheir part in lonely gloom, without a Savior, with- out a God :" See a translation of Tholuck's Treatise by Prof. Emerson, in Sill. Repository, vol. ii. 3. " Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the under- standing of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading which a per- son is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of poets merely, whose natural language is Fable ; it is ofien employed also by orators, and it fur- nishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among many others, is that drawn from the story oi' Medea, in the speech of Cicero {Pro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the sub- ject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 4. " There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated by a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. 1 hese are so many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their interpretation." It should be added, that mythology, at the same time, itself re- ceives new light from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that these two branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other. § 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern countries, and having derived her religions notions particularly from Egyptians and Phoi- nicians, the origin of most of the Greek deities is to be sought in the religious nistory of those countries and nations. But many changes took place, and this original derivation vi'as greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, who wished to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit of their whole re- ligious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter the names of the primitive gods. Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many points of resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India. See Karl Ritter, Die Vorhatle Enroplischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodotus nni den Kaukasus iind an den Gesladen iles Pontus. Berlin, 1830. 8. Cf. Kennedy, as cited § 12. 2. (f ). Also Moore and Maurire, as there cited. Also the Works of Sir Wm. Jones, cited ^ i5. 4 On the influi-nce of the Phoenicians, &c. on tie early culture of the Greeks, cf. P. IV. § 40-42 ; P. V. § 12 On the changes successively wrought in the mythology of the Greeks, Mayo, vol. iii. p. 1 3, as cited § 12. 2. (a). § 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence of its Gre- cian descent, beincr in scarcely any part of it a native growth, but borrowed chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Romans likewise changed, not only in many cases the names of the gods, but also the fictions of their story, and the rites of their worship. They also derived some notion? and usages from the Etrurians. (Cf, P. IV. § 109.) All the religious conceptions rind inslitntions of the Romans were closely interwoven ^viith their civil policy, dnd on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system eanly, strength, and dignity. Tliey also regarded tliem as being of much larger size than hien ; for in those times great size was esteemed a iierfection both in man and woman, and consequently was supposed to he an aitriliute of their divinities, to whom they ascribed all perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the placeof blood in Ihe veins of Ihe gods Tiiey were not capable of death, but they might i)e wounded or otherwise injured. They could make them- selves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms of men or of animals as it suited their fancy. Uke men, they stood in daily need < f food and slee(). The meat of the go,ds was called Ambrosia (^duPpoaia), their drink Nectar (fCKTap). The gods, when they can)e among men. often partook of their food and hospitality. " Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They married and had chihiren, just like mortals. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth ; and these love-tales form a large portion of Grecian mythology. " To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their deities all human passicvns, both good and evil Tliey were capable of love, friendship, grati- tude, and alt the benevolent affections ; on the f>ther hand. the\ were frequently envious, jealous, and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from man- kind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro- cessions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect. " The abode of Ihe gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such as Homer and Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate of clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unf Ided its valves t(t permit the passage of the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may term it, was regulated on the same principles as a Grecian city of the heroic ages.- The inhabitants, who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their separate dwellings ; but all, when summoned, repaired to ihe palace of Jupiter, whither also came, when called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the under world. It was also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods feasted each day on am- brosia and nectar; which last precious beverage was handed round by the lovely gf>ddess Hebe ( Yuufh), — maid-servants being the usual attemlants at meals in Ihe houses of the Grecian princes in early times. Here Ihey conversed of the affairs of heaven and earth; and as they quaffed their nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them with the tones of liis lyre, to whii h the Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, the gods retired to sleep in their res{»ectivp dwellings. " The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day in their chariots drawn by celestial steeds throtigh the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." {Kiif^laley, p. 14-17.) § 12 t. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes specified, we will, in accordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references io the sources of information on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and then giving the titles to more modern works. 1 u. Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch upon, mythological subjects ; although these are tmt by any means treated in the same manner in the different kinds of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. We have ()roperly vnjihic poetry in iheTheogony of Hesiod and the Cassandra of Lycophron (P. V. $67), the Metamorphoses of" Ovid, and in two poems of Clatidian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. V. $ 3b6).— Many histo- rians have introduced into their narratives mythological traditions, withoiu presenting them, however, as fully entitled to credence, while they have also recorded much that appertained to the worship r)f the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodfitus, Uiodorns, Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny, may be mentioned particularly —There were also ancient writers who niade mythology their theme, or treated the subject more at length ; as, among the Greeks, Jipollodorus, Conon, HeplitEstiov, Purthevias, Jlrtlvviiivs, Liberulis, Falaiphalus, Heracli- (Its, Phvrvvtus (P. V. $ 221 ss) ; among the Romans, Hyirimis and Fi/l^revtius (P. V. $502ss). Notices oB this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writers of the church, and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 2?<. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject more at large, others more compendiously ; some present the subject in an alphabetical order; there are also works accompanied with plates and drawings for illustration. (a) TKe following are some of the works whicti go into more fu'.l details ;n the whole subject, or on particular parts. Lit. Grtg. HymlJi, His'oriae Ueor. Genlil Syntagmata xvli. Bas. 15-lS. fol. Also in his Qpp. Omn. (ed. /. Jcnsiw). Lugd. Hat. 16' 6. fnl. yuic. Cartari. le imaeini degli dei degl antlchi. Lion. 1581. 4 A'.GO in Latin, I.ujd. \h%\. 4. oft. repr Nalabs Comttxs Mythologiae s. Explicationis Fabularuni librl X. Gen. 16.51. 8. . ■ Gtrh.. I. V tiius, De thenlngia (ientili el physiologia Christiana, i. le uridine et progressu idclatria; libri IX. ' Anist. 166**. fol. j)nt. Biiiier, La mylholngie et Irs fabje.i expliquees par I'liis- oirc. Par. 1738-10 8 vols. 12. In German, wiih additions by I. .i.S'hle^et And J. M Schrnckh Lpz. 1735 65 5 vols 8. In R.-zlisb a-i/i^er. >lv I hology of Ihe Ancient." Lxjnd. 1739. 4 vols. 8. R. Mayo. System of Mythology. Philad. 1815. 4 vols. 8. F. t'icM2cr> Symbol ik nnd Mythologieder Allen Volker, beson- der? der Griechen. I^pz II:;19-21 4 Bde. 8 3d improved ed. commenced 1836.— Same (abridged) t))r G. .ff.JV/osfr. Lpz 1822.8. Cfi. ./9. Loltck, Aglaoidianius, sive de Theologige niysticseGrse- corum causis. ReginH ntii (Knningsberg), 1S..'9. 2 vols 8. op. posing some nf the views of Creuzer : it h is been highly coiu- mended. J. H Voss, Aiitisymbolik StuHg. 1824. 8. O Hermann. De .Mjtholo^ia Giaecorum antiquissinia. 1817. G. Hiriitrnin and F. Vreuzar, Briefe Uber Houier und Hesiodu*. Heidelb. 1818. 8. G. Hirniamt. Brief- Uber das VVesen und die Brhindlung dei Mytholoiie. Lpz. 1819. 8. J. Jl. Kuime's My hologie der Griechen. Lpz. I'-Co. 8.— Bi GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 89 MMtK, erste Urkundendtr fjeschichte, oder allgemeine Mytholo- |ie. Baireuth, 1808. 2 Bde. 8. — By same, Pautheoii der alteslen Katurphilosophie aller Volker. Tub 1811. 8. J. L. Hug, Untersuchungen ilber d. Mythos d. berUhmtern Volker d. alt. Welt, vorzaglich d. Griech. Freyb. 1812. 4. K. O. MUller, Prolegomena zu eiuer wissenschaftlichen My- thologie. Gotlingen, 1825. 8. Butlmann, Mythologus. Berl. IS28. 2 vols. 8. S. A. L. Richltr, Phantasien des Alterthunis, oder Samm. . myth. Sagen der Hellenen, Romer, &c. Lpz. 1708-20. 5 Bde. S. We may add J. Sryant's New System of Mythology. Lend. 1807. 6 vols. 8. Dupuis, Origlne de tous les Cultes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8. R. P. Knight, Inquiry into the symbolical Language of Ancient Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of ihe Classical Juurnal. Count de Gebelin, he Monde Primitif. Par. 1774-87. 9 vols. 4. explaining fables, traditions, symbols, and language. GttigjitauJ, Religions de I'Anliquite. Far. 1825-30. 4 vols. 8 Constarit, De la Religion. Par. 1826-31. 5 vols. 8. {b) More compendious treatises, or manuals. C. T. Damm, Mythologie der Griechen und Romer (ed Leve- tow). Berl. 1820. 8. with plates. M. G. Hermann, Handbuch der Mythologie aus Hon er und riesiod. Berl. 1787-95. 3 vols. 8. — By same, Mythologie der Griechen, fJr die obern Klassen, &.C. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8. K.Ph Moritz, Gotterlehere, oder mythol. Uichlungen der Alten. Berl. 1819. 8. with plates. Also transl. by C. F. Jdger, N. York, 1830. 12. wi!h plates. Same work in English, Mythological Fictions of Greeks and Romans. 12mo. Fr. Ramlach, Abriss einer Mythologie filr KUnstler. Berl. 1796. -2 vols. 8. C. A. Bottiger's Grundrisse zu Vorlesungen Qber die Mytholo gie. Dresd. 1808. 8. — By siime, Amalthea oder Museum d. Kunslmylhologie und bildl. Alterthuniskunde. Leipz. 1821. F. Fiedler, Mythologie der Griechen und Italischen Volker. Hal. 1823. Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon; containing the Mythological systems of the Greeks and Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. wilh p'ates. FaZ^j/'i Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1832. 18. very brief. C. K. Dillaway, Roman Antiquities and Ancient Mythology. Bost. 1812. 12. T. Kcightley, Myth, of Greece & Italy, 2d. ed. Lond. 1838. 8. (c) Dictionaries of Mythology. B. Hederich, Mythologisches Lexicon (ed. I. J. Sckwabe). Lpz. 17T0. 8. P. F.A. M7sc/!,Neues mythol. WOrterbuch (ed.i^. G. Klopfer). Lpz. 1821, 2 vols. 8. K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. WOrrerbuch fUr SchUler. Berl. 1817. 8 /. G. GniLer, Worlerbuch der altklassischen Mythologie und Aeligion. Weim. 1810. 3 vols. 8. ". C. Chompre, Dictionnaire abrege de la fable. Par. 1818. 12. Fr. Nnel, Dictionnaire de la fable, ou Mytholosie Grecque, Latine, Egyptienne, Celtique, Persanne, Indienne, Chinoise, &c. Par. 1823. 2 vols. . IVm. Holwe.ll, A Mythological Dictionary, &c. (Extracted from /. BryanVs New System or Analysis of Ancient Mytholo- gy.) Lond. 1733. 8. Bell, Nev/ Pantheon. Lond. 1790. 2 vols. 4. Encydopedie Methodique, the part entitled Antiquifes, Mytho- ogie, Chronologie, &c., which part consists of 5 vols. 4. Par. 1786, S8. Biot^raphie Universelle, partie Mythologique. Far. 1832. vols. 8. (d) The following works contain plates illustrating the sub- jects of mythology, accompanied wilh explanations. Bernard de Moulfaucon, L'Antiquile expliquee et represente* en figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5, fol. Supplem. Par. 1724 5 vols. fol. Translated into English by David Humph ttyi. Lond. 1721. 5 vols. fol. with Supplement, 2 vo s. fol. Joach. von Sandrart, Iconolngia deorum. NUrnb. 1680. «c!, Spence's Polymetis, or an inquiry concerning the agreemeat between the works of the Roman poets and the remains of the ancient'artists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol. Le Temple des Miises, a superb folio. D. Bardon, The Usages, religious, civil, &c., of the Ancienti Lond. 4 vols. 8. A. Hirl, Bilderbuch fUr Mythologie, Archiiologie und Kunsl Berl. 1805-16. 2 vols. 4. A. L. Millin, Galerie myihologique, ou Recueil des mi nu mens pour servir a I'etude de la mythologie, de I'histoire «ia I'art, &c. Par. 181 i, 2 vols. 8. containing correct pictures ot about 800 ancient monuments — Trans. Germ, by Tblhen. A. H Petiscus, Der Olymo, Oder Mylhologie der M%ypl'T, Griechen mid Rimer. Berl. 1837. 8. 6th ed. (e) The impressions on ancient gems are of much service >a illustrating mythology, to which part of the subject belong the following works: A. C. Klausing, Versuch einer mythologlschen Daktyliothek far SchUler. ' Lpz. 1781. 8. (with 120 neat impressions of en graved gems.) T. F. RoMs mythologische Daktyliothek. NUrnb. 1805 (wilt 90 impressed models of engraved stones). Also LipperCs Daktyliothek (P. IV 5 210). One thousand o! his impressions belong to mythology The gems of which IVtdgewood ardBentley have given im.ita tions, pertain, many of them, to mythology ; as also those ol rame (P. IV. §210) (/) Here we may name likewise some works on the Mythe logy of other nations besides the Greeks and Romans. Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. Rhode, Ueber die religiose Bildung der h.ndus. Lpz. 1827. 2 vols. 8. Kennedy, Researches into the Nature and Altiaity of Ancieul and Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Researches. Maurice, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vois. 8. IVard's View of the History, Literature, and Religion of lh( Hindoos. Mont g. Martin, Hist, and Antiquities of Eastern India. Lond. 1838. 3 vols. 8. with some good plates illustrating Hindoo my- thology. C. Coleman, Mythology of the Hindus. Lond. 1S32. 4 with plates. Hager, Pantheon Chinols (or Parallel between Ihe relig ."i worship of the Greeks and the Chinese). Par 1810. 4. Cf Cliss Joiim. i. 178. J. C. Prichard, Analysis of Egyptian Myinology ; in whfch the superstitions of the ancie_* Egyptians are compared .vith those of the Indians and ether nations ot antiquity. Lond. 1819. 8. also 1839, with preliminary essay by Von Schlegel ; and plates. Nyerup, WOrterbuch der Scandinavian Mythologie. Copenl iai6. 12. E Davies, Mythology and Rites of the British Dniidn. Lond. 1809. 8.. J^ M Kemble, Saxon Mythology. Cf. Brhl. Repos. xi 247. For some remarks on the resemblance of Ihe rtiythplogy of tc« Middle Ages to the Classical, cf. Editorh J reface to iVartO'\\ Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol. i. p. 25 is. ed. Lond. IS24. £fe l# <» en ■^ >; c = &j Z !«.5 0^ — ex ~ - r- ^ c: III 51 < aj al-'-sJ c ^ ' — ' V i; c - 5- i-'w > C £ 3J ^;^ = W i- ^■' « — CO >» . 1) ■^ z c i - H E '"' - •r "c a = o ■" ^iS l| 2:-;| i2^-= =^5 ^-^E^U C *= =73 0) 5 — — ^ («■*- ,„'■;; 9^ c •- ■ ■ C N 0- . C — ^ . o) 'r . s •- cs -c C " > '- ^TS ai C ^ w s! E ~ _ ID « ~ c S-S E c ■J •c i> rt c B ?! s. rt — 0) £ ** — o — « le 1- a < a> ::i X n -o £ « u ^^ o as 3 >- H „ 'i PU .— ^ <- M § r/}' J £ 1;; B cc »- J-" sj oj o) ^ 2 ij r^ r- r- r- i ^ O »S5 o ai - oj ^ « g ^ p. n. SUPERIOR GODS. SATURN. d\ I. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. § 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated Superior Go(/s, are the followino; : Saturn, Kpovoj, Xpo^-oj, Saticrnus j Janus; Hhea or Cybele, 'Pia, 'Pft'a, KviSh^r^; Jupiter, Zav$; Juno, 'Hpa; Neptune, UoasLSCjv Neptunus ; Pluto, IlTtorrtdv ; Apollo, 'ATtoxXuv ; Diana, ^'Aprf/^tj; Minerva, Iltt/'.Xaj; Mars, ^'Ap-/?$ ; Venus, 'A^poSJr?; ;' Vulcan, "Hqjato-roj, Vidcanus i Mercury, 'Ep^-^j, Mercurius ; Bacchus, Atoi^uooj; Ceres, Ajj^ua^r-z/p ; Vesta, Ecrta. § 14. (I) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, called Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. He was said to be the son of Uranos and Titaea^ i. e. the heavens and the earth, and to have possessed the first government of the universe. His wife was Rhta, who was his sister. vSaturn and his five brethren were called Titans, probably from their mother; Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the govern- ment of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers ; yet pledged himself to rear no male children; accordingly he is represented as de- vouring his sons as soon as born. § 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, escaped, through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him stones to devour in- stead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recovering his throne, after he had been driven from it by his brothers the Titans and bound ia Tartarus. But soon he made war himself upon Saturn, and seized the govern- ment. According to Roman fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called Saturnia), and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets assigned to the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly cieated, is the basis of this story. Hes. Op. et Di. vs. 199 — Kt>?. Mo, viii. 319.— Ou. Metam. i. 89-1 12. § 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signifying time (;^pdi/oj), he has been considered as designed to personify time, and the first cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, as well as the story of his devouring his children, seems to have some reference to the idea of time, as satiated only by the destruction of what it has produced. 1 u. This name, however, may have been given Iroin the idea of fertility or produc- tiveness, as he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Sa- turnus is derived from Satiir, signifying /«/Z, satialed, and a\so fertile. Saturn is termed Sator, Vitisalor, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or scythe), StercuUniis or Stercutius (having taught the fertilizing uses of manure), Canus and LeucanlJies {XevKavdrn). 2. Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. i. ^ 5. — •' Samrn was not unknown to the ancient Ger- mans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Ssatur ; who is described as standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of water hlled with fruits and flowers." HolwelVs Diet, cited § 12. 2 (c). § 17. It was once customary to oflfer to vSatnrn human sacrifices, particularly amongr the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy.— ^ His principal temples among the Greek were at Olympia, and at Drepanum in Sicily, 'i'he temple of Saturn in Rome served also the purpose of a treasury, in memorial, perhaps, of the general security and the community of goods in the Saturnian or golden age. The chief festival of thi? deity was the Satur" nalia of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (rifToopta) of the Thessalians, devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality. 1. The custom of sacrificing cliildren to Saturn seems to identify him w'Mh Moloch, i\\e Phoeni- cian idol, to whom the a|i(istate Israelites sacrificed their offspring. See Jahn, Bibl. Arch. § 211. — Diod. Sic. xx. 14. — Morin, and Frerel, Des victimes humaines, Mem. Acad. Insar. vols i. and «viii. — Origin of huniin sacrifices. Class. Joum. xiv. 3V2. xvii. I(M. 2u. Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe or sickle m one hand, and often in the other a serpent with its tail in its mouth in the form ol r circle, bo'h emblems of time. There are, however, but few ancient monuments C this dei'v PLATE XI. 92 p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RUE A OR CYBELE. 93 S. In oar Plate X. fig. 1, he appears in a sitting posture, with a sort of sickle in one hand. In the Sup. Plate 3, he appears with the scythe, a long heard, and wings. — He is also thus described : "a decrepit old man, with a long beard and hoary head; his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk ; his nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand holds a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour." § 18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Rontians. They represent hin:i as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning- over the earliest and so- called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus that Saturn fled, and under them was the golden age, a period of uninterrupted peace. To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which was always open in time of war, and was closed with much 'solemnity, when- 3ver there was general peace in the Roman empire; a thing which happened but three times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. P. 1. § 60). From this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the month was sacred to him. 1. He was considered Jis the inventor of locks, doors, and gates, which are then'": called ;a?j?/ffi. His name was applied to structures which were sometimes erected on the Roman roads where four roads divided ; a sort of gateway with an arch openmg in each of the directions, and called a Janus. He was termed Father, and sometimes God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus, and oblations were made to liim, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original name was Djunus or Dianusi which some have derived from dies, day. He is called the Sun, and was the Su?i-god or God of the Year, of the original inhabitants of Italy. The story of his friendly reception of Saturn is by some explained as referring to the agreement be- tween the old inhabitants of Latium and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two gods in common. — Janus was not received among the gods of the Greeks. 2?/. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also called PatulciuSy Clusius, Con- sivius, Custos, and Claviger. 3. The representation .with two faces in Plate XL fig. 8, and in Sup. Plate 3, gives fiis appearance on a number of consular coins. In Plate VII., on his temple, he ap- pears with four faces. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos is repre- iented with four heads. See Plate XII. — — Janus is also represented with a key in one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to refer to the 12 months of the year. His statue erected by Numa is said to have had its fingers so composed as to signify 365, the number of days in a year. § 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife and sister of Saturn, was Bkea or Ops. Yet the history and worship of Cyhek were after- wards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, that both were considered th«! same person, and although Rhea was said to be the daughter of Earth, were each taken for Gaia or Tel/us, and often called Vestn., and the great mother of gods. The origin of Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her. Cybele, properly speaking, lived later; and was, aticording to tradition, a daughter of Maeon a king of Phrygia and Lydia; or according to others, in an allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her invention of various musical instruments, and her love for ./?/?/ .s, a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered her frantic, are the most prominent circumstances of herhistory. Ovid, Fast. 4. 22Z.—Catulhis, de At.et Ber. Besides the names above mentioned, she'was called Mater Dyndymena, Bere- cynthia, and Ideea, Pessinuntia, and Bona Dea. § 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as inhabited and fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was represented. 1 u. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, v»'ith a turreted mural crown on her head. Often she was borne in a chariot drawn by lions; some'imes she rested upon a lion. 2. On gems, she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine. Such is her appearance. Plate X. fig. 2, taken from Moiitfiucon. In the Sup. Plate B. she sits in a chair, with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. — She was also formed with many brrasts, with a key or keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, and frequently with two lions under her arms. In Sup. Plate b. is a remarkab'r. reorti sentation, given Vy Montfaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p. 18). Cf. P. IV. s^ 15fi. 2. 94 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. A figrure in silver with some parts (ilcited witli ijnld, ;ind the whole elegantly fiiii^ihed, repre scnting Cybcle, was found at iMacon (Kncieiii jyiaiii-cti) on the Saoiie, in 17b4. Tills was puljlished by Courit Caylus, vol. vii. pi. 71 — Aatuoiis h niprieie — Banter, sur les stalues de Cybele, in the Mein- icad. Inscr. vol v. p. 241. § 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but spread thence through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was exceedingly tumulttious, as her priests (called Corybanles or Galli, and the chief one Jtrchi'gallus) went about with clamorous music and singing, acting like madmen and filling the air with the mingled noise of shrieks, bowlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and spears. 1 u. The removal of her image from.Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The lestival called 3£egalesia (from ntydXn, the great mother) was maintained in her honor, I.iv. Hist. 29. to, II, 14.— Kdi. Max. 8. 15. 2. The place called Pessinus was said to have derived its name from Ucctiv, iofa.ll, because it was the spot upon which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled Ancile and Palladinm sent down from Jupiter. At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar ; the ma- gistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and strangers usually assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess through the streets of the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated in a similar manner, and attended with many indecencies. 3, There appears to be a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pran-iii, the goddess of nature among the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions," and her festival la attended with the beating of drums. See Moore's Hindoo Fantlieon. — Coleman's Mythology of the Hindoos. § 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the gods was called by the Greeks Zsv?, by the Romans Jupiter. It would seem, that by this god was originally represented nature in general ; afterwards, the superior atmosphere ; and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history of Crete were incorporated among the traditions respecting him. He was a sop of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his father of his kingdom, and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune received the sea, Pluto the infernal world, and himself the earth and heavens. The giants, sons of the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to scale Olympus, but he defeated them with thunderbolts forged by- the Cyclops. Enraged by the corruption and wickedness of men, he destroyed the whole ace by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and Pyrrha alone escaped. The supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years B. C. Ovid, Melam. i. 131, 260.— Claudian's Gigaiitomachia Cf. P. V. § 386. § 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a mountain of Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant serenity of its summit, represented as a suitable place for the abode of the gods. (Cf. § 11.) — His first wife was Metis, whom he destroyed, because it was foretold him, that she would bear a child that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the goddess Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, Themis^ he begat the Horse and the Parcae. — The third and most celebrated was Ju7io, by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan. — Tradition, particularly the tales respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors of Jupiter; e. g. with Eu- ropa', Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele^ and lo^ Apollo, Mer- cury, Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods were called the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter, however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity and rank, and not intended to imply literal relationship. 1 Ovid, Metani. ii. S-36 2 /i ijj. 2- 5. 3 [b. \. 5S8 § 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numerous temples were erected to his honor. The largest and the most celebrated in Greece was that in Olympic in Elis, remarkable for its own magnificence, and for its coloesai •statue of Jupiter wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its vicinity every fifth year. ' His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was renowned (cf, P. HI. §-71), and considered the most ancient in Greece. — In Rum« the Capitol was specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city manv temples. p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. JUNO. O.'S 1 u. Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a thunderbolt in his right hand, and in his left a long sceprer resembling a spear ; and the eagle, sacred to him, standing near, or, as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended wings. 2. The representation in the Sup. Plate 2 corresponds to the above description. — The eagle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. Jupiter is also spoken of as wearing '' golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various nowers and figures of animals.'* — In the Sup. Plate 1 we have his appearance in a noble statue, from Speiice' s P ol y me tis --In thestatue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig^ 3) he is presented as " sitting upon his throne, his left hand holding a scepter, his right extending victory to the Olympian conquerors, his head crowned with olive, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts, and flowers. The four corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by a sphinx tearing in pieces a Theban youth." On the Olympian statue, see Flaxman's Lect. p. 87, as cited P. IV. § 191.— Qualr. de Quiiicy, cited P. IV. § 160. 3. As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the horns of a ram. Such was the statue at his temple in Libya (cf. P. III. "^i 71). Thus he appears in the Sup. Plate 29. On ceremonial occasions, and when the oracle was consulted, this statue, sparkling with precious stones, was borne in a gilded I arge on the shoulders of twenty- four priests moving (it was pretended) just where the god impelled them, followed by a troop of women singing hymns. But the most .singular representation is that given in the Sup. Plate 10, exhibiting Jupiter Pluvialis, as found in a bas-rehef at Rome, designed to commemorate his in- terposition in sending rain on a certain occasion. § 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles deftVed from circum- stances of his history, or the places of his worship. 1 II. The Greeks termed h"m Zevi, and applied to him various epithets, as the Idcsaii (6 'MaTuj). Olytnpic ('OXtj//n-tK-ds), DodoJicEOJi (Awcwi/aTos), thiutderer {KEoavvins), deliverer {e^evBspios). hosvilahU (|£J"os), punlsher of the perjured {ooKiui), &c. The Romans styled him Oplimus Maxiyntis, Capitolinus, Sfator. Diespiter, Ftrefrius, &c. As the avenger of crime, he was called also Vtjovis or Vediits ; yet some consider these as names of another distinct divinity: and others take them lor names of Pluto. 2. Among the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following; from his sending roin, oixSptu^, venog, vecpE^riyeosTrii, oocivecpfig ; from his darting thunder, dcrre- poKTjrfis, Ppoi/TaTos. TepiTLKepavfos ; from his protection of suppliants. iKeaios, iKerFatoi. The Romans also called him sometimes I?ive?ifor. Elicii/s. Latidl'i!^, Sponsor. Victor. Plu- vialis. — His Latin nanie Jupiter is from Zeti Ylartp, Z being changed into J. From Zstj (in Doric Serf? and ^olic ^^vi) came also probably the Latin Deus. The word is by some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source of life from. ^'iw. 3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of tne various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from many different personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in the descent of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When the different tales are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic ornament, and philosophical allegory. 4. 5ir JVilliam .Tuves, with much ingenuity and learning, ha= attempted to show that the Greeks and Romans etn!)0(lied in their Jupiter tlte special attrihiites which the Hindoos ascribe disti'ic- riveiy to the three divinities of their lainuiis triad, n-Ame. A Brahma, Vishnu, and Sira. In esse.i- tial attributes, Brahma is said to he the creator. Vishnu the preserver, and 8iva the destroyer and re-producer. Each of these offices is ascribed to.Iiipiter in tlie classical fables, acconlinj; to Sir Wiijiain. — The Elindoo deitie.s are given in our Plate XII. as usually seen in Bengal : Brahma with four faces and four hands, holdins a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a Veda or Hindoo sacred book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hai'ds, in one of which is a sort of ring or discus, which is said to send out flames of fire when twirled on his finuer, and in the others a shell used for a trum|)et, a sort of clul), and a lotus ; Siva, having a trident in one hand and a rope in another for binding ofTemiers, with setpents for iiis ear-rings, and a string of human heads for his necklace. He has a third eye in his forehead. It is worthy of iDtice, that the IIind>)o fables represent Vishvu as assuming diflr-Tent forms i»y successive incarnations, in the e.xercise of his attributes as preserver. Ten incarnations, or Jtraiars. are specially designated. These are represented by tlie leu engravings in our Plate XHI. "All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets'; with rays encircling their heads; jewels in their ears: two neckl.ices. one strai^rht and one pendant on their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of niany-cidored flowers, or colhirs of pearls, haiis- ing down below their waists ; loose mantles of irolden tissue or dyed silk, embroidered on Ilieit hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder; with bracelets on one arm and on each wrist; they are naked to the waists, and uniformly with dark azure flt^sh ; but their skirls are bright yellow, the color of the curious pericarpium in the centre of the water-lily ; they are Fomeiimes drawn witli that flower in f)ne hand; a radiated elliptical rins. used as a missile we-tpon, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinum. in a tliird ; and a mace nr bal- tle-axe. in a fourth." Nine ot" these incarnations ihe Hindoo tales describe as bavins alreadj occurred. The ievtii is to take place at some future period, tvhen Vishnu will descend from heaven on a white winged horse, and will introduce on earlh a siolilen ase of virtue atid (>- nee.— It should be remarked in this connection, that Crishna is celebrated in Hindoo mythology as %p 96 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGV. incarnate deity. According to Sir Wtn. Jones, lie is considered distinct from all the Avatars lliese had only a portion of the divinity; "while Cri.- ///. iii. 156. 5 Iliad, xv. 15, 18. § 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her temples and festivals was very great. Her worship was especially cultivated in Argos, Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and (Carthage, cities which committed themselves particularly to her protection. In Elis were games, every fifth year, sacred tc her, called 'llpata. This was the name also of her great festival celebrated al Argos and other places, which was likewise called txaro^ti/^ota, because it was customary on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome, called Junonia and Junona' lia. From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called among the Romans Jummes. The Roman women took their oaths in her name, as the men did in the name of Jupiter. Both Greeks and Romans honored her as the protectress of marriage. — The Romans dedicated to her the month of June^ named' after her.- — She is often described by the poets as the Queen of gods and men. 1 Ovid, Fast. vi. 26. 1. Juno had a great variety of names; as Argiva, Cingnla, Egeria, Jnga (Zvyia)^ Lucinia or Lucina., Moneta_, Nuptialis (TaMr/Xta), Opigefia, Popvlonia, Sospila, Uuxia, &c. 2 u. Her daughters were Hebe, goddess of youth ; and Ilifhyia, who presided over births. Her messenger and servant was Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. 3. Hebp was employed to hand ronnd the nectar at the feasts of the gods. Her office of cup- bearer afterwards fell to Ganymedes. When Hercules was admitted to Olympus. Hehe hecatno his spouse. — In fig. 4, PI. XIV. she is represented as pouring out the nectar, with the bird of Jove liy her side. — In the beautiful design presented in the Sup. Plate 7, she is also seen pouring out the drink of the gods. § 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness and jealousy of Juno in their representations of her. Annong the symbols of her attributes, the most remarkable was the peacock, held as sacred to her; and found by her side in many figures. Sdmetimes her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She was frequently represented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, often contain the Empresses exhibited as Junes. 1. She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron; usually wilh a sceptre n her hand, and a veil on her head ai:d a crown decked with flowers; ponietimes she has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is some- times at her feet. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 1. In the Sup. Plate 2, are seen two pea''ocks and the chariot, with Iris flying above.' — Homer exhibit.5 her in a chariot adorned wi'h gem^, having wheels with brazen spokes and naves of silver, and horses with reins of gold.- But generally she is represented as drawn by peacocks in fi golden cnariot. 2. The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the meaning. »»t3'^hed to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typifying, oi PL ATP, XII. 98 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. n.legorically representing, the active productive power in nature, Juno is aie passtve. Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories. § 29. (G) Neptune. The g-overnment of the waters of the earth was, in the division of authority already mentioned (§ 22), assigned to the brother o( Ju- piter, called IlooftStov, or Nepiune. The idea of a god ruling the waters arose froin the surprise of the first observers of the power of that element; even be- fore Neptune, Oceanus, son of the heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, was honored as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune. 1. A statue dug up at Rome about the sixteenth century, represents Oceanus as an old mafi sitting on the waves of the sea, with a sceptre in his hand, and a sea-monster by him. On an ancient gem he is represented in a similar manner. In our IMate XLllI. he appears in a recum- bent posture. 2 u. The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of Nereus or Oceanus and Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish vvitif a place among the cons'ellations. 'J he principal sons of Neptune were I'riton, Pborcus, Proteus, and Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these minor deities ot the sea were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The daughters of JNereus and Doris were the so-called Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in number. They belonged to the. train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. § 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assist- ance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans; the building of the walls and ramparts of Troy ; the creation and taming of the horse ; the rais- ing of the island Delos out of the sea ; and the destruction of Hippolytus by a monster from the deep. He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and deluges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his trident. The fol- lowing are some of his many names and epithets; ''Ac^d^LOi, upholding the earth; 2ft(jt;f^cdv, earth-shaker ; "irtTiao^., Petraeus, Co7isus. 1. Various etymologies have been given of the name UoaEiScJu and Neptune. Tho latter is by some derived from Ntibo, because the water covers or conceals the earth; the former from TofJ? and <5£w, as Neptune binds the feet, that is, man cannot walk on the water. But such speculations cannot be relied on. The government and pro- tection of ships was committed to him. He also presided over the horse, which was sacred to him, and over horse-races; at the liesiival of the Consualia all horses were allowed to rest from labor. 2 u. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from Egypt, Dut Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the coasts, as presiding over their navigation. Thus at Nisyrus, on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a cele- brated temple, and also on the promontory of Taenarus. Of his temples at Rome, the most noted was that in the' ninth district (cf P. T. "^ 54), containing a suite of pictures representing the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were norses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the Romans the Neptunalia and the Consualia, which were afterwards, from the place of celebration, called Ludi Circe7ises. § 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with the dignity ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front calm and serene even in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre, with three tines, with which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters into commotion. He is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in a chariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants. The representations of Neptune are various. Sometimes he stands upright in a large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green ; as in our Plate X. fig. 5. Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. Often he is sitting in a chariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn by sea-horses; sometimes accom- panied by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLHI. His image is very frequent on coin3 and medals. He is described as having black hair and bluo eyes. Cf. Kirp. lEn. i. 124. Horn. II. xiii. 20. Firg. JEn. i. 155. Stat. Achil. i. 60.— See Fontenu, Le Culte rtes divinites iles eaux, ■s '.he Merit, .icad. I.iscr. xii. p. 27. § 32 a. (7) Pluto. He' was a second brother of Jupiter, and received, as :iis portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions, or the world of shades. Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated down V below the earth, and they represented certain d'stant and desert lands af» I'. II, SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. 99 servinor for a path and entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respect- ing Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phleg-ethon, as bein^ rivers of Hell. These regions below the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls, where after death they received rewards or punishments according to their con- duct upon earth. The place of reward was called E/i/sium ; that of punish- ment, Tartarus. 1. The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks aSm, Hades. It is iiii portant to bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New Testament, where this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes /lell, properly signifies the world of departed spirits, and includes both the place of happiness and the place of misery. Cf Luke xvi. 23. It was a part of the office of Mercury to conduct the shades of the dead in the region called Hades. Hence he is sometimes re|)resented as in the act of opening or shutting the d;)ors or gates of a tomb ; as on the monument given in Plate XVIII. fig. 4. and in the Sup. Plate 14. This figure is given in Taylor's Calmet to illustrate the expression ''Gates of Hades," in JIatt. xvi. 18. On the uieaning of the term Hades, see M. Sluarl, Exegetical Essays, &c. Ando. 1830. 12. — Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv p. 539 ^s. — Campbell, Diss, in his Transl vf tfie Gospels. 2. Departed mortals were adjudged to FMjsium or to Tartarus by the sentence of Minos and his fellow judges (cf $ 34), in the Field of Truth. — Elysium is described as adorned with beauti- ful gardens, smiling meadows, and enchanting groves; where birds ever warlile ; wliere the river Eriilanus winds lietween banks fringed with laurel, and "divine Lethe" glides in a quiet valley; where the air is always pure, and the day serene ; where the blessed have their de- lightful abode. — Tartarus is represented as a '"hideous prison of immense depth, surrounded by the miry bogs of Cocytus, and the river Phlegethon which rf)IIs with torrents of tiames," anu guarded by " three rows of walls with br4zen gates ;" here the Furies torment their wretched victims, and all the wicked suffer according to their crimes. — Virgil speaks of seven portions in the regions of the departed ; Tartarus and Elysium being the sixth and seventh. Althiuigli Elysium was considered by all as the residence of the blessed, its situation is variously stated ; some placed it in the center of the e.irth. adjoining Tartarus ; others placed il in the middle re- gions of the air ; others, in the moon ; others, in the sun ; more commonly, however, the man- sions of the blessed were said to be in the Fortunate Islands, bisula> Fortuvatce (cf. P. I. $ 1S3). — Tartarus is also variously located ; Homer places il in the country of the Cimmerians, supposed by some to have been around Tartessus in Spain, and by others to have been near Bai.e in Italy; Virgil places the entrance to it, or rather the entrance to Hades, in a cave near lake Avernus in Italy; others place the entrance at the prfunontory of Tapiiarus ; others, in 'Ihesprolia. — In the Sup. Plate 13, is a composition designed to re[)resent the Tartarus of ancient mythology. Charon in his boat, Piuto with his sceptre, and the three .ludg s a[)pear in the fore-ground, with several mortals awaiting their seiitence. Tlie Furies are lashirig two criminals just given over to their power; and various offenders are suffering their peculiar [)unisliments as narrated by the poets; for which see the history of Prometheus and others, especially L\ion and the other offenders mentioned under J 34 b. On the views of the ancients respeclhi? the state of the soul after death, cf. Homer. Od. xi.~.Sscliyltis, in his Prometheus and Persae. — Plato, in his Phsedo.^Cicero, Ue cnnienmenda nrorte, and Somniimi Scipionis — Virgil, ^.u. vi. cf Tibull El. i. 3 vs. 57 ss. — GUibart, on Virgil's JEn. vi.. In his Miscellayieovs IJ'orks — Heyne, Excursuses in his editions of Vjrgil and Homer (cf. P. V. ^ 50. 5 § 362. 4). — C. F. Xdgelsbach, Die Honierische Theolngie hi ihrem Zusammenhange. Narnb. 1S40. 8. — De Fuvrniont, L'E»fei Poetique, in the Mem. Jlaid. Inscr. vol. iii. 5. — Class. Joum. iii. 276. si. 318. ^ 32 u. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of Ilepaefpour}, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and ihe queen of the lower world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event are related fully and poetically by Claudian' and Ovid^, and furnished the ancient artists with frequent subjects for their skill in device and representation^. » De raptu Proserpinae, L. iii. — ^ Metani. v. 341. 3 See MorUfaueon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 37-41.— See also our Plate X. 1 and the Sup. Plate 14 ; in both which the seizure and abduction are represented. The name of Proserpine was sometimes applied to Diana, when considered as a goddess of the lower world. Cf $ 39. '^ 33 u. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air inenacing, terrible, and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit hini upon a throne, with a bifurcated scej tre, or a key, in his hand. A rod is sometimes put into his hard instead of his sceptri The device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring-vessel, instead of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed trom the images of Serapis. 1. He appears crowned with ebony; sometimes with cypress leaves; sometiinet. with flowers of narcissus. He is also someiimes represetited in the act of bearing off Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged dragons; such is the appearance in our Phite X. fig. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 11 he appears vviih a long heard, in a sitting posture, rest- ing his head on one hand, holding in the other a long scepire, with Cerberus at his feet. 2. He is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer invisible; like th€ magii ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cic. de Off iii. 9. Herod, i. 8). § 34 a. His worship was universal; but it was attended with s-pecial soleui nities in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia was also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated ithemselves to Pluto. 10 100 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. The victims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his prin- cipal names were Ztls Gtvyto^, Soranus, Summanus, Februus. The Greeks named him IlXovrwv as some suppose from t(Xovtos, wealth, which comes from the bowels ot the earth. The Romans gave liim the name Dis, having the same sense. He is also called "Ajij?, Orcus, Jujiiler infemus, &c. — His chief testival was in February, when the Romans offered to him the sacrifices called Februa, whence the name of the month, flis rites were performed by night or in the dark. Tiie cypress was sacred to him, branches of whicli were carried at funerals. § 34 b. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower world, Mi?ios, Rhadainanlhus, and- ^W^acua. These decided the condition of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos held th first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in Grecian history as rea persons. 1 u. At the entrance to the world of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, lav the dog Cerhe rus, a three-headed monster, that hindered the spirits from returning to the upper Vv'orld. 'l"he most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were Ixion, Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the xA-loides. 2. Charo?i is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was to con- duct the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Syx and Acheron to the realms of Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obolusi a small piece of money, it was customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the deceased before the funeral rites. Such as had not heen honored with a funeral were compelled to wander on the shore a hundred years before they could be transported. In the Sup. Plate 14, Charon is seen sitting in his boat, in the act of receiving the obelus from a mortal introduced by Mercury. 3. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing thetn the honors of burial. For this trial ail were carried across a lake in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon. Riillin, Anc. Hist. bk. i. cti. 2. sect. 2. — Of Class. Journ. vol. x.xiii. p. 7. — Bulletin des Sc'ences Historiques, vol. iv. p. 3r52. 4. There are numerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art which seem to refer to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be often sytnboiized by the figure of a pair of scales or balances, as if it were a weiirldnsr of the soul {'djvx'^'^Taa'KL); to which there may be an allusion in the prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall of Belshazzar's dining-room {Dan. v. 27). In fig. B. of our Plate XVIII. is a representation of this kind; in which we see the Egyptian balances, and a number of priests and allegorical or mythical per- sonages. This drawing is reduced from -one given in the great French worl{ s'yled Description de VEgypte, &c. ef. P. IV. § 23;. — See Mem ie VInstitut, Classe d'Histoire et Lit. Anc. vol. v. p. 84, sur la Psychostasie, ou pesee des anies, with plate. § 35. (8) ApoLro. The earliest and most natural form of idolatry was the wor- ship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splendor, light, heat, and salutary influence upon all nature, were taken as the supernatural and independent powers of a deity. Hence the ancient fiction ascribing personality to this luminary, which was worshiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Per- sians under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of Phoebus ($ot|3o?) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, considered their "Hxto? and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the history of Apollo many circumstances not connected with his original character as the god of light. The worship of the Persian Mithras C^Mithras Persiilicus"), is said to have heen introduced at Rome iti the time of Pompey ; altars being erected with the Inscription, Deo Soli invicto Mithrm — Some of the antique representations of this god are very remarkable. On the engraved stones called Jlbraxas (cf P. IV. ^ 200>, he often appears under the figure of a lion, or of a man with a lion'3 head In the ?>up. Plate 9, are two representations. 'I'he first is from a bas-relief found at Rome, about IfiflO; the image is a man draped below the loins, haviiii; two wings on each shoulder, with a head partly that of a lion, and a lighted tlambeaii in each hand; a serpent twines around his shoulders and wings, and from his mouth issues a sort of fillet or ribin, which in the original monument floats over a blazing altar. — The other is from a marble bas- relief, found at Rome in a house near the theatre of Pompey ; in this Mithras appears a vigorous young man, with a turban on his head, his knee resting on a prostrate bull ; with one hand he holds the nostrils, and with the other plunges a dagger (ncinaces) into the m'Ck of the animal ; a dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while another lies near by, a|)pareiitly harkint: ; a scor- pioi adhf res to the lower side of the bull, and a slain or sleeping serpent is stretched at his feel. The monument has several acrotnpanying images, some of which are given in the engraving, ftlthough not in their original place; two youths appear with fl;unbeaux, that of one being in- verted ; a man with a radiated head occupies a chariot with fmr horses lea|)ing in apparent fright ; in another chariot'is a woman with horns or crescents attached to her head, almost Ihrown out by (he stumbling of her horses ; denoting doubtless the sun and moon. See Monlfaiicon, Antiij. Expl, vol. i. p. 367-384. — Creuzer, Symbotik und Mythologie, &c. vol. i. p. 345 ss. — Cf. Smtt/i, D'ni )* Ao'iq. »>. fi. p. II, SUPERIOR GODS. APOLLO. DIANA. lOi § 36. According to both Greeks and Romans, Apollo was the son of Inpitei and Latona, born on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god of the sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. They ascribed to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, which he proved in killing the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The -last achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from Olympus. During his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd^ with Admetus king of Thessaly. He also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the laborers with his lyre and songs. His musical contest^ with Pan and JMarsyas js referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable circumstances m his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation^ into a laurel-tree; that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis* into a sun-flower; his friendship for Hyacinthus^, who was killed by Apollo's inattention, but changed into the flower of that name ; and for Cyparissns, also accidentally slain and changed intoatree^; the indiscreet request of his son Phaeton'', to guide his father's chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt. I Ov. Met. ii. 680. 2 vi. 3^2. xi. 146 3 Met. i. 452. * iv. 206, 256. s x. 162. s x. 106. 1 1. 750. § 37 a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both Greeks and Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he gave oracles at Didyma, Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple at Be/phi, and the oracle con- nected with it, was the most celebrated ; next in fame was that in Argos, and the one at Rome on the Palatine hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a famous library. The Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Fythian games, and the Romans those called ludi ApoUinares and the ladi secu/ares. The laurel and olive, the wolf and haw k, the swan and grasshopper, the raven, crow, and cock, were sacred to Apollo. 1 u. The following names were applied to ApoUa: CinHiius. Delius, Nomius, Fa- lareus, Fythius (RvOioi), Sminlheus, Thymbraus. 2. He had also the following names: Adftaj, Ilrttdj/, 'Eajj/JoA'^j, To^o0dpos, AA£^i«-a(cos ; Vultiiriua, EpideUus, Lycius, Delphinius, Delphicas, Adins. § 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monuments with long hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow and lyre, and a quiver on his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most celebrated monument is tlie marble statue, called the Apollo Belvidere. A view of this monument is given in our Plate XLIV. fig. 3, drawn from Winckelmann. See P. IV. $ 186. 4. Cf. Tibull. L iii. Ele. 4. v. 27. 1. " Sometimes he is painted with a crow and a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a laurel-tree on one side and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet grass- hoppers creeping." Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the .Muses: cf § 103. He also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is seen in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many monuments; here is seen also an altar with a lyre sculptured on it. — A siatue o*^ Apollo stood upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and was seen at . great distance at sea, 2. The stories respecting Apnilo resemble those in the Hindoo mytliology respecting Crisfina, who is sometimes painted in companj' with vine damsels, who are whimsically grouped into ihe form of an elepliant, nn which he sits and plays upon his flute. Crishna is also frequently repre- sented as the dt'stroyer of the great serpent ; in scmie views he is held in the folds of the serpent, which is hiiing hi< foot; in others, he holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands, and crushes its head beneath his foot. Cf. Sir Wni. Jmies, as cited § 25. A.—^natk Researches, vnl. viii. —Caimef'i Diet. &c vol. iii. p. 529 of eJ. Charlestowu, 1813. §38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, andwas born of Latona on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in Apollo the sun was deified and adored ; so was the moon (Jima, af%r;vyj) in Diana, who was called by the Greeks "Aprfutj. She was also recognised as the goddess or hunting or the chase, of which she was passionately fond in her youth. She was like- wise viewed sometimes as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the name of Hecate. As presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with arrows, and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the- grant of her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence 102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. her displeasure at the transoression of one of her nymphs, Callsto', and hei transformation of Actaeon^ into a stag-. The only one, towards whom she was not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph Chione^ from jealousy of her beauty, and the daughters of NiobC* because Latona was slighted l?y their mother. 1 Ov. Mel. ii. 464. 2 iii. 194. 3 ix. 321. ■» vi. 148-312.— Cf. Horn. II. x-^h-.—Hyg. fab. 9. Tlie Story of Niobe and lier children (cf. $ 81, $ 131), afforded to poets and artists a rich subject for the enibellishments of fancy. The nnniber of the children is variously staled ; Homer gives her six sons and as many daughters; while others say seven, and some even len. In Iht! s()len- did group of statuary c;illed J^iobe and her Children (cf P. IV. $ lb6. -i), seven sons and seven daughters are represented. Montfaiicon gives an engraving from a most beautiful antique, found at Rome, in which Apollo and Diana appear in the air discharging their arrows upon the unhappy family; the youngest daughter clings to her mother; a horse is leaping in fury upon anothnr daughter ; one son lies dead on the plain ; the other children are in attitudes of distress. . In our Sup. I'late 17, this stibject is represented in a composition, in which Amphion is intro- duced, and a concourse of the citizens nf Thebes. — A person dying by plague or pestilence waa said to be slain, if a male, by the arrows of Apollo ; if a female, by the arrows of Diana. See Montf. Ant. Exp. vol. i. p. 107. — Mayo, Mythology, vol iii. p. 109 ss. § 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, nowhere had she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3.) With this exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, especially through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal temple at Rome was that erected by Servius Tullius on Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festi- val of the ludz seculares were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she was particularly honored under the name of Lucina, d.'& presiding over births. In this view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia {iLXti^vLo)^ although this was the name (cf. § '27) of a distinct divinity. 1. The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to her goats, or a white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. 'I'he inhabitants of Taurica offered on her altar strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 2 u. Among her names were Phoebe, Cy?iihia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, Agrotera ^dyporepa)i Trivia (tpioSitis)^ from her statues being placed in crossvvays as she pre- sided over streets; Chilone ixirCivr]) -^ and Triformis {rpifiopcpos), from her threefold character as goddess of the moon or month, the chase, and the lower world. "Diana is called Trifurmis and Tergewina: first, because though she is but one goddess, yet she has three difFr'renl names as well as three ditferent otfiies : in the heavens she is called Luna ; on the earth she is named Diana ; and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in the heavens she enlightens everything by her rays ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts bj her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her byhe power and atithority: secondly, because she has. as the poets say, three heads; the head of a horse on the right side, nf a dog on the left, and a human head in the midst ; whence some call her three-headed or three-faced : thirdly, according to some, because the moon has three phases f)r shapes ; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light ; the half-moon fills a semi- , circle with light ; and the full lin)on fills a whole circle or orb with splendor." 3. Other natues or epithets were applied to her: 'Koxeia, Kwrjyds, opiaiKotToc;, lux^nip.i and '■ ^nil)6pos. § 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments of art, tall and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her feet covered with buskins, with bow and arrows, either alone, or accompanied by he nymphs; often with a hound near her: often riding in a chariot drawn by t" o white stags. In nir Plate X. fig. 7, she is seen in ber chariot drawn by stags. — In the Sup. Plate 15, she is given as represented in a beautiful statue, supposed to have come from the same hands as the Apollo Belvidere. 1. " Soiuetitues she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther in the other, wi h a cliariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different colors." 2 u As the goddess of night, or the moon, she is represented in long robes, with a Urge starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent on her head. See Plate XI,I — Cf Plate XIV. fig 2.— See $76. 3 u. We have fiaiures of the Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek itnitation of it, in which she is exhibited wi'h numerous breasts, and very similar to Isi.^. whereby the irui'fulness oi' nature seems to have been represented Montfaiicon gives several of these (igures. One of the most remark.ible is presented in our Sup. Plate Ifi; on the head of ihe siatiie is a double mural crown ; a larye festoon is suspended from the tuck, and within it are two image* of Victory; on each arm are two lions; the body tapers to the feet like a Hermes, but is diviiled into four portions, the fi Tt of »vhicli is occupied r>y numerous breasts, the second by heads of stags, and the third and fourth jy t:Lft(is of oxen. t ^v the Sup Plite 12 are three views of a statue of Diana Trifor..-,' ir(.tn Monlfauci.T TLATl': yilT. 103 104 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOG\ . presfMiiing the three faces successively; the first face on the right with a torch in each hand i Ihe next face, with a knife {cuUrum) in the right hand, and a whip {jlagellum) in the lefi; th" third, with a key in the riyht hand atid a seriteni in the left. § 41 a. (10) Minerva. Under the name rif Minerva amonor the Romans and of IlaXXaj and 'A^jyva among the Greeks, ancient fiction personified and deified the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter, sprung from his head. She is said first to have revealed herself near the lake Tritonis in Libya, from which circumstance she was called Tritonia. 1. Some derive ibis epiibet, and tlie Greek Tptrojti/fta, from the word ^-pcw signi- fying head. 2. Minerva is by some supposed to have been originally the Egvptian deity worshijied particu- larly at Sais under the name of Neith or Net ha Vari us etymnlogies of the Greek name ' kOr}vd have hi'en ijiveti ; among them is the conjecture which dt'rives it from the name of the Egyptian deity, by inverting Ihe order of the letters ; Netha {v)jOa), being thus charged, would form aOriv. § 41 b. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts and sciences', which had a great influence on their civilizat on. She was regarded as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinning, the use of the olive, and various instrunnents of war; in short, of most works indicating superiftr intelli- gence or skill. Arachne's contest with her in working with the needle, and consequent despair and transformation are beautifully described by Ovid.^ 1 Ov. Fastor. iii. 815. 2 Ov. Melam. vi. 5. § 42. The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiv- ing its name from her. The splendid temple at that place dedicated to her was called Parfhenon,^ in reference to her virgin purity {rtap^ivo^). She had other temples, at Erythrae, Tegea^, and Suniuni,^ and several at Rome. Her principal festivals among the Greeks were the Panathenaea, the greater and the less, and among the Romans, Quinqiiatria, on each of which, games and contests were held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found on her images and on the Athenian coins.*' I Respeciing (lie Parlhenm, see P. I. § 107. Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3. \ 2A2. 5 243. I. 2 On the remains of ttie temple of Suniiim, cf. Am. Quart Rev. vol. vi. p. 234. 3 See the Attic coin given in Plate XL. fig. 5. The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens : — When Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and it was resolved in the assem- bly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities found out the most useful creature to man, should give the name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse issued from the earth. Minerva caused an oZ2i;e lo spring up. The latter was pronounced the more tiseful thing, and Minerva therefore eave the city her own name, 'AOni'ii. Dr. Clarke imagines that this story had its origin from the fact, tiiat the plains of Greece were once covered or nearly so with water, which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and thus a cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants. Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. Part II. sect. ii. ch. 12. § 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a helmet, and the JE8:is^ or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's head, and with a spear and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet is generally ornamented with the figure of the owl, but presents various forms. 1. In our Plate XI. fig. 6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory, with her right resting on a round shield bearing on it a Medusa; her spear leans on her right shoulder; the JEgis is seen on her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a siiiinof posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate 20, the owl appears on one side and a cock on the other; the .^gis on her breast is here very distinct. The term mffis (diyig) signifies literally a froal-skin. Homer represents the agis as a part of .he aruior nf Jupiter, whom he distinguishes by the epithet diyioxos', yet he speaks of Minerva as using it (cf /Z. ii. 447-449. xvili. 204. x.\i. 400). 2 u. The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were tniich celebrated; the fortner on account of the perfection of its workmanship (cf P. I. ?> 107. P. IV. §§ 160, 161, 179); the latter on account of the superstitious confidence placed in it by the Trojans, Greeks, and Romans. The PaUadium was a statue of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other ihout three cubits high. It was said to h:ive fijleii from heaven into the citadel of Troy or Ilium before it wa.i completely b'uilt, and that the oracle of A[)oll() beinii consulted upon this oc- iirrencr, answered, that "t"he city should lie safe so lone hs thatimage remained within it." When the Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thnnght of the first consequence to obtain this image. Ulysses and Diomndes succeeded in L'etting it bv stealth {Vir. iF,n. ii 16"2). It was said til have been aftcrwvrds recovered from Diomedes by TEneas. carried to Italy, and finally lodgec '.» the tf-mple '^f Vesta. p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MARS. VENUS. 105 3 u. Beside? the names Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was often called Ua^df.i H,'Epya-rii, and 'Epydvr),noXias; she is also \ermed Musica, Py lot is, and very w)ften TXavKwnis or Caesia. § 44. (11) Ma-rs. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter and Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over rude ajid fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. Notwithstanding the high idea which Homer gives of the strength and heroism of Mars, he reprc' sents him as taken prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diome- des; it was, however, by the help of Minerva^ Besides these occurrences, his amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune^ respecting the son of the latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all that is re- markable in his history. i Hem. 11. V 383, 855. "^^vcillod. iii. H.—Paicsan. i. 21. § 45 a. He was most worshiped in Thrace, where probably the whole con- ception of such a god originated. He had however temples and priests in ra^st of the Grecian cities. " Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, and his worship was comparatively neglected It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; he seems to have been derived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlilve and barbarous tribe, rather than Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and probably was the same deity under another name." Tookes Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. § 45 b. The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder and protector of their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated to him a large public place, the Campus Martins, and a peculiar order of priests, the Salii, who celebrated his festival wilh music and dancing in solemn pro- cessions. 1. It was a special business o^ these priests to guard the ancilia, or sacred shields , respecting which see P. III. ^ 215.' — A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars by the Romans is still preserved ; see P. IV. ^114. 4. — To Mars was offered the sacrifice cai'ed Suovetaurilia ; a representation of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief, is give./ in our Plate XXIX. 2. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse, for his vigor; the wolf, for his .Serceness : the dog, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also offered to him on account of their greediness. § 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly vigor, with a strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, rather than vehement oi passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes naked; sometimes in the attitude of marching, as Mars Gradivus, 1. He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered with armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XI. fig. 7. Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch, drives the chariot over prostrate warriors ; such is the representation given in the Sup. Plate 10. Sometimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Dis- cord, Fear, 'I'error, and Fame. In the Sup. Plate 6, he appears as ready for marching ; with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield. 2. Bellova, called by the Greeks 'Ei/uo), is soinetiines s^id to be the wife, sometimes the sister, and sometimes the daughter of .Mars. i^We had a temple at Rome, and before it was a pillar called Bellica, over which the herald threw a spear when war was proclaimed. 3 u. Mars was called "Aprj; by the Greeks ; other names given to him are Odrysius, Strymonius, Enyalius, Thiirius, Quiri?ms, Ultor. § 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, and the love awakened by it, was in eastern tiction expressed and personified in an imaginary goddess; she was called by the Romans Venus, and by the Greeks 'A^s^obitri. According to the common story, she was born from the foam (oKppoj) of the sea; in Homer she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. After her birth she came first to Cytherea, and thence to Cyprus. — Many of the gods sought her; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse. I u. She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis e.-pecially, although with un- requited passion ; the early death of the latter she bii'erly lamen ed. Otirf. Metam x. 50P, 717 ss. — Bion, Idyl on the death of Adonis. — See also Theiicritui^ I lyl xv. whicli is a beautilul Ultlu coa-.ef** reeotinia ng the story of Adonis ; the scene is laid in Alexandria, at the lime of a festival in his honor. 10^ GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. The story respocfinsr Adonis, the young favorite of Venns, is. that beinsr engagreil in hunting, i)f which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from a wild bfiar At this Venua was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina rt^stored him to Ijft^ on condition of \\\s spendinjr si.i nn)nths with Venus and six with herself It has been expl lined thus : idonis, or Jidmiai, wag an oriental title of the sun, signifying Lord; the hoar, su'inoseii to have killed him, was ttt.' em- blem of winter, during which the [troductive powets of nature being suspended, Venus was said to lametit the loss of Adonis tintil he was resiore-d asiain to life ; whence both the Syiian and Argive wotrien annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation." — Adonis is supposf.d to be the same deity with the Syrian Taminuz (cf Kzekiel viii. 14). — I.ucian ( De Syria Dea) gives .Rn account of the festival .^dovia, held in honor of him at Bybhis. Cf. P. 111. $ 77. 2. 2 u. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to Venus the prize of beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the interests of the Trojans. § 49. The most celebrated places pf her worship were Golgi, Paphos, and Aniathus. upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly consecrated lo h^r; Oythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situated near the sea, and in delight- ful regions. In Rome she was honored as the pretended mother of ^Eneas, the ancestor of the nation, although her worship was first formally introduced from Sicily, in the sixth century after the building of the city. 1. At Hierapolis, in Syria, was a splendid temple in honor of Venus, under the name of ^s- iarie or Atergatis, the Ashtarolh of the Holy Scriptures. See l.ucian, De Syria Dea. — Cf. Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. — Citlmet, vol. iii. p. 372. ed. Chariest. 1813. — Class. Journal, No. liii. 2u. The pigeon or dove, the myrtle, and the rose, were especially sacred to the goddess of love. 3. The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were goats and swine, with libations of wine, inilk, and honey. Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the traditions re- specting the universal deluge; her rising frotn the sea being a type of the world emerging from the waves of the flood. — Bryant's .Mythology. — Bulweirs Mylh. Diet. § 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the description and representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest idea of female beauty. The n jst distinguished antique statue of her is the famous Medicean Venus at Florence. Respecting this statue, see P. IV. § l?6. 5. 1. Site is represented on coins and gems, and in the descriptions of the poets, m various w;iys ; sometimes she is clothed with a purple manile glittering with diamonds, her head crowned with myrtle and roses, riding in a chariot made oi ivory, finely carved, painted and gilded, and drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Someiimes she is attended with the Graces and several Cupids. At one lime she appears like a young virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds ,ihe shell in her hand. In our Plate X. fig. 6, she stands on a wave of the sea, supported by two Tri- tons, with two attendant Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, with long tresses, drawing a mantle around her. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (cf P. IV. J 222), she appears rising from the bosom of the waves and wringing her tresses on her shoulders. In some monuinents she holds one hand before her bosom and with the other presses her mantle close about her limbs ; Montfaucon gives a figure very similar to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. In the Sup. Plate 7. she is seen in a reclining posture, with Cupid resting his elbow on her lap, while the Graces are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In an ancient paint- ing, given in the Sup. Plate 8, she supports in her arms the dving Adonis. In some representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant niitror. The Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the other. In Elis she was painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. — She usually had a belt or girdle called Ceslus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to be folded. Heync, Uber die Vorstellunssarten der Venus, in his Antiqaar. Aufsatze.—Manso, Abhandl. Uber die Venus, In his Fersuche ilbcr 'tnytholugische Ge^enstande. 2 u. Various attributes were given to her, under the different characters of Venus Urania, JSlurina, Victrix. &c. She was likewise known under the names Erycina, Anadyamene i^dvairofitvr}), Paphia, Idalia. 3. Her names and epithets were exceedingly numerous; as, Cypria, Y\av6inno;, Cythe- refi, (Xo//';(^)7f, TfXeaffiyaiAO;, Verticordia, 'Eraipa, Acidalia, Lihertina, Suligenita, Oa\i). — Fsyclie is usually represented witli the wiiiirs of a Uutterflv ; as m the statue (Psyche in terror uf Venus) given in our Sup. Plate 8.— See also Plate XLVIl. tig. 5; cf. P. IV. $ 198. 2. Hymenaeus was also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He presided over marriage. Fie was represented as of fair complexion, crowned with the amaracus or switt marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color, indicating the blushes ot a virgin. In tlie Sup. Plate 9, Hyincnsetis is seen leading by a chain Cupid and Psyche ; from an antique sculpture representing their iiuptiicls. § 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agencies of the elements, as well as the apj)earances of the heavenly luminaries, excited as- tonishment and were deified. Traces of the worship of fire are found in the earliest times. The Egyptians had their god of fire, from whom the Greeks derived the worship of "H(|)at.(5T'oj, called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. Fable styles him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity his mother thrust him' from Olympus; or, according to another story, Jupiter hurled him out, because he attetnpted to help Juao when fastened by the golden chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence, and was, according to the later fictions^, lamed by his fall. » Hum. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. 2 FaZ. Flac. Argi n. ii. 87. § 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that are con nected with the smelling and working of metals by means of fire, which ele- ment was considered as subject to him. His helpers and servants in such vi^orks were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and Gaia, whose residence also was in Lemnos, and of whom there are commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Ste- ropes, and Pyrakiaon. These are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops of a later period. 1. The epithet Cyclopean is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly walls, in which large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted together. Cf. p. IV. § 231. 3. Frertt, L'Histoire des Cyclops, Mtm. Acad, hiscr. xxiij. 27. 2u. Mount iEtna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one of the ,Eolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — VVorks requiring peculiar art ana ex'raordinary strength, especially when metals were employed as materials, were called by the poets Vatican's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces ot Phoebus', of Mars2, and Venus^; the golden chain of Juiio-*, the thunderbolts of Jupiter^, the crown of Ariadne^, the arms of Achilles'^, and of ^Eneas^, &c. « Ov. Metim. ii 1. 9 Slat. Theb. vii. 38 3 Claud. Epilhal Honor, et Mar. v 58. ■» Pausan. Alt. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17. s Oo. Metam. i. 2?8 « Ou. Fast. iii. 513. ■> Horn. 11. xviii. 468 8 {'iV^. .Sin. viii. 407. 3. Vulcan is said to have formed, by reque.st of .lupiter, the first woman ; she was called Pan~ dura, becatise eacii of the gods gave her some present or acconiplishnient. In the Sup. Plate 4, is a composition designed to extiibit tlie gods assembled to bestow their gifts on the woman. — See Hesind, Works and Days, vs. 94. § 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife Chans, O! Aglaia; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva had rejected him. Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of Mars and Venus. The Giants Cacus and Calculus were called his sons. — He was worshiped particularly in Lemnos, and the Vulcanian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon yEtna. At Rome the Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 'K.oJkxita. 1. A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice to him. — Tho.se who followed arts and employments requiring the use of fire, especially rendered honor and worship to Vulcan. " The lion, who in his roaring seems to dart fire from hi? mouth, was consecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were set apart to keep his temple." 2 /i. Some of his names are the following: Lemn'ms, Midciber, Cyllopides {kvXXo- tocm), A?iiphigyels {(iix(t>iyvr)Ei<;). 3 Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain, mentioned by Moses 108 GREEK ANH ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. (Gen. iv. 22). Cf. Holwell, Myth. Diet. The ancients gavii various etymolopios )f tlie name , Servius says it was derived from volitavs, because tlie sparks of fire fly in ttie air; tiie account given by Varro is similar (see $ 54. 2). § 54. ^"ulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, with hammei and j)incers in his hands; sitting more frequently than standing. His lameness is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it was in some ancient statues. 1. Cicero, speaking of one of these statues, says \De Nat. Deor. i. 30), " We ad- mire that Vulcan of Athens, made by Alcamenes; he is standing, clothed, and appears lame without any deformity." — Some of the common representations of ihis god are seen in our Plate X. fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6. 2. "That by Vulcan is understood ^re, the name itself discovers, if we believe Varro, who says that the word Vulcanus is derived from the force and violence of fire {Vulcaniiis, quasi Vnlica- nus, quod ifrnis per aerem volitai, vel a vi ac violentia iirnis); and therefore he is painted with a blue hat, a symbol of the celestial or elementaiy fire." (Tuokc.) "Vulcan was represented covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast was hairy, and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some represented him lame and deformed, holding a hammer in the air ready to strike ; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a thunderbolt on his anvil (aKfxMv). He appears on some monumenis with a long beard, disheveletl hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his head, with hammer and pincers in his hand." (Lemp.)— The medals of Lemnos usually bear a representation of Vulcan, with the legend Deo Vulcano, 3, The representations of Vulcan show that the anvil of ancient times was formed like Ihe modern. It was placed on a large block of wood {aKfiddzTov); cf. Hanrn. OJ. viii. 274. yirg. Jf.w. vii. 629 — In early times, it was made nf bronze, as were also the hammer and pincers; cf. Horn. Od. iii. 433.— Smitfl's Diet. Ant. p. 512. § 55. (14) Mrrcury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this god from the Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismtgisius is so celebrated in their early history. According to the Greek and Roman fables, 'Ep/t>75, Mercurius ox Mercury, was the son of Jupiter and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter in the cave Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by him among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their mother Pleione. The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dexterity, which he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in the most praiseworthy manner. This appears from the tricks related of him, and from the circum™ stance, that he was considered as the god not only of mercature, hut also of theft; although the latter, in early times was not viewed so much as a crime, as an evidence of power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus guarded by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul- can, &c. \u. By his flute the guardian of lo, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled to sleep. {Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means ot his success in his feats was his eloquence; this art was ascribed to hiin in a high degree. He invented also the lyre, attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and presented it to Apollo. In return Apollo gave him the celebrated wand {caducevs), the origin ot which is variously stated; its efficacy was potent in calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury carried this rod as the messenger of the gods, and einployed it to awaken dreams, and to con- duct the shades of the dead to the lower world ; tor he was called to offices and labors in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus. 2 The caduce^is was ;i rod with wings at one end, and entwined by two serpents in the form of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod adorned with green leaves, and wilha skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed by the poels into serpents and wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have been given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings are the symbol of diligence : both necessary in the pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- cury patronized." On Ihe mythological character of Mercury, Class. Journal, xvi 224 — Bbttiger's Amalthea, i. 104. — Sbttiger's Vascngem, ii. 97. § 56 a. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding his wand, almost always in moticm, either flying or rapidly marching, wearing a winged hat {petasus), and winged sandals [talaria). Sometimes he holds a purse in his hand, as the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in reference to his invention of the lyre. The cock was sacred to him, and appears sometimes a? an attribute in the images of Mercury. 1. In our Plate XI. fig. 2, we have a common representation of Mercury flying; and another similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. — In the Sup. Plate 7, he is seen attending on lupiter and Juno, ^In our Plate XVIII. fig. 4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustration« p. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 109 named Door of Hell and Charon), he appears in his office of conductor of the shades of the dead. CfS>32a. 1. 2u. The monuments called HermcB (see P. IV. §164) were originally statues ol Mercury. They had their origin when art was in a very imperfect slate, but were afterwards retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men. § 56 b. The worship of Mercury was very connnfion among Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was a particular festival (^festum Mercatoruni) held for the expiation of merchants, in honor of Mercury. 1. At this festival, held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow or a calf, and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with water, prayed to him to foi-give all their artful measures or falsehoods in pursuit of gain. 2 II. 'I'he more common epithets applied to Mercury are Cyllenius, Atlantiades, Ales, AgorcBUS (dyopaio;), Caducifer. 3. Other common epithets are ' ApysKpmrri;, SiaKrcop, and hSnyos ; he is also termed JdAtoj, crafty; Kcp'w'o;, as presiding over wealth; rpiKcipaXo;, because his statues were placed where three ways met. § 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans^ worshiped the inventor and god of wine, under the name of Bacchus, Hdxxoi; the former also called him Atovvao^. In the fictions of both, he was the son of Jupiter and Seme le, a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to her request, Jupiter appeared to her in his full majesty and divinity, the fiery splendor of which caused her death. ^ Jupiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet bom, and carried him in his own thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some etymolo- gists, the poets called him 6t^i;pajUj3oj, as having been twice born; a name whi-ch was afterwards given to the irregular hyrnns^ sung at his festivals. I Oo Mel. iii 260. '^ Cf. P. V. § 22. P. lii. § 77. 3. § 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and related a multi- tude of achievements as performed by him. Especially was he celebrated for his advancement of morals, legislation, and commerce; for the culture of the vine and the rearing of bees ; and for his military expeditions and success, particularly in India. He was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle- worker, except in Scythia. 1 II. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king ol Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched. — Some of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into dol- phins^; his residence upon the island Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by 'I'heseus, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed hei crown among the stars^; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone. I Ooid. Melam. xi. S5. ■» Met. iii. 6:0. 3 Fast. iii. 4.59. 2. Bacchus is also said to have traveled into India with an army composed of men and women The achievements of different personages are doubtless ascribed to him. Diodorus Siculus says that there were three who bore this name. Cicero says there were five. 3 u. He is called by various names ; Lyffius, Thyoneus. Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus. Thriambus, Thyrsiger (cf Ov. Met. iv. 11), Liber, Bimater, &c. § 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early m tne East, probablj in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced in the Grecian or Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who refused to participate in it, were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, foi the same reason, were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Cith^ron, Naxos, and Alea in Arcadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of Bacchus. — The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because they are particularly injurious to the vine, 1. The Oscophoria, Epilcenia, Apaticria, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as festivals of this god. . _ 2 7c. The most eminent of his festivals were the Trie! erica and the Dionijsia (."ee P. in. § 77. 3), in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra- tions at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finallv on that accot'.ul abolished (cf Liv. xxxix. 8, ss.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 'jGS. On the worship of Bacchus, see Frertt, Le Quite de Bacchus, Mem. Acad. [user. vol. xxiii. p. H2.—0. P. Creuzer. Dioiiv-ui. f 110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY comment. Acad, de Rerum Bac-hic nriginibiis et causis. HeidJb. IS09. 4 Rolle, Recherches sur le Culle de Bacchus. Pans, 3 vols. 8. 3. In several points the story and worship nf IJacchiis resemble those of the Esyptian Osiris There is also ihoiighl to be a sirikiiig res(-niblance belvveeii Bacchus and the !;cliiva of India (cf. Rkiidr, as cited $ 13~). Sir fVm. Jtmet; (as cited $ 25. 4), considers Baichus and the Hindoo i^aiwa to be the same. "The first poet of the Hindoos," says he, "was the great Vuimic, and his Ha- mayan is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity of ar:ii7^j;r>jp among the Greeks, and Ceres with the Romans. She was considered as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a daufrhtHr of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated in a fertile region of Sicily. In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, and to instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. 'I'o her is ascribed also the establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. Afterwards she im- parted her favors to other, lands, and the people of Attica particularly boasted 0^ her protection, and her instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough. She associated Triutolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent PLATE XIII a. Ill 112 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. nim over the earth, to teach husbandr}', and thereby raised him te the rank of a god. See Homer, Hymn to Ceres.— Ou/rf, fast. iv. 507-562. Metam. v. 612-631. § 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by Pluto has been already mentioned (§ 32 w). Ceres sought for her with a burning torch everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture and good morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, sup- plicated Jupiter for her deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on con- dition that Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she had just tasted of the pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and liberty to return to this world only for half the year. Ooirf, Metam. iv. bb2.—Claudian, De Raptu Proserpinae. Of. P. V. § 386. 1 u. To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circumstances; her changing herself into a horse and into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Nep- tune ; her transtbrmation ot Lyncus into a lynx on account ot his perfidy^ ; and her punishment of Erysichihon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him with insatiable hunger^, .so that he devoured at last his own limbs. J Oo Met. V. 649. 5 lb viii, 738.— Cai/im. Hymn, in Cer.. v. 29.— See Emesti's Excursus, in bis ed. of Callimachus (cited P. V. § 70. 2). vol. i. p. 262. 2 u. Ceres bore several names and epithets, as A^jw, OeajAOipdpog , StroJ ; and Eleusinia, Erin7iys, &c. 3. The name Arjufjrrjp is by some derived from <5*7 for yn and i^r'iTrjp, signifymg mother- earth. See Knighfs Enquiry into the symbol. Lang. &c. Class. Journ, § 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the ©jcf^iio^opta, which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially in Athens, in honor of her as having taught the use of laws. Still more celebrated, however, were the Eleusinian Mysteries^ which were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were of two sorts, the greater and the less, the latter held annually, the former only every fifth year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the llpojypoffia, and the 'Axwa» the Cerealia and the Ambarvalia. On the EUuiinian Mysteries, see P. III. § 77. 4. P. IV. § 4'. — Warhurton. in his Divine Legation of Mmes. — J. Meursii, Eled 8inia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. i.—Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. et crit. sur les Mysleres (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. 8.- Ouwaroff, Essai sur les mysteres d'Eleusis. St. Petersb. 1815. 8.—Sou^ainville, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxi. 93.— Class. Journ xiii. 399. x\v. 165. xv. n7. On the Thesrnophoria, see Dutheil, as cited P V. § 65 3, On the Amharvalia, cf P. III. § 219. 1. Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, and the burning of a fox {vulpium combustio). " A fox was burnt to death at her sacred rites, with torches tied round it; because a fox wrapt round with stubble and hay set on fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn of the people of Carseoli, a town of the ^qui, as the foxes of Samson did the standing corn of the Philistines." Cf Ovid, Fast. iv. 681. — Judges xv. 4. — Classical Journal, vi. 325. 2. The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the Mysteries were celebrated, were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He found also a fragment of a colossal statue of the goddess among; the niidderitig vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With great exertion that traveler procured the removal of the statue, in order to its being transported to England. See C/arfce's Travels, Pari ii. sect. 2. ch. iS.—Lond. Qiiarl. Rev. xvii. 202. § 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are ears of corn, and the poppy, her usual ornainent. She is often exhibited with a torch in her hand, to signify her search after Proserpine. In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady with a garland on her head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and a cluster of poppies and ears of corn in the other. I'bus she appears in our Plate XL fig. 5, and in tlie Sup. Plate 15. She also appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox, carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn bv winged dragons. Her associate Triptolemus also appears occupying her chariot \0i. Met. V. CAG). § 65. (17) Vesta. Theideasconceivedin the Greek and Roman fables respect- ing the earth as a person and goddess were exceedingly numerous and various. Besides Gaia, Titgea or Tellus, who represented the earth taken in a general sense thev inagfined Cvbele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated : p. II. INFERIOR GODS. otELUS. llj Ceres more particularly sicrnified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of Vesta or 'Eorta was employed to represent the earth as warmed by interna] heat. The latter g-oddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness, heing supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men the use of fire. 1 u. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy {Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and granred to her the (irst oblations in all sacrifices. 2. She is sometimes termed V^esia the younger,'to distinguish her from Cybele (^19), who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesa the younger is the same wiih ]g?iis or fire. § GG. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to A^esta, and for this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front of all houses. The same was done in the buildings termed ITprrai'fta, which were usually found in the Greek cities near their center; that at Athens (P. I. § 115) was the most famous. More rarely were temples raised for her. In her temple at Rome the celebrated Palladium was supposed to be kept. The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any image of the goddess. It still exists. Cf. P. I. '?> 60. § 67 a. She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, hearing in her hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a priestess of Vesta that is thus represented. In Plate XI. fig. 10, from a medal given by Momfaucon, we have snch a representation. Ifi the Sup. Plate 3. Vesta is seen as re^jreseiited in a heautifnl statne ineniloned by Montfancon (Vol. i. p. 64). — Vesta is sometimes exhibited holding in one hand a' javelin or a Palladium; sometimes also with a drutn in one hand and an image of Victory in the other. $ 67 u. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those among the Ro- mans under the name of Vesiales, the vestal virgins, were much more celebrated; the mother of Romulus having belonged to the order, although their first regular institution is ascribed to Numa. (Cf P. III. § 218.) '1 heir principal duty \\as to watch and keep alive the sacred fire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. '^^ 43). Their rigid seclusion was rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sacredness was attached to then" persons. 1. The extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sudden and terrible disasters, and if it ever happened, all business was at once interrupted until expiation had been made wiiti great ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely [)imished. The fire wat every year renewed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays of the snn. 2. In our Plate XXVIII. is a representation of a priestess of Vesta, holding a pan of firt In the same Plate is seen a Vestal holding the crihrum or sieve ; from a statue in honor of the Ves- tal Tuccia, who is said to have vindicated her innocence by bringing water in a sieve from the Tiber. Cf. Val. Max. viii. 2. On Vesta and the Vestals; Livy, i. 20. — Plutarch, Life of Nunn. — Class. Juwn. xv. 123,257. xvi. 32.— Nadal, Histoire des Vestales, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 161, 227. — L'pshis, de Vesta, in his fVorks,— Dupuy, La nianiere Uonl let aDciens rzllumoient le/ew sacre, &c. in the Mem. Acad. I user. xxxv. p. 395. II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods. % 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Tvferior go(i,» are Coelus or 'O 'pai/dj ; Sol or "HX(0(, ; Luna or Y.s\rvrj\ Aurora or Tito;; Nox or Ni'i(; Iris, "Ipi?; i^olus or AioAo? ; Pan, Y\av, Latona or Ar/r'i; Themis or Qri)ni; \ jf^scula- plus or 'Ao-/c/\;777(d; ; Plutus or llXo?™; ; Fortuha ovTvxri; and Fama ar^vixn; which were all common to the Greeks and Romans Rut to this class arc also to he referred several divinities, which were peculiar to the Greeks as distinguished trom the Romans; and also several, which were peculiar to the Romans as distingui>hed from the Greeks § 69. (1) Coelus. Althotigh this god was considered as one of the most ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was attached to hia worship either among the Greeks or Romans. Kis wife was th;^ goddess of the earth, Titeea or Gaia; their offspring were thp Titans,, the Cyr.'nps, and the ('en- timnni. Through fear that these sons would deprive him. of his kingdom, he precipitated them all to Tartarus, whence thny were liberated, however, by the aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Furie« were called daughters of Uranus, or Coelus. %10u. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation in the histor« 114 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. of early nations. According to the account of Diodonis', Uranus v/ould seem to navi» been a king of the Ailantides^, the founder of their civiliza'ion, and the author of many useful inventions. Among other things he was a dihgent observer of ihe heavenly bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many oi their changes. Admiration of such knowledge might lead to his deifica ion. Perhaps it might occasion the use of his name ('O 'pa/dg) to signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap- pears to have been very ancient. > See Diod. Sic. iii 56. v. 44. ^ The Atlaiitides were a people of Africa, living near Mt. Atlas. § 71. (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans w^orshiped Apollo as the god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named him Phcehus, yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo espe- cially in the earlier fables, under the literal name applied to designate the sun, viz. Sol or "Hxt-oj. These words, therefore, were employed to express not only the actual body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate and personal existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is called the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his sisters. Many circumstances, which are mentioned as pertaining to him, are also related of Phoebus or Apollo, when considered as the god of the sun. Si e Ovid, Me'amnr[)h. ii. § 72 a. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of the first and most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that the worship of this god was early introduced into Greece. Many temples were consecrated to Helius. The island Rhodes in particular was sacred to him, where was erected his celebrated colossal statue. Among the Romans his worship was organized with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who had been a priest of the same ^od in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome. Of his splendid temple at Heliopnlis or Biialbec in >*yria, said to iiave been erected iiy Atitoni- nus Pins, interesting remains still exist. Cf. P. I. $ 166. § 72 6. Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile, form, entirely clothed, and having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the Horae, and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by four horses, which bear distinct names. 1. Helius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man crowned with rays ; a specimen is seen in our Plate XIV. tig. 1 — A view of the colossal s'atue of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. This was reckoned among the seven wonders. 2 The seven wonders of the world were, 1. The statue of the Sun at Rhodes, 70 cubits high, placed across the harbor so that a large vessel coulfl sail between its legs; 2. The Mausoleuin, !)r sepulchre of Mausohis, kingof Caria, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful columns(P.lII.^l87.);3. The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias (cf P. IV. ^ 179); 4. The tem- ple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in height, with a splendid image of the goddess ; 5. The whIIs of Babylon built by Semiramis, ^0 or 80 teet wide, and 60 miles in circuit (Rollings Anc. Hist. bk. iii. ch. 1); 6. The pyramids of Egypt; 7. The palace of Cyrus. § 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and was called Xe%yivri by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent, and story from Diana or '" Aptrfxt^, who was, however, taken as goddess of the moon. To Luna was ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. Pandia was said to be a daughter of Luna and Jupiter or Saturn*. In common with her brother H^^lius, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlan- tides. a Cf. Haner, Hynni to Luna. 1 ft Both the (ireeks and Romans consecrated appropriare temples to her, although the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more prevalent among them. She was represented like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot through the skies, wi h the stars as her attendants. 2. She is repre^enied on coins by the bust of a fair young woman with a crescent on her head: as seen in Plate XIV. fig. 3. § 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was the goddess of the morning or day-dawn; styled by the Greeks 'Kw? or 'Huf'pa; by the Romans Jurora. By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus were her prin- "ioal lovers, and Lucifer and Memnon her most distino-uished sons. Tiie latter p. II. INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. IRIS. 115 is memorable for the honors paid to him in E^ypt, and for his famous vocal statue at Thebes. 1. The statue of Memnon is supposed to be one of those existing at the present day among the ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medinet Abou. A part of the body of it is said to be now in the British Museum. It is called by the Arabians Salamat, the statue which bids good tnornitig, a name evidently originating in a belief of the ancient atrd common tradition ; which was, that this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shone upon it. The statue is covered with inscriptions by p'^rsons declaring that they had heard its voice at the rising of the sun. — Mr. IVilkivson slates, from experiment actually made by himself, that if a per- son in the lap of this colossus, which is in a sitting posture, give it a blnw with a hammer, it will cause a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of brass. See J. G. Wilkinson, on the contrivance by which the statue (if Memnon was made vocal ; in the Transactiims of the Royau Society of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. IS34. — M. Letroiine, Inscriptions Greciues et Latines du Colossus de Menjnon, &c., in sami Transactions, vol. iii. Lond. ISST.—^Amm: Quart. Revieio, No. ix. 2 ?i. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, although she seized and bore him away from his beloved Procris, whom, after his return to her, he had the misfortune to kill through an accident occasioned by her jealousy. — The early death of a youth was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theft by Aurora (Uliipa; oprrayii). On the story of Cephalus, see Ovid, Melam. vii. 661, 7C3. § 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and of the day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the latter among the Greeks, '^H/.iipa. By the poets she is represented as a beautiful young woman, whose chariot was drawn by white or light red horses, and who opened the portals of the Sun with rosy fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet . She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe {kpoko-sttXo;), in a rose- colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was called the mother of the stars and of the winds. In the Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accom- panied by the Hours, and a flying Cupid with a torch in his hand. § 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and placed among the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of this early origin she is called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of gods and men. Generally, how ever, she is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage; and in such a sense, sleep, death, dreams, the furies, &c. are called her children. 1 f. A black cock was the offering commonly presented to her. A black sheep was also offered to her as mother of the Furies. 2 ?i. According to the descriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she is exhibited as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses whh a retinue of stars. 3. Pausanias describes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and a black child in her left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears in our Plate XXXVI. She has also been described as a woman with her face veiled in black, crowned with poppies, and in a chariot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of Plate -XIV., drawn from an ancient engraved gem, she holds a veil over her head, and three stars appear above it. In plate XLI. she makes a more splendid appearance, with a large spangled veil, and a torch inverted; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated manuscript. § 77. (6) Iris, By the name of ~Iptj was designated among the Greeks the rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her father was said to be Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the daughters of Oceanus. Her residence was near the throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messengci to the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she was Jupiter't^ messenger, and was employed even by oiher deities. 1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent on errands of striJo and discord ; whence some have thought her name derived from ipij, strife. Others derive it from ttpM, to speak or declare- 2u. She had also sometimes in reference to dying females aa office, which was. usually assigned to Proserpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolut'on. Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704. The rainbow was the path by which she descended froDi Olympus and returned thither. 3. She is represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often appears sitting behind Juno as waiting to execute her commands. In the Sup. Plaif- 11 116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 20, she appears descending on a cloud. In the Sup. Plate 7, she is seen with Mercury and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno. § 78. (7) ^olus. Under the name of ^olus both Greeks and Romans worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was called the son of Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the winds, which had previously been formed into mythical persons, and were known by the naiTies Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered the servants of iEolus. 1 u. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the Mediterranean sea, and let them loose only to further his own designs or those of others, in awakening storms, hurricanes and floods. (Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1. — Virfr. iEn. i. 52.) He is usually de- scribed by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to strangers. 2. The name JEolus is thought to have come from aiuXos, changeable. — ^The island where iEolus is said to have reigned was Strongyle (.y^rpoyyvXri), so called on account oi Its round figure, the modern Siroinholi. See Heyne, Exeurs. ad .ffin. i. 51.— Cf. Pliny, N. H. iii. 8. 3. In the Sup. Plnte IP, are two engravings marked as representations of .^oliis. In one, a vigorous man supporting liimself in the air by wings is blowing into a shell trumpet like a Triton, while his short mantle is waving in the wind ; this is from a bas-relief on an altar, found near Nettuno in Italy, with the inscription .^ra Ventoram ; and it probably is merely the representa- tion of one of the winds, perhaps Eurus; cf $ lOSb — In the other, we have a fragment o'f a Bquare stone, which originally contained in bas-relief a representation of the circle of the Zodiac with its twelve signs, which were sculptured wiihin the circle ; on the outer edge of the circle appear the busts of .Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus ; in the corner is the bust of a man with wings on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeks, which probably represents one of the four principal winds, the otiier corners of the piece having had each a wind represented in it. See Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. vol, i. plate ccxxiv. § 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, was Pan, whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god of shepherds and herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever pertained to rural affairs. His worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He was said to be the son of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite residence was in the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to Syrinx, who was changed into a reed', he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven reeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him into his unlucky contest with Apollo^. He also invented a war-trumpet, whose sound was terrific to the foe; a circumstance^ which gave rise to the phrase, jo«7itc fear or terror {rtavixov 8111x0). » Ou. Metatri. i. 6S2. 2 /t. x. 146. 3 Pausan. Phoc. c. 23. § 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the form of a goat, and under the name of Mendes^ In Greece, Arcadia was especially sacred to him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycaeus. His festivals, called Av:xata by the Greeks, were introduced by Evander among the Romans, and by them called Lupercalia^. Goats, honey, and milk were the usual offerings to Pan. « Htrod. ii. 46. 2 Ov. Fast. ii. 31, 267. 1 u. His Greek name IIui', signifying the whole or all, had reference to the circum- stance thai he was considered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, it was derived from Traw {to feed), and referred to his patronage of shepherds and their flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, Moenahus, and Lycaeus. • 2. "The figure of Pan (cf Sil Ital. xiii. 326) is a rude symlml of the universe, and he appears to have been oritrinally a personification of the jSviina JVUivdi, or terrestrial soul, by which some ancient nations believed that the entire universe was directed." — This god does not appear in Ihe poems of Homer or Hesiod. .B u. His image was generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a Batyr, with ears sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body covered with hair or spotted, and the feet and legs of a goat. 4. Such is his image in Plate XIV. fig. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has in one hand a crooked staff and in the other a pipe of reeds, and an amphora lies beside him. If some representations, his head was crowned with pine, which was sacred to him. ' §8 . (9) Latnna. She was called A>/rw by the Greeks, and held a distin- jruished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this account was often atiked among the superior deities. She was daughter of Cceus or Polus and p. II. INFERIOR GODS. THEMIS. ^SCULAPIUS. 117 Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's love. The jealousy and anger of Juno was excited against her, and she adjured the iroddess of earth to allow Latona no place to bring forth her offspring. Neptune, however, gi-anted the island Delos for the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to Lycia, where' she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. — !Still more severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe^, a daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion king of 'I'hebes. Niobe -slighted the divinity of Latona, and the latter engaged both her children, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her; they, by their arrows, slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief was changred into stone. 1 Ov. Metani. vi. 335. ^ Ov. Metam. xi. 321. See also § 38. § 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the island Delos, at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a festival was sacred to her, called 'Ex8vGia. 1 u. Latona is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible thai her name originated in this idea, derived from Xfyfw, to Le conceaUd, as naiure was buried in profound darkness beture the birth of the ^^un and Moon or Apollo and Diana. 2. She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, so painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. §83. (10) Thentis. The goddess of justice (©a^t?) was one of the most celebrated of the Tilanides, or daughters of Ur^inus and Titsea. To her is ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first introduction of saciifices into Greece. She had by Jupiter three daughters, Aixr^, "F.wo/.ua, and 'Kipr.vrp which were commonly called the Horss ('dpat), who are represented by the poets in various lights, but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division and distribution of time (§ 105). Astraea also was by some called a daughter of Themis. 1 u. Astr{Ea was likewise a goddess of justice, or rather of property; and, according to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last of the divinities to quif the earth. She was placed among the constellations ot the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently called Erigone. 2. AstfcPa, who accordina; to some was rlie daughter of Titan and Aurora, was represented (cf. Ji'd. Gell. Noct. An. xiv. 4) as a virgin with a stern countenance, holding in one hand a pair of hulances, and in the other a sword or scepler or a long rod or spear; ihus she appears in the S»p. Plate 18, drawn from an engraved gem. 3 u. There was still another goddess. Nemesis., 'Nqitai';, who was supposed to judge respecting moral actions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first erected a temple to her, and also Rhamnusia from having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 4. At her temple in Rhamnus was a large and beautiful statue, ranked among the best works of Phidias — In Plate XXXVI. are two representations of Nemesis, from ancient gems ; in eacN the wheel ajipears at her feet; in one she has wines, and holds in one hand a branch with a ribin attached ; in the other representation she holds a rod or scepler. See //e'rfer's Zerstreuten Blillern, riamnil. 2. p. 213. § 84. (II) JEscxdapius. In proportion as men in the early ages were igno rant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there was the greater ad- miration of those who were distinguished in the art of healing, and the greater readiness to deify them. Hence the deification of ^Esculapius, who was viewed as the god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis^ Hygeia, the goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two celebrated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and Fodalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. yEs- culapius was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the request of Pluto. His most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaurus^, where he was worshiped under the form of a serpent. 1 Ov. Metarii. ii. 591. '2 Ov Mel. xv 622. 1. The ruins of the temple at Epidaurus are still visible at the place now called .fern, pro- nounced Yero, a corruption perhajis of 'Xtnov (.«icni crdes). There weie at this ancient seal of tne god of health medical springs and loells, which may yel be traced darnels Travels, part ii. sect. 2. cti w. — F^trtl. Culie rendu a .'Eiculajiius, in tliC Mem. Acad. Imcr. xxi. 28. 2u. The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, eithe free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence atwl forosiglit. lis GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 3. In Plate XIV. fig. 6, ^scuZajDnts holds in one hand a round vase or pulera, from w.iich a serpent is eating. In the Sup. Plate 21, he is seen as presented in an ancient statue delineated in Montfaucon ; on his left is the trunk of a tree, around which the serpent winds ; on his right stands Telesphorus, who was said to be a son of ACsculapius, and was considered as the god of convalescents; Telesphorus appears here, as in all representations of him, in a robe covering his arms and whfile body, with a hood upon his head. jEsculapius and Telesphorus appear to- gether thus on a coin of Caracalla. 4. Hygeia may be considered as the same with the Roman goddess of health, Salus. The Romans honored Salus with a temple and festivals. One of the city-gates, being near her temple, was called Porta Salutaris. She was represented with a bowl in Iter right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and lifting his head upon it. In Sup. Plate 21, we have a representation of Hygeia from a beautiful statue ; she sits on a rock, with one hand raised and holding a scepter, and the other holding a bowl, towards wnich a large serpent is advancing his head over her lap. § 85. (12) Plutus, The god of riches, Wkovto^, was probably of allegorical rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek is but the common term for wealth. His father, according to the fable, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by Electra, and his mother was Ceres, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in Crete. Jupiter, as it was allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and his usual residence was low beneath the earth. — By some Plutus is considered as the same personage as Pluto, ruler of the world of spirits, and this may have been the case. 1 M. Tt is not known by what figure he was visibly represented. Pansanias barely remarks, that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant in the arms of that goddess, and at Athens the goddess of Peace held him as an infant in her arms. 2. " Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, be- cause large estates come slowly. He is fearful and liniorous, because rich men watch their treasures with a great deal of \ear and care." § 86. (13) Fortune, Of a like allegorical character was the goddess of i^or- tune, Tvxyif FortunOy to whom was ascribed the distribution and the superin- tendence of prosperity and adversity in general. Among the Greeks she had temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna; and in Italy, before the building of Rome, she was honored at Antium, and especially at Praeneste. The Romans made her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets ori- ginating from different occasions; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda, Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c. 1 u. In the temple at Antium were two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as oracles, and gave answer by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. Similar divinations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her temple was one of the richest and most celebrated. See Horace. Odes, 1. i. od. 35. (Ad Fortunam).— Of. P. HI. § 222. 2. " The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient monuments with a horn of plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is blindfolded, and generally holds a wheel in her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy. Sometiines she appears with wings, and treads upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands." Her image in Plate XIV. fig. 9, is taken from an Imperial coin; in her left hand is a horn of plenty ; her right rests upon a rudder ; a wheel is behind her. In the Sup. Plate 18, she appears without the wheel, with the images of the sun and moon on her head. § 87. (14) Fame, The goddess styled ^r^fxyl, or Fama, was also of allego- rical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of Earth, who gave birth to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of her sons, the Giants; in order that she might divulge universally the scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the other gods. She had a place in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a temple at Athens. She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both good and bad, 1 a. The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, always flying about, accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity. ■ Of. FiVj? JEn. IT. 173.— Ou. Met. xii. '69.— Stat. Theb iii. 426. 2. In the Sup. Plate 18, is a re;iresenlation of Fame with her wings e.-^tended as just ready lo flv, with her finger pointing "upwards. ^ 88. (15) D^T'ies peculiar to the Greeks. Athough generally the same deities were common to the Greeks and Romans, each nation had some peculiar to itself These must be included in the class of Inferior Gods- Those peculiar to the Greeks were P II. INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 119 less numerous and important than those pecuh'ar to the Romans ; and nearly all ofthetn may be reduced under one or other of the four following divisions. 1. Places, rivers, mountains, &c.. personified. Almost every important city was converted into a goddess, whose image was placed on its coins. Almost every river and stream also was made into a god, of whom some tabulous tale was related; tliUs Ah pheics is said to have pursued the nymph Arethusa from Greece to Sicily. 2. Eminent personages deified. The most important of the deities belonging to this division would come under the class denominated Heroes ; although many of them are seldom if ever thus classed, as Orpheus, Homer, 'I'rophonius, dtc. ; besides many of later times. 3. Virtues and vices personified. The Greeks did not carry such personifications so far as the Romans; yet imaginary deities were thus formed, and altars were erected to them in Athens and other cities. Some deified among the Greeks are not distinctly named among the Romans ; e. g. Cha?ice, 'Avroixaria ; Voracity, 'A6cjj to keep off thieves ; his body termi- nates in a shapeless trunk. — An ass was generally sacrificed to hiiii. Representations of Priapus are given in Plate XLV. and in the Sup. Plate 23. In the latter, with an extended arm he holds a bell in his hand. In the former, which is from a large anaglyph or bas-relief given by Montfaucon after Boissard.'we inay observe the rites practiced at the fes- tival of this god. It is celebrated by women ; two jiriestesses are close by the statue, one of whom is pouring water or some other liquid upon the image from a bottle ; four others are engaged in sacrificing an ass; behind the animal stand two others in peculiar costume, one holding apparently a sistrwis the other a bowl or round vase ; on the l«ft of the statue are two women playinc on the double tibia, and others bearing baskets of fruit and flowers and vessels of wine ; on the right are two playing on the tyinpaniivi. one dressed like a bacchanal with a child on her neck, and others with their off'erings of fruit, flowers, and wine. 3 w. Vertumnus. Under this name an old Italian prince, who probably intro- duced the art of gardening, was honored after death ns a cjod. The Romans considered him as specially presiding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Fomoiia. one of the Hamadryads (cf. § 101). a goddess of gardens and fruus. whose love he gained at lasv after changing himself into many forms, from which circumstance his name {Ov. Mel. xiv. 623) was derived. This goddess is represpnied on some monuments of ancien' art, and is designated by a basket of fruit placed near or borne by her. Vertumnus is generally represented as a young man, crowned with flowers, iveicu up cu 120 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. the waist, and holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left."- In the Snp. Plate 23, the horn is in his left hand, and the fruit in his right ; he is fully draped, with the head and leg i)nnding ^> hat of Venus and Adonis. (Cf Knight's Enqniry, k:.) — Some resemblances have been pointed cut between Isis and Isa. a deitj ♦he Hindoos, and Disa, a goddess worsliiped among the northern tribes of Europe (cf. Tac. Germ. 9) — See Creuzcr's Synibolili. The Egyntians had numerous festivals which were connected with the fables re I'. II INFERIOR GODS. FOREIGN GODS. 123 Bpccting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was termed tlio Isia ; which lasted nitie days, and was attended with such hcentiousness as to be ai length prohibited by the senate. The Tsiac Table is a curious mnnuincnt, whicli receives its name from its being supposed to represent the mysteries of Isis. Tlie oriL'inal was obtained at Rome, A. D 1525, and came after some time into the cabinet of the duke of Mantua, where it remained until the pillage of thai city, A. U. 16.30; it is said to be now (18:^9) in the royal gallery at Turin. It is described as a tablet of copper or bronze, " almost four feet long, and of pretty near the same breadth ;" and "covered with silver nmsaic, skilfully inlaid ;" "the ground-work being a black enamel." It isdivided intathree eiiual compariments by two h'orizonial lines of hieroglyphics ; the middle compartment being subdivided by two perpendicular lines of hieroglyphics into three compart- ments, a larger one in the center, and a smaller one at each side of it. The five compartments thus formed are crowded with figures, with hieroglyphics interspersed. The whole is surrounded by a border, also crowded with figures and hieroglyphics. The engravings in our Plate XV. are all drawn from this Table, in that Plate Isis is given as seen in the center of the Table, sitting in a splendid gate-way. A fine engraving of the whole Table wi!h some explanation, is given by Montfaucon, Ant. Expl vol. ii. p. 340, as cited § I-. i (d). — Il is given also in Cayhis, Recueil des Antiquiles, vol. vii. p. 34, cited P. III. § 13. 2. — Of. Shuchford, Sacr. and Prof. Hist. Con bk. viii. — Encycl. Ameri. vol. vii. 83. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. 82. Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at Pompeii, is a Temple of fsis. The columns which surrounded it are almost entirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of uricii, and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square, and was not covered, but was surrounded by a covered gallery, which was supported by columns, and served for a shelter in bad weather. " In this temple have been found all the instruments which apper- tain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests, who had been surprised Hnd buried by the shower of cinders in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Theii vestments, the cinders and coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which contained the lustral water, paterae employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve the intestines of the victims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis when they offered sacrifices to her, the aitributes of the divinity wiih which the temple was adorned, &c., are still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ; and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in tlie situation in which they were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The waits of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess; there were figures of t)riests in the costume of their order: their vestments were of white linen, the heads of the officiating priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thin lace, through which th-e muscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. 3. Apis. This is the name of the o.x in which Osiris was supposed to reside, rather than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain marks ; his body was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a white crescent or sort of half-moon on his right side ; on his back was the figure of an eagle ; under his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle (canfharus); and tvvo sorts of hair upon his tail. This ox was permitted to live twenty-five years. His body was then em- balmed, placed in a chest, or Sopi,-, and buried wiih many solemnities. A season of mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to sight. — It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high cham- ber in the interior of the pyramid a Sopij, which, on being carefully opened, presented the bones of an ox. Mnevis is the name of the sacred ox consecrated to the Sun, and worshiped espe cially at Heliopolis. He is described as being white. In Plate XV. are two representations, from the Isiac Table, supposed to be J3pis an^J Mvevis, each is attended by two priests; under the head of each is a standard supporting something, perhaps the eating-trough of the sacred animal. Cf Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 201. — Banier, L'Orig, du culte que les Eeyptiens rendoient aux aniinaux, in the Mem. Jlcad. Inter iii. 84. — Also Blanctiard, Des animaux respectes en Egypte, in the Mem. ^c. ix. 20.— Prichard, as cited § 12. 2 ( f ). 4. Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be the same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapea, were erected to hiiu at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates a marvelous tale of the re- moval of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the southern shore of the Pontus Euxi- nus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were introduced at Rome under the em- perors, but soon abolished on account of their licentiousness.-: — Some derive the name from Sopof and "Am^, as having signified at first merely the chest or box in which the body of Apis was deposited. In the Sup. Plate 2t, we have a very r^jmarkable statue nf Serapis; resembling as to the form of the body that of Pybele in Sup. Plate 5, and that of Diana Ephesia in Sup. Plate l(i; around the body twines a huge serpent, whose tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the head appe-ars at his feet; on the portions between the folds of the serpent are various figures of per- sons and animals. — In the Sup. Plate 25. we have anothpr, nmre in the Koman style; Serapis sits, in full drapery, with sandals on his feet ; one arm raised in earnest action ; given by Mont- faucon a«i belonoin? to the cnhinel of Fnuvel. In the same Plate is anf>lhpr representation from an Jiiiraiast (cf. P IV. J '200. 2); he holds a spear in his right hand, a- d points iipwMrtl with the either; a Cerberus stands at his side. In ;ill these images we notice the face and beard of a J'lniter. and aJao the cnlalhua or basket on the head which is the mark of Serapis. 124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. It has been supposed by some, and the notion is adopted by Dr E. D Clarke, tliat the Ea;yptian ApU ws a symbol of.lotepfi; airf fhat the various legends cnnnecfed with the worship of this god grew oui of the liistory of th it patriarch.— Cf. I^cisi'us. de Theologii Sentili. Amst. Ii542.— Clarke, Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch, 5. 5. Anubis. This was another deity connected in i'able with Osiris. He was said to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis m her search after her husband. He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Hennanubis ; or, as others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a similar character. H« appears to be represented in the monument exhibited in our Plate XVllI. fig B. Cf J 3t. 2, — 111 the Sup. Plate 27, we have iinagfis of Annbis. The first is from a piece of marbl* sculpture given by Montfaiicon froin Hoissard ; he stands with one foot on a crocodile, holding in his left hand a cadnceus, and in the right a short rod attached to a ghbe; by his head on ont side is a palm leaf, on the other a laurel -branch ; on his right is seen also the head of Serapis, and on his left that of Apis, from which circumstance the inscriiiti'ti on the oriffinal morniirient, 6EOI AAEA<^OI, is supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. The other image in this Plate is drawn from an engraved gem; presenting Anubis with the Roman coat of mail and a bow and arrow. CvNOCEPiiALU-s is bv some considered to be the same as Antibis; but this name in Egyptian Tiylhov (ii/rina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, and after his death his name was given to a constellation. See Francceur, as cited § 1 17 ( f ). — De Fnurmont, Le fab. d'Orion, in the Mem. Acad, Inscr. xiv. 16. at'empting to show a con- neclion of the fahle vyith the story of Isaac the son of Abraham. 3. The Pi/o-viies of the ancients were fahnlons beinfff!, of very diminutive size, supposed by some to dwell in Esypt and Ethiopia ; by oiliers, in Thrace and Scythia ; and by oihersjn India. Cf. Ov. Met. vi. 90.— P/i/i. Hist. Nat. vii. 2.—Heyne, on Horn. II iii. 6.—Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. as cited P. IV. ^ 171 —Maltiy Brun, in the Jlntialcs des Voyage. worshiped as the guardian of harbors. § 100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to be two iij number, by others, three, and even four. Homer mentions but two', and de- «5crihes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with them ewn 126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. voyajrer, who was allured thither hy their captivating rrnisic. They wou.d iiave decoyed even Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, hut were not permitted. — By others they were descrihed as daughters of the river-o-od Achelous, ?.nd companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changed into hirds^, that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the Muses in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emulation. Others make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the faces of women and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represent them as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds. > Horn. Od xii. 30 166. "2 Ov. Met. v. 552. Their fabled residence was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily; by others, on the islands or rocks called Sirennusas, not far from the promontory of Surrentum on the coast of Iialy. — Various explanations oi' the fable of the Sirens have been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in pleasure. § 101. (3) Nymphs. The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed as holding a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to the duration of life; not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was considered as their common father, although the descent of diflferent nymphs is given differently. Their usual residence was .in grottoes or water-caves, from - vvhich circumstance they received their name, Na;^(j)at. ^Fheir particular offices were different, and they were distinguished by various names according to the several objects of their patronage, or the regions in vvhich they chiefly resided. 1 u. Thus there were the Oreadts, or nymphs of the moupiains ; Naiades, Nereides (cf. ^ 29), and Fofamides, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers; Dryades and Hamadryades , nymphs of the woods ; Najprce., nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads were disiinguished from the Hamadryads (''fia 'p^'s) in this, that the latter were sup- posed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which they came into being, lived and died ; while the former had the care of the woods and trees in general. 2. Places consecrated to these iinaginary beings were called Nu^uc/tara. Such wag the celebrated spot in the vicinity of ApoUonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which was seen to issue constantly from the ground {Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was the place and building at Rome which was called Nymj)h(Eum, adorned with statues of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and waterfalls. Festivals were held in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been stated as above .3000. See Fontenu, Le Culle ties diviiiites des eaux, in Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 27. — Cf Loud Quart. Rev. xvii 192. . They were generally represented as yonn^ iind heatuifnl virgins, partially covered with a vei! or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or srass, or having sonie- thinsr as a syn)bol of their appropriate otfices. Tlie several gods are represented, more or less frequently, as attended hy nymphs of some class or oiher ; especially Neplnne, Diana, and B;ic- chus. Under the term of nymphs, 'were sotneiimes included the imaginary spirits that snided the heavenly spheres and constellations, and dispersed the influences of the stars ; the nymphs being dislrit'Uted by some mythologists into three classes, those of ilie sky, the lufld, and the sea. In Plate XLtTT Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune and Amphitrite — In the i?up. Plate 19, we have a Nereid upon a sea-monster which seems to consist of the lower part of a fish united with the heads of two Imrses, which she guides hy reins ; one horse has two fins or wings instead of the two fore feet ; from a gem of Miflff-i. In sume representations, the Nereid appears a woman with the lower part of the body in the form of a fish, tints exhibiting the mtrinaid. § 102. (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having in their fic- tions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; but assigned to particular branches of knowledge and art their appropriate tutelary spirits or guardian divinities, whom they called Muses, Movoai, and considered as the daught'i'rs of .Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They were nine in number, according to the common account, with Greek names, as follows : K%flm {Illustrious')^ KaVkionri (Fr/ir-roice), M^'krioj.dvT] {Si7is:ing), ®d'ksia (^TWy), 'Eparw (Lovinij^), 'F.vriprtrj {Well-pleasini>;), T?p4't;top'>7 {Dance-hvini^), noXv/u'ta (Songful), an^ 'O^Jpa^^'a {Celestial). The Romans termed Ihem Camrrnm. They were fr»"quently called by common names, derived rom places sacred to thnn, or from other circumstances, as Pieriiles, from Pieria, Jlunidei,, H^M- cohiadts. f'anias.'iideg, Hippucreiddts, ( a.-^talides, &,c. vl03v<. /n order to represent the Muses as excelling in their several arts, tbp'> I tally in music and song, the" pt e's imagined various contests held by them ; as, for example, with the Sirens, and the daughters of Pierus', in which the !\luses always ^ainet^ 'be prize. They were described as remaiiiiiig virgins, and as lieiiig undtsr the >n'=truct'on and protection of Apollo. 1 heir usual rcL^idence was Mt. Helicon, where p. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GRACES. HOR^. FATES. I'll was tne fountain Hippocrene, and Mt. Parnassus, where was the fountain Castnlia; the former in Boeotia ; the latter near Delphi^ in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierus in Thessaly were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also conserraljd to them among the Greeks and the Romans. Festivals in their honor were instituted m several parts of Greece^, especially among the Thespians. The Macedonians observed a f stival for Jupiter and the Muses, which was continued nine days.' 1 Ov Met V. 3''0. 2 See View of Delphi and Parnassus forming the Frontispiece to this Manual. 3 See llcyne, de Mus*; religione, ejusq. oris;, el causis in Comment. Soc. reg. Gutting, vol. viii. The Muses are usually rt^presented as virgins ^ith ornamented dressps, and crowned with palms or laurels. " Accordin"; to the best authorities, Ci.io, History, holds in her hand a half- opened scroll ; Mklpomene, Tra^i'dy, is veiled, and leans upon a pillar, holding in lier left hand a tragic mask ; Thalia. Comedy, hotds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a slafT resembling a lituus Or augur's wand ; Eutkrpk, Jifii.-^ic, holds two flutes or pipes ; '1 erpsichork, the Danre, is represented in a dancing attitude, and plays upon a seven-sirinjied l\re; ¥jn\rn, Jlmatury Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instrument ; Calliope, Kpic Pnetry, has a roil of p.irclimenl in her hand, and sometimes a straii'ht triim[iet or tulia ; Urania, j?.>777j»(y;/(7/, liohls in her left hand a glot)e; in her right a rod, with which she appears to point out some object to the beholder: Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Iinitatinn, places the fore-finser of the right hand upon her mouth, or else bears a scroll in her hand." (Jlnthon's Lemp ) — Generally accordant with this descrip- tion, yet in some resppcts different, are the (inures in our Plate XXXIX. ; where the Muses are represented as seen in the statues belonging to the collection of Christina queen of Sweden, and described hy MaflTei. — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing the Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, in which the nine are represented. "The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of them sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil of nature described them in that manner upon the agale which Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring; for in it was a representation of the nine muses, and Ap.illo holding a liarp ; and these figures were not delineated by art {Pliii. I,, xxxvii. c, 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature." {Tooke's Paiiih.) For virions represen'ations of the Muses, see Montfaucmi, Ant. Exp. vol. 1. plates 56-62. — Museum Pw-Clcmentiniim, vol i. pUles 17-28. vol. iv. phtes 14, 5. § 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retintie of Venus belonged the Graces, Xapt-rf?, Grafiae, servants and companions of the aoddess, dilfiising charms and gladness. They were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Fjury- nome, or according, to others of Bacchus and Venus herself, and were three in number, 'Ay?iaJa {Splendor)^ @d%fia {Pleasure)^ and 'En^poctrz'?/ {J'>y)' They M'ere honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal cities. Altars were often. erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mer- cury, Venus, and the Muses. 1 u. They are frequently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, com- monly in a group, holding each other by the hand, and without drapery *2. Thus they appear in the Sup. Plate 8, a representation whicli very nearly resembles what is seen on two beautiful antique engraved gems, given by Ogle, Ant. Exp. Plates 47, 48. In the Sup. Plate 7, the Graces are einployed in adornitig Venus. An antique painting found, with other [»ieces, at Rome, in a vault near the Colis.-eum, in 1668, exhibits them dancing, with slight drapery. Of. Find. Olymp. xtv.—Manso, Abh. Uber die Horen und Grazien, in his Mythol. l^crsur.hen. — Maisieii, sur les Graces, in the Msrti.. de VAcad. des Inscr. iii. S. § 105. The Ilurse, 'flpat, were the goddesses of Time, presiding especially over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were considered as the daughters and servants of Jupiter. They came at length to be viewed as tutelary patrons of beauty, order, and regularity, in reference to which Themis was said to be their mother. They were named Evvo/xLa, Aixrj, Etpj^i'Tj. The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some writers to hnve had originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have aflervvnrds lost their astro nomical attributes, when moral ideas and-qualities became more prominent in the Greek system of fictions. The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and garlands of palni- leaf. and all of the satne age. In some monuments of later periods-, /o(/r Hours appear, corre- sponding to the fiur seasons. — In the Sup. Plate 10, the Hours are represented lly four virginsi attending Aurora. In reoresentiug the seasons, the Romans used the masculine gender; thus in our Plate IX. which exhibits them as sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we see four lads or young men, each with wings, and appropriate symbols of Spring. .Summer, Autunm, and Winter. The lloiriaiig also personified the Months, usually representing them by male figures. Of. Winrhelmann, Hist, de I'Art, 1. iv. ch 2. § 83 —Mnnlfaucon, Ant Exp. Suppl. vol. i. p. 22 ss. Here he eives also, Pla'et 5-16, from I ambecius, ensravinjs of the representa ions of the months as beautifully ilepicti'd in a n]anuscri[)t helonsint; to Ihelmpe rial Library at Vienna ; Ftl)ruary alone is represented by a female. § 106. (fi) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of human life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to the notion of tb 128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. Fntes^ called Motpat by the Greeks ; by the Romans, Parcse. They were three sisters, dauorhters of Nig-ht, whom Jupiter permitted to decide the fortune and especially the duration of mortal life. One of them Clolho (K^^co^w), attached the thread; the second, Lachesis (Aa;i;frjt$), spun it; and the third, .Stropos ("Arportof), cut it off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as in- exorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their worship was not very general. TJie Parcffi were generally represented as three old women, with chaplets made of wool and interwoven with the flowers of tlie Narcissus, wearing long robes, and employed in their woiks : Clothe with a distaff; Lachesis having near her sometimes several spindles : and Atropos hold- ing a pair of scissors. Sucli is their appearance in the Sup. Plate 14, which is ;iot copied from any ancient monument, but designed after the description of the poets. See Cnhdl. Epithal. Pel et Thet. v. 305. — Mama's Abhaudl. v. Parzen. in his Mylhol. Vtrsuchen. — Banitr, Sur les Parques, io the Mem. Acad. Jnscr. vol. iv. 648. § 107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the lower world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proserpine, whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, and often to inflict ven- geance upon the living. The Greeks called them EpivvvB^, Furies; and also by a sort of euphemism, or from design to propitiate them, Eii;jtifvi.'6t$, signify- ing kindly disposed j the Romans styled them Furiae. Their names were Tisiphone (from tias and ^61/05), whose particular work was to originate fatat epidemics and contagion; J /edo, (from a'krjxTOi), to whom was ascribed the devastations and cruelties of war; and Megsera (from ^fyatpw), the author of insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them among both the Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, if we may con- sider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to a separate goddess Fu- rina, as some suppose. 1 u. They were represented with vipers twining among their hair, usually with frightful coun- tenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance. 2. See the Sup. Plate 14, where they are seen in drapery, with the serpetit locks and scorpion whips with which the artists represented them. On two vases in ihe Hamilion collection tliey have serpents in their hair. In the Sup. Plate 13, they are introduced as lashing a criminal with their whips. Cf Virg. Georg. iii. 551. .^n. vii. 341, 415. xii. 846. — Ov. Met. iv 474.— Of. C A. Bottiger, Furienmasken im Trauerspiel und auf d. Bildweiken d. alt. Griechen ; eine archaeol. L'niersuchuiig Weirii. 1801. 8. — Eanier, sur les Furies, iu Ihe Mem. Acad. Inscr col. V. p. 34. § 108 a. The fable of the Harpies, "ApTtutat, seems to have had reference, originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which suddenly seizes and bears oflT whatever it strikes. Their names were Aello (from atVka, storm), Celap.no (from xB'kaivb^, dark), and Ocypeia (from uixrTtifiyj, flyi'>^g rapidly), all indicative of the source of the fiction. They appear to have been consSdered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, and so were called QvcWai {Horn. Od. .\x. 66). They were said to be daughters of Neptune and Terra, and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the borders of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the Furies, to whom they sometimes bore off the victims they seized. They are represented as having the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and hands armed with claws, and sometimes as with the tails of serpents. See the Sup. Plate 14. Virg.SLu. iii. ^lO.— See Kojj, Wylholug. Briefe. .Stultg. 1827 3 vols. 12.— Lf Clcrc (in the BiLHcthfque Universelle, vol. i p. 148) lupposes the Harpies to be merely locuits ; a conjecture which Giilun seenis to approve (Rom. Emp. vol. ii. p. 71. ed. N. Y. 1822;. "Ji 108 b. (8) The Venti or Winds. Ii has been already remarked (§ 78) that the four jirincipal winds -were at an early period converted into mythical personages. Among both Greeks and Romans they gained the rank of deities. 'Ihe Venti, 'Avi fmi, were eight ; Evpoj, Eiirus, Soutti-east ; Atrr/Aiojrr;?, Subsolanus, East ; KaiKiui, CcBcias, /l^Jij'Zo, North-east ; Bopeag, Borens,]^orth; Sftpoi/, Co/-ms, North-west ; Z€(pvpog, Zephy- rus, Orcidn/.s, West; Norog, Notus, Ausler, South; Alip, Libs, Africus, South-west. Little is handed down to us respecting the worship paid to the winds. An altar dedicated to them was found near Netiuno (cf. $ 78. 3). Pausanias speaks of one erected at the foot of a mouniain near Asopus, where annual sacrifices were offered to them at night. The most re- markable monument pertaining to these gods is ihe Temple or Tower of the eight Winds at Athens, still existing; said to have been erected al)out B. C. 150; a view of it is given in Plate XKI tig. 2; see also P. 1. $ 110. On each of the eight sides of this tower is represented one of the winds; F.iirvs. as a young man flying freely and vigorotisiy ; l^ubsnlavus, a young man holding fruit in the fold of his mantle; Aqtiilo, a venerable mar. with a heard, holding a dish of ilives ; Bonas, with boots on his legs, muffling hi.s face in a cloak, and flying eagerly; Corns, also wilh boots and cloak, and holding in tiis hands an inverted vase of water; Zej>lii/rus,nfnundc(I, but were r'ot the same. "The Penates were oriiriiialiy gods, the powers of nature personified; the mysttrinus action of vvhich pro • duces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, to the common good, t> tiie prosperity of I'aini lies; whatever, in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself The Lares were originally themselves human beinjrs, who, becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to hover round the (fweliing they opce inhabited; to watch over its aafety, and to guard it as the faithful dog doe* 12 130 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. the possessions of his master. They keep off danger from without, while the Penates, residing in the interior of the dwelling, pour blessings upon its inmates." {Jivth. Lemp.) A number of small bronze statues, representing Roman Pevates, were found the last century at Exeter, in Ennland. Cf. ftrg. /En. ii. 717. iii. \48. — Heyne, Excurs. ix. ad Virg. Mn. ii. — T. Hempd, Diss, de diis Laribus, as cited § HI. — MUllf.r dediis Rom Laribus et Penalibus. Hafnias, 1811. 8. — For a notice, with plates, of the statues found at Exeter, see the ■/Irctew*- io^i'a, (cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. vi. publ.shed 1786. § 113. (11) Sleep, Dreams, ■awA Death. Among the imaginary beings sup- posed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, 'Tyti^o?, 'Oiftpoj, and ©avatof, gained a personification, being called brothers, sons of Nox or night, and ranked among the deities of the lower world. 1 a. The residence of Sleep, "Ytti/oj, Somnus, was said to be in Ciinmeria, on account of the perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region ; and the poppy, on account of its soporific qualities, was his common symbol. He is represented as hold- ing in his hand a hght inverted and about to be extinguished. 'I'lie last symbol was also employed in representing edi^aroj, or Death, who was often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral monuments, and appeared in a similar bodily form, and not a mere naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death was the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks ex- pressed it by the word Kfip, and they fancied a sort of beings called Krjpcs, who caused death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar distinction between mors and lethum. 2. In the representation of Soynvus, given in our Plate XXXVI., he is a young man lying on the ground asleep, with one arm on the neck of a lion, and holding the capsule of a "poppy. Tkana- los, or Death, stands by him with a scythe and wings, in a robe bespangled with- stars, as he is seen in some paintings. The Romans imagined death as a goddess. Jl/irs. The poets described her as roving about with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and dark wings. She is not often found represented on existing monuments of art; in one supposed to represent her, a small figure in brass, she appears as a skeleton, sitting on the ground with one hand on an urn. Cf. Ov Met. xi. .592, 634, 6i0.- Lesniig's Unlersuchui.g, wie die Allen d. Tod gebildet. Berl. 1769. \.—Herder^s Abh. in his Zerstreufen PUittern. Th. 2. 273.— Spcnce, Polynietis, cited P. IV. § 151. 3. The god oi dreams was "Ovsipoi; (Horn. II. ii. 56), more commonly called Mop(pevg, from the various images or forms {iiop(ph) presented in dreaming. Morpheus is some- times considered as the god of sleep, but was more properly his minister; Phohetor [(poPfiTwp), sometimes considered as the god of dreams, was another minister of Som- rius, and Fhantasus {(pajra-M) another. Cf. Theory of Dreams, &c., illustrated by the most remarkable dreams recorded in History. Lond. 1808. 12. . § 114. (12) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the forests and woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, took its rise in the ear- liest ages either from the custom of wearing skins of animals for clothing, o) in a design to represent symbolically the condition of man in the semi-barbarons or half-savage state. The Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, in their representation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Fanes, which had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of the brute. 1 u. The Fauns v/ere represented as older than the Satyrs, who, when they became old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans represented the Satyrs more like beasts, and as having the goat's feet. The Satyrs, Faitns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to the retinue of Bacchus C?* 60). 2 II. The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived from a national god Fajnus, who was son ol' Picus (king of the Latins) and the nymph Canens {Ov. Met. xiv. 320, 336), and whose wife Fauna was also honored as a goddess. See Heynt's Alih. vnn Unlerscliied. zvvischen Faun Sat. Silen. und Panen, in his Samml. Jlnt. Jlufi'dlze. Found also in H'VjicA- thnann, Histoire de I'Art (ciltd P. IV. § 32) vol. i. p. 680. Ueber Faun Sat. Pan. und Silenen. Berl. 1790-91. 8.— Kosf, Myth. Briefe. ^. 115. (13) The Gor; and Frtrct, on Bellerophon, in the Mtm. Mad. laser, vii. 37, 69. (c) The Centauri were said to be half rnen and half horses. Some make them the offspring of Ixion and the cloud ; others refer their origin to the bestiality of Centau- rus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaly. The principal inci- dents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at the marriage of Pirithous and Hippodamia. and the consequent battle with the Lapithae, who drove them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwHrds chiefly destroyed by Hercules. {Ov. Met. xii. 530.) — Some have imagined this fable to allude to the dramiug of the low parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general symbolical of water. Knight's Inquiry, &c. in the Class. Journal.— Ci. Mitford, ch. I. sect. 3.—Bnnier, La Fable des Cent, in the Mem. Acad. Insa; ai. 18. {d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirlioe, and to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades, where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and guarded by a two-headed dog called Orthos. The destruction of this monster formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules ($ 123). (p) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads nine accordiiig to the common account. When one of these heads was cut oil", an other or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the wound was stopped by fire. The destruction of the Hydra was another labor assigned to Hercules, which he acconiplishea hy the aid of lolans, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron as each head was removed. The a; rows of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. if) Pesosus was not so much a monster as a prodio-y, beins a winged horse sam tu have sprung from the llood, which fell on the frroun^l when Perseus cut off -he head of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Hc^licon. where he opened the lountain called Hinpocrene (iWof and Kp'uri). He was a favorite of the muses, and is cqilled " tlie muses' horse." The horse, having come info the possession of Bellerophon, enaj)le(l him to overcome the Chimaera. .Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from .lupuer. ]32 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. vhrevv off Bellerophon to wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place aiTiong the stars. An engraving is given by Winckelmann of a beautiful bas-relief in white marble, representing Rellerophon and Pegasus; the sriginal, preserved in the palace of Spada at Rome, is of the natural size. — See lVnichehna7\n, Hist, de I'Art, vol. ii. p. 652. iii, 2i\. —Of. Fraiictsur, L'ranographie ou Traite Elemenlaire d'Astroiiomie. Par. 1818. 8. containing the ancient Fables respecting Ibt Constellations. (o) Cerbems was the fabled dog of Pluto (§ 34), stationed as oentinel at the entrance of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, sometimes as having fifty. Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from tlie world of the living could pass him but by appeasing him with a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific ingredients. ( Virg. JEn. vi. 420.) To seize and bring up this monster was a.ssigned to Hercules as one of his labors. {h) Scylla and Charyhdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian shore, in the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirlpool or strong eddy over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected a fabulous story with each name. — Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but was changed by Circe into a monster, the parts below her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking, while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified at this metamorphosis, ^he threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks which bear her name. — Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Her- cules, and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. Cf. firgil, Mn. iii. 420ss.— Ouid, Metam. xiv. 66. — Propert. iii. II. — Hyginus, fab. 199. (?) The Sphinx was the offspring of Orthos and Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna ; a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, ihe tail of a serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. This monster infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants who could not explain them. At length one of the enigmas, in which she demanded what animal it w-as which walked on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three at night, was solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning of life creeps upon his hands and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening of his days uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphnx instantly destroyed herself. In Plate VIII. are given two images of the Sphinx. One is without wings ; having a peculiar Egyptian head-dress; from a sculptured monument given by Bols.sard. The other is from an engraved gem, given by Maffei ; having the calathus on her head, and the sistrum in her paw. Representations of the Sphinx are very common anions: Egyptian monuments. A very celebrated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet remains near the pyramids. It is cut in the solid lock, and is 125 ftet in length. — Clarhe^s Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch. 4. — Denon's Travels (vol. i. p. 55. Lond. IS04).— Lo?2d. Quart. Rev. xix. 163, 403 ss. (k) The Oriffon (Tpvxp) was an imaginary animal, said to be produced from a lion and an eagle, and supposed to watch over mines of gold and whatever was hidden. Its image is some- times found on ancient medals ; the upper part resembling an eagle, the lower part a lion. Cf. Fi7-ji7,Ecl.viii. 27. — Hnodolus, iii. 116. — Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 49. — M. F. Grafen von feltheim, Voii den Greifeti der Alten. Helmst. 1799. 8. (I) In the Greek mythology Typhon is ranked among the Giants; by some considered to be the same as Typhcous (cf. $ 98); by others distinguished from him; said to have been produced from the earth by Juno's striking it ; described as having a hundred heads like those of a dragon. — In Egyptian mythology the monster called Typhon holds an important place, being considered as the cause of all evil, "the Egyptian devil." (Fosbroke.) He is described and represented in va- rious ways; sometimes as with a hundred drngoi) heads; sometimes as a wnlf; sometimes as a crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a crocodile with the head and fore-legs of the hippopotamus, as seen in our Pla'e VIII. IV. — Mythical History of the Heroes. § 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinortiished even by the ancients : the unknown^ ahrp^ov, of which no historical monuments remained to make known the state of society ; the fabulous^ y.v^ix6v, of which the accounts left are mingled with manifold fictions; and the hifitoricnl, tatopixbv, of which a crennine and trustworthy history is recorded. The first extends to the dehig-e of Deucalion, the second lo the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third cnrough the subsequent -times. To the second of these periods belonfred the Heroes, as they are called,* and it is on that account often styled the heroic age. These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary powers of body Tnd mind, and distinoruished merit is ascribed to them as having founded cities r II HEROES. PERSEUS. 133 or countries, improved their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or do* fended them. § 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progenitors was a most common cause of the sort of deification with which these heroes were publicly honored after death ; and the disposition towards this aratefiil remem- brance was quickened and sustained by oral traditions respectino; then deeds, which were much adorned and exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that most of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter himself. The veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less uni- versal than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and public, solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, received only an annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and libations were presented to them. Sometimes, ho'vever, the respect paid them exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the gods. The introduction of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to Cadmus. Cf. Virg. ^n.iii. SO\.—SaUier, in the Hist, de VAcad- ics In or. vol. iv. p. 299. § 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some were viewed as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal existence watched over their families and friends and were honored and worshiped only by thera. Others, whose services while they lived were of a more extended character, were worshiped by whole states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had their appropriate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To such was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illus- trious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, but was adopted also among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be mentioned, in doing which the order of time will be followed. § 121. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked among the Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same class, too, belong Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son Fhoroneus, to whom various merits were ascribed ; and Ogyges, a king of Boeotia, memorable from the flood which occurred in his reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among their respective people and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state; Deu' calion^ a Thessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general floo^ that happened in his times ; AmpJiidyon, author of the celebrated council o confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus^ who came from Phoenici:\ to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve the people (cf. P IV. § 34; /)anaus, to whom the kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advance- ment; Bellerophon, wlio was said to have destroyed the monster Chimaera, and to have performed other exploits ; Pe/o/)s, king in Elis, from whom Pelopon- nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula; and the two princes of Crete by the name of Minus, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other as a warrior. Some writers argue agiinst the existence of two individuals by the name of Minos. — See F{ock\ Kreta. Gotting. IS23. 3 vols. 8. § 122. Perseus was one of the mostjdistinguished of the early heroes. He was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Polydectus on the island Se- riphus. His chief exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, whose head he struck off with a sword given to him by V^ulcan. From the blood that fell, sprang the winged horse Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed over many lands. 1 u. Of his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing king Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, and his deiiveravice of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be devoLired by tlic sea- monster. In con- nection with the latter adventure he also changed into s'one Phineus, who contended with him for the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon Polydectes tor ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascril)ed the invention of the discus or quoit, with Vv'hich he inadvertently occasioned the death of his grandfatlier Acrisijs. Finally he founded the kingdom of Mycenas. After his assassination bv /34 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. Megapejithes, ne was placed among t'ne constellations, and several lemplcs were erected to him. besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. (Cf. Ov. Met. iv. 603. V. 1-350.) 2. The fal)les respecting Perseus are by some considered as a nioditication of tlie story of the Persian Mithras (cf $35), and a piece of ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel of MyceticE has been thought to confirai the analogy. — Creuzer, Symbolik. — Gell, Itinerary of Greece. 3. Atlas, whom on account of his refusing hospitaliiy to Perseus, the latter is said to have changed into a mountain, is described as the son of Japetus and the knig of Maurctania. He owned numerous flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding with citrons and oranges. His seven daughters, renowned for beauty and wisdom, were called Atlantides Irom their father, and'Hesperides (rom their mother Hesperis. The gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were said to he guarded by a dread- ful dragon that never slept. The name oi Atlas was given to the chain of mountains in that part of Africa, and to the ocean on the west. Whether irom reference to the height of those mountains or to the astronomical researches of the king, Atlas is said to have supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have represented him as bear- ing an immense sphere on his shoulders. Thus he is seen in the Sup. Plate 22. On some monuments, Hercules :s represented in a similar wa; because, as is said, he eased Atlas of his burden — Cf. Ogle, Ant Expl. plale 35. § 123. Of all the Grecian heroes, no one obtained such celebrity as Her- cules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful streno^th was ascribed to him even in his infantile years. Eurystheus kingr of Mycense imposed upon him many difficult enterprises, which he carried throuorh with success; particularly those, which are called the twelve labors of Hercules. These were : to kill the Nemaean lion ; to destroy the Lernaean hydra ; to catch alive the Stag with ti'olden horns; to catch the Erymanthean boar; to cleanse the stables of Au- ^ias ; to exterminate the birds of lake Stymphalis ; to hrinij alive the wild bull of Crete ; to seize the horses of Diomedes ; to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons; to destroy the nionster Geryon ; to plunder the g'arden of Hesperides, gfuarded by a sleepless dragon; and to bring from the infernal world the three-headed dog Cerberus. These various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion in the poets. The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. The twelve labors are described in 12 verses in the M Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf. P. V. $ 81).— The story of Hercules strangling the serpents while an infant is given in the 24th Idyl of Theocritus. ^ 124 u. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he gave proof of his ex- traordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer of the oppressed.. Such were, his slaying the robber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of Prometheus, i)0un'd to a rock; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus; the contest with Achelous ; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less honorable was hia lovfe of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank into the most unworthy efl'emi- nacy. His last achievement was the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying gave his poisoned tunic to Dejanira ; Hercules afterwards receiving it from her, and putting it on, became so diseased that he cast himself in despair upon a funeral pile on mount (Eta. The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were erected to his honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great many surnames and epithets from his exploits and from the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and they very often employed them. Two of the most celebrated antique statues represent Hercules ; the Turso. or Herculese Belvidere, and the HercuJf-^ Farnese ; cf. P IV. ^ IS6. 6, 7. The latter represents him leaning upon his club, as it were after his labors. A view of it is given in Plate XLIV. fig. 6, copied from VVinckelmann. An engraving of the same is given in the Sup. Plale 22. The other representation in this Plate »hows the infant Hercules strangling the serpent ; from an antique sculpture. For other principal representations nf Hercules, see Montfaiicmi, Ant. F.xpl. T. i. pi. 123. 141, and Ogle's Ant. Expl. No. 31-10.— See also Laiir. Bezerx, Hercules Ethnicoruiri, ex. var antiq. reliquiis dt-liiieatus Col. March. 1705. fol. — Heynii Not. ad Apollodor. p. 325 — /. Gurlitl's Fragment, d. archaeol. Abhandl. (lb Hercules. Magd. tSCO. 4 — Ph. ButtniaiiT), Ober d. M)fhos des Herakles. Berl. ISIO. S.— Dupuis, Orig. de ions les cult. vol. ii — Resp cling the ancient writers on the Mylhol. of Hercules, see MUlltr's Hist, and Antiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. lS3n. vol. i. p 523. Among thr-. various solutions of the story of Hercules, there is one which very ingeniously applies the account of his twelve labort tr the passage of the sun through the twelve >igns of the Zodiac. A view of this i.s given in Jiiithoii's I.empriere. § 125. Thesels, a son of i^oreus and ^Ethra, or according to others a son of Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to engage in enterprises ih' most hazardous, and he stVcessfuUy accomplished them. Among these wa? ilie extermination of a multitude of robbers and assassins that infested Greece. Uid especially the destruction of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, tc p. II. HEROES. JASON. CASTOR AND POLLUX. ISf) which the Athenians had prev'ously been compelled to send seven male youth and as many youncr viro-ins annually, to be devoured by him. By the help of Ariadne, a daufjhter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the windiny of the labyrinth, in which the monster Irad his abode, and put him to death. Ariadne accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he ungratefully deserted her on the island of Naxos. § 1-26 u. The oiher principal exploits of Theseus were his descent to the lower world with his friend Pirithoas, his victory over the Amazons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyia became his wife, and the assistance he gave Adrasius, i\ing of Argos, against the The- ban prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislaiion and the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for some time an exile. '1 he manner of his death is variously related, but it seems by all accounts to have been caused by violence. The honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple was consecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called OiVaa, lield on the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular sacrifice termed Oy'66iov. ProMsion was made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festivities of this occasion. Cf. Pint, in yu. Thes.—Dind. Sic. L. iv. c 61.— Ou. Metam. vii. 404 ; viii. 152; xii. 210.— Mil ford's Greece, cti. i. sect, 3.— For a view of the leniple of Ttieseus, see Plate XXI. fi; 3, § 127. .Tason and the Argonauts. One of the most celebrated enterprises of the heroic acres, one which forms a memorable epoch in the G-recian history, a sort of separation-point between the fabulous and the authentic, was the Aro-o- nautic expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain the golden fleece, conducted hy Jason, the son of ^E son, king of Thessaly. The undertaking was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited the most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and amono- those who joined him were Hercules^ Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirilhovs, and The- seus. The vessel built for the purpose was named Ariro, which after various adverse events arrived at .-Ea, the capital of Colchis. .-Eetes was then king of Colchis, and promised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most diflicult conditions. § 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet ^Eetes was unwilling to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his com- panions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king's daughter, by whose assistance and magical art Jason slew the dragon that .guarded the fleece, and seized the treasure. He immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was pur- sued by her father. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse into pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's pursuit. Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married C^reusa, or, as others name her, Glance, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took vengeance by causing the death of Creusa and also of the children she had iierself born to Jason. After death Jason received the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a temple at Ahdera. See the poeius on the Arson. Exped, by Orphetu, Apollortius Rhndiiis, and Valerius Flaccus, (Cf. P. V. §§ 4", 73, J76.) — Banicr^ on the Argon. Ex[)ed. in Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol iy p. 54 ; xii. .'2J; xiv. 41. — Heyiiii Not. ad Apollodor. p. 177. — C. P- Levesque, sur le Retour des Argonauts, in the M.ni. de lliislilut. C 1 a s s e d. Sciences Mur. et Pol. vol iv. Variniis explanations have been put upon the story of the Ar^imauts. One writer tiiinks the golden fleece was the raw silk nf ihe East. Ha^er, I'antheon Chiiiois.'— Another thini-eC, Les Cabires, in the Mem. Acad, laser, vol. xxvii. p. 9 $ 130 ti. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of Greece, the war of Thebes, which is aated upwards of 1200 years belore Christ, is much celebrated. Withoiit relating its incidents we shall here only name some of the principal lieroes of the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, the two sons of (Edipus, king of Thebes, whose own private story was so tragical. The war arose irom the dissen- sion of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were afterwards honored as demigods. Several famous chiefs, as Cupa?ieus, Tydeus, Hivpoinedon, Parthenovceus, united with Adrastus, king of Argos and iather-in-law of Polynices, to take partin the war. The events connected with it furnished the poets with matter for numerous tragedies. — The second enterprise against Thebes, ten years later, was more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons and descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the war of the 'Eniyoyoi. The most illustrious of these were Alcmaeon, Thersander, Polydorus, and Thesimenes. The Theban war was one of the favorite themes of ancient poets, ^ntimaclnts of Colophon, a Greek poet, and contemporary with Choeriins, wrote a poem in twenty-four books on the sub- ject ; the fragments have been collected. Cf. P. V. $ 19. — The poem of the Latin poet Stattud is still extant. Cf P. V. $ 378. Cf. Paus. ix. 25.— Apollod. i. 3.—Dwd. iv.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. \.—KcigMley''s Mythology. $ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were involved in contention and calamity, Tanta- lus, and his descendants the Tanlalides, were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, occasioned by the impiety of this prince, who was said to be a son of .Iiipiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being of immortal descent, he was honored with a visit from the gods during an excursion they made upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served nji among other meats the limbs of his son Pelops, whom he had cruelly murdered. The gods perceived his perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish; hut Ceres, whom the recent loss of her daughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the shoulders. In con)passion to the fate of the young prince, Jupiter restored him to life; and instead of the shoulder which Ceres had devoured, substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing by its touch all kinds of diseases. As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell ($ 34) with an insatiable hunger and thirst in the midst of abundance. — He had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to her intolerable vanity. She was married to Amphion, a prince of Thebes in BoBotia ; and having a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with over- bearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, who ($ 38) destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris (cf $ 38). Niobe, after the death of her children, returned to Lydia, and ended her days near Mt. Sipylus ; according to the fables, she was so shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. '• On Mt. Sipylus, acctird- ing to Paiisanias, was to be seen a rock which from a distance resembled a woman in deep me- lancholy, though near at hand it had not the most remote resemblance to one." P'%i.ops quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the daughter of king a^^nomaus; but tliis monarch, having been informed that he should perish by the hand of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in the chariot race ; and those who entered the list were to f rfeit their lives if conquered. Un- daunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he previously bribed Myrtiles, the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the axle-tree of the cha- riot in such a manner as to break it on the course , and the unfortunate kinsi. being thrown to the- ground, killed himself Q':nomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who acqitired great celebrity, atid gave his name to the peninsula in the southern ;)art of Greece. Pelops, after death, received di-vine hormrs. He had an altar in the grove All is at Olympia, and was much revert^l, even ahovn other heroes {Pivd. Olvmp. i. 146. Pausan. v. 13). Ilis descend- ants were called PelopidcB. Flis two sons, Atreiis and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual hatred and crimes. lUn his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Jltridw, ai;quired p vnra honorable renown. : -*. HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR. 137 § 132 21. Heroes of the Trojan War. Of all the wars of Grecian story, none is more famous than that of Troy, which was the first miHtary campaign of the Greeks out of the Hmits of their own country. 'I'he immediate occasion ot it was the seizure of flelen. wife of Menelaus, king of Lacedoemon, by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. The siege continued, according to the common account, including the prepara- tion and marches, ten years, with various successes and disasters, un.il at last the Greeks became masters of the city by stratagem. The chiefs who were engaged in ihis enter- prize acquired the highest renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured their everlasting remembrance. The chief commander was Aga/nem?M?t, and the more illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, Dlomedcs, Mendaus, Ajux son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, Idomeneus, and Neslor. On the side of the Trojans, Hector, JE?ieas, and Ante7ior were among the most celebrated. The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself than for iis consequences. It gave a new spring to Grecian culture (cf P. IV. § 40). The arts of war were greatly improved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took place in most of tlie states. But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales. See Mitfmrd, ch. i. sect. 4. — Gillies, cti. i. iii. — Clas^. Jouni. v. 14, 18. vi. 25. ix. 605, 626. xviii. 141. — Chanaler, History oi Froy. See references given in P. V. § .60. 7. — Bryanl (in a Dissertation on the war of Troy, L,ond. 1799. 4) has maintaine' that he whole tale is a mere fablf, and that there never was any such war. ^ 133. Although the personages specially called Heroes in Grecian story belonged to the period termed the heroic age (cf § 118); yet under our fourth division of the subject of Mythology (cf. ^ 10) will properly fall the names of a multitude of personages of later periods, including Romans as well as Greeks, who after their death were deified in the country where they lived, or had become, renowned (cf ^ 88. 2, and 89. 3) for memorable attainments or achievements. Merely to have been a king or ruler was sufficient to secure deification among a people fond of the pageantry of superstition. This servile and impious adulation was particularly practiced by the Asiatic Greeks towards the successors of Alexander. Mere governors of provinces were sometimes thus 'honored. After the Roman imperial power was established, it became a regular cus- tom (cf. ^ 94) to deify the emperors. Tlie Roman senate made it their business by solemn decree to place every deceased en.peror in the number of the gods, and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of hi.«. funeral. But as the actions of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was impos- sible to connect with the deified name such fabulous and mysterious tales as to give the diviui- ties, thus established by law, much hold upon the popular feelings. The list of imperial demi- gods, therefore, is of comparatively little importance in a view of the ancient tnythology. This deification of the emperors, if is very likely, gave rise to llie Itatificatinn of saints, practiced by the Roman Catholics. See Middleton's Letter from Rome, showing the conformily between Popery and Pagaiiisiri, 1 ind. 1729. 4. 6th ed. 1825 ^ Also in his Miscellaiiecna Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8. — Cf. Gibbon. Dec!, and Fall, &c. ch. iii. ilespecting the ceremonies attending the Apolhe.z^ij, or Constaratio, see P, III. §^3iS. PLATE XV a. Gods of the Greeks and Bomans, as classed in the preceding Sketch. 1. Superior Gods. Jupiter Juno Neptune Minerva Apullo Diana Mars Venus Mercury Vesta Vulcan Ceres Janus Rhea Saturn Pluto Bacchus 2. Inferior Gods. CobIus Several Gods S..1 If""" ,'" ^olus (cf. §8S); Plutus Enyo yEsculapius ErL'ane Pan Luna Aurora Nox Iris Latona Themis Nemesis Fortuna Fania Cotytto,&c. Sfveral Gods peculiar to Ihe Konians (cf. § 89) ; Priapus Terminus Vertuniiius Pomona Flora Feronia Pales, &c. 3. Mythical Beings. 4. Deified Heroes. Titans Manes Inachus Hercules rjiants Lares Phoroneus TiiHseus Pygmies Penates Oj:yges Jason Tritons Satyrs Cecrops Castor Sirens Fauns Deucalion Pollux Nymphs Gor{!ons Amphictyon and Muses Amazons Cadmus Heroes Graces Centaurs Danaus of Ihe Hours Seasons Minotaur Chimiera Pelops Minos Theban ai.d the Fates Geryon Perseus wars, &C. Furies Hydra Harpies Pejjasus Winds Scylla Genii Charybdis Somiius Sphinx Mors Typhon The Gods as classed by the Greeks. Superior Godii, called MeydXoi Qeoi. Jupiter Juno Saturn Aurora Neptune Ceres Bacchus Themis Apollo Diana .'Eolus Luna Mercury Minerva jEsculapius Nox Mars Vesta Helius or Iris Vulcan Venus Sol Hebe Pluto Tyche Pan Latona Plutus Nemesis Fama Inferior Gods, called simply Qeoi, and sometimes Aaiixuveg. The Mythir-al Be- ini^s named alinve; Titans, Giants, &c The Gods peculiar to the Greeks (cf. §88), except such as fall into the class of De- migods. Demigods, called 'HiAideoi. Here fall Ina- chu'i, Ferseus, and all named above, under Heroes. Here also some- times Saturn, Bacchus, iEo- lus, and other gods are put. The Theban Heroes are^- Capaneus Tydeus Polynices Thersander, &c. The Trojan Heroes are — Agamemnon Achilles Ulysses Diomedes Ajax, &c. The Gods as classed by the Romans. Dii Majorum Gentium. L Connentes. 2. Selecti Jupiter Saturn Neptune Pluto Apollo Sol Mercury Janus Mars Bacchus Vulcan Genius Juno Rhea Ceres Luna Diana Minerva Venus Vesta Dii Minorum Gentium. 1. Seviones, Guardians over particular ob- jects ; as Pan PllJttIS il^olus, Sec. Here also Vertumnus Terminus, atid most of Ihe Gods peculiar to ihe Romans (cf. § 89). Here also the Mythical Be- inis (cf. § Si). 2. .Miscellanei, Personificaiions of various objects; as Virtus Fides Honor Spes Pietas Bt'llona Febris Mephitis Victoria, &;c. 3. Perenrrini. Gods from other n:»iions ; as Mithras Osiris Isis Apis & Mnevis Serapis Anubis Harpocrates Canopus, &.c. 4. IrtdigeUg, or Adscriptitii ; Hercules Castor Pollux ^iieag Romulus or Qiiirinus, &c. Also deified Empe- rors, &c. Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed according to supposed Residence. Celestial. Jupiter Venus Apollo Mercury Mars Vulcan Cupid Vesta Aurora Iris Hebe Psyche Hymenaeus HorsE Juno Seasons Minerva Graces Diana Muses The Muses sometimes rank- ed with Ihe Terrestrial. Terrestrial. Terra Cybele Ceresi Saturn* Janus> Bacchus" Terminus Pomona Pales Feronia Pan Silenus Satyrs Fauns Vertumnus Lares Priapus Nymphs Flora Penates, &c ' Ranked sometimes with the Celestial. Marine. Oceanus Tethys Neptune Mollis Proteus Phorcys Amphitrite Matuta Ino or Leucothoe Porinmnus Sirens Nereus Nereids Triton Scylla Glancus Charybdis Palaemon Tritons Infernal. Pluto Proser- Charon pine Minos Nemesis Rhada- Mors manlhus Manes j'Eacus Na-nia* Cerberuu Parcae Nox Furies » Goddess of Funerals. PART TIL GREEK AND SOMAN ANTIQUITIES PLATE XVI i4(i GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Introduction. § 1. Gr.^cia is by some supposed to have derived its name fron. Graicus, ii 8on of Thessalus, his descendants beintr called Graici^ Tpaixot. The Graici. however, were only a single tribe of the inhabitants, some of whom planted themselves in Italy. The country originally seems to have had no common name, comprehending properly all its tribes. Graecia was a name used hy the Romans, not by the inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, from Hellen, a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the people were called by the ancient writers Acha^ans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes, Pelasgians, and lonians. These names of the country and the occupants, however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but seem to have re- ferred in their general application chiefly to the more important colonies or com- munities, which originally occupied and peopled the land. § '2t. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was bounded on three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which were distinguished by the names of ^Egean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic; and on the north extended to the chain of mountains called Orbelus (cf. P. I. § 77) separating it from Meesia. Taken in this extent, it is naturally divided into four parts; ^Macedonia; Thes- salia and Epirus; Hellas; and Peloponnesus (cf. P. I. § 7G). Taken in a more limited sense, excluding Macedonia, it was sometimes divided into two parts ; Graecia Propria (including Thessalia and Epirus, and Hellas); and the Pelo- ponnesus. In the most limited sense, however, it included merely Hellas, which is perhaps usually meant by the .restrictive phrase Graecia Propria. The name of Greeks was also applied to the inhabitants of (irecian colonies in Asia, in Italy, and in Africa. § 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were distinguished for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, in Attica; Sparta or La- cedeemon, in Laconia ; Argos, Mycenae, and Corinth, in the territory of Argolis; Thebes, in Boeotia ; Megalopolis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or colonial cities of the Greeks were the following; Miletus and Ephesus in Ionia; Mitylene, Chios, Samos, and Rhndus, in the islands near Asia Miner; Byzantium on the Thracian coast ; Corcyra on the island of that name ; Ta- rentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy; Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, and Leontium in Sicily; Syrene in Africa. In later times Alexandria in Egypt. Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as Grecian cities. § 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course cf its his tory, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic I'ges. the several tribeti or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subse- q\iently monarchies properly so called were established in Sicyon, Arors, Attica. Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedaemon, P]lis, TKtolia, yEgialea, or Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most fiourishintr condition during the lime of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — The Acl aean and Elolirin league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political cnnstiiution of the Greeks in Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. § 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probubly casne frr.m Thrace iuid who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. IV. § 33, 3i) and tlie Hellenes, lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relaiions or even couni on Idws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, an«^ 141 142 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. wore exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighborino- islands. Colonies from Ks'ypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, ^ave the first impulse to iheii culture, which was aided by the commencement of the navigation. The famous Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the naviga- tion of this early period, occurring about eighty years before the 'J'rojan war. About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted, in Crete, under the direction of Minos; not with the perfection, however, which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him Theseus. The peo[)le of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions. § 6. Hereby w^as occasioned a more free intercourse between the different people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest, particularly in reference to murders and depredations. A proof of this was given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injuries of Menelaus (committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on together the war against Troy. This war became a means of the further advancement of Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40), although it was also the occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi- nally tliey became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and maintaining social and civil order. § 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a military charac- ter ; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but now a more monarchical form was assimied. Soon however the kings abused their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a stale of things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure allayed. Amphictyon,, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), and this compact afterwards became much more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquillity and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, and Africa. § 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedaemon enjoyed first the advantages of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. about 820, the author of this code, had previously made himself acquainted with the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without intro- ducinCT any violent chancres, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in tb.ese respects a high pre-eminence over the other siates. See 7. K. F. Maiiso Sj)ar'a, ".'w V'ersuch zur Eiklarung d. Geschich e unrt Verfassung dieses Staals. Leipz. lSOO-1905. 3 Th. S. — Cf. references siveii P. V. ^ 7. 7(d). § 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and subspquently acquir- ing glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mu- tual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was imrried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens and Sparta, and in which almost all tlie other states of Greece took part on one side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure mg after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and p. Til. INTRODUCTION. 143 became the residence of refined manners, useful knovvleoge, and cultivated taste in the arts. IVm. Yuii7ig''s Political History of Athens. — Tnns. into German. Leips. 1777. 8. — Athenian Letters, or the epibtolary corres- pnndence of an agent of the kin? of Persia, residing at Alliens during the Peloponnesian w.tr. Lond. I7!:!9. 2 vols. 8 — Tians into Germ, by F Jacobs, heipz \BCO. — Bulwer, Rise and Fall of Athens.— Cf P. V. § 7. 7 (d;. § 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece we are to notice more particularly in the Archaeolog-y of Literature (P. IV. § 33ss. Glss.), and here it is only necessary to allude to the causey, which conspired to render Greece so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly pro- pitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention; its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty ; its commercial inter- course, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day one uf the most remarkable in histor}', and whose works in literature and art are still valued as our best models. § 11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military, and domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge, especially as an aid in the investigation of history, language, criticism, mytho- logy, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, re- ligion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is denominated their Aniiquilies is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to com- prehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various monu- ments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view. On the utiUty of the study of classical antiquities, we iniroduce the follo\\ing re- marks, abridged, from Rollin (as cited P. II. § 5 2t.)— "To a certain extent, this study IS indispensable tor all who make pretensions to education. Without it, tliere are a multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand; without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. 1 here is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly con^ ducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be compre- hended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the Romans. Juvenal also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridi- culous questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to mis- apply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of thirgs ol)Scure and difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says (Ofi'. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and some times even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish and pitial)le vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior writers have said ; that such an occupa'ion consumes unprofitably the time and strength which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorant of certain thii^gs is by no means the least. After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch of learnii^g ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pur.«tie important studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of the work should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the read- ing of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, litlr by little, which wilJ afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only necessary to make the cbmmencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down observations in order and with accuracy. Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven or eighl heads: religion; political government ; war; navigation; monuments and pul)iic edi- ficfs; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; the customs of common lifie, such as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under each of these divisions are included many U4 GRECIAN ANTICiUITIES. Rubdivisions. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gcds, priests, temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacri- lices, leasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads." See AT. li. Milhaiiser, Ueber Pliilolne;ie, Al'erthuinswisseiiscliaft, und Allerthiimsstutiiuni. Fe>r Studirende. I.ps. IS37. 8. pp 88. • -Suj-g-cis, Essay oil the Sluly of Antiquities. Oxf. 17S2. S. — /"/ar/viej-, as cited § 196. 3 m.— See also P. IV. § 29 ; and h oiks Ihera <.Ued. § 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical w^riters, and especial]}' the historians, more particularly such of theni as give details of the whole constitution of Grecian society, the manners, cnstoms, and modes of thinking- and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be considered as sources of information on .this subject, especially the epic poets, whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in the remaining monuments of art; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems, and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations of beauty and taste. ^ 13 M. Various modern writers have collected from these sources scattered items of information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gatn a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it to the study of Greek literature. .Other writers have investigated particular topics m a more full and extended manner. I. For an account of works of liolh kinds, see J. A. Fnhricii Bibliographia .intiquaria. (Stud, et op. P. Schaffs- Hansen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. cap. ii. A'ifsc/i'.s Beschreibung des, &c. which is cited below (Th. i p. 35.) Krebs, Handbuch derphilolol. Blcherkunde (Bd. ii p. 211). Cf. Sulzer^s All?. Theorie, Allen. MeuzeVs Bihiiotheca Hislorica, vol. 3d, as ci'ed P. V. § 240 enumerates the writers on Anliqvities. 2. The most important collection of particular treatises on Greek Antiquities is Jac. Gronovit Thesaui-us- Antlquitalum Grsecarum. I-u;. Bat. I697-I702. 13 v Is. fol. Ven. 1732. An account of the contrnts is given in the work of Fabricius, just cited. — A mass of valuable m.itter re'ating to various branche.s of Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monu- nient."!, is found in Monlfaucmi^s Antiq. Kxpliq. cited P. TI. § 12. 2(d). An abridgment of this in German, by J. F. Roth, was published Nilrnb. ISO", fol. with 130 plates.— We may men- lion here also Caylus, Recueil des Antiquitiis Par 1767. 7 vols. 4. containing F.gyptian and other antiquities, with engravings. — Also, F. J). David, Antiquiles Etrusques, Grecques, et Romains. Par. 1787. 5 vols. 4. 3. Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject are the following : Everh. Feithii Antiquitatum Hnmericarum Libri iv. (ed. El Stottr) Argent. 1743. 8. Fr. Rous, Attick Antiquities. 9th ed. Lond. 1685. 4. Jo. Phil. Pfifffer, Libri iv. Antiq. Grscarum. I.pz. 1708. 4. Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Grascarum, praecipue Alticarum, Descrip" tio brevis (with obs. of F.eisner and Zeunius). l,pz. 1787. 8. (Ens trans, by Stock^ale) Lond. 1772 8. Sjs. Havercainp, Aiili(i. Grascarum, praecipue At'icarum, De- wriptio brevis. Lus. Bat. 1740. 8. P.F.A.Nitsch.B schreibungdes hauslichen,gottesdienst!ichen, sittlicheii, poli'ischen, kriegerischen und wissenscl aftlichen Zu- slandesd.Griechen,&c. (fortgesel?' von Hiipfner) Erf. 1791-1800. 3 vols. 8. with a 4;li vol. by Kiipke, E f 1806 Cf Class. Journ. V. 10. P. F. A. Kitsch (same), Entwurf der Griech. AlterlhUmer. Altenb. 1791. 8. L Schanff, Aniiquitaten und Archiolngie ^er Griechen und RJmnges of the • more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately on the death of an indi- vidual, in the formal closing of his eyes {ovyx'k^inv tov'^ 6^^a%i.iovi), a ceremony usually performed by the nearest kinsman. The corpse was then washed and anointed, clothed in a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier (^.i-xTpor, pipstpov).' Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the funeral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed ^ot the occasion, and accompaniea by mournful notes of the liute. 'i'he mourners also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, and casting it upon the corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not always the same length of time, sometimes three, sometimes seven days, and often a greater number. § 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the Greeks, as the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. In the earliest times interring was practiced by the Greeks, although Homer speaks only of burning. 1 u. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was borne on a bed or bier lo the appointed place, where a i'uneral pile {-nvpa) was erecied. Near this, funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed various objects, which had been particularly valued by the deceased, even animals, and sometimes human beings previously put to death. During the burning, the attendants uttered their wait- ings and funeral chants. The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some hquid, and the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, and deposited in an urn. which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was marked by stones and a mound (xw/iu), on which was commonly raised a pillar (orijAfj), or other monument, with an inscription. The ceremonies were ended wiih a funeral repast {veKpo^smvov , Tzspi6tnrvov). Sometimes -games were celebrated in honor of the deceased. 2. It is stated, that among the Throciaits vvives were btn-ned on the funeral piles of their husbands; a custom which is still prevalent in India, ahhough the, influence ol Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the countiy s-iil ject to England. § 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we shoulo notice their regard to oracles and to divinations. The most ancient of the oracles way that of Dodona ; that of Delphi was still more celebrated, and also of earlj origin. The practice of divination and the interpreting of signs was a bu.siness of the priests in particular. It was done partly by observing accidental occurrences, as the flight of birds, or the breaking!' of thunder, in both of which the right side indicated good fortune, the observer havintr his face directed to the north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing was rt ^50 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. gard(;d as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the prophetic inter- pretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in maoric, and in bodily metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford various means of aid and pro- tection. The religious/es/2?;a/s were numerous and attended with various ceremonies. — But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we shall speak more particularly again. (Cf. §§ 70-77.) II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. § 33. It has been already remarked (§ 5), that the first inhabitants of Greece lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any social compact. The family relations, the authority of the parent over the child, of the husband over the wife, exhibited the only traces of government. Phoroneus, a son of In-^chus, is mentioned as the first author of association for civil purposes. Gradually the Greek tribes began to select leaders, who were called kings {}3a6i%.ni), however limited might be the extent of their dominion or a\Jthority. The choice most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or country some distinguished and meritorious service; and then the dignity became hereditary, a thing rather rare, however, in the earlier ages. Sometimes the choice was determined by consulting an oracle, and in such case the autiiority Wiis viewed as the more rightful, and as sanctioned by the gods. On the subject of the civil affairs of ihe early Greeks, ue may refer to F. IV. Tittniann^s D.irstellung iter griechisch. Stiatsveifaf sunken. Leipz 1822. %—Milford, ch. ii. sect. 2; ch. iv. sect. 4.— See § 92. § 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being despotic, or unlimited; the leaders and princes being bound by certain laws and usages. 'I'he principal duties of these chiefs were to couimand in war, to settle disputes between the people, and to take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love of justice, and zeal for religion, were therefore reckoned among tlH'ir most im- portant excellences. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended theniselves Certain taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in time of war. The signs of their officg were the scepter and diadem. The former (crx^rtrpoi') was usually of wood, and in length not unlike the lance; the latter {^taby^/xa) was a sort of bandeau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general costume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of a purple color. In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was something attached to the head ; a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic crown was common. David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious stones, of the weight (meaning probably of the value) of a talent (1 Scan. xii. 30). Athenaeus mentions a crown, made of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy. In our Plate XVI. fig. C, we have a curious golden crown, which is said to have been found iti some part of Irelnnd, in 1692, about, ten feet under groiind Near it in the Plate, fiance», this 3tate enjoyed a long period of comparative rest and liber>y. 'J'liis it owf d . 152 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES very much to the wise regulations of Lyfurcrus, the salutary influence of which was aided hy the limited territory and moderate population of Laced aem on. § 41. One of the most effectual means of advancinrr ihe Greeks was their commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the earliest times, com- merce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal exchanaes of native products. the use of gold not being introduced. Afterwards pieces of metal of diiTerent values were employed. (Cf. P. IV. § *J4.) Navigation became more common after the Trojan war, and jEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. Corinth and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The commerce of Athens finally became something considerable; that of Lacedaemon on the other hand always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime intercourse had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian states. (Cf. P. IV. § 40.) A. Andason, Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the earliest accounts; with Appendix bj Cnombe. Uiibl. 179'J. 6 vols. 8 '* Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the hands of the Phenicians. The cariying-trade ot the Mediterranean was early theirs, and Sidon was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without trathc carried on by sea among themselves ; but the profession of merchant had evidently not in Homer's time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early period in Greece. While it was thought not unbecoming a prince to be, a carpenter to supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean employment; a pirate was a more respected character. Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open vesseL=, nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no hint of any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece. are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale which oceans require, and which modern times have produced. Broken by innumerable headlands and islands, with coasts mostly mountainous, and in some parts of extraordinary height, the Gre- cian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united cir- cumstances, which have made the Greeks of all ages excellent boatmen, have contri- buted much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of the pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted ; the science of the navigator is of little avail; even the compass is comparatively useless in the ^gean. The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English alone, accustomed in all their surrounding waters to a bolder navigation, commonly venture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's de- pendence was his oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet so tempestuous, the greatest- danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which with their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms, and, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an of en beach, were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The Phenicians, for their com- merce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more open seas and longer voyages." Clifford. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. § 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of the greatest merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. The first inhabitants were distinguished for their warlike inclinations and habits of life, although their wars were conducted without much method or discipline. They were constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves and their property, but to attack and plunder others. Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and de- vastation in the extreme. It needed hut a trifling occasion to excite a general, long, and bloody war; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking exam])le. In such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces, jnited as in a common cause. On Grecian military affairs, see I T. H Nail, Einleilung in die griechischeii Kriegsallerlhimer. Slutlg 17?0. 8. a valiiahli- work on the general subject.— Als", G. G S JTdphe, itlier das Krie£;s\veisfn der Griechen im heroischen Zeilalter, &c. Berl ISO". S r(. Claxs. Juurn. ix. II. — C. Guiscarii, Menioires niililaires sur les Grecs et sur les Romains. r>a Haye, 1758. 4. It contains > •ranslation of Onosander \ct P. V. § 221), and plans of some ancient battles, &». Cf. 5 275.— Gajwer, as cited § I3C.— Alu'/or^ •>is». cli. i'.sect. 3, 4. p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE EARLIER AGES. Ifl.*) § 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of fnot^soldiers and in later limes of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were distinguished as light armed (^.ait) and heavy armed (^Tt^vcrat). The Thessa- lians were early and especially celebrated for their cavvilry (t?T7tuj). Still more ancient was the use of war-chariots, which were employed by the heroes of Homer. Two horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots; each contained two warriors, one of whom guided the horses {rvcaxoi), while ihe other pointed out the direction (7tapat,3a?>;j.), discharged arrows, hurled missiles from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the action was close sprang from the chariot {8i^pos). Notwithstanding the inconvenience of these vehicles in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalry came to be generally substituted in their place. Ill the Sup. Plate 10 is seen a war chari.n with three horses and two persons; Btllona actiii" as charioteer, while Mars is hurling the javelin. " § 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, defensive and oJfe7is?'ve. Among the /yr/?ver (dXf|);r>;pca, 7tpo,i3Xrftara) was the hel/nd (xvvir;, xpdvo^, TtepLXf^aTiata, xopvs) made of hide or leather and adorned with a crest of hair or tufts of feathers {^d^o^, Xo(j)o?), and attached to the neck by a strap (ox^V';) ; the breastplate (^copa|), commonly made of brass, sometimes of leather or linen; the girdle (^u>vrj), mostly of brass and encircling t'he lower part of the body ; the greaves (x:i'>7^r6f j), of brass or some more precious metal ; and the shield (dcvytt?), usually round, made of bullock's hide, and used for the protection of the whole body (cf. § 139). 1 u. The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as nnich so as Hesiod repre- sents the shield of Hercules to have been/aud Homer that of Achilles. 2. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (11. xviii.478) is cons dered as one of the finest passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield was formed by the celebrated artist Flaxmav, and several casts were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster, lie brfiiuht the winde work within a circle of three feet in diameter. It coiUains upwards of a hundred human figures exhibited in relief. Cf. /'e?^o?t'« Iliad, Notes — ?>ee Qiiatr. dc Quincy.Sir la description ilti bnuclier d'Acliille, &c. ii tlie Mem. I Ii, si. de France riasse li'Hiit. it LH. Anc vol. iv. p. 102, with a colored plate. — De Caylits, Boucliers d'Achile. d'He cule, el d'Eiice, S:c ir the Mem. Acad. Itiscr. xxvii. 21. — Class. Juiiiti vi. 6; viii. 409. § 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (§dpr), commonly made of the ash-tree (jUfXt->;'), and of different lenfrths and forinv^ according as it was desio^ned for combat more or less close; the sword (|i-4)o$), the belt of wiiich hung from the shoulders; the bow (r6|oi^), usually of wood, with a string (vevpoi') of twisted horse-hair or of hide; the arrows (i^i'kr;, ot-nrd). of light-wood, pointed with iron, and winged (Ttt^pom; 105) with feathers ; \\\e javelin (axujv, dx6^■'rco^'), of various lengths and forms ; and the sling {a^^'bovrj), of an oval shape, with two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which arrows, stones, and leaden balls {fio7^vi58vvaL) were hurled against the foe. The spear used for close combat was called Sopv dpsKTov; that ibr a distance, iraXToi', .he poiiu, termed dixnn and dxrw^i?, was always ot metal. Ao ■po66 protect ;ioainsL the cold. Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mintle (-j??!, >-)?). 'i'lie women wore also long cloaks or over-garments, called TtenXot, often richly eml)roidered and ornamented. 'I'hey likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not tn h ive done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war Shoes or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war" the men wore a sort of boot, or greaves (§ 44). 158 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. ' § 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strenjrfh, tlie early Greek?, practiced frequent balhinor, and with it united tbe custom of anointing". In hathinff they made much use of the sea-water, on account of its purifying and strencrthenino- properties. They also had warm baths in their houses. After takinjT the bath they anointed the body with oil; costly ointments, expressly [)repared for the purpose, were of later inventirm. They cultivated in every way the growth of the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal beauty and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown. They were also pleased with frizzb d or curled locks, and employed artificial means to secure such forms to their hair. § 5(j. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in the earlier periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions of Homer, which, aside from their poetical character, relate only to the palaces or dwellings of distinguished personages. (Cf. P. IV. § 232,) Respecting these we may remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded by some kind (f a wall, not very high; between the wall and the house itself was the fore-court, in which an altar usually stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main building or house, often highly ornamented without and within; although the art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection which Greek architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the dinin'g- hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment. The roofs- were flat, as in oriental countries, and often served as places of resort both by day and by night. § 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, and the needy; and the rites of hospitality were held sacred among them, .lupiter himself was considered as the god and rewarder of hospitality, and the aventjer of all violations of its laws, and on that account was styled ^bvlo^ (P. II. §25). Tliey had no public inns (cf. § H)8), but travelers found reception with those who stood related to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not only between particular persons, but also between whole cities and communi- ties. Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. On separating, it was common tf) unite in a friendly repast, and renew their pledge of mutual friendship over the wine. Valued gifts were sometimes bestowed on the de- parting guest. § 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture may be first mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and means of living. The boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, which served to guard the cultivators against mutual encroachments. The culture of the vine and of trees was also an object of attention. The raising of cattle was a common employment, and a principal source of wealth. These employments were not considered in any way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of eminence and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be mentioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the bow and arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and fishing were likewise a frequent employment. "^rhe nets (-^f va) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishing were made of flax (XiVa) ; the meshes (fjpoxoi'' bemg of various sizes according to the use intended. In hunting, the nets were supportv^d by stakes (oraXtK-rf) and extended in a curve so as partly to siu-round a spa'-e into wliich the animals were driven Several kinds of fishing nets are nmn- lioned, of wliivjb the most common were the diJKp.^Xrjcrrpo^ {retiaruhtm) or oasting-uet, -ind \\\e (yay?]jr) {tragiim) seine or scan. .See Ov;iuin's lornis on Fishing aud Hunting, cf. I'. V § 75 — Ameilhon, su- la [lectie des Anciens, in itie Mem de J'lmt'.tiit. <; 1 1SS e (ie f.it. el Heavx Jirts, vnl. v. p. 350. § 59. The employments of womjen consisted partly in the care of the house- hold, p.irtly in spinning," weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own r.lothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, cooking and wash- ng. v^ere j)crformed by the wo'iien. In general, the female sex atnong the p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IX THE EARLIER AGES. 159 Greeks was in a state of js^reat, although not slavish snhjpotion to the male. There .vas connparatively little intercourse between the sexes. I'he vvon!en lived chiefly by themselves in the apartment assigned to them, the Fu'-a'-zuiv or rviux£Lov, which was in the interior or upper part of the house (^§56). Seldom were they allowed to oro abroad. In later times this close discipline and con- finement remained in force, and women shared even less than previously in ihf business and pleasures of men. On the ancient nieUioJ of srin'iing, cf. M^ii^ez, Sur les nieules de moulin emplnyees jar es Ancieiis, in 'he Mem. de Vlmli'ul, Classe i'Hisl. el Lit.Jlnc. vol. iii. p. -441 On the stale of feim.vs. R G. Lent, Ge-chichte der Wtiber im heroische.i Zeital'er. Hanov. 1790. S. — Rochefort, I.es moeurs Jes liifles heniiques, Mem. A ad. Ii.scr vol xxxvi. p. 39G — Cf. § 181. § 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were music and dancing. The firmer consisted of vocal and instrumental, which were always united; and it was designed for instruction as well as gratification. Hence music, although in a m.ore extended sense of the term, was an essential ol)ject in education. (Cf. § 179, and P. IV. § 63.) The lyre was the stringed in- strument the most in use, and of wind instruments the flute was the most common. The former enjoyed the preference, because it was more easily ac- commodated to song, and also left the performer at liberty to use his voice. — The subjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most generally used at banquets and religrious festivals, which were also the most common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customary to joiii various spoits and exercises of the body, as leaping, running, riding, wrestling, and the likp. . § ()I. Marriaore and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in connection vvith the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the daughter was usually given by the father. It consisted of female ornaments, a portion of the flov^KS and herds, and the like. There were no degrees of consanoruinity forbidden in marriage, except that between parents and children; yet it was considered as highly censurable for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage the consent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously, according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. In this procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the newly married, and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths and virgms. Dancing usually accompanied the music; and the whole was followed by a nuptial feast. A widow seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not ex- pressly forbidden. At least, it did not take place until five years or more after her W'idowhood. § 62, Parents of the better class took special care of the education of theii children, both physical and moral. The mother was accustomed to nurse her own children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or con dition. The aid of others in this respect was sought only in cases of absolute necessity. In subsequent years the children had particular teachers and over- seers, who instructed iheni in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the art of war. Cf. P. IV. § 64, § 71. On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, revererce, and obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benediction, and considered his curse as the greatest of evils. They endeavored to repay to parents in old age the care experienced by themselves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly required by law. They looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict v< n- geance on such as had injured their fathers. 0.1 respect pa d to nl I age amon? the ancien's cf Class. Journ. iii. 142. 320; iv. 3I0. On the manners and morals ol iHt earlier ases. cf R-chefotl as ci'ed § 59.— C. P. levisi/ue, Sur les .Moeu-s de- Grers du temps d'Hninere, in th= .Utm. dc rinsliiul Classe de.i Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. li. § 6.3. The slaves {bov%oi) of the Greeks, male and female, were persons that had been taken prisoners in war (d!;xua\coro5, diSpartoc^oi). or were purchased of others. Slaves of the latter class were not common in early times. The in troduction of commerce or trade in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the island of Chios, at a later period. The master had an almost unlimited pov er 160 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. over his slave, extending' even to the right oi' life and death. Sometinnes the gift of lit)eity was hestowed. Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, v^'ho were accus- tomed to let their services for hire (^rr??, Tt^'karai,), especially in the agricul- tural and pastoral employments, which were originally so common in Greece. A retinue of servants for mere display or luxnr}' was not indulged in during the period of which we have thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99. II. — Of ihe later and more Jiouri shin g ^ges. I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. § 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the advancement of civilization; although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was chiefly of early origin, engrendered and I'ostered by the ignorance, superstition, and sensuality of the first ages. The mythical fictions were enlarged, the modes of representing the gods were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacri- fices, and all the solemnities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. The pomp and splendor of their religion became very imposing, -especially at the period distinguished for the flouri^hinor state of all their affairs. At that time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the representation and illustration oi' religious story, and the ornamenting of religious edifices. (Cf. P. IV. § 178, 197, 198,231.') This circumstance gives additional interest and importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. § 65 a. The iemples [vaot, if pa) were still built in a simple taste, yet in greater number and splendor. The interior had commonly two parts, of which the innermost was the sanctuary [abvtov), into which the priest only entered. The place where stood the statue or image of the god to whom the terhple belonged was in the middle of the temple, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice work or the like, and therefore termed ayjxbi;. Originally the Greeks," like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of mountains or hills, where they atterwards fiist erected tlieir temples. When in the common creed the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, &c., as their appropriate pro- vinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed agreeable to the several gods. More than one deity, however, were sonietimrs worshiped in the same temple; ihey were then called avvi/aoL or o-woiKerai ; and when iliey had a common altar, *;t,fpEtj, IfpobL^dcxaXot, Upo^di-rai), charged with the oversight of the religious worship in general [dp^Lspiocvvyj). — The office of the parasites (ytapa- ftLtoi) was to collect the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices (TtpoaoSta asya'ka) into the storehouse appropriated therefor (TtapafftVtov). — The heralds (xripvxf-i;) were ranked among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents (vFcoxopot) whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples. The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, and their head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet and a crown of the leaf sacred to their particular god. In our Plate XX VII. fig. C. i& a view of a Grecian priest and priestess, in their robes-; each has a thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of Bacchus, and a vessel in the olher. The priestess is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monument given in Moses, Antique Vases, Altars, &c. 1. Priests holding their office by inheritance (§22) were called hi £«■ ytwi? ; those who received it by lot, kXipmtoI ; those by election, (upeTo). or txpripiaiiL'OL. Some of ti;e Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheritance were the R'/^cA- TTi^ai, intrusted wi'h the oversight of the Elusinian mysteries; KnpvKc?, descendnnts of Ceryx ; the e.jiAw 'iVat, descendants of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at Argos also, called 'A<£aTop'Jai. Priestes.ses (Irptiai, dpriTEipai, dpxiip^tni, l^pocpavri^ci;) were taken from noble families. Those of Ceres were termed MeXiaaai ; those of Bacchus, Bn seems to have beei charged with keeping the sacred records. The priests had attendants called Icpo'oAoi. On the priesthood of the Greeks, see J. lOeuser, Der Helleiien Priesterstaat mil vorzUglich RJcksicht auf die Hierodulen. RIaiiiz. —Class. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Boi/ganiuiHc, Ues ministres des Dieux a Alhenes, in the Mem. Acad. Insa: xviii. 60 ; xxiii. 5L — Lelrunne, Sur les fonctions des Hieromiiemons &c. in the Mem. de V Institut , Classe d'/Tist et Lit. Anc. vol vi. 221. 2. Purification has already been mentioned (§ 23) as a rite of great importance among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priesiesses were obUged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attending the solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprinkled with the water in the -eptfpavTfipioi' (ct. § 6.5 a). 7'his water was consecrated by putting into it a burning torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel (;'d(/)-'»7) or olive. Purificaiion was also some- times made by drawing round the person a sea-onion or squill (o-kiAXu), or a young dog (TruXaf) ; sometimes eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a pig; Some of n,3 terms employed to designate purifying are -rrrp-fpaivsi", mpijxaTTtaSa'., Ka^a'pziv, hyui^Eiy, [Xao-^..f, nyviaixdi, reXeni, &c. — Sometimes in purifications not only the hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. § 68. The sacrifices had different names according' to the occasions of them. The lhank-i>ffering (;v:apta'r-/;pta) was in recoo-nition of some favor received, often in fulfilment of some vow made; the sin-offering {ju^anrtxa) was in order to propitiate an offended deity ; the invocali (m-(fferivg (dtT»;rtza) was presented in case of seeking- some particular f vor. There were other panicular sacri- fices, which were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god. ((XTt'o ^avrsta?). • 'I'he beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the libalioji {oTioi'hr^, § 24. 2); then followed the i7Kense, the burning of something fragrant (^D^t-'a^ta) ; and at length the sncrijice itself, properly speaking, or the slaying of the victim (^tpftot). The principal ceiemonies have already been mentioned (§ 27). — Persons who had the right of being- present at a sacrifice were termed a,3ij3r]Xoo, and those who had not, ^^^•q'koi. The latter were called upon by the heralds to retire before th'.> ceremonies commenced. Different ai'iraals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as h,is been mentioned in treating of ihe ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, however, was the ox (|53"?) ; hence the term 'io O'tu-, to sacrifice oxen: those assistants who slew the victims were called (in^Mrai. }3ulls ( a-^o ), sheep (oi?:?), and goals ( ity-s) were often offered. The bringing of the victims to the abar was expressed by such phrases as ■npo(j\y£iv T(o jtf'ij/iw, or Trapaarmai <:vuiav roT; ^MpMi^ ; they were often brought adorned with garlands (TT'^fjiixara). and were always required to be free from blemishes (teXeioi). After the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of ihe entrails {GnXayxiOTKonia) was made by the soo'hsayer ((rrr'XaY\v6aKOTro;) . to ascertain the presages ot the future. Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed to offer cakes of coarse flour {irnna'n, rr^hivoi, -rrkiiixara) ; these were sometimes made in the shape of animals. It does not appear tn have l)Pen ever an approved custom among the Greeks to offer human pairifices, although it was repeatedly done; cf P. II $ 17. Theiiiisiochs is said to have sacri- ficed to the (jods several Persian captives. (Plvta'ch, Them.) Human victims were sacrificed particularly lo the ttianes and infernal grids. — Cf. Lactavliiis, De Falsu Religii'iie. c. 1\.—Evt~ebius, Prae|). Evang. iv. Ifi. § 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oafhs of the Greeks, in which they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury. They distinguished between the solemn or great oath (j ^utya? opxog) and affir- mations in ordinary cases, .lupiter was considered as especially the god and g-uardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury, although oatlis were taken in the name of other gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great superior gods {fxa hCjhixa ^fov?). Sometim(>s they swore by the gods, indefi- nitely and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weaprns. or any article of which they made use. Not unfrequenlly the oath was in the name of living or deceased men. such especially as had been hi7(5/Aot, %6yia, ^lavT'sv^u-ara). It is obv'ous that they could be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose artifice their exist- ence and support are in great measure to be ascribed. The oracular answers were not given in any one uniform manner, but sometimes immediately, as was pretended, from the gods (;^p>;?(j^ot avto^tdvoi), sometimes through an interpreter,' {x'^<^l^oi vTio^rj-tLxoi), or by a pretended dream, or by lot. Persons who consulted the oracles were termed ^ifmpoKoi, ^swpol, xpwiJ^o-^opoi ; the in- terpreters, xpi'^i^'^^^yoi. Presents and sacrifices vv^ere always requisite before consulting an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days. The question has been agitated, whether the responses uttered fronri the ancient oracles were the mere imposture of priests, or proceeded from the agency of Satan making use of their delu- sions. Van Dale in a learned treatise urged tiie former view. FunievtlU advocated the same side. Baliiis with much learning maintained the latter view, in agreement with some of the Christian Fathers. Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of oracles. " We fo.und at the foot of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious telltale remains yet discovered aniong the vestiges of pagan priestcraft; it was nothing less than one of the oracular shnr.es of Argos, alluded to by Pausuvias, laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he may see the contrivance whereby it was made to speak. A mo^e interesting sight for modern curiosity can hardly be concerved to exist among the ruins of aniy Grecian city. In its original state, it had been a temple; the farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, and part oi i\\e fictile superstructurf ; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a secret sub- ' terraneous passage, terminating behind the altar; its entrance being at a cotisidernble distance toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to have a small aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough to admit the entrance of a single person ; who, having descended into the narrow passage, might creep along until he arrived immediately behind the center of the altar; where, being hid by some colossal statue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce a most imposing effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneatii, who were listening in silence upcm the floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeavoring to mimic the solemn farce acted upon these occasions ; and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotavilo, from the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides ot' the rock, afforded a tolerable specimen of the ' unll of the frnih,' as it was formerly made known to the credulous votaries of this now forgotten shrine There were not fewer than ticenty-five of these juggling places in Pelcponvcsus, and as many in the single province nf Bamtia ' and surely it will never again become a question among learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the insi)iration of evil spirits, or whether the> proceeded from the imposture of priests ; neither can it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ: because Pausuvias (CorinlL c. 24, p. 165, ed Kuhnii) bears testimony to their existence at Jirgos in the second century." See Van Dale, DeOraculis veterum Eitinicoium. Amst. 1700. 4.—^. Fontentlle, Histoire des Oracles. La Haye, 172S. 12.- / F. Eallm, Answer lo Foiilen' lie's Hislory of Oracles; Iransl. from the Freiicli. I.onrl. 1710. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. Rullm, bk. x. ch. ip. 391. vol. I eJ. cited § 13) Blackwood's .Magaz. vol. xiv. p- 277. § 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished of the ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. Before this time, however, this oracle, of Pelasgic origin (cf. P. IV. § 41), seems to have existed in that place. There was a grove of oaks, sacred to .Tupiter, and superstition ascribed the actual exercise of the gift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, which were thence called fiavtixai Spi;? j. The priests, called aTiotprj-tai and StXXot, concealed themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the irelended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near r;e temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A fountain in the place was p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 165 likewise celebrated as possessinor the wonderful power, not only of extingv)ish- ing d lurch, but of kindling it again. 1. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves, which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announced them, were called in the Thessahan language TrcXeiai, and Tre^Eidks. 1 here were also priests called ro/xo-poi, whose business was to interpret the sounds of ihe vessel on cer- tain occasions. Two columns stood by the temple ; to one of which the vessel was attached ; on the other was a boy with a sc6urge in his hand ; the ends of the sco.irge consisted of little bones, which being moved by the wind knocked against the metallic vessel attached to the other column. — From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase Aa)5tovaTov xaXxeTov, apphed to talkative persons. — The temple is said to have stood upon an eminence near a fountain. — In the Sup. plate 28 is a view of Dodona, in which many of the allusions to the oracle are represented. Saltier, and De Brasses, L'Oracle de Dodona, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 35. xxxv. p. 89. — Cordes, De oraculo Dodonaeo. GrOnirig. 1826. 8 — /. Ariieth, Ueber das Tauben-orakel von Dodona. Wien, 1840, 8. — Lassavlx, Das Pelasgische Orakel des Zeus zu Dodona. WUrtzb 1840. 8. On the site of the temple, cf. Pouqueville, as cited P. I. § 87. 2 u. Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in a desert and almost inac- cessible region of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the Great. 3. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered by the English traveler Browne in 1792, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. RenneWs Geo?. Syst. of Herod, sect. 21.) Near it was the famous fountain ofthr sun. The spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. (Cf P. I. $ 179.) The rtiins of the temple indicate an Egyptian origin. — When this oracle was consulted, a splen- did statue of the god was carried in procession by numerous priests (cf. P. II. $ 24). A view of it is given in the Sup. Plate 29. 4. Several other oracles of Jupiter are mentioned. Herodotus speaks of four : at Egyptian Thebes ; at Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia ; and says the one at Thebes was the original. Besides these, there was an oracle of Jupiter in Boeotia ; also in Elis at Olyni- pia ; and one in Crete, in a cave of Mount Ida. § 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were considered to oelong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renowned was that at Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple illustrious beyond all others on account of its treasures, the abundance and costliness of the gifts bestowed there. The spot where the answer was given, was called Pythium (Ilv^tov), and the priestess, who uttered it, Pythia (llxj^ta), from the surname which Apollo received in consequence of killing the serpent Python (riv^wv). This spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited earth (6|it^a>.o$ 7*Js). According to common tradition this oracle was first dis- closed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt. Parnassus, were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and jumping. 'J'he same happened to men, who approached this opening. This oracle was very ancient, being celebrated more than a hundred years before the Trojan war. 1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word TTvdtadai, to inquire, or learn; but Yivdw appears to have been originally the name of the city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and other splendid works oi art. Its walls were inscribed with salutary moral precepts ; among them the cele- brated one Tvo'iQi aeavTov. (P. V. § 169.) Costly tripods were among the gifts conse- crated to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantiiie and placed in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, upon the " triple heads" of the three brazen ser- pents twisted into one pillar. The pillar still remains (Gibbon, ch. 17. p 80. vol. ii. N. Vorii, 1822). — The three heads are said to have been in ?nocl preserva tioc when Constantinople was taken by the Turks ; Mahomet II. then rode into the Hippodrome and shattered one of Iheni with hi? battle ax ; two were remaining in 1700; but they were stolen about that lime by some unknown depredator. (Cf Loud Quart. Rev. ix. 169.) On the origin of the Delphic oracle, cf Mitford's Greece, ch. 3. sect. 2. 2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf § 28), and the celebrity of the ora cle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the chief authority over it, occasioned much jealousy among the Grecian states; in two instances par-, ticularly they were involved thereby in actual hosiiliiies, in the wars commonly called Sacred. Mitfcrd's Hist, of Greece, cb. xxxvii-xlii. — De Valois, Guerres Sacrees, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. vii. 201. ix 97. xii. 177. § 73. The tripod (r'ptrtorj Arp»?*5'^'':p^oj), upon which the priestess sat in uttei ing the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable things pertaining to the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the seven wise men of Greece, and has been viewed as having a threefold reference, to the past, the present, anc* 166 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. the fnture. The Dv^i-a herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity and was obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many cereinoiiies. In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ecstasy and convulsion. In early times, the oracular response was commonly clothed in the form of hexameter verse; often by a poet employed for the purpose. Ori- ginally the oracle was consulted but on a single day in the year, in a month of the spring, called Bvatoj or Iluatos ; afterwards inquiry could be made on a certain day of every month. Whoever wished to consult the oracle was re- quired to make large presents and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and to propose his questions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified for receiving the answer by many mystic rites. The, answer was commonly so enigmatical and ambiguous (xo|o?, hence Ao|i,a$), that it would apply to any result that might happen; and whenever it was clear and definite, the priests had informed themselves of all the preliuiinary circiunstances and the proba- bilities respecting the issue. — The Delphic oracle was suspended at various times, and became finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian. Originally, there was one Py'/iia (or tt/jo /).:?"?) only at Delphi; but after the oracle became more frequented, the number was increased to three, chosen from among the uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chastity. They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost iheir lives in the paroxysms of the in-' spiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclamations. fhree in number, were called -rrpxplrai ; who always took care to ascertain, previously much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. The prophets were aided in the sacrifices and ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pylhia on the tripod, by five priests called oo-iot, wno were under a chief called bc-icorrip. — 'i he nepiriyrirai were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in point- ing out to them its curiosi ies. A great number of persons were required for the va- rious services of the temple and oracle. — See plate p. iii. [Frontisp. of Class. Ant.J On this oracle of Apollo, see Hardion. Oracle de Uelphes, in the Mem. Jlcad. hisDr. vol. iii. p. !37. — C. F. IVihttr, De Re i;; one ei Oracuin Apollinis Delphici. Hafn. 1S27 — K. D HUllmau'), Wilrdisiina; ties Delphischen Orakels. Bonn, IS37. — IV. Go'le. D.is Delphische i rakel, in seinem politische , religiosen, unJ sittlicheii Einfluss. Leipz. 1?39. — fi. H. Klause.n, in Ersch uiifi Gruber, Encyclopadie, under Orakel § 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. The more important of them were the following: the oracle of Apollo at Didym.a, which was called also the oracle of the Branchidae ; those of Delos, Abae, Claros, Larissa, Tegyrae and other minor cities ; where answers were also given from. Apollo; the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea in Bceotia, in a subterranean cave, said to have been the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers des- cended, after performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of the fnture by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphiaraus in the vicinity of Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by dreanis. — The number of the ancient oracles amoimted to two hundred and sixty. 1. I'he oraclf! nf Trnptinniits is described chiefly by Paiisariias (ix. 37), who says he entered the cave. The oracle was upon a nioiiiilain, vvliere was a grrnve, temple, and statue of Trupho- riiiis. Within an iiiclosiire in:ide of white sioiies, upon which were erected obeiislts of brass, was an artific.i;tl o()ening like an oven; here hy a ladder the person consulting the oracle descended, carrying in his hands a certain composition of hmiey On returnin?, the person was required to write down what had been seen or heard. — In Plate XIX. is a representation of this oracle — As there was a story that a visitor to th ' cave never smiled after his return, it became common to describe a gloomy person by saying he had b^^en to the cave of Trophonius ; see an amusing ap[)!icalion of this, in Jiddisoit's Spectator, No. ."1.59. The cave is s ill pointed out to travelers ; also the two fountains Mntnwsyite and Lethe. — See Clarke, Travels, &c. — Poiiqiuville, Voyaze, &c. vol iv. p. 171. 2 There were numerous oracles of Asclepius or TEsculapius ; of which the most celebrated was at Eiiidanrus. Hf-re the sick sought responses and the recovery of their health by sleeping [iiicubalid) in the temple. It was imagined by F. A. Wolf, that what is now called unimal mair- neiifnii or McsmeHsiii was kiiowri to the priests ^f those temples where the sick spent one or more nighi.? for Ine imrjjose of recovering their health. Cf. F. A. H-'tlf, Bcylra^ zur Gesch. des Sonmanihulismus aus liem Allertliuni ; in his f^ermischte Schriften, § 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediniely (cf. § 70), or by means of some system or art of- divi nation duavtcxyj), was effected in various ways. '['he most important was by thenmancy (^?o^iai>rfia), an art possessed by a i";!ass of persons who were called ^fofxavrft?, and claimed to be under divine nspiration. This class comprised three varieties; some were considered as 2SIIS p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVINATION. 167 interpreters of the demons by whom they were possessed, and called ^aifiovo- Xr^Tttoi or 7iv^u)vss; others were called sv^ovGLaatat or h^eaatixoL, and enjoyed only the intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed sxctaTfixoi, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during" a wholly superna- tural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by the pretext of a long Irance, insensibility,- or sleep. Besides what was termed in general theomancy , there were several methods of divination, of which the following were the principal. — 1. By dreams, dnifonoXla. '1 he Greeks ascribed very much to dreams as supernatural, and viewed them either as revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as pictures and images of future events. The expounders of dreams were called dyetfOKpirat, oveipocKo-noi, or ovei.- poTToXoi. 'I'hree varieties of the dream are named ; Xi^rinaTian% , when a god or spirit conversed with one in his sleep; opaiia^ when one saw a vision of future occurrences ; dvEipo;, in which the future was set forth by types and figures ('iXXT/yopt/cwj). Two other varieties are also mentioned, tvvTri/wv and (lid^jraajxa, but are not considered as affording much help m divination ; f^iaXrj?;, incuhns, night-mare, was supposed sometimes to indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to he sent from the god of sleep (P. II. '^ 113); and from Jupiter {Horn. II. i. 63). A goddess called Brizo {Pp'Xen^, to sleep) wab tnought to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particu- larly in Delos. Dreams which occurred, in the morning were most regarded in divination. See Artemidorus, as cited P. V. § 261.—Burigny, Songez, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. rfe? Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 74.— Theory of Dreams, cited P. U. § 1 13. 2. By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy (lEpojxavTsia.) or Hieroscopy (iipoaKoma) It comprehended the observations of many particulars connected with the offering of a victim, as portending good or ill. One. of the principal things was the inspection of the entrails, especially the liver (r/Traroo-wTria), arid the heart. The fire of sacrifice was also noticed {n-'poyLavrda) ; likewise the smoke {KaTrvofiauTeia), the wine {divonavTeia) , and the water {v^popiavTELa, TtrjyojxavTcia). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this divination according to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the dif ferent rites ; e. g. there was d\e<'ponai/TEia, by the flower or meal used ; ixdcojxavreia, by the entrails of fishes ; woaKonia, by eggs. 3. By birds, oiMviariKh. Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, were called opvEoaKOT^oi, opviOofiavTsig. Somc birds were observed with respect to their fiight (rav-7rrfp'iy£f) ; Others in respect to their singing (w5(K-a(). Unlucky birds, or those of ill omen, were called e^'.'Xaifjtoi, pernicious, and KojXvriKal, hi7idering from designed under- takings, and by similar epithets; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered as lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of the flight of birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appear- ances in the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable ; hence the use of klLog, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and reptiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents, and boars were of ill omen. Bees and ants were often thought to foretoken good. 4. By signs in the heavens {^loariixzla) and other physical rihenomena.. Comets, eclipses, and earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and hghtning were lucky if observed on the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck wuh thun- der {PpovTTirdg) was unlucky ; in places thus struck, altars were erected and oblations made to appease the gods, after which, none dared to approach them. 5. By lots. The two principal modes were those termed arixoaavrda and Kkr^poi^avreia ; in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (orixof) written upon them, were drawn from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person by or for whom they were drawn out ; in the other, various small articles, as beans black and white, pebbles, dice, and the like, v.'hich were all called KXnpoi, and were considered as being of different significancy, were. drawn from an urn or other vessel, -Other modes were pafihixavTeia, by rods, and (ieXopiavrda, by arrows, in which the lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posfnre or from the quiver. Another was by the use of the irival dyt^priKog, on which certain prophetic verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the verse on v/hich the dice fell. 6. By magical arts. These were said to have originated in Persia am.ong the Mag:. uayoi. The degree of attention given among the Greeks to these arts (Trepup)a) is (ivinced by a striking fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which seems to imply that a great number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the various modes need be named ; veKpoptavrda, aKionavrda, and ipvxojiav-da, in which the dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yaarpojxavTda, in which demons were ima- gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appearance."? of water in the middle part {vdarpn) of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted torches: Kmoua.'Tzia, in which the performers observed the forms assumed by drop-i 188 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — The d\tKrp'o^-n.vT'ia 'va« a 5ort 05 divmation by lot, yet classed among the magical arts; the letters ol the aiphabei wer« written in a circle ; a grain of wheat or barley was laid upon each letier , a cock wai placed in the center; and the desired inlormation was obtained by putting togethei the letters from which the cock picked the grains. — It is proper to :i.ention here some of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought ; as, 6. g., 'jicipiJiaKcia, in which medicated herbs, minerals, and the hke {'[>apnaKa) were used : and PaaKa-'ia, which was a sort of fascination or malign influence which certain per- sons were supposed to exert. See Bimamy and Le Blond, &c. as cited ^ 227. — On divination by the cup, cf. Class. Journ. x. 232. 7. Finally, divination was also made from various things included under the general name of oim7is {(nTa. 1 he sacrifice was denominated Kadt^pa, because the days of rrlourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible demonstrations of joy and merriment; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, Venus obtained that Adonis should return to fife, and dwell with her one-half of every year. This fable is applied to the sun Avhich produced the vicissitudes of summer and winter." Cf. p. U. § Al.—Banier, Culte d'Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr..\t\. iii. p. 98. 3. "The ^.lovvcTia were sometimes called by the general name of "Opyja, which, though sometimes apphed to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged to those of Bacchus, 'i hey were also sometimes denominated Ba/cxtTa. They were abserved at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition, than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by them ; the chief archon had a share in their managem.ent ; and the priests who ofiiciated were honored with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without splendor, being days set apart for pubhc mirth, and observed only with the following ceremonies: — a vesselof wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought forth ; next followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs ; and after all, the phalli. — At some of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated' the poetical fictions concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and miters ; carried thyrsi, drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic motions ; some rode upon asses; and others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men derariged in their intel- lects, and crying aloud, EwF Sa/Joi, Ei'ot Bd/cxs, oj Taop'jL and bwnTai, inspectors. 'Persons of boih sexes and of all ages were iniiiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiaiion into these mysteries was consi- dered a crime of a very- heinous nature, and formed a part of the accusation for which Socrates was condemned to death.— -AH the Greeks might claim initiation into the mysteries ; but the people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ; and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred Irom these mysteries. The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called p-ariKog ariKo:, the mystical temple, or u cr-oi'owj 6op'y<:, which was an edifice very capacious (P. II. ^ 63). At their entrance they wa?hed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to present t/iernselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external clean- ness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to them out of a book called neTpM^a, from nhpa, a stone, because the book was only two stones cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called lepofpdi'rns, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and instantly was covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called avro'^ia, intuition. I'hey were then dismissed in these words, Koy^, ^'Op-at. The gar- ments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting evils and incantations. The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called r^a^ovxog, torch-bearer, to whom it was permitted to mavry ; the second, Krip'^, the crier; and the third, 6 em l?w;.npia was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed ^sapupopo; (J.egifcra 'tr i.uwsiver), because she was said to have first taught mankind the use of lav.-s. It p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 171 was celebrated in many Grecian cities; by the Spartans, the Thebans m Boeotia, the Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — " But the Athenians observed this festival with the. greatest show of devotion ; the worshipers were treeborn women (it being unlawful for any of servile condition to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the charges ; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three, talents. These women were assisted by a priest called 'ET£(pa:rj(j)6po; , because his head was adorned with a crown ; and by ccnain vi/gins, who were kept under severe discipline, being maintained at the pubUc charge in a place called Qejjiopopziov. The women were clad in white apparel. — 'J hree days at least w£re spent in making preparauons. Upon the eleventh ot Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein the laws were contaired, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept ; whence this day was called "A oroj, the ascent. Upon the lourteenth the festival began, and lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a. fust, sitting upon the ground in token of humiliation; whence the day was called lSr^a■T^La, 3. fast.'' ^ Cf. Pctter. Boyd's ett. p. 378. — JVcllaua; De Thesninphonis. Wraiisl. 1S20, 8. On the Fasts of the ancients, see Morin, L'U^ige du Jcune. chez les Anciens, &c. in the Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 6. " The YlavaOr\vaia was an Athenian fes'ival in honor of Minerva, the protec- tress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius. who called it 'XBvi'aia; and il was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all the Athe- nian people, and by him was denominated T\.a-'ad-/]vaia. Some are of opinion that it was the same as the Roman Quimpintria. At first it continued only one day ; but it was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebra*ed wih great magnificence. There were two solenini'ies of this name, one of which was called Mf>GXo Uai'aQiy.'aia, the Great Panathenaea, and was celeiirated once in five years, beginning on the twenty- second of Hecatoinbaeon ; the other was denominated l^i-.Kfa Yla'a-'fiyaia, the Less Pana- thensea, and was observed every third year, or. as some ihink, every year, f.eginning on the twentieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. In the latter were three garnes, ma- naged by ten presidents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who con- tinued in office four years. On the firsf day was a race with torches, in which first footmen arid afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the greater festival, 'I'he second contention was eiaw^pia; dyiov, a gynmasiic exercise in which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these games was near the river, and was called from the festival liaja^r\va(Kuv. The third was a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the su' ject proposed was the eulogium of Harmndius and Aristogiton. and also of Thrasyhulus, who had rescued the repub- lic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended in four plays, which from then' number were called rtTpayoyia. Besides these there was a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 5.5. — Fauraji. i. 27. § 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with a crown of the olives w'hich giew in the Academy, and which were called fxoptai from fi'^po;. death, or from fi^pog, a part. There was likewise a dance called Pyrrhichia. per- formed by boys in armor, who represented to the sound of the flute the battle of jMi- nerva with the Titans. No man was permitted to be present at these games in dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the dycjivBhrj^, president of the games. Lastly a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, to w^iich every Athenian borough contributed an ox; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, but with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried the sacred -ettAoj, garment of Minerva. This nhXo; was woven by a select number of virgins, who were called ipyaartKal, from ipyov, a w-ork, and who were superintended by two of the dfpnjj^P'i'., and commenced their empio} ment at the festival 'KaXKrla, which was on the thir'ieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered with gold: upon it were described the achievemen's of ]\Iinerva against the giants, of Jupiter, of the heroes, and of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and \ience men of courage and bravery were said to be a^ioi -.h\o':, wor:hy of being portrayed on the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession wi'h the .-jStAo; were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built, for the pur- pose in the form of a ship, upon which the -nhrXog was hung in the manner of a sail, which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The TrtTrXof was thus conveyed to the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was pla'cd upon Minerva's statue, which vvas laid on a bed strewed with flowers, and called -Aa«-tV This profession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of ali ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, car- rying olive l>ranches in their hands ; and hence they were called ^aWodCfjoi, bearers of green boughs. Afier these came middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied by the jihotKoi, so- journers, carrying little boats as emblems of iheir being foreigners, and therefore dialled -TKa'pri(p6po- , boat-bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' 172 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. wives, who were called vr^piatp'poi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. Thest 'vere followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were crowned wiih millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features, shape, and deporiment, attracted every eye, and who were called Kavr}.p6{joi, from iheii carrying baskets, which contained sacred uiensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one v/ho, because he was chief ma- nager of the public processions, was called dpxtdtwpoi. The virgins were attended by the sojourners' daughters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were thence denominated (7icia5q([>6pi}i, umbrella-carriers, and 6i)D, De Pentathlosive Quinquertio. Berl. 1S27. 8. § 79. The race (5po/io$) was between fixed boundaries, the starting-place {a^£6<.<;, ^ox^li), and the goal or end (tjxoTtdj, tipfia), on a piece of ground measured off for the. purpose {av%6i, STfudcov), 125 paces in extent. The racers were sometimes clad in full armor {oTtT^itobpo/xot). — There were also chariot- races and horse-races. Those who only ran once over the stadium were called a-ra5wSp6noi ; those who ran over the space doubled {diaAog), that is, both to ihe goal and back, were called SiavXo. ^pofjioi; those who ran over the space twelve times in going and returning, i. e. twenty- four stadia, or according to others only seven stadia (('''Ac^os), were termed So\ixo5poi^ot. The goal was sometimes called Kajxtrrfip ; because, in the JtauXof and the 66\ixo;, the racers turned round it. — The prize (('WAo ■, (ipa(izioj) was coinmonly merely a crown of olive, pine, or parsley. The lerm Ktvqres was applied to horses which performed in the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the per- former {dvaParris) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other. In the chariot- race, two, three, four, or more horses were employed to*drawthe chariot (apua) ; hence the terms Ivupoi, Tcdpnrxoi, Terpiiopoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the course twelve times {r> u)kKa^p6yL-)i). It was an object of einulation among the wealthy to send chariots tor the race to the public games of Greece. (Jcdoyn, Les Courses de Chevaux et de Chars dans les jeux Olympiques, in the Mem. Acad Inscr. viii. 314, 330 ; ix. 360. — Quatrim. de Quincy, Sur la Course armee et les oplitodronies, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 asse d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 165 with figures. On the Olympic Staditim, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev vol. v. p. 277. § 80. For the leap (a?t^a) also boundaries were marked, the place from which (jSatr^fy), and the place to which {Gxdfxfxa) it was made. This exercise was performed sometimes with the hands empty, but oftener with metallic weights in them, usually of an oval shape (aT^r^Jpf j), sometimes with weights attached to the head or the shoulders. The distance leaped over was called Kavibv. The point to which the performers were lo leap was marked by digging the earth; hence its name from a/cdffrw. The phrase lYj^Mv vnip ra iaKajxp.vja, applied to signify excess or extravagance, was taken from this oxercise. p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 179 § 81. Wrestlinff {rtd'h'^, xa-tajS^tjifLxri) was commonly performed 'n a covered portico {^vatb^), the combatants being naked, and mailing the most violent exertions to throw each other to the ground. When one had done this with his adversary three times (o -fpcalas), he received the prize. There were two modes of this exercise, one in the erect posture (op^oTtax^), the other in the lying pos- ture in which the parties contended rolling on the ground {avax'kivoTtdT.Yi and dxivhriGis or xv'kLGLi). — When wrestling was united with boxing, it was called Tickyxpattov or tla^^axi'Ov. After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they were matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls as there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two bails, and those who drew the same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd number, he who drew the odd lot was called eips6po;, and required to contend with those who con- quered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger; hence aips SdKrvXov became proverbial to signify confess that you are conquered. In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was u proper for the competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancratium, both modes were prac- ticed by the combatants {jrayKpaTianTai or iramiaxoi). § 82. The quoit or discus (Stoxcj, co^o^) was made of stone, brass, or iron, of a circular form, and was thrown by means of a thong (xaXciStov) passing through a hole in the centre. He who threw the farthest took the prize. 1. The discus was about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some state that the Sia-Ko; was of stone, and the adXog of iron ; others that the former was carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the difference may have been wholly in their form or shape. — The exercise is said to have originated with the Lacedoemonians. 2 u. The hurling the javelin (pi'^pis, di<6pTiais) was practiced either with the hand alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft. In Plate XVII. fig. Y, is seen a javelin with the thong {amentum) attachid to it. § 83. Boxing (rivyfiri) was performed with clenched fists, around which they sometimes hoimd the cestus [lixd^), i. e. a thong or piece of hide loaded with iron or lead. The chief art in this game was to parry the blows of the antago- nist, which were usually aimed at the face. The co)nbatant was called IlvKTri;, from nv^, a Jist. The cestus, originally reaching no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbov/ and sometimes to the shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and attack. 1 he IjjiavTEs were of several kinds ; those termed /^sfAixat gave the softest blows; and the pvpjxriKeg gave the most severe. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often lost their lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows were called v-^oiria. Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public games of the Greeks contests in music, poetry, and rhetoric, of which mention is made in the Archa'ology of Literature (cf P. IV. $ 65, $ 66). § 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by way of eminence Sacred gatnes (oywt'f? ifpot). The first and most distinguished were the Olympic^ named from the place Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. By some, Jupiter was considered as their founder; by others, an earlier Hercules belonging to the Idsean Dactyli; by ethers, Pelops; hy most, Hercules the hero, who was the first victor in all the exercises, except in wrestling. They were renewed by Iphitus, a contemporary of Lycurgus, about B. C. 888, and afterwards by Choroebus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were an object of special (iare to the people of Elis. Several inspectors {uxv'tai, /ja/36o'D;t:oO ^'^^ charge of the ex- ternal arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspector {d'kvtd^x'^i^)' 1 u. Those who wished to appear as combatants were obliged to spend ten months at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing ihe games and various preparatory exercises unde" the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic games especially termeci ''EiAa-jobiKai. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided by lot. The jirize was a crown or wreath of olive (/foreyoj).—- Among the Olympic victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated; the names of thirieeti oi-hers Pin dar has preserved to posterity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often erected to the conquerors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely g.1 a< 15 174 GRECIAN ANTIQUITiE':-. count of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from every par. of Greece, and from Asia, Airica, and Sicily. Originally I'eniales were not allowed to attend. The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'KKarofji/Saioji/, an- swering partly to July, and continued five days, 'i hey gave rise to the custom of reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. Each Olympiad consisted of four years. The first Olympiad is generally considered in chronology as corresponding with the year 776 B. C. 2. One judge at first presided over the games; afterwards two; subsequently there were twelve ; then eight, one froni each tribe of the Eleans. The pltice, where these assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (77poyu//!/ao-//ara) of the combatants, was called 'EWrivoSiKaToi/. They took the rnost solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes im- partially. Although women were strictly excluded from witnessing these games at first, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. Originally the contests all took place in one day ; but at length several days were de- voted to them, and sometimes a day to processions and sacrifices and to the banquets given to the victors. The Olympic games were celebrated under the Roman empe- rors ; but were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius. 3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who thus constituted the great assembly {Ylavfiyvpig) of Greece. Olympia was in fact called ■xayKoivos x'^po-, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery are also mentioned as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, historians, and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. Ba'. croft's Ileeren, p. 129.— G. IVesVs niss. on the Olympic games, in his Iransl. of Pindar, cited P. y. § 60. 5. — Cf. SuZzer's Allg. Thcorie, close of article Pindar. — ThirlwaIVs Hist, of Greece. For more particular accounts of the games, Dissen, Ueber die Annrdnung der Olympischen Spiele ; in his Kleim Schriftert. — Krause, Olympia oder DarsTellung der grossen Olympischen Spiele. Wiein. 1S38. 8. § 85. Tho Pyihinn games (iTij^ta) were celebrated upon the Crissaean plains, in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of Apollo. The games were sacred to this god, and were a commemoration of his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself, or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originally they, were held at the beginning of every nintli year (fwastj^pc?), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning of every fifth year (ytfi'ras'fjypts). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from the 3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or prize the victors received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel. 1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have been re- warded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called ni)0(«-6j i^opj, which was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it consisted of five or six distmct portions, which represented so many separate parts and steps in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the customary solemn dance, composed of five parts. 2 ^i. All the exerc ses in use at the Olympic games were gradually introduced into the Pythian. The AmpJnUyons had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates M'ere required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the Pythjan odes of Pindar. The spot where these games were held was a plain between Delphi and Cii-rha, sacred to Apollo. 3. The Pytliiaji games were sometimes called AixcpiKTVoviKo. afl.Xa, because they were under the care of the Amphictyons. The pafticiilar persons appointed to lake the oversis^ht of the paines were called 'E7r(/.(£X>77-a£ ; who also acted as judges. They were assisted, in keeping nrder, by the ixaariyoipopni. The Greek states sent, to attend tjiese games, persons termed Oewpdi and iivBaiardi. § 86. The Nemean games (Ne^itfta or Nf^aca) derived their name from Ne- mea, a city in Argolis between Cleonae and Phlius, in the vicinity of which they were celebrated. They were held every third year (r'ptfrjyptzot) so as to fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to com- pute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges were selected from the neiohboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonaj, and were persons distin- guished particularly for -their love of justice. Their dress was black, because the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity (dywv iTtLtd^ioi) in honor of Opheltes, or Anchemorus ; although others state, that tney were instituted and ledii'ated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PuBLIC GAMES. 175 the victor was a crown of parsley [nsT^ivov). Ten conquerors in the Nernean games are celebrated by Pindar. See Vilioison, Les jeux Neir.eans, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 29. § 87. The Isthmian g^ames ("icf^uta) were so called from the place of their celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Peloponnesus with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, a son of Ino and Athamas, who under the name of Palsemon was received by Neptune into the number of sea gods. Others represent Theseus as the founder of the games, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the Corinthians, all the ether states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were ex- cluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. 'I'hey were held at the beginning of every third year {t^ifir^^ixoi)^ and were attended with the musical contests as well as those m all the athletic exercises. The prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancra- tiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. In our Plate XVI. are seen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8 represents the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. Solon established by a law thiit every Athenian, who pained a victory at the Isthmian games, s'muld also receive from the public treasury (Plat. Sol '2I<) a reward of one hundred (Irachmse. — I'he triumphal odes, in which the praises of the victors were celebrated, were termed EpiniUia. See TVfaiSi'eu, in the Mem. Acwi. hucr. vol. v. p. 95, 214. — Dissert, in his edition of Pindar ; cf. P. V. § 60. — Krause, Die Fyiliien, _/ tnieen, und Is:hniien. Cf. § 8?. 2. • § 83. On acco'Mit of the great estimation in which Athletics were held among he Greeks, and theu intimate connection with religion and the interests of the itate, the sahjeco duserves a few additional remarks. 1 u. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as bodily ex- irci&es, purt^aeu with earnestness and zeal ; bui it was commonly used to sigiiily those riorc frrque.it and violent bodily exercises, which were so much practiced in Greece, ep:pecially at the games already descri^ ed, and which were viewed as an essential part of education, and constituted a great object of ihe Gymnastic system. Many oi ihose who had enjoyed fuU insiruction iherein, made these exercises the main business of their life. Such were called dd\riTai and d^wiffrai. '] he teacher of the sysiem or art was called yvfivaarhi and ^wrapY'??, superintendent of a ^"ardi, which was a covered gal- lery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the floor being made smooth and level. Alihough the Aihletae were not strictly in the service of the state, yet they received great htmor. Their whole mode of lite was conducted with reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submiiied to many rigid precepts. In most of the exercises they were naked; in casting the quoit and ijie jave- lin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, ihey ren- dered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered themselves with dust or sand, in order that they miirht take better hold of each other, and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface of the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 2 u. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examiiiation and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges {ddXoOirai, ih.MvoBhai, 'Y.Wapo6iKai) were appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the prize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards oi the con- querors were the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, siaiues, solemn pro- cessions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages. Fcr idditional remarks on this subject, see P. IV. § 63, ^64.— C F. A. Hichheinter, Versuch eines Systems (ter Erziehims; der Griechen, Dess. 1785. 2 vols. 8. a work very instructive on this topic and on Gn cian education generally — Cf. Jnh^t'i Trea'ise nc Gymnastics. Northampt. 1828. 8. — Anier. Qnart. Rev. vol. iii. p. \2o.— Burette. Uisloire des Athletes, in Ihe Hist, de I'Aiad da Inscr. vol. i. p. 211. — P. Faber, He Re Athlelica, &c. Lii^d 1595. 1 ; also in Gro7}ovius. vol. \\n.—H. Mernirialis, T)e Aiie Gym- nastica. Amst. 1672 4. — P. M. Paciaudius, De Alhletarum tcvfticrTrjau in Palaestra Griecoruni. Rom. 1756 4. — A H. Kraiuc Theasenes ; oder wissensch. Darstellung der Gymnaslik, Agonistik, und Fes'spiele der Hellenrn. Halle, 1835. 8. with plates ^ 89. Dramatic representations or thenlrirul performdiicesi, among the Greeks, be- longed appropriately to religious festivals; and had iheir origin, in fact, in religious cere- rnonie:;, particularly in the rites connected wiih the worship of Bacchus at Athens; this circumstance is more fully noticed in the Archaeology and the History ol Greek liiera- turt ; see P. IV, § 66. P. V. *5^ 36, ^ 37, and 47. Some account of the structure of the Greek theatres is given under the head of Architecture; see P. IV. ^ 235. Bedde* 176 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. what is said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added properly in thi4 place, respecting the machinery and the performers. 1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical contrivances. Among these were the following : ihe OsoXoye'ioi', a platform concealed by clouds and supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mrixavfi and the Tepawc, instruments employed to bring a god or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him into the skies ; the Aaopai, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air; Bpovreu and the KEpa^ti'ocrKOTrs'iov, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 2. The number of actors {vnoKpirat) in the whole of a play was of course various ; buv no more trian three at once appeared on the stage {(TKqvff) in the part appropriated to speakers (\oynov). Although the author of the piece represented was sometimes obliged to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of low character and loose morals. — In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and the .sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed; among these were the brazen vessels {rjx^'ia) resembling bells, which were placed in different parts of the structure. — In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were con cealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. iEschylus (cf. P. V. '^ 39, 61) introduced the regular mask {Trpodcmsiov, persona) ; which, ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and condition ; no less than twenty-five classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius Pollux ; six for old men ; seven for yoaiig men ; three for male slaves ; five for female slaves; and four for free women. The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head and hair (called oymi) to heighten the stature of the actor ; and lor the same purpose, the tragic actor wore a very thick-soled boot {KoQopvo;, ^tPa^). Of comic masks forty-three varieties are specified ; nine for old men; ten for young men; seven for male .slaves; three for old women ; fourteen for young women. The comic mask for the oldest man was called TraTwTwj Trp'oroj. Besides all these there were masks appropriate to the satyric drama. Representations of several ancient masks may be seen in our Plate XLIX. cf. P. IV. \ 189. I. See Sc/degd, on the Drama, Lect. lii. — Mongez. sur !es masques des Anciens, in the Mem da Vhistilut, CI ass e d'//js?. c( LV(. .4?iC. vol. i. 256. vii. 85. — Mongez, (on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice), in llie Mem. dc Pliist., C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89. — See also § 238. 3. 3. The Choir ixopos) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors; yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. The Chorus was maintained at vast expense ; one source of which was in the dresses and decorations, which were of the most splendid kind. See P. V. § 37, and the references there given. ^ 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spec- tators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In consequence of the contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which' a fee for admist^ion was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at least, at two oholi. But under the influence of Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper ma- gistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one who applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was termed QewpiKh xp^'iy^oLTa, and the magistrate, Ta/i.'a? rwi/ OecjpiKfov, The number of specta- tors was often very great (cf P. IV. § 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description of their crowding to the theatre. Travels nf Auacharsis (as cited P. V. § 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also rh Ixx. — Barthelemy, Nombre des pieces qu'on representoient en un jour a Afhenes, in the Mem. Mad. Insa: xxxix. 172. -Ou Greek theatrical Derforniances, cf. V. V. §§ 36-47. — Land. Quart Rev. xii. 119.-/. Proud fit, in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Series, p. 'liQ.—Bdttiger, as cited F. V. ^ 8b. II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. § 91. After M?hat has been already said (§§ 33, ss.) of the orig'inal circiinn- stancps and constitution of the Greek states, v^^e ma}' confine ourselves now to their characteristics and peculiarities in later limes. The account of the various chancres of their constitntion and the consequences thereof belongs to history rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, v^^ill treat chiefly of the civil reorulations of the most flourishing- republic, Athens, without overlooking those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were dis- tinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they had also many points of resemblance. § 9'2. The early political' chancres at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39). After the king's, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth and last (1068 B. C), the 'Thief magistrates were the Archons. When these became despotic. Dracc p. III. CTVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 177 (624 B. C) infoduced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by their severity. Recou-se was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished all the laws of Draco, e>cept the one respectintr murder. Solon changed the form of government in many points, diminished very much the authority and power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries, and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing into a mixed and mo- derate democracy. On tlie Civil Affairs of the Athenians, cf. G. Postellvs. He Republica Aiheniensivsm. I/);d. Bat. 1635. 4. — C. P. Lcvesqve, sur la Constitution d'Atbenes, in Mein dc VInstitut, C I asse des Sdettces Mot. tl Pol. vol. iv. — K. F Ffer-,-,uinn, Lehrbiich der Griecli- ischen StaatsalterthUmer. In English traiisl eniillert, Political Antiquities of Gre-ce. Oxf. IS36. ?. An iviiprovci edition of l!ie original publ. in \?36.— JVac/ismuth. as cited § 13.—^. D. HUllmann, Slaatsrecht d. Alterlhuu.s. Coin. Ib20 8. § 93. Originally the people had been divided into four tribes {^v'Ka.'J)^ and also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number of boroughs or wards {hr.jxot). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curias {fpoat- pJac, t^v-/;) according to their consanguinity, and each of the curls into families {yivrj, rptaxaSf j). But Solon divided the citizens according to their wealth into four classes ; 1. Usptaxofyoo/xeBi, /j-vol, those who gathered from their f.elds in moist and dry crops, at least 500 ^iht^voi, ; "2. 'irtrtstj, those whose grounds yielded 300 /nsbifivoL, and who were able to maintain a war-horse {trCTtGc tto?..-- IJLLntrjpLoi); 3. Ziv/Ltac, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) yABti-Lvo:, and who owned the space of one acre or ^f ry^? ? 4. ©-/^rfj, those who had any less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the peoplr; (§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes shared in the burdens and expenses of the state, and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from •Ihein alone the senate {f^ovT'-rj, § 107) was chosen, which at that time consislfut the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (nii^aKta), into an urn with black and white beans {Kva/xoi); and those whose tablets were drawn out with white beans were elected. ' On the Athenian magistrates, cf. Blcnchand, jn the Metn de VAcad. dts Inscr. vii. 51. — Cf. Julius Pollux, Onnniasticon. § 101. The most important magistrates were the Jrchnns (ap;i;oi/f8j). There '•■*»re usually nine Archons, chosen by lot(x?v>;pwr6r), but subjected to an exa p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. REVENUES. 181 ruination as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath and enter their office. 1. The examinations of the Archons was two fold ; one in the senate called 'Avd. xptfTii, the oiher in the forum, called ^oxiyLa^ia, before the Heliasta: (''yXtaa-rat '§ 110). .Among the points of examination were the following: whether their ancestors for three generations harl been Athenian citizens; wliether they had a competent estate; ari whethei thev were free from bodily defects {'i 99). • § 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts : 1. Ttx?;, rents from public domains and other public property, and duties paid on articles of commerce and on certain pursuits and persons; 2. <]^6pot, tributes, or annual payments exacted from allied or subjected cities and states; 3. Tt,a^^uara, Jines, which all went tc the public treasury, except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and one fifteenth appropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were patrons of the city ; 4. AfLtovpytai tyxyx^toL, periodical litunries, or services, m. which in- dividuals were required, for a time, to perform certain duties or maintain certain public establishments at their own expense. — Bes'^-^s the ordinary, the nece.-- 182 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. cities of tlie state sometimes required an extraordinary revenue; und then special taxes (ftatjjopai-) laid upon citizens and residents formed an important resource. Under the rekn, or rents, we may include the income from the mines ; the most im- portant of which were the silver mines of Laurion ; the ore from these was termed ipyuprn? ; they were regarded as a grand source of wealth to Athens. See Bbckh, cm the Mines of Laurion, in his Public Economy. Under the ^opoi or tributes, we may include the duty of ten per centum {kmr,], 6£k 90). — Meatis of support for poor and disabled citizens [icivaroi), and also for children whose fathers had tallen in battle, were likewise furnished from the public treasury, and formed* another item of expense. — In addition *o these, we must mention the expenses of the governmenty including the salaries ot all the various magistrates and ofiicers of different grades, and the wages of the senators (ju(cr5df 0o"\£"TLKd;), and of those who attended the assembly (/i-o-Qdj iKKXriJia-TiKo^). — The support of the ar?ni/ and ?iavy lequired also large sums of money even in time of peace. In time of \\ar, the expenses, not only of this class, but of many others also, must have been greatly increased It may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate of the amount of these various expenditures, 'ihe comparative value of the precious metals in ancient and modern times must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least, three times as valuable then as now. § 105. Amoncr the public asseniiblies of the Greeks, which took into consi- deration the affairs of the whole state, the council of Ihe Amfhictyons (y^vvohoe, A/xqiLxtvovuiv, Ap^txrvovLa) is especially worthy of notice. According to com- mon opinion, it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion; accord- ing- to somp, by Acrisius, king of Argos. 'I'he twelve people or states united in this council (to rwv 'Exxy'vo^v awt^inov) used to meet by their delegates, two from each city ordinarily, at Thernaopylae; from this circumstance the dele- gates were called Ilv^vayopat, and the council itself nuT^ai-a. Sometimes they jnet at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring and autumn, unless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of the council was to adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, and the delegates had full power to make salutary changes and regulations. Some very important disputes, as e. g. between the Plataeans and Laceilsemonians, and between the Thebans and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued to some time in the first century after Christ. Some writers have taken a different view of the origin and design of this council. They assert that the Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about ox near Delphi, or some other place ; ajulnK-vox^ being nearly equivalent to daibiKTiojeg; and that the assembly was originally held simply tor the purpose of mutual gratifica- tion and religious festivity, having no precisely definite common object, and being dif- ferent from a confederation for mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations. This is Ihe view nf Hmmarin. in his Lehrbuch, cited ^ 92. — Similar is 'hat of Sain te Croix, Des Anciens Gnuverneniens Feder* tifs. Par. 1799. — The poli'ical chamcler and design of II e council is maintairifd hy F IV Tillmann, Ufber den Bund der Amph'C- Ivoneii. BfH ISI2. 8 -^C''. also Mitford, Hisl. nf Greece, ch. iii. sect. 3. — Thirlwall. His', of Greece, c. x. xliii. — fjc ralois, ,Sui les Ami hic!yons, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. &c. vol. \ii p. 191 • and v. p. 405. — T. Leland, Discourse pref to his Life oj Philip of MaCfdt'Ti. § 106. Assemblies nf the people {sxx'ky^niai) were very frequent at Athens, and had an iinportant influence. In these the acts of the senate were canvassed, laws were proposed and approved or rejected, magistrates appointed, war de- clared, and the like. The place where they met was either the market-place (dyopa), or a broad space near the mountain called the Fnyx (EI^v^), or the theatre of Bacchus. The ordinary assemblies (fxxXriaiai xv^iai) were held monthly on established days; the extraordinary (izxXjyotaf. ffvyz^j^rot) were called on pressing and important emergencies. 1 u. These meetings were managed and conducted by the rip"ra;'f(f, the llpoe^poi, ana the 'E?r((Tr.ir/7j. Before eiitering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a" young pig, was offered. Then the herald ordered silence, offered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on the direction of the Ylp6e-poi, the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and those above fifty years of age were first invited to speak ; at'ter which anv one above thirty, of fair character had the liberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been discussed in the senate, whose decision upon it {-rrpoPovXei'na, ipfiovixujv) .—The court 'Ertc Afy^tvtQ was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of cases where the defendants confessed the fact but pleaded some justification. — The court 'Ev IIpDravftcj was held at the Prytaneum (cf. § 107) and investi- gated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had escaped. — The court 'Ei/ ^piarroi was held upon the sea-shore in the Piraeus, and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — In all these courts the 'Ecpatai, presided and pronounced the sentence. The magistrates called (l)v\o6aai'\ETg are said to have had soinp dnty in the court ev UpvTavsiM ; HspFcially in the cases termed at rojv dipvxojv Sikui, in which the insiruments of homicide were sultjected to trial. In the earliest times there were four of these magistrates; one perhaps from each of the four tribes. . § 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having jurisdiction only in civil cases (Jrii tMv 8rji.ioti.xujv), of which there were six. The most important was the 'H?i.tat,a. Its name was either from a^^La, multi- tude, on account of the throng attending it, or from rj'kios, sun, on account of its 'leing held in the open air. The number of its judges {r'Ktarstao dL.xaatai) was ot always the same ; the whole nun) her amounted to 6000, who were chosen foi ine year by lot; out of these were taken the number requisite in each particular rial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000 •■ere assembled ; the more usual number was 200 or 500. It was the province of the ^eij^o^itai (§ 101) to introduce the action into court [iiadyBcv bixrjv f'tj rb ^Lxaatripiov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate and decide the case. 1 u. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction {Tvaiaypap) or request a dela> {'mjjnjia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parlies deposited a sum of money as security (rrp'^ra ■eta), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In doing this they were Hmiled to a definite time, measured by a water-clock {xXs-^^vSpa). The decision was given in the same way as in ihe Areopagus (§ 108); and the de- fendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to the "ZvkKa (\> 102), and in case of fine, to the Ylp'Krop-g or 'F.K^oyeT; {^ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was cast into prison ; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- ment also, fell upon his son. 2. The bailiff'or deputy employed to summon {-rrpoaKaKt'KyBa )the defendant before the Thesmothetas, or witne-ses before the court, was termed K-Af^Twp ; sometimes one or two of the witnesses whose names were indorsed upon the decbiration (^'^f•,■, cxX/j/^a), together wiih the plaintitT, were the summoners [KXrirnpsi). 'i'he oath oi the plaintiff before the opening of the trial was called -pocouoj'.u ; that of the defendant, avT-M/zoo-iu ; a name for both was (5(w//oo-u?. Door-keepers (^KiyKXlSe;) were appcinted by a magistrate to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security niouey was, as has been hinted (§ 103). in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it was a drachm, and called TrapaT-ao-i? ; the deposit made by orie who sued for goods confiscated by the state, or for inheritances ol a rertain kind, was termed TrapaKaTafhM). If the plaintiflT (^lOKw ■) failed of proving the indictment (airui) against the defendant {'^jtvy'jyv), he paid a fine called iiroj3z\iii. Wiile the action (^(wfii) was proceeding or '"as in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (jKKsTaOao in on*> of the most pubUc places of the niy. 'I'he witnesses {jxaprvpEi) wen; all put under a solemn oath, which they took together at the aliar erected in the court-room. Their testimony was called for by the idvocates {n 'vi'r,r>poi) as they wanted it in proceeding with their pleas.* 'i'he ofiice of the judges, SiKmTai, resembled that of our jurymen -^ they were asu lily paid three oboh a day. They sat upon wooden benches, wiiich were covered 186 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. with rugs ('//(a9('a). In addressing them the advocates stood upon eleAition? cfil?oiJ dnaara. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were nianv hi Athens who seem to have made it tlieir business to discover grounds ot accusaiion against the wealthy. These men gained the name of auKoipiivrai, a term which was first applied to such as prosecuted persons that exported figs ((i™ toS anKa ipaiveiv)^ a law prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when there was a great scarcity of that fruit.^ » See Sir VI'. /ajjcs's Pref ice to Issus (cf. P. V. § 10 1. 3), ^ See /. Pettingal, Enquiry into the Practice and Use cf Juries among the Greeks and Romans. Lond. 17ti9. 4. 3 Cf. Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxi.sect. !. 3. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The five other civil courts besides the Helicsa were those called Ylajju^vjroy, Tpiyoiuop, To Kaiudi', To hri AiJx-o i, and To Mrjri'xou. Respecting these courts, see Mtkr, as cited § 108. 2. — Sdiomann, Ant. Jur. Publ. Grasc. — Plainer, Process und Klagen. § 111. In addition to the ten puhlic courts, there was a]so a judicial body, called U tsaoapdxovta, consisting of forty persons chosen by lot, who held their courts successively in the several districts of Attica having- cog-nizance of cases where the sum or value at stake did not exceed ten drachmas. There was likewise a body of Jrhifrafors, Atat-rj^r'ai, consisting of 440 aged men, forty-fonr from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, hut subject to appeal. These were called xKri^catol, being chosen by lot. — Disputing parties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called 5ta?AaxT'>7pi.o£, or xat 87iLT^po7trv AtaLtJ^raL. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators. The number of public arbitrators or SiairriTai K\r]pbiToi stated above is drawn from a passagrc in Ul()ian upon Demoslhenes ; soine writers have pro|)Osed a different reading of the passage so as to make the whole number but forty, /o(tr from each tribe. — The private arbitrators were sotnetimes termed Siarrirai aipe-roi. Clasi. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Af. H. fludwalcker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Diiteten in Athen, und den Process vor dems.'ilbtn. Jena, 1812. § 112. Jcfiuns or suits were divided into two classes; public {Bixai byj/.i66ia\,y xatrjyopiat), such as concerned the whole state; and private (§i,xat Ibiat, and 8uxat, simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the following: Fpa^^jJ, an action for the highest crimes, as e.g. wwric/er ((jswoj), /?o/.son {(pap^axoif), arson (rtypxaia), sacrilege {Upoav'Kia), and many others esteemed less heinous; •^dat^, an action for the crime of embezzling .or in someway squandering public property ; ^'Ei^Sft|tj, an action against persons usurping prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusino- trial although confessincr guilt; ATtaycoy/y, an action against a criminal taken in the act; 'E(|)-/jy-/y(7tj, against a criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate; 'Aj^§poX>j4/Ja, against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur- dered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing party and retain them until further satisfaction; 'EK?ayyf?tta, an action for a public offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against the ALautritai when one was dissatisfied with their decisions.- — Actions belonging to the class called private were far more numerous, and were named according to their various occasions. Some of the puhlic actions included under the general denomination of ypaipfi, and not named above, were ihe following : rpaiiixa iK7:po>oLa;, a wound given by design ; 0ov- \evatg, conspiracy; djiJua, impiety; Trpodo^Tta, treachery; desertion, whether from the army, 'XsnroarpaT-.o ', or the fleet, Xenro.'avnoy, or from a particular station, XeiTrord^Loy; fri- volous prosecution, avacpa -Tia ; bribery both against the giver, SsKa^rpog, and against the receiver, 6(')p')SoK'.a. SoiTK! of the private actions or suits were the following: KaKrjyoplas SIkt], an action of slander; xp^oos ^lkt), an action for usury; diKia; diKri, an action of battery; (iXxfim, of trespass ; kXott?];^ of theft ; ^^suSopiapT ■plo >, for perjury. § 113. The kinds of punishment were various, according to the nature and degree of the oflfence for which they were inflicted. . Of those not capital, the following were the principal : (1) Ti/^jj^ar'a, pecuniary j^ne, called also Zr^/.tia; this was sometimes aggravated by corporeal punishment : (2) 'ATiixia, disgrace, which was of»three kinds; first, the loss of some privilege but not of posses- n'ons: second, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property; t F. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PUNISIfMENTS. REWARDS. 187 third, the loss of all privilegps civil and sacred, bnth l)y the criminal himself and his whole posterity for ever: (3) Aov^na, slavery j this, hov^^ever, by So- lon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners, and such as had been disgraced (an^ot) : (4) SrJyuara, brand-marks, by a hot iron on the forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway slaves or freedmen: (5) 'EtrfKrj, in which the name of the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar^ exposed to public view : (6) Asa/xo^, bnjids ; of which there were several kinds; as the xv^iov (also z?toi6?), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and neck; the xoivl^, a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast; the jaj^ts, a piece of wood to which the off'ender was bound as to a pillory; and the rpo;^o5, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured : (7) ^vyy], b.ii^vyio., banishment, with confiscation ot goods. Banishment is said to have been preferred by the Greel< courts to imprisonment, on account of the expense occasioned by the latter. The prison at Athens was termed SeafjayTfif^iov, and by euphemism, oiKrifia. Prisons in different regfioiis were called by different names . in Bceolia, there was the ' \vayKaTov ; at Sparta, the KeaSag ; at Cyprus, the Kepaijios ; at Corinth, the Kwj ; at Samos, the Fopyvpa. § 114. The Ostracism, datpaxLaftb^, was not, properly speaking, a judicial punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such persons as were thought to be dangerous to the state. The votes were given by shells, oarpaxa; each man marked upon his octtpa^i-ov the name of the person he would banish ; if the same name was upon the majority of GOOO shells, the person was sentenced to banishment. The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under th's sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a similar custom among them. The Syiacusan punishment was called U.sta'kLa /xb^, because the name was written on leaves, neta7.a. The ostracism is said by some to have been institnted by Hijipias, son of Hipparchus ; others say by Ciisthenes. B. C about 510, who was first banished by it. It continued about one hun- dred years; it was abolished B.C. about 412, and because it was then degraded by being em- ployed on a very contemptible person by the name of Hyperbolns. Among the illustrious Athe- nians who were driven from the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides, Citncn, and Aristides. Geinoz, L'Ostracism, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145. § 115. The punishment of death, ©amroj, was inflicted in several modes; as by the sword, Ht^o^, beheading ; by the rope, Bp6%o^, strangling or hanging; by poison, ^dpixaxov, drinking hemlock {xJ^vnov) usually; . by the precipice, Kpvixvbs, casting from a rock or height ; by the KataTtovnaixb^, drowning. Other modes of inflicting death were, by the Y.Tavpdi, crucifying, a mode used by the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvixnaya, or healing, in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, BapaOpoj/, which was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also "0/;»y/.(a) ; by itonhi'T, ALBo[io\ia; and by burning, llvp. The punishment of death could not be lawfully inflicted upon any citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley. {h napaXos rpifiprjg) which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. § 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons. Among these, were the following; (1) npofSpJa, the front or /rs/ sea/, in the theatres, at the festivals and on all public occasions; (2) 'Etzwi/, a statue, erected in a public place; (3) ^t^^avoi, crowns, conferred by the senate, or the people, or by particular tribes and boioughs upon their own members; these were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) 'Ath.fia, ex- emption from taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the contributions required for war and for the navy; (5) Xi-rrjoc^ iv ITpi'rawtw, entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ,• originally limited to a single day; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some (anfftroi) ; it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole families, and was viewed as a high distinction. After the death of such as had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty in the better times of the republic, but became quite com.mon afterwards, and lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. § 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of thei* ■Vw'.s- as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed 'o Ceres and !8S GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Triptolemiis (P. II. § 01). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Olisthenes, ana Demetrius Phalereus, were the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted by the Athenians. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased witl. the changing- circumstances of the state. It was fcommonly the province of the Ufnitdvsi^ to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called either a decree, '^r^mua, when it had only some specific application, or law, vofio^, when its obligation was universal and unchanging. An ordinance of Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood (cf. P. IV. § 53). 1. The term I'Ofxo; designates what may be called a constitutional law, or estabhshed orinciple, as distinguished from a particular enactment ; thus it would be applied e. g. to the laws of Draco and Solon, although those of Draco were commonly called Oso-itn, in distinction from those of Solon called vojxoi. The term i'o,aoj is also sometimes used in the sense of ^t/i.^-, a natural right or social usage or fixed custom. 2. If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to iho Ylpe Spartans, into six u6oai consisting only of such^ as were of a proper age for Oiia- p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN MAGISTRATES. 189 tary service. -A subdivision of tribes into ipparpiai, or yevri, or rpirrvei, is also meniioned as having f)revailed3 in various places. t See MUller, Hist, and Antiq. as cited § 118. vol. ii. p. 76-SO. 2 cf. Robinson, Archseol. Grropo»e rtu^ subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any questi in. In war th*' 16 190 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. SparJiin kings had unlimited command {aTparrjyog d'jTOKp.irwp), and could even put to death without trial {s:v x^'poj I'o/ito). They are said also to have had in time of war espe- cially a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths {'nnrsTg) ; from this number five were annually selected and employed for one year, under the name of dya'hzpvo'i, in missions to other states. Many dissensions grew out of the double monarchy (-^lapx'?). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. 3/ii/Z*", vol. ii. p. 106. § 123. Lycuro-us established a senate of 28 men, of blameless character, and upwards of 60 years old, which was called yepovoia, or yfpcoi^Ja.* The member.* had an equal right of votino^ with the two kings, and rendered no account of the mannerof discharging their office. — There were also rive Ephori (t(|)opot), who had an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the people, without reference to condition. — The Bft-Statot were a class of olfi- cers, who were placed over the t^7]i5oi, between the ages of 18 and 20. The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called iaoTvpawog, and were not required to give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for one year. Their tribunal {^.(poftXov) was in the forum. — The '^uhiaXoi were five in number, with a sixth as their irptjfiv;. They had the inspection of the gymnastic exercises, called v:\nTdviaTa. because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their pro- vince to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place ef council also in the foruin. I'he common name for the council-halls of these and other magis' rates was apxela. § 124. The. Spartans had other magistrates; as the No/to(|)i;Xax:tj, who saw that the laws were maintained and executed; the Apfionwot, to whom was en- trusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct their exercises; the 'E^Ttixcopot,, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies of the people, and attended in general to the police of the forum or market; the Ilv^rtoi-, four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles ; the npolsvoc, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the re- ception of strangers; the IlpoStxot, who had the care of the young kings as tutors; the Haihovofxoi, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys put under their care at the age of 7 ; the 'Apuofl-fai, who were a sort of sheriffs in the city and province; the TLox^jxfxpy^oi^ who under the kings superintended the affdirs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; the 'irtrtaypt'rat, three offi.cers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen. § 12.5, The assemblies [sxxXrjrsiai) of the people were similar to those at Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met; in others there were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia; in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs of common interest and imprirtance to the whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the power of convening the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, who also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice {j3ovj xai ov -^yjrpifi), and the majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by £ subsequent division and counting of the two parties. The as- embly composed only of the ci izens of Sparta was called ^iKpa tKKXrjma, and usually njct once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing arms might attend, and, if above the age of thirty, might speak. '1 he meetings were originally in the open air luit at a laier period were held in an edifice, called c/ciaj, erected for the pur- pose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, [KK\r](jLa. It consisted of the kings, the senators, the nmgistra'es, and the deputies of Laconia. § \-?,6. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common meals and termed avr^attla, ^uSitLa, and ^tTitr'ta, was designed for the purpose of speaking upon matters of public importance. In this asseml)ly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain iialls, where a runnber of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member could be admi.ted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the same. Every niem.ber contributed to the provisions from his own stores; a specified qiiniui y of barley meal or cakfes {pd', of hard oak. The chief dish was the hlackhroih (iieXa; vw/^of).' 1 ht; .Spartans had also anoihei kind (>f solemn feast, called Korrig, to which foreigners and boys were admitted along with the citizens. 2 1 Tlie reader niny be amused by the follo" in? passase frnni Sir Henry Blruiit, who traveled in Turkey, in 1634 " The Turks have a drink called rnuphe, made of a berry as big as a small bean, dried in a furnace and beat In powder, of a sooty color, in taste.a lillle bitterish, that they sethe and drink, ho! as may be endure 1 ; it is g(x>d at all hours of the day, but especially njorning and evening, when to Ihal purpose they entertain themselves two or three hours in cauphe-houses, which in Turkey abound more than inns and al^ houses with us. It is thought to bt the old black broth vsed so much by the Lacedsnumiaiis. It drieih ill hun.ours in the stomach, coinfcrtelh the brain, never caiiseth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a harmless entertainment of sood fellow. ship." — ^ R bmstm's Archseol. Graec. p. 159.— Cf. Milller, ii. 289. § 127. Judicial actions were very summary among- the Spartans. Eloquence found no place in them; no advocates were employed; every one was obliored to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the kinors, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deci sion of a certain class of questions. The most important questions, and particu- larly all of a capital nature, belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- lies were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. Cf. Rdbin^oii, bk. ii. cli xxii. — On the authority i f 'he E|.hori, MUlltr. bk. iii. ch vii. ; and bk. iii. ch. ii § 2, on 'he Spnrta'i Courts. § 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens. The most common mode of inflictintj death was by stranjrjinff or suffocation. — Stealing was punished not so much for the theft committed, as for the want of shrewdness and dexterity betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to be detected. 1. Strangling was effected by means of a rope (Ppoxog, (ipoyxo;) ; it was always dont in the night and in a room' in th^ pubhc prison called ^cku;. Death was also inflicted by casting the maletacior into the pit- called Ka:,i-'a; ; this was always doi.e likewise by night. Aristomenes ihe Messenian was cast into ihis. but survived the fall and effected an escape, which was considered as very wonderlul. Besides ilie punish- ments Z?7//:(i, 'Arifi'ia. and Ki';/)W' or KAotoj, mentioned among Athenian penalties (cf. "?* 113), ihe Spartans'^ had y^ arrLyMaig , ii)/iq>plnir, which the offender received as he was driven through the city, and KE/rvo-t?, goading, which was a similar punishment. Ba- nishment, $uy'7, seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence; but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape dea'h or infamy {inn a). 1 Robiiifon, Arch. Gise,-. bk. ii. ch. 24. 2 Cf Thiic. i. iSi.—Paus. iv. IS ^ i.—Sirab. \\ii.—MitJord, Hist, of Greece, ch. iv. jeer. 4. 2 Cf. Milller, Hist and Ant. Dor. vol. ii. p. 23.5 2u. Among the Spartans also various rewards and distinctions were bestowed on persons of merit, bo'h while living and after death. 3. Among 'he distinc'ions conferred on the meritorious, the Uposdpa, Jirat seat in a public assembly, was highly honorable. Much'value was attached to the olive-crovm, 'EAa.?7,- a-:(pa'n;\ as a reward for l)ravery, and to the f/iotigs. BaAo-ej, with which victors in the contes's were bound. But it was oi^.e of the highest honors of the city to be elec;ed into the number of the three hundred constituting the three chosen [iands of horsemen (§ 124), termed Aod'e:. 'I'o ccnmiemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs {k£ ora!nn), and Other monuments were erected. § 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its author, and was marked by some strong peculiarities. The foim of government was distin- guished from that of all the other states by its union of njonarchical v^'ith aristo- craiical and (lemocratical traits. There were in Sparta no written laws; they were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycur- gus styled them ^j-rtpat. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and voluj)tuousness Althouoh they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their authority through a period of above 800 years. Cf. Miilltr, as before ciied, vol. ii p 67, 235 — Xoifp/in/i, on the Polity of the Lacelasmoniars (cf. P V. ^ IS6).— 1 he works cite- US. § 1.30. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, tno island of Crete presents a constitution the mf)St reniark^ihle. It is here, as has been stated (§ ^S), tbrii we find the origin of the institutions of Lycnrgrus. During the republican r;?- vernment which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ter. olfi- cers annually as chief n:agisirates. These were called ros/;//, xdo,uo:; and werp taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which wasct-n* suited only on imnoitant qmstions; it consisted of 28 meinbers, who fnr the- 102 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order ol knights^ who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not great ; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. Cf. MUllcr, vol ii p. 99, .34.-//otA, Kreta. Gotiing. 1S29. 3 vols. 8. § 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces of them found indifferent writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had public meals, which they called avh^ua. — Slaves were treated with comparative mildness. 1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, " by that system of laws which, in an age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, in- forced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not only the particular inodel of the wondertul polity, so well known to us through the fame of Laceda3mon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legis- lation and jurisprudence ; and which continued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and philosophy." See Saiiite Croix, Des Aiiclens gnuvernenieiils federatifs, et legislation de Crete Par. 1776. 2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen called by the Cretans fxvoia; the slaves oi individual citizens, a0a//twr«£ ; and the tribu- taries, ^7r>'Koot. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the dependent classes^ were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employment and profession, with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, were permitted to tiiem. — Mulier, as cited <^ 118, vol. ii. 5. 3. The name d '^psia is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had the care of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distinguished by their great hospi- talitv ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — Mulier, ii. 225. - The term dy^Xr] was used to designate an assembly of yoimg men. who lived toge- ther from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. These young men, called dyeXmroi, were under the care of a person termed dyEX'irri;, who superintended their military and gymnastic exercises. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. § 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Boeolia, a monarchical government existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a republican. Yet this state did not rise to any great celebrity, at least for a long time; the cause -was per- haps the whole national character of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, there were in Thebes Boeotarchs, Boi,orap;j'at, and Polemarchs UoUi^iapxot; the former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Bceotia was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants was not permitted, but if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state. Pansanias has recorded in his description of Boeotia many remarkable features of the later condition of the Theban state. Tlie BcBotians liad a greni natinnal festival, Ylaj.t/Soi'j'^ria, in honor of Athena lloiiia, who had a temple near Cornnea, near which the fe'Piival was held. CC._ Mitfurd, ch. v. sect. \.—Ri(ml-RncluUe^ Administration de I'Elat Federatif des BcEoliens, in the Mem. dt VJnstitut, C lasse rmst. et Ln. Aic. vol. viii. p. 214 § 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinih but little is known. It was at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphidae and Bacchiadae were the most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocratical ''brm was introduced, one chief magistrate was chosen yearly called u^vtavii;. He was supported by a senate, rspouoJa. The assembly of the people never had equal authority; their power was oftpn very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and en- joyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two harbours so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de- stroyed by the Romans, B. C. HG, but was afterwards rebuilt by Caesar, and became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra were colonies of Corinth. The last city is specially remarkable, from the fact, that a dispute between itself 3nd Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for <» hwQ time governed by GOO of the oldest men, called yfio^opot ; but afterwards sBcame entirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. ' f UUller, as before cited, vo'. ii. p 130. p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 193 § 134 Jrgos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings. In later times it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It had Its senate, and another body of magistrates consisting of eighty members, and a class of public officers called aprvvoi.. Cf. MUller, vol. ii, p. I4<» 147. In the history of ^toIta,we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or confederacy between the cities of that di^rict. This confederacy was called the Fanastolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which the masfistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was "^alleu (5TpaT'77y6?, and was at the same time chief military commander. This officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (artoxJ^rjifoi) was a different body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- gencies. See P. W. Tittmann, Darslellung der Griech. Staatsverfassunsen. I.eipz. 1822. 8. The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held their com- •uon assemblies twice a year at ^gium. In these originally presided one Tpa^juarfi)?, with two SrparT^yot ; and at a later period, one ^Tpar'/yyo^, besides whom there were ten AT^jU-torpyot to attend to the public affairs of the con- federacy. Cf. Breilerbauch, Geschichfe der Acliier und ihres Bundes. Leipz. 1762. t ■ HI. MILITARY AFFAIRS. § 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), was a main trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by iheir educa- tion, bound by their laws and their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were ac- cordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. The Thebans, likewise, for a certain period, maintained the repu'ation of dis- tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this respect; and although in the war w'ith Xerxes they agreed that Athens should command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon sgain fell into dissension, and the Spartans stripped the Athenians, for a lime, of that naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest advantages. On Grecian military affairs, see Nast, ICdphe, &c. cited § 42. § 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at Athens the twentieth year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released only by the approaching weakness of age. At Athens the citizens were ex- empted from military service at the age of forty, except in cases of extreme danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employ- ment. Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xarar^pa^yj, or xatdxoyo^ The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citizen considered it a disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree, a substitute. Pericles, however, introduced the payment of a stipend, which was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwe-ahh. At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; id erwards iour ; whence TtTpo)(i6\of 0'o; signified a soldier's life, and TETpcofhAl eiii, to .serve in war. The pay ot a soldier ni the cavalry, termed /caTaarmis, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, wiih an allowance for a servant. On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expfnses, ste ^§ 103, 104. — On the military regulations, cf. (iat iner, Sur les loix militaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vol xlv. p. 2:'9. — Cf. ) 42. § 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian soldiers were of three classes; footsoldiers or infantry, to 7t?Ci-'<:oi' ? the cavalry, to t^' tTfrtwi'; and such as were borne in chariots, to ffj)' o^rf^oLtutv. The infrintry comprised three kinds; the ^Ttutat., heavy armed, who carried a cotnpleie and full arinor. 104 QRECIAN ANTItlUITIES. and were distinguished particularly by a large shield {otCKov) ; the Ttf^.-aarai, largeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield {rteM^) ; and tho 4/i?iot, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. — The war chariots were not much used after the intioduction of cavalry. The chariots, termed 6pcnavr}ip6poi, were potnetidies terribly destructive, heinji armed with sythes, wiih which whole ranks of sohJiers were poiiietiiiies cut down. — In Plnte XVll fi<;. K, one of these chariots is ()reseiite(l, drawn by two hurses wlii< h are protected by a covtrinu of mail. It triay be worthy of remark here, that snch chariots were used by ihe ancient Britons atui Belgians, and are designated in the Roman wriiers by the i.rms ccnini aiui esseila. (Lucan, Phars. i. 4"2b. — 7'uc. Agric. xxxvi. — Cces. Bell. Gall. iv. 33.— Jl/t/a, iii 6.) "The coritms was a terrible instrument of destructnin, being artrred with sharp syilies and hooks for cutting and iearing ail who were so unh»p|)y as to come within iis reach." R. Jlenry, History of Great Britain, (.first ed.) Lond. 1771-93. 6 vols. 4. § 13R. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consisted only of citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain their horses. The tTtTtft?, therefore, at Athens as M'ell as Sparta, held a high rank. Those who wished to attain this rank were first examined in respect to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch or Phularch {iTiTtdpxrjs, ^Vkdpxy;^) appointed for the purpose. They were called by various names according to the weapons of armor they used; as, e. g., axpoi5o'kiatdi, who threw missiles; 8opato^6pot, who carried spears or lances; irtTto-rolo-rat, ^laro^popoi, xouto^opoi,, ^vp^o^opoo, etc. The following articles constituted their principal armor: a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished int-o the heavy -armed, kh- TafjpaKTOi, and ligld-anned, i^ri KardcppaKroi. I'he former not only were defended by armor themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which were named, from the parts oi the horse covered by them, -pnfiST(o-i6ia, T:i)0(yc.pviha, napa- ^■qpidia, -apanXevpLdia, ■napaKi'njx'-^ia, etc. The trappings ol the horses were termed (/>'A(i/ja; various and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered clo.hs were often used. — The s^iyiaxai were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to serve either on horseback or on foot. — I'he "A/i'i)(--oi were such as had two horses; called also (V-aywyoI, because they led one of their horses. — After the time of Ale.xun- der, elephants were introduced from the east; but they were after a short period laid aside, as they vvere found too unmanageable to be relied upon with much confidence. When used, they carried jnto battle large towers, containing from ten to thirty sol- diers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, while they were themselves in comparative safety. SaWer and Freret, Orig. de IVquitatinn dans la Grecp, in llie Mem. Jicad. Inner, vii. 33, 286.— />c Maizeroy, La C valerle Grecque in the same Mem. &c. xli. 242. — Larcher, L'ordre equestie chez les Grecs. in ttie same Mem. &c. xlviii. 83. § 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been already described (§ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, that in later times there wore many changes, as to the forms of the articles, and the manner of using them. 1. The breastplate (& paf) consisted of two parts, one for a defence for the back, the other for the breast, united ar the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called 5- p A V E X X 1 I. 195 196 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. rrai'TOTi iirai, of shape. The Tkipov was in the shape of a rhombus, and fi/st used bj the Persians; the Qvpzo^ was oblong and l)ent inward ; the Aaafnoi' was composed ol hides wiih the hair on, and was very light ; the lltXrr? was small and light, and, ac- cording to some, shaped like a halt-moon. In I'la e XXII. are several forms of shields; see fig. 3, fig. 4, fig. 7. See also I'late XXX. fig. I, fig. 4 ; and Tlale X.XXIII. fii. I fig. 2. 3. Besides the offensive weapons wliich have already l)eeri named (see ? 45, and Plate X VH.), we may mention the poviard, cMh'd '^afmlnpihoi', iy\iipic)inv, wvA naxaipn; it answ<;red the purpose of'a knife. In later aires, the aKivuKrfi was I) rrowed from tile Persians. This has i:ene- rally heen considered as cni-ved and has nsually been translated cimitir ; in Sii.iih's Dictionary it is contended, that it was straijriit like tin- dajri^'er ; the writer qnotes .loseplius (Jivt. Jud. .\x. 7-10) as sayiti}; of the assassins who infested Jn'dea Itefore the (iesiniciion of Jerusalem, that "they used diiirgers in size resemlilina: the Persian dcinaces, hnt curved, and like Ihosf. wliicli the Romans called .vjrtr, and from which r(d)bers and murderers are called ,s2c«/» ;'' the acinncps seems to have hnen wnm on the rij:ht side. The Konli or fulchiini (eti.-i.s falcatus) was also used in haitle ; as was likewise the bnitle-nx^ al'ivt}, r\\\A the tteXckvs. 'I'he Macedonians had a pecnliar kind nChmii- spe^'-^9- Xot, ixcKtovraf^jxoit 5f3<;a6ap;^ot, TtF/u.TtdBapxf^'-i the names being derived from the number of men commanded by them. § 141. The whole army was called crpartd ; the front, fisruTiov or ytptoroj ^vybi ; the wings, %ipara; the rear, o-upd or ta;i:aro$ ^uyo^. The smallest divi- sion, consisting of five men, was called a Tiffirtug; a "koxos contained from ten to a hundred men, according to different circumstances; and a raltj, a hundred, or a hundred and twenty-eight. The ra^tf v\'as also called cKarovTaoxin. Each division of this sort had five attendants, who {cKraKToi) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the arpaTUKripK^, who reported the officsr's commands to the soldiers; the (r.^stinpopoi, who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or watchwords; the o-aXTii y>cr>K, a trumpeter; the vvrjpsTrjg , who supplied the membeis of the division with necessaries ; and the dvpayds, whose business was to see that none of the number were left behind. Some of the larger divisions ; cvyrayixa, consisting ol two raltiq, or 256 men : -ncvra- Koaiapx'ia, two avi/raypara, or 512 men ; XiXtapxtu, two of the last, or 1024 men ; Mcpa^x'ia, or Te>.Oi. twice the preceding, or 2048 men ; (PaXayyapx'ia, or Yrpa-nyia sometimes, twice the TtAw?, or 4096 men ; the commander of the latter was called (jTpaTriy6(;. The term (p'tXay^ signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers; some- times a body of 4000, as just mentioned ; and sometimes any number of troops in general. . Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained fourUmes the num- ber included in the (paXayyapxta, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. § 142. While the term ^wx^iayl is often used in a general sense for any num- ber of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arraniremeni in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock; the JMncedonians wen^ especially celebrated fiir usino- it to advantage. — The "n^n'Knv was the same with the Roman cxineua, an arrangement in the form of a p. Ill MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PHALANX. HERALDS. CAMPS. 197 wedge, in order to force a way more easily and farther into the midst n\ aii enemj. — Wheeling-, turninor, or facing, was called xy^Vrts ; to the riorht, tTtu Sopu, the spear being in the right hand; to the left, irt' ao7tc6a, the shield being held in the left. Taming conipleiely about was termed ixftai5o%rj. — 'J'he Greeks Dossessed great skill and readiness in manoeuvres, and had teachers of the art, raxTixoh v/ho instructed the youth in the practice. 1. Various forms were given to ihe ip'iXayl. £onie of which were not rectangular; as the £-iKaiJL->;i'£ly of Grecian tactics are those of ArrWi \nd jElian ; cf. P. V. § 250, § 253. § 143. The declaration of war usually began wi(!h a demand made by the injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Un- expected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred and inviolable. 1 u. The heralds {Kfip-^Kcg) carried a staflT wcund with two serpents {KripvKswv), and were usually charged only withniessages of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies i~ph0u:) were accustomed also to threaten and to announce war. The power of ambas- sadors was limited in different degrees a! different times (cf § 102). The leagues or agreeip.ents entered into were either (1) a-o^cr], a treaty of peace or mutual cessation from injuries, called also a-wdmi, dpf]ur]-, (2) f-ipax'ia, a treaty of mutual defence; or (3) ff"ppaxia, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when ihey themselves commenced the war. Such treaties were confirm.ed by the most solemn oaths, written upon tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged certain tokens or evidences {rrvp/SoXa) of the compact. 2 7t. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention v.'as also paid by the Greeks to omens and seasons. 3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march before the seventh day, ivros ipSSpig, nor the Lacedcemonians until full moon. § 144. In addition to what has already been said (§ 48) on the construction of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed according to circumstances. The Lacedaemonians, however, always adhered to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops were usually placed on the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship of the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards were divided into the day-watches, ^v'kaxai r^/j-fpirai, and the night-watches. ^uXazat vvxrfQLvai. The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called rtpo^v'kaxat. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called s^i xwo"rp'f, which served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring up their military engines, or of a triangular form, as the x^^ ^^ op"f, for the protection of such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was called the yifpov, made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinece, and held by the sol- diers over the head. 2 u. The Xf""/"" was a mound composed of various materials and raised very high, often above the besieged walls. — There were also moveable towers {jrvproi). made of wood and usually placed upon the x^''"]"" ; they were rolled on wheels and had often several stories, containirg soldiers and engines. — 'i he battering-ram {Kpiog) was a strong beam with an iron head {(p(io\r) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that h could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered with a XfA'')i/)7. The KaTi-^eXrai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like upon the enemy; fnose which discharged arrows, being termed dIvlSeXeTs, and those which cast stones, \i6oP6\ol or nsTpoPoXoi. Dionysiiis Siculns (xx. 48, 86) speaks of the latter ensrines as sometimes capable of tlirovving stones of one hundred weiglit C\i6u06\oi TaXavriaTos), and even of tl.ree hundred weight {nerpo- 36\oi r/)-,raXavrta,ros). 3. Th3 'EXfTToXif was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of greater size lud force, driven with ropes an4 wheels. This name {'eXtnuXii, city-laher) was first ap- ^hed by Demetrius Poliorcetes to a machine invented by him, in the form of a square Lower ; each side being ninety cubits high and forty-five wide ; resting on four wheels ; ■'Uvided into nine stories, which each contained engines for throwing sf ears, stones, and various missiles ; manned by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 48. — The Tpfea^a p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. PUNISHMENTS. l^U were long irons wi:h sharp enas, and were the instruments chiefly used in earUej periods for demolishing the walls of a city. § 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the thinjrs nnosl worthj of remark. Soldiers, armpd with various means of defending- them- selves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on. the walls of the city. 'The greater military engines were planted within the walls, and hurled arrows, stones, and pieces of timber upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers were opposed by counter-mines, and their- entrenchments and mounds were undermined. Their various engines were bri'ken. set on fire, or embarrassed In operation by different contrivances on the part of the besieg^ed. § 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always tri,at the citizens tfnd the property in the same way. Somt times the building's were demolished, and all the inhabitants put to death, or at least those in arms, while the rest (ai;^jUaXurot., dopm^^wrot) were reduced to slavery. But sometimes favor was shown, and nothing but the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new settlers were planted in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demo- lished, it was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even cultivate the soil. § 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, consisted partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which were the pro- perty of the conquered party. These, when taken from the slain, were termed rrx'.'iXa ; if from the living, "kd^vpa. The whole (eVapa) was brought to the commanHer-in-chief. who first took a large portion for himself, then assigned rewards to such as had distinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards distributed the remainder equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, a portion was set apart for the service of the g-ods, which was called dxpo(9u'ta.. The armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and liung up in their temples; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of the victors, when they designed to terminate their military career, 'rhank-offer- ings were also presented, and trophies (tpoxaia) erected, which were likewise dedicated to the gods; statues also and other monuments were raised to com- memorate viciories. An iiiscriptinn (irriypantj.a) wns often attached to the trophy, or nfferins presented to the god, or other inoiiiiuieiit, roniainiiii: tlie names of tlie conquerors and the conqtit^red, an acconiit ol" the .spoil*;, and someiiine.* of the occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especiillj' an oliv, was ofit'ii used for ilie purpose of a trophy, the euiblenis of victory bt-iii!: hntig upon it. — Alexander the Great, ahidintr by a law of the Mace'Nniians, never raised a trophy ; yet he erected other UMitiuiiients of hi.s successes; among them were altars to tlie gods, very broad and lofty A represeiiiation of the trupfPtim is given in Plate XXII. tig. 4. § 151. 'I''here was a careful regard to order and discipline in the Greek armies, and various rewards nnd punishments were established. Among the, lewards were promotion to higher rank, conferring of garlands or other distinc- tions, ami also the funeral honors and the encomiums, which were bestowed on the brave warrior. At Athens public provision was made for the widows and children of those slain in battle, and also for those who were injured by wounds {ahvv(xtot). 'V\\e children of such as valiantly died were also honored sometimes with the first seats (TtpofSpLCu,) at the theatres. — The severest of the punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, avtofjio'hai. Such as refused to serve, dcfpaffurot, such as quitted their ranks, i.^ niotdxr at. and such as threw away their shields, /jt^aaTtcSf?, were subject to civil degradation. At Athens they were not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and were also fined in the court Helieea. In Sparta they were exposed to still deeper disgrace, u:hich extended even to their whole family ; it was so great that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afterwards. ^ 152. The Greeks employed various means ibr conveying intelligence. They had a class of messengers or nuuters, called njxzpo'()6jxoi, who carried news and official commands; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much celebrated was the La cedten-joniaii aKorak^. This was a roll of white parchment or leather ('iff/^a, (/.(is-), wrap ped round a black stick, about four cubits in leng'h. The general always received a snck of ihis sort, of the same size with another kept by the inagist rates or govern meni. When any command or intelligence was to be conveyed, a sirip of parchrnerii was rolled on the statf, and on this was written what the person wished to comrnuni 200 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES cate ; the strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own slick, and thus could read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible. § 153. Before proceeding- now to notice the navaK affairs of the Greeks, we may allude to their method of passing rivers with their armies. It was usually by means of boats (azi^^cki) or small vessels joined together so as to form a sort of bridge (yf(j)i;pa), like that which the Persians under the command of Xerxes threw over the Hellespont. In order to hold these vessels fast, large baskets or boxes, filled with stone, were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the purpose of anchors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the greatest emergencies that they carried- forward with them these boats, having- taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by riseans of large casks and leathern bottles. Darius is said to have thrown a bridtre across the Thraciaii Bosphonis {Hemd. iv. 83, 85). Thf.^ of Xerxes over the Hellespont was built between A()ydos on the one side and Sesios on the other (Herod, vii. 36). § 154. The use of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been already mention- ed (§ 47). Vessels of war (iTtixcoTiot,, xu^Ttyj^ri) differed in their structure from the other kinds, especially from ships of burden {u'kxdhii. ^opt7]yoi) which were of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three benches of rowers, called i-ptj^pftj {triremes, cf. § 304), and hence this term- is often used to signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched, it was purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly, sometimes a whole fleet, was committed to the protection of a particular god. The ensign or standard {rtapdorjixov), by which one ship ,ab distinguished from another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had its own name, which was usually taken from its ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow, § 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to the dif- ferent parts of a ship and the tackUiig. The Arabic numerals attached to some of the terms in the following description are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our Plate XXIII., indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwtlV s plan of a hexireme. 1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the prow o\ front, rrpopa, utromov; the middle, or body, iiejoKoiXoi, yaarpa ; and the stern, irpvixva^ , d^pa. — 'I'he prow was more or less adorned, not only by the figures and images placed on it, but by the colors painted on it, from which were derived such epithets as pnXro-r^apioi, Kva'^ix,3o\ot, &c. '1 he sides of it were termed nrepa and Trapzial. The ordAo; was a long plank at the head of the prow, at the extremity of which some of the principal ornaments, dKpovia, dKpoaro. \ia^, were fixed. '1 he TrT.%ig^^ was a round piece of wood also attached to the prow, on which the name of the ship was inscribed ; it was sometimes called dfOa^ixog. '1 he Xrii'taKo; was the figure of a goose upon the prow ; near the water, according to the opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher part. The ep.[3o\oA^ was the lower portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war gallies was fitted to strike into the ships of the enemy. Behind this, and just below the (jr6\o^, was the irap-ficrri- lO'j or ensign, some image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the follow- ing parts; the Tpomi;^ or (Treipri, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut the waves, with the x^^^'^'^i^ara, wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the ship's bottom: ^iX/ci?, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, dvrXta; the Koi\r], hold (called also kvto;, and ydarpa), surrounded by ribs or planks rising from the keel, vopisTg or eyKotXia; the ^wj-r^jprj, or vtto] nara, rafters, or ropes, on the sides (jrXfpa^) of the ship from prow to stern; the toZxoi and b^dJK^a'^ seats lor the rowers situated on the sides one above another ; the rpnuara or dpOaXpiol^ openings through which the oars were put out ; the mKMfjia, a skin or the like, which lined the openings ; sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, called Tpdxoi, by leathern thongs, rp'tmi. — The tordf'^, mast, fixed in a hole {ixzcroc^ni), in the middle of the? ship; capable of being taken down and put in a case {'urro]6xr}) ; having several parts, as Trrtpni, rpiX'jXo;, mio^iit «)', ^iop'iKWj, iKpioj^ ))\aKaTr\. The Kspaiai, or Kcpara^^, were th*; crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast ; the (kpoKspaia were the extremiiies of the yards. Tlie to-ria'", sails (called also d36vai, /ippufa), including particular ones distinctively named, 03 cTrt^piTj;, inizen-sail; dK'tno^, main-sail {Ik'itio> also signifies a small vessel, like a pi- rate's); iiprt-//') ', top-sail ; ^oXw;/, sprit-sail. — The'rppa,^£ix^.\io^, ballast. — The/^oXr?, the lead for sounding. — 1 he kojtoI, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The d-o;Jidpa:, bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called aUo £7i(/? (Spat and d/a!3'Spa') — The term oVXa was applied to the rigging generally. — The terms axov/ia, k'iXoi, and rorrda are commonly considered as synonymous, and as signi- fying the cordage ; including iTrirovoi, mykg^^, npoiroSzs, inao tpiai, npo-o^oi'^^, made at first of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax; hemp, and the like. But Bockh considers the axci-^i-a as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to Vv^hich the anchor was attached and by which the ship was fastened lo the land; and the ro-sla as designating the lighter ropes, including Ka\'.'y)ia or KaXoi, [jx'uTsg, Ktpooxoi, vn'-pai, the rope called dyKOiva, the xaXivo;. E-iro'oi, &c. The term vjoy'yw)^r£j T) -Xo'io'', probably reierstothe act of putting these ropes about the vessel. See T. D. Wovhsy, on Acts xxvii. 17, in the Bill. Hepcs. Sec. Series, vol. viii. p. 405. 3 21. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part, was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks, spiSjXa^^, were long and high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, enio-ikg. jutting out, to protect the ship from the 'beaks of the enemy. '1 he war-ves- sels usually had wooden decks or coverings {f these ublitiue ascents or banks, each bank having five o:trs; and thus a vessel might be built with any number of banks by only increasing iis length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, tlian in a bireme. In Plate XXIll. fig A, we have a view of a liexireme, or galley of six banks of oars, on his scheme; the Arabic numbers, ".^1, 22, 23, designate Ihe i)orti()n of the b.inks occupied respectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned See /. Hclwed. Essay on the War Ga.le>s fjf tlie Aiicietit-. 1 oml. l-2b. 8 — Dc Lt Rcy, *ur Its navires employes |)ar les anciens, &c. ill the Mnn. del Itislitul. C I a.sse de Lit. el Beaux Jlrls, vol. i. 479; li. 141, 153.— tit Boyd's td. oi Potttr. p. 526. as ciieJ § 13. § 157. Among the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the followina; gopa-ra 2/ai;aa;v:a, very long spears; Spirtavoi-, aspieoe of iron formed like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cut the sail-ropes of the hostile ship; ^^Ip aib'/jpa the grappling iron; apTtaysg, large iron hordes at- tached to the mast of a vessel in such a manner that l)eing thrown into the ene- my's ships they seized and raispd them up into the air. An instrument, called from its form the dolphin (6f?./|)i,i/), was often used ; it was made of iron or lead, and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violei.ce into an adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it. — The means of defence against these instruments was to gnard the ship by a strong covering of hides. § 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, or admiral, was called i-avapj^oj, sometimes at67.apxoS'> or arpat'/jyo^; often there were several in equal com- mand, often there was but a single one. The- duration of his authority was decided by the people, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. Next to him were the commanders of individual ships. ■rp'->;pap;>;ot ; the Lace- daemonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called tTtt- rsto'kfv^. (2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the, ships and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- ing; the o.px^'X.v^fpvrf/ii, who had the care of the v^hole fleet; the xv^fpvvjtrii^ who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept the helm; and the rtpcopfvj, or Tfpapar'^j, the next in command, having the care of every thing be- longing to the forepart of the ship. There were also, in the second class, the following: TiAj]nai\r\;, the musician, whose rotes cheered the rowers and regulated the sirokes of their oars; vsXe o-dk, who gave the word of command to them ; ro'.xapxo;, who governed the rowers oti one side ; vn-- ■pvXaKCi, employed in guarding the" ship from rocks and other dangers ; raft a;, who superintended the food; fcr^apsu;, who attended to the ilres ; ^oyuriii, who kept ihp ship's accounts. . § 159. Tn the beo-innino- of a sea-fioht they souo-ht first to lighten the ship of all superfluous and unnecessiry burdens; and to render sails, mast, and every thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible. Then the most favorable position and order of battle was selected, accorilinw to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gcds, and the commapders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate theii men. The signal for the onset was now given ; usually done by hanging a shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the vuvapxos'^ while il.is sig- nal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar lo that 204 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. of a siege; the ships heing drawn up in the form of a circie or semicircle ."i letter V. § IGO. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured vessels. All the cities w^hich were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the suc- cessful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards consecrated to the gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxpwta, axpcor-^pij.), of the captured ships. — The most common punishments in the naval service were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, avaviJ.d2;;oi, were, at Athens, punished with disgrace (drt^ai-a) together with their posterity. Deserters, "kBiTtovavtai, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. § 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same order as in speaking of the earlier period (§ 51 — 60), and begin with the subject of food. In later times, when riches more abounded, the food was less simple than before; the Lacedaemonians maintained longest their strictness and fru- gality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations, and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more culti- vated and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent moderate^ ly, owing, perhaps, to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Wa- ter was the common drink, with which they were accustomed to mingle wine. The wine sometimes r(?ceived an addition of myrrh {olvo^ fivpljt,vi,trj^,) or of barley meal (oti'oj aTtyjTi^ttio^ivo^). The term employed to designate a drinking cup, KparPip, is commonly derived from Kei)a(jda9ai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Pot- ter s\d.\e5, \hfiX no cen^m \wo^ov\.\on. yfos ohsexwedi informing this mixture. A very common division of wines was into the TroKv^popoi or strong wines, bearing a large addi- tion of water, and d\iyo(p6po', weak wines. To driiik unmixed wine, .aKpaTomdv, was described as synonymous with Y.vQi(jTiTnt.Xv,lo drink like a Scythian. — A common Ho- meric epithet for wine, is aiOop • sometimes yspotmin;. (Cf Horn. II. i. 4G2, iv. 259.) — • The swefi, unfcrmented juice of the grape {musfnm) was termed yXevKog. That which flowed from the clusters by merely their own pressure was called Trp6x"pLa. Un- fermented wine, inspissated by boiling, bore the name of 'k^^rtixa. — There were various sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any distinct account, is the Ma- ronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 249). The Framnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the Lesbian, Chiun, and Thosian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidiis and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. '1 he Greeks also used wines imported from diflerent places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind was brought from Byhlos in PhcEnicia; the Alexandrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria in Egypt, was highly valued. CiiTipare § 331 h. — '<'ep Henderson's History nf Ancient and Modern Wines. Lond. 1824. 4. — This work is adorned with several beautiful illuslraticins taken from antiques, and relating lo ti.e use c^f wine. § 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, dxpa-rtrr^a, o.pintov^ the time of wh'ch was not fixed, and a main meal, hnKvov, which was regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, h^cktvov or ifjTttpiafxa, and an after-dish or supper, 6op7toj. Robinson remarks that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not consider the <:iKiv6' as a separate meal from the J-prr.?? ; while others think that the (Jieeks bad but two meals, a Jay, the aparov and ^'p-oi;. It seems certain, that apia-ov was finally used to denote the dinner (that is, the meal taken not far from the middle of the day), and k'lTrvo-i the stepper, the latter being I he principal meal. " There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at daybreak, and soent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the PLATE XXIV. 17 205 206 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tribunal, and those en;ployed in agricuhure, manulactures, or commerce, engaged in their different occupations. At mid-day, the more weahhy citizens, who by that time had commonly finished then serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palasstra, or in walking through the delight- ful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus ond Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing with each other in the forum (agora) the interests of the state, the conduct of the magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the Athenians sometimes played K^^fSeia and Trerrsfa; two games, the first of which resem- bled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — " During the day, the Athenians either took no food or only a shght repast in private. At sun-set they sat down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening 10 society and amusement, and often continued to a late hour in the night." § 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on festival days; afterwards they became very common. They were of two sorts : the sL^aTiLvyj, given by a single person, and the tpaj^oj, provided at the expense of the party present. Entertainments of the latter kind were generally the most frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling; such as were invited free of expense, as poets, singers, &c., were called aavixjSo^ot; the contribution of each other guest was termed ct,af3o?t>}, xataj^D'hrj. — The marriage feast, yu/jLOi, is some- times considered as a third sort. — There were also public entertainments for -a whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called cvo^itia, Ttavhat^iai^ hdTiva hri^oaia^ 4)pa.- rptpca, &c. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the state. § 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and anointed. The hands were also again washed {vi^aadat) between the successive courses, and at the close of the feast {a.7tovi-\a6dai). In the early times the g«ests sat at table (ef. § 52); in later times they reclined, but not always. The couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a single couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank, although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks attached a certain idea of sanctity to the table and the rites of the table. Three couches, kXI ai, were usually placed round the table, rpdns^a, one on each side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants; hence originated the word rpiK^l- viov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, arpcoi/ara, and had pillows, npoaKscpa- ^ata, for the guests; they were often very costly, being highly ornamented with ivory and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining on the same couch, the first lay on the uppermost part, with his legs extended behind the back of the second, whose head was near the bosom of the first. See ^^^ 329. 2. — The tables were made of wood, highly polished (^otd), evioug) ; in the later periods, exceedingly costly, adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images. § 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the SttTti/ov), the first course, rtpo- •ro^a, 8sL7tvov Ttpooc^tov, consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs, oysters, a mixture of honey and wine {olvo/xeu), and the like. Then came the chief dish, more substantial and costly, xe^a'kr] bstTivov. Afterwards the desert, 8evtipa TpUTtf^a, consisting of various sweetmeats, furnished with great splendor in times of luxury, and called e7iidsi,7tva,ix£ta86pTtLa, &c. 1. The most common food among the Greeks is said to have been the naoi), beans {Kvapoi), and lentils ((paicaX). '1 he sausage {(pvaKn) was a favorite article. Fish ^tT'pJjc?vi,i'o?; tht Bo^f Tievi;, whose husiness was to see that the laws and rules of such entertainments were preserved, and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the AatT'poj, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and "larofest portions were given to the most honored guest; and the'Oivnxooc, who dis- tributed the drink, and were heralds {xrjpvxss), youths (zovpoc) often of r\ob\f birth, or servants {8ov7mi,). In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beautiful slaves, to perform the last mentioned office; for such ones extravagant prices were paid; and a distinction was made between the vspo^jopoi. who served ihe water, and the du'o\6oi, who poured the wine, and were younger. When waiting at table, they w^re richly adorned in person and dress. § 167. The drinking vessels were generally large, often very rich and costly; they were frequently crowned with garlands. 1. The KfaTfjp was the vessel in which the wine was "nixed wiih the water and from which the cups were filled. Among the various cups used were the kvXiI or K^XiGKr), the ((lidXn. the p'lron, the Kapxfjmoy, the Kni>Qapo;, the fea,% &c. The ri)a9ot are described as a sort of ladles used for conveying the wine from the crater to the cup. 2. It was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in the order of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person Mamed, which was termed -po-ivEiv ; while the act .of the person, who received the cup and drank the rest of its contents, was termed a^n-po-i-'En;. It was also customary to drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling ihem by name. Thiee craters were usually drank to the gods. ea>'h one to a particular god; as Kpan'-p 'Ef/ioi) ; 'Kparrp Jitdf SwT-fjpof. — Someiimes the guests contended who should drink the most ; and prizes were awarded to the conquerors. Some melancholy ex- cesses are recorded; as, tor instance, the case of Alexander, who in this way lost his life. Singing (/xoAtt/)), instrumental music, and dancing (opx^TriV), were accompani ments of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymn? to gods or heroes; subsequently songs and dances of a wanton character were introduced. The most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed o-zcdXia. Athenxvs, L. x c. 9, 10. Cf. jElian, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41. — Respecting the o-xroAta, see P. V. § 27. 3. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate in various sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced ; but in the laier ages, less violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the KorrafJoi seems to have been a favorite amusement. There were various forms of this game, in all of which the. chief object was to throw wine from a goblet into another vessel in the most skillful manner. See Gedoyn, Plaisirs de la table chez tes Grecs : in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 54. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev vol. xxiv. ~. 421. • For details respecting tlie rottabus in particular. Rofihi^on. Arch. Grjec. bk. v. ch. 21. p. .524 — GrnAlech. Uber den kclfaboi der Griechen, in his .Sntiquansche Verwuhe, I.pz 1800. — F. .Tacobf. (Iber den kotlabos, in IViela»d's Altisches Musputti. On the whole subject nf Grecian meals and enler'ainmenis, set Ri bhison. Arch Graec. bk. v. ch. 17-21. ^-X Curnaritts, Ue Con- Tiviis Graecorum, in Gronovius, vol. i.v. — Athens^is, Deipnosophists (cf. P. V. § 123). On the affairs of private life generally. If. Becker, Chaiicles; cf. § 13. 4. Frequently there were entertainments called u'^-oaia (drinkins-parties). at which conversation and discourses were expected to form the principal amusement ; although the various games common at other emenainments were not excluded. The propound- ing of riddles {alviyiiara or yplpi) was much practiced. See P. IV. § 69. — Eichtnlach, as there ci\ed. —Becker^s Cliaricles. § 168. The hospitality practiced by-the early Greeks (cf. § 57) reiriaincd customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of being hospitable; the Athenians were termed ^i.7.6^(-vol; but the Spartans were less courtpous to strangers. Hospitality was viewed as. a religious duty, and several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and lo avenge all injuries done to them. 1 u. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (vEr-j 'IX;) before the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent frieiidsbip. The alliance contracted by mutual ho-^pitality {-pu^evia, to huo-pa-f^o ) was as sacred as that of consansuiiiity. The parties of en exchanged tokens of it {(nectacles and festivals. iiUS GRECIAN irVriQUITIES. 2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic. De Oivin. ii. 68. — 7'he term navioxcTov (caupona) designated an inn. Simon, on the hospitality of the ancients, in the Memi. de V^cad. des Inscr. vol. iii. p. 41.—/'. W- Ullrich, De Proxenia. Berl 1^22.— Zell, Die Wirthshauser d. A\ten.—Stochmann, De Popinis. § 1()9, The dress ef the Greeks did not underg-o any very important changes; at least the names used in the first period were still applied to the principal gar- ments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to dress, purple was the most esteemed. 1 ji. Coverings for the feet {moSfiixara, ncSi^a) vi'ere used very early, but not universally: they were of various forms. Hats {ttlXoi, mXia, KiXiSta) were first introduced at a later period, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather. 2. The shoes were tied under the soles ot the feet by thongs, lixdi/Tcg • hence the terms vrroSeTf and vrruXveiv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The foliowmg were some of the varieties; dpPvXai, large and easy shoes, wliicli came up to the ankle; (the term dfj0vXr) is also applied to an appendage of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which the driver thrust his foot to assist him in driving); 0XavTai, shoes worn chiefly in the house ; didiiaft^a, shoes common to men and women ; efxParai, shoes used by comedians; Kodopvoi, shoes used by tragedians, buskins ; Kajiparivai, coarse shoes worn by peasants ; KprniSsg, a kind of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; Xokcj- i/iKol^ djx^tKXauk; , Spartan shoes of a red color; TrepciKai, shoes oi a white color, generally worn by courtezans ; TrepiPaptdeg, shoes worn by women of rank ; advSaXa, shoes anciently peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole ot the toot. In our Plate XXIV. are illnstralions of various forms of ancient coverings for tlie feet and legs. Several, marked by the letter a, a.re from Mexican monuments ; those malrked b and c, are said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and ^ are from Egypnan remains ; e, g, ?', /:, /, ?«, ;?, and 5, are Greek and Rowan sandals ; A: and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them ; q having sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army marching with them must make a confused vnise ; cf. Rosevvivller, Schol. in Vet. I'est. Isai. ix. 5); /, n, 0, are Dacian; h,j, v, are Persian; r is llie Turkish slipper made of morocco. 3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (cf ^ 44). The -rrXXog seems to have been a sort of skull-cap of felt, being of a coitical iorm ; varying, however, in elevation ; but alv/ays without a brim. A broad-brimmed hat, termed Triracrof, was used by young men : it is seen in Plate XXIV. fig. 3. " Travellers among the Greeks wore the chlamys, sword, and petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes thrown back on the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their money in their girdles." 'I'he Kamia was similar to the Trhaao;. with a brim turned upwards. Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of them were the following; «/i7rn(, a fillet, with which the hair was tied, forming on the forehead a frontal, which was oiten made of gold, and ornamented sometimes with precious stones; KaXimrpa, nveil; Kpri^nvoy, a covering which came down from the head to the shoulders; KCKpvipaXog , a net inclosing the hair; piirpa, a sort of cap or turban. The term jxiTpa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the vwpa^. A form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed aT£(i>dpri v-4/rjXii. 1 he oppioi was a sort of necklace, an ortiament much worn, and often very cosily (cf § 338). The women frequently had also ear-rings, IppuiTa, 'eXiKCi, iviiTia, iXXv0:a. — Among the Athe- nians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments called rtTTiytq. The term Kopri designated the hair of the Jiend generally ; the word ^p((, the general term for hair, is used in the same sense ; biu there were distinctive terms desiirnating peculiar properties of the hair, or peculiar modes of arranging it : as sOeipa, a head of hair careiiilly dresst^d ; ;\;a£r»?, long flowing hair, like the mane of a horse ; ttokAs, the hair when combed ^;!ld dressed ; (po/St), the hair in disorder, as when a person is in fear; /c<5pff(7, ttie hair on the top of the head; Kopvn 3oi. the hair of women when drawn up all round the head ami fastened in a bow on the top; Kpo'j/SvXog, the hair of men in the same f.ishion ; the Athenians used the tItti^ in fastening the bow ; paXXoq. curly hair like wool ; Kepag, hair combed up from the temples so as to ajipear like horns ; KiKiwoi, hair in ringlets, called also nXoKapoi. 4.71. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, anunJer-garment of wool, \it'w, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was trussed up by a rich girdle (v^'i"?) ; in some cases it was fastened froiu the shoulders by costly buckles or clasps {-KEpthui, nopna ). Over this garment the men wore a mantle or robe, w hich was long (/ftpof, ifiiTioi^) as worn by the more respectable ; while the lower classes used a shorter kind (x^aXva). There was also another sort of short mantle, \Xapv;, worn chiefly by soldiers. The women generally wore over the tunic a robe {IpuTw.'), rather short, and over this a broad veil or outer robe, TTorXog, with which they could cover also the head. 5. The X'""" is represented as being of two kinds, the Doric and the Ionic. The Doric cor- responded to the descri()tion atrove given, bf'ing of woolen stufl', short, and without sleeves. The ionic is described as long, sonTetimes reaching the feet (Tror^i'fpr;?), made of linen, with wide sleeves (/cdpui). — The ipdriou or (/)«pof was always a reclan^iular (liece of cloth, exactly or nearly square ; made of wool most conunonly, but also of cotton, and of flax ; usually all of one soior '•V»£fT~pii, a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats ; ^wtrrpoi/, a girdle appropriate for v\ omen ; ^epiarpiov, a. thin garment for summer; KaruvaKri. a slave's robe, bordered ai the bottom vviik sheepskin ; Xfj^os, a garment common to both sexes, suitable for warm weather; (rruXr,, a long robe reaching to the heels; arpocjiiov, a kind of ker&hief worn by women over the bosoni {T-rjdo- S^a/jiog); Tp[0u)v, Tpi/3a)viov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by pliil sophers and poor p.-rsous ; raivia. a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast ; used also to sianify an orna- ment for the head ; (paivoXris, a cloak without sleeves for cf)ld or rainy weather; X'^"'"?' •* fi"e thin robe. The iptXXiov was an ornament worn, by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands ; a bracelet or armlet (%Xt(?oji/. diJicpiSea). The nepirrKe^iq was probably an avklet, an ornamental ring worn to decorate the leg ; frequently represented in the paintings of Greek fiirures found at Pompeii; yet the word is sometimes translated drawers, feininalia. The dva^vpides were a sort of pantaloons (braccce) worn by the Gauls, Sarmatians, and others, both in Europe and in Asia, but not by the Greeks. Robinson's Arch. Gr. p. 511-546. Our Plate XXV contains several engravings illustrating ancient apd Oriental female costume. In fig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the vail; similar to it is the vail in fig. ^, which is taken from the French work L'Egijpte, &c., and represents an Egyptian spinning; anotlier form appears in fisr. d, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of n)uffler ; in w, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern vail, but was attached to a ribin or chain passing mund the forehead and joined hy a clasp above the eyes. In fig. m, is a Grecian lady with a peculiar head-dress, somewhat resembling the spiral curl of the murex shell from which the Tyrian purple was said to be obtained. Oth.er head-ornaments appear in fig. h, a Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fis. i, another Grecian in a funeral dress. The vet above mentioned is seen in fig. 4, of Plate XXIV; in fig. 7, of the same Plate is a form of the turban, like the crescent-shaped tiara or diadem s'n(Tjj.aTa). The roofs were usually flat ; sometime^ pointed, with a ridge and gable. '1 he windows or openings for light and air {iivpidei) were commonly in the roofs of the peristyles. The chimney (KmrvoioKri) \s supposed to have been merely an opening in the roof. Although in general the private dwellings were of an ordinary character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which were very costly and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been more lofty and built with gi;eater solidity than those at Athens. In our Plate XXIV. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by Se7'i.s/?//e, which was styled androniiis, were the pinacotlitca' and Cyzicene uciis ; in the eastern, the bibhoiheca ; in the western, the f^rf^/ra ; and in the northern, the fTctt^ aicMA-, or l)anqueiitig-room. The hospitalic consisted of triclinia and sleeping-rooms for strangers, and were on the right and left of the great "ECUS. There were courts or passages to these apartments calle.d viesaiilin. In the plan [t'iven in Plate XXI v.] a is the thyroreuw ; b, peristyle a^ 1\\g gijno'covii is f c, the pastas ; d, the great aci s , «!, stables; /. /'. courts; ir, g, jt/, porter's cello;; h. It, common triclinia ; i, the thulain.os; j. the nnphi-th'liiaiiis ; k, k,(Eri or halls; 1,1, the mesanla; ; in, in, the hospitalia; w, the vestibule : o, le grea' peristyle ; f, the bibliotheca; (/, q, the pinacothecce ; r, the Cyiiceve acus ; s, the ejedra." 2 A door icvua, nrvXn) was fastened by means of lock and key [kXcL:); the key de- PLATE XXV. 213 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. scribed by Homer deems to have been merely a bolt v/hich was moved by a tboiig (tpiaj) attached to it(Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use. — Various articles of furniture are named. Although the house usually had afixed fire- place (eotui), portable stoves (fo-xi'paO or chafing-dishes (ds'OpaKiu) were frequently used. In the sleeping room was the bed, Koirr) or Xi^oj ; this was often in the form of the sofa, about six feet long and three broad ; called also /cXjm'?. The chair (S^powj), ewer (Trpoxooj) and basin for washing (Xovriipioy), mirror {KaroTTrpou) and its case or stand (Ao(/;rioj'), clothes- chest {Kiarq), &c. are mentioned. Ill Plate XXXII. fig. b, is a son of key fi)rmed by a bolt and string; it was found at Pompeii , in PlatB XXIV. fii;. 2, we have a Grecian metallic key, selected from a number given in Movt' faiicon. — Fig. 5, of this Plate, shows a Grecian sofn-ied, with a man in one corner and his wife reclining betiiiui tiiin. Fig. 10, of the same IMate-, is another form of the Greek sofa; it is covered with a cushion, from which an ornamental appendage hangs over one end of the frame. Fig. d, of Plate XXXIl. is a curious form, taken from on Egyptian monument. — Cliuiis (Egyptian) are seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, of Plate XXIV. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4. — The latter, fig. 4, shows also a mirrtir, held by the female before her face. Respecting the Greek house, &c. see Becher^s Charicles, — HiVt'iGeschichle der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4. § 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce, were highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 1 u. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phoenicians solely; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then chiefly monopolized by the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of her soil; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even there it gradually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later pe- riod, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the states just named, Corinth and the islands iEgina and Rhodes were the principal places of commerce ; and their industry and enterprise contributed very much to the wealth and power of the Grecian states. 2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce, being washed on three sides by the sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and metals, which came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia; woolen and other stuffs from Asia Mi- nor and Syria; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities on the Black sea They likewise exported, not only diflferent commodities brought from foreign coun- tries for the purpose, but the. products of Attica, which were chiefly olives and oil, and various articles of manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils. Carthelemy's Aiiacharsis, ch. Ivi. — D. H. HegewiscVs geograph. iind histor. Nachrichten die Colonien der Gviecheo betreffend Altona, 1S08. 8, — Railings History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients. — Benedict, Geschichte der Schifffahrt und des Handeli der Alten. For an account of the routes by which the productions of the east were conveyed through Babylon to the countries of the Mediterranean, see Hceren on the Commerce of Ancient Babylon, as translated by F. M. Hubhard, in the BM. Repos. vol. vii. D. 364 ss. 3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51), that agriculture was at •an early period a subject of practical interest among the Greeks. Yet the art does not appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any of the states. (Cf. ^ 58.; The plow {'ipoTfjoi^) of the Greeks is said to have been of two kinds {6vo £i6rj) ; the one kind, composite (tt^xtov) ; the other, simple {dt'Toyvoi'). (Cf. Hes. Works and Days, V. 432, 436.) The principal parts of the composite were the following ; the iaro.Sotv; or /5»/io,-, beam; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong connecting the yoke with the beain ; the vwig or vwit, plowshare, whose extreme point was called vvfxfp-^ ; it was attached to a piece of wood called iXvjxa, and connected with a piece termed yvm ; the ixerXn, handle. A specimen «)f the sinjple may be seen in our Plate XXXII. fig. 6, which represents a Syrian plow, with a small metallic blade or share, furnishing an illustration of the metaphor of the pro. phet (Micah iv. 3) : other forms are seen in fig. iii. ; one of the engravings shows a single bullock drawing the plow, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the animal by a rein. See Mongez, Sur les instrumens d'asrieutlure des anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, CI as s e d^Hist. et Lit. Jinc. vol. ii. p. 616 j vol. iii. (published 18IS), p. 1. with engravings.— Cf. Rougier, as cited § 13. 5. 4. The soil of Attica was more favorable to the production of the grape (/Jdrpvj), olive (tXajoj), and fig (tOthv), than of grain (aTro^); and it was necessary to import the latter; it has been estiiTiated that one-third of the quantity annually consumed was imported. The e.vportation of corn wuj pi.~M ji'ed. The sale of it was under the supervision of nflicers called airo(l)v\aKSi. If corndealers (crtrt/TrwXat) combined to raise the price, they were liable to capital piuiishment. n order to a/.»)u a scarcity of corn (aiToSeia), public granaries (aiToSoKai) were kept, under the lirection 7'i pur'ryors (cnroivai) and receivers (dvuSeKrat). Or this subject fee Bod^^th Public Economy of Athens — Berge^ie, Hist, de I'Agrlc. des Grecs. Par. 1830. 2 vo'.s. 8. § 17?, Hi.'Tf H may be proper to give a bri^f ac(;ount of the moneys, weights, and mp;S'(Te?. of the Greek«!. In early times, traffic was effected only by ex- change a'. Joo(!s, or barter, the inconvenience of which must soon be felt- Pnde p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONEY. COINS. 213 metals were next employed, in order to render an equivalent for what was pur- chased, and were weighed for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value were indicated by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be decided (cf. P. IV. § 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C. about 600, they were in common use in Greece. The metals used in making money-coins were gold, silver, brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were impresficd only on one side. The impressions were various, both as to the objects represented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird. 1 u. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulating medium were these: vojiiajjLa, any legitimate coin ; xpiifia, money in the loose sense ; and Kq^ixa, small coin or change. Besides these there were numberless specific names, derived Irom the weight of the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, but were not names of actual coins; as e. g. the ixt'd or jxAa, and the raXavroi^. The former (ftia) de- signated at Athens the sum of 100 drachms; at yEgina, the sum of 160; the term was however also used to signify merely the golden ara-D'p. The latter {raXavTov) was usually the sum of 6000 drachms, but had difl'erent values in difl'erent places ; a talent of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. 2 u. Of the actual and circulating coins the Xc^rov was the smallest. Seven of this name were equal to the xa^'se, &c. Roms und Griechenlands. (by A. G. Kaalner ) Brauns. 1792. 8 — F. C/i. Mallhui. t'tber- sirht (ies rom. und griech. Mass Gewichts- -Jnd Manz-Wesens Frankf. 1809. 4.—/. F. IVurm. De ponHrruni, etc raliniiibus jpud Romanos et Graecos. Lips. 1821. 8—Hussey, Ancient Mnney, Weights, kc. cited § 274. 2.—B6ckh. L'eber M.lnzen. ^I.^^se. und Sewichle des Allerthums. Lpz. 1838. b.—Echd, as cited P. IV. § 99. 1. On the wliole subje^ of Greeli Coins and Meials. sfr P. IV. ^§ 93-99. ^ 175. In connection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of their svstems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient riiPtbod was r.iite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, I, perhaps Irom "To for Mia; for^ve, II, from Ucvtc] for te7i, A, from ^cku; for a hund'-ed. H Irom H«a. 214 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. Tov (l/caroi/) ; for a thousand, X, from XtXia; and for fen tliousand, M, from Mvpia, All mimbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; each combination signify- iiig the sum of the numbers designated by the letters separately; e. g. rilll repre- sented eight ; A III, sixteen ; A A, twenty, &c. Sometimes they were combined so as to express the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters ; in such case, one of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; for example, H (representing a n with a A in its bosom) signified 10X5, i. e. 50: so a n with an H placed within it signified 100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it, signified 10,000X10, or 100,000: this form of combination was chiefly confined to numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such numbers were expressed by using a large II and writing the letter lor the other factor in its bosom, 'i'his was the old Attic system, and is found on inscriptions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf P. IV. § 91. 4). But this method was superseded by another; in which all the letters of the alpha- bet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bau, Ko-ma, and "Zaixni:, men- tioned in P. IV. § 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Theta, expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after Epsilon, to sig« nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to J'i, expressing the tens ; the last (11) signifying 80, and Kdrnra being used for 90; the next eight, from Rho to Omega, expressed the hundreds; il standing for 800, and Sa//7rr being used for 900. The letters, when thus used to designate numbers, were usually marked with a stroke above; thus, (', 10; f£j. Most of the other measures were of the same names as the liquid measures. See G Hooper, Inquiry into the slate of Aflcient Measures, Attic, Roman, and Jewish. Lend. 1721. S.—Bbchh, Wurrtx, &c cited I 4 2. — Cf. the tabular vieU\ given in Plate XXV a. 5 178. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were verv nu- PLATE XXV a. GRECIAN MONEYS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. The estimated value in our denominations is given accordin;^ to the Tables of A. B. (i Conger, which are based on the Treatise of tVuruii & tlie Tables of Bovillet. Moneys. 1. Below the Drachm. Aett^v .... 7 I XnAKoSj . . . 14 1 2 I AixaXicov •28 I 4 1 2 I 'H/xio/Jd,Vov 56 I S I 4 I 2 I 'Ol3o Us 11-2 I 16 I 8 I 4 1 2 I AwjJoXov • 224 I 32 t 16 I S I 4 I 2 | T£Tpo/3(oXov 336 i a I 24 I 12 I 6 I 3 1 1.5 | ApaXM Dolls CtS. 771. 00 0.'. • 3.6 • 7.3 1 4.6 2 9.3 5 8.6 II 7.2 17 5.9 2. Move the Drachm. 2 I AC6paxiJ-ov Dolls ■ 4 I 2 I TsTpddpaxiJ'OV 20 I 10 I 5 IjCpvo-oSs-- Mva 50 25 6OO0|,500nj,500J3.0|60|'i;t;7;r': CtS. 771. 17 5.9 35 I S 70 3.7 51 8.6 59 3.2 59 3.2 soooojsoooohDCOol^coojaool lo I ^'^f^^oid"'' 1055 10555 93 2.6 Measures of Capacity, 1. For Liquids. Kox^idoiov 2 I yiriiir, . Gal. qt, 2 T 1 1.25 I MviTTpov KdyKtj I 1 2'.5 I 2 10 I 5 i 4 SO I 15 60 I 30 4320 2160 2 I Kva9os - 0%vliaov 3|l. 6 I 3 I 2 I 'ViiaQTOv - I2| 6 I 4 I 2 I KoT-riAij 2i I 12 I s I I I 2 I HtfTTi^S 1441 72 I 48 I 24 |l2|b I XoSj S64i432l2>s|u4|72|36| 6 lAieuTj; 4 1 2 The AttoTTj doubled formed the next and largest measure, AlerpjjTT/S pts. COOT I 0.015 I i 0.019 j 0.039 0.079 0.118 0.2a7 0.475 0.950 I! l.7Qi || 229 !, 0.459 2. For Things Dry. Kox^i-dgiov Bu. fk. qt. 10 1920 1.5 I 'Olvpa^ov 6 I 4 1 KotoXti - 12 I 8 I 2 I "-ccTTjS 24 I 16 I 4 i 2.1 Xoiw| 9t I 64 i 16 I 8 i 4 I 'll/iicKTov 192 |l2S| 32 liei 8 I 2 1 " Ektos - 384 12-^6] 61 |32|l6| 4 I 2 | Tptrdj '52 76S|192 96H8|12| 6 1 3 I TSWi^lvos 1 1 pts. 0.007 0.079 O.IIS 0.475 0.950 1.901 I.6C6 1.213 0.426 1.279 Measures of Liength. 1. Small Measures. AdiCTv\o$ KdrSvXos ... 2 I riaAato-T^, or Awpov 4 i 2 \ Aix^s, or 'Hiinrddov 2.5 I 1.25 Ai.Yds - 2.75 1 1. 37 ill. 01 I 'Op9rf5(opov 3 I 1.5 I 1.2 ii.69 I ZJTieafiij 2 I 1.6 I 1.45 I 1.3 1 noS? 4.5 2 25 I 1.8 I l.63| 1.5 |l.l25| riuy/iij - 5 I 2.5 I 2 I I.81I 1 6 ( 1.25 1.1 | Rvyd^iv 6 I 3 1 2.4 I 2.18 I 2 | 1.5 \\.3\l.2' Ufjxvs 1 In. 0.73 1.51 3.03 6.06 7.58 834 9.10 0.13 1.65 3.17 6.20 2. Oreat Measures. Iloifj BriiJ,a 2400 1 960 'Ogyvid . • • • AcKdnovs, KdXajiOi 6 |".A^fta 10 1.6 I YlUepov • 60 1 10 I 6 i LrdSiov • 120 I v:0 I 12 1 2 I ACavXos 400 2J0 I 40 I 2J I 4 I 2 I '\jrmic6v • 72 I 12 I 6 I 3 I A6\ixo'; |l72U0!28S0|l200l 720 | 12 Miles, yds. fU ODD I.OI • • 2.52 • 2 6.06 • 3 I. II • 20 0.68 • 33 2.14 • 202 87 • 404 1.75 • 809 0.50 1 667 1.51 Measures of Surface. Ilovs 36 I 'K|a Td 63, § 65, of the great importance and comprehensive meaning of music (ftouo-iWj) in the system of education among ihe Greeks. Here we introduce some remarks on musical sounds a.nd instruments. To denote what is now called the Science of Music the Greeks used the term 'Apfiot/tKfj. The subject was divided into several parts ; stated by some as follows : 1. of sou'itds {Trepi (pOoyycji') ; 2. of intervals (tts/ji diaaTrnxiTcoi') ; 3. of systems {■^spl avarripiaTwv) ; 4. of genera {TrsjA yEvoyy) ; *5. of modes (jrepl tovwv or vojxwv) ; 6. of transition or mutation {-epl nETa(io\ng) ; 7. of composition {jrepi jiEKo-nouai). '—'■'■ The notes or sounds of the voice were seven, each of which was attributed to some particular planet: 1. fcdr??, to the Moon; 2 nap'mdTri, to Jupiter ; 3. \ixayog., to Mercury ; 4. nhrj, to the Sun ; 5. irapaixhn, to Mars ; 6. rpiTTi, to Venus ; and 7. vfirri, to Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary order, and ascribe vTrdni to Saturn, and vrirr] to the Moon.' — The tone or mode, which the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was called vofjog ; and they were called vojxoi, as being laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four principal voiioi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these some add a fifth, which they call the j3<^olic, but which is not mentioned by ancient authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martial ; the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the ^ohc, simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers to battle was called "Opdiog. Afterwards, the term vopioi began to be applied to the hymns which were sung in those modes." Robinsim, Arch. Grajc. bk. v. ch. xxiii. — For a fuller account of the science, see Smith, Diet, of Ant. p. &H.^~Drieherg, Musi kalische Wlssenschaften der Griechen.— Also, fiureUe, Chabaiion, &c. as cited P IV. § 63 — Afci'iowt'wj, Collection of ancient writers on Music, cited P. V. § 208. 1. § ISO. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of those who only played on instruments was called p.o"ciKh xpiM; that of those who also sang to the instrument, pomiKn pera peXfoSiag. The musical instruments were divided into ep-nvemTo., wind instruments, and evrara or v£vp66eTa, stringed instruments. The lyre, the flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; but there were several othevs. — Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous wa? the lyre, which was called in Greek KiOiipa and (poppiy^, though some affect a distinctioi between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen thread, aiu afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in number, whence such lyre was called TpixopSog; and the lyre with three strings is said by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes de- nominated dmag. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, and hence was called £trTdxopiog, l-rrTatpdoyyog , and tnTavXcoaraog. They struck the strings sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- ment was called in Greek KiQapiUiv, Kpoveiv nXriKTpoi, or 6i ■ ksiv, 6aKrv\ioig Kpovciv, and ij-dWeiv. To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of which the lyre was made. — The flute, avXng, was a celebrated instrument. It was used in the sacrifices of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (TrXayta 'Xoj). Flutes were made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vefipeioi avXoi, and the inven- (ioii of making them of these' materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also made of the bones of asses, and of elephants; and likewise of reed, box, and lotus. The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in playing on this instrument. — The pipe P III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 was called cvpiyl, and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp and shrill, and hence its sounds were called Xs-rrTaXeat. On the contrary, the sound cf the flute was grave, full, and mellow ; and hence the flute was denominated /^apiS/Jj.o/ics." Residps the instruments already named, we may mention the following, arranged under the headg <>{ slriufred inslruments, wind instruments, and instruments of percussion. 1. Stringed instruments: I'apXa, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings (SuSeku (pOoYYOvg) ; nrjKris, another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians; /zayaJfj, a lute with twenty strings : anKapov, said to be of a square form and similar to the ipiOv/jai Kivvpa, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps wiihout foun- dation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and in playing were struck with a plectrum {nXrjKrf.o:^), like a modern violin ; aan/Sv^-r), samhuca (cf. Persiuft, Sat. v. 25), sackbut (cf Da?i. iii. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; Tplywvov, a triangle with several strings of unequal length ; xpaXTpptov, said to be hke the fiaya^tg, and also used for any variety of the lyre ; xpiOvpa, a Libyan instrument of a square form. In Plate XXVI, are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig. I. is a triangular form of the harp or lyre, hy some considered as the sambucuy hy others as the tii(ront)n. Fig. C pre- sents a similar form ; this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Ilercii- Innnum (cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xviji. 87); it shows a Cu|iid dancing and playintr. Fig. 10 is by some called the saw(6)(ra; having four strinjrs apparently over a sounding hoard. Fig. w is an old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as " Tiniotheus's harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Montfancim. Fig. 2 is a form of the lyre found on Egyptian monuments ; fig. e shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- pian lyre, see Plate XL. Al'. 6.)— In fig. 6, we have the kivura or violin, from Mnvtfaucon. In fig. 7 is a similar instrument from J^iebnhr, in a side view ; a front view of it is given in fis. 8, having fve strings of metal wire. Fiii. 3 and fig. .5, also from J^''iebnhr, are given in Calmet, as other forms of the kinvra or kiiinnr, which have been noticed by travelers in the east. A harp con- sisting of seventy-two strings or wires is said to be used in Kurdistan (cf. j3. Grnjit, p. 5~, as cited P. I. $ 154b). Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and jseeins to be the same instrument with three strings; it has b^en supposed to represent the Hebrew shaliic. Reg. Gotting. vol. ii. 3. Instruments o\ percussion: some instruments of this (;lass werr niso used ; ri>/<7ra op a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the niher. luruied ol wood with leather drawn over it ; sometimes flat on both sides, consisting ul a short hollow cylinder with leather or skin drawn over both ends ; i,^d-°!i with iIm; hand, or with a suck , miicl. used at the festivals of Cyhele and of Bacchus; .v-,j/?iXa, iiymbals which vvere of metal (XiXKa); in the shape of two half globes ; usually large and iiroad ; sometim-os stnaller, BO that two (perhaps those termed ^cpou/iam) were held in each hand of the player, an(' «-Mch as arc used by oriental dancing-woirien. The k Sou was merely a little bell; th<' 218 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. forms and uses of bells were various. The KpdraXou is described by some as a sort of bell made of brass ; by others, as '• made of a reed split in two and so fitted as to emit a sound from the touch." The aelarpou, sistrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument, used in the worship of Isis ; it consisted of an oval frame, wuh several bars of metal, which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was tormed by placing metallic rings BO as to move freely upon a metallic rod, which was sometimes in the torm of a circle, sometimes of a triangle. Several instruments of percnssinn are exhibited in Plate XXVI. Fig. iii. is the tympanum or drum ; in fig. h are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called custanets. Fig. o, different forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the triav^le nith vinos; by it is a stick with a kncb at thp end, nsed perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf Dun. iii. 10).— In Plate Xl-V. representing a sacrifice to Priapus, we see two women pla\'ing on the tyinpanuin. In Plate XXV. fig./, the Bacchante is playing with either the crotala or the small cyinhals. The sistrum is seen in fig. 0, oftlie same plate i also in the paw of the Sphinx, Plate VUI. On the musical instnmients of the ancjenis, cf. Mo?ilfavcon, as cilej P II. § li 2. id), vol. iii. p. 342, and Supplem. vol. iii. p. 185. ~Calmet, Dictionary, &c. vol. iii. p. 337. ed Chariest. 1818. — FosLfl-oke's Erjcyclop. oiled § 13. p. 704 —F. Ji. Lariipe, Ue Cynibalij Veteruin. Traj. ad Rhen. 17113 12.; a so in Ugolinus, cited § 197. I. — PJeiffer, 0[i the Music of ttie Hebrews, traiisUted by 0. A, Taylor, in the Bihl. Reposil. and Quart. Obstrv. vol. vi p 3o7. (with a pla e )— SuZze)-, AU^. Theorie, Arlicle Imtramental- Musik. — /. Hawkins, Historv of Music. Lond. 1776. 5 vols. 4. § 181. The restraint innposed upon the female sex among the Greeks has already been mentioned (cf. § 59). This state of subjection and degradation continued even in the most flourishing times. Unmarried females were very narrowly watched. Their apartment in the house (rtap^fi-wi^) was commonly kept closed and fastened. The married women were at liberty only to go as far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. In general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not without wearing a veil {xd'kvTiT'pov). 1 u. In Sparta, however, only married women were required to wear veils ; the un married might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far more liberty at Sparta than at Aihens. Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote an innocent familiarity of intercourse. But this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at length degenerated into licentiousness. On the. state of female society in Greece, see Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxii. 163. — Bibl. Repos. vol. ii. p. 478. — Social Condition oj the ancient Greeks. Oxf. IS32. — A. Walker, Woman physiologically considered as to Mind, Morals, &c. Lond. 1839. 8. — W.Aiex ander, History of Women. Loud. 1782. 2 vols. B.—Lenz, as cited § 59.— G. Bernhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. 2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the earlier ages^cf. § 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom (io-rdj) and shuttle (fipxn'f) ; the loom was upright ; two perpendicular beams (toroTrd&f or /cfXedirsf) supporting a cross- beam, from which the threads constituting the warp (a--n/.ia)y) were hung; the w;oo/ was termed KpoKfi', also ecp'^ipri and poScivri. They also employed the needle ((k£o-rpa, pa'pig) in making garments, and various furniture for household use. Embroidery (f'pyoj' ^pvyiau- or p':yLOJO}', opus Phrygium) was an art much cultivated, being perhaps the most im- portant part of the general art of variegating in colors {noiKiXia), which was effected also by painting and dyeing, and by weaving. Curtains {Trcpovfinara, a term applied to a gar- ment or any article of cloth fastened by a. rrspo.'ri or brooch), and other articles, richly embroidered (TroXtJ/cco-ra), were wrought for private dwellings and for the temples (ct. *i '^S). A splendid work on Ancient Tapeitry was commenced at Paris in 1837, to be completed in 4 vols. fol. wiih cuts and engravines.— See Countess oj Wdtoti, The Art of Needle-work from the earliest A?es ; with Notices of the Ancient Historical Tapestries. 3d ed. Lond. 1841. 12.— Cf M ss Lambert, Hand-book of Needle-work ; with illustrations. N. York, 1842. ^ 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, and was promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried after a certain age. At Athens also, all who wished to be commanders or orators, or to hold any public office, were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases, The age at which marriage (ya^oj) should be allowed was also prescribed, 2 younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter, at Athens, were forbidden to marry untir they were thirty-five. At Sparta the usual age foj men to marry was thirty., and for women twenty. Marriage between parties i)f n(>ar consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as im- proper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters l»y the same father, (yjaorta'i'"pLouj), although not those by the same mother (o^uo- uj^rpt'ovs). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a •Miizen; yet there was sometimes an exception. PLATE XXV T. •il9 220 GRLCIAN ANTIQUITIES. 1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with seventy. Although polygamy was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without restraint, Concubinea rraWaKiSeg) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly common, and favored even by the whole system ol' religious worship. In Athens the most distinguished statesmen and philosophers openly associated with females of dissolute morals {cTaipai). The city of Corinth was still more famous for hcentiousness. One of the most odious forms of licentiousness among the Greeks was the TTaiiepaaria ; how- ever free from impurity might have been originally the relation and the habits of inter- course in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved {kKeivoI or airai) and their lovers ((t)i\ijTop£g) , and whatever excellent qualities might have belonged to the 'I'heban sacred bandi'iepa ijfiaAayl) said to have been a body of 300 composed of lovers and Uieir beloved, it is nevertheless true that the hateful debauchery commonly designated by this term was extensively practiced. Respecting the prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bill. Repos. vol. ii. p. 441. — On paederasty, of. £erhardy, GrunJriss ier Griech Lit. p. 43.— MUller, Hist, and Ant. of Dorians, bk. iv. rh. Q.—Bcryd'a Poller, p. 600. 21. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to consult the parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (CTtVpoTroj). The betrothing was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called a(iia, AppalSibv, iivmrpov. The giving of a dowry (Trpol^, cpepv}]) wuh the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta, however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered an acknowledgment or receipt {-KpomSa), when he took the stipulated gifts.. At Athens it vvas customary before the actual niarriage, to present the bride before Diana with offerings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dpKTcia, and Vv'as designed to appease the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities, male and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore called yafiy'jXioL ^eoi, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into the marriage contract. 3 ?/,. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, were adorned with garlands and flowers. I'owards the evening the bride was conducted to the house of the bridegroom (oIkov ayeadai) either on foot or in a carriage {upua). The bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was called T^apoxo; or rrapdwijKpos. A pro- cession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music and dancing. When the nevvly married couple entered the house, it was customary to place or pour upon their heads, figs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to a banquet, which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yajjios, and was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called viitvaioi, or vixhe^. After the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber (SaXuftoj), which, as well as the nuptial bed (X^xoj, XsKrpov), was usually highly decorated (jraaTog) [or the occasion. The young men and maids remained without, dancing and singing the ETTidaXdniou KotixriTLKoi/, while a friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door {^^'p(opog). This company returned to the, door in the morning, and sung what was called the eniBaXdixiov eyepriKov. The nuptial solemnities occupied several days; one of the days was called E-rravXta ; another dirauha. See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthelemyh Amcharsis, ch. Ixxvii. On the marriage customs of Sparta cf. MUller, bk. iv. ch. iv. 4. Children were discriminated as yvmm, lawfully begotten ; voQoi, born of harlots or concubines; S^^roi, adopted. The paternal authority over the son ceased, at Athens, when the son had completed his nineteenth year. It was an ancient custom for legi- timate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, without respect to priority of birth; allowing a small pittance to such as were unlawfully begotten. The father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus dis- inherit him by a form of proceeding termed nnoKnp^^liq. If there were no legitimate sons, the estate of the father fell to the daughters, who in such a case were termed IttIkXtjpoi; but their nearest relatives might claim them in marriage. When there were no lineal descendants {tKyovoi) to inherit the property, it fell by law to the collateral relations (o-uyytwr?) ^ first to descendants of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and the children of brothers ; next to descendants of the same grandfather with the deceased, lo cousins and children of Cousins, the issue of males in every case taking precedence Df the issue of fe.uales; a first cousin was termed dvsxpiog ; a first cousin's son, dvt4'ia^'''yq. The heir {^kX^pov' jio^) was said to receive his inheritance (fAfjpof) either by right of descent dyxicrnia) or by righ' of consanguinity (avyytifeia). A male heir by right of descent might Sake possession immediately ; or, if any one hindered him, might bring against that one in action of ejectment .{lixfiarsia). Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to idopt whom they pleased ; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could ,ot take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — Free citizens p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL RITES. 221 were permitted to dispose of their property by will {SiadfiKr]), after the time of Solon; but there were certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were signed and sealed betbrr. witnesses, and put into the hands of trustees (iTrtfxEXrjToi) who were to execute them. Potter, Arch. Graec. bk. iv. ch. xv. — Blanchard, On Laws respeclin? Adoption, &.C. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 68 -• — On th( subject of inheritances, see Sir IV. Jones, in his Transl. of Isseus [cf. P. V. ^ 104. 3.J — Buiiscn, De Jure hered. Athen. — Scliomait, Ant Jur. Publ. Graec § 183. Somethinor shoald be said of the Greek customs in later times in reference ta funerals and burials. Fnnefal obsequies were considered as a sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed Scxaca, voixif.ia., oma.. They were denied only to notorious criminals, traitors, and suicides, especially such as destroyed themselves to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like, whose remains, if they happened to obtain burial, w^ere even disinterred. ^ 184 t. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have already •5 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the corpse in a costly robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it wiih green boughs and gar- lands of flowers. The body was then laid out to view {TTporideadat) in the entrance of the house, on the grcimd, or on a bed ((cAut;) or a bier ('/ifp^rpoO, where it remained at least one day, with the feet towards the gate. It was while here constantly Vvaiched. A vase of lustral waier (ipoii'ioy) stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an (3,JoXdj, was placed in the mouth, as the fare ((5ayaK-?7, iiop9yLiov) due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (f/sXXtrroum) was also put in the mouth, to ap- pease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into Hades ("Ao.^j). On the meaning of the term Hades, and the opinions of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, see P. U. § 32. As a burial snnn after death was supposed to be pleasing to the deceased (cf. Horn. 11 xxiii. 71) the Greeks usually kept the corpse only until the third d.iy. It does not appear that they eve? adopted the Egyptian custom of enibaltning the dead. Respecting the custom of embalming, see De Cayliis, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. xxiii. 119.—/. C Jiairen. Description of anEg^p-. tian Mummy. Eost. 1^24. ^.—Granville, On Egyptian Mummies ; in the Philos. Trajisaclions of the Royal Soc. for tlie year 1S25. p. 269.— r. J. Pttligrm, History of Egyptian Mummies. Lond. 1S34. 4. ^ 185 t. The funeral itself was termed iKKonicr,, or cKcpopa, the carrying forth of the corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. In Greece, sfenerally, young persons were buried at break of day or early morning twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, or a large shield, and the heavers (veKpodaTTTai) carried it on their shoulders (ap^n' ^^p^"'), fol lowed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on horseback, or in carriages; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. — ■ Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head wuh ashes, and plucking off the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were peribrmed by musicians employed for the purpose {^pyrwu e^apxoi); one d'ngei^f.n-^'Oi) was sung as the corpse was borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile ; and a third, at the grave ; they were called 6\o(p^'pij.ol • also taXs/zyt, TciXtfxoi. Funeral chan's are still com.mon in Greece, termed myriolcgues. — See Mrs. Hemans, Greek Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Best. 1827. vnl. ii. p. 160. § 18G. The cnstom of burning the corpse became universal amnngr the later Greeks; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly mentioned before (§31). 1 t. The ashes and bones were gathered {daroXdyiov) in an urn, and buried commonly without the city, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for this purpose (Ka^irai, 'XapvaKEg, ocrrodnKai, oaro^^oxda, aopol, &,c.) were made of different ma- terials, wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances of the deceased. These urns were sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which was formed of stone or other materials; and to this chest, as Well as to the urn, the term capKo^ayoi seems to have been applied. The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babybm to Alexandria in a splendid carriage, and his ftmeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy. The ?7pia( TriJXai) ; those who had fallen in battle, however, were buried in the ouier Cerameicus, at the public expense. Graves at first were mere openings dug in the earth, imn^'aia. Soon there was a custom of paving and arching them with stone. . The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound of earth (V'V'") ; whirh sometimes had a circular basis of masonry {Kprjmg). On this a rude stone {^;ja) was placed afterwards; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a cippus )r truncated column ; at length, larger and more imposing monuments were built. 2. The terms p 'npa and p'r]pzlov were applied to designate the whole structure, includ- ing the receptacle for the remains and the monum.ental erections. Two parts are dis- rrin^nated ; \\) the i^ratJe strictly, called '^vkt], (nTfiXatou, rvp^og, Td(pos, iipiov, which last means specially the portion underground ; (2) the ^-pace around it, usually fenced with poles or a sort of balustrade, called ^piyKo^, (TKhrrj, -rrspioiKo-^opih cpKog, arjKog; within this space the monumental pillars {(jrfjXai) and ornaments were erected. — The various monuments have been discriminated under four l;ieads ; 1. arnXai, designating upright tablets terminating in an oval heading called eTHOnpa, but applied to any form of sepulchral pillars ; 2. Kioi'sg, t;olumns ; 3. rpiiTrr at, flat horizontal tablets; 4. >ipMa or vatSia, small buildings in the tbrm of temples. — On the pillars, or other structures forming the tomb, were placed inscriptions {'m^'pa l>ai) ; and often images of the deceased {dydXpara) , and also other orna 'Upnts with devices denoting their character and pursuits or particular a<;hieve- p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONUMENTS FOR THE DEAD. 223 ments. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on thai of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and cyUii- der. Tombs adorned with sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered at Athens and other places. Some of the most remarkable Greek tombs were recently discovered in Lycia. See De Boze, Descript. d'un Tombeau, &c. in the Mem. de VAcnd des Inscr. iv. 64S.—Archsolo?ia, (as ci'.ed P. IV. § 243. 3>, vol. xiii. p. 280, on a Greek sepulchral Monument ; with a plale. — Also, specially, Becker's Chancles ; and Stachdlcis, Die Grabei der Hellenen. Berl. 1?37. On the tombs of Lycia, C. Fellows, Aceount of Discoveries in Lycia, a Journal kept during- a sec nrl Excursion in Asia Minor. Lond. IS41. 8. with thirly-eight plates. Cf C. FtUaws, Journal during an Excursion in Asia Minor Lond. 1839. 8. with twenty-two plates. 3. Cenotaphs (K£voTd(l)ia, Kcvfipid) were monuments erected for the dead, which were not the repositories for their remains. They were raised both for persons who had never obtained a proper funeral, and also for snch as had received funeral honors in another place. It was a notion ofthe ancients, that the ghosts of un buried persons could not be admitted into the regions of the blessed without first wandering a hundred j'ears in misery ; and if one perished at sea or where his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build an empty tomb, and by certain rites and invocations call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. 4. A conuuon place of sepulture for many individuals was called TroXvavSpiov.— The term KoijXi]Tf\oiov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Christians, in accordance with their faith, that the grave is but a temporary sletping-place. The early Christians protested against the practice of burning the bodies ofthe dead, and followed the .Jewish custom of burying them. In the fourth century, an open space near the church was appropriated for the burial of [)rinces and the clergy, which was afterwards made comiiioi) to all the mt fibers ofthe church. In earlier periods, the Christians buried their '^ead chiefly in subterranean excavations, «hich were often of vast extent, and which in those days of persecution served at once as the home of the li zing and the repository of the dead. See $ 341. 8. 5. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor ofthe monument erected to JIausolus (cf. P. II. '$^ 72) occasioned the word IMausoleum xo be applied as a common name to such structures. It is said to have been more than 400 feet in compass, surrounded by 36 beautiful columns. See Le. Caylus, Tombeau de Mansole, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvi. 321. — Sainte Croix, Tomb, de Maus. in the Mem. de Vln- ititut, C 1 a s s e A' Hist. &c. ii. 506. Aie.xanuer (.ci. Jirrian. \i. ;CH) ; Muiit;, iii>\vt; vt;r, ueciare ii id iie a. iimi;; iiioueii, siinciurt;. y^i. J\Iorier, cited P. IV. .$ 243. 3 Fig. 2 represents a structure called jSbialom's Pillar, which stands near Jerusalem (cf P. I. $ 168 b). In the time of Josephus there was a nsarhle structure by this name, said to have been reared by Absalom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). Tlie one here given is, PLATE XXVI a. ATTIC Civil. INSTITUTIONS. Classes of the Population. These were — Citizetu, XloXlraL ; Residents, MiTOLKoi ; Slaves, AovXoi ; and Strangers, 'S.ivoi. TloXlTai., divided by Cecrnjis into 4 Tribes, iHXai ; Each vXaKe%. The Silonx. Zltuivui. The Sitometra:, ZiTop.tTpai. Overseers of Port, 'ET;ifieXr]Tal 'E/iTToptou, or Tutv veuipiixiv. r Weights, Nlerpovdp.oi, Inspectors \ r r i < Markets, ' Ayopavoj.'.oi, y_Fish, 'OTpovofioi. Pilots, NavS;AaK£j. 7. For Manners and Morals. (Enoptx, ^Oivdnrai, to notice wine- mixing at banquets. Gynaxocosmi, Vvva'.KOK6crii,oi, to watch the dress of women. Gynieconorni, rvvaiKovd/ioi, to guard the conduct of wpmen. Phratores, ^pdroptj, to see to the . register of births. Sophronists, T.u)ippovl(TTai, over youth in Gymnasia. Orphanistm, 'Op, ( of Enphrcaltinm, ' Ev ipearToZ, J Blood. Hdisa, 'HXiata, the HiKhest ; -v Five others ; Tlapd/Sva-Tov, [ in Civil TpCyujvov, Kaivdv, To inl ^ .Actions Avxov, and To MtjtCxov, J The Disetetx, AiaiTrjTal ; two kinds ; public, nXrjpoTol ; private, diptrol ; Arbitrators or Referees, The Forty, Tta-a-apdKovTa, a Circuit Court j for the Ar) /JLOL. The Nautodicx, tiavroSlKai, in naval affairs ; at Piraeus. The Exetastx, 'EHraa-Tal, of 10 Aoyio-ral and 10 'EvOvvol ; on accounts of officers. The Thesmvthelx, QtaixoOirai, on subjects not falling toother Courts. Actions in taw. Public, Aiicai dTfjxdo-iai. ; which included rpa0»;, $do-ts, "EvSuli^, ^Anaytuyi), 'E(/>^y7)crij, 'AvdpoX-qipla, 'F.igayytXCa ; under the Vpaipy came the highest crimes; mvrder, &c. Private, AlKai iSlai; including actions for trespass, BAu/J/yj ; theft, &c. Punishments. Fine, 7,rjixia ; Disgrace, 'A7ip,Ca ; Slavery, AovXtia ; Branding, Lilyiia ; Poning, St^Atj ; Bonds, Atility by arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by Teavv imnosiiions. p. III. INTRODUCTION. 22"* The immediate occasion of Tarquiii's expulsion and the abolition of th^ monarchy, is said to have been the vile abuse cominitled upon Lucreiia, wife of Cidlatinus, by Sexlus Tarquinius, the king's son. — Cf. Goldsmith' s Rome, by Finnock ; p. b5. ed. Pliila. Iti35. §194w. Rome was now o, free state, at first aristocraiical, and then for a peri )d governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustained by their tribunes, constantly increased. During tliis time the dominion o^ the Romans, a& well as the vigor oi their constitution was augmented ; their legislation was judicious ; and their morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable period they maintained an elevated national character, in which simplicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit o{ enterprise, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest patriotism, were prominent traits. — ''rhe most brilliant era in ihe Roman republic was ihe first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in posses- sion of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corrupiion of morals ad- v^anced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the (victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and olHcers amidst the luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each ot these things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and effemi- nacy, the Romans now suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. A vatuable worlf on this subject is the following : Chr. Meiners, Geschich'e iles Verf.ills der Sjlieii und dtr Saiisvty;f,i5suns der Romer. Leipz. 17?2. 8 — Also, by same, Geschichte des Verfatls der Silleii, Wissenscliafleu uiid Sprache der Ronier in den erstea Jahrhunderten nach Ch Geburt. Wien und Leipzig, 1791. S. — More niiimle, I'ut especially inslructivf. is Ad. Ft7-gusoiVs Rise and Prog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. V. § 299. 7. On the state of morals in ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit uf the Pilg' ims, vol. iv. p. 579. ^195u. Selfishness, avarice, and lust of power were immediate consequences of this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy disorders in the state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. Octavius at last gained the point, and tinder the name of Augustus was the first pos- sessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourish- ing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulers. But much more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who dis- graced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these; the already prevaihng corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession the most violent and fatal internal commotions; the right ot the strongest triumjihed over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to prop up the sink- ing dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin. GoldstnitK's Rome, and Gibbon''s Decline and Fall of the Ronjan Enjpire. Cf. P. V. § 299. 7. — Bridge's Roman Empire under Constantine the Great § 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their history must be crou'ded with interestincr and instructive incidents : and that a familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. The utility of studying the Roman antiquities needs, therefore, no further re- commendation. 1 u. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge, of the antiquities in order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages, which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every one, in fact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refinement and t.iste. It is essential as a help in reading the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved, and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 2 u. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn, are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the historians. There are also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, and being strangers, many things must strike them as more important and remarkable ihan they might seem to the native citizens.. Anfiong the latter class of writers are Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appiaii vmd Dion Cassius, and, even some later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &c. ^ome aid may be derived also from the writings of the Christian Fathers. 3 u. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science. I'he materials drawn from the sources just named, and various others, have been di- gested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches of the subject have been examined in more full deiail. Yet this has perhaps never been done with sufficient kn .wledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimi- nation : the essential has not been sufl^iciently distinguished from the less important, nor the general and universal from the particular and local ; nor has there h.eeii suita- ble care to note the periods in which the customs and principles were introduced. made prevalent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice ra;hcr thai' 228 ROMAN ANTIUUITIES. avoid in tlie brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot oe lully re- moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to the subject. E. rialtner, rV:er Wissenschafiliche BegrJndujig und BehandU.iig drr Antiquitaten, inbesonders der Rora. Maro. 1812. 8*— /. A. IVolf, VorleiS.;n°;en Uber Alterthuins wisseiischaft, &c as cited K V. § 7. 9. ^ 1!'7. We mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 1. Tlie largest CuUectimis of separate Ireatices are the two Sbllowin" : Jo. Georg. Grxviu%, Thesaurus An'iquitatum Roniaiiaruii] ; c. fig. Traj ad Rhen. 1694-99. 12 vols fol. (For an account nf the contents of tliis, see Appendix to Kennutt, cited below.) J. M. Pulenits, Supplement to GrsBvius and Gronovius. Ven. 1737. 5 vols. fol. Alh- Henr. de Salleturre, Novus Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Hag. Com. 1716-19. 3 vols fol. V Very useful on account of its copiousness and its good refer- ences, is Sam. fitisci Lexicon Antiq. Roman. Hag. Com. 1737. 3 vols. fol. As a sys'eni formally arranged, may be mentioned, Jo. Rosiiii Antiq. Roman. Corpus absolutissimum, c. n. Tho. Dempslcri. Traj. ad Rhen. 1710. 4. (Ed. J. F. Reitzms.) Amst. 1743. 4. Some pertinent treatises are contained. in B. Ugolinus, Thesau- rus Antiquita'um Sacrarum, complectens selec'issima clarissimo- rum virorum Opuscula ; in quibus Vet. Hebraenrum Mores, Rilus Sacri, &c. illuslranlur: Opus ad Philologiam Sacram et Profanam utilissimum. Venet. 1741-69. 34 vols. fol. Meusel. as cited § 240, vol. 3d exhibits the writers on Romsn Antiquities, &c. 2. Un 'er the class of Mrinualii are the following : Thos. Godwyn, Roman Antiquities, 15th ed. Lond. !689. 4. S. G Slnivius, Antiquitalum Ron)ar]arum Suntagma. Jen. 1701. 4. IV. Baxter. Glossarium Antiq Romanarum. Lond. 1726. 8. Bas. Keiinett, Romae Antiquse Notitia, or the Antiquities of Rome, in two Parts. Lond. 1731. 8. There have been many liter editions ; first American, Phil. 1822. 8. G. H. Nieiivort, Rituum, qui olim apud Romanes obtiniierunt, succincta e.xplicatin. I4lh ed. Berl. 1784. 8. " - C. G. Swartz, Observationes ad Nitwporrtii Compendium an- liquita'um Romanarum (ed. .i3. M. Nagel). Altd 1757. 8. C. J H Haymanii, Anmerkungen Uber NieuporOs Handbuch der rnniischen AUerthilmer. Dresd. 1786. 8. Christ. Celtarius, Compendium Antiq. Rom. cum adnot. J F,. Im. Malchii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. G. C. Materntn von Cilano, AusfUhrliche Abhandlung der romischen Alterthilmer, herausgegeben von G. C. Mhr. Altona, 1775-76. 4 vols 4. C. G. M^^ni Antiquitas romana, inprimis juris romani. Gott. 1779. 8. P. F. A. Nilsh, Besrhreibung des hiuslichen, wisse.ischaftli- chfn, sitllichen, gottesdienstlichen, politischen und kriegerischen Zustandes der Romer, n.ich den verschiedenen Zeitaltern der Na lion, by /. H- M. Erjicsti. Krfiirt, 1812. 2 vols, g.— Same work abridged (by Ernesli). Erf. 1812. 8. K. Ph. Moritz, ANGOTS \, oder Rom's AlterthOmer. 1st part (of the sacred rites of 'he Romans). Berl. 1791-97. 8. 2d p^rl (of the civil and private atVairs), ed. by F. Rambach. Berl. 1796. Alexander Adartt, Roman Antiquities, &c. Edinb. 1791. 8. Often reprinted. An improved ed. by 7ames £ot/d. Edinb. IS34. 12mo. Another ed. by X /J. Major. Oxf. 1837. 8.— Transl. into German, vvith improvements, by J. L. Meyer (3d ed ) Erl^ng. 1818. 2 vols. 8. /. K. Unger, Sitten und Gebrauche der RCiiner. Wien. 1805-6. i vols. 8. with plates. G. G. Kopke, Antiquitates Romanae, in xii. tab. deser. Berl. 1803. L. Schaaff, Anticjjitilten und Archiiologie der Griechen und Rrtmer. (In his Encyclop. d. class. Alterthumskunde). Magdeb. 1820. 8. ' F.Creutzer, Abriss der rftniischen Antiquit^Jlcn zum Gebrauche nei Vorlesuigen. Leipz- IS24..8. J. P. Ftiss. Roman Antiquities. Translated from the German. ■ -vf. 1840. 8. The 5h vol. of (i'o//'i Vorlesungen, as cited P. V. § 7. 9, treaw of Roman .Antiquities. Less ex'ensive, but. useful and instructive, is the following J. H. I.. Meierotto, Ueber Sitten und Lebensart der Romer, in verschiedenen Zeiten der Republik. Berlin, 1814. 8. (Ed. Pli. BuHmami). Worthy of mention also is, lVilcock''s Roman Conversations, or Descriptions of the Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 8. The following are abridgments : Abriss der griech. und romisch. Alterthilmer, von Cfir. Fried. Haacke. Stendal, 1S2I. Roman Antiquities, and Ancient Mythology, for Classical Schools; by Clis. K. Dillaway. Boston, 1831; 2i ed. 1835. Tho^. .S. Can; Manual of Rom. Antiquities. Lond. 1836. 12. 3. We may also refer here to Muntfaiicon's Anfiquite Ex- pliquee, as illustrating by its plates and descriptions ijo/nan as well as Greek Antiquities (cf. § 13). The following work contains many excellent delineations; Raccolta Tavole rappresent. i costumi religiosi, civili e militai^ degli antichi Egiziani, Etruschi, Grecie Romani, traiti dagli anti chi tnonumenii, — disegrate, ed incise in rame, da Lorenzo Rot cheggiani. 2 vols. 4. containing one hundred plates each. As pertaining especially to the subject of costume, we add, Bardoii, Costume des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1786. 2 vols. 4. A. Lens., Le Costume, ou Ess.ii sur les habillements et les usages de plus, peupl de I'Antiquile, prouve par les monuments. Liege, 1776. 4. Thos. Hope, The Costume of the Ancients. Lond. 1812. 2 vols 8. with numerous engravings in outline. -New ed. Lond. 1841 2 vols 8. Particularly, Maillot and Martin, Recherches sur les cos tumes, les mcEurs, &c. des anciens peuples, &c. — orne de 296 planches, au trait. Par, 1804-6. 3 vols. 4. " The first volume contains, in great detail, the costume, manners, &c. of the Ro- mans, from Romulus to the last emperors' of Constantinople.. The engravings are taken from medals and n)onumeiits of each epoch." 4. It is proper also to refer here to works illustrating the remains of Roman Antiquity. See P. IV. §§ 130, 138, 187, 188, I9l, 226, 243. F. A David, Antiquites d'Herculanum. Par. 17SO-1S03. 12 vols. 4. JV. Stukeley. Itinerarium Curiosum, &c. Lond. 1760. 2 vols, in one, fol. with two hundred copper plates; containing notices of Roman monuments in England. The Publications of the Inslituto di Corre^pondenza Archto- logica, a society for archaKological correspondence, founded in Rome by several distinguished scholars and antiquaries. The Biillelino dcW Inslituto, commenced 1S29, contains brief notices of new discoveries and new works, with other articles of special interest. By the title of Mo^ixunenti Inediti, the annual volume of plates is designated. The Annali delV Instituto, the chief publication, gives ess,(y3, reviews, and extended descriptions. Gerhard, Kestner, RaoulRochelte, Bock, Panofka, Hirt, Mo.'iet, Millingen, SiC, have been contributors 5. On various points it will be useful so consul lirdna, Pauly, iVcber, Foshrune, &c. as cUed § 13. 5. Also, F. Sabhathier, Institutiorj, Manners, and Custf.ms of the Ancient Nations. Translated fum the French by P. Stockdale. IV. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 6 Other references to authors on particular topics ite givei under the sections treating of those topics. Lockhart''s Valerius, Btdxver^s Pompeii, and H'are's Letters from Palmyra, are fic'ions professing to ( xhibit the state of man «r» in the first centuries after Christ. P III RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 229 § IPe. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as ^e did the Greek, under four distinct branches; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of re//g?*or.i, a'y// gover?iment, war, and privafe life. I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. § 199. As the word reliufion is of Roman orio^in, it may be well to notice the ideas attached to this term in the Latin lang^uage. Originally, religio seems to have signified every sort of serious and earnest exertion, to which one was im- pelled by external or internal motives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to ex- press the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures; and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and practices pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deport- ment, the word religio was also naturally employed as comprehending in its meaning this correctness of morals. § 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 189). There doubtless existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome various rel.^ious customs and the worship of various divinities; and it is not easy to irace out their gradual rise and establishment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications; bence the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology and worship (cf. P. II. § 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions differ from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are tlie same. The Romans also adopted several religious usages not practiced by the Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries and auspicea, which were borrowed from the Etrurians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. § 201. The religion ot the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately connected with their politics. It was often em.ployed as a means of promoting secret designs of state, vVhich the projectors knew how to render agreeable and desiral)le, by the help of superstition. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the people were determined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enter- prises derived their most effective stimulus from this source; and not seldom it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear towards the gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the gods were considered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency of the gods therein. § 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romnlu3 made it a prominent object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and discordant materials of which the first inhabitants were composed. Still more carefully was this object pursued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretend- ed interviews with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental principles of Nurna's system, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously.- As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religiouii notions of the more intelligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cumbrous by the deification of the emperors. On Numa, cf. F. V. § 447.— for a particular account of the s:ods worsliiped by the Romans, we refer to the part (II.) of tbiK wor» which treats cf the gulje t of Mvthrlogy. The Roman division or classification of their gods is nolii id in (P. 11.) ^ 9. 230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. §1 203. Tlie great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large number ol temples^ of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred [foui hundred and twenty]. The name of temples, lenipla,, however, properly belong ed only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were distinguished from the scdes sacrse^ although the names are often used inter- changeably. Their form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangu- lar oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the building, and also after a remodeling or repairing of it.; — The principal parts of a temple were commonly the sanctuary (^cella sancliur, adykim), the interior, appropriated for the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various pur- poses. The temples, however, were often used, not only for religious solenmi- ties, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least ornamented with them on the front. Ou the structure of arioieni temples, cf. P. IV. § 234, and references there given. On the temples at Rome, cf. P. I. §§ 58-60.— See Simon, Temples de Tancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. i. !99. § 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks, with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with consecrated offerings of various kinds, called dnnaria. Every thing connected with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was. devoted. — A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings were there erected, was fanum. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where stood the images of the gods, one or more; but it is often used in a more gene- ral sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and only guarded by a wall, were termed sacel/a. Among the groves (/(/c?') conse- crated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, Egeria, Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. § 205. Jllars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then inscribed merely with , the nariie of the god to whom they were dedicated; usu- ally, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between a//an« and arae ,- the former were raised higher (a//a ar«), and were used for offering the sacrificial victim; the latter were lower, and were used in offering the prayer and libation. The fortner were more usually consecrated to the celestial gods; the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 1 21. There was also a third kind of altar, andabris or enclahris, a sort of labia, on which the sacrificial utensils were placed and ihe entrails of victims were laid by the Haruspices. The mensa sacra was sometliing still difi'erent, a table on which incense was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as various arti- cles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of victims. '1 he form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not un- frequently they were adorned with sculpture and imnge-work. Differfint forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXVll. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enclabri$. Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's alfar of burnt offerinir (cf 2 Citron, iv. 1); given l)y Pri- t/cawj, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins; copied and described in C(iLiiiet,\i\t\.. fec'vol. iii. p. 144, H57, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E. is an altar erected as a sepulchral nionnnient, in honor of a Roman emperor; it is higlily ornamented wiih sculptures, and bears an inscrip- tion ; tiie letters D M stand for Diis Muvibxis. Tiie elevations at the corners \\> this and in fig. H, siiow what is desisnated by the phrase '■'■horns of the uliur.'' — In Plate XX. are other furms of the all ir. In the Sup. Plate 30, are four oth' rs ; on the aliar of Jv/iiier is seen the bust of the god, and below it an eagie iiolding a thunderbolt in his claws ; bt^neaih this, in the original monument, ib the inscription, I. O. M. IVS.SA OCTAVl.\ SVCCESSA P.; i. e. Jovi Optimo Majiiiiii^jussn, Octaiiia Succest-a posuil. On the altar of Bacchus, a Bacchanal is dancing over a prostrate wine-cup, holdini; another cup in one hand and the thyrsus in the other. 'Vx\e. altar of Mtptune is one of the four discovered at Anliiim (Nelltino) ; on it is sciilptuied Neptiiiie with ihe tridetil in his left hand atid a dolphin in his right; above this is inscrilted, in the origintil, ARA NEPTVNI. The tripod was (Sften used as the form of an altar to Apnilo; Ihe very re- tnarkable one given in this Plate" corresponds to a rep.resentaiion on a silver coin of (Joiisul M. .•Tim. Lepidiis. — See Movifancoji (as cited P. II. $ 12), ii. 242. 1.12. Sup. ii. 5().— For various a'targ IS sepiilclira.' erections, see Montfaiicon, vol. v. and Snppl. vol v. — Roman altars have repcat- »4lv been found in England. ArchcBulogia, as cited P. IV. $ 32. 5. vol. iii. p 119, 324 PLATE XXVll. 32 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribins, and garlands of herbs inc /lowers. Altars and temples afforded a place of refuge among the Romans as well a? Greeks ',cf. § 6(>), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, tor ineolvent debtors and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be confined there until they perished. § 206. A (Treat variety of instruments and vessels, imsa sacra, were employed ■n the sacrifices offered to the gods. ] u. The most important were the following: the ax {hipninh, semris, d, d), or club {malleun, c), with which the victim was first struck; knives for stabbing {adtri, e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails {secespilcB) ; the censer (fhiirihulum, 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (acerra or arcula thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in dropping the wine upon the sacrifices {fruitus) ; a flat vessel in which the priests and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine {simpu- litm, b) ; broad dishes or bowls {patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims; an oblong vase with one or two handles {capedo, capedu7i.c.u.l n , copis, o, o) ; vessels to hold the entrails (ollce extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were brought to the altar {lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the fruit ofiered {cmtixtra) ; small tables with three legs {Iripodes); an instrument, having a tuft of hair, or the like, for sprinkling the sacred water {aspergillum, f) ; pans for the sacrificial fire {prm- fericula) ; metallic candlesticks {candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 2. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the above specification, refer to the figures thus marked in nur Plate XXVII The figures marl^ed hy the letters are drawn from Montfanrnn, vol. ii. p. 150. Those marked hy the numerals are from Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. IV. J 2-26. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial apparatus ; fis. g shows the sacred fillet {vitui), which was siuof^times lunig from the neck ; fig 4 is a ladle (lia-iila); fig. 3, a phchi^r (arceiis, culuUas) used for the libations; these fiirures are taken from sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a teui[)le found at Pompeii ; fig. B exhibits a scene from the same altar; a magistrate in his robe is offering sacrifice; he holds in his hand a paJeraj the victim is led forward by the popaor culfmrins, who is uaked to his waist with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a vase or pitcher, and an older servant bearing a platter (.discus); hy his side is a mtisiciaii blowing the flute, followed by lictors with their fasces; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with garlands. — Fis. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Montfaucon from an ancient coin ; the augur's wand {litiais) is seen in the hand of the principal person. The grou[) of articles in- cluded in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to ilhistrrite also Hebrew and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will rmtice among them the sho- vel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the nmdern teapot, a fire-pan. jars, bowls, dishes, u:i)ber was originally three, then four, afterwards nine, and finally increased by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after B. C. 300, in part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called iMagisler CnUegii, and JJugur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple {Jrabea), a crooked staff {liiims), and a conical cap (sometimes called apex). Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds [auspiciuni), from which they predicted future events. They also explained other omens and signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain animals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acumlnHms, i. e. prognostics were drawn from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhesion of the lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were lo be erecied, were con- secrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of I'heodo- sius the, Great. 'Ihe public Augurs oi the Roman people should be distinguished from the priva'e Augurs of the emperors. 2. The omens, s/i2■7^o, -portenln, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or pretended to ibretell the future,' have been classed in five divisions. (1) From birds; chiefly the flight of some {aliles), such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards; but also the chattering and singing of others (oscines), such as the owl (bubo), crow {corvus, cur7iix,) ov cock igallus). (2) From appearances in the heavens; as thunder, light- ning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens oi either of these two kinds ihe augur stood on some elevated point {arx, teviplum), which was frequently called m/Quroforium, with his head covered with the Jcsna, a gown peculiar to the offi( e ; al;er sacrificing and oflering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four quarters (called lempJa) with his lituus, and waited lor the omen. A single omen was not considered significant: it must be cor.firmed by ano'her of the same sort. In whatever position the augur stood, omens on ihe left were by the Romans reckoned lucky, contrary to the notions of ihe (ireeks (cl- '^ 75); the explanation given of this disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky emei.s would Le on his-riglit, while the Roman augur usually faced the south, and iherclore had the lucky omens on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on ihe left were sometimes called un- lucky among the Romans, and the lerm sinister came to s-igrify inijimpiiiovs, and dexter to mean propitious. (3) Prom chickens (pi/Ui) kept in a coop for the puipose, by the pnllarlus. The omen was taken early in ihe morning from their actions when the augur threw crumbs of com before them : if they lurnf tl away from it, or ate re- luctantly, it was an unlucky omen ; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking this augury was called Tripvdium. perhaps frcm the lioui ding of the corn when thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observing whether they appear ed in a strange place, or how they crossed ihe way, wheiher to ihe right or the left and the like (5) From various circumstances and events, which may' be included under the term arcideiits ; among these were sr:eezing, falling, hearing sounds, see ing images, spilling salt upon ihe table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dirct. Ken.nelt, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv.— Cf. Morin, Les Augurs; and Simon, Les Pri-siges, in the Mnn. de I'jlcad. dct Iiiscr. i. 54 mO 129.— Afai/o, Mylliology, i. 255. § 210. The Haruspices wexe the priests who inspected the entrails of animals offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occurrences; they were calleJ extispices. They a))peared under Romulus and were established by him; it is doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only znd not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed froiti the 834 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Ktrnrians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin; the dis- covery of the art {Haruspidna) was ascribed by fable to Tages, a son of Jupi- ter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty. Their overseer was styled Magisler Publicus or Sutnnius Haruspex. From the different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three classes, extispices, fulguratores, and prudigialores. For, besides observing the entrails of victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame smoke, &c., they also were consulted in relation to lightning and places o) buildings stricken by it, and they likev^ise explained prodigies and dreams. 1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their motion, and the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing from the appear- ances, lliey called them exfa muta. On tlie other hand, the term iitare was us^d to signify an auspicious sacrifice. 2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also the other reii- pious orders had ; these seem to have been accnutits of their oljservatioiis, memorials of thun- der and lightning, and ominous occurrences. Their art was at one time considered so imf)or- tant that the senate decreed that a number of yoiitti should be regularly instructed in it ; at a later period it fell into disrepute ; the emperor Claudius attem[»ted to revive it. Cf. Cicero, De Div. i. 41, 43. ii. 21, 29, .S5. Tacilus, Ann. xi. 15. — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil (Georg. ill. 486). §*2Il. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts [epuisc) of the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla. the number was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epulimes, and by Caesar at last to ten. They had the care of what were called the Lecfisferma, when couches were spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most important of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often taken for this office; yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prsetexta. The viri epulnres must not be confounded with the epulones ; the former were not the priests, but the guests at the repasts spoken of. § 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing long before the building of Rome, among the Rutuiians and other Italian states. The order was introduced at Rome by Numa. It continued to the beginning of the impe- rial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties and agreements pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called F at ei- pair at us. It devolved iipon him, or the Feciales under him, to give the enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the declaration by uttering a solemn form {clarigafio), and hurling a spear (hasta sanguined), into the enemy's limits. These priests were also the customary agents in effecting an armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices there- with connected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security tf foreign ambassadors at Rome. § 213. The Rex sacntrum, or Bex sacrificulus, held an office, which was insti- tuted first after the expulsion of the kings, and probably derived its name from the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings themselves or under their immediate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, the oiTice and name both arose from a desire that the royal dignity might not be wholly f )rgotlen. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts oc- i^upied the first place, although the duties were not nutnerous, and consisted ehiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointly with the Pontifex iVlaximus, to corivoke the people (^popu/um calare), and make known the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing. At the Cornilia he offered the great public sacrifice, after which, however, he Wiusi withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Ih' p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. So^ gijia saomrum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Rpgia. The office con- tinued until the time of Theodosius the Great. See ^nibrosch^ Studien und Andeulungen, p. 41.— Of. L. Schmitz, in Smith's Diet, of Aniiq. p. S23. § 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such priests as were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the order, there were but two besides this, viz.: the Flamen Mar/ialis and the Fla- men Quirinalis. Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They were divided into majores^ who must be Patricians, and minorea, who were taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a purple border {laena), and a cap of conical form {apex) adorned with a twig of olive. The Flamen Dialis had a lictor, and also a sel/a curulis and the toga prasfex/a; his wife was called Flaniinica^ and aided him in some parts of the worship on the festivals of Jupiter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and en- joyed several other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose ser- vice they were devoted, as Flamen Neplunalis^ Flora/is, Fumonalis ; so of those belongring to a deified Caesar, as Y\?iV(\en .lugnstalis^ Fiavialis, &c. § 215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the commor opinion had their name from dancing (sa/zVe), because on certain festival days they passed about the city dancing, and singing songs in honor of Mars. They were first instituted by Numa. The immediate occasion of their institution, ac- cording to the tradition, was the famous shield, Jlncile^ said to have been sen* from heaven; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order tc hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were carried by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit around the city. 1 u. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Frcesul, whose leaping was expressed by the verb nmtruare. and the leaping of the others atier him by redcnnt ruare. 'J hey had their appropriate residence {curia Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides the music which accompanied their dancing, tliey struck their shields together, and in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated ihe praises ot the god of war (cf P. IV. "$> 114. 4.) and of Veturius JSIamaiius, the artist who made the eleven shields. 2 u. '1 he order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the acces- sion of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the emperors, especially M. Au- relius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, but only for a ceriain period. — "1 he Salii Collini or Quirinales were distinct from this body, and established by TuUius Hostilius. See Liv. i. 2n.— Ou. Fast. iii. 259. On the .Salii, and other classes of priests, cf. Cottling, Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfass.— See also especinliy Harlung. Die Religion der Ronier. — T. Gvtlaiethi de Saliis Marlis saceidntibus apud Romanos liber singularia Franeqnerae, 1704. 8— Cf. Seidd, De fallal, sacr. vet. Rom. Berl. 1826.— .4. Opel's Mftrik, Th. 2 p. 647. § 216. The Lvperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designation, which Pan re- ceived from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Ltipercu.s {nb arcendu Ivpns). His temple was from the same circumstance called Lupercal, and his most cele- brated festival at Rome, Liipercalin. This festival began about the middle of P^'ebruary, and was regarded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The Luperci, on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle of goat's skin about the waist; they carried in their han;sel considered by Montfaucori as the prmferi- culum ; others are leading forward the three victims ; in attendance are several soldiers and standard-bearers ; a rTch fillet lies upon the back of the bull ; all the priests are crowned with laurel. Cf. Monffaucun, ii. 189, and Sup. ii. 73. 3. The expiation made on the appearance of some prodigy, was ofien very solemn and inipos- inji. "The senat'=', after having ordered the Sit)ylline b'>(.ks to be consulted by ihose who had the keeping of them, to see what was lo be done on those occasions, ordinarily appointed days of fastinff ; as al-io festivals, especially the Lectisternia ; public prayers; and sacrijices. Then you might have s-en th^ whole city of Rome, and in imitation of her the other cities of the em- pire, in mourning and consternation; the temples adorned; the Lectisternia prepared in the public places; expi^ttorv sacrifices repeated over and over again. The senators and patricians, their wives and ttieir children, with garlands on their heads, every tribe, every order, preceded by the / igli Priest ami the Duumviri, marched gravely through the sireels; and this procession vvas accompanied by ihe youth singing hynuis, or repealins; prayers, while the Priests were offering sacrifices in the temples and invoking the gods to avert the calamities with which they imagined themselves lo be threatened." § 2'35. The oaths (^jusjurandum, jnramentuni) of the Romans, which wete regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into public and private. The first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (cf. § 243. I) often also by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census, and every single soldier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such as pertained to marriage. 'I'hey were usually taken before the altars of the gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses; not urifrequently sacrifices were at the same time offered. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said concepfis verbis jiir are. \. Witnesses in civil proceedings sometimes confirmed their testimony by an oath ; and in all public trials (cf. J 2bl) were required to do it. Perjury was punished, yet, so far as appears, not more severely than false testimony (/aVsMw) withoiu oath. — Swearing seems to have been in- dulged freelv in common life and ordinary conversation; such ex.|)ressions as' the following v^'ere frequent; Herrle, or Mehercle; Pol, .Mdepol, Perpol; per Jovem ; per superos ; medius fidivs ; da me jierdant, or interjiceant. Sec. BrUsonUcs, De Formul. &c —L. C. (^alckenaet; De Rilibus in Jur.indo a veteribus, in /. OdricWs Collect. 0|iusculorum. Brem. 1768. 4. 2 m. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's se]f (devovere) to capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his country or the life of a person particu- larly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished. § 226. The>Romans had no oracles themselves; but in cases of importance, they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman supersti- tion, however, found nearer sources of information respecting the will and decla 240 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. rations of the gods. Besides the use of their augurhim and bxtupisciuin, they had recourse to the Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of Curnae. 1 u. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus (see P. V. § 16;. They were kept with great care in a stone vault under ground in the Capitol, in the custody of the Qabidtcemv'iri sacrisfaciundis (cf. '5i 219). In important emergencies, m general disasters, when omens were inauspicious, or circumstances were perplex ng, they consuhed the Sibylline predictions, and endeavored thence to ascertain how ihb oiTended deities could be appeased. 2 u. The burning ot'the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books; there were attempts to restore some parts ol -them from fragments and quotations. 1 he pieces now extant under i:his name, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of later origin, § 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or iindertakin^, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or blocks {tali) of w^ood or metal, on which certain words or marks were inscribed, which were kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous were those in the temple of this goddess at Praeneste, which in early times were very frequently employed. 1 u. I'hose at Antium were also renowned ; those at Csere and Falerium disappeared,, as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of tbis sort were provided and kept for domestic use. Those who foretoW the fuiure by means oi lo;s were called Sortiiegi. Cf. Cic. de Divinat. ii. 41. — Liv. xxi ^^2. xxii. I. — Du Resnel, Rechercties Histor. sur les Sorts appelees par .les Payens, Sortes Virgilianae, &c. iu Mern. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (cf § 209), other artifices were employed among the Romans by those who pretended to foretell the future. Some professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Asfrologi^^Iathematici, or Geneihliaci, and sometimes Cliald(Ei or Bahylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chai- daea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectores; o'.hers to have an internal afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaficmatores. Insane persons were supposed to fore- know the future; in which class were ihe Cerlti, ihose rendered insane by Ceres; the Lymphati, rendered so by the water-nymphs; L^matici, by the moon; Fanadci, by the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane {fanum). In short many of the Grecian arts of divination (cf ^ 75) were practiced among the Romans. 3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Ro- mans; perhaps, however, -chiefly by Greeks and oiher foreigners. Some passages in Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were openly avowed at Rome. Pliny speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world.-— '1 he Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinating others (/r/scma^/o), by darting an evil look upon them; which the Greeks lermed Bao-K-ayta (cf. ^ 75 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was sometimes worn on the neck, caWed fnschtum (cf. P. II ^ 91. 2). See ArchsEoloi^ia (as lited P IV. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Pas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by the evil fcve — y. Alsarius, De Invidia et Faspino Veterum, in Gncvius, vol. xii.— C/aJS. Journ. vol. xxxvi. p 185, on tlie niae;ic of tlie Greeks and Romans. — Le Blond, sur Magie, in Ihe Mtm. dt Vlnstitul, C 1 a ss e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, i. 81 — Bunaniy and Blan- chard, La Magie, &c in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 23. xii. 49. Cf Hor. Epod 5. and 17. — Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. \.— SuUerle, Des Sciences Occultcs, ou Essaie sur la Magie. Par. 1829. 2 vols. 8. § 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. Without noticing the various changes in this, we may remark that Romulus, Nnma, and Julius Caesar were the authors of the principal methods of dividing and computing the year. The month was divided into three parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides, and in computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned backwards from these three fixed points. 1 ti. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into twelve hours Qiorce) which of course were of different length at the different seasons of the year ; hence the phrase liora hiber7im, equivalent to hora brevisshna. The night was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. I. ^ 187), and also into four watches (vigiUcB). The use of sun-dials {soluria), and of water-glasses (clepsydra;), seems to have been in- troduced at a comparatively late period. 2. The dial is said to have been iqventfd at Lacedsenrion in the time of Cynis the G'reai. The first one at Rome was set up B..C. about 260. — The clepsydra (K^expvSpa) was itiveiited at Alex- attdria, and carried thence to Athens and afierwaids, B. C. abnut 160, introduced at Rome. " It was formed t)y a vessel of water, havine a minute perforation in the bottom, rhroueh which the wntST issued (stealing out, kXIiLis wwp) drop by drop, and fell into another ves.sel, in whicii a ?h\ budy floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water increased ^imt^ ^ p. in. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 241 In the receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly increasing he ght fiirnishca an approxitiiation to a correct indicHtion of time." (Bi^eluw's Technology, p. 365.)— It was sc constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accotninudated to the varying length of the Roman hours. A servant was employe*), whose business it was from time to lime to examine the water-chick, and report the hour to his master. See the account of the divisions of time amnua; the Romans, the day, monlh, aud yt-ar, given under Chronology ; rf. P. I. §§ 187, 188, 191-193. — To the references there given we add Dissert, Ue Fartibus Noctis et Diei, &c. in his Kleiiie Schrijien. § 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for the service of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, 4)anquets, and games; these were called (lies f est i. The days called dies fasli were those on which no assembly of the people or senate was held, but the prsetor administered justice; days, on which he could not do this, were termed nefasli. Days, of which only a part of each could be appropriated to business, were called inter ci si ; those wholly resigned to business, profesti. Such as were considered inauspicious were called dies religiosi ,- among these they reckoned especially the first days after the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which they named />os/r?W^o7)^. The festival days were termed also ferias, dies feriati, from tlie cessation of common business. 1. The Roman festivals were either public, observed by the whole nation (/frjt important were '.hose termed FustiCcvsitlares. Hartung, Die Religion der Rnnier. — R Huspininii, De Festis Diebus Judaeoruni, Grajcoruni, Rouianorum, et Turcaruiii. Tigur. 1593 fol. — Couture^ Les Fas es. in the Aftni. .icad hiscr. i. 60 — De la Nauze, Calendrier Romain. in the same Mem &c. vol. xxvi. p. 219. — Of. Port Royal Lai. Grammar. — Several Fragments of Calendars are given in Grxuius, vol. viii. — A Calend 4r fr(fln Pauly"? Real-Encyclopadie is iiveii in Smith's Diet, of Antiq — Respecting the Calendarium Prxnestiiiuni, see P. iV. § 133. 6.— Respect- ing the Fasti Annalts or Histonci, see P. V. § 508. § 230 if. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some ^f the principal, in order of the months. January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on the first day of the year, on which, iti later times, the Consuls entered upon their office. The presents customary on this day were called strevte ; they were sent from clients to their patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and from friends to one aimther. 9th. The ^«ro- nalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and l.'itli. The Carmentalia, to the goddess Carmenta, an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. — ^— 25lh. The SementincB, or festival o'' seed, accompanied with the Jimbarvalia, which dif- fered from the festival of the same name in May ; on which they passed over the fields with the animals to he slain in sacrifice. .SOth. The festival of Peace (Pax), first established by Augustus. 31st. The festival in honor of the Penates, or household gods. February. 1st. The l.ucaria, in memory of the asylum formed by Roniultis, or f>f the re- fuge ilucus) of the Romans after the sack of their city by Brennus. — This day was also dedi- cated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia. in honor of Faunus and the Sylvan gods, i epeated 5th December. 15th. Liipercnlin, to Lvirean Pan (cf. $216). 17th. Qairinnlia, to Romu- lus, deified by the name Uuirinus I8th Fe- ralia, to the Manes, accompanied witn a solemn expiation or purification of the city, called fe- brnatin, whence the name c>f the month itself. It continued from the 18th to the end of the month, during which time present? were car- ried to the graves of deceased friends and rnla- lives, and the living held feasts of love and re conciliation. 21st. Tenninulia, to Terminus, the god of boundaries. March. On the first day, with which in early times the year began, a fe.42 ROMAN ANTIUUITIES. priests, the Galli (cf. $ 217), on this made llieir fjanjes in lionur oi" Mars. 13th. To iJtana. procession. 12th. CerfaZi*/, to (Jeres, altnnded ITlh. Portnvivalia, to Portuninus, the go«i with games. 1.5. Fordicidia, to th« g.-ddess ' of h;ul»i>rs. 18ih (J mis n alia., to Consiis, liio Tollns, for the purpose of averting a dearlli or god nf counsel or rather lo Equr-slriaii Nepiune. scarcity, on occasion of which I\uma instiliUed The seizure of the iSabiiie women was com- tlie festival ; each Curia furnished a pregnant niemoraied llie same day. 21st. Nivalin {\\\e tow (fordn) to he sacrificed to Tellus. 2ist. second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter P«/j/2«, a rural, country festival to Pales, god- ; fud Venus. 2.3d. Vulcanaha, to Vukau as dess of cattle. 22d. Finalia, repeated in Au- , the god of fire, for securiiy against conflagra- gust, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the tioi s. 25th. Opecavsiua, to Rhea, or Ops, or vine in Italy. 23. Robigalia,Xn the god Ro- i fruit-lieariny Earth. biciis, thai he might protect the grain from Septembkr. Ou the 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- l)lighting (0 rj^ftjo-i/ic) 28lh. Fh.ralia^in T\c<-\niiended over three, four, and more. It was a festival of leisure and general joy, in memory of the golden period in Italy under the government of Saturn. During it slaves were placed on a footing of equality with ti.eir mas- ters. Many of the peculiar customs and sports were similar to those of the Carnival, or (Christ- Female Foriune in memory of Coriolaniis with- mas Festival, of modern Home fii e Cvleimin's drawing his army from the city (J.iv. ii. 40). Chr. Autiq p. 435. — The work entitled Home in 7th. To Juno Caprotina, for young women, the Mineteenflt Centnnj, v«d iii. p. 240 19th. 15. To (Jaslor and Pollux.. 23d JVepfu- the goddess of Ops 'Ihe Compi- valia. 25ih F/(riH(/7ia, to the goddess Furina. tatia, to ihe Lares of the crossways, were often August On the Jst day a festival to the held shortly after the Saturnalia, as well as in goddess of Hope ; and aladiatorial sports and other months. § 231. The public shames {ludi) airtono the Romans, as well as among- the Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival occasions in honor of the gfods. These crames were usually at the expense of the state, sometiines at the expense of individuals, particularly the emperors. They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their celebration. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a time fixed or variable; many also arose from particular occasions; hence the variety in distinctive a}>pellations; e. g., ludi stali., imperafivi, insiauralivi. vofivi, ijuinquennales, deceimales, .secularcs, lusfraks, &c. Names were given also in reference to their character, and the place where they were celebrated; e.g., ludi circenses, capil(/iim\ sceiiici, piscalorii, triunipjiales, funebres. Only the most famous of these games can here be noticed. § 232. The first to [)e mentioned are the Ludi Circcnsp.s, or by way of emi- nence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus Muximus, 'which was not merely a laige free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edi- hce ; it was a kind of theatre, commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged and adorned by .lulius C^sar as dictator. 1 71. Its breadth was more than a stadium, and its length was three and a half stadia ('MS'' fpei). A I' around it were seats {fori) lor spectators., so as to accommodate at '••asr lfO:'^^'J v>'Tsons. In the middle, exieiidiui^ lengthwise, was a wall, celled spina p. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 240 circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in length. At each end of the wiill were three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals {me'cp), around which the horses and chariots turned. The wall had many other ornaments. The whole edidec also was highly ornamented; it was altogether the largest of ihe kind, although ihere wore in Rome eight other places for races and games, called Circi. At one end w6re 1:2 openings or parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and chariots stood waiting ior the signal to start. [Not lar Irom the carceres, a whitened rope (ulla linea) was drawn across the circus; one hall ot it marking the commencement. a)i(' the other half the end. of the race.] Those wlro governed the chariots, were divided into certain classes {facfioiies or greges), distinguished by dresses of different colors. The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun. 2. Pliny (Elist. N. x.xxvi. 24) slates the niiniher of persons which the Circus Maxiiims whs capable of contaiiiiii? as 200,000 ; and the atithoriiy of Aiireiius Victor li.is lieen citi'd fir the nnnibei of 385.00'). — Of the other strucliires of this class ilie foliowiiii,' w.re the i)riiic!|)al : the Cirr.iis Flnuiiniiis ; tlie Ci-cusJUexandriiiiis; the Circus Sail iisticus ; the Ctrc.is Flin-iahs, nr \:i- ticaniis, finisiied by Nero in a sphMidid style, and si;^ aiized as tiie sceiii; where iiniiiliers of ilie early Christians snfFered tnartyrdoni undi-r that einpemr ; the ol)elisk in the centre of the peris- tyle of St. Peter was taken from the spiivi of this circns ; the Circus Cnmcallcs ; the Circus Do- miticB. — On the Via Appia there still remains the around plan, with p;irt of the superstructure, of a small circus, commonly called the Circus of Caruculla. Grxoius, as cited § 197 1. vol. ix. ; and Poleiitis, as there ciled, vol. v.— 6". L. Biaicu^ii, Discriziont, dei Circiii particolarniente di qiiello di Caracalla, &c. Con note C. Fea. Rora. l"'^0. fol. — Burgess, The Circus on the Appiaii Way. — Smil/i, Diet, of Anli- quities. 3 u. The Ludi Circenses were commonly held but once a year; sometimes they were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained at public cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, fiompa circeymis, moved from the Capilol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid carriages or frames {in Iheiisis et ferculis), or on men's shoulders {in huineris). followed by a great train, on horseback or- on foot, with the combatants, musicians, &-c. Sacred rites were then perlormed, and the games opened. § 233 u. The games or s,\\o\\'s {spectacuhi) in the Circus were of four kinds; chariot- races, vArh two or four horses ; contests of agility and strength, such as wrestling (lucla), boxing [pugiJatus). throwing the discus {disci jacius), leaping {salias). and running {cursiis); representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including the Ludiis TrojcB {Virg. Mn. v. 545); fighting of wild beasts {venal io). — To describe these partictdarly would exceed our limits .Many of the exercfses, however, cor- responded to those of the Greeks (cf ^'$> 78 — S3). The victors were rew^arded with crowns and sometimes with rich gifts in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a palm-hranch, which he bore in his hand. 1. We tiave in fig. B. of Plate XVI. a victorious Roman charioteer, with the palm in his right hand, and the reins in his left ; he 19 clo?ely ?irdel about the.chest and bmiy. See Brottier, Le jeux du Cirque, in the Mem. de VAcad des Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 487. — Mongez. Sur les animaux promenes ou tuea ians les Cirques, in. the Mem. de Plnftitiit, C 1 a s s e d''Hist. et Lit. Aitc. vol. x. p. 360. 2 u. At the time of the Ludi Magni, other spectacles were also exhibi*ed, not in the Circus; particularly the Naumachi.7', or represeiuafions of naval battles. These ori- ginally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins or excavations made lot the purpose and filled with water, whitth were also called NaumnchicB. The vessels were usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes, and triany lost their lives or were severely wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose. 3. Claudius is said 'Tac. Ann xx. 56.— .Site*. Cbud. 21) to have exhibited a inn^nificent sea-fight on lake Fucinus, in ivhich there were fiftv shirs on each side, with 19,000 cnmbatanls (7ianmnc/iiani).— tiepresen'alinns of naval battles were coriinion under tht emperors, and are coinmemonled on some of the imperial coins — See SclteJJ'er, De Militia Navali. § •234. The Ludi Saectilares, or centurial o-arnes, were solemnized with nrinch ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the lapse of a centnrv, but sometimes a little earlier or a little later; usually in the month of .April. For this occasion longr preparations were always made, the Sibylline books were consulted., and a sort of g-pneral purification or expiation of the whole city was previously made. Sacrifices were oifered to all the ffods, those of the infernal world as well as those of Olympus, and while the men attended banquets of the o-ods in theiT temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of .Tuno. Thank-offer- ings were also presented to the Genii. 1 u. After the sai.rifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a larire theatre on the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of .Apollo and Diana. On the seconH dav the Roman m.itrons were collected to offer sacrifit-e in the Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Pian;> was sung in the temple of Palatine Apollo, by a select band of young men and virgins- 244 ROMAN ANTICIUITIES. of Patrician rank. Tiie carmen scBCulare of Horace was prepared to be thus Bung, al the connnand of Augustus, in v.'hose reign the games were celebrated. llie firiit celeliratioii look place in the reign (if Augusli.s, B. C. 17 (Tac. Ami. xi. II) ; the second in the reign of Claudius, A. D. 11 (.Suet. Claud 21) ; the third in the reign of Doniilian, A. I). 8S ; and the last in the reign of Fhilippus, A. D. 248, just one thousand ••ezrf after the building of Rome. — Cf. Hariiing, Die Relig. d. Rom.— On the chronology of these games, Class. Journal, xvii. 351. 2 ?«. To the rehgious solemnities, which were iield for the purpose of securing the safety ;)f the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic plays, and ihe feats oi' jugglers (prcpsligiatoreii), persons who seemed to fly in the air Ipetauristcp), rope-dancers {funamhuU), and the liiie. The rope-dam er (KaXo/3arijs. a-xoivo/Sdrris) seems usually to have been a Greek (Jiiv iii. 80). Some of Ihe paintings found al Herculaneum exhibit funamlvli placing themselves in a great variely of altitudes, in the character of bacchanals, satj rs, and ihe like.— See Ihe uork styled Jintichi d'Eicotano (cited T. IV. ^ 2-13. 2), vol. iii.— A few of the figures are given in Sniitn, Diet, of Autiq. p. 434. § 235. The gladiatorial shows, L^idi Gladiatorii, were greatly admired in Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would innpart pleasure to the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were neld ; in the latter view they were appointed, e. g. al the funerals, or in com- Kiemoration, of the deceased. 1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the ancient custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the departed. At Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals; afterwards ihey-were given by the .iEdile?, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especially on the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. The g\ad\atoTS {nladiotores, lAoi^oixiixoi) were supported at public expense. Their resi- dence or place of instruction was called ludtis, a name often given to any arena or building, where such exercises were learned or practiced; their overseer was termed procurator, and their instructoi , hmista. In the public spectacles, the combat was often carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of the crowd of spectators. The'number of combatants was originally indeterminate, and until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore various names according to their arm.or and their mode of fighting. 2. The gladiators termed seculores were armed with helmet, shield, and sword. They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a short tunic wiih nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed lance (tridens or fuscina), and in the right a net (re/p)in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. The mirmlllones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thruces. The esscdarii fought from chariots, and the equites on horseback ; the andabalcs wore helmets which covered their eyes, and according to some writers, fought on horseback. Several other classes are named. — It is to be observed that the term gladiatores included those who fought with beasts as well as those, who fought with men ; although the former were termed distinctively hestinrii. 3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves; but afterwards free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An advertisement or public notice (lihellus) was put up by the person [editor) who intended to exhibit a gladiatorial show, with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena in procession, and then matched for the contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it was a sign of being vanquished; his fate depended on the spectators; if they wished him to be saved, they pressed down their thumbs; if to be slain, they turned up their thumbs ipolllcem premehant or vertehant). If a vanquished gladiator was spared, he was said to receive his discharge, which was termed missio, hence an exhibition in which the lives of the vanquished were not to be saved was said to be .sme missione. — Vast numl)ers of men and of brute animals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully sup- pressed until the time of Honorius. In Plate XXX. are sseveral figures illustrating this stibjecl, which are taken from sculptures on the tomh of Scauriis found at Pompeii. Fi<,'. 1 represents an equestrian cornhat ; the anda- hat(P are clothed in the short cloak (mdiicula), and armed with the lance, round buckler (parma) helmet with a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on Ihe risrht arm. — Two g'adiators or; foot a[)pear in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet nnd the snblig-nrvlvm, a short apron fixed ahove the hips by a girdle. Fig 3 has iirmor on the right arm, and holds the sci tinn, or ionij shield ; on his right leg is a kind 'of buskin, and fin his left the ocren or greave ; the rest of the !)ody is naked; he has lowered his shield as heinu vanquished, and raised his hand to implom mercy of the snectators, F'g. 4 is behind liiiii. vviiiting for the sienal from them, wheiher to ■ipare liis atilagonist or strike the dfiiili-lilow ; lif carries a smaller shield, has armor tipon his 'iiicK.« and the high greaves upon his legs.— Fit' 6 presents a sroup of four gladiators; two art ^oU, ifien (.•ieciiturcn), and two net-viev (rttiarii). One of the secntnre.s is wounded iti Ihe leg, PLATE XXX. *346 ROMAN ANTIQUITIii-S. thigh, and arm, and, having in vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee appa- rently to receive from the sword of his coinrade a more speedy death than would be likely fiom the trident of his aiitas;onist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to Insult his conquered rival. The other reliarius is waiting to fijrht in his turn with the ser.utor who is hastening to •=>nd the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures are the sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by them on tlie arena. The Fig. 8, with a lance in each hand, is from a group on the same tomb representing a young be.stiu7'iui^ preparing himself to contend in the arena. — Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on this toiob, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven through his breast, and rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded See Mazots, as cited P. IV. ^ 243. 2. — Pompeii, p 291, as cited P. IV. 226. 1. For minute details respecting gladiators, cf. J. f.iptivs. Saturnalia, in his Works Ant. 1637. 6 vols. fol. § 236. The Ludi Florales were united with the festival of the goddess Flora, held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were instituted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; aftervi^ards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed again in con- sequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their omission. They lasted from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d of May; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged iri the celebration wore garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ; and the sediles curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus. § 237 /. There were other games or sports {ludi)^ which we may just men- tion here. The Ludi MegalenseSi in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (mutitare) between persons of the higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in I he Circus, in the memory of the rape of Pro- Berpine, and tjie consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The BlarLiales, dedicated to Mars Ultor, or the avenger. — The Apollmares, in honor of Apollo, and generally scenical. — The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from the Gauls. — I'he Pleheii. in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the re- covery of freedom. — The Co7isuules, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the seizure of the Sabine women. — The Ludi Auguslales {'Zr/Saara, and 'Avyo ardXia), in honor of Augustus. — The Ltidi Piscatorii, held on the sixth of June, near the Tiber, in behalf ol the fishermen. — Ajnong the games occasioned by vows and called ludi votivi; the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war; among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quinquennales, de- cennales. &c., given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class called exfraordinarii^ belonged such as were held at funerals, called Ludi Funebres ; and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called Ludi Jtcvenales. § 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dramatic {ludi jcenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and ampitheatres were used. — In the first ages, theatres were constructed merely of wood, and were taken down after being used. .Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. Their construction was similar to that of Greek theatres; one side or end had the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rec- lanofular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built B. C. 59 by the aedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and sc capacious that eiorhty thousand spectators could sit in it. The theatres of PoiTippy and Marcellus wpre also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part still remains. 1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf P. IV. § 235), consisted of three parts, the scena, orcfiestra, and cavea ; but the two latter are sometimes included under one ;the cnvea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage ior scc7in); and the rows of seats in the orcJiestra were occupied by the senators, foreign ambassadors, and especially distinguished personages. The next fourtee?i rows of the cavea were assigned to the etjuites, and the rest of the people. Women occupied the por'ico surrounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augustus. — The itage. or portion allotted to the performers, liad several parts distinguished by name; one part was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or sce.7ie.ry ; the part somctitnes concealed !)y a curtain {(vdcBum), which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when it wa? necessary to hide the* scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called fjeoslro); columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent (diaracter were exliil)ited, according to the nature of the plays. "^I'he post scenmm was '1 Miace behind the scene, v/here the actors changed their dresses, and the proscenium p. in. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AMPHITHEATRES. 247 was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when speaking was termed puLpitum (KoyeZov, cf. § 89). A pliin of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate XLIX. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle BHBH is the orchestra; the circle is presented complete with the four eqiiilairial triangle^ in- scribed, in order to show the manner of determining tlie places for the icena, ihe postscenhivi, and the cunei ; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall s^everally on the ends of the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits requited ; Ihe diametei (HH) of the orchestra was usually one-third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theaiie. The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of th*^ orchestra. 2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans are mentioned oarticularly in another part of this work ; see P. V. '5>'?» 308-320. — Among ihe musical mstruments employed were the flute, and the lyre or harp, and in later times ihe hy- draulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common accompaniments of comedy were the flutes termed (.ihim dexlrce or LydicB, and tihicR siiLislrcE or Serrance or Tyrice; the terms pares and impares are also applied to them. There has been some disagree- ment as to what these terms inean. It is most commonly supposed that the musician used two flutes at once or a double flute ; that the si7iislra had but few holes and sounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when these two were united they were termed impares, and took the oiher names because one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dextroB or two sinistrce were united and played upon by the m.usician, they were called pares. A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute ; sef our Plate XXVI. fi?. n, anJ cf. § 180. 2. —The use of the double flute is seen also in Plate XLIX. fi;. B, and in Plate XXIX. — Bnltt^er, Die F.ifindung der Fiote, in vol. ii. rf W^.eland's AttJsches Museum. — A. Manutius. De Tibiis Velerum, in Ugotinns, vol. xxxii. as cited § 197. 3 Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian ; and were probably similar to those of the Greeks. Cf. § 89. 2. Several masks are represented in the beautiful mosaic eiven in Plate XLIX. fist. B B. — On theatres, plays, nia^ks, S;c. cf. Bemardi, Les jeux sceniques chez les Roraains, in the Mem. de Plwitilut, Ql asse (ffiist et Lit. J}nc. vol. viii. p. 2b0. — Duttlnp, as cited P. V.'§ 299. 8 — VVork styled Pompeii, cited P IV. § 226.^—/. L. Falridux, De Ludis Scenicis, in Gr-mtovius, vol. viii. — Botttger, Prolus. de Personis scenicis, vulg.o Larvis. Vinariae, 1794. 4. — FranciiCu de Fiorcmi, Disser'atio de larvis scenici?. Sec. Rom. (the- atrical Masques of the Romans). Rom. 1736. 4. with platts. — Boindin, Sur les Masques, &c. in the Mem. de CAcad. aes inscr, col. iv. p. 132. § 239. The first cf«7^^?7^m/re was built B. C 45 by Julius Caesar, but merely of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of wnich, under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum (from a colossal statue of Nero, which stood near it), constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome, The form of ampitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were crenerally used foi gladiatorial shows and the ficrhtinff of wild beasts. Both theatres and atnphi- theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods. 1. The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus Curio actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of ihis sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, in which dra- matic plays were performed in the morning; then by maciiinery for the purpose he suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other, thus constituiing an amphi- theatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is some- times put for the amphitheatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the gladiators fousht, and was so called from its being covered with sand. The arena was 'surrounded wiih a wall, guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sockeis, to pre- vent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded with a ditch filled with water (eun'pi/s). Next around the arena was the podium, raised 12 or 1.5 feet above it, projecting over the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. On this gallery or terrace, which was wide enough for two or three row? of moveable seals, senators, ambassadors, and persons of special distinction were seated ; here also ♦he emperor had his seat {suggesfiis, or cuhicuhnn). Above the podium were the fixed seats (£7-orf7/.<;), divided into stories or sloping portions called maiiia7ia. '^ he first, next to thepodiiun. included fourteen rows of marble seats appropriated to the Kquites. In the second and ihird mcp.niana, were se.Tts occupied by the people and called populnria. The m(p.nia7i(i were separated by \)n^s-<\ges [prcrcinctianes) running -in ihe direciioii of ihe seats; there were also passajres (.«ff//(?) running transversely ; thus were formed several compartments in the shape of wedges (jcnnei). The women, afier they were allowec to attend the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to liic whole of these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled Villicus nmjthitheotri. and persons. •lalled designotores, were employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. By a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret lubes around these structures, and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues wliich adorned the interior. —The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for covering '"he vast area embraced in such a building; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes stretched across the buildinff and attached to m.asts or soars, which rose above the svim- 248 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. mit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 20C jjrojectino; blocks of slone, wiih holes cut to receive the ends of the spars, which ran up through ludos cuf in the cornice. 2. In our Plate XXX. tig. 7, is a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Its extreme length, from niitsidf' to outside of tiie e.xterior arcade, is 430 feel; its greatest breadth is 335 feet. It consists chietiy of the rough masonry called opun incertiiw, with quoins of sfjiiared stone, and some liitliiig restnraiions of nihhle. This rude mass was probably once covered with a facing of hewn stone. — At <^ach end of the ellipse are entrances into the arena for the combatants; through these also the dead bodies were dragged out into the spnliarium. On the podium were found several inscriptio|is containing the names of the duumvirs who had presided ; there were also fresco-|).iiiitings, which soon disap[)eared on being exposed to the atmosphere. There are iweiity-fiinr rows of seats ; and the building, jis has been estimated, would accommodate above 10,000 p(-rs()iis silting, besides such as might stand. Coiiite dt Ciiylus. Theatre of (. urin, in ihe Mem. Jicad. I'Scr xxiii. 369. — Cf. Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. Od various e.yisliiii; mini; (if .imphiilieilies, fitnarVs Diet, of Arcliiteclure. lAiiid. 1<32. 3 vols. 8.—.^ Gordon, Hislory of the Ancient Amphi ttie.^Te->, Ir.iiislaieii from llie Ilaliaii of Maffei. i.oiid. 1730. 8. II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. § 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of Rome it is necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its history; particularly to notice the three different forms of government which were successively. es- tablished, the regal, consular, and imperial. The first continued 244 years to B. C. 510; the second 479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the overthrow of the western empire, A. D 476, and afterwards in the eastern. — Under the KingH the. government was of a mixed character, and we should esti- mate the powers of the kings by a reference to the early kings and princes among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according to more modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives of the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the superintendence of the legislation and of jitdicial decisions, aitd the assembling of the senate and the people; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in most cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the people had in the public concc^rns. 1 u. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted of a golden crown, a chair (seZZa) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter of the same material, with an eagle on its exiremiry, a white robe {tQga)vi'\\\\ purple embroidery or bordeuings, &c. . a body of twelve aitendants (Z/c/ore.'?), who went before the king, carrying each a bundle of rods {fasces) with an ax (securis) in the middle. In our Plate XXXI. fig. 1, is a cut representing the securis bound op in the fusees. The fasces are often reinesented on the consular coins. — FiiT. 3, is a i:roup of royal scepters, drawn I'rom .Egyfitian monuments; showing various forms and ornaments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI. fig. 1, and fig. 3, where scepters are seen in the hands of Jupiter and .Juno. 2u. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for the prolialile reigns of only seven kings, which is the nuntlier specified in the traditions respecting ihis period. But it must be remarked that the whole of the early Roman history is at least uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous. Cl. P. V. $510. § 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution becanje aristocratical. Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and influence which the kings had possessed, and called Comu/s {ccmsu/es). No particular age was originally requisite for this office, but a law (/f.r nnnalis) was enacted 180 B. C, that it should be hpld by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought the office, were called cmididati^ from their peculiarly white shining robe {toga candi(la). The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by Centuries, usually towards the end of July or the begrjnning of August. From that time tintil January of the following year, the person chosen was called cnn- sill fle.-:i 214. 6), when it was conferred upon the reigning emperor for life. ^ 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Caesar, prepared the way for introducing the imperial government ; which was established in the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government now became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors adhered, in lorm, to the old usages and customs in a great degree. But under 'J iberius, the immediate successor of Augustus, the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under succeeding emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated in their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices were created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government was at length turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and luxury. De la Bletterie, on the Roman Governmenl under the Kmperors, in the Mem. Acad, [user vol. xix. 357, and ssi. 299, power ol Emperors; vol. xxiv. 261, power of Consuls; vol. xv. 392, of Tribunes; xxvii. 43S, of Sena e. — G'oUii'yig, Geschichle der Rom. Staalsverfassung. Halle, 1840. § 243. Praetor was in early times the name for any mag-istrate, siofnifyino merely an overseer, superintendant, or leader (from prxire). But, in the year B.C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer appointed to attend to the administration of justice. The Praetor was at first chosen from patricians, when the consulship was communicated to the plebeians. Two Praetors were chosen after the year B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens {Praetor urbanus), the other the business of stranaers [Praetor peregrinus). Afterward there were four Praetors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, and even eighteen, until Augiistus, it seems, limited the number to twelve. 1 u. The dignity of the city-Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his principal business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal {in or pro trihunali), a building appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (§ 261). The Pragtor on entering upon his office, always published a statement of the rules and principles by which he should be guided in his trials and decisions ; this was called his edict [edictum Prcptoris). The usual form in giving his decisions was do, dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, the city-Praetor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Co- mitia ; he had the care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the ProBtor v/ere the toga prcBtexta., a sword and a s^pe^x {gladius et hasta), and an atten- dance of six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, in the same manner as the Procon-uls took the place of Consuls. 2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Praetor pulili^hed particular edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were termed tralatilia; those framed by himself, nova. An edict published at Rome. ediclum urhanum; in a province, provinciate; sometimes named from the province, as ediclum Sicitiense. Other magistrates {ho?iorati) published ejdicts also. The law de- rived from, all the various edicts wa.'; termpd j-zn tionorarium; this term or phrase, in later times, was applied to a collection of Praetor's edicts regularly arranged by order of the emperor Hadrian ; the same was also called ediclum perpet num. Huvchard, Siir les Edi's des magisfrafs Romains, Mem Accul. Imcr. vol xxxix. 279, edicts of Consuls ; vol. xli p. I- of Prs-.tors; xlii. 149, of /Eililes; xlv. 439, of Prasfects.— A £. Sduader, Die Pr.lto'riichen Edicte. Weini. itiiS.— Rein, Das Roniische Privat redit, &c. Leipz. 1836. § 244. ^diles were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the care of the buildings {aedes). They were of two classes, plebeii and curules, two of each. The former were created first, B. C. 493; the latter, B. 0. 2G6. At a later period, Julius Caesar added two others, called Cerea/es who had the oversighi if the stores of grain and provision. In the Roman provinces, also, there were Ediles whose office was usually hut for a year. — The office seems to have con- tinued until the time of Constantine the Great. ] u. The Mdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public and orivate buildings, and were required to make arrangements for the public games, see .o me pr(\srr»-»t> ■ j 20 «450 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. of the public roads, regulate the markets, prove the justness of weights ani measures, and in short attend to the poHce of the city. 2 u. The JEdiles Curules were distinguished from them by the toga prcetexta, and the sella ciirulis. They were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. They had also the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the plebeian ^diles, with whom the Curules probably shared, without distinction, the business of the police. For Ihe history, duties, &c. of the ^diles, see Schubert, De Romanorum ^dilibus. Regiom. 1828. 8. § 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes of the people (Jrihuni plchis) were the most remarkable. The office originated from the general disaffection and secession of the plebeians, B. C. 493. The number was first two, then five, finally ten. One of them always presided at the Com- itia for electing tribunes. Their proper object was the protection of the people against the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families. In the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but had their seats before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and could hinder the passage of any decree by the single word veto. By the Atinian law, B. C. 131, it was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena- tors. Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was confined to the city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not be absent over night. ] u. The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a kind of beadles called viafores, who went before them. 'J'heir persons were regarded as inviolable. Sylla abridged their power; he took from them the right, which they had exercised, of assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments {plebiscita) binding upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their negative or intercession [intercede re). Their authority, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under Julius Caesar it was small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf. ^ 242), who appropriated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes an- nually elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished in the time of (^-onstantine the Great. 2. The office of the Military Tribunes was highly important, but is not ranked among the permanent offices. Cf. $ 248. § 246. The Quaestors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, first ap- pointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the people. They were charged with receiving and managing the revenues, and with the scrutiny of certain kinds of bloodshed. Those for the city were called Quaesi ores urb ani ; those for the provinces, Quaeslores provinciaks ,• and those for the examination of capital offences, Qusestores rerum capitalium, or parricidii. Originally there were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number to twenty, and .Tulius Caesar to forty. I ?t. The Quaestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of foreign am- nassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect publicly authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were at first taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians. Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called qu(Bs tores can didati, who were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or secretaries, and were afterwards called juris ijilerpret es . precum arbitri, &c., from their employment. Stili later there was another kind, of considerable importance, styled QucBStores palalii, r»r Mafiistri ofjiciorum. I. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by Au- ';ustus to 22. '^Fhe office was one of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth, although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. Dndwell, de Qnaeslurae oheundae tempore legitimo, in his Pradect. Acad. p. 362, as cited P. V. § 542. 7. — Walter, Gesehichte Jea Pom. Rechts. § 247. The office of the Censors (Censores) was established at an early period, B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their office originally for five years, but afterwards onjy a year and a half. Their duties were various; the following were some of the principal ; to take the census of the people, an ac ■■urate account of the age, property, and descent of each head of a family, to •ijvide the people into their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution. p. in. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. Sol to decide the taxes of each person, to enroll those who were ohligated to military service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect the morals of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, aqueducts and the like. ] u. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace [jioia censoria, ignommia). from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to them suiiable. I'he luxury of the Romans, which in later times became so excessive, was considerably restrained by the censors. In order to escape the censorial rebukes or punishments, the office seems to have been left vacant for some time. 2. 'l"he censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of Prcefectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus also assumed the power, although he declmed the tttle. The same was done by several of his suc- cessors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the corruption of morals was too great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind. De yalois, On the Roman Censors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 63.— A'^/eiuAr's Hist, of Rome, vol. ii. p. 296, ed. Phil. 1835. ^ 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common division was into ORDINARY and extraordinary (Magistratus Ordinarii sr\d Exlranrdinarii). The chief of the former have been noticed: Consuls, Praetors, ^I^diles, Tribunes of the people, Quaestors, and Censors. — The chief of the exiraordinary magistrates (whose office was not permanent, but occasional, being necessary only in particular circum- stances) were the following; Dictator, Decemvirs, Military 'I'ribunes, Prstecl of the City, and Interrex. i It. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (*^ 245); and similar dis- turbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occasioned ihe appointment of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were appointed tor less iinportani reasons, e. g. for regulating the public games and sports in the sickness of the Pr£etor, not by the people, but by one of the Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by the consul by order of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The power of the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the decision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who were condemned to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf Liv. viii. 33). 'J'he power and office of the Dictator was hmiied to six months. He could not appropriate without consent of the senate or people any of the public money. As commander of the army, he was confined to the limits of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this offi<^e so much as Cornelius Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and afier his death the dictatorship was abolished. It was. however, oflered to Augustus, who refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 2. PIntarch and PnJybius state that the Dictator was attended by twenty-four lict'Ts ; but in the epitome of the 89th hool< of Mvy. Syll i is said to have unwarrantably assiiined this nmnbei (Kenvefl, p. 123t. Tiie Dictator appointed (usually from among those of consular or praetorian dignity) an I'fficer, styled Magister equitum, wtiose business was to command the cavalry, am) execute the orders of the Dictator ; hut this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, or the people ; he was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order of tfie people. — Souietimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was iiivesfid with the power of Dictator, by decree of the senate (»ie quiddetrimenti capiat, respublica). 3 u. 'i'he discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made of their 'power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri, with consular authority [decemviri cousidari polestate, s. legibus ferendis). "^I'hey were appointed for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws of the twelve tables (cf. 'S 265). As they soon began to abuse their great power, the office was abolished, B. C. 449, and that of Consul restored 4 21,. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of IMilitar} Tr\b\ines{frihjmi milificrn consi/Jari potealafe), who, in the year B. C. 445, were ap pointed in the place of Consuls; but were dismissed after three months. Orisiuallj they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians; afterwards the iiuml)er varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military triiiunes and sometimes co'suls were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed, until the year B. C. 366, when the plebeians were quieted by the choice ot a consul fi Dm among 'hemselves. 5 u. Th'^ Piaefect of the c'wy {Prcpfecf us urhl)wns the officer to whom the Consuls in their absence, especially in war, intrusted (he charge of the police. Under the emperotJ this becatne a regular and permanent office of srreat influence. 6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there was no consu' ■♦ \nagistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the title of the temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a vacancy in the throne under the regal government. ?i 249. Less important occasional magistrates were the following; the Prctfccfus unnmae, charged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases o^'scarritv : Hit' 252 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Quinqueviri mouarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses {jrinuendh puMicis sumtibus) ; the Quinqueviri viuris txirrihu^que reficiendis, to see to repairs in the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri cRdihus sacris reficiendis, to repair the sacreu buildings; Triumviri monetales, having charge of the mint; Triumviri 7iocturni, to superintend ihe nightly watch ; Duumviri navales (classis or?iandce reficiendceque cauka), for equipping and repairing the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not magistrater in the proper sense, but they were chosen from among the most respectable men. The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparitores; under which were included scribse, notarii, actuarii, accensi, coactores, praecones, interpre- tetes lictores, viafores, &c. — The Camifex was the executioner or ha?igmaii. § 250. Besides the magistrates which have been named, permanent or occasional, there were various others whose authority pertained to the provinces of Rome, provincial maaistrates. These were in part such as have been named. Among them were the proconsuls, propraetors, prnqiiaestors, the legates, conquisitors, &c. Proco7i!tuls were either {}) such as being consuls had their office prolonged beyond the time fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to govern some province or to command in war; or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately I the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces assigned to their charge under the commonwealth; or (4) such as were appointed governors of the provinces under the empire; as all these were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly belonged to the third of these classes. — The senate decided from year- to year what provinces should be consular; and then the consuls, while only desig7iali{cL§ 241), agreed by lot which of them each should take on the expiration of his consulship. A vote of the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their departure to their provinces and return to the city was often attended with great pomp. They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, but it was limited to a year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most commonly charged were {\) crime?i peciilatus, ill use of the public money, (2) rncijestatis, treachery or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repelundarum, ex tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. The ProprcBlors were such as, after their praetorship, received provinces, in which (or a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. Their creation, administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the Pr. consuls; only they had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were usually smaller than the consular ; cf. § 260. 3. (4). The Legad were the chief assistants of the Pro- consuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief officer, and the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained importaint authority as military commanders. One QncBstor or more attended each Proconsul or Proprae- tor. His business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the army. Proqusestors were such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on the ab- sence or death of the provincial Quaestor (cf. *?> 246). The duties of the Quaestor were assigned under the emperors to the officerstyled Procurator Ccpanris. The conqui- sitores were inferior officers not properly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers, and by force if necessary. § '251. We may notice here the division or classijicalion of ihe people^ which had throughout an important influence on the government. -^At the beginning, Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into three tribes, and each of these into ten Curix. The tribes were the Rhaninensis, consisting of native Romans, the Tatiensis, of Sabines, and the tribus Liicerum, of all other foreigners. — Servius TuUius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city {tribiis nrba7ias), and 26 for the territories [tribus rustics). The latter at length gained the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honorable. Five tribes were added at a later period; and also others, which were not permanent. The four rit7j tribes were Siihurana or Succnsana, Esqnilina, Collina, Palatina ; the rustic tribes, Rniriilia. Lenionia, Pnpina, Galeria, Pollia, Vnliitiia, Claudia, iErnilia. Cornelia, Fahia, Horatia, Rlenenia, Papiria. Serbia, Veuiria, Crnslninina ; these l)eloiiKed to the proper Roman territory; in addition there were the -fJ^rj/rmTj <7-?/;<'s, Vfjentina, Stelhititia, Tr"nientina, Saba- titia, Arnieiisis, Pomptina, Piihlilia or Papilla, Moecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Faierina; and the Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Quiriiia; making thidy-one. Boivin, On (lie Rom. Tribes, in the Mem. Jjcad. Iiiscr. vol i. 72. — Ci. C. T. Francke, I)e Tribuum Curianim, atque Centuriarum Kltioiie. Schlesw. 1824. RfspectitJg the buildints termed Curiz, cf. P. t. § 61 § 252. Servius Tullins also divided the Roman citizens, for the sake of an equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes according to pro- 061 ty These classes were subdivided into C67j/Mr?es amounting in all to 193 In p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS. PLEBEIANS. 253 order to preserve this distribution, an ordinance was established jequirin^ the 3ensus and valuation to be taken every five years (cf. § 247). " The first class consisted of those whose estates in lands and efTects were worth at least 100.000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 10,000 drachma! according to the Gj-eel< way cf computing ; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to £322, 18s. 4d. sterling ; but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 asses, as was the case afterwards, it will amount to iJ7750. This first class was subdivided inio eighty centuries or com- panies of foot, forty of young men ijuniorum), frojn seventeen to forty-six years of age, who were obliged to take the held {ict foris hella gererent), and forty of old men (se- niorum), who should guard the city {ad urbis cuslodiam ul prcp-stu esseut). To these Vt'ere added eighteen centuries of Eqiiites, who fought on horseback ; in all ninety- eight centuries. — • Ihe second class consisted of twenty csnfuries, ten of young men, and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To these were added two centuries of artihcers ifabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. to manage the engines ot war. — The third class hkewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 50,000 asses. — The fourth class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 25,000 asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — 'I'he fifth class was divided into thirty centuries; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dio- nysius 12,500. — The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or were not worth so much as those of the fifth class. The number of them was so great as to exceed that of any of the other classes ; yet they were reckoned as but one century, — Thus the number o{ centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193. Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according to the valuation of their fortunes. — Those of the first class were called Classici; all the rest were said to be Infra Classem; hence classici auctores, for the most approved attthors (A. Gell. vn. 13. xix. 8). By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who com- posed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more centuries than all the rest put toge'her ; but they likewise bore the c'larges of peaceand war {micnia pads et belli) in proportion. For as the votes of the Comitia, so likewise the quota of soldiers and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. Accordingly the first class, which consisted of nine y-eight, or. according to Livy, of one hundred centuries, furnished more men and money to the public service than all the rest of the state besides. But they had hkewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by centuries. For the Equifes and the centuries of this class were, called first to give their vo'es, and if they were unanimous the milter was de'erinined ; but if not, then the centuries of the next cla'^s were called, and so on. till a majority of centuries had voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest {Liv. i. 43. Dimiys. vii. 59)." (Adnm.) Huschke, I)i; Vcrfn«suii^HesServii)s Till tins. Leipz 1838 — Zumpt, Ueherdie Ahsfiminun? des Rom.Vnlkes in Centurial Comitiea. —UntarholZ'ia; Dp Mutata Criiturj toriitn Cnniit a Seiv. '\'\i'.l. Re?, ins'itu'orum Ralione. Bresl. 1835. § 253. Another division of the Romans, existintj from the earliest times, was into Patricians and F/eheians, accordinor to family descent. The Patricians were the descendants of the Senators appointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Pafres, of whom he selected three from each tribe, and three from each curia, making ninety-nine; to these he added a man of distinoruished merit, so that the Senate originally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were admitted into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this num- ber by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who were termed Fatres minoruni gentium, to distingruish them from the original Senators, and their descendants were called Fatricii minonim gentium. I u. The word populus had among the Romans a more general meaning than plehs; tne iormer signified the whole body of the Rojnan people ; the latter, a particular por- tion distinct from the senators and the knights, and called also, ordo pleheius. In early times, this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we denominate the populace. 2. There is some disagreement as to the time when the formal distinction between Patricians and the Plebeians really commenced, 'i'he exis'ence of Plebeians in the time of Romulus is implied in some passages of ancient au'h()rs(cf Liv. i. 8. Diont/s. i. 8. h. 9). But Niebuhr and others have maintained that the Plebeian commonaliiy arose out of the removing to Rome of the ci'izens of Alba, af'er its destruction in the reign of TuUus Hostilius; that before that time the Patricians included the whole iiody oi the populus Romanus; that in the time of Servius the Plebeians were established in their distinctive character as free hereditary proprietors ; and that from this time the Roman nation consisted of two estates, the populus or body of burghers, and the pith* or commonality. See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 234, 309. ed Phil. 1835.— ;2ei7j, ... Ersch und GrUler, Encyciop' ne ; tnd Schmitz, .t Smiths Diet, of An:iq. p. 726, 765. 254 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. § '254. The patricians and plebeians were from the beorinning greatly al variance. 'I'he former at first held all the public offices exclusively. The plebeians gained a share in them B. C 493, as has been already mentioned (cf. § 245). After this the patricians often allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure offices, which were common to both ranks, or confined to plebeians, as was the office of tribunes. The power of the people rose to a great height during the time of the republic, and often was perverted to the greatest abuses. 1 ti. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. 445. Previously to intermarriages the only mutual relation \vas that oi patron and client ,• in which the plebeian made free choice ot some patrician as his guardian and patron, and this pa- trician in turn was obligated by certain duties lo ihe plebeian as his client. At last this relation existed chiefly between masters and Ireedmen. 2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many cHenis, both hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of this relation [clientela) were considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil {Jilii. vi. 605) joins the crime ot injuring a client with that of abusing a parent ; the chent on the other hand was expected to serve his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark the Roman history, there seems to have been a mutual and i'ailhful observance of these duties. In later times cities and nations chose as patrons distinguished families oi individuate at Rome. § 255. It is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, and what was called Roman nobility {nobilitas liomnna). The latter was a dignity result- intr from merit, either ))ersonal or derived from ancestors, and acquired espe- cially by holding a curule office. Patrician descent was not necessary for this, although when united with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired this nobility themselves, were styled novi ho/nines. 1 u. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility {iiohiles) was the juK Imaginum, which allowed them to form images or busts in painted wax of their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls {atria), and carrying them in funeral processions (cf. ^ 340. 3), and at other solemnities. 'I he right was soineiimes conferred as a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks. 'I'he Roman history is filled with contests between the old and the new nobihty. 2. A curule office was one which emit led the person holding it to use \\ie.geUa curulis or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, and curule aedile. Ttie chrnr was composed of ivory, or at least hietily adorned with it, commonly being a sort of "stool withnnt fi back, witii four crooket] feel, fixnd to the extremities of cross-[))eces, joined by a coiruiion axis, sotTiewhat in ttie form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that it might be folded together." and thus easily carried by Ihe magistrate 'n his chariot ; hence the epithet curulis. (l/iiil. Gell.Yn. 18.) In otir Plate XXXI. fig. 9 is a representation of one an- swering tlie above description. " But the silla appears to have been sometimes of a less portable form and size, as seen in tiff- - of ibis plate These two fiLMires are from monuments found, the one at Pompeii, the other at Herciilaneinn. Tlie ch;iir above described must be dislingnished from the sella portntoriu, or cathedra ; tliis was a sedan in whicli a person sat and was carried by slaves, in the manner still cnnimon in the east. They were used by private persons as well as rulers and officers They were very frequent in Ihe time of Osar. (Svet. Cses. 4.3. Cland. 28 ) — Fiir. 10. in Plate XXXI. is fron; an Egyptian montimeni, and serves well to illustrate the *e^- la ynrtaioria. There are four hearers; a fifth attendant hears a staff in his risht hand, perhaps the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol richly embroidered is stretched t)''hind the occupant of Ihe chair, on a frame fu- Ihe purpose. The sedan itself is of elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devices. — The magistrates in the colonies and municipal tfiwns sat on piil)lic occasions in a large chair called biselliinn ; two of these have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of exlraordinary vvork- inanship. • See Ihe Mu.seo Borionko, cited P. IV. ^ 213. vol ii. lav. 31. vi. lav. 28.— Pompeii, p. 265, as cilea P. IV. § 226. § 256. The Equites formed a distinct body of high rank in Rome (ordo eques/er). They were originally composed of 100 youno- men taken from each of the three tribes, thus making three centuries (300). Their number was greatly increased by the kings, so that there were eighteen centuries under Servius Tullius. They became at length a distinct order, not includinof all who served on horsebaciv, but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, the order received some iinportant prer-^gatives, being chosen to act as judges, and to farm the revenues. The pro|)erty requisite toqualify one for election as a knight, »t this period, was 400 -thousand sesterces (cemus eqiiesfer); the age ab(-u( eighteen; nubility of descent was not sufficient to secure it. The Cens«^rs wet', intrusted with the scrutiny, and they presented to those found worthy a PLATE XXX T. 256 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. norse at the public expense; hence the phrase, equo publico merere The ordei was under the constant supervision of the Censors. 1. Plebeians as well as Patricians were eligible to this order. The term illusf,re& was applied to those descended irom ancient ianiilies. The number ot'equites greatly increased under the early emperors. Persons were admitted into the order, it they possessed the requisite property, without inquiry into their character, or the h'ee birth of their father and grandt'ather. 2 m. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring {annuhis aureus) or rings, and by the tunica anguslidavia, a while tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower than that of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the senators, wlio were frequently chosen from the equestrians. '1 hey made annually, on the 15th ol July, a splendid procession (transvecl io) through the city to the Capitol. Marqjtnrdi, Historia Equiluni Romannruin. Berl. iSW. — Zimipt, Ueber die Roiiiiscliea Riiter uiid den Ritterstand in Rom. Bert li:40.~ Eybeiiius, l)e Or.l. equestri Vet Roniannruni, in Sallcngrc, vol. i. — P. Burmann, as cited § 338. 2, § 2.57. The Senate, as has been already staled (§ 253), originally consisted of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the regral office was abolished, of 300. Sylla added 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600. Towards the end of the republic, the number was as great as 1000. Augustus reduced it to 600. Urider his successors the nutnber was not uniformly the same. — The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Fatres Conscripti. Their election was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards by the censors, and in one instance, after ti)e battle of Cannae, by a Dictator. Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed to attend to the election. In the choice of senators, regard was had to character, property, and age, which must not be less than twenty-five. 1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two things; the tunica laticlavia, a tunic or waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple {latus clavus) at- tached to it, and high black buskins (crtZcei or ocrecp, nigri colcris), which had the letter C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also sat in the foremost part of the Orchestra. 2 u. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Praetors, or Tribunes of the people, by public summons {edictum), or by means of a herald. In the former case the object of assembhng was specified. There were, besides, certain days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every month. On festivals and in time of the Comitia when the whole people were as- sembled, the senate could not meet. Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the Calends and Ides. The place of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the Augurs. The temples, and the Ca- pitol amongst them, were usually selected, excepting alw^ays the Temple of Vesta. — The number of members necessary {namerus legitimus) to pass a decree {Sefiatus conftultum) was 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. "^I'he meetings were opened early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before and after the light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were always offered and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold the senate, before entering the place of meeting. The magistrate, then, Consul, Praetor, or whoever assembled the senate, proposed the business, and the members gave their opinions usually in ar established order. In important or interesting cases, questions were decided by the Senators separating into two parts (ifio in partes). The emperors had the right of pro- posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission. — • A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Senotus consultum. and a judgment or opinion, Se?iatus aucloritas; the latter term was applied, when the sen- tence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto, or. was attended with some informality; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or written out, and lodged in the treasury (m JErarium condehantur) in the place of public rtcordfi {fahiila rium), in the temple of Saturn. 3. " Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they seldom enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliberate and decree, and then the people order. But there were many things of great importance which the Senate always determined itself, unless when they were brought before the people ny the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the Senate seems to have had, not from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed to themselves guardianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be intro- duced, nor altar erected, not the Sibylline books consulted, without their order. — ■ 2. The Sena'e had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at pleasure. They appoitited sti])ends to their generals and officers, and provisions and c.Io'hing for their armie.s. — 3. They settled the provinces, which were annually assigupd p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOPLE. 257 to the Consuls and PriEtors ; and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave to foreign ambassadors what answers they thought proper. — 5. '1 hey decreed all public thanksgivings for victories obtained ; and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph, with the title oi Imperalor, on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the tit-le ot King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vote. — 7. '1 hey inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in Rome or other parts of Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities. — 8. '1 hey exercised a power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. — 9. 1 hey could postpone the assemblies of the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases ol any imminent danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, Uliimum or Extremum, used to be passed (cf. *^ 248. 2), That the consuls should take care that the republic should receive fto harm.^'' (Adam.) C. Middlelon, Treatise on Rom. Senate. Lond. 1747. 8 Also in his Mi^ctll. Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols 8.— 7*. Chapman, E'say on the Rom. Senate. Canibr. 1750. 8. — N. Hooke, Observations on the Roman Senate, as treated by Middleton, Chapman, &c. Lond. I75S 8 — Spelrnan, Dissertation, &c. in his Trans, of Dionys. Hal. cited P. V. § 247. 4 — Blelterie, as cited § 242. — Walttr, Geschichte des Kom. Rechts. — Bach, Zimmerin, &c. cited P. V. § 571. § 258. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Comiiia. The word comiiium. originally signified the place of assembling', which was an open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court-house of Hostilius; it was afterwards applied to the assembly itself, consisting of three ranks or orders of the Roman people, and held at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the Capitol. Assemblies of one or two orders were called Coticih'a ,• and less formal ones, where merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing w;as decided, were termed Coiiciones. The Comiiia were appointed only by the higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Praetor. The most important subjects were considered in these assemblies, some of which have been already mentioned incidentally. § 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be held, 184 in number, were called dies comitiales. Romulus established the Comitia Curia/a, in which the votes were given by Curise (§ 251); Servius Tullius the Comitia Ceniuriata^ in which the people voted by centuries, and which were the most important; and the Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comiiia Tributa, in which the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned were termed Pkbisc'ta, and at first were binding only on the plebeians. — The election of officers, which became the principal business of the Comitia, was chiefly made at the Comiiia Ceniuriala. These were held in the Campus Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might assemble. 1 u. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied an elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or narrow passages ['pontes, 'ponliculi) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon as they went to vote. Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a balustrade, forming what was called the Septa ox Ovile. Outside of this the people stood until they were called in {intro vocafce) to vote century by century through the six successive classes. The order, in which the centuries voted, was determined by lot (soriilio), the names being thrown into a box (sitella) and drawn out by the presiduig magistrate. I'he votes were by means of ballots (tubellcB), which were given to each citizen by persons {diri- bitores) standing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the citizens into vi box or chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or judicial sentences. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed to vote. 2. "By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out the tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or po'mi {pnnctum) in anuthe.f tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by most points gave occasion to the phrase, Omrie tnlit punctvm, and the like." {Kennvtt.) — It is ob- vious, that in the Comitia Centuriata the mode of voting must give the higher classes an entire preponderance over the others. Respecting the Con itia, sue Hiuchke, Zurript, &c. cited § 2i2 — Walter, Geschichte d. Rom. Reclits. Respeclini: the C^mput Martius, cf. P. I. § 65. — G. Piranesi, Campus Martius antiquae Urbis. Rom. 1762. fol. § 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several important privileges, especially during the freedom of the state. The life and property of a citizen Wbie in the power of no one but of the whole people appealed to thereon; no 258 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. magistrate could punish him by stripes; he had a full right over his property, his children, and his dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of tbe people and in the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full authority after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full citizenship in- cluding this could be bestowed only by the people; citizenship embracing the other rights could be conferred by the senate also. All freedmen and their children were excluded from this right, which is what was properly meant by the Jus Quiritium. 1 u. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, even by banishment ; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign alle- giance. The Jus Quiriliuin privatum, cunferred on the colonies and municipal towns, comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges; in the case of'tlie Laiin colonies it was called Jus Laliiox Lali/tilalis; of the Italian, Jus Iialicum. Still more limited were the privileges included in the Jura provmclaru?n and Jura prcpfecturarum. 2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public ; both are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes under that of Jus civilatis; and sometimes these phrases seem to be limited respectively to the rights termed private or public. — i'o the private, belonged the following; 1. Jus libertatis, which secured to each the control of his person ; 2. Jus gentis et familicE, which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control over his children; 4. Jus dominii legitimi, the possession of legal property; 5. Jiis testamenfi and hceredifatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by will ; 6. Jus tuteI(B, the right to appoint by will guardians lor his wife and children. '1 o the public, belonged the following ; 1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled by the censor; 2. Jus mililicB, none but citizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which was after- wards abolished ; 3. Jus Irihulorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, eligibility to public offices, a right originally confined to patricians, but finally extended to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to religious worship. — Those who did not possess the rights of citizens [cives) were generally teimed foreigners {peregrini) wherever they resided. 3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights ana privileges, which were allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The forms of government estabUshed in such cases may be divided into four. (1.) The Colonim or colonies were cities or tracts of country, wliich persons from Rome were sent to inhabit. These persons, althnuwh mingiiiia; with the conquered natives and occupants, gained the whole power in the administration of atfairs. In the later periods of the republic and under the emperors, many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served oiu their legal time (twenty years, in the foot, or ten in the horse, cf $ 277), and who after thus laboring for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their a^e in ease and plenty. — The colonies were scattered over the empire, and governed by laws prescribed to them by the Romans. Nielni.lir'v Rome (ed. Pliil. 1S35), vol. ii p. V2.—Froiitinuf, De Coloniis. — Essay in Madvidgii Opuscula (Hauniae, 1834), De Ture et Condiiione Coloniarum Pop. Romani. — Smith, Did. of Antiq. p. 256 (2.) The Muvicipia were cities, which enjoyed the riuht of governing themselves by their own laws; retaining, if they chose it, such as were in use before Iheir subjection to the Romans. They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, and their inhabitants had the name and some of the rights of Roman citizens. Originally confined to Itaiy, they were subsequently formed even in the provinces. The coloniae and niuiiicipia had similar magis- trates; the Diiiimmri were the chief officers ; the senators were called Decuriones. Savigiiy. Gescliictite des R^m. Rechts.— Saui??i!/, Cebpr das Jus Italicum, in the ZtUscltrifl, &c. vol. v. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 2o9. — Niebuhr, AS above cited, vol. ii. p. 37. (3.) The Prcp.ff'ctnrm were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for offences against the Roman government. They were not suffered to frame their own laws as did the municipia, nor to choose their own magistrates, as did both the mu!iici|)iH and the colonise. They were governed by a preft^ct sent annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, which were not ehher cnloniai, municipia, or prtsfecturce, WfVf called cirita/es fccdemtcB, enjoying their own rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only by confednracy or alliance. Ztcrnpt, Ueber den Un ersrhied der Benennungen Muuicipium, Colonia, Praefcclura. Berl li-40 8. (4 ) The PromncicR were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were remodeled as to their governments, at the pleasure f)f the Romans. They were compelled to pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent out from Rome The provinces were termed Prsetorian or Proconsular according as PraBtors or Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the emperors were governed by proprators • those beloiiiiing to the senate, by proconsuls (cf $ 250). These governors were often tyrranni- cal and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious features in the Roman administration. For i:lu3'rations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cictro's Orations aiainst Verres. — Middlcloit^s Life of Cicero, vol. i p. 94, as cilec *•. V. ^ 401 I. On the Roman provinces, cf. C. Sigoniiis, He anliqno Jure Provinciarum. Ven. 1568. 4. contained in Grxuiua vol. II. — Burigny. on Gov- of Rom. Provinces, in the Mem. Acad, fnscr. xxvii, 64. On the general subject of Roman ri^hfg fValter, Geschichtc des Romischen Hech\s.- Zimmern, cited P. V. ^ 511.— C, Siguniw, De Antique Jure Popiili Poniari Bob i^'i. til. &I60 in his C^era Omnia. Media. 1737. 6 vols, fol. p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 259 § 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and private cases, criminal and civil, 'l^he former involved the general peace and security; the latter, the claims and rig-hts of individuals. The public or crimi- nal trials {^judicia publica) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The lattei were such as belonged not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed liuie or place, but had a special day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of commissioners in cases of this kind; such were the Duumviri perduelliunis or Quacsi/(>rel^. — The ordinary public trials were also called quoeslionea perpeiux. and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state offences. In these the Praetor presided (cf. § 243), by whom assistant judtres (judices assessorcs) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from the knights, and nt last from all conditions-. The judges were divided into several decurise, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot for each trial. Under the emperors, the judges were appointed by them. 1 u. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of established usages were observed. The plaintiff (oc/or, accusator) commonly spoke against the deiendant [reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or in writing, and judgment was pronounced. 1 he person acquitted could, when he had ground (or it, bring his accuser to trial for slander {caluii.nin) ; the person condemned, on the other hand, was punished according to the law. 2. Pubhc trials of a cop/VaZ kind were held before the Comifia Centuriata; such as involved only the question of some minor pimishnient, beibre the Comilia Tributa. In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person of a certain crime ; doing this was expressed by the phrase dicere dinn; the person named must procure bonds- men {vades, prcedes) or be kept in custody to the day named ; on that day the ma- gistrate made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each after one day in- tervening ; then a hill (rogafio). including the charge and the punishment proposed, was posted up for three market-days; on the third majket-day. the accuser again repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate (advocatus, pntronus) made a defence ; after which the Comitia was sumn.oned, for a certain day, to decide the trial then by suffrages. On the judicial affairs of the Romans, ttie fullest authority is C. Sigoniiis, de judiciis, in his Opera Omuia, cited ^ 260. vol. iii. ; also in 2d vol. of Grsvius cited § 197.— Cf. Beaufort, Ri publiqiie Romaine. 2d vol. — Duiilop. Rom Lit. vol. ii p. 141, as cited P. V. V299. 8, — ff. F Salm'm, De Judiciis et Pcenis Romanorum, in Salletip-r, vol. iii —IVdlttr, Geschichte des Rom. Rech's.— Gf)(I/!)i_?, Geschi'.hie der Rom. Staatsverfassung. — TigL-ntrom, Ue Judicibus apud Romanos. Beil. Ib26. "Valuable only for the eollectioi nf the original authorities." § 202. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called pefifin; the plaintiff y?e///o/-, and the defendant, is unde pe/i/ur. The plaintiff could compel the other party to appear at court, not usually, however, without calling in some one as witness to the step {anttslatia^. If the defendant chose not to go, he must give security or bail (sotisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter or object of his complaint {causa)', if the defendant denied the thing charged, it led to a formal trial (actio). — There were two principal kinds of actions; viz. : acliones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of obligations ; and actiones in rem, which related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vindicatio; of the former kind, condictio. All private trials belonged lo the jurisdiction of the Fraetur. 1 u. 'I" he Praetor named the judges, who, \yhen the dispute was about the restitution of property, were called recuperulores. Often for this purpose a hundred or a hundred and five were appointed from the different tribes, called ctntinnvirule judicium. '1 he judges or jury, as well as the liiigatirg parties, were put under oath. '1 hen the action was carried forward orally, and afier examination, judgment. was pronounced, and provision made for its execution. It may be important to distinguish judges pro- perly so called from arbitrators (aft///-/ causarum), who made awards in i-ases which were not to be decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommo- dation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa fidei bona; et arbi- traricB. 2 k. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Campu* Martius; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica (cf. P. I. ^ 61). § 263. A mono- the principal penal offences, which demanded public trials were the following: Crimen majestatis, or an offence against the dignity and 860 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. Security 'f the state and its maoristrates ; perduelliomft, high treason against the freedom of the people; peculatus, embezzling in any way the public property, sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records; ambitus, bribery or cor- ruption of the people to procure votes in an election; repetundarum, extortion, when a Praetor, Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, for which compensation was demanded ; vis pub/f'cas, public violence, including conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — There were vari- ous more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials; e. g. crimen inter sicarios, assassination; crimen venejicii, poison; parricidii, parri- cide; falsi, forgery; adullerii and plagii, adultery and man-stealing. § 264. The punishments (^pcsnse) inflicted on those found guilty were various. The following were the principal; damnum, mulcin, fines, whicli at first never exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were increased; viiicula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains upon the hands and feet; verbera, blows inflicted on the freeborn with the rods of the Lictnrs (w/ro-?'.s), upon slaves with whips (_^a_i;;e///'s) ; /a//o, satisfaction in kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye;infamia or ignominiu, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the person incapa- ble of enjoying public offices; exilium, banishment, which was either voluntary or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of all honors. When the person was banished to no particular place, he was said to heinlerdictus ,• when banished to a certain place, relegatus. The form termed depurtaiio was the most severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; servitus, slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold; and mors, death, in- flicted for heinous crimes. 1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties; as catenas,, chains ; hoixB, cords or thongs ; manicas,, manicles for the hands ; pediccE, fetters for the feet ; nervus, iron shackles for the neck ; colambar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands. The confinement of crimi- nals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (of. Acts xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner being fastened by a chain to the left wrist of the keeper; the prisoner was sometimes chained to two soldiers. — I'he ancient state-prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamcrtine Prison, is still pointed out to travelers. In our Plate XXXI., fig. A, is a cut showing a kind of slocks now used in the East, in which the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands; it may serve to illustrate tile Ronian stocks above named.— Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut represeiitinff one of the stories of the Mamertine Prison. The structure is under a small edifice called the Church of St. Joseph; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called T'j/Z/JaKjntt, after Servius Tullius, who is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and defying the assaults of time; here Jagurtha was stoned to death ; and here, according to tra- dition, Pawi and Peter were imprisoned; the dungeon presents a most appalling appearance. Cr Eustace, Tour, &c. cited P. IV. § !90. !.— fisft, Travels, Sc p 300, as cited P. IV. § 186 6. 2. The flagellum ifxim-iD was made of leathern thongs {lora) or twisted cords (funes) fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. 'I'he scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the ferula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hor. i. iii. 119. — The punishing of Roman citizens by the virga (paPSog) was prohibited by the Lex Porcia, many years before the time of Christ (cf. Acts xvi. 22). 3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified {cruci f^ffi-S^^^) '■> others it was customary at first to hang {arhori suspendere), afterwards to behead {seciiri perciitere), or to strangle in prison (sfransulare), or to throw from the Tarpeian rock {de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast into the sea or a river (projicere in profluenfem). The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of • any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a leather sack (culeus, cf Dio7iys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a do.< and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals we not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased * e privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain stairs {scalcn) called gemonicB ox gemot lii gradus ; down which they were dragged with a hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popular violence or civil war were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy {Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other modes of capital punishment were also practiced, especially under the emperors; ad ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphithca- '.re (heslinrii), or with each other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders *'ere condemned to work in mines; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild P III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SYSTEM OF LAWS. 26 J beasi* '■o be devoared. These forms were often inflicted on those who cmbra'^ed and would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid, which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it -jii fire ; thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burnina Rome. § 2H5. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefinite m the early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all cases according to their own judgment,' or according to usatre in similar instances. The abuses growing out of this state of things occasioned, accord- ing' to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to Athens and Sparta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They returned B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (cf § 248. 3) were appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then in tvtelve tables, and by the people m the Comiiia Centuriata were adopted ai^d esta- blished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. V. v^ 561). — To these were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed them ; e. g. Lix Ali/iia, Lex Furia, &,c. ; also from their contents ; e. g. Liges agraricp.. frume7ifari(P, &c. 2 II. It was necessary that every law proposed for enactment should be previously posted up in pubhc for seventeen days {per tnnundimim), and then be submitted to the decision of the people in the Comitia Centunafa, that they might adopt it (legem jnhere, accipere), or reject it {Ugem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished, they were said to abrogate it {ligem abrogare). Laws thus adopted were engraved on brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however.' their own ordi- nances had the force of laws, called ConslUutiones prhicipalea. and including not only their formal edicts {edictn). but answers to petitions (rescript a, or tpistolcs), judicial decisions {decretu), and commands to ollicers {niandata). 3. Originally laws were enacted by the people in the Comiiia Curiafn ; such laws were termed in general Leges CiiriatcB. But afterwards the Comitia Curiata ieW almost into disuse, -and laws were enacted in the Comitia Cevlurintn, and thence were termed Leires CeiUuriatat. Enactments in the Comitia Tribula were termed Plebisci- ta (cf. § 259). Decrees of the Senate were called Se?iatus consullu (cf. §257). Under the early emperors, these decrees were often based on proposals made by the einpe- rors, called orationes principum, which were sometimes delivered orally, but generally were sent in written messages; in later limes the orationes seem to have been syno- nymous with the const it utiones. — The Roman law included the Leges, the Plebiscita, the Senntus consulta, and the Const itutiones Fri?icipales ; and aleo brsidr s these, the various edicts forming the Jus honorarium ; and likewise several early collections of laws and usages, viz. the Jus Papirianum. the Tabulae Duodecim, Jus Flaviaiium, and Jus ^lianum. of which some account is given under ihe history of Roman Lite- rature (cf P. V. § 561). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the sys- fem of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. '1 he emperor lustinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order (cf. P. V. *ji 5()y). Re-pectin; \Yit Oratitynes principum, cf. Dirl.sen, Ueberdie Rt-rieii der Rnm. Kai^e-, i.i he R'leinisch >f»!. fir Jurispr. — On the general juhjeci of 'tie Roman Law ?nd Jiiri>prudei.ce, we may refer to Heintccitts, Aiitiqui'atiini Roniauannn Jurisprudttitiam r !ustr:inili]ni Svutasma. Arzent. 17'5 S — Saviz7ty,' Jurs Roii.an, —Hiuo, Lehrbuch der Gescliiclile des Rom. Rechts. Berl. 1S32. 8.— See also in this Manual, P. V. §5 55S-57I. ^ 2C6 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular policy of the Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain- A general scarcity, as m the year B. C. 440 and at other times, occasioned fhe appointment of a special offi- cer to atiend to the subject, called Prtrftcins Ajincna-, altli ugh the ^Isdilcs hud pre- viously been charged with this care, and il contimed af erwnrds to be a duty of their office (cf. § 244). Augustus ordained, that two men should Le annually elected to perform this duty, duumviri dividu^ido frumenio. 'fhe annu-il contnhu'ions in grain, which were exacted of the provinces, served likewise to [.reveiU the occurience of a scarcity of bread, and the provincial officers, especially ihc Qua slurs (cf § 24("), wero required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect. Egypt was the inos< uroductive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual voyage was made by the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined.. The disiribuiion of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Roin«; from the earliest times. § 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (semrivnt), and after- wards to the iinperial exchequer {Jiscus), were the tn'lmla, taxes imposed oi. the citiztms according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute, and the vecligah'a, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were throe principal kinds or branches of the redigaliai ihe porlorium, d-Jties on ex- 262 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES, ports and imports, the person taking lease of which was called manceps portuum t decuma;, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the scrtp/ura, or pasture tax, jiaic' for feedintr cattle on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines, and on salt works, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves {vice&ima^ a twentieth), en aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (Jocahantur sub hasta). Those who hired or farmed them were called publicani, the rent or hire paid being called puhfiaim ; they were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed property, and on taking the lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities {prcsdes). Leases of the reve- nues ot whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associ- ated {societas or corpus), who had in Rome a superintendent of the concern {magister socielatis piihiicanorum), with a subordinate one in each province or region (promagis- ter), and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. The publicans so often mentioned in the Neiv Testament were of the class nf subaltern cclleciors above described, who were guilty of preat extortion in all the provinces. Zacclitus, described by Luke(xix 2), as "chief among the publicans" (ap;\;i7-£Acuv?js), was probably ^ proma^ister. — Buuchard, Sur les Publicains, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxvii. 241. 2. Salt-works (Kulivoi) are said to have been established first at Ostia, by Ancus Martius {Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxi 41). In later times they were iinniernus in Iialy, and in the prnvinces. Rock- salt {a\s.i opvKToi) was known to the ancietits ; salt was also gathered from springs atid lakes, whert! it was formed by a natural process; yet most of the salt used was iriade by artificial evaporation of sea-water. The salt-works were usually public (jroperty, and were let by the government to the highest bidder. Amons the most productive mines belonging to the Ro- mans, were the gold mines near Aquileia (Pohjb. xxxiv. 10) ; the gold mines of Ictimiili neai Vprcelii, in which 25,000 men are said to have been employed (P/irt. H. Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and the silver mines of Spain near Carthago Nova. In Dacia were gold mines and silver mines belong- ing to the Romans. Macedonia, Illyricum, Thrace, also Sardinia, and Africa, contained mines from which the Romans derived an income. Those in Dacia are said to have yielded in the time of Nero fifty pounds of gold daily. On the mines of Dacia, cf. Loud. Quart. Rev. Oct. 1841, p. 10.— On those of Spain, Roliin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. York, 1S35.— On the ancient mines generally, B. Caiyophilus, De antiquis Auri, Argenti, Stanni, .liris, Ferri, Plumbique Fodinis. Vienn. 1757. 4. 3. Besides the taxes above named, we may mention under the Vertig-alia, the following: a tax on the value of things sold (centesima reram venalium) ; a tax on liberti living in Italy (called ociavm) ; a lax on the doors of houses (nstiarium). sometimes on the pillars (culumnarium) ; a tax on bachelors (uxorium), first imposed A. D. 403. 4. After the conquest of Macedonia, the revenue from the provinces became so great that the tributa previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. They were renewed again by Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caracalla bi-stowed the name and privilege of Ro- man citizens on all free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these taxes ; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects. 5. Respecting the amoiuit of income to the Roman treasury at different periods not much is known (cf Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 17). The annual revenue is said to have been fifty millions of drachms bpfi)re the time of Pompey, and to have been by him increased ti' eighty-five mil- lions {Pint. Pomp. 45). In later times vast sums must have been required to meet the various expenses of the civil government, the army, the navy, the public buildings, the aqueducts, the great roads, and other works. — It does not appear that regular annual salaries were given to public officers until the lime of Augus^tus ; but afterwards they were common. Alexander Se- verus is said to have established a salary {salariam) for riietoricians, grammarians, physicians, haruspices, mathematicians, mechanicians, and architects. The term salarium was derived from i-al : salt being one of the things essential in supporting human life. D. H. hegewisch, Hislor. Versuch ilber die Romischen Finanzen. Altona, 1804. S.—R. Susse, Grundzlge des Finanzwesens im Rom. Slaaie. Braunschweig, 1803-4. 2 Bde 8 — Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii.—P. .Bu)wa7m, Vectigalia Populi Roniani. Leid. 1734. 4. § 268*. In connection with the Civil Affairs of Rome, we inay speak of the principal employments and regular pursuits which were publicly authorized or sanctioned. 1. Under the heads of Teacher, Priest, Lawyer, and Physician, may be included whatever among the Romans corresponded to the j^arned professions of modern tinies. —Respecting the business of instruction, conducted by grammarians, rhetoricians, and philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other parts of this work (cf. P. IV. '^^ 123 — 128. P. V.*^v>407 — 412,416—422,446 — 455).— The established system of idolatry required a large number of priests of different grades ; a sufficient account has been given in former sections of their business (cf *^^ 207 — 219) and emoluments ;^ 219 b).- The employment of the lawyer was highly honorable and profitable. The jurisconsult or the pleader, who could distinguish himself by his knowledge of lawor his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure to obtain honor and wealth; although exposed, of course, th^ orator especially, to suffer in the violence of party revolutions (cf P. V. §*^ 390—406,558 — 571). — The profession of medicine, at first not much encouraged, had great patronasre from the time of Augustus (cf P. V. <5'§ 543 — 552). Some statements of Pliny {iJisf. Nat. xxix. 5) show that the employment was verv lucrative; a ohysician, named Quintus Stertinius, received from the emperor p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 203 500,000 sesterces per annum, yet represented himself as making a sacrifice thereby, as he could have obtained 600.000 by private practice. We may here reruark thai a number of iurgical iiistrtiments were found in ISI9, in a house in Pompeii ; among them were the probe (specillum, /I'^Xrj), the cau'er)' (fcavTijpiov). the forceps (tniwdjaj, the catr.eter (KatftT'^p. sc'ua fistula), differeiil sorts ot knives, &c — An account of them is given in KUhn, in the Opuscula Academ. Med. et Philolog. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. ' 2 11. Ahhough commerce could not flourish m.uch at Rome in early times, when the spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of mer- chants, who were Roman citizens. 1 he Rornan commerce was also extended, on the expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and through agents not unfrequently engaged in them and indulged in speculations. J hey did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. The merchants at Rome were styled mercalorcs ; those abroad in the provinces, negofia- tores. There were also brokers and bankers (org-f^i/rtr/i and meiisarii), and conlract- orsof various kinds, besides the publican limennov.ed in the preceding section), whose contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transactions. Yet Rome never acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in point of commerce. Tlie argentarii were ordinary brokers ; ihey were divided into corporations {societales, corpora). The vievscrii were public bankers, appointed by the state, who loaned money from the public treasury to such as could give security for it. Both classes had their otiices in the buildings by the forum. On Commerce, &c. amon? the Roman?, Gihbon, Fall of Rom Emp. ch. ii. — The Hist, of Rnm. Emp. (given in Lardner's Cab* Cyclopredia) bk iii ch. 9. — Dt Past/jret, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaine-. kc . in the Mem. de i^Ii.sl'tut, C 1 asse d^Uilt, el Lit. Anc. vol. iii. p. 2?5 ; vol. v. p. 76 ; and vii. p. \2b.—Eniesti, t)e negotiatoribus Rom. I.ips. 1772. 8. 3 71.. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and arti- sans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometime.-^ acquired Roman ciiizenship. Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia). which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. Of this kind were the coWegm fahrorum, tigiiariortim, dendrophororum, sagariorvm, lahnloriorvni, &c. The overseer of such a body was called prcpftctus ; they had also thtir decurio?tes and ma- gistri, whose office was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, or for individual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. Respecting these corporations, see G. PanciroUus, De corporibus Ailificuni, in 2d vol. of Grxvius, cited § 137. 4. Among the various arts and trades pursued, the following should be here noticed more particularly. (a) The making of glass (vifum, va\os). — It has been a question of some interest how far the ancients understood the making of ^Zass. Pliny (Hist Nat. v 19. x.x.wi. 26) states that the art originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass vessels were first made in Pidon. Tt was known, however, in Egypt, for pieces of blue glass have been found in the tombs at Thebes, and si'me of the nuimmies are decorated with glass. Lachrymatories and palersB of glass have been disco vernd in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo (cf. J "166. 1). The allusions and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Firo-. yEn. vii ".50. //^or. Od. i .xvii. 20. Sat ii iii. 222) indicate an acquaintance with glass (vitrea) in a state of at least considerable perfection. Colored glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf P. IV. J 220. 2) in the time of Augustus. Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. IV. $ 210). The story related by Tacitus (./?7)n. v. 42) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredil)le, showa that glass-making had been introduced at Ron^e. Numerous vessels of glass, and even panes of glass in a window, h:evi) is a subject of allusion in Plautus {Epid. iii. 2. 35). Molds^(rt57ro(, /or?/iff') were used to decorate the.vp-ssels with figures in bas-relief (cf. P. IV. $J 158, 188) and f.'r forming the images on the architectural appendages railed mitfjijii made of terra coita (cf. P. IV. J(J 239, 241) ; some specimens of tln^se molds Ii.ivh l>een foinid near Rome. According to Vitriivius the Romans made their water-pipes "f potter's clay. They established potteries in England; v< stiges of which, it is said, are still discernible in some parts of the island, especially in SlafTordshire. If their rasa vnirrhina were [X'rcelain (cf P. IV. $ 195. 4"i the art nuist have reached a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that theso vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from the earth in the eastern part of Asia.— Th»* manufacture of bricks {lateres cocliles) was well understood. Rricks are found in very aiu ien» Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. Lardner's Cab. ryclnpap.dia, the vol on Porcelain and G'.t^.— .S. Pnrkei. Chemical Essiys, &c. Lond. IS30. p. 304, 346. — - Notices of Roman earthen vessels are found in !V. Sherry, Description of the discoveries at Heraclea, translated, &r. I.ond. 1750. 8. .— Cf. Sercnix d''Agincottrl, Rerueil de Fra»mens. (c) The baking of bread (panifcium, ars pistoria) .—The bakers (pi.store.«) at Rome formed. I k^ peiscns of other trades, a collegium. No one had made baking a trade U is said. uni»l B V 204 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 173. Ill a bakehnnsR (pistriniiiii, or pist.rilla) dl'^cnverad .it Pompeii, were found several loaves f>f breail apparently haked in ino\'is {attopicc); tiiey were flat and about eiglit inches in diaiiie- ter. Before the invention of tiie mill {iikiUi) , corn was pounded in a sort of mortar (mortartnm) CAWed pisliim ; wtience the name pi-it ur, 'din\ pistrinum. Two varieties uf the hand-mill {moLa inaniLariii) were found in the ruins of a bakehouse at Pompeii ; grinding willi this was done by slaves, chi(^fly females. The "cattle-mill" (iiiulu asinaria, pvXo^ ofiKOi, cf Mat.tk. xviii. 6) was also used ; likewise the waier-niill {/Ho/a aquaria, vSpuXerrn), having above the stones a hopper (itifundihiilum) from which the corn fell down between ihem. In the later periods there appear to iiave been public mills turned liy the water of the aqueducts. When Rome was besiej^ed by the Goih.s, A. D. 536, and the aqueducts were intercepted, Belisarius is said to have constructed (loating mills upon the Tiber. Cf. Ftiri'vius, X. t>.—Ausonius, Poem. iii. iO.—Prccopivs, De Bello Gothico, i. 15 (cf. P. V. § 2!yl).—Mongez, Sur les nieules dc innulin, &c. as cited § 59.— F. L. Gottzius, De Molis et Pistrinis Vt-teruiii, and C. L. Huheisel, De Molis Manualibus, &c , in Ugoli- 71US, vol. xxix as cited § 197. 1. (f the Syrian plow, cf. $ 172. 3. — On the Konmn plow, cf. Dickson, as ciled P. V, $489. 3. Pig. 8, in Plate XXXII. is a cni showing varieties of ihe fulx, priining-knit'e, and sickle. Fig. 5 is from an Egyptinn monument, and shows the use of the sickle in cutting wheat in the field. Pig. 7 i§ a I'ersian dra^r, for the purpose of threshing grain; a roller wilh teeth, fitted Ro as to he drawn by cattle over the grain ; it is taken from Sir R. K. Porter.— Fig. iv. is another instrument for thi' same purpose, tHken from JV"ifJ!/?//;r ,• il has three wheels with iron teeth, or wilh serrated edges, drawn by rattle, the driver silting on it. These figures may partially illus- trate the Roman tralin and tribulu. Pontedera, Antiquitatnm Rusticarum, &.c. Paiav.1738. 3. The carriages used for agricultural purposes were chiefly the plaustra or ve/iat, which had usually two wheels, sometimes four, and were drawn commonly by oxen, but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without spokes, called tym pana. 'J he body of these carriages (and indeed ot any. carriage) was termed capsum, and the draught-tree or beam, teino. The jugum was the yoke, fastened to the beam and also to the cattle by thongs, lora suhjitgia — 'Ihe sarractim was a cart or wagon used in conveying wood, and the various products of the farm. — Pack-horses {cabnlli) were sometimes used for carrying burdens; more frequently asses or mules; called difelJarii, from the packages {clUeUce) on their backs. We may remark in this connection, that the Roinans had various carriages for con- venience and amusement. — The chariot, currus, was the most common ; always wilh two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses. Those with two were termed bigcB ; those with four, quadrigm ; in the races, the horses were always yoked abreast. — The carruca was a sort of private coach of the rich, sometimes of solid sil- ver, curiously carved. — The pilentum, was an easy soft vehicle with four wheels, used in conveying women to public games and rites. The carpe^it urn was a carriage with two wheels and an arched covering. The Iheiisa was a splendid carriage with four wheels and four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the pul- vinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games (§233). The cisium was a vehicle with two wheels, drawn by three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a larger traveling carriage wilh four wheels.. — The horses were guided and stimulated by the bit {frmnum) and reins (liahence) and whip {flagellum). Bells {tintinnahula) were sometimes attached to the necks of the chariot- horses in a string similar to those now used. Fig. f). in onr Plate XXXT. is an ancient higa, preserved in the Vatican at Rome; it is covered with leather. Fig. 5 shows a Iriga. Fig. 4 is a qvadri p. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. 267 reduced {PUn. H, N. xxxiii. 3) to an ounce in quantity, and finally evtni to a half- ounce. Silver coin was first stamped B. C. 269; the most common coins were the Denarius, Qui?tarius, and Sestertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as equal to ten pounds of brass, and marked X, or ^, but after the reduction of. the as to an ounce, B. C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. 1'he proper value of it also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half the Denarius, and marked V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2^ asses (hence its name semis tertius), and marl^ed LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbre- viated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sestertius passed for four asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummiis. — Gold coin was first stamped at Rome B. C. 207; the most common coin was the Aureus or Solidus, tqual in weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in value to twenty-five Denarii. /. IVard, De Asse et Pariibus ejus. Lond. 1719. 8. — Cardwell, Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks and Romans. 3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where their mo- ney was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally to the image, or stamp, impressed on the coin and remi7iding one of the person or thing represented. The mint was under the care of the Triumviri mouetales ; the coins were examined by the Nummularii. The impression on the As or Assipondium was a Janus bifrons on one side and on the reverse the rostrum of a ship; on the Semis and Quadrans (called also Sembella and Teruncius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver coins Deiiarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two or four horses, and on the other the head of Rom.a with a helmet ; but oiher devices were sometimes impressed (cf P. IV. ^ 139. 2). — The value of the Denarius was about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments of Ze^ro?«7it;, who carefully weighed 1350 co7iS2dar denarii; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the repubhc was about 10 to 1; . E. Brerewood. De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum Lond. 1614. 4. — Mongez, sur Tart dn Monnoyage chez les ancieni at chez les moderns, &c. in the Mem. de I'lnstitut, C 1 ass e d^Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. rx. p. 18". — Cu?iger, Bockh, as cited § 174.— Hussey, as cited § 274. 2. 4. The usual rate of interest {fuenus) was one as for the use of a hundred a month, or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was called usura ^f-ntesima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the capital {caput or sors). Horace speaks (Sat. i. iii. 12) of a usurer, who took 60 per cent. For money invested . in property exposed at sea {faenus nauticum) the lender might demand any interest he liked while the vessel was out ; but after she reached harbor, only the usual rate of 12 per cent. — When a person, borrowing money, pledged himself and property in the form of a sale, he was said to be nexus ; a person failing to discharge his debt within the legal term was by the law consigned to the creditor, and was then said to be addictus. See Niebuhr, Hist, of Home, ed. Phil. 1835. vol. 1. p. Ayi.—Hudtwalker, De fceo nautico Rom. Haml. 1810. 4. ^ 271 u. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 1000 Sestertii they called Sesterlium ; duo Seslertia, e. g. signifies the same as bis milie sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they used the word^'e.s- tertium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral adverb to the first number, ien, twenty, &c., and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind ; e. g. Decies h'tiferfiiim signified 10,00,000 S est ertii ; Quadragies Sesterlium signified 40.00,000, or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned by talenls, in ca^e ot large sums. The tali'jitum was equal to 60 JihriB or pounds. 1.. Kennet gives the following: rule for interpretin? tiie Latin expressions for stuns of money : if a numeral aed X or CIC. orOC, to signify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn oyer a letter indicated that it was to be nniliiplied by 1000; e. g. X stood for 10,000; IT, 50,000; "c, 100,000.— Combinations of these letters usually sii!- nified the .sMw of the numbers represented by the several letters seinrately ; e.g. VIII, 8; .XV. If>. fi68 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. I X, 60; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X was placed before a letter representing a larger number, the combination expressed ihe difference ; e.g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when to IC anothei C was annexed, it indicated a inultiplication by 10; e g. IC, 500 ; ICC, 5000; K'CC, 50,000: in order to signify liie same muiliplication of CIC, a (J was also prefixed as well as O annexed e.g. CIO, lOOO",- CCIOO, 10,000; CCCIOOO, 100,000. For any multiple, however, of this last, 100.000, the Romans did not employ letters : but prefixed to tliis expression a numeral adverb ; ae bis, to signify 200,000; ter, to signify 300,000; decies, to signify 10,00,000, &c. ^ 272. Tt may be in place to speak here of the modes of acquiring or transferring pro perty {res privatcE), or methods of gaining the ownership {dominium). '1 he following may be named ; 1. Mancipatio, when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the transfer was attended with certain formahties used among Roman citizens only ; 2. Cessio VI jure, when a person transferred his efiects to another before the Prsetor, or ruler of a province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; the cessio extra jus was when an insolvent debtor gave up his property to his creditors ; 3. Usucapio, when one obtained a thing by having had it in possession and use {iisii-s auctoritate) ; 4. Emplio sub corona, the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, with garlands {corona) on their heads ; 5. Auctio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudicatio, which referred strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co-heirsor dividing stock among partners, or settling boundaries between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of pro- perty by sentence of a judge or arbiter; 7. Donatio, when any thing was given to one for a present; 8. Hcereditas, when property was received by inheritance; and this wag either by bequest, from a testator, who could name his heirs in a written will {teslamento) or in a declaration {viva voca) before witnesses ; or by law, which assigned the property of ope dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest relatives on the father's side. ^ 273 u. The public sale of property {auctio, also called proscriptio) was very common among the Romans. In the place were such sale was held, a spear was set up, whence the phrase sub hasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be sold {tabula proscriptionis, tabula auctionaria) was previously suspended upon a pillar in soine public place. Permission for such sales must be obtained of the city Praetor. I'he superintendent of the sales was termed magister auctionum: in cases where the sale was to meet the demands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, atid was generally the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of confiscated goods was termed sectio; the money arising therefrom went to the public treasury. Various distinctions were made of things constituting property. One, of early origin, and con- sidered important, was into Res Mancipi and Res JsTec Mancipij the Mavcijii were all snrh as could be transferred by the form called Mavcipatio ; the JVec Jknncipi were such as could not be thus transferred. Under the Res Mavcipi were included fnrws within Italy (prcedia riisfir.a, also urbava), and in any place which had obtained the/»/s Italicum ; also slaveu f and qvadrvpeds which were trained to work with back or neck; pearls {niurgantce); and country prffdial servi- tudes (or servitutes ■prcrdinmw rusticornw) . By a prisdial servitude was meant a right of making a particular use of the land of another, as the riyht ofgoing through it on foot {servitus itiveris); of driving a beast (acii/s); of driving a loaded carriage {via); of conducting wal&r {uquceductzis), making lime {calcis cnquevdce), &c. On Ihe suliject of [irnperty among Itie Rnnians, see Uvterholzen, Ueber die verschiedenen Arteti des Eigenlhiims, &c. io Ihe Rhem Mus—Dirksen, Ueher die ges^lzlichen Beschrlnkungen des Eigenthuii s, in Ihe Zeitschrift, vol. ii. — Bynhershoek, Opusculum de Uebus Mancipi el Nee Mancipi. — Savigny, Das RechI der Besilzes. — Smith, DiCI. of Antiq. under Dumiuium, Maiicipalio, Prx- diuni, Servitus, &c. On Ihe form in auctions, J. Rabirius, De Hastaruni et Auctionun) Origine, in Grsevius, vol. iii. ^ 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity should be explained here. 1 u The measures of length and surface were the following.; digitus, a finger's breath; four of which made a palmus, or handbreadth; and sixteen, a pes or loot; 5 feet were equal to a passns or pace; 125 of the latter formed a stadium, and 1 ,000 of them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. — In land-measures, the following were the most commo'a denominations ; jugerum, what could be plowed in a day by one yoke {jugo) of cattle, 240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,?00 square feet; actus quadratus, equal to half the jugerum, being 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an eighth ot the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet. The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 4 of which made a cyulhus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulum was the half of a qiiartarius, which was the half of a hemina; and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly equal to our pint. For dry things there was also the jSIodius, equal to 16 sexiarii. In liquids the sextarius was a sixth of the congius; 4 congii made an urna; two urnae, an amphora; and 20 amphorse, a culeus. For a fuller view of the subject, the Tables presented in Plate XXXII a. may be constiUed. 2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of \he Roman foot, which in important in le;irning the values of the several tneasiires of length, extent, and capacity. 1. One means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these pre- served in the (;api'oline Mu=«nm. 2. .Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot 'Hies were bars of brass or iron of'lhe length of a pes, designed ff)r use in adiial measurements. 3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances between the milestones on the Appian Wa"y. 4. Attempts have been made to ascertain the Roman foot likewise from the cuniriiis, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at Kome, the other at Paris ; the solid contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of 'lalf a jtes From the same measure, it may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts PLATE XXXII a. ROMAN MONEYS, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. The value in our denominations is given from Conner's Tables. Measures of Surface. 1. Below the F'ersus. j Pes QuadratU3 i 100 Decempeda Quadralus • . . 1 400 4 1 Sextula I 480 4 8 1 1.2 1 Actus Simplex 600 2400 6 1 1.3 1 1.25 1 Siciliquus 24 1 6 1 5 1 4 1 Uncia 3600 36 1 9 1 7.5 1 6 1 1.5 1 Clima lOOOU 100 1 25 |20.S3| 16.6 1 4.16 | 2.7 | Poles. ■ 12 Versus 34 tq.ft. Ou.9^ 94.23 104 69 ISO.Ofe 2>.9 83.6 125.4S 167.05 2. Above the Versus. ! Versus ....•• ll 1.44 I Actus Quadratus . . • • !| 2.88 I 2 I Jugerum (As) 1-5.76 j 4 I 2 I Heredlum • , • 100 I Cenluria - I Siltus - I 576 1 400 '2304 1 1600 200 ROO 400 Acres, r. poles, sq.ft 34 167.05 • I 9 2296' • 2 19 1S7.09 1 39 101.83 . 124 2 17 109.79 49S 1 29 166.91 Subdivisions of the Jugerum and the Libra. The Uncia is a 12lh p>rt of the Lil/ra and also of the Jugerum; and ten interveiiins divisions have the same name. UiiCix 2 Sextins 3. Quadrans 4. Trien3 5. Quincunx 6. Semis 7 Sep'unx Uncix 8. Bes 9. Uodrans 10. Dcxirans Uncix 11. Ueuux 12. Jugerum, and L'l/ra Muiieys. Teruncius - 2 Senibella - 4 „ 1 Assipondium ? '^ 1 As, Libella J * 8, 4 2 Dupondius 10 5 j 2.5 1.25 Sestertius • 20 10 1 5 1 2.5 1 2 1 ^"'"^nu. 1 1 1 1 Victonalu 40 20 1 10 1 5 4 1 2 1 Den Dolls, ctt. m. 00 3.87 • • 7.74 • I 5 48 • 3 0.96 • 3 S.68 . 7 7.38 1000 500 I 250 I 125 I 100 ( 50 I 25 I ;^"'7'^^''^ 3 86 8.46 I I I I I I I Soliuus ) VVeishts. 1. Below the Siciliquus. Siliqua .... 3 I Obol us - - . . 6 I 2 I Scrupulum 12 I 4 I 2 I Setnisextula 24 j 8 I 4 I 2 I Sextula 36 ! 12 I 3 I 1.5 I Siciliquus • (Tioy Wei^ht.l Dwts. frs. 2.92 • 8.76 • 17.53 1 11.06 2 22 13 j 4 9.191 2. Above tie Siciliquus. Siciliquus - • • 1 3 I I'uella - 4 I 3 I Uncia 48 I 36 I 12 I Libra 4800|360o!l2ro| 100 | Centun.podium Z,i!. 02. dwts. grt. 4 9 19 • • 5 20.26 • • 17 12.79 • 10 10 9.53 K7 7 19 17 06 Measures of Capacity. 1. For Liquids. 2. For Things Dry. Ligula 1.5 Cyathus ... Acetabulum • 2 I Quartarius Hcraini 12 4 I 2 1 8 I 4 I 2 I Seitarius 48 I 24 I 12 1 6 I Coi.gius 192 I 96 I 48 I 24 I 4 I Uma Gall, qlt- pts, 0.019 0.079 0.118 0.237 475 950 1.704 0.3 1 9 Ligula 4 I Cyathus Qts. 6 I 1.3 I Acetabulum 12 I 3 I 2 I Quartarius • 24 I 6 I 4 I 2 I Hen. ina - 48 i 12 I 8 I 4 I 2 I Sextarius 384 I 96 I 61 I 32 I 16 I 8 | Semimodius 768 { 192 I 128 I 64 I 32 I 16 { 2 | Modius 2 3 3*4 I 192 I '-6 I 48 I 8 I 2 I Amphora 5 2 1j639. Twenty Amphors made a Culeus Gill. qt. IIJ 0.019'! 0.079 jj 0.237 1 1 475 I 950 I 1.6 6 1 1.213 P" . 793 1. Below the Pes. Measures of L.eiigth. 2. Above the Pes. Sextula Siciliquus • 2 I Semiuncia 3 I 1.5 I Digitus 4 I 2 K3j Uncia - 12 I 6 I 4 [ 3 I Palm ug 48 I 24 I 16 I 12 I 4 i Pes Inches. 16 0.24 0.4? 0.72 97 -2.91 116: Pes ( 11.64 inches =) 1.23 I Palmipes • 1.5 I 1.2 I Cubitus Yds. ft 0.97 2.5 2 1 1.6 i Pes Seitertiui 5 4 33 2 1 Passus • 10 8 66 4 1 2 1 Decemp 120 1 96 80 48 1 24 1 12 1 A 5000 I 4000 1 3333. 5 1 000 | 1000 | 500 | 41.6 | Miniare_ . 1.21 . . 1.45 1 . 2.42 1 1 Lfo 3 70 38 2.49 . 1617 2.7=. • 270 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. lo (le, the comua, the huccince, and the litui. — The tubo is supposed to have been exactly like our 'trumjiet, running on wider and wider in a direct line to the orifice. — The comna Were bent almost round ; they owe their name and original to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in the ruder ages. — The hucciiice seem to have had the same rise, and may derive their name from hos and cano. It is hard to 'listin^uish these from the comua, unless they were something less and not quite so PLATE XXXIll. 273 274 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. crooked. — 'The litui weie a middle kind between the cornua and t hce, being almost straight, only a little turning in at the top, like the I'duus or sacred rod of the aujjurs; whence they borrowed their name. — 'I'hese instruments being all made of brass, the players on them went under the name ot (Bncafores, besides the particular terms of luhicines, cornicines, hucchiatores, &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number assigned to every manipulus and turma; besides several of higher order, and common to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took their station by the ensign and colors of their particular company or troop ; the orhers stood near the chief eagle in a ring, hard by the general and prime officers; and when the alarm was to be given, af the word of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this das $icum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general" shout at the first encounter, which in latet ages they called barritus, from a German original." {Kennel.) A form of the Roman cornu is seen in Plate XXVI. fig. B ; of the lituus, probably, in fig. n. See Galand, La Trnmpelle che» les anclens, in Ihe Mtm. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104. — Galand, De Tubas origine et usu apud Veteres, in U^olinvs, vol. xxxii as ciied t 197. § 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed according- to the class to which they belonged. The velites had a round shield (parnia), about three feet in diameter, a spear for hurling- (Jiasta velitaris), a helmet of ox-hide (^cudu), or of the skin of a wild beast (go/erus), and in later times a sword.. — The hastoti bore a large shield (scw/wm), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short hut stiff and pointed sword (gladiu.s), on the right hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (^pi/d), one longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet (ga/ea), whh a crest adorned with plumes [crista) ; greaves for the legs, plated with iron [ocreae), used in later times only for the right leg; a coat of mail [/orica), formed of metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the breast to the loins, or a breastplate {thorax') merely. — The principes and triarii used weapons of the same kind ; excepting that the triarii had longer spears, called hn^tae longas, in later times lanctse^ and long swords, called spathae^t or when of smaller size, semi-spat hae. — The shield was marked by the name of the soldier and the number of the legion and maniple to which he belonged. Who- ever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. — The weapons of the cavalry were similar to the Grecian (cf § 138) : a war cap (cassis), a coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword and dagger, which last was used only in close fight. The horsemen in fig. i, of Plate XXX. have a small round shield. Cf. $ 235. 3. A sort of shield is also seen in fi;;. 2 of the same Plnie ; which represenis a Roman knight attacking a hiirhjirian soldier ; from an antique gem. Both these figures show the horseman's spear. — The scutum and fladius of the soldier are seen in Plate XXXlll. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, taken from Trajan's Pillar (cf. P. IV. $188. 2).— The shield is likewise seen in fig. 2, which represents a legionary with the accouterments and hagg;ige, which he was obliged always to carry in march- ing (cf. $ 298. 2).— The lorica or coat of mail may be seen iti Plate XXII. fig. 5, in whii h Ihe legs as well as thf body are defended by inail ; this is Ihe figure given in Calmet to illustrate the armor of Guliath, the Philistine ; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 4-7. — In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends down behind to defend the neck as well as head ; the figure is drawn from Trajan's Column. In Plate XXX. fig. n, is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scule armor; as is his horse also. — For Gther articles of armor, see Plates XVII. and XXII. Cf $$ 45 and 139. On tne Roman armor, see Meyrick, as cited § 139. — Also, Le Beau (as cited § z75) in the Mem de PAcad. SfC. vol. xxxix. p 4!>r. § 284. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery received no pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and wages [slipendixim) were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. Each soldier had a monthly allowance [demensum) of ahout two bushels of wheat, and a stipend of three asses per day. The stipend was afterwards greater; Julius Caesar doubled it, and under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. The wages were sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as a reward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixed for the distri bution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of his pay was called peculium castrense ; half of which was always deposited with the standards, until the term of service expired. 1 n. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished thern- Belves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativa, on the other hand, were gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occasions, as e. g. in ca.ses of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. Among the rewards, '»'dftn and gilded crowns were particularly common; as, the corona castre?isis or val- p. Ill MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUXISHMENTS. 275 /am- to him who first entered the enemy's entrenchments; corona viuralis, to hin; who first scaled the enemy's walls ; and corona navalh. for seizing a vessel ot" the enemy in a sea-fight; also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms; as the corona civica. of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity at the hands of the enemy ; the corona ohsidionalis, of grass, for delivering a besieged city; and the corona triumphalis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing general. The various rrowns above nanied are exhibited in Plate XVI. Fig. 1 is the civica; fi? 2, tb« castrevsis ; 3. tlie nbsidionalis ; 4, the viuralis ; .5, the navalis ; 7, the triumphalis. — Fig. 6 is the radiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors. 2. " There were smaller rewards (prcemia ininora) of various kinds ; as a spear with- out any iron on it {hasfa pura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end of a lance or spear (wftcy'ZZ^w?) 'of different colors, with or without embroidery ; trappings {phalerce). ornaments for horses, and for men ; golden chains [aurecB torques), which went round the neck, whereas the phalera hung down on the breast; bracelets {urmlllcB), orna- ments for the arms ; comicula, ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; caiellcE or ca.tenul(B, chains composed of rings; whereas the iorques were twisted {tortce) like a rope ; ,^ft?yZ(E, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." {Adam). Another form of reward was an exemptiosi from service {vacalio) by release before the legal term was finished (cf. ^ 278. 3). At the expiration of the term of service, the soldiers received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was sometimes called emerilum ; those who had served their time out being also called emeriti. The lorqiies is seen on the Dying Gladiator (cf. P. IV. ^ 1S6. 9). — See Archieologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol xxii. p. 285, on an ancient bronze bracelet. § 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes were very severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neorlect of watch, leaving^ a post assigned, or cowardly fligrht, was visited with the punishment Cd-Wed ftisfiinriiim, in which, on a signal from a tribune, the whole leorion fell to beatincr the offender w'ith sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his dis- grace was scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and the rest were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead of wheat for their allowance. Often distrrace was inflicted in other ways, as by loss of pay (^slipenrlio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when a soldier of. the triarii was de- graded into the hastaii. The tribunes could inflict ptmishments only after in- vesticration of the case; the general, on the other hand, could immediately and absolutely pronounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrection and desertion. The mode of in- flictingr death was not uniform. § 280. Of the Roman order of battle (ncies) a general idea may be given here ; a minute detail would belong rather to a system of tactics. The legions were commonly ranged in three lines, the foremost occupied by the kastali, the next by the principes^ and the last by the friar it. Between each two maniples a space was left, so that the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces of the first, and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. These spaces were termed rectae viae, and were as broad as the maniples them- selves. 1 ?i. This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage both of stability and of being easily changed; it avoided all confusion and interruption, and was espe- cially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (V> 142), which it could easily penetrate and route. It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was often, in anti- cipation of attack, changed so as to close up' the spaces. But in this form of arrange nient the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and by means of their separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and defence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and ther men in the maniples three feet froin each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier had scarcely more than room for his shield. 2. To the disposition of the soldiers in the thiee lines of haatati, ■princi-pes, and triarii, as above descrilied, some have applied the phrase triplex acirs (cf. Sallust. Bell. Jug. 49); others consider the phrase as sometimes at least meaning simply an arrangemen- in three lines; an arrangement in two lines being called acies ditjdex. Other methods of drawing up the army for battle were occasionally used. We mention here the corneas, in which the army was arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce anc break the enemy's lines; the globus, in which the troops were collected intp a close, firm, round body, usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfx. in which the army :ook a form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in order to 276 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. receive the enemy when I'oming in the shape of a wedge ; ihe serra, in which tht linoa were extended, and in maiving the engagement some parts of the liont advanced before the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a hitle like the teeth of a saw. § 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the lighf-armed troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line ; but after- wards they were stationed in the intervals between the maniples, behind them, or on the wings, and made attack in connection with the hasiaii. A considerable part of the light-armed were stationed behind the trlarii, to support them. The attack commenced wben the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the haatati ad- vanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was given for retreat; on which the lighl-arrned linA the hastati drew hack through the intervals of the second line, and the prindpes advanced to the fight. In the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves with their shields, and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards; the line thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the prindpes were com- pelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the prindpes and the hastati being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks [ciu/i- pressis ordinibtis) and all three in a body {una continente agmine). This united attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. § 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They were conmionly called velites ; in early times, however, rorarii and accensi, sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and ferentarii. They carried no shields, but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into fifteen companies {expediti manipuli^ or expeditae cohortes), and besides these there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The light-armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword. 1 u. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, about forty being joined to each maniple. — 1 hey were of three different classes, designated by their principal weapon; jacM/aalislarii, who threw siones by tlie aid of machines. In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, is a Roman fuvditor ; fig. b, a Sagittarius. 2u. Those called antesignani were not the liglit-armed, but probably v/ere the soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. — I'he position ol' the light-armed during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that most commonly they stood in three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their attacks through the intervals between the maniples. § 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their army, espe- cially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens en- joyed a high estimation and rank already noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted chiefiy of the noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ; the same was true under the fol- lowing kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic, the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of later times served only among the Fnetorians^ or the imperial bodyguard (cf. § 309). § 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions, while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed especially on the wing. — The forces, commonly called alas were different from the legionary cavalry; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners and employed to guard the flanks of the army. — The number of horsemen con- nected with a legion has already been named (cf. §§ 276, 278, 281) ; commonly 300: sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. § 292) had the same p. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 277 number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater number of horsemen ^ although the ratio was not always the same. 1 u. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turmcB, corresponding to the number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to the number of maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma; three ura^'t (d-'payol) were under them. In how many lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for battle is not known. In an attack, the first l>ne of turmcB endeavored to break the ranks of the enemy ; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 2 u. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in pro- tecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitering the enemy, collecting forage, occupy- ing remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the routed foe. Where the ground v/as uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on toot. On Ihe Roman cavalry, Le Beau, as cited § 304. The Roman shi])s were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, ^'"> transport, and the ship of burden .; the first was propelled chiefly by oars ; the seconj •vas often towed by ropes; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves oneraricB ; they were commonly much inferior in size to m dern trading vessels : although some ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk in the time of Calisula. said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often teemed xaves long(P., being longer than others; naves turritcB from the towers constructed on Ufrn ; also ^o.itrdta;, cBratce, from their beaks ; and particularly tr 'remes, quadrirevie.s. F. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE TRIUMPH. 28^3 &c., from trie number of benches oi rowers in them severally. As manj' as tei, banks are mentioned; Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with sixieen banks; and Pto lemy Philopai.or is said to have built one with for-ty banks. On the manner in which the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to § 156. .2. The naves Liburniccp. were light, fast-sailing ships, made after (he model of the galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — '1 lie p/uistJi, or TMves acluuricB, were a kind of yacht or small bark, with lew oars, also designed foi expedition. — 'I'he CamarcB were of a peculiar cpnstruction, with two prows and rud- ders, one at each end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without turning; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. {Tac. Mor. Germ. 44.) Fig. 1, of Plate XXTIT. is a specimen of the phaseUis. — Fisr. 3 is the Lrburniav galley.— Fisr. 2 is the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shnws the two rudders, attached on each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be raised onl of water by 'ashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. ^cts x.wii. ^tO (In ihe stiips of the Romans, see Scheffer, Holwell, Le Roy. he. as cited ^ 156. 2. — /. (^cssiu$. t)e Liburnicarum Cons'ruclione, ir C-rxV'US. vol lii. It was stated, in 1835, ttiat tlie port of Pompeii had heen discovered, presenting Vr-ssels thrown upon the' lides ii.d covered by tlie volcanic m:itler. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing London LiUrary Gazette.) § .^05. The orreat public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an "'nnportant victory by sea, or by land, was the triumph, a pontpous show, which •vas practiced even in the time of the kinjrs. This honor, however, could be acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors; It was not awarded to Proconsuls. Yet in later times there were some excep- tions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must have been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Praetor. The importance of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state, also came into consideration; and the general must have brought back his army to share with him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the vic- tory consisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a triumph. § 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a victory, was a thanksgiving or siippli cat io (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the people, contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed by the people permitting the general to retain his command {Jmperium) in the city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumpha- //s Porcm, which prohibited a triumph unless at least five thousand of the enemy had fallen in battle. § 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city until the day of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the city in the temple of Bellona. The expenses were usually defrayed from the public treasury, except in cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession without public authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The expenses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the general usually distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to meet the triumphing genera] as far as the gate by which he entered the city. 1 11. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line, ordi- narily, were the lictors and magistra'es in a body.. '1 hey were followed by the tn.tn- peters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacrifice, the spoiLs and booty taken i'rom the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, i)icturcy and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other pri- soners. Then came the conqueror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by tout white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was lollowed by his numerous train, consisting partly ol his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, througf the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the spoils of the victory were consecrated lo the gods. Afterwards were (easting, nicrn- nient, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The pomp, expense, and luxury attending them became constantly greater and greater, and the whole custom, on account of its frequent occurrence, and the great fibusf. of '.I by some of the emnerors, was reduced at last to a common and coniemptib'e nffaii 3S4 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. —The first (riumph for a victory at sea (.friuniphus navalis) wa? obtained by the Con sul C Duillius, alter his memorable defeat oi the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Uuillius, see P. IV. $ 133. — For a fuller ?iew of a triumphal display, read Plutarch's description of the triumph of Pauliis J3milins, afier Ihe capture of Peiseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in his Life by Vo-piscns (of Gihbon,vM \\). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constan- tinople, related by Procopiiis (cf P. V. $ 257. — Gibbon, ch. xli.) — The total number of triumphs upon record down to that of Belisarius has been calculated as amounting to three hundred and fifty. It may be worthy of remark, that the phrase aurvm corovariuvi had its origin in a custom con- nected with the triumph of a general ; the cities of the province where his victory was obtained, and those of other provinces also, used lo send to h\m golden crowns, which were carried before him in the triumphal procession. Cn. Manlius had two hundred crowns carried before hnn in his triumph on account of his victories in Asia {Lio. x.xxix. 7). At length it became customary to send, instead of the crown, a sum of money, which was called aurum coronarium (cf. Aul Gell. V. 6). § 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triunnph, frequently bestowed on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not differ very much in form from the triumph ; the essential peculiarities were, that the general entered the city not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the praslexla only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep (ovis). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was probably taken. The triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded t^ (§ 307), was less pompons. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, marched to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, situated on the mount. § 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes under the emperors. 1 u. By Augustus a standing army was estabhshed ; he also created an officer called FrfrfcClus prrBtorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial bodyguard and the prjetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Roman military ser- vice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support the authority of the emperors, not lo promote the welfare of the country ; and to for- ward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of ihe soldiers were overlooked. From the same cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between the military and the other classes of citizens. The prsetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into ten cohorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abo- lished, and 3500 Armenians were enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine scholcB, and commanded by the officer styled Magister officiorum. The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, dis- tributed among the provinces. Besides these he had ten prcBlorian cohorts just named, SIX city caliorls of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly iincreased. as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy. AH the commencement of the civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty iCgions, distritnited as follows : three in Britannia ; tiiree in Ilispania ; eif/ht in Gallia, three of them being in the portion called Upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P. I. $ 17); I'wo in Pannonia ; two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Mcesia ; four in Syria, with three more in .Tudea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. I. $ 173). 2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect of the praetorian bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred .only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The appointment was made or the commission conferred by the emperor's delivering a sword to the person selected. SxDrneiimes there were two praetorian praefects. 1 heir power was at first only mi!i tary and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them, tmd there was no appeal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius com mitted this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praeto nan cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates yiminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius sixteen praetorian cohorts were raised, and four to ginrd the city. Severus new- modeled the body .nnd increased them to four tim'es the ancient num'oer. Constantine the Great finally suppressed them and de- stroyed their camp. (Bo7/r/'s'Adam, p. 123, 485). 3. Important changes in. the military system were made by Constantine. lie ap- pointed two general comirianders for the whole army, called Magislri viiliti(B ; one of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum; the other, of the whoU nfantry, Magister vcditum. p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FREEMEN AND SLAVES 285 CDiisiamine did not abolish the title of Pnefecfus prcetorin. when he suppressed the jraetorun Cdlioris, as above nienlioned; but he changed ihe nature of the oflice, making it wholly a civil one, and dividine the care of the whole empire between /(/wr officers if this title; Prcsfectus prte- toriu Orjentis ; Prfectiis hrbis Constantijii pidis. Under tbe four pra?fects wer« subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to pariicuJar dioceses, of which there were thirteen; one of them governed by the officer styled Count of the diocese of tbe E;ist {Uumca diaceseus Ortentis); another, consisting of Egypt, byan officer styled PrcEf'Ctiig<^2gipti ; and the other eleveti by officers styled Vicarii or vice-praefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a great number of provinces, whose governors were of four different grades, termed procofiDules, eotisulares, correctores, and presides. 4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of Con- stantine. In the western, the mihtary jurisdiction continued to be vested in two com- manders styled Magister equilum and Magister peditmn. In the eastern, it was vesied in the officers styled Magistri militum, and the nuinber of them was five in the time of Theodosius the Great, who shortlv before his death, A. D. 395, united the empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of ihe military each had command of several squadrons (vex ilia (io7ies) of horse and several legions of sol- diers {palatines comitatenses) and several corps oi auxiliaries {auxiliu) :, two of theua had also under their comiriand a naval force, consisting of twelve distinct armament-s or fleets, six being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military establishment, in addition to the lorces already mentioned, a large body of troops de- signed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded by comiles and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed Quces- tor sacri palatii. — The Masters- general of the West had under their command torces of a similar description, including also troops designated specially ior the defence of the frontier. There was a Magister militum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Mas- ters-general. For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire iinder Constantine and later emperors, see Gibbon, ch. xvii. — For more minute details. Tableau SysUmatiqut des Empires (POrieiit el {POccident, &c in 3d vol. of SchoWs Hist. Litt Romaine. — The Notitia Orientis et Occidentis, as edited by Pa7iciroli, or more recently by Boching, as cited P. V § 571. — Cf. Mai'^9 Leben Constant, d. Gr. Berl.- 1817. 8. IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. § 310. In order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and sociai relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinc- tion which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes of freemen, the free-born {Jnge7mi), whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the free made {liberti) or freedmen who had been enfranchised from servitude, and who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens The children of th-e latter class were termed //6er/m^ and their orrandchildren ingenui, in early times; at a later period the freedmen were called liherli only with reference to their for- mer master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, while their sons, if born after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. — The slaves were such by birth, vernas ; or by captivity in war; or by ptirchase, mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of their manumission, we will speak below (§3*22). On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, we may refer to dKimay de la vl* privee des Remains. Lausinne, I76P. \i. {Consisting chiefly of treatises in ihe Memoins de VAeademie det [nscriptitms.) Traii6. Germ. 1-eipz, 1761. 8. Engl. Trans. Lond. 1764. \2.— Sketches (/Ibe Dome^lk Manners of the Romans. R prin'ed, Phil. 1^22. li. Cf. N. Am Rev. xvi. 163.— C'oitrure, La vie privee des .Rniii-.in>. in Mie Mm. Jiad. Inscr. vol. i. 303.— Maiilfaucon, Usages du liecle de Theodore le Grand, m the Mem. Acad. In^cr. Vol. xiii. p. 474 —Especially W. Becker, Gallus (R(iiiia,n Life in the time o< Augustus). §311. The Romans commonly had tnree names; the first was called the prsenonien, and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second was called the nomen, and was the name of the race or clan (gevs) ; the third was the cognomen, which designated the family {fnniilin)'. thus, in J\ihh'us Corneluis Scipto ; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius the nomen pointing out the clan or gens to which the family Delon*■ ^90 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. volo. A declaration by the praetor, that the slave should be free, formed the conclu- Bion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. "^^ 91. .5) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person setting him free under thirty. We may here remark, that on the country farms there was a class of population termed eolovi^ who were not slaves, although sometimes termed servi terra. They were attached to the soil, and cnuld not he separated from it; the land and the coloni could be sold together, but neither of them could be sold without the other. The coloni, like slaves, were liable to corporeal punish- ment ; but they had the right of connvbium (cf $ 312 2), which slaves had not. The colonus paid a yearly rent for the land on which he lived. On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting article in the Biblical Repositmy and Q^art. Observer, No. xx. Oct. IS35 — Burigny, Roman Slaves and Freedmen, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. xxxv. p. 32!<, and xxxvii. p. \\3.— Blair, cited § 322, — Becker's G^llua. § 325. The dv^^ellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casas), and durincr the first three centuries, even to the capture and piimder of the city by the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. IV. § 241). On its being rebuilt, they were larger and more respectable. As luxury increased, especially after the second Punic war, so the private dwellings {domus) became more and more costly and splendid, both within and without; although this was not universally the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extrava* gance in the building and ornamenting of houses. 1 u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the fol- lowing; the covering of the outer and inner walls wiih marble; the use oi' phengifes {(peyyiTris) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, which was com monly employed for windows; mosaic work on the floors {pavimenta tesselata); and various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the walls, ceiling, and door-posts. 2. The phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia in the lime of Nero, and toojj this name from its translucency. — The lapis spccularis was found in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, like stale, not above five feet long each. Boyd remarks, quoting the Frencli translation of J3dam, "It ap- pears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." Lauvay (cited P. IV. $ 195. 2), after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expresses in the following words his conclusion : "que !e lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillet6 appelle Selcnite." (vol. i. p. 314). 3. Windows made of this stone were termed specularin ; it has been supposed that these were chiefly in the better houses^. — Horn is said to htve been used by the Romans for the windows (corneum speculare); also paper and linen cloth. Originally the windows were mere openings ( foramina, fene.xtrcB) ; sometimes covered with a sort of lattice (clathri); sometimes closed by nteans of shutters with two leaves (bifores fenestra). It has not been generally supposed that glass (cf 268. 4) was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for windows until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass windows (viirea specula- ria), is said to be by Lactantius (De opificio Dei, 8) or by Jerome, in the fourth century*; although mirrors (specula) of glass were mucli earlier. But glass windows have been discovered^ in the buildings at Pompeii. " In the vaulted roof (of a rooni of the thermce or baths) is a window, two feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, two-fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the roof from looking into the bath: of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is an evident proof that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The learned seem to have been generally mistaken on the subject of glass-making among the ancients. The vast collection of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." It has been suggested, that these vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first mad(;. Another room belonging t» the satne baths "was lighted by a window two feet six inches high and three feet wide, in the bronze frame of which were found set four very beautiful paves of glass fastened by small nuts and screws, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure." 1 /. M. Suarcsius, De Foraminibus bpidum in priscis jTIdificiis, in Sallengre, as cited § 197. vol. i "^ Beckmann, History of iBventions, cited P. IV. § 32. 1. — Cf. Vogel, Geschichte der Erfindungen von der illeslen bis zur neuesteu Zeit. Leipz. IS-II. 12. 3 Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. p. 162. Cf. also § 268. 4 4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (laqtiearia) on the ceilings, were among the decorations in Roman houses. The various ornaments were frequently of a character exceed- ingly unfavorable to purity of mind. On architectural ornaments, &c. cf. P. IV. § 239.— On the mosaic of the ancients, P. IV. §§ 167, 189, 220. 5 u. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much bet- ter than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (1) The ■vestibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house-door and the street. From 'Lis, one entered through the door or gate {janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in niches or cases (urmaria). From this, one passed directly through into (3) the implu- vinm i called also compluvium and cavccdium, which was a court, commonly uncovered tvhdLvule^ where the rain-water fell. In this was the proper dwelUnff-house. which p. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. 201 had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed from one apartment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the principal was (4) the triclinium or dining-room; the olhers were termed cdlcB, havino distinctive names from their u?e ; as celta vinariu, coquinaria, penuaria, dec. Besides these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages ; colonnades, baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments were on the lower floor; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly occupied by tenants on lease (and called insulcB), were higher and had more stories. As the populatiou of Rome increased, the houses in the eity were raised to such altitudes as to occasion danger, and a tnaximum o( height was established by law ; in the reign of Augustus it was enacted, thai the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy feet from the ground.— Gi'ifion, vol. 3d. p. 216, ed. N. Y. 1S22. C. The gate or door (janna) was sometimes made of iron or brass, often Itijrhly ornainented, and usually raised above the ground, so that steps wf re necessary to ascend to it. On festival occasions it was hung with green branches and garlands. It turned on hinges (caT-rfJHes), and was secured hy bars (nbices, claust.ru), loci<3 {serce), and keys {cluves). Knocliers (marculi, mallei) or bells (tintinvabula) were attached to it. Fig. a, of Plate XXXII. represents a key found at Pompeii. — Fig. b, of the siine Plate, is a door-bolt, found also at Ponipsii. ^ In the utrivvi was ancit^ntly the kitchen (evlina). Here also the mistress of the house and servants carried on the spinning and weaving In this was the family hearth (focus), nenr the door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf P. II. $ 111) around it. The Roman houses, as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roof to let off the smoke ; hence the epithet /?/7//oave applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as much as possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil : yet it is said that chimneys have been found in the ruins of ancinnt buildings'. Portable hearths or furnaces (foculi), in which charcoal was burnt, were used for vvarining the different afiarlments; a sort of stove (carnbius), in which wood was usually burnt, was also used, larger than the furnace or brasier, and fixed in one place. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace below, with pipes passing from it to the rooms*. — The atrium was sometimes divided, in later times, into dif- ferent parts separated by curtains. » Becker^s Callus, i. 102. Cf. Har. Sat. I. v. 81.— rilrwu vii. 3. — ^ Beckmnnn, Hist of Inventions. Cf. Plin. Ep. ii. 17.— Sen." Ep. 90. In the open court, or impluviam, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The a[tartinents around if, excepting the dininjg room, were usually small and ill constructed, and properly called cells. Those designed for sleeping were termed cabicula. The tablin urn whs the ro(un for the family records or archives. The pivacotheca was the gallery for pictures. The solarium was a room on the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof was protected by large tiles (tefrutip), and was generally of an angular form; the highest part was called /'/s/ia-i?/7H, a term also used to designate the whole roof — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellaria), which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases do not appear to have been considered ofniuch consequence; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii. In Plate XXXII. fig. 1, is the plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Architecture as according to Vitriivius : " « is the vestibvlvni ; b. the atrium ; c, the tablimim ; d, d, the alse ; e, e, cellae familiaricae ; /. cavaedium ; ^, vernal I'iclinium ; p, summer triclinium; /?■» winter tricli- nium; Hi, baths; kkJc, cubiculse; m. pinacoiheca ; ?», bibliotheca ; o, peristyle; q, Cy/.icene oecus ; r r, courts of the offices; s, exedra; t t, gardens; m, rooms for embroidery; v v, sudato- ries." On the Roman house, cf. Wilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, citrd P. IV § 243. 4 — /. Minutolus, de Roman, domihus, in SnllOtgre, cited § 197.— f?-. M Gmpaldi rie partlbiis ^Idiuni liber. Farm. 1506. 4—Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunsi, cited P, IV. § 243. 4 — JUazois, Ruines de Pompei. —iWe)-auir, Le Palais de Scaurus, ou Description d'une Maison Roniaine. Par. 1822. 8. — Simtfi, Diet, of Antiquities, p. 494. 7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs (sella), tables {me7tS(E) couches (lecfl). lamps {lucerncB), &c. ; besides the numerous utensils for culinary purposes (cf. '^ 329. 3), and articles pertaining to the bathing-room and the toilet (cf. ^ 338). Several varieties of tables are mentioned ; as the caZ/i6a, a round table with three legs; the vionopodiiim ; the fijrma or vievsa hivaia, &c (cf $ 329. 2).— Chairs of different forms have been discovered in the excavations at Pompeii, and other varieties are represented in the fresco paint- ings. — Among the couches were those used at meals, accvbita, or leeti tricliviares (cf $ 329. 2); and the lecti cubiculares or beds for sleeping; the latter had costly frames, sometimes of metal, with feet (fulcra) sometimes of silver, bearing a m^tress or bed of feathers (ndrita, torus), with rich coverings (vestes stracrulw, peri-pel asviata, peristromatu conchyliala). — A great number of ancient lamps have been found, particularly at Ilerculanenm and Pompeii ; of various forms and sizes, and different materials, from the most common to the most costly ; many of them, espe- ciallv those in bronze, are of the most beautiful workmanship. They were wrought into th« most whimsical images and shapes; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or su« pended from the ceilings. Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXXII. at the bottom ; m >o9 1 and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch Uychnucus); in Nos. 2 and 4, they are placed upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella) called candelabrum. Fig. d is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. H. H. Baler, Antique Vases, I^mps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1?36. 4. co taining one hundred and sevet.iy plates engraved by H. Moses; with descriptions.— See also Mmtfaucon (a» cited P. V. § 13), vol. v. p. 202.— U AxUchi d'Brcolauo. cite! P. IV. 5 243. 2. one vol. of which treats paiicularly on this subject.— The Muieo Borbonico (cited P. IV. § 212), contains represenUiiou* of very tasteful ancient chairs. ^ 326. Th€ villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splendid usually rhan the houses within the city. A complete estabhshment of this kind included s6v«* 892 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. ral parts. 1. The villa urhana was the chief edifice, wi. its courts, buths, porticcs, and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. '1 he villa ruslica was ilie name applied to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward ivillicus), and numerous slaves of the establishment ; and those for various kinds of hve stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for hens; aviarium, for bees; suile, for swine, &c. 3. The villa frucluo'-ia was another part, including the structures designed for storing the various products of the farm; as wine, corn, oil, and fruits; often comprehended under villa rustica. 4. The horlus was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed: being planted with trees, shrubs, and flowers, which were often turned into fantastic shapes by slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts; adorned with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort oi pirk, of many acres, chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophium, in which was the fish- pond {piscina) and the oyster-bed {vivarium). Many of these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. Cicero had a beautiful one at Tusculum, besides several in other places further from the city (cf Mid- dleton^s Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, and Laurentiim ; the Piscina Mir abilis. a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows of arcades, tinder the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond of this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii 128.) In his Tuscuian villa he had a sinijle pR\nt\ug, the ^rffovuuts, by Cy/rfms, for which he paid, according to Plitiy (Nat. Hist.xxxv. 12), 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above $'5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tihur, not so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (^Anthori's Remarks in his ed. of Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to himself at Laurentum, of great extent and grandeur. {Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.)— But the villa of the empe- ror Adrian, near Tivoli, was probably the most magnificent ever erected ; its buildings and plantations covered an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference; its ruins have survived to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient art. (Cf. P. IV. $$ 173, 188. — Stuart's Diet.) — Ruins, called the Villa of LucuUas, have beeti discovered at the extreme point of Pausilypus (cf. P. I. $ 42), in ground used for vineyards, two feet below the surface; the buildings are said to have been found in good order. {Gent. Ma^. Ap. 18t2.) — The excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the walls of the place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a livelv description of it in Johnson's Philos. of Trav. p. 235, as cited P. IV. $ 190.) Rob. CasteU, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated Lond. t72S. fol.— Suteer'j Tlieorie, i. 305.— G. Grenius, De Rusticatiohe Romanorum, in Sallengre, cited § 197. vol. i. On remains of Roman villas discovered in England, Archxolosia, (as cited P. IV. i 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 363. vol. xviii. p. 2C3, ?.nd xix. 176, with plans. § 327. The manner of life among- the Romans undeiwent many changes in the course of their history. In the early periods these were favorable to their morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted its influence on their. feelings, and these aflected their private life and manners, their purstiits, social character, and amusements. At first, and even down to the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterized by simplicity in thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifica- tion of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. From their primitive rudeness, they, gradually advanced in refinement and urbanity, and fre long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted with the conveniences and pleasures of the people they conquered, especially the Greeks and Asiatics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in consequence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, now appeared eflfeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings, luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments, followed of course. § 3-28. It is not easy to decide what was certainly a uniform course of daily avocations, annong a people presenting a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and manner of life. There was, however, a sort of regular routine in the succession of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respect- able and orderly citizens. 1 u. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially clients upon their patrons. About the third hour (cf. ^ 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assem- blies were commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for plea- sure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and oiher public places. About th« gixrh hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, n visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ni'ith or tenth hour vas the usual t'l^ie for the evening meal. p. III. DOAiESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 293 2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named, $ 326).— "The piivale houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at oi.ce how the people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open coiirt of ihe house — while the masters assembled, and might be said to live, in Ihe public porticos and public hotels of the city ! Such was the state of society among the ancients ; and if we examine the cafes and oiher public places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, at tJit- present day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect has not essentially changed. How the women and children contrived to pass iheir time at home, while their husbands and lathers were lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say : but if we may judge by the fitiures and devices (m their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, ai d walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narr(»wand darksome cells, the pruriency (1 dare not use the proper term) of their minds was at least commensurate with the inactivity of their bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. 1) of the manner in which his friend Spuriuna was accustomed to spend the day. Mbe Cuuntre, La vie privee des Romains, as cited § 310. 3. The customary time of day for bathing, both at the public rAe?-7/t« (cf. P. IV. $241 b and the more private balnea, was between two o'clock and dusk. Between two and three o'clock was considered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed at dusk; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until five o'clock in the eveni:>g. The price paid for admissioii was a ^^a^'ra/is or quarter ot an a* ," the charge f^r entrance was in- creased a hundred-fold after four o'clock. — Nero's baths were healed by twelve o'clock; and Severus allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the niglit, in summer. The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empire to Con- stantinople ; after which no new thermae were erected, and the old gradijally fell into decay. A description of the buildings constructed ("or bathing is given under the topic of Architeciiire (cC' P. IV. $ 241 b) ; to which we must refer for an explanation of the names of rooms or aparlmenfs that occur in the following account of the customs connected with baihii g. — " Those who went to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium, w her f they took oflTtheir clothes and committed them to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer (balveator). Thence they proceeded to the unctuariiim, where they were anointed by other s-laves {alipUn). Thence they proceeded to the sphcBrhterium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From this room, they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot bath in the latter room they sat upon a bench or seat {pulvinua) below the surface of the water in the basin Here they scraped them- selves with instruments called strigiles. usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred t-hat the bathers, after the use of the strieilie, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were washed from liead to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over ihem. 'I'hey were then dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle called ^om- sape. On quitting the caldarium, they went to the tepidariuin, and after soiiie delay, thence into the frig-idarium ; hut are supposed not generally to have bathed in these at the public thermae but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heal of the ( aldaritim to the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the I ody with the perl'umed oils of the eZffiytAesium, after which the clotlies left in the apodijterium were resumed." It is worthy of remark, that the exercise oi sicimvuv^ was cnnnecied with the custom of bathing. " This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that he -neither kveic how to read nor sicivi, a phrase corresponding with our lamiliar oi.e, that a per- son knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gynmasia and palaestrae, were schools for swimming; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their pri- vate houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." Bell, as ciie.J P. IV. \ 241 h. — Atneilfimi, sur I'exerci e du nagtur chez les auciens, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 1 1. nd \1. p. 96. § 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal {prandium) was very frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it; and in the better times of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon were regarded as effeminate. The fifth hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, was the time assigned for it. The principal meal was held at evening (coena), and for this, particularly, the guest-chambers or eating-halls {triclinia) were constructed, which in the palaces and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called, from the use made of them, cocna/iunes ; and among the lower classes, ccenacula. 1 u. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches, each with three pillows, on which to support the ann ni reclining. JNine persuiis (<> 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the midriie couch or sola was called locus conmlaris. Ohen seven places only were prepared, the wholt oi the middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. Women were not accustomed to recline at table, but to sit. 2. The couch on the right hand was called summits lectus, the one placed at the head of the table was called mediits hcivs, while the remaining couch on the left was termed iymis lectus. ""i he post of honor on each was the central place, ihose who oc cupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus sum- mi lecti, -primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecti. '1 he most honorable ot these tinee places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, usually wa.s the primus medii lecti. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch tarihest from that called medius. As the guests al rechned on the same (ihe left) arm, the homes of .hose o? 294 ROMAN ANTIQUITI18. the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the left from, the middle couch. — The couch-frames {spondcB) and their supports {fulcra) were of wood, ivory, or sometimes metal; sometimes they were veneered with tor toise-shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing {tomeiilam) of wool, feathers or the like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth {siragida) often of rich embroidery and purple dye. — The tables {nie?iscB) were often highly orna- mented. The mouopoditim, was circular, with one foot ; chiefly used by the sick ; the tripes {Hor. Sat. i. iii. 13) of the poorer people had three feet, 'i'he mensu lunula was a semicircular table, accommodating usually seven or eight persons, used under the emperors ; it was called sigma from its resemblance in form to the letter C ; the term stibadmm designated the couch or sofa which surrounded it. In Plate XXXV. fig. I, we have the ground pl;in of a suriuiier triclinium in the small garden of the hou!=e of Salliist, found at Pompeii; nnd also a view of the cou< hes and the lahle in the center. In this plan, A designates the suvimus lectns; B, the medins; C, the imus. The couches, in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushion-^ and tapesiry. The round table in the center was of marble. — In fig. 5, of the same Plate, also from Pompeii, we see & splendid lectus, with a cushion and richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar). 3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels (jnantilia) for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food (cibicm) there were various articles of furniture, as dishes {Iruices, palrincB) and the like ; but nothing like our fork, it is supposed (cf. P. IV. ^ 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been consi- dered as modern inventions. "The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Porj-peii, where they slept since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natu- ral, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost mira- culous preservation of these objects durins so many centuries. We are astonished (though I know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their names on the loaves — that the cooks \v\A pots, slew-pans, colanders, molds for Christmas-pies and twelfth cakes — that the aldermen and gormands stowed Iheir wines at the greatest distance from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves fur supplying mulled wines to theii guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of ' doctor's stuff,' a box of pdls remain- ing to this day, gilt, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's room displayed a terrific * armament nvi chirurgicuvi^ of torturing instruments; among r.Jhers, ' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in thp Strand — that the female toilets disclosed rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's foot to lay them gracefully on tl'.e p.illid cheek — that the tnasters and mistresses had little hells to summon the slaves (for servants there were none), and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn cart? and wheelbarrows from enteritig the strt-ets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same time — that play-bills, quack advertisements, notices of siehts, shows, &c., were pasted up at the corners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin— that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though at a lower price than 8s. 6(Z. — that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian who came within the vortex of the Pompeian gaminsr-table — that horses had bits in their mouths, stirrups at their sides, cruppers on Iheir rumps, though the two latter are onilted in statues, for the benefit of antiquarian disquisitions — that windows were glazed when light vvas preferred to air, which was rarely the case-^that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their bowl- ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals — that the public houses had checkers painted on their walls, as at present— that the chimist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pine- apple, symbolical of prudence defeating death — that the Pompeian ladies employed male accouch- eurs, who had all the implements of their art nearly similar to Ihose of the modern men mid- wives — that the houses were numbered, and the names of the occupants painted on the walls — that, in the public tribunals, the mairistrates protested to Heaven that they would decide covsci- entiously, while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but trvlh — that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their passions and propensities, their cares and their enjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into flame !" {^John- son, before cited ) On curi sides found al Pompeii, cf. Class. Ji urn. xv. p. 305 — Lilrnry nf Entertaining Knowledge, vols. xxiv. xxv — Pnmpeii. — Museo Borh-mico. For an inlerestir:g account of the luxwrious manners of the later Roman nobles, Gibbon, Dec. and Fall o( Rom. Emp. chip. xxxi. § 330. At the stippers of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The first vi'as termed gusfus or gusta/io, designed to sharpen rather than to satisfy appetite; it consisted of ecrcrs {ova), salad, radishes, and the like. With this they drank usually, not wine, but mead, or a mixture of honey. The second course formed the essential part of the meal, and the principal dish was called caput coinse. The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or va*es fitted foi the purpose {rejxmloria). The third course was the dessert (Jbellaria), consist- ing of choice fruits (ma/a), pastry, and confectionery. 1. Hence the introduction of the phrase, ah ova ad mala, from the beginning to the end of the •feast. Cf Horace, Sat. I. iii. 6. An account of the fare provided for a social supper, is given fiy Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 2 A. ijreat number of servants were employed about the evening meal in one u'av p. Ill, Domestic affairs, banqlets. 295 or another ; some of them have already been named lc{. ^ 322) ; e. g. the structor, who arranged the tables ; the carptor, who divided the food, &.c. In the times of Roman luxury, there was much demand for skilful cooks {co. Bir coucli, for the bier of Abner (cf. 2 Sam. iii. 31). 2 u. The procession, when formally conducted, ptissed through the forum, where, if the deceased had been a person ol distinction, the body was laid before the place of haranjjue {rostra), and a eulogy (laudalio) was delivered by some relative or iiiend, or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. One is struck with the difference between Roman and Egyptian custon)s. The Egyptians brought the deceased to a trial, instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. 11. i> 34. 3. 3. Women were sometimes honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. Foi example, Jimia, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the lionor of a public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. '1 he images oi not less than twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ; viginii clarissimurum favrilia- rum imagines; an tela Ice sunt. {Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) — '1 he images ot ancestors, which were thus used at funerals, were the busts which the higher class of Rornatis kept in their halls (cf. P. IV. '^ 164). In J]vthoii''s Horace, in a note on Sat. I. vi, 17, is tlie following remark : " One particular rela- tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were >iot car- ried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. J^dam (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were employed fo personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the disguise." On this topic, however, consult Polyhius, vi. 51, 52. — Ciceru, pm Mil. \ 3— JJio yi Cassius, !vi. 134. — Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 2. — Suetujiius, Vesp. 19. 4. " As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the senators some- times on these occasions went attired like knights, the niagisiraies like senators, &c., and that the common wear for mourners was black. . But we may ftirther remark, that though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, used alike by both .^exes ; yet after the establishment of the empire when abundance of party colors came in Jashion, the old primitive white grew so much into contempt, thai at last it became proper to the women for their mourning clothes. — 1 he matter of fact is evidetit tr<»m ihe autho- rity of Plutarch, who states this as the subject of one ol his problems [or Questions, cf P. V. *ji 249. 2] , and gives several reasons for the practice." K.nnell. § 341. The place of burning, as also of interrinor, was without the city. In case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile {rogus, pyra) already prepared, its heijjht being in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased. Upon this they lay the corpse, havinor sprinkled it over with spices or anointed it with oil ; it is then kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it with averted face (aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed by the deceased, were thrown upon the pile: also various things which were presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When the w hole was con- sumed, the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collecting of the bones [ossikgium) ; these were placed in an urn {ftralis unia) of clny, stone, or metals, along with some of the ashes, also spices and perfumes, and some- times a small phial of iears (lachrymae) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited in the earth (^tumulus) or a tomb [sepiikhrum, cunditvrium, cinerarium). 1 u. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin calleci area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the dead {monvvieni a) was a very common, almost universal practice. They were not always raised over the spot of burial. 2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at least a mound of earth (tumulus). When a monumental sfruciure was erected, it usually received an inscription {tifvlns, epifaphium) with the name of the deceased, and some- thing of his life and character. In the sepulchral monument, part of which is given in our Plate XXXVL the square pannel, seen between the representations of the Dii Manes:, was occupied by an inscription. Sometimes a bust of the deceased was at- tached to the monument. Columns or pillars, particularly small cippi, for sepulchral Inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Romans, as well as the Greeks vcf '^ lfi7). Sometimes an inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried in the earth ; and when the body was burned an inscription was placed on the urn con- taining the bones ; the inscription usually began, as on the urns preserved in the British Museum, with the letter!=;'P. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manihus Sacrum. — Monuments .lot on the spot of bivrial {fiimvli innnes or cenotaphia) were erected among the Romans "<^^r thf same reasons as among the Greeks. .'.'. There were public and private places of burial. The public were commonly it> :}X>x>K ^).i p. Ill DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. 303 the Cainpusi Martius or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom the honor of such a burial-place was conferred by vote of the senate. 'I'hose for the poor were without the Esquiline gate, and called puticiilcp.. The private burial-places were usually in gardens or fields near the highways; the sides of some of the roads leading to Rome were occupied by tombs for the distance of miles from the gales of the city. 4. One of the streets discovered at Pompeii is called the street of the tombs. The family tomb of Naevoleia Tyche, excavated here, may be considered a fair reprpsentaiion of such structures amon? the Romans generally. " It consists of a square building, cf)ntainirig a small chamber, by the side of which is a door giving admission to a suijll court stirrnundt^d by a high wall. The entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the f^uter wall there rise two steps, supporting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a bas-relief and inscrip- tion. — A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round the funeral chamber, and seve- ral niches for the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called cohimbarin from their resemblance to the holes of a pigeon-house. Some lamps were found here, and vianii urns, three of glass, the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them fifteen inches in height by ten in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. Tliey contained burnt bones, and a liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, wine, and oil. This liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the ashes." — In 1780, the beautiful antique called the Sarcophagus of Scipio, preserved in the Museum Pio-Clementiuum, was found in a tomb near the Appian Way. It is of the stone calli-d peperino or '^ lapis Jllhavus, a volcanic production found near the lake of Albano." Visconti, in describing it, says, "est du peperin le plus compact, et a douze palmes do long, sur six de haut et cinq de large." The inscription on it is given under the head of Roman inscriptions ; see P. IV. $ 133. 2. A bust with a corona on the oead was found in the same tomb. 5. Common tombs are said to have been usually built under ground, and called kypo^ec^ INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. Aj3-iix3aK£vaTa, 190 A/yr/?r?Ao(, 163 AyaOospyoi, 190 A/a/Vo-a, 147, 222 'AyfAai, 189, 192 AycXiJOTot, 192 Ay£Xur„;. 192 'AyA-otw., 202 'Avvnpa, 200 'A_\aia. 127 Ayi'(T//oi, 147, 163 Ayopai, 17, 32, 33, 36, 183 'Ayjparoj, 109 •'lypt'jjyta, 168 Ayparspa, 102 'AyYJfaXoi, 156 AyX'OT^ta, 220 Ayojyj?, 189 - Ayu)!/ CTnTa'pid;, 174; £va'6pla;. 171 'Ay^yrj t£poi 173 AycjytcTai-, 175 'Aywf>9£ra(, 175 'Avo) 'O'jsrr?,-, 171 'A6h]!,avia, 119 "aJ3(^, 214 'A-^i?. 99, 100, 221 'Ar^v.'aToi. 183, 199 'A-^irOyieO 'Mma, 168, 169. 'Ac^M^iaj/io;, 169 'A(5cuj'r(5(a, 169 'Asicrirof. 187 'AfK/i'iyra, 187 'A'9/7'a, 104 'AOrj'ai, 28 'A6/7i/a(a, 171 'A'?»7'''7, 28 'A9\r,rai, 175 'A9\o9£ra(. 175 'A9Xo., 172 Aiya'^ai, 188 Aiyioxoj, 104 Aiyig, 104 AlW^, 204 A1k\ov, 190 Atyiy/iara, 207 AIoXo,-, 113. 116 Wpsrol, 180 Aira' 220 AlrrirtKa, 163 Airia, 185 Af>aXwrrtf, 159, 199 A(\/-t>), 153 A( 'pai, 176 Avarioi/, 202 'AKC(Tropi(](u, 162 'AKEarpa, 218 'A'cii'avrjj, 196 'Ax-ffW!/, 108 'A(f/ad9£7-Oi/, 108 Afo^noi/, 153 AK'oyrio'fj, 173 'AKpariapia, 204 'A/fpo/JoXiorai, 194 |A.fpo9tj.,a, 149, 199 'AKpuKEpaia, 202 'A/fp«5i/(a, 200, 204 'AK-pOTToXtf, 29 'A«-po3T(5X(a, 200 'AKpojrripia, 204 A/crata, 178 'Akt/?, 28 'AKCJKri, 153 ''A/fcjy, 153 'AXaXay^udf, 193 AXftjU^uara, 210 |AXjr-rai, 210 'AX£:!7rr(7ptoy, 210 'A\£Krp"uixa-^reia, 168 'AXt^rirfipia, 153 AXs^iVaTOj, 101 "AXej op-jKrol, 262 AXs'ipo/^ajTEia, 167 'AXii/V(s, 173 "AX//a, 172 "AXf Snof, 207 'AXrJjpjf, 172 'AXtrrat, 173 'AX)rupX:-7f, 173 'AX-rja, 112, 168 'A^a^(5j/£f, 131 ''A/i-nf, 208 ' A IX l)i,S\ri7Tpov , 158 ' An'Piyvrizii , 107 'Aix'PiKTWvia, 183 ' AfxpiKTno'jiKa a9\a, 174 ' Ajx;/:/ara, 186 305 306 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. B\avrai, 208 Bor]6poiiiuiv , 60 Bddj>oi, 149 BoioTupxai, 192 Bo\li, 202 Bd^/?)f, 168 B6//6.ii, 298 Bopmf, 128 Borous 212 Boi-at, 189 Bo>)Ovrai, 163 BouXaoi^, 33, 184 BovXevaig, 186 BouXfurat, 177 BouXEUrnpia, 32 Boi<\ei)Tripiov, 184 BouXr?, 177, 184 Bowf, 213 Bpa/?ao(/, 172 Spavp^via, 168 Bpoyrcroi/, 176 Bpoi/rrjrdf, IL Bpo^Of, 158 Bpoxof, ir~ 191 Uvpfra, 5 1 Bi5(7(oj, 166 BmhoI, 148, 160 Bw//df, rcji/ S-oSsKa, 87 FaXafcrdcrTroj/tJa, 147 Fa/i^Xia, 96 TajxriXioiv, 61 TanriXtot S:eoI, 220 IVf, 206, 218, 220 I'aarpa, 200 l"(X(Trp?7, 167 TaarpoijavTSia, 167 r£((T(7rO(5(o-/^ara, 210 Fci/^ffia, 222 Terr?, 177, 189 Frpajog, 176 Fepda/crat, 188 Tepo'ma, 190, 192 FEfpo:/, 196, 198 Fspcoivta, 190 Fe^-pa, 200 Ffw/idpoi, 192 Ftyaj, 125 TiYVpa, 217 FfyypaiTa, 169 F(yypa(T/idf, 169 Viyypris, 169 FtyypiV • 1 69 rXa'm^mi^. 105 FXai;^, 213 rXevKos, 204 f vaft-og, 264 I'vmioi, 220 rj')?o-(Of, 162 IV'iOi aeavTOv, 165 Fi/w//Mi', 60 Foi'ijTrErEri', 147 Fopy(5i.£f, 130 Fopytfj/ioj/, 131 Topyvoa, 187 Fpa(v«l, 141 rpan^arcvs, 181, 182, 193 'oa0>7, 186 Fpr^ot, 207 Fpu^, 132 Tvr}q, 242 TvQuov, 38 FvXioi/, 154 TvpLvaaiapxioi, 182 rfui^aari??, 175 Fwai/ceroy, 159 TvvaiK^v, 159, 210 A ^a^ovxo?, 170 AatpLOveg, 129 AaiixovoXrjnroi, 167 Aairpdj, 207 Aa^cruXoi/ aips, 173 Aa/fTuXof, 214 Aai/ax-;), 221 Aa7/^toi)pyo[, 193 Af5po(, 177. 178 Anixoaioi. 180, 181 Ar?w, 112 Aia(3aBpa, 208 AiaypaipeTg , 182 A(d(5)7//a, 150 Airtr5d7£tf, 183 A(a9>7f^, 221 Atair^jral, 186 Ata«-rwp, 109 AiaXKaKrfipioi, 186 Atavoptai, 183 Aiapx^, 190 Aia'iX^pdpoi, 172 Airt'-Xof, 172 AiMprtXpov, 213 Aidvpnix,Sog, 109 Ati'TToXfta, 168 AiVai, 186 AiKata, 221 AiK-aviK-oi X(|yo(, 204 AiKaarai, 185 AiKacTTtifJiov, 185 AivAj, 117, 127, 180, 186 Ai/cpora, 154 AiKTva, 158 A£//(ixa(, 194 Aiovvaia, 168, 169 Acdi/uo-oj, 109 AiOTTZTr], 160 AioaripLeTa, 167 AwCTKoiJpia, 136 AtQff^O'jpoi, 135 A£7rXrtt7(aCT//df, 197 AiTTuXoi/, 28 Atc/fOf, 173 Aitpdepai, 209 A((/)po;, 153, 157 Aia, 209 FApeveg, 189 E,>>7i/^, 117,127, 197 EiVayyEXia, 186 Tjlg7rdTra(, 170 EtO 'pjLVLOl, 87 'ETraxop:5o;, 216 jETW^tj, 209 'Et-i3vu^o(, 188 'E-wn'tJef, 202 "Kpavoi, 157, 206 'Epa-w, U.b 'Epydi/??, 105, 119 'EpyaoTOcal, 171 'Epyartf, l05 'Epjrai, 202 'Ert^r/^oi, 202 'Eprrpta, 32 'Epsx^nV, 29 'Y.pk\Qciov, 29 'Ecirj.'i^u£s, 128 "Ep(f, 115 "Eora;, 160, 222 "Y.pjxa, 200 "Epjitiia, 168 "Ep//(ira, 208 'Ep/zi?;, 108 'EpuKDips?, 189 •'Epw,-, 106 ■'BjOnixa, 209 r.TTT^picr^ia, 204 'EjTia, 113, 212 'Ej-riaaif, 182 'Ji,7riar6pLOi/, 210 ■'E-narcop, 206 'ETXupa, 212 'ETXapruj, 203 'Erai'pa, ] 06 'B-aipai, 220 'F.r{:p:^^a{7X'MXoi, 180 E'layyeXiKPi dno'kitig, 272 E-^^^rj, 181 EuBivoi, 180 E:V.t(5f;, 128, 168 E'>ixo\m6a(, 162 E ■> 'r,, 200 E'wo/xia, 117, 127 E'V^xof, 164 E-V,', 128 Ew£/?P7j, 164 Evrepirrt, 126 Jii.Xai, 147 Ev(ppocTVi^r/, 127 ■'E'/iffJpof, 171 'El^Eoria, 168 'El)£arpig, 209 'E'/>£ra£, 185 "EpnUoi, 189, 190 'E'/))7y)77ij, 186 'E'/)(aXr>7j, 167 'E/)i'7r7r(Ov, 266 'E^ada'a, 197 'Eppzlcv, 190 ■'E'/)opo;, 170, 190 'E0 'i;!»7, 218 'E,Y£rXr7, 212 "Epr,pia, 204 'E^j, 59, 114 Zf'jyiraf, 177 Zsy n-irep, 95 ZsiJj, 94, 95 Zfuj ffT-vyiOf, 100 Zr(6i5pof, 128 Z?/iia, 186, 191 Z')ya, 200, 202 Z'jyta, 96 Z'jyrrat, 202 Z'jyai, 197 Zyydf, 196 Zw^tnj jx^Xag, 191 Z5^/j, 153, 208 Zojar)7p£j, 200 Zioorpoj/, 209 H 'HXavar??, 202 'HXtai'a, 185 'HXiaorai, 181, 185 "Hhos, 100, 114 'HXwrpo-io;^, 60 "Hpap, 59 'Hixepa, 114 'H,uipaj apnayi, 115 'H/z£po5pd/zO(, 199 'H/i(£/froy, 214 '}ilxt9copaKio >, 194 'Hyi'oi(;o;, 153 'UTra-ofTKOTTia, 167 "Hpa, 96 'Hpafa, 96, 168 Hpiai irvXai, 222 'Hptoi/, 222 'Horoa, 222 'H'/iaiVrefa, 168 "HpaiTrOj, 107 'HY^ra, 176 'H.3j, 59, 114 "• Q OaXauirat, 202 eaU'nog, 220 e,iXaa, 126, 127 GaXXot, 147 Qa\\o(p6poi. 171 Oa.-aroj, 130, 187 Gapy/yXKbi/, 61 Qa )Xc/jy('(5a(, 162 Gcai aeixval, 184 Qkarpov, 33 QEixt\ioq, 202 e>(£f, 117, 188 eEOI AAEAi>OI 124 Geoc o[ /iEydXot, 87 GeoXoytroi/, 176 Qsojiavreia, 166 OeuiAafreig , 166 e£0(£i/(a, 31 QeoTrponot, 164 Osoiipyol, 162 Qepiarpioi', 209 QeafxoOerai, 181, 185 OOT/zot, 188 &eaiiO(p'jpsTov, 171 Qsajioipopia, 112, 168, 170 eeaiioipdpog, 112, 170 Gsroi, 220 Gfwpiva, 176, 183 G£wpoi, 164, 174 G%»?, 222 G^o-£(a, 135 G^r£j, 160, 177 Qpauirai, 202 Gpai/of, 202 GpJjii'Of, 221 GpiVuj, 157 Qpnvcoi' tlapxoi, 221 (-piyxos, 222 GptrJal, 206 9p''?, 208 ; di/(5pa77-o^-jj(5/75 , 180 Gpo^/of, 157, 212 evsWac, 128 Q"jxiaiJia, 163 e<5of, 147 Gvpa, 210 Gup£df, 196 Oopso:p6poi, 194 G'lpi^Ef, 210 Guo-iat, 147 0'>a(5£j, 162 Gura;, 162 Scop'iKtov, 198 G.Spa(, 153, 194 1 'luKXos, 170 'I'iXj/i9(, 221 'IJarof, 95 Ifpd, 28, 160 'l£pflt 0,iXayr, 220 'Ifp£(at, 162 'lepdo:/, 163 'hpeig, 162 'T£po^((5,j(7,ifaXo(, 162 'Irpdpo'iXoi, 163 'ItpofxavTua, 167 'l£p(J/ii/)7//aJ!/, 163 'V^ 117 ■l£poTO(oi, 162, 170 '\F,po(jKo-nia, 167 'IfpofTuXia, 186 'l£po?;pyot, 162 'IspotpxvTai, 162, 170 'IzpopavTrig, 170 T£po0ai/rt(^£f, 162 l>c£r£a(0;, 95 'Ivpia, 200 IXaj/^ds, 163 llamiKa, 163 "IXw J 97 'I/-7p, 172 Kauri^jiopoi, 172 Kdi/0apof, 207 Kavihf, 172 KaTTwJdv?/, 210 KaTi^o/za'-fia, 167 KapPari.'ai, 208 Kap\;'70'(0j', 207 Kipvcia, 168 Iv.ira.Ja^/^ij. 54 KnraSXtjriK^l, 173 Karu/JoX»>, 206 Karaypa/)/). 193 KaruXoyOf, 193 Karan-fXrai, 198 l-'arUTTOlTfCr/yCif, 187 Karaaraat;, 193 Kara.dpdy/i/ara. 202 KariippaKroi, 194 Krtr?7yop['a(, 186 Kdrorrrpa, 209, 212 ICaroji/aAf/j, 209 ilOS INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. K'ai.'crta, 208 nayr,7C[0i/, 263 Reuviij, or KaiaSag, 1S7, 191 Ke'^'^ttiv, 178 i\f.ic''ia\oi, 208 K*,.^vcrrr,s, 203, 282 AtX)7r£f, 154, 172 Ksi/fjpirt, 223 KevoTdpia, 191, 223 Kfyrr;cr(5, 191 Kiyrpoc, 266 Kepafa, 202 KepajuiKOi , 32 Kspajuiuf, 263 K£pa//(o7pof, 220 KX^/pwrot, 180 KXr?r»7p£s, 185 KX>^r.jp, 185 k-\rpa«f, 198, 210 KXimi, 206 KX(i/»7, 212, 221, 302 KXidif, 197 KXtiT/xoj, 157 KXotdj, 187, 191 KXw9(j, 128 F\i'i7(ur(5£f. 153 Ki'iaari, 148 Koy^, l70 KoiVi'Oi, 208 KoOopm;, 176 Ko(Xf/x/?oAui/, 197 K'ot'Xr;, 200 KoTXui, 60 Ko/vnrijpioj/, 223 Koirn, 212 Koirwv, 210 Ko/^r?, 208 KouTol, 202 Koi/TO(p6poi, 194 KottIj, 191, 196 KoTTTTa, 214 Kopai, 208 Kopq, 213 Kopo-??, 208 Kdp"/i/?oj, 208 Kopi3i/>j, 196 Kdpuj, 153 Kdajxoi, 191 Kdrti/Of, 173 KoTvapug, 207 Kori5A?7, 214 Kdrurrcd, 119 Kovpoi, 207 KdxXo(, 198, 214 KoxXiapioi', 214 KoxXioi/, 214 Kpai/og, 153 Kpanlpsf, 207 Kpar/)p, 204, 207 KpfiSsix.'ov, 208 Kp,-;/^i/df, 187 KpnmSes, 208 KpjjTrt's, 222 Kpidf, 198 Kpcvixiiru. 217 K/>w>7, 218 ]/?£p^fJ7-r7f, 203 K"PiarT}(ng, 175 KvPlfTTrjrfjpEg^ 216 Kf;KXof.32, 62, 194 I«X(?, 207, 297 VvXiaig, 173 K'iXXo7rd(^)7f, 107 Ki5/^^aXa. 217 Kvvkr], 153 Kijyr/ydj, 102 Kvi/do-o'ipa, 188 K'u'Offoupfrrf, 188 Rvroj, 200 Kvp'jjy, 187, 191 K (W, 217 KwXurcfui. 167 K'OyxOf, 119 K '>vet(,u, 187 KM-at, 202 KwTr/Xaraf, 202 Ka),Tt7pr?. 200 Kwf, 187 A AoKKOf, 149 AaKcoviKalj 208 AajuTratJojj' r]nkpa, 170 AdpvUKEf, 221 Aafffiioi/, 196 Adipvpa, 199 Aajceo-tj, 128 AEJTTOi/aurat, 204 AeiTTOvavTWu, 186 AEtTTOoTpdrtoz/, 186 AaTTOrd/crat, 199 Aenrora^iou, 186 Aeironpyt'ai, 181 AEKTpou, 149, 220 AcTrraXiat, 217 Aenroif, 213 Al(7X?7, 189 Acwaf^K, 91 A£VKO)na, 181 Aixof, 212, 220 Ariio;, 209 A)7fi)0o(, 221 Afifaia, 169 A?7^tapxo(, 181 Ai7^tf, 185 Arjn), 116 AidofioXia, 187 At9o/36Xoi, 198 Ai0o(, 196 A (00? npaHip, 180 Aiixvdrat, 188 AtVa, 158 AijI/, 128 Ai'x'J'^o;, 216 Aoydt^ij, 191 Aoytro!/, 176, 247 Adyta, 164 Aoyiarai, 180 Aoy£crr(7j, 203 AoiPal, 147 Ao^ia;, 101, 166 A')i)Tfipv}v, 212 A'Jvrpd:/, 210 AoiptTo-y, 212 Ad'T£vuara. 164 !\Iavr(K-r/, 164, 166 MapTVptg, 185 Mapriipfoi/ y£i/£0X(a, 222 i\Iacrr(yO!,V)po(, 174 iMacrrt'ycoiTij, 191 MdoTff, 260 Mrtxaipa, 196 Mi^ijui'Of, 214 M£iXixai, 173 MtXirj, 153 M£:Xtcr7roi'(57,\:q!/)7, 176 M(Xr07:dp)70i, 200 MiffQdf PovXevTiKOs, &c. 183 MiVpa, 208 MtVp,,, 194 Mi/d, 213 Mvfjua, 222 Mi/)7p£:roK, 222 Mvrjarpov, 220 Mi/ota, 192 i\ld0w)/£f, 189 MoFpat, 128 MoXtt;;, 207 MoXvPSvvai, 153 MdfauAoj, 217 Moj//';p£(f, 154 MoyoKpoTa, 154 Moi/o//dxo(, 244 Mdpaf, 188, 197 Mop I at, 171 Mop(p£Vg, 130 Mop^!);?, 130 Mo'ji/uxi'a, 33, 61 Movuvx'ov, 31 INTouyuxi^'Ji', 61 Movcrai, 126 iMow£roi/, 31 MovaiKr], 216 Mo 'lut/crj iX/iXij, 216 iVbi9ot, 83 ■> MTj9oXoyta, 83 ^ItJXof OvlKOg, 264 MvXwy£f, 180 Ari.p(d/?/7, 29 ]No9o[, 220 Noiieis, 200 • No^£^a, 221 NofjLicrixa, 213 ■ No^o9fra£. 181 Nd;/0(, 216 No/zoj, 188 ISojxolivXaKsg, 172, 181, 190 Norof, 128 Nvufai, 126 N'Ti'pala, 126 N3/^'irj, 212 ££;/(a, 207 " E^yto,-, 95, 158 -.evoi, 178 'S.tarrjg, 214 E':/£i,oof, 130, 167 OjeipodKOTToi, 167 'O^u/Mtrs, 198 'O^iJ,- ptjy.xoj, 54 '0-((79ddVo?, 29, 160 "0-Xa, 202 'OTrXrrat, 153, 193 ' O~\LT0ip6^l0L, 172 "OTrXoy, 194 "Opaixa, 167 'Opyaj, 162 ''Opym, 169 'Opyu(d, 214 'OpecTLKOiTo;, 102 "Opdiog, 216 'OpBonaXi}, 173 "Opxia -iiiveiu, 164 "Opviof, 95 "OpKOg fSovXevTiKog, 184 "Opraf ixtyag, 163 "OpiioL, 33 "Op/xoj, 208 'Op^CaKOTTOL, 167 'OpviOofiauTCig, 167 'Opo-ti/f^Jij, 95 "Opuy//a, 187 ""Op.XT^ruj, 207 Ojta, 221 "Ojtot, 166 'Oo-tcjrnp, 166 'O7K0tl>6pia, 168 'O7/iarwi', to l7 rai, 182 YliOfxa, 153 'PaP6oixai^T£ia, 167 •Pci^Jof, 260 'Pa/?coy:\;ot, 173 'PvKpavoi, 206 'Par^tf, 218 •P»7rop£f, 181 'P;7rpa(, 191 'Piil^aaniSes, 199 'Pti//<5, 173 'Pod&r,, 218 'PoJoJuxTuXof, 115 'Pd(5oj/ vno, 206 Pv/iara, 202 'PiiffOJ, 212 Torov, 207, 297 S^ay'Jj"?, 158 '^•'^Yl^'^, 194 2aA7r(yy£f, 198, 217 SaXTTty/crfjj, 196 5:dA7rty^, 217 ^apPvKrj, 217 Sa/a77i, 214 Sai^^aAa, 208 2a/(f, 187 Saptwa, 196 "ZapKOcpdyo; , 221 m^mra, 246 2£(o-t\0wj/, 98 Sfrarpoi/, 217 S£An!/?7, 101, 114 SsAti^oy, 175 2£AAot, 164 Si7KOM,,212 S»7wj, 160, 170, 222 ^filia. 222 S^//£ra, 198 "Eriixeiocpdpog, 196 S((5£«fa£, 189 '^.irapiov, 214 Ztrrjaii tv irpvTavdo} , 187 i:trOfi£('a, 212 •SiroJoK-ai, 212 EiTOTTwAat, 212 Jiro,-, 212 X(ro0iiAa/c£f, 212 S(rw', 112 SaA/iOt, 202 YKa/u//a, 172 l'>ca;/)»7(/idpO(, 171 Sk-eAtj jxaKpa, 29 Skct??, 222 SK-£i;>7, 200 'ZKrivji, 176 YKrinzpov, 150 HKia^rj'popla, 180 i;;f(a<5>7(idpo(, 172 SKtcif, 190 S/ftAAa, 163 "ZKioiiavTEia, 167 Sfi'poi', 128 "ZKifpocpopuov, 61 SfdA(Oj/, 207 SVOTTOf, 172 S^OAa, 199 S/dJAal, 163 Sx-ur.iA?/, 199 E'curdAia, 196 SdXoj, 173 Sopol, 221 ^opoi, 123, 302 1.Tr apriov, 214 •ZTrriXaiov, 222 ^.TTiBaiin, 214 STrArtyX^Off/cOTria, 163 SffXayXi-'dcrwrrOf, 163 STTO^toj, 162 S7roi/(5at, 147 STTOyJr), 163, 197 YraSioipopioi, 172 SraJwi/, 32, 172 UrdXiKes, 158 2rari7p, 213 Eraupdj, 187 ^reipr,, 200 Yre^Hara, 147, 163 YT£(pai'r](p6pog ^ 171 "Lrt^avoi, 187 llTF^avos, 148, 191 2r£(^oj, 148 Xr)7Xa(, 222 SrJjXrj, 149, 187 5;r)7jwwi/, 218 2riy/xa, ISO, 187 llTixoi, 197 STf^O/uaiTfta, 167 SrXfiyyif, 210 Utoo. jxaKpa, 33 Sroai, 31 YToXapxo?, 203 SroXn, 209 SrdAoj, 200 YrpaTTTyia, 196 Srpa-rjyds, 190, 193, 196, 203 Hrpana, 196 STpa70«')7pii^, 196 2rpoyyi3A/7, 116 Srpd0(Oi/, 209 ^Tpajptara, 206 Suyyfwia, 220 Suyy£i/£rj, 220 Swo!/, 212 YvKOipavria, 186 Suwc^ai^rat, 186 YvfifitAa, 168, 197, 198, 207 I.vn(io\n, 206 1.vp[So}poi, 160 Si'/^/^axra, 197 ^vnixopiai, 182 S^/wdo-m, 207 Sv/i7r0(7(apX0f, 206 2vi/(5(W(, 181 Sw)7yopo(, 181, 185 HwdfixT], 197 2w%a7a, 198 Xvi'vaoi, 160 2uj/oJof ^ AfKplKTVOVtM 183 ^VVOlKETai, 160 YvvTayjia, 196 l^P'yr, 217 Suao-trta, 190, 206 D^ayfto/', 148 'Ecpayis, 148 "Z^paipa, 216 Y.tpsvSovr], 153 2\;£6£a(, 200 SxotJ'O/^drat, 202, 244 Sxofj'a, 202 2(j3r££pa, JlcJTrjp, 29 T Tati^ia, 209 TaKTlKOl, 197 TuAai/roi/, 213 TaX£/xoi, 221 Tajxiai Twv hpwv, 162, 182 Ta/xia;, 203 Tajxias npoaoSov^ 182 rwi/ QcoipiKWv, 176 Tai'DTrripuysf, 167 Taltapxot, 196 TflltJ, 196 Td(j>oi, 222 T£y£ot, 210 T£0p(7r7ro(, 172 TtlXOg VOTIOV, &C. 31 TeKajiuiv, 194 Te\£.aaiyaixoq, 106 TeXet^?, 163, 169 T£A,7, 181 TeAoj, 196, 197 Te^dvai; 182 T£/.£j^o?, 160, 162 Tkpirn, 172 Tepipixopri, 126 Tccrcrapdx'Oi/ra, 186 Terpaerrjplg, 60 TfrpaXoyi'a, 171 TsTpd(x)pot, 172 T£rpr7p£(s, 202 T£rpw/?dAou /?ioj, 193 Tf rnyjf, 208 TipirJixaTa, 181, 186 Tot'xapxo?, 203 Tor^ot, 200 To Kaii/df, 186 Td|UOupo£, 165 Td^oi/, 153 T^OT-at, 181 To^o0dpof, 101, 102 ToTTfra, 202 TpaTC^a hvrkpa, 2D6 Tpd7r£<;ai, 222 TpaTCjOTTOfdj, 207 Tpd(/),;f, 200 Tpfipara, 200 Tp(aK-d(5£f, 177, 188 222 Tpialag, 173 Tp(/?wj.'(Oi/, 209 Tpiycjvov, 186, 217 'Tpt£T£piKO\ , 174 Tpirjpapxia, 182 Tpifjpapxoi, 182, 20'i INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 311 rpiripav\tji, 203 rpt»)paff, 154, 200,202 TpiKiati/6X77?, 209 ^a>car, 206 aXayyapxta, 196 aXay|, 196, 197 dXapa, 194 ^aXrjpdj/, 33 4>aX»c(j, 200 ^aXos, 153 ai'racr/ia, 167 ^apkrpa, 153 ^dpnaKU, 168 ^apiiaKEia, 168 ^aOjua^for, 186, 187 'J'apof, 157, 208 ■^ao-i?, 186 £yyir)7j, 290 ^ei^iria, 190 ^epsrpov, 149, 221 ^Epi'r;, 220 «J>£{!ywi', 185 ^rinai, 168 i1/if?, 118 <^0orf, 170 ^ia\T], 207 jaX(r5£?, 221 iX??rop£j, 220 *tXma, 190 $tXo/l££0>)?, 106 «J>tXd^£)/o(, 207 6/?,?, 208 ^O^flTCjp, 130 't>or/?oj, 100 'f'oi'Ofwj/, 'Etti TfOl', 185 6i^os, 186 ■^opjjiiy^, 216 ^i5pot, 181 pi:aro., 32 ^pfarror, 'Ei/, 185 ^puyi'oi'coi/ epyou, 218 *uyi7, 187, 191 *uXat, 177, 178 ^vXuKal, 197 <^vXdpx/??, 194 ^vXapxof, 181, 196 ^vXo^atTiXeig, 185 T;o-K?7, 206 •^WVIKCL, 198 Xair/j, 208 Xa'XKEia, 107, 171 XaX/cioi/co?, 36 Xa\KOvs, 213 'K.apia-Tfjpia, 163 Xdptrtf, 127 Xap (jiSrjpa, 203 XsipOTOvrjTol, 180, 183 Xstporoj/ra, 182, 183 XtXtvapara, 200 XeXwi/?;, 198 Xepi/t!//, 148 X7;i'iffOTf, 200 XtXiapJC'a, 196 XiXiapxoi, 196 Xtro)!/, 157, 208 XiToivri, 102 XXoti/a, 157. 208 XXai/if, 209 XXtJw)/, 209 Xoai, 147, 149. 22'> Xori/t^, 187, 214 ' Xopnyia, 182 Xop^yyot, 182 yiopog, 176 Xoi)f, 214 Xpf?//a, 213 Xprinara OeoypiKa, 176 XpriixaTtapog, 167 Xpr](Tpoi, 164 XprjafjLoXoYOi, 164 Xpi]aixO(p6poi, 164 Xprjarfipia, 164 Xpipara, 210 Xpiffrdj, 272 Xpdj^Of, 91 X«/ia, 149,198, 222 faXrJyptoi/, 217 trXXjoi/, 209 ffi(piaiia, 183, IBS *i70ot, 183 *ta0ta, 186 ^tfiiJpa, 217 *(Xot, 153, 194 'ivfXop.avTEia, 167 *uXo<'"'"ao''«, 100 a 'll/?al, 188 'il^Etoi/, 32 'll(5£Afai, 167 "Slia, 210 'SlpoOsTE'lVj 148 'lioaAfOTTia , 167 "flpat, 117, 127 T" INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Ablecti, 277, 278 Accerisi, 252, 276 Accipe libMTis, 238 Accuhiia, 291 Acciisjilor, 259 Acerra, 232, 239 Acelabiiliim, 268 Acidalia, 106 Aries, 275, 282 A( irincep. 100 Aclid(;s, 281 Aclia, 26 Actiofies in personam, ill rem, 259 Actiiis, 101 Actnr, 259 Actiiarias, 283 Acmarii, 252 Actus qnadratus, 268 Ad bpsiias, ad ludos, &.C., 260 Addict us, 267 Adjiidicarid, 268 Adtriovens 237 Adotiia, 106 Adoptio, -^88 Adoratiii, 237 Adrastia, 117 Adscriptilii, 87, 276 Adiilterii crimen, 260 Advocatns, 259 Adytum, 230 /Ecastor, 136 ^depol, 136, 239 -Edes sacra, 1 17, 230 .Ediles. 19, 246, 219 ^.ditui, 236 .E'.'pon, 125 ^?is, 104 Aello, 12S iElurus, 12t ^tiea fistula, 263 ^neatores, 274 iEolus, 116 ^rariiim, 256, 261 Africus, 128 Agaso, 278 A-ielse, 189 Agger, 15,280, 281 Agmen qiiadiatum, pilatum, &c. 278 Agmine, nno corili- nente, 276 Agnomnn. 2^6 Agonalia, 211 Agone, 237 AgorffiuS, 109 AgriiiiHtisorvs, 264 At'rntera, Ake, 276 Allia liiiea, 243 Alba Longa, 11 Alecto. 128 Ales, 109 Aliptre, 293 Allies, 2.')3 Altaria, 230 Alveiis, 2S2, 295 Amanuensis, 289 Amaracinum, 299 ' Miaracus, 107 .312 Ambarvalia, 112, 236, 241 Ambitus crimen, 260 Ambrosia, 109 Airtentum, 173 Amiculutn, 298 Ainor, 106 Amphigyeis, 107 Amphiilieatra, 19 Amphitrite, 98, 125 Amphora, 268, 296 Amtruare, 235 Anadyomene, 106 Anagnostae, 289 Anchora, 282 Ancile, 94, 235 Ancilia, 105 Anclabris, 230 Anculie, 120 Anculi, 120 Andabatae, 244 Angusticlavia, 256,298 Aniuia mundi, 116 Annates, 233 Annuli, 299 Annulus aureus, 256 Aniefixa, 263 Antennae, 282 Anleros, 107 Antesignani, 276 Anteslatio, 259 Antistites, 236 Anubis, 124 Aonides, 126 Apaluria, 109 A-pes, 264 Apex, 233, 235 Apis, 123 Aplustria, 282 Apodyterium, 293 Apotheca, 296 Apotheosis, 137, 304 Apparriores, 252 Aprilis, 61 Aquffiductus, 19 Aquiln. 128 Arae, 230 Aratnres, 289 Aratrum, 264 Arbiter bibendi, 295 Arbitri causarum, 259 Arbori suspendere, 260 Area, 302 Arcarius, 289 Archigallus, 94, 236 Archimagiri, 295 Archimimus, 300 Arcula thuraria, 232 Arcus triumphales, 19 Area, 204 Arena, 247 Areopagus, 32 ArL'eiitarii, 263 Argiva, 96 Aries, 281 Armamenta. 282 Armamentiim Chirur- gicum, 294 Armaria,' 290 Armi'sLer, 289 ArmillaR, 275, 300 Armilustrium, 242 Arrha hospitalis, 295 Arrogatio, 288 Ars figlina, 263 pistoria, 263 tincloria, 264 Arx, 17, 233 As, 266 Ascolia, 109 Aspergilluin, 232 AspersoriuiTi, 232 Asseres falcati, 281 Assertor libertatis, 289 Assessores, 259 Assipondium, 207 Astraea, 117 Astroiogi, 240 Asyla, 162 Asylum, 17 Atergatis, 106 Athena, 105 Ailantiades, 109 Atlamides, 114, 134 Atria, 254 Atriensis, 289 Atrium, 290, 291 Alropos, 128 Auctio, 268 Auctores classic!, 253 Augurale, 278 Auguratorium, 233 Aiigures, 232, 233 Augurium,233, 240 Augustales, 236 Augustalia, 242, 246 Augustus, 61 Aula, 290 Aulffium, 246 Aures, 264 Aureus, 267 Aurora, 114 Aurum coronariuni,284 Auspices, 233 Aiispicium, 233 Auster, 128 Auxilia,285 Avena, 264 Aversi, 302 Aviarium, 292 Avigerium, 233 B. Bacchse, 110 Bacchanalia, 168 Bacchus, 109 Balista, 281 Balistarii, 276 Balnea, 18,293 Balneator, 293 Balneatores, 289 Baphiuni, 264 Barritus, 274 Basilicaj, 17, 18,259 Bassareus, 109 Batilliis, 264 Baiiola;, 297 Baxa. 299 Bellaria, 294 Bellica, 105 Bellona, 105, 120 Berecynthia, 93 Bes, 286 Bestiarii, 244, 260 Bibendi arbiter, 295 Bic^:s, 93 Bidens, 264 Bifrons. 93, 267 Biga;, 266 Bimater, 109 Bipennis, 232 Bisellium, 254 Bis millies, 267 Bissextus, 62 Boia», 260 Bombycina. 298 Bombyx, 298 Bona Dea, 93, 244 Boreas, 116, 128 Bracca;, 209 Brachia, 29, 282 Brontes, 107 Bubo, 233 Bubona, 120 Buccinte, 272 Bulla, 299 Buris, 264 C. Caballi, 266 Cabiri, 136 Caduceus, 108, 124 Caducifer, 109 Cadus, 296 Caerites, 10 Cssia, 105 Cassias, 128 Calathus, 123 Calcar, 266 Calceus, 298 Calcei njgri coloriS; IX Calculi, 295 Caldarium,293 Calenda;, 61 Calices, 297 Caligae, 298 Calliope, 127 Calones, 278 Calumnia, 259 CamarEE, 283 Camilla, 238 Camilli& Camill!B,23e Camillus, 239 Caniinus, 291 CaitioenEe, 126 Campi, 16 Campidoctores, 280 Campus Martius, 16, 105, 239, 259 Campus sceleratus. 236 Candelabra, 232, 291 Candidati, 248 Canens, 130 Canis, 295 Canistra, 232 Caim()us, 124 Cantharus, 123 Canus, 91 Capedo, 232, 238 Capediincula, 232 Capillamentum, 299 Capillitia vola, 238 Capis, 232 Capile censi, 271 Capite velato, 237 Capiiium, 298 Capitolinus, 95 Capitolium, 17 Capsarii, 293 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 313 "apsum, 266 Capulum, 302 Caput, 267 Caput coenfE, 294 Carceres, 243 Cardines, 291 Care II urn, 296 ("larniPii seculare; 244 Cariuetilalia, 2U Caruiiiie cerio evo- car-', 239 Carna Dea, 242 Ciiruifex, 252 Carpentiiisi. 266 Carptor, 2-9, 295 Carruca, 2()G CasaB, 290 Casa Roimili, 17 Cassis, 274 Oastalia, 127 '^'astaiiiles, 126 Castra stativa, hiber- na. &c. 278, 280 Cat-^piilta, 281 Cataslaj, 289 Catellffi, 275 Catenae, 260 Caletiulae, 275 Cathedra, 254 Catdiiiidiare, 235 Caupona, 208 C:iusa, 2.59 Causae fidei bnnae, 259 Cavaedium, 290 Cavea, 246 Celoeiio, 128 Celeres, 270, 276 Cellae, 291 Ct-llaria, 291 Cnllarius, 289 Cella saiiclinr, 230 Cella vinaria, &:c. 291, 296 Ceriotaphia, 302 Ceusores, 250 Census, equester, 254 Cemauri, 131 Ceritesima reriiin ve- naiiuni, 262 Centesitua usura, 2&7 Centies, 267 Centiniaui. 113 Centuuisestertiiiiri,267 Centuiuvirale judi- cium, 259 CeriturioE, 272 Centuriata Coniitia, 257, 259 Ceniurio, 272 Cerberus, 100, 132 Cercopithecus, 124 Cereales, 246, 249 Cerealia, 112, 242 Ceres, 110 Cerili, 240 Cerussa, creta, 299 Cessio, in jure; extra jus, 268 Ceslus, 106 Chaldffii. 240 Chary bdis, 132 Chiniaira, 131, 132 (^hirurgi, 277 Chitoue, 102 Chlauivs,298 Chloris, 120, 242 Cibum, 294 Cilliba, 291 Cinerarii, 289 Cinerarium, 302 Cirigula, 96 linguluui, 266 Cinguiuni laiieum, 287 Cippi, 302 Cippus, 302 Circi, 1» Circuiiio vigilum, 280 Circulus auri, 299 Circus Flaininins, Sal- lustius, &c. 243 Circus Maxiuius, 18,242 Cisium, 266 Cista, 270 Cives, 258 Civitates foederatae,258 Clarigatio, 234 Ciassiarii, 282 Ciassici,253 Classicum, 274, 282 Ciassis, 282 Clathri, 290 Claustra, 291 C'laves, 291 Claviger, 93 Clavus, 282, 298 Clavus figendus, 242 Clepsydra, 60, 240 Clientela, 254 Ciima, 268 Clio, 127 Cliteilae, 266 Clitellarii. 266 Cloacae, 19 Clotho, 128 Ciusius, 93 CoBlus, 113, 116 CGBrnptin, 286 Coena, 293 Coenacula, 293 CcEna nuptialis, 2S7 Coena recta, 295 Coenationes, 293 Casus, 124 .C''gnornpn. 285 (Johors, 271 Cohortes vigitnin, 284 Coliseum. 19, 247 Cnllegia fabrorum, tig- narinrum. Lc, 263 Coliegiun!. 232 Collina, 120 Collis hortnlnrum, 16 Coilocalii), 300 Coinni. 290 Colonise, 258 Colossus, 42 Col urn, 296 (>)liimbar, 260 Columbaria. 303 Columella, 291 Coiumnae, 19 Columna lactaria, 287 Columnariuni, 262 Coluf?, 287 (Monies dioeceseos, 285 Comites, 285 Comiria, 234, 257, 259 Compitales, 129 Compitalia, 129,242 (Vnnpluviuui, 290 Comus, 119 Concilia, 257 Conciones, 257 Conclaniatio, 300 Concordia, 122, 242 Condere lustrum, 239 Condictio, 259 Conditorium, 302 Contarrealio, 286, 287 Congius, 208 Conjectores, 210 Connubiuni,28fi, 290 Conquisiiio, 271 Conciuisitores, 2.';2 Conscri[itio, 271 ConsHcraiin, 238, 304 Consentes, 87 Coiisivius, 93 Constitutiones,2Gl Conslratum navis,282 Consuales, 246 Consualia, 98,242 Consnlares, 2:^5 Consul desi2natus,248 Consules, 248 Consus, 98 Conliciniuin, 60 Contubernales, 278 Contubernium, 280,286 Convenlio in nianum. 288 Coqui, 295 Corbes, 295 Corneumsperi!lare,290 Cornicines, 274 Cornicula,275 Comix, 233 Cornu,217 Cornua, 272,282 Corona, 280, 303 Corona caslrensis,niu- raiis, civica, &c. 274, 275 Corona, emptio sub, 268 Corpus, 262 Correciores, 285 Corrigia, 298 Cortina, 247 Corns, 128 Corvus, 233, 281,282 Corybantes, 94 Cosineta,289 Cosmi, 191, 102 Cothurni, 299 Cotytto, 119 Covinus. 194 Crater, 297 Crates, 2-^0 Crepidae, 299 Crepnndia, 287 Creta,299 Cribrum, 113 Criinen inajestntis, peculatus,252, 259, 260 Crista, 274 Crius, 124 Crotala, 218 Cruci atfieere, 260 Cubicula,291 Cubicularii, 289 Cubicnlum, 247 Cucullns, 298 Cudo,274 Cnlcita,.291 Culeus, 260,268 Culina,291 Culter, 264 Cultrarius,232,236,237 Cultri,232 Cultrum, 104 Culullus, 232 Cumernm,287 Cnniaria,289 Cunei,247 Cuneus, 196, 275 Curatores aquaruin, 19 Curiae, 17, 18,236,2:2. Curia Saliorum,235 Curiones, 232, 236 Currus, 266 Cursus, 213 Cu rules, 249 (Gustos, 93 Cyatlius, 268, 297 Cybele, 93, 112 Cvclas,298 Cyll.Miius, 199 Cyllopodcs. 107 Cymbia, 297 Cynocephali, 124 Cyn'^ia, 102 Cynthius, 101 Cypria, 106 Cytherea, 106 D. Damnum, 260 December, 61 I Decemviri, 251 I Decennalia, 238 I Decreta, 261 I Decumap, 262 Decnnx, ]G6 Decuriae, 259, 272, 27* 288 Decuriones, 258, 263 270, 288 Dedi(aiio templi, 238 Defrutarinm, 296 Defriituni, 296 Delectus, 271 Delia, 102 Delins, 101 Delp icMs, 101 Delpbinus, 101 Delnbrum, 230 Dpuiarcbi, 181 DeniPiisum, 274 Denarius, 267 Dens, 264 Dentale, 204 Dei)orlati(). 260 Desiirnatores, 247 Detf-rsor, 289 Deiesiatio sacrorum, 288 Deunx. 266 Deus, 95 Devoiio, 239 Devovere, 239 Dexter, 233 Diana. 101, 114 Diana linbastis, 124 Dianus, 93 Dicatio, 238 Dicere diem, 259> 271 Dictator, 551 Dictynna, 102 Dies comiiiales, 257 fesii, fisli, &c. 241 Dies()iter, 95 Diffarrpatio,287 Digitus, 268 Dii niiijoruin et mino rum gentium, 87 Diis Mat.il)ns, 302 Dionysia, 109 Dioscuri, 135 Dioscuria, 136 Diota, 21.3,296 Dirae, 233 Diribitor,289 Diribitores, 257 Disci, 232 Disci jactus, 243 Dispensator, 289 Divortia, 287 Divus, 304 Dodrans, 266 Dolabra, 232,264 Do)ia,296' Domiiiiuni, 268 Dominns, 288 Domus, 20, 290 Dona, 302 Dona iriilitaria, 274 Donaria,230 Donatio, 268 l)..iiatiea,274 Doris, 98 Druid(r,237 Dryades, 126- l)uVes,285 Du'ciarius, 280 314 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Duodena scripta, 2(/5 Duplex acies, 275 Diiplicarii, 274 Duiiinviri, 238,239,252, 2,58,259,261,282 Dux, 278 Uyndymena, 93 E. Echidna. 132 Edicta, 261 Edicturii, 219, 256 Edicturii pe;petuuin, 249 Editor, 244 Eijeria, 96, 230 Ela5othesiuin,293 Slatio, 300 Eleusinia, 112 Elicius, 95 Elysiurn, 99 Emeriti, 275 Erneritutn, 275 Emptio sub corona, 268 Enceiadus, 125 Enclahris, 230 Etisis falcatus, 196 Eiiyalius, 105 Ephiitltes, 125 Ei)hippia, 266 Epibatae, 282 Epidelius, 101 Epilaenia, 109 EpistoisB, 261 Epitsenia, 109 Epitapliiuin, 302 Eoithalarnia, 287 EpuIiE, 234 Epulares, 234 Epulones, 232,234 Epuluin Jovis, 242 Equestris, 118 Equites, 214, 253, 278, 298 Equo publico merere, 256 Erato, 127 Erijfone, 117 Erycina, 106 Erynnis 112 Esseda;, 194 Essedarii, 244 Euripus, 247 Eurus, 110, 12R Euryale, 130 Euryphaessa, 114 Euierpe, 127 Evncati, 278 Excubite, 280 Exequiae, 300 Exerciuis, 2S0 ! Exilium,260 Exostra, 246 Expediti, 276 Exponere infantenj, 287 Exst-quise, 300 Exia mula, 234 Extispices, 233 Exlispiciutn, 240 Extraf»rdinarii, 251,277 Extreuiuni, 257 Fabiani, 235 Fibri,277 Fabricae, 280 Fabruui, 253 Factiones, 243 Fiiiina. 297 Faiarica, 281 Falces murales, 231 Falcifur, 91 Falnila, 264 Falsi crimen, 260 Falsun), 239 Falx, 261 Fama, 118 Familia, 235, 288 Familiffi jus, 258 Familiares. 129 Fanatici, 240 Fanum, 230, 210 Far, Farina, 264 Fasces, 232, 218 Fasciae, 299 Fascinatio, 24 Fascinum, 119, 240 Fascinus, 119 Fasti Annales, 241 Cnnsulares, 211 dies, 241 Kalendares, 241 Fastigium 291 Fauna, 130 Faunalia, 241,242 Fauni, 130 Faunas, 130 Febris, 120 Fehrua, 61, 100 Februarius, 61 Februatio, 241 FebruMs, 100 Feciale?, 232, 234 Femoralia, 299 FenestrEB, 290 Peralia, 241 Ferentarii, 276 Frtrelrius, 95 Feretrurn, 302 Feriae, 241 Feriae Laiinae, 11, 241 Feronia, 120 Ferreae manus, 282 Ferula, 260 Festi dies, 241 Festum mercatorum, 109, 242 Fibulae, 275 Fictile, 263, 297 Fides, 122 Fides Graeca, 164 Eidlcines, 236 Figlina, 263 Figiilus, 263 Fiscinae cnrbes, 295 Fiscus, 261 Flabellifer, 289 Flagellis, 260 Flagellum, 101,260,266 Flamines, 232, 235, 298 Flaminice, 236 Flaminica, 235 Flaminii, 236 Flammeum luteum,287 Flora, 120, 212 Floralia, 120, 242, 216 FInmina inferorum, 25 Foculi, 291 Focus, 291 Foederatae civitates, 258 Fcenisectores, 289 Fcenum, 264 F(enus, 267 Fotitinalia, 242 Fora, 17 Foramina, 282, 290 Forda, 242 Ford icidia, 242 Forfex 275 Fori, 242 Formae, 26,3 Forluoa, 118, 303 Fortuna Fortis, 242 virili^ 242 Forum, 17,259, 302 Forus, 295 Fossa, 280 Fraenum, 266 « Fratres Arvales, 232, 236 Fraus, 122 Friaidarium, 293 Fritillus, 295 Frumentarii, 277 Fucus, 299 Fulcra, 291, 294 Fulguratores, 234 Fullo, 264 Fullonica,264 Fu';!fmium, 264 Fuinarium, 296 . Funainbuli, 244 Funditores, 276 Funes, 260. 282 Funus indictivum, publicum, 300 Furiae, 128 Furina, 128 Furinalia, 128, 242 Fuscina, 244 Fustuarium, 275 G. Gaia, 93, 112 Galea, 274 Galericulum, 299 Galerus, 233, 274 Galii, 94,232, 236 Gallicinium, 60 Gailinarii, 289 Qallinarium,292 Gallus, 233 Ganymedes, 96 Gausape, 293 Gemoniae, 260 Genethliaci, 240 Genii, 129 Genio indulgere, 129 Gens, 285 Gens togata, 297 Genlilitia, 288 Gladiatores, 244 Gladius, 274 Gladius et hasta, 249 Glaucus, 98 Globus, 275 Gradivus Mars, 105 Gradus,217 Gratiae, 127 Greges, 243 Grus,28l Gubernaculum, 282 Gubernator, 282 Gustus, Gustatio, 294 Gultus, 232 H HabenaR, 266 Hades, 99 Haereditas, 268 Halcyoneus, 125 Hamadryades, 126 Harioli, 240 Harpagones, 282 Harpocrates, 121 Haruspices, 232, 233, 237 Haruspicina, 231 Hasta pura, 274 sanguinea, 234 velitaris, 274 venire sub, 268 Hastae, 274 Hastati, 271, 274, 276, 278 Hebdomades, 61 Hebe, 96 Hecate. 101, 102 Helirea, 186 Heliaslae, 181 Heliconiades, 126 Helius, 100, 114 Hemina, 268 Heraclidae, 188 Hercules, 134 Hermae, 109 Hermanubis, x24 Hermes, 108 Hesperides, 134 Hilaria, 94,236, 241 Hippocrene, 127, 131 Hippocrenides, 126 Hippodromi, 18 Hippolytus, 08 Ilippona, 120 Histriones, 300 Hocage, 237 Holocaustum, 238 Honor, 122 Honorati. 249 Horae, U7, 127, 240 Hora hiberna, brevi» si ma, 240 Hordeum, 264 Horologium, 60 Hortator, 282 Hortus, 292 Horus, 122, 124 Hospes, 295 Hostiae, 237 Hydra, 131 Hydraulis,217 Hygeia, 117, 118 Hyperion, 114,124 Hypogaea, 303 lapetus, 124 lasminum, 299 Idaea, 93 Idalia, 106 Ignis, 113 Ignominia, 251, 260 liitiiyia, 96, 102 Illustres, 2.56 Imagines-, 302 ImmOl ire, 237 Impedimenta, 277 Imperator, 257 Imperium, 283 Impluvium,290, 29J Inanes tumuli, 302 Inauguratio, 238 Inaures, 299 Incubalio, 166 Iiidigetes, 87 Inducula, 244 Indusiuni, 297 Infamia, 260 Inferiae,304 Infundibulum, 264 Ingeriui, 285 Ino, 125 Insigne, 232 Inslita, 298 Insulae, 291 Intercedere, 2.50 Intercisi dies, 241 Interdictus, 260 Interrex, 251 Interula, 298 Inuus, 116 Inventor, 95 Invidia, 122 Iris, 96, 115 Irpex, 264 Isia, 123 Isis, 122 1th in partes, 256 J. Jactus Veneris, 29} Jaculatores, 276 Janua, 93,290,291 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 315 Januarluo. 61 Janus, 18, 93, 267 Janus hit'rons, 267 Judices assessores,259 Judicia. 259 Juga, 96 Jugarii,239 Jiiurerutn, '-ifiS Jusrum, 264, 266 Jnlii,235 Junius, 61 Juno, 96 Caprotina, 2|2 Moneta, 242 Sospita, 241 Junonalia, or Junonia, 96 Junones, 96 Jupiter, 94; Termina- lis, 119; Latiaris, 284;Infernus, 100; Maitnactes, 242 Jura prnvinciarum, praefpcturarum, &c. 258 JuraiiienTuni, 239 Jurare conceptis ver- bis, 239 Juris iriterpretes, 250 ins iElianuni,261 civ'iiaiis, &c. 258 Fiavianum, 261 honorarium, 249 261 hospitii 295 imaginum, 254 Latii or Latinita- tis, 258 niililise, 258, 271 Papirianurn, 261, Pontificiurn. 24] Quiritium, 258,286 Jusjurandnm, 239 Julurna, 120 Juvenaies, 246 K. Kalendae, 61, 210 Kalendariurn, 211 Kinura, 217 L. La ha rum, 272 Lahyrinihu"!. 43 Lacerna, 298 Lachesis, 128 l.achryniae, 302 Lacry males, 303 l/icus, 19,296 Laena, 233,235,298 Lancese, 274 Lances, 232, 294 F/anificium, 264 Lanisla, 244 Lapis Albanus, 303 specnlaris. 290 Lapithae, 131 Laquearia, 290 Lararium, 12'' Lares, 129, 291 Lares Prasstiies, 212 Larvae. 129 Laierculus, 278 Lateres coctiles, 263 Latialis, 95 Laticiavia, 256, 298 Latomiae, 40 J,atona, 116 F/atiis claviis, 256 Laudatio, 302 Lavatio Mairis Deo- rum, 211 Laverna, 120 Lecti, 291 Lectica, 300 Leciicarii, 289 Lectisternia, 234, 239 Leclisterniator, 289 Lectus feralis, 300 Lectus summus, me- dlus. imus, 293 Legati, 252, 278 Legem accipere, jube- re, abrogare, &c., 261 Leges atrrariae, &c., 261 Curiatae, &c., 261 Legifera, 170 Legilimus,288 Leinnius, 107 Lemures, 129 Lemuria, 242 Lethum, 130 Leucanthes, 91 Lex aniialis, 248 Atinia, 261 Furia,261 Julia, 2S6 ■ Poppaea, 286 Porcia, 260, 283 Liba, 238 Libellus, 244 Liber, 109 Llheralia, 241 Libertatis jus, 258 Liberti, Libertini, 265 Libertina, 106 Libitinarius. 300 Libra, 266, 270 Librae, 266 Librarii, 277, 289 Libri Elephantini, 18 Libs, 128 Liburnicae, 283 Lictores, 248, 252 Ligo, 264 Ligula, 232, 268, 298 Liinbus, 298 Liiiguis favete, 237 Linuin, 264 Lilare, 224 Lilui, 272, 274 Lituus, 232, 233, 274, Lixae, 277 Locus cnnsuiaris, 293 Lnra,260; subjiigia,266 LoricH, 274 Lucaria, 2H Luciernfe, 291 Liici, 18, 230 Lucina, or Lucinia, 96, 102 Lucta, 243 Lucius publicus, 304 Ludi, 19 Ludi Apnllinares, 101, 212,246 capilolini, 216 circenses, 98, 101, 212. 243 florales, 246 funebres, 304 gladiatnrii, 244 magni, 212, 243 meijalenses, 246 plebeii, 242,246 scenici, 246 secuiares, 102,243 votivi, 246 Ludii, 300 Ludus, 244 Ludus Magnus, &c., 119 Trojae, 213 Luna, 101. 114 Lnnaiici, 240 Luna pairicia, 299 Lunata acies, 2b2 pellis, 299 Lnpercalia, 116, 235,241 Luperci, 232,235 Lupercus, 116, 235 Lustraiiones. 239 Lustrica, 232 Lustrum, 62, 239 Lusus naturae, 110 Lyaeus, 109 Lycaeus, 116 Lychnuclius, 291 Lycuis, 101 Lydius lapis, 266 Lymphati, 240 M. Mactare, 237 Maenalius, 116 Maeniana, 247 Magister auclionum, 233 coUegii, 233 convivii, 295 equitum, 251, 284 inilitiae, 284 navis, 282 officiorum,250,284 peditum, 284 publicanorum, 262 publicus, 234 Magistratus, 251 Maimactes, 242 Maius, 81 Majestatis crimen, 2.52, 259 Mala, 294 Malleoli, 281 Malleus, 232, 291 Malus, 282 Mamurius, 235 Manceps portuum, 262 Mancipatio, 268 Mancipia, 285 Mandata, 261 Manes, 129, 304 Mangones, 289 Mania, 129 Manicae, 260 Manicula,264 Manipulus, 272 Mansio, 278 Mantilia,294 Mannmissio, 288, 2S9 Man us ferreae, 282 Mappa, 294 Marculi, 291 Margaritae, 268 JVIargines, 15 Manna, 106 Marra, 264 Mars, 1-05 3Iariiales, 246 Martins, 61 Materfamilias, 287 Mathematici, 240 - Matralia, 242 Matrimonium, 286 Mausoleum, 20,48, 114, 223 Media Nox, 60 Medicamina, 299 Medici, 2S9 Meditrinnlia, 242 .Medusa, 104, 130 Megaera, 128 Megalenses, 246 Meualesi I, 94, 241 Mehercle, 239 Mellona, 120 Melpomene, 127 Mensae, 291,294 Mensarii, 263 Meiisa sacra, 230 Mensis intercalaris, 61 Mephitis, 12, 120 Mercatores, 263 Mercatorum festum. 109 Mercurius, 108 Meiae, 243 Metatores, 277 ' Metopium,299 Milites leves, 271 Militia; jus, 258,271 Milliare, 268 Milliarium aureum, 15 Millies, &c., 267 Minerva, 104 Minium, 299 Ministri, 236 Mirmillones, 244 Miscellanei dei, 87 Missio, 244 Mnemosyne, 124, 126 Modi us, 268, 282 Mola, manuaria, asi- naria, &c., 264 Mola salsa, 237 Moles Hadriani, 20 Molybdis, 282 Momus, 119 Moneta, 96, 242, 267 Monilia,299 Monopodium, 291,294 MonsPalatinus,&c.,l! Mnnumenta, 302 Morpheus, 130 Mors, 130, 260 Mortarium, 264 Mulciber, 107 Miilcta, 260 Muliones, 289 , Mullei, 299 Munera, 244, 302 Munia pacis et belli, 2&3 Municipia, 258 Murex, 297 Murrha, or Murrhi- num, 263, 297 Musculi, 281 Musica, 105 Muslum, 290 Mutitatio, 295 Mystagogi, 236 Mythi, 83 N. Naenia, 138 Naenise, 300 Naiades, 126 Napaeag, 126 Nardinum, 299 Natalitia vota,238 Naturalis, 288 Naumachiae, 19, 243 Naumachiarii, 243 Nautea, 282 Navarchus.282 Naves onerariae, Ion gae, rostraiae, &c , 282 Navis praetoria, 262 Nefasti,241 Negmiatores, 263 Nemesis, 117 Neptunalia, 93,242 Nereides, 98, 126 Nereus, 98 Nervus, 260 Neryx, 15 Nexus, 267 Niobe, 102 Nobiles, 254 Nobilitas Romana, £> Noinen,285 Nomius, 101 Nonae, 61 Nota censoria, 251 interior, 9'-V 316 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Notae interior, 296 Noiarii, 252 Noius, 116, 128 November, 61 Novi homines, 254 N.-.v,, 115 Nuben'.is utensiiia,287 Niimerns legltiiniis,256 Niiinmnlnrii, 267 Niimmus, 267 NiJiiimns modul. max- im i, 266 Niiiiditiae, 61, 2H ' ;\ii|»ii^e justae, 286 Nupiialis, 96 Nii|)iialis cGDna, 287 Niitrlrii,289 Nycielins, 109 Nymphoea, 19 NympliEeum, 126 O. Ohices, 291 OI)olus, 100 Obsecratioiies, 237 Occa, 264 OccHlor, 120 Occatores, 2S9 Occidens, 128 Ocean lis, 98, 124 Ocrene, 244, 256, 274 Octavae, 262 October, 61 Ocvpeia, 128 Odea, 19, 32, 33 Odrvsiiis, 105 ()p#ipiim,299 Olitoriuiii, 17 Ollae I'Xlares, 232 Onasfer, 281 Opalia, 242 Opeconsiva, 212 Opiiiena, 96 Opilinnes, 289 0[)s, 93 Oppidiim, 225 Optimus Maximus, 95 Optio, 272 Optiones, 276 Opus incerliim 218 Oratinnes principum, 261 Orbis, 278 Orchestra, 246 Orcus, 100 Ordines, 271 Ordinihiis compressis, 276 Ordo equester, 254 plebeiiis, 253 Oreades, 126 Orion, 125 Oscines. 233 Oscophoria, 103 Osiris, 122 Ossilegiiim, 302 Ostiarinm, 262 Ostiariiis, 2S9 Ostium, 290 Otus, 125 Ova, 294 Ovalio. 284 Ovile, 257 Pabulum, 120 PapdaKogi, 288, 289 Paenula. 298 Paiaiinus, 16 Palatium, 16,20 Pales, 120 PaliKa, 120, 242 Palla,298 Palladium, 94, lOi, 112 I Fallantias, 114 Pallas, 105 Palliali, 297 Palmus,268 Paludamentum, 298 Par 116 Pariffitolium, 193 Panathenaea, 101, 171 Pancratium, 173 Pandora, 107 Panes, 130 Panificium, 263 Pantheon, 17 Paphia, 106 Paralus, 42 Parcae, 12S Pares, impares, tibiae, 247 Parilia, 120 Parma, 214,274 Parnassides, 126 Parricidii, -60 P^ssus, 268 Paiarens, 101 Patella, 232 Patellarii, 129 Patera, 96. 300 Paters, 232 Pater fiduciarius, 288 patratus, 234 Patres conscript!, 256 minorum gentium. 253 Patricii, 253 Patrinae, 294 Patronus, 259 Patulcius, 93 Pavimenta tessalata, 290 Pax, 122,241 Pecudes, 266 Peculatus, 252,260 Peculiuui castrense, 274 ■ Pecunia, 266 Pedes, 282 Pedicae, 260 Pedites, 278 Pesrasus, 26, 131 PeFopidae, 136 Pelops, 136 Peloria, 91 Penates, 129 Perdueliionis, 260 Peregrini, 258 Peregrin! dii, 87 Perireci, 189 , Peripetasmata, 291 Peristromata, 291 Perones, 298 Perpetuae quaestiones, 259 Perpol, 239 Perseus, 133 Perticffi, 264 Pes, 268 Pessinuntia, 93 Petasus, 108, 298 Pelauristae, 244 Petitio, 259 Petitor, 259 Petraeus, 98 Phalarse, 275 Phantasus, 130 Phaseli, 283 Phengites, 290 Phiala^, 297 Phobetor, 130 PhcEbe, 102, 117, 124 Pliorcils, 98 Phylarcbi, 181 Phyx, 32 Pia"culum, 239 Pierides, 126 Pierus, 126 Pietas, 122 Pila, 274 Pilentum, 266 Fiieus,29 1.298 Pil>unnu& 120 Pilus primus, 272 Pinacollieca, 291 Pinarii, 232,235 Piraeuii, 31 Piscariuni, 17 Piscatores, 289 Piscalorii Ludi, 246 Piscina mirahilis, 292 Pistores, 263 Pistrilla, 264 Pistrinum, 264 Pistuiii,264 Plagii, 260 PlaMslra,266 Plebeii^diles, 219 Plebiscita, 250,257, 261 Plebs, 253 Pleiad^^s, 108 Pliitei, 281 Pluio, 99 Plums, 118 Phivius or Pluvialis,95 Pnvx, 32 Pocillator, 289 Pocula fagina, vitrea, &c., 297 Podium, 247, 248 Poscile, 31, 36 PoeniE, 260 Pol, 239 Polias Minerva, 29, 104 Policem premebaiit, vertebani, 244 Pollinctores, 300 Polus, 116 Polyhymnia, 127 Pumona, 119, 120 Potppa circensis, 243 Pons Milvius, Julius. &c , 16 Ponies, 257 Poiitituli,257 Ponti''ex Maximus, 232 Pi)ntific-!s, 232 Pop;e, K1, 236 Popina, Sv'e Caupona. Popular! \, 247 Populoniff, 96 Populum t^.are, 231 Popiilus, 2^3 Porta prae!o ic, decu- mana, &c., "^0 Porta Carn 'juti-lis, &c., 15 salutaris, 1'8 Portenta, 233 Porticus milliaria> Port isculus, 282 Portorinm, 261 Portumnalia, 242 Portumnus, 125 Postcenium, 246 Postridiaiii, 241 Potamides, 126 Politii, 232,235 Praecinctiones, 2*7 Praecones, 252 Praedes, 259,262 Praedia, rustica, ut..a- na, 268 Prsefecti, 277 Praefecturae. 258 Praefectus ^gypti 285 annonae, 251,261 classis, 281 niorum, 251 praelorio, 284,235 urbis 251, 285 Praefericula, 232, 3dU Praertcae, 300 Praegustalor, 289 Praemia minora, 273 Praeriomen, 285 Pr;esides, 285 Praestigiatores, 244 Praesul, 235 I'raeior, 249, 259 Praetorium, 278 Prandiiim, 293 Praia. 264 Precationes, 236 Precuin arbitri, 250 Prelum, 296 Pria[)us, 119 Primitiae, 238 Princip, 8,271,275,276 278 Principia, 278 Proconsul, 252, 285 Procurator, 244 Procurator Caesaris 252 Prod igia, 233 Prodlgiaiores, 234 Profesii, 241 Projicere in profluen- tujii, 260 Proinagister, 262 Piopraeior, 252 Propylaea, 29 Proqiiaistor, 252 Prora, 282 Prnreta, 282 Proscenium, 216 Proscriptio, 268 Proserpina, 106 Proteus, 98 Provinciae, 258 Prvtaneum, 184 Psvlli, 56 Publican!, 262 Publicum, 262 Pugilalus, 243 Pugnffi simulacra, 304 Pullarius, 233 Puili, 233 Pnlmentarius, 289 Pulpitum, 247 Puh'inar, 294 Pulvinaria, 237, 266 Pulvinus, 293 Puncium (omne tulit), 270 Puppis, 282 Puleal, 17 Pnticulae, 303 Pylae Caspiae, 46 Pyloiis, 105 Pyra, 302 Pyramis Cestii, 20 Pyrakmon, 107 Pvthius, 101 [rPyxis or Pyxidula, 30C i Q. '^. adrans, 266, 29S tc-iLlrantal, 296 Quau igae, 266 Quai'ri-'enaria, 272 Quadi ir, mes, 282 Qua;sitor».s, 259 Qiiaestioi.e. 259 Quaestor srcri palatJ 250, 285 Quaestores, 2^'^ Quaestorium. 27^* Quartarius, 268 Quaternio, 295 Quinarius, 267 Quincunx, 265, 2-\ Quindeceniviri, 23* 240 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 317 Quingenaria, 272 Qiiinquatria, 104, 171. 241,242 Quinquennia, 238 Quiiiqueviri, 252 Quinlana via, 2bO Qiiintiliani, 235 Qiiintilis, 61 Quirinalia, 241 Qiiirinales, 235 Quiiiiius lVIars,J05 Qiiiriles, 11, 16 Qiiiritium jus, 258 R. Rail 11 in, 264 Uastruni. 264 Rectae viae, 275 Rector, 282 Recuperatores, 259 Rejiia, 233, 234 Regina Sacroriim, 234 Yiaruni, 16 Rpjeijatns, 260 Religio, 229 Keliginne solvere, 238 Reiigiosi dies, 241 Renianci()iitio, 287 Renii, Reniiges, 2S2 Repeiutidaruui cri- men, 252, 260 Rpposiloria,294 Repolia, 267 Rcpiidiiiin, "587 Kescripla, 261 Res Mancipi, Nee • Manci()i. 268 privaise, 268 Respnhlica, ne quid (letrinienti capiat,. 251, 257 Retiarii, 214 Reus, 259 Rex convivii, 295 sacnficulus, 231 sacrorum, '232, 234 Rhanmetisis, 2r)2 lihainnusiii, 117* kneM,91 Rhrda, 266 Rica, Ricinium,298 Rohigalia, 212 Rngatio, 259 Rogus, 302 Roma, 119 Romaica,2l6 Rorarii, 276 Rosa, Sub, 206 Rosaceum, 299 Rostra, 17,282,302 Rudentes, 282 Rudera, 15 Runcatores. 289 Runcina, 120 • S. Sabnrra, 282 Sacella,230 Saceriodes, 236 Sacra genlilitia, 288 Sacrameiitiim, 270, 271 Sacrificiii, 2M7 Sacronim jus, 258 Sagitarii, 276 Sagum. 298 Salarium, 262 Saligeniia, 106 Salii, 105, 232,235,241 Salinge, 262 Saltus, 243 Salus, 118 Samhuca, 217 Sandapila, 300 Sandfpilarii, 300 Sapa, 296 iSarcinae, 277 Sarcophagus, 302 Sarculum,264 Sarracum, 266 Satisdare, 259 Sator, 91 Saturnalia, 91, 242 Saturnia, 91 Saturnns, 91 ftaxo Tarpeio dejicere, 260 Scahplla, 299 Scal«, 247, 260, 280 Scalmus, 2o2 Sceiia, 2i6 Scheie, 284 Scias, 36 Scissor, 289 Scorpio, 281 Scriboe, 252, 277 Scriptura, 262 Scutica, 260 Scutum. 244, 274 Scvlla, 132 Scyphi, 297 Seces[»itae, 232 Sectio, 268 Securi percutere, 260 Securis, 232, 248, 264 Secutores, 244 Sedilia, 282 Segetia, Seia. 120 Selecii, 87 Sella, 248,291 Sella curulis, 235, 250, 254 portatoria, 254 Sembella, 267 Senientina, 241 Semis, 266 Semones, 87 Ssnacula, 18 Senatus auctoritas.256 consulium,256,261 Senio, 295 Sentina, 282 Septa, 257 Septunx, 266 Serae, 291 Serapea, 123 Serapis, 123 Septemviri, 234 Septicollis, 15, 225 Sepiilchrum, 302 Seres, 298 Serra, 276 Servi terrae, 290 Servitutes praediorum, 268 Servitus, 260, 268 Servus admissionalis, cubicularius, &c., 289 Sestertius, 267 Sestertium, 267 Seva, 232 Sexcenaria, 272 Sextans, 266 Sexlitrius, 268 Sextilis, 61 Sicae, 196 Sicarii, 196 Sicarios, crimen inter, 260 Sigtna, 291, 294 Signa, 233,272 Signiferi, 272 Sileni, 130 Silenus. 110 Silicernium, 304 Simpuliim, 232 Sinister, 233 Sirentiusse, 126 Sistrum, 119, 218 Silella,257 Smegmata, 299 Sminthae, 42 Smintheus, 42, 101 Socci, 299 Societas, 262 Socii, 277 Sodales, Tilii, 232, 236 Augustales, 236 Sodtiliiates, 235 Sol, 114 Solaria, 240 Solarium, 60,291 Soleae, 299 Solennia, 237 Solidus,267 Somnus, 130 Soracle,'l20 Soranus,100 Snrs, 267 Sortes, 240 Sortilegi, 240 Sortiiio, 257 Sospita, 96 Spathae, 274 Specilium, 263 Spectaciila, 243 Specula, 290,299 Specularia, 290 Spes, 122 S!)haeristerium, 293 Spina circi, 242, 243 Spoliarium, 248 Spondee, 294 Sponsalia, 286 Sponsio, 286 S()onsor, 95 Sportula, 295 Spurius, 288 Stadium, 18, 32, 268 Stapiae, 266 SiatP-, 237 Stater Daricus, 213 Static), 280 Stator, 95 Statumen, 15 Statumina, 282 Stega, 2t,2 StercnIiMus, Stercu- tius, 91, 120 Steropes, 107 Slheno, 130 Stibadium, 294 Stipendio privari,275 Stipendium, 236, 274 Slipulatio, 286 Stiva,264 Slola,298 Stragiila,294, 291 Straiigulare, 260 Strategi, 196 Strenae, 241 Sirenua, 120 Sirigiles, 293, 303 Stroi)pi, 282 'Siructor, 289, 295 Strymonius, 105 Suariuin, 17 Subceniurio,272 Subdivale, 290 Subitarii, 271 Stibligaculum, 244 Subsignani, 272 Subsolanus, 128 Subucula, 297 Succina, 297 Sudes, 280, 281 SutlVagii jus, 258 Sugsrestus, 17, 247 Suile, 292 Summanus, 100, 129, 242 Suovetaurilia, 105,239 Supplicationes, 237,283 S.ipplicia,237 Symbola,280, 299 T. Tabellae, 257 - legitinicP, 286 Tablinuin,291 Tabula auciionaria, 268 lusoria, 295 proscripiionis, 268 Tabulae duodecim, 261 -votivap. 238 Tahularia, 17 Tabularium, 17,256 Ta^diiier, 289 Tajnia, 282 Talaria, 108 Talentum, 267 Tali, 240, 2P5 Talio, 260 Tantalides, 136 Tartarus, 99 Tatietisis, 252 Teifulae, 291 Tclesphorus, 118 Tell us, 93, 112 Teino, 264, 266 Tempestas, 242 Tempi a, 230, 233 Tepidarium, 293 Terebra, 281 Tergemina, 102 Terminalia, 119, 241 Terminus, 119 Ternio, 295 Terfisichore, 127 ' Teruncius, 267 Tesselatum, 290 Tessera, 280, 295 Tesserae, 295 Tesserarii, 280 Testa, 296 Tesiamenti jus, 258 Testamento, 268 Test udo, 278, 280,281 Tethys, 121 Textrina. 264 Thalia, 127 Theatra, 18 Themis, 117, 124 Thensa, 266 Theriotrophium, 292 Thermae, 19, 290 Theseus, 60, 134 Thesmophora, 27 Thesmolhetae, 181 Thetis. 98 Thorax, 274 Thraces, 244 Thriambus, 109 Thnrarium, 232 TlMiribulum, 232 Thnrius, 105 Thymbraeus, 101 Thyoneus, 109 Thyrsiger, 109 Thvrsus, no Tilii;e,dexlrae,s;nisir8B 119,239 Tibialia, 299 Tibicines. 236, 300 Tinctoria, 264 Tiiictur.i, 264 Tintiimabula,266, 291 1'isiphone, 128 Tilaja, 91, 112 Tilanides, 91, 117 Tiinli, 2S9 Titulus,3p2 Toga, 248,297 Candida, 248 fusa, 297 318 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. Toga, praefexta, 233. 234, 235, 249, 250' 284, 2<)7 pulla, 297 vinlis,297, 299 Togati, 297 Tollere infantem, 287 Tonientum, 294 Tonsores, 289 Topiarii, 292 Torcular, 296 Tnrcniarium, 296 Toreutnata, 297 Torques aureie, 275, 299, 300 Torus, 291 Trabea, 233, 281 Tragularii, 276 Traha, 264, 266 Tralalitia, 249 Transtra, 282 Transvectio, 256 Triarii, 271, 272, 275, 276, 278 Tribula, 264, 266 Tribunal, 17,249,257,278 Tribuni inilituni, 251 plebis, 250 Tribus, urbanse, rusti- C8e, 252 Tributa, 261 Tributa comitia,257,261 Tricennaria, 272 Tridinium. 291,293,304 Tridens, 244 Triens, 266 Trieterica, 109 Triformis, 102 Triga, 266 Trigonon, 217 Trinundinum, 261 Tripes, 294 Tiiplex acies, 275 Tripodes, 232 Tripiidium, 233 Triremes, 282 Triticum, 264 Triton, 98, 125 Tritonia, 104 Triumphalis lex, 283 Tritimphus, 283, 284 • TriumvHri, 252, 267 Trivia, 10^ Tropsa, 19, 199 Trutin», 2f6 TubiE, 232. 239, 272 Tubiciiies, 236, 274 Tiibilustrium, 241,242 Tiillianuin, 260 Tunica, 297 angnsticlavia, 256, 298 laticlavia, 256, 298 recta, 2S7 Tumultiiarii, 271 Tumultus, 7,271 Tumulus, 302 Turmae, 272, 277 Turricula, 295 Turris, 278, 281 Tutela, 282 Tympana, 266 Tympanum, 119,218 Typhoeus, or Typhon, 122, 125, 132 Ildones, 299 TTItimum, 257 TTltor, 105 Unciae, 266 Ifiictiiarium, 293 Unguenta, 299 Unio, 295 Unxia,96 Uragus, 272, 277 Urania, 106, 127, Uranus, 91, 113 Urhs, 225 Urceus, 232 Urna, 268 feral is, 302 Urnae lachrymales, 303 Usinum, 299 Ustrina, Uslrinum, 303 Usuca[)io, 268, 286 UsurH,267 Usurpatio, 287 Usus, 268,286 Utensilia,287 Utres, 296 Uxor, 287 Uxoriuni, 262 Vacatio honorata, 271, 275 Vacuna, 120 Vades, 259 Vagina, 232 Valetudinarium, 280 Vallonia, 120 Vallum, 280 Vasa murrhina, 263, 297 sacra, 232 sculpta, 297 unguentaria, 303 Vates, 16 Vaticanus, 16 Vaticinatores, 240 Vectigalia, 261 Vedius, 95 Vehae, 266 Vejovis, 95 Vela, 282 Veliles, 271,274, 276 Venalitiarii, 289 Venatio, 243 Veneficii crimen, 260 Veneralia, 241 Venti, 128 Ventorum Ara, 116 Ventus textilis, 298 Venus. 105, 295 Genetris, 242 Marina, 125 Verbera, 260 Vernae, 285 Verticordia, 106 Vertumnus, 119 Vespera, 60 Vespillones, 300 Vesta, 18, 93, 230, 242 Vestales, 113,232,236 Vestalia, 241, 242 Vestes Coae, Sericae, 298 Vestiarii, 289 Vestis stragula, 266, 291 Vestibulum,290, 300 Veto, 250 Vexillarii, 272 VexJIlationes, 285 Vexillum, 272, 275 Vexillum purpureum, 282 Via Quintana, 280 Sacra, Appia, &c., 15 Viae, 15, 16 Viaies, 129 Viatores, 250 Vicarii, 285 Vicennalia, 238 Vicesima, 262 Vici, 17 Victimse, 237 Victiaiarii, 236 Victor, 95 Victoria, 120 Victrix, 106 Vicus albus, &c., 17 Vigiles, 280 Vigil is, 59, 240, 280 Villa urbana, rusticft &c. 292 Villicus' 292, 289 Villicus amphiiheatri 247 Vina!ia,242 Vinaria cella, 296 Vincula, 260, 299 Vindemiatores, 289 Vindicatio, 259 Vindicta, 289 Vineae, 198,280 Vinum Falernum, Cae- cubum, &c., 296 Virgo, 117, 118 maxima, 236 Virgis,260 Viri epulares, 234 Virtus, 122 Vis publicae, 260 Visceratio, 304 Viiisator, 91 Vitrea, 263 Vitrea specularia, 290 Viirum, 263 Vitta, 232, 299 Viva voce, 268 Vivarium, 292 Volones, 271 Volusia, 120 Vomer, 264 Vota, 238 Voti reus, 238 Votivi iudi,246 Vulcanalia, 107, 242 Vulcanus, 107, 108 Vulpium combustio, 112 Vulsella, 263 Vulturius, 101 Z. Zephyrus, 116, 128 Zona. 266 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. I^bana, 50 A-bdera, 21 A.bsvnthi. or Apsynthi. 21 A.byd()S, 21, 47 \byla, 9, 57 Abyssinia, 55 Acarnania, 24, 26 Ace, or Aco, 50 Achaia, 34 Aciiarnae, 28 Achelous, 21, 26, 41 Acheron, 25 Acidalia (fount), 27 Aciris, 13 Acradina, 40 Acritas Prom. 33 Acro-Ceraiinia, 24 Acro-Cerauiiii, Mon- ies, 21, 22, 24 Acro-Corinthus, 34 Acie, 28 Actiuni, 26 Actium Prom. 25, 26 Adraiiiyiiium, 47 Adrianopolis, 21 Adrumelum, 57 Adulis, 55 ^:i, 46, 135 JEMi, 6 jEgades or Agates, 41 iEgseuin Mare, 21 ^ge, 34 ^giria, 34, 42 ^gissa or ^gissus, 8 iEifium, 34 .•Egos Polaiiios, 21 Jjlgusa, 41 JEgypU loirens, 53 ^gyptiis, 53 ^lanites Sinus, 53 .^none, 42 iEnos, 21 J^nus, 7 .Eolioe Insiilse, 41 J3()lis (ir TEolia, 47 .iEstuarium Iiunae, 40 ^Ethiopia, 55 iEthria, 42 /Etna, 41 .Etolia, 26 Africa, 53 Interior, 57 Propria, 56 Aganippe, 27 Agathyrsi, 5 Agrigentum, 41 Agylla, 10 Aiabanda, 48 Aiani, 46 Alba Longa, 11, 225 Albania, 48 Albanise Pylae, 46 Albanus Lacus, 11 Albis, 6 Albiilus Lacus, 11 Albiirnus, 13 Aieria, 40 Alesia, 6 Alexandria, 48, 54 AlfeniiB, 12 Vlgidum, 11 Allemanni, 5 Allia, 11 Allobroges, 6 Alos, 24 Alpes, Graiae, &,c,, 7 Alpheus, 34 Allis, 34 Amanus, 48 Amardus, 44 Amasia, 47 Anibracia, 25 Anibracius Sinus, 21 Amida, 46 Arnisus, 47 Aniiternnm, 11 Aniphipolis, 22 Arnphissa, 26 Ainphryssus, 24 Ampsagiis, 57 Amsanctus, 12 Amyclae, 36 Anactorium, 26 Anamurium, 49 Anaphe, 42 Anapus, 40 I Anas, 9 , Anchesmus, 25,28 Ancona, 10 Ancyra, 48 Aridros, 42 Angli, 5 Anio, 10, 11 Anlhela, 27 Anticyra, 27 Atiti-Libanus, 50 Anliochia, 48, 50 in Pisidia, 48 in Syria, 50 Antirrhium, 25 Antiunn, 11 Anxur, 11 Aous, 24 Apamea, 48 on Rhyndacus, 47 on Marsyas, 48 on Orontes, 50 Aphetse, 24 Apia, 34 Apollonia, 20, 22, 56 Apulia, 12 Aquae Sextise, 6 Aquileia, 9 , Aquinutn, 11 *Aquitani, 6 Aquilania, 6 Arabia, 53 Arabicus Sinus, 53 Arachosia, 44 Aracthus, 25 Aracynthiis, 26 Aragus, 46 Arar, 7 Ararat, 44, 46 Araxes, or Phasis, 46 Araxes, 44 Arbela, 53 Arbiti Montes, 44 Arcadia, 34 Arcati Regio, 43 Ardea, 11 Arduenna Sylva, 7 Arelhon, 25 Arevaci; 8 Argaeus Mons, 48 Argia, 34 Argos, in Argolis, 34 Amphilochius, 26 Aria, 44, 46 Aria Pal us, 44 Arimathea, 51 Aritninum, 10 Armenia, 46 Arujorica, 6 Arnus, 10 Arpi, 12 Arpinum, 11 Arsacidae, 44 Arsinne, 53, 54, 56 Arsissa Palus, 46 Artabrum Prom. 9 Artacoana, 46 Arlaxata, 46 Arteiiiisium, 42 Arza, 46 Ascra, 27 Asculum, 10, 12 Asia, 43 Asia Minor, 46 Asinarius, 41 Aspendus, 48 Asphaltites Lacus 51, 52 Assyria, 53 Astaboras, 55 Atalanta, 27 Aternum, 13 Athenajum Prom. 12 Athesis, 10 Athos, 22 Aiiiium, 13 Atlanticus Oceanus, 57 Atlantis, 57 Atlas, 57 Atropatene, 44 Atropatia, 44 Attica, 28 Aufidus, 12, 13 Augusta Emerita, 9 Taurinorum, 9 Vindelicorum, 7 Auguslodunum, 6 Aulis, 27, 42 Aurea Chersonesus, 3, 43 Ausunia, 9 Auxume, 55 Aventinus, &c., 15 Avernus Lacus, 12 Axius, 22 B. Babylonia, 52 Bactra, 46 Bactriana, 46 Bsetica, 8, 9 Baetis, 9 Baffdat, 52 Bagradas, 57 Baise, 12 Baleares Insulse, 40 Barce, 56 Barium, 13 Basaniles Mons, 54 Basilicata, 13 Bastarnicae Alpes. 8 Bastuli, 9 Batavi, 6 Bebrycia, 47 Belgoe, 6 Belgica, 7 Benacus, 10 Beneventum, 12 Beraea, 50 Berenice, 53, 54,56 Berytus, 50 Bethel, 51 Bethesda (pool), 53 Bethlehem, 51 Bethsaida, 50 Bethsan, 51 Bibracte, 6 Bilbilis, 8 Bithyiiia, 47 Boeotia, 27 Boii, 10 Boium, 26 Bononia, 10 Borysthencs, 5, 6 Bosphorus, 6, 20, 21 Bozra, 52 Bradauus, 13 Brauron, 28 Brigantes, 38 Brigantinus Lacus, 6 Britannia, 38 Brivates Portus, 6 Brixia, 9 Brutidiisium, 13, 16 Bruttia-tellus, 13 Bruttii, 13 Bruttium, 13 Bura, 34 Bathrotum, 25 Buxtntum, 13 Byrsa, 56 Byzantium, 20 C. Cabira, 48 Cadmea, 27 C«re, 10 Caesarea, 7, 51, 57 C'aesarea Augusta, 8 ad Argaeiim, 48 Phili()pi, 50 Caieta, 11 Calabria, 13, 14 Calabria-citra, 13 Calagurris, 8 Calaris, 40 Calauria, 42 Calle, 8 Callipolis, 13,21 Calor (fl.)„12 Catpas, 47 Calpe, 9, 57 Calycadnua, 48 Calydon, 26 Cambunii Montes, ?I 22, 24 Camerinum, 10 Camicus, 41 Campania, 11 Camyrns, 42 Cana, 47 Canae, 50 Canaria, 57 Cannae. 13 31 » 320 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. Canopic'jm Ostium, &c., 54 Cantabri, 9 Canlii, 38 Caniisinin, 13 CapfTnaiiin, 50 Caphareus, 42 Capitoliims, &c. 16 Cap|)adocia, 48 Caprese, 40 Capsa, 57 Capua, 11 Oarauibis, 47 (;;nratiibiicis, 3 Cardia, 21 (;arduchi, 53 Caidiichi Monies, 46 Caria, 48 Cartnauia, 44 L'arniel, oO Garni, 9 Carpales, 8 Carpathns, 42 Carphia, 26 Carrhae, 52 Carteia, 9 Carihago, 56 Carthago Nova, 8 Carystns, 42 Casia Regi.s 3, 43 Casilinnin, 11 Caspiffi Pylae, 46 Caspiuni Mare, 6, 44 Cassandria, 22 Cassiterides, 38, 40 Castalia,27 Castruin Minervae, 13 Catabathnms, 54 (;atti, 5 ('aiicasus, 46 Caudinoe Furculae, 12 Caiidiuin, 12 Caulon, 15 Caysler, 47 Cebenna, 7 Cecropia, 28 Celtfe,6 Celtiberi, 8 Celtica, 6 Celticutn, 9 Cenchreae, 34 Cenomanni, 9 Centum Ceilae, 10 Ceos, 42 Cephalenia, 41 Cephissus,26, 27, 28 Cerarniciis, 2'i, 32 Cerasus, 47 Cerlialus, 13 Cert a, 57 Chaberis, 43 Chsernnea, 27 Clialcedon, 47 Chalcidice, 22 ChHkis,22, 26, 42 ChaldaeM, 52 C'lalvbes, 47 ClialNbDii, 50 Chaoiiia, 24, 25 (Miarrati. 52 Chary bdis, 13 Clieloniles. 33 (.'hersoriesus Cinibri ca, 5 Aure&,3, 43 Taiirvca, 5 Thracige, 20 Cherusci, 5 Chi 1 sera, 48 Chios, 42 Choaspes, 44 Chrysoceras, 20 Chrysopolis, 47 Ch'yyorrhoas, 50 Cichyrus, 25 ' Cicones, 21 Cilicia, 48 Cinibri, 5 Ciininericus Bospho- rus, 6, 46 Ciminerii, 46 Gimmeriuni, 12 Circeii, 11 Cirrha, 27 Cisalpina Gallia, 6, 9 Cispadana, 9 Cissa, 21 Cithaeron,26, 28 Citinai, 53 Clanius, 12 Clazoinetiae, 47 Clusiuni, 10 Clypea, 57 Cneinis, 27 Cnidus, 48 Cocytus, 25 Codanus Sinus, 6 . Coele-Syria, or , Coelo-Syria, 50 Ccelins, 16 Colchis, 46 Collis horlulorum, 16 Colonia Patricia, 9 Colophon, 47 Cnlossae, 48 Coniagene, 50 Coniana, 48 Coniaria, 43 Coniata, 7 Complutum, 8 Coniiiin, 10 Consentia, 13 Cnnsianlinopolis, 20 Copais Lacus, 27 Coptos, 54 Cnracesiuni, 48 Coras, 26 Corc.yra, 41 Corduba, 9 Corfiniuin, 10 Corinthia, 34 Corinthiacus Sinus,21, 25 Corinthus, 34 Corioli, 11 Coroiiea, 27 Corsica, 40 Corycus, 47 Cos, 42 Cosetani, 8 Cotiaris, 3, 43 Coitiae, 7 Cragus, 48 Craihes, 15 Cremasie, 24 Creinera, 11 Crenina, 48 Cremona, 9 Creta, 43 Creusa, 27 Crimisus, 41 Crissa,27 Crissseus Sinus, 25 Criu-Metopon, 5, 47 Croninu), 34 Crotona, 13 Cruslumerinm, 11 Ctesiphon, 46 Cnmae, 12 Cnnaxa, 52 Cures, 11 Curetes, 43 Curia, 7 ' Ciistufo, 9 Cyclade's, 42 Cydnus, 48 Cydoiiia, 43 Cyllenc Mons, 34 Cynocephali, 124 Cynos, 27 Cynos Cephale, 24 Cynthus Mons, 42 Cyprus, 53 Cyrenaica, 56 Cyrene, 56 Cyrnos, 40 Cyropolis, 46 Cyrus, 44, 46 Cythera, 41 Cythus, 42 Cytiniuni, 26 Cyzicus, 47 D. Daci, 8 Dacia, 8 Dactyli, 43 Dalmatia, 8 Damascus, 50 Danapris, 5 Danubius, 7 Daphne, 50 Dardania, 8 Daunia, 12 Decapolis, 51 Decelia,28 Delium, 27 Delos, 42 Delphi, 27 Delphinum,28 Delta, 54 Denietrias, 24 Derbe, 48 Deserta Libyae, 57 Dindymus, 48 Dioclea, 8 Diospolis, 51, 54 Dirce Mons, 28 Dodona,95 Dolonei, 21 Dorion, 24 Doris, 26 Doriscus, 21 Drangiana, 44 Drepanum, 41 Drilo, 22 Dromus Achillei, 6 Dryopes, 26 Dulichium, 41 Duranius, 7 Dnrius, 8, 9 Dynie, 34 Dyrrachium, 22 Ebal, 51 Eboracum, 3S Ebusus, 40 Ecbatana, 44 Echinades, 41 Edessa, 22, 52 Edetani, 8 Edonis, 22 Egnatia, 13 Eion, 21 Elatsea, 27 Elaver, 7 Elea, 13, 47 Elephantine, 54 Eleusis, 28 Eleutheropolis, 51 Elis, 34 Eiyiiiais, 44 Elymander, 44 Emathia, 22 Emesa, 50 Emmaus, 51 Ephesus, 47 Ephyra, 2:., 34 Epidamnus, 22 Epidaurus, 8,34 Epipolae, 40 Epirus,21, 24 Equotuticunn, 12 Eretria, 42 Eridanus, 9, 10 Erigon, 22 Erineum, 26 Erynianthus Mons, 34 Erylhrae, 47 Erythraeum Mare, 44 Erytopolis, 36 Etruria, 10 Eubcea, 42 Evenus, 26 Euganei, 9 Eupatoria, 47 Euphrates, 48 Euripus, 25,27,42 Eurnpa, 4 Eurotas, 36 Eurymedon, 48 Euxinus, 5, 21 Exploratio ad Mer- rium, 57 Ezion-Geber, 53 Falerii, 10 Falisci, 10 Fidenae, 11 Flanaticus Sinus, 7 Flavia Csesariensis, 4( Florentia, 10 Formias, 11 Fortunatse Insulae, 3, 5* Foruni Julii, 6 Fossa Trajani, 54 Fretum Fossje, 40 Gaditanum, or Herculeum, 9 Siculum, 40 Frisii, 5 Fucinus Lacus, 10 G. Gabara, 50 Gabii, 11 Gadara, 50, 52 Gades, 9 Gaetnlia, 57 Galatia, 6, 7,48 Galesus, 13 Galil3ea,50 Gallia, 6 Galloruin Portas, 8 Gamala, 52 Ganges, 43 Gang^'ticus Sinus, 43 Gangra, 48 Garaniantes, 57 Garganus, 12 Gargarus, 47 Garumna, 6, 7 Gaugamela 53 Gaulon, 52 Gaulos, 41 Gaza, 44, 52 Gedrosia, 44 Geloni, 5 Genua, 10 Gera, 52 Geraestus, 42 Geranii Monies, 26 Gerizim, 51 Germania, 5, 6 Inferior, 7 Superior, 7 Germanicus Oceani' cus, 6 Getse, 8 Glaucus, river, 49 Sinus, 48 Glycys Limen, 25 Gnussus, 43 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 331 Gobaeum Prom. 6 Goniphi, 24 Gonmis, 24 Gordium, 4*^ Gortynia,43 Goshen, 54 Grascia, 20, 21 Graecia Profiria, 25 (JraiiicUs, 47 Griiiiieiituii), 13 Gyarus, 42 Gyitona. 24 Gytheuin, 36,38 H. Hadriaticmii Mare, 21 Haiiruiiientiun or Adrumeiuiii, 57 Hfeiims, 8, 20,21,22 Halcyoneuin Mare, 25 •Halesus (river), 47 Haliaciiion, 22 Halicarnassus, 48 Halcmiiesus, 42 Halys, 47 Haiiiaxobii. 5 Hebriis, 21 Hebrides, or Ebudse,40 Hecatorripylos, 44. 54 Helena, 42 HelicH, 34 Helicon, 26,27 Helissus, 34 Hellas, 21, 25 Hellespnntiis, 21 Heliopolis, 50, 55 Heiorns, 41 Uelos, 36 Helvelii, 6, Hephsestia, 42 Heptanoniis, 54 Heptapylos, 27 Heraclea, !3, 21,47 Herciilaneiiiii, 12 Herculis Coluninae, 9, 57 Leburni Pnrius, 10 MonoBci Porlns, 10 Pronioninriiuri, 15 Hercynia Sylva, 5, 8 Herdoiiia, 12 Herniiones, 5 Herinnn, 50 Heritiundiirii, 5 Heriiius, 47 Heroopoiis, 54 Heroopolites Sin. 53 Heruli, 5 Hesperia, 8, 9 Hesperides, 56 Hesperidiim, Insulse, 4, 57 Hesperis, 56 Hexapolis, 26 Hibernia, 40 Hiera|)olis, 50 Jfiercsoiyriia, 51 Himera (town), 41 Hiinera (river), 41 Hippo, 13 Mi[)po Regius, 57 Hippocrene, 26, 27 Hirpiiii, 12 Hispalis, 9 Hispania, 8 Histria, 10 Horeb, 53 Hydrnntuin, 13 Hymeitus, 26, 28 Hypanis, 6 Hypata, 21 Hyperborei, 3 flyrcania, 44 Hvrcanium Mare, 46 Iberia, 8, 46 Iberus, 9 Icaria, 42 Iceni, 38 Ichnusa, 40 Iconiiim, 48 Ida, 43, 46 IduMiea, 52, 53 lerne or Hibernia, 40 Ilerda, 8 Ilergeles, 8 Ilissus,28 Ilium, 46 Illyricum, 7, 8, 21 Ilva, 40 Imaus Mons, 3, 43 Inibarus Mons, 44 Imbrus, 42 Inachus. 34 India, 43 Indus, 43 Iiisubres, 9 Insulae ante Tapro- banaiii, 4 Hesperidum, 4 lolchos, 24 Ionia, 47 Ionium Mare. 21, 25 los, 42 Iris, 47 Isaurse, 48 Isauria, 48 Isnienus, 27 Issus, 48 Isler (Danube), 7, 8 Istria, 8, 10 Isuriuin, 38 Itabyrius, 51 ilalia, 9 Italica, 9 Ithaca, 41 Ithonie, 36 J. Jabadii Insula, 3, 53 Janiculuni, 16 .lapygia, 12 .Tapygium Prom. 13 Jaxartes, 46 Jezreel, 50 Joppa, 51 .Jordan, 52 Joiupata, 50 Judaea, 50 .luliffi Alpes, 7 Junonis Promont. 9 K. Kibora, 8 Lacinium, 15 Laconia, 36 Laconicus Sin. 36 Ladou, 34 Lagaria. 13 Lamia, 24 Lampsacus, 47 Laodicea, 48 Lapithae, 24 Larissa, 24 Larius, 10 Latiuin, 11 Laioimae, 40 Laurentum, 11 Laurius Mons, 26 Laus, 13 Laus Sinus, 13 Laviniiim, 11 Lebedaea, 27 LechEeuni, 34 Lelege». 47 Leleg'A. 188 Lemanus Lacus, 6 Lemanis Porlus, 38 Lemnos, 42 Leinovices, 6 Leontes, 50 Leontium, 41 Leptis Magna, 56 Lesbos, 42 Lessus, 21 Lethe, 25 Leuc'adia, 41 Leucas, 25, 26, 41 Leucate, 26, 41 Leucopelra, 13, 41 Leuctra, 27 Libanus, 50 Liburnia, 7, 8 Libya, 55, 57 Libyssa, 47 Liiier, 6, 7 Ligures, 10 LigusTlcus Sinus, 10 Ligustides, 7 Lilaeum, 26 Lilybaeum, 40, 41 Lindus, 42 Lingones, 10 Lipara, 41 Liris, 10, 11 Liternum, 12 Locri Epicnemidii, Opuntii, Ozolae, 26,27 Lncris, 26 Londinum, 38 Longobardi, 5 Lotojjhagi, 56 Lucania, 13 Luceria, 12 Lucrinus Lacus, 12 Lugdunensis, 6 Lugdunum, 6 I-una, 10 Lunae Monies, 4, 54 Lusitania, 8, 9 Lutetia, 6 Lycannia, 48 Lycaens Mons, 36 Lychnidus, 22 Lycia, 48 Lycus, 47, 48 Lydda, 51 Lvdia, 47 Lydias, 22 Lyrnessus, 47 i>ysimachia, 21 Lystra, 48 M. Macedonia, 21 Macoraba, or Mecca, 53 Macra, 10 Madytos, 21 Maeander, 47 Maenalus Mons, 36 Mseoiiia, 47 Maeoiis Palus, 3, 6 Magna Graecia, 11 Magnesia, 24, 48 Magnum Promonlo- rium, 43 Magnus Sinus, 43 Makrinoros, 26 Ma lea, 33, 36 Malevenlum, 12 Malia, 24 Maliacus Sinus, 21,24, 25 Mandubii, 6 Mantinea, 34 Mantua. 9 Maracanda, 46 Marathon, 28 Marcianopolis, 8 Marcomanni, 5 Mardii, 44 Mardus, 44 Mareotis, 54 Mariana, 40 Mariiiinae Alpes,'7 Marniarica, 56 Marrubium, 10 Marsi, 10 Marsyas, 48 Masius Mons, 46 Massaesyli, 57 Massilia, ae, 6, 7 Massyli, 57 Matinoruni oppidum, 40 Mauritania, 57 Maxima Caesariensia 40 Mazaca, 48 Meat^, 38 Media, 44 Mediolanuiii, 6, 9 Megalopolis, 34, 47 Megara, 28 Mpgaris, 28 Melanis Sinus, 21 Melt.s, 2U, 21 Melibcea,24 Melite, 41 M. Ins, 42 Melpus, 13 Memphis, 54 Menapii, 7 Meiiuihias, 4 Mercurii Promonto- rium, 57 Merop, 55 Mesembria, 20 Mesopiiiamia, 52 Messana, H Mes.-fapia, 13 Messene, 36 Messenia, .36 Messeniacus Sinus, 36 Mestus, i q. Nestua 20,21 Metaponlum, 13 Metaurus, 10 Methone, 22, 36 Melhymna, 42 Miletus, 47 Mimas, 47 Miiicius, 10 Minturnae, 11 Misenum, 12 Mitylene, 42 Mceris, 54 McEsia, 8 Molossis, 24,2.5 Mona Cicsaris, 4u Taciti, 40 Mu?ida, 9 Munychia, 33 Muri Veteres, 8 Murina, 42 Musaeus, 28 Muiina, 10 Mvcale, 47 Mycenae, 34 Myconus^ 42 Myoshormus, 54 Myrtoum Mare, 25, 'it Mysia, 47 ^ N. Naissus, 8 Napaia, 55 Nar. 10 Narbo Maittus, 6, 7 NarbontMisis, 6, 7 Narisci,5 " Naryx, 27 Naulochus, 41 323 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. NaupacfHs, 26 Naiiplia, 34 Naxos, 42 Nazareth, 50 Neaethes, 15 Neapolis, 12, 40, 51 Neitiaiisns, 6 Neniea, 34 Neriliis, 41 Nervii," Neryx, 15 Nestiis, i. q.Nessus,20, 21 Nicaea, 10,47 Niconiedia, 47 Nficopnlis, 8, 26, 48 Niger, 57 Nigritae, 57 Niliis, 54 Ninus, 52 Niphates, 46 Nisaea, 27, 44 Nisibis,52 Nisyrnsi, 98 Nola, 12 Nnnacris Mntis, 36 NoricfE Alpes, 7 Nnricnm, 7 Noti Cornu, 4 Novus, 48 Nnbia, 55 Niiiiiantia, 8 Niiinidia, 57 Nyiriphseum, 22 O. Oasis, 55, 56 Ocha, 42 Ocliiis, 44 Ortessus, 8 a<:a,56 Qilbalia, 188 fKclialia, 36 (Enotria, 9 acta, 21, 24 Oleiuis, 34 Olisippo, 9 Olympia, 34 Olympus, 24, 40, 47 01yntliiis,22 Oinbi, 54 Onciiis Mons, 26 Onion, 51 Opiintii, 27 Opiuitins Sinus, 25, 27 Opus, 27 Orbelus Mons, 22 Orcades, 40 Orchonnentis, 27, 34 Orestis,24 Oreiis, 42 Oricum, 24 Orontcs, 44, 50 Oropus, 28 Ornspeda, 8 Orouros, 50 Ortygia, 40 Ossa, 24 Ostia, 11 Othrys Mons, 24 Oxus, 44, 46 Oxyrynchus, 54 Pacliyniim, or I'acliynus, 40 Pactolus, 47 Padns, 9. 10 Paeduin, II i'aennia, 22 Pifistanus SiiiuSj 13 Pfi^siiini, 13 Pasrasae, 24 i*agas'»»iis Sinus, 24 Paiaestina, 50 Pallene, 22 Palmyra, 50 Pai.ipliyiia, 48 Pancisus 36 Pandosia, 13 Pangaeus Mons, 21 Pannonia, 7 Panormus, 41 Panticapaeuui, 5 Paphlagonia, 47 Paphos, 53 Parisii, 6 Parma, 10 Parnassus, 26, 27 Parnes, 26, 28 Par()pamisus, 44 Paros, 42 Parrhasii, 34 Parrhasius, 36 Parlhenias (river), 47 Parthenius, 36 Parthenope, 12 Parthia, 44 Parueli Monies, 43, 44 Pasargada, 44 Passaro, 25 Paiara, 48 Patavium, 9 Patmos, 42 Patr2e,34 Pausiiypus, 12 Pelasgi, 24 Pelasgia, 34 Pelasgicus Sinus, 24 Pelasgiotis, 24 Peligrii, 10 Pelion. 24 Pella, 22 Pellene, 34 Peloponnesus, 21 Peiorum, or Pelorus,40 Peneus, 24, 34 Perminae,7 Pentapolis, 56 Pentelicus, 26, 28 Peraea, 52 Perga, 48 Pergamus, 46, 47 Peritithus, 21 Persepolis, 44 Persia, 43 Persicus Sinus, 44, 53 Persis, 44 Perusia, 10 Pesaurum, 10 Pessinus, 48, 94 Petilia, 13 Petra, 53 Phaeacia, 41 Phalacrum Prom. 41 Phalerum, 33 Pharae, 34 Piiaros, 54 Pharsalia, 24 Pharsalus, 24 Phasis, 46 Pherae, 24 Piiigaiia, 34 Philaenorum Arae, 56 Philippi, 22 Philislaea, 52 Phlegethon, 25 Phlegra,22 Phlegraei-campi, 12 Phocaea, 6 Phocis, 26, 27 Phcenicia, 50 Phrygia Major, 48 Mitior, 4IB Phylace,'34 Phyle, or Phule, 28 Picenum, 10, 12 Pictones, 6 Pleria, 22 Pimpia, 27 Pincius, 16 Pindus, 21, 24, 25, 26 Pinduscfl.) 26 Pindus (town), 26 Pirajus, 33 Pisa, 10,34 Pisidia, 48 Pistoria, 10 Piacentia, 10 Plataea, 27 Platanistas, 38 Piaianius, 27 Plemmyrium, 40 Plistus, 27 Ploiae, 41 PcEni, 9 Polytimetus, 46 Pompeii, 12 Pons ^lii, 40 Pontus, 8, 47 PorphyraR,41 Pnsidonia, 13 Potidaea, 22 Praerieste, U Prasum Prom. 4 Priene, 47 Prochyta, 40 Proconnesus, 53 Propontis, 21, 47 Prusa, 47 Psylii, 56 Ptolemais, or Aco, 50 Ptolemais, 56 Puteolaiius Sinus, 12 Puteoli, 12 Pydna, 22 Pylos, 36 Pyxus, 13 Q. Qnadi, 5 Quirinalis Mons, 16 Quirium, 16 R. Ragae, 44 Ragusa, 8 Ravenna, 10 Reate, 11 Regillus Lacus, 11 Rlia, 5 Rhaeteum, 47 Rhaetia, 7 Rhamnus, 28 Rhedones, 6 Rhegium, 13 Rlienus, 6,7 Rhium, 25 Rhium Prom. 33 Rhodanus, 7 Rhodope,21,22 Rhodus, 42 Rhyndacus, 47 Rhype, 34 ; Riduna, 7 Roma, 15, 119 Rubeas, 3 Rubicon, 10 Rubricatus, 57 Rudesp, 13 Rutuli, 11 Rutupiae, 38 S. Sabaei, 53 Sabatns, 12 Sabini, 10 Sabrata. 56 Sacae, 46 Sacer Mons, 11 Sacrum Prom. 9, 48 Sagunlum, 8 Sais, 54 Salamis, 42, 53 Saiapia, 12 Salernum, 12 Salice, 3 SalinydessuS; 20 Salona, 8 Salyes, 6 Samaria, 51 Same, 41 Samnis, 12 Samniles, 12 Satnniuui, 12 Sauios, 42 Samosata, 50 Samolhracia, 42 Sangarius, 48 Santones, 6 Santonum Portus, 6 Saphrae, 5 Sardinia, 40 Sard is, 47 Sarmatia, 5, 46 Sarnia, 7 Sarnus, 12 Saronicus Sinus, 22 25, 28 Saturnia, 9, 91 Satyrorum InsulaR, 3 PromonloriuKi, 3 Sauromaiae, 5 Savus, 8 Saxones, 5 Scamander, 46 Scanda, 41 Scandinavia, 5 Scheria, 41 Sciathos, 42 Scopelos, 42 Scordisci, 8 Scotussa, 24 Scylacium, 15 Scylia, 13 Scyllaeum, 13, 33 Scyros, 42 Scythia, 43 Sebasle, 48, 51 Sebethns, 12 Segedunum, 40 Segovia, 8 Seguisiani, 6 Seir, 52 Seleucia, 48, 52 Seieiicis, 50 Selinns, 41, 48 Seilasia,-36 Selymbria, 21 Senna Gallica, 10 Senones, 10 Senus, 3, 43 Sepias, 24 Sephoris, 50 Sequana, 6, 7 Sequani, 6 Sera, 3, 43 Serica, 43 Seriphus, 42 Serus, 43 Sestos, 21 Sicambrl, 5 Sicilia,40 Sicyon, 34 Sicyonia, 34 Sidon, 50 Sigaeum, 47 Silarus, 11, 13 Siloam, .')2 Silures, 38 Simaetiius, 41 Simois, 46 Sinae,.3, 43 Sinai, 53 Singfticus Sinus, 3Sl I Singidunum, 8 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 323 Sinope, 47 Siniiessa, 11 Sioii,or Zion, 51 Siphnus, 42 Siponturn, 12 Sipylus, Ml. 47 Sir.bonis Palus, 53 Siiiiiiuni, 7 Sizopolis, 20 Sinyrna, 47 Sncanda, 44 Sogdiana, 46 Soli, 48,53 Solyini, 48 Soracte Mons, 10 Spalatro, 8 Sparta, 36 Sparti, ?.t) Spaiila Lacus, 44 Sphacteria, 41 Sphagise, 41 Spoleiium, 10 Sporades, 42 Staniae, 12 Stagira, 22 StoBchades, 7 Stratus, 26 Stratonicea, 48 StrongylH, 41 Strophades, 41 Strytnon, 20, 21 Stryinonicus Sinus, 21 , 2-2 Stymphsei, 21, 22 Styiiiphaius, 34 Slymphe, 25 Styx, 25, 36 Suessa Pometia, II Suevi, 5 Sulino, 10 Sunium, 25, 28 Surrentinum Prom. Surrentuiii, 12, 126 Susa, 44 Susianna, 44 Sybaris, 13, 15 Sybaris (fl.), 13 Syene, 54 Syracusae, 40 Syrennusce, 126 Syria, 48 Syriae Pylae, 48 SyrlicH Regio, 56 Syriis, 55, 56 12 1 »bo% 51 T. Tabraca, 57 Taenarum, 33,36 Tagus, 9 Tanagra, 27 Tanagrus orTenagrus, 13 Tanais, 5, 6 Tanais E:iiporium, 6 Taniassus, 53 Ta()hiassus, 26 Taprobane, 3, 53 Tarbelli, 6 Tareiilinus Sinus, l5 Tarentum, 13 Tarraco, 8 Tarraconensis. 8 Tarsus, 48 Tartessus, 9 Tauri, 5 Taurini, 9 Taurus Mons, 46, 48 Tavium, 48 Taygetus, 36 Teanum, 11, 12 Tegea. 34 Telmessus, 48 Tempe, 24 Tfinedos, 42 Tenos, 42 Tentvra, 54 Teos" 47 Tergeste, 10 Termessus, 48 Terina. 13 Terinaeus Sinus, 13 Tetrapolis, 26, 41 Teutones, 5 Thapsacus, 50 Thapsus, 57 Thasus, 21, 42 Theb3e,24, 27, 54 Thebiiis, 54 Tlieharnia, 44 Theiniscyra, 47 Theodosia, 5 Thera, 42 Therapne, 36 Thermae, 22 Thercnaicus Sinus, 22 Tlierinodon, 47 Thermofylae, 21,25, 27 Theriiius, 26 Thospiae, 27 Thesprotia, 24, 25 Thessalia, 21, 22 Thessalonica,22 Thracia, 20 Thraciae Chersonesus, 20 Thracius Bosphorus, 47 Thrasyrnene Lacus, 10 Throniuni, 27 Thule, 3, 40 Thuriuin, 13 Tnyamis, 25 Thyatira, 47 Thynibra, 47 Thynae. 3, 43 Thyni, 20 Thynia, 20 Tiberias, 50, 52 Tiheris, 10,11,119 Tibur, 11 Ticinum, 9 Ticinus, 9, 10 Tigranocerta, 46 Tigris, 44, 46 Timolus, 47 Tingis, 57 Tingiiana, 57 Tirynihus, 34 Togata Gallia, 9 Toletum, 8 Toiriarus, 25 T'^nii, 8 Toronaicus Sinus, 22 Tfirrens Egypli, 53 Trachis, 24 Trajanopolis, 21 Traiisaipina Gallia, 6 Transpadana, 9 Trapezus, 47 Treveri, 7 Trichoiiis Lacus, 20 Tricola, 41 Tridentuni, 7, 9 Trinacria, 40 Triiiobantes, 38 Tripolitana, 56 Triqueira, 40 Tritsea, 34 Tritonis Lacus, 56 Trixicurn, 12 Troas, 46 Trncnii, 48 TroBzene, 34 Troglodytffi, 55 Troja or Ilium, 46 Tuiieta or Tunes, 57 Turris Stratonices, 151 Tusculiini, 11 Tyana, 48 Tycha, 40 Tyr^., 6 Tyrrheni, 10 Tyrrtienutn Mare, 13 Tyrus, 50 Tysdrus, 56 U. Ubii,7 Uliarius, 7 Umbria, 10 Uria, 12 Urius Sinus, 12 Utica, 57 Uxantis Insula, 7 Uxellodunum, 6 V. Vaga, 57 Valeriiia, 13, 40 Vascones,8 Vectis, 40 Veil, 10 Veientes, 11 Velia, 13 Venafru'n, 11 Veneris Portus, 54 VeLeti, 9 Venusia, 13 Verbanus Lacus, 10 Vergellus, 13 Verona, 9 Vesuvius, 12 Viadrus, 6 Vibo, 13 Vindelicia, 7 Vlndobona, 7 Vistula, 6 Vogesus, 7 Volcae, 6 Volsci, 11 Volsinii, 10 Viilcatia, 42 Vultur, 13 Vuiturnus, 12 Xanthus, 25, 46, 4» Zacynthus, 41 Zagros,',44 Zama, 57 Zariaspa, 46 Zephyrium, 15 Zion, 51 Zoar, 52 GENERAL INDEX. ibraham, 69 Abraxas. 124 Alisalom's Pillar, 223 Altsyntliiiins, 21 A.bsyrliis, 135 ,\cademy of Inscriptions, 17 A-chMia,constitutiini atid league of, 75, 193 Acliniis or snits at law, 186 .Actium, battle of, 71, 77 Actors, theatrical, 176 Aiimelus, 101 Adonai, 106 Adonis, story of, 106; festival of, 169 Vdoinioii anions Romans, 289 .vdoration, origin of the word, 237 Adraslia, 117 Adultery, punished by Creeks, 220 ; by Romans, 260 .Eicns, 100 /Ecasior, 136 .E'lepol, 136 /Elides, Roman, 249 iE-tPS, 135 /EL'is of Minerva, 104 Al'sos Pdtomos, battle of, 74 ^liiriis. 121 .E.)lns, 116 iEsculapius, oracles of, 166, 117 /Eu)\\a, confederacy of, 193 Agamemnon, 137 Age, respect paid to, 159 Aglaia, 107 Agriculture, among the Greeks, 158, 212; among the. Ro- mans, 264 Aj;ix, 137 Alabasler, 221 Alaric, master of Rome, 79,225 Albati mount, 283 Alcesie, 134 Alcmseoii, 136 Alf^xander, his coffin, 221 Aloides, 100 \ltars, Grecian, 148, 160; Ro- man, 2.^0; Roman, in Eng- land, 230 Amazons, 131 America, whether known to the ancients, 57 Anunon, 9.i, 165 Amor, or Cupid, 106 An.()liiaritus, temple of, 28 Amphic.tyon, 133 Ampliiciyonic Council, 183 Amphion, 102, 136 Amphitheatres, Roman, 246 Amusements, of Greeks, 159, 207, 214; of Romans, 242, 217, 295 Andromeda, 133 Angels, ministry of, a source of ancient fable, 84; fallen, 129 Annual Register, or Calendar at Rome, 241 Anointing, 158,209,210 Aiitajus 134 \nleros, 106 Kntiinachns, Greek poet, 136 :V24 Antiochus the Great, 70 Anlipaier, 177 Antiquaries, Society of, 17 Antiquities, classical, utility of, 143, 227 Antony and Cleopatra, 77 Anuhis, Egyptian god, 124 Apis, 123; sup;iosed a symbol of Joseph, 124 Apollo, 100; Uelvidere, 101; temples of, 18, 101 ; oracle of, 165 Apollonius, Rhodius, 1.50 Apotheosis, of heroes, 133; Ro- man emperors, 122, 137,304 Apparel, common, 157; milita- ry, 154 Aqueducts, Roman, 10; at Spo- letium, 10 Arachne, 104 Ararat, Mt., ascended by Par- rot, 46 Arbela, battle of, 70 Arbitrators, at Athens, 186; at Rome, 259 Arches, triumphal, 10, 19 Archimedes, tomb of, 2-3 Architeiiture of Greek houses, 158.210 Archons, 151, 176, 177, 180 Arcturus, risiuL' of mentioned by Hesiod, 65 Areopagus, 32, 177, 184 Argonauts, 135; sphere made for them, by Chiron, 64; pictures of, &c., 98 Argos, oracular shrine at, dis- covered by Clarke, 164; constitution of, 193 Argus, 10« Ariadne, 109, 135 Armies, Grecian, 153; Roman, 271; attendants of Roman, 277 Armor, ancient, 153, 194, 274 Arsaces, 71 Arsacidse, 71 Artisans, Roman, 263 Arts, magical, 240 ; the mecha- nic at Rome, 263. 264 Ashes of the dead, 221 Ashtaroth or Astarte, 106 Assemblies, of the Romans or Comitia, 257; Greeks, 183, 190 Assyrian empire, 69 Astriea, 117 Astrologers, 240 Asylum, privileges of, 162 Atel, 5 Alliens, origin of name, 104; citizens of, 178; govern- ment of, 151, 177 ; political history, 72, 142, 151, 177; topography of, 28, 178; magistrates of, 180; re- venues and expenditures, 181, 162; senate and as- 'semblies, 183, 184 Athletics, Greek system of, 175 Allanlides, 114, 134 Atlas, 133, 131 Atmosphere personified, 94 Atridae, 136 Attila, leader of the Huns, 79 Atys, 93 Auction, 268 Augurs, Roman, 233 Aiigustiilus, 79 Augustus, master of Egypt, 71 Aurora, 114 Auspices, 233 Auxiliary troops of Romans, 277 Avatars or incarnations of Vishnu, 95 B. Babel, builders of, 125 Babylon, founding of, 69 ; waf/g of. 52, 69, 114; conunerce of, 212 Bacchus, 109; festivals of, 169; cave of, 33 Bachelors, tax on, 262, 286 Balbec, ruins of, 50 Ball, ornament worn by Roman youth, 299; playing with, 216 Banishment, 187, 191,260 Bankers at Rome, 17, 263 Banquets, evening, 295; of Greeks, 157 Bathing, among Greeks, 158, 208; among Romans, 293 Baths, construction of, 209 Batlerinj.'-rarn, 281 Battle. Greek order of, 154, 197; manner of commenc- ing, 197, 198.; Roman order of, 275, 278; at sea, 282- Hesiod's of the Titans,Ho- iner's of the Gods, 125 Beaks of ships, 202 Beatification of saints, origin of, 137 Bellerophon, 131, 133 Bellona, 105, 120 ; temple of, 49 Belzoni, his entrance of a pyra- mid, 123 Benevenlum, battle of, 76 Besieging, art of, among the Greeks, 198; Romans, 280 Betrothing before nuptials, 220 Birds, divination by, 167 Births, goddess over, 96 Bissextile year, 62 Boeoiia, constitution of, &c. 192 Boeotian intellect, 28 Boundaries of land, Roman, 119 Boxing, 173, 243 Brachma, Hindoo deity, 93, 95 Brass, material for ancient arms and tocds, 154 Bread, inventor and god of kneading, 120; baking of, 263 Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 300 Brennus, sack of Rome by, 76 Briareus, 125 Bricks, Roman, 263 Bride, Greek, 220; Roman, 287 Bridges over the Tiber, 16; of Xerxes and Darius, 200 Gr.XERAL TXDEX. 325 Brizo, goddess over the inter pretation of dreams, 167 Brokers, Roman, 263 Broth, Spartan black, 191 Bruins and Cassins, 77 Bubastis, 124 Bnrial-pla(,es, 149, 222, 3:'2, 3( 3 Biirial-riles, imporlum e ominical letter, 63 Dowry in marriage, 220 Draco, his laws, earliest writ- ten in Greece, 177 Dramatic exhibitions, among Greeks, 175; Romans, 246 Dreams, on interpretation of, 167, 240; god of, 130 Dress of Greeks, 157, 208; Ro- mans, 297 Drinking cups, 204,207,297 Driii.licHl temple, 148 Druids. 237 Drum, 217 Dryads, 126 Dryope, 116 Dwellings, Roman, 290; Gre- cian, 210 Dyeing, art of, 264 E. Ear-rings, Roman, 299 Earth personified, 93, 112 Earthenvv..re, 263 E:ili"2, Roman customs in, 293 Eclipses in ancient times, 6i, 197 Edict, of Prsetor, 249 E.liication among the Greeks, 159; Romans 288 Egeria and Numa, 229 Egypt, productiveness of, 261 ; deities of, 122; Geogriphy of, 53; Chronology of, 66, 71-; works on, 71 Eayptian gods, 122; customs of burial, 100 El Wah, site oftemple of Jupi- ter, 56 Slections at Rome,25'' k ephants used in war, 194 Eleusinian mysteries, 112, 169 Eleven, the Athenian magis- trates, 181 Elysium, 99 Emancipation of sons, 287, 288; of slaves, 289 Embalming the dead, 221 Emperors deified, 122, 137,304; Roman, iheir reign, 78 Empire, Roman power of, 249; military system of, 270; changes in, 284 ; extent of, 226 ; division of, 285 ; East- ern, 79 Employments, under guardian deities, 120 ; of Greeks, 158; of Romans, 262 Empresses, on Roman coins, 96 Engines, iiiiliiary, 198, 280 Entrails of victims, as prognos- tics, 234 Epaminondas, 74 Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 114 Ephori, 151, 190, 191 Epidaurus, medical springs at, 117 Epirotes, 25 Equites or knightsof Rome, 254 Eras and Epochs, 65 Erato, 127 Erebus, 100 Erigoiie, 117 Ery.sicthon, 112 Essarhaddon, 69 Eteocles and Polynices, 136 Etruscans, their relieious usa- ges, 229 Eulogies over the dead, 222, 302 Euryale, 1.30 Euterpe, 12r Evil eye, superstition respect- ing, 240 Evolutions, military, 197 Exercises of Roman camp, 280 Exhalations of Pontine marsh- es, 11 Expenses, public, at Athens, 182, 224; at Rome, 236, 262 Expiation among the Romans, 239 Exposing of children, by Ro- mans, 287 Fabii, race of, 11 Fables, mythological, sources of, 84 Falconer, shipwreck described by, 28 Fallen spirits, 129 Fame, goddess of, 118 Families, Rnman, 286 Family habitations, from Ves- ta, 113 Fanatic, origin of the term, 240 Fascination, 240 Fasting among ancients, 171 Fate, controlling the gods, 88 Fates, 127 Father, of mankind, according to Greeks, 124; power of the Roman, over his chil- dren, 287 Fauns, 130 Faunus, grove and oracle of, 11 Feast of the gods, 234 Feasts, social, of Greeks, 158, 206; of Romans, 294 Feet, covering for, 208, 298 Females, state of in Greece, 159, 218; obligations of, to Christianity, 287 Feronia, 120 Festivals, Greek, 168: Roniaa 241 Field of Truth, 99 Fire, the vestal, 113 Fishing among Greeks, 158 Fish-pond of Horlensius. 292 Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135 Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203; Ro- man, 282 Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 293 Flight of birds, ominous, 149, 233 Flood, in time of Deucalion, 24 Flora, 120 Flowers, goddess of, 120 Food, of Greeks, 157, 204; Ro mans, 293, 294 Foot, means of determining tho Roman, 268 Fortune, goddess of, 118 Forums, at Rome, 17; Athens, 32 Fountain of the sun, 56 Fowling, among Greeks, 158 Foxes, burning of, in worship of Ceres, 112 Franciade, 66 Free men and freedmen, at Rome, 285 - French Republic, era of, 65 Fret-work, 290 Fulling of cloth, 264 Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 149, 221, 222 ; Roman, .300 ; songs, 221 ; eulogies, 222, 302; pile, 149,302 Funeral orations of Pericles and Demosthenes, 222 Furies, 99, 128 Furnaces in Roman houses, 291 Furniture of houses, 212,290 G. Gabriel, stone ot', 53 Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 42 Galleys, or war-ships, 200, 282 Gamblers of Pompeii, 294 Games of the Greeks, 172, 173 j Olympic, &c., 173 ; social, 207; Romans, 242; in ho- nor of the dead, 222, 304 Ganymedes, 96 Gardening, god and goddess of, 119; of the Romans, 292 Garlands, 175, 275 Gates of Rome, 16 Gauls, Rome burnt by, 225 ; history of, 7 Gelon, of Syracuse, 72 Getnini, 135 Gems, illustrative of Mytholo- gy, 86 Genius and Genii, 128 Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79 Geography, knowledge of the Greeks in, 3; epitome of classical, 3 Geryon, 131 Giants, 124, 125, 133 Gladiators, Roman, 244, 304 Glass, how far used bv Ro- mans, 263, 290 Gnomon, 60 Gods, Greek and Roman, num. ber of, 85 ; classes of, 87 their residence, &c., 87. food, &c. 88; genealogy, 90, Egyptian admitted among the Romans, 122 Golden aee, 91, 93; number, 63 Gorgons, 130 Goths, Rome taken by, 79, 22'» Government, changes in form ofGrecian,72, 141, 151,176 GENERAL INDEX. 327 178, 191; of Roman, 75, 248; hy Romans over con- quered nations, 258 Gracchi, the two, 77 Graces, 127 Graici, and other names of an- cient Greeks, 141 Grain, Kinds of, -^64; distribu- tion of at Rome, 261 Grapes, varieties of, 295 Grecian cities, 141 Greece, first inhabitants, bar- barous. 141, 150; colonies in, 142; causes of culture and improvement, 141, 143; periods in the progress of refineinent, 145 ; extent of, 2C, 21, 141; outline of the chronology of, 72; form of government in, 141, 142, 151, 177 Greek antiquities, utility of, 143: writers on, 144 Greek emperors, 79 Grt!eks in southern Italy, 13 Gresorian calendar, 62 Griffon, 132 Grinding, method of, 158, 159, 264 Groves, sacred, 18, 162,230 Guest-ch;iinbers. 293 Gyges, ring of, 99 Gymnastic art, 175 H. Habits, domestic, of Romans, 292 Hades, 99, 221 ; gates of, 99, 223 Hair, modes of dressing, 208, . 299 - Hallirrhotius, 105 • Hamadryad?, 126 Harmodius and Aristogiton, 177 Harmonia. 107 Harpies. 41, 128 Harpocrates, 124 Harps, 217 Harrowing, sod of, 120 Head, coverings for, 208, 298 Health, drinking of, 207, 295; goddess of, 117, 118 Heathpnism, moral influence of among Greeks and Ro- mans, 86 Hebe. 96 Hecate. 10! Hecatomb, 147 Hecatoinpylos, 71 Hector, 137 Heirs, at Athens, 220 Helen, 137 Helicon, 126 Heliogabalus, 298 Heliotrope, 60 Helius, 114 Hell, rivers of. 99 Helmet, 153, 274; of Pluto, 99 Helots. 189 Hepbgestion, friend of Alexan- der, 222 Heralds, 150, 197, 234 Hercules, 134; story of ex- plained. 134 Hermae, hu«ts or statues so called, 109. 119 Hermanuhis, 124 Hermes, 108; Trismegistus, 108 Heroes, worship of. &c. 132. 149 Heroic age, 72, 132; manners of, 159 Heruli, Rome taken by, 78 Hesperides, 134 Hierarchy of Romish church, 233 25 Hieromancy, 167 Hills of Rome, 16 Hippias and Hipparchus, 177 Hippocrene, 127, 131 Hippodamia, 131, 136 Hippomedon, 136 History of principal ancient states, 69; illustrated by coins, 65 : sacred, as related to pagan mythology, 84 Horsemanship. 156.. 194, "276 Horsemen or knights, 270, 276 Horse, Neptune patron of, 98 Horse-race, 172 Horses, for chariots and for carrying burdens, 266 Hortensius, his villas, 292 Horns, 100, 122, 124 Hosnitalitv. Grecian, 158, 179, 207; Romnii, 295 Hours, goddesses of, 127 ; of the day, 60. 240 Household gnds, 129 Household, Roman, 288. 289 Houses. Grecian, 158, 210; Ro- man, 290 Hunting, fishing, &c., 158 Hurdles^ 280 Hyacinthus. 101 Hydra, 131 Hydraulic organ, 217,247 Hygeia. 1 17 Hvmenaeus, 107 Hyperion, 114, 124 lacchus, 170 Ibis, J22 Iciimuli, mines of, 262 Idas, 135 Ides, 61, 240 Idolatry, origin of, 83, 84 Idomeneus, 137 Ignis, 113 Ilithyia, 96, 102 Ilium or Troy, 46 Illyrians, 8 Images in temples, 146, 160, 230 Imperial government, Roman, 249 Implements of agriculture, Ro- man, 264 Imi'risonment at Rome, 260 Inachus, 133 Indian mythology, its resem- blance to Greek, SO Indiction, cvcle of, 63 Industry, art of 212, 263 Inferior gods, 113 Infernal regions, entrance to, 12. 36 ; rivers, 25 Inheritances at Athens, 220 Inns, 158, 208 Inscriptions, on altars, 230 ; on tombs, &c., 222; use of, in chronology, 65 Institute, Royal, of France, 17 Instruments, agricultural, 264 ; sacrificial, 232; musical, 216, 217, 272 • Intelligence and wisdom per- sonified, 104 Intelligence, means of convey- ing arrmng Greeks, 199; Romans, 15 Interest, rate of at Rome, 267 Intermarriages at Rome, 254 Inuus, 116 lo, 105, 122 Ipsus, battle of, 70, 74 Iris, goddess of the rainbow, 96, 115 Isa, Hindoo deity, 122 Isiac Table, 123 Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102,122 table of, 123; temple of, discovered at Pompeii, 123 Isocrates, tomb of, 223 Isthmian games, 98, 175 Iialo-Grecian states, 15 Italy, geography of, 9 Ixion, 96, 100 J. Janus, a Roman god, 10, 93 Japhet, similar to Japetus, 124 .lason and Medea, 135 Javelin, hurling of, 172 Jeroboam, 69 Jerusalem, topography of, 51, 52; destruction of. 70 Jewish history and chronolo- gy, outline of, 69, 70 Jobat'es, 131 Joseph, son of Jacob, 124 Joshua, 69 Journals and Periodicals illus- trating classical literature, 17 Judges in Hades, 100 Judicial proceedings, Greek, 165; Roman, 250' Juggernaut, festival of, &c. IIC Jugglers and rope-dancers, 244 Julian, the Apostate, 78; pe- riod, 63 Junia, sister of Brutus, 302 Juno, 96 Jupiter, 94; Ammon, 95, 165; temples of, 17 ; statue of in Olympia, 114; Pluvius or Pluvialis, 95 Justice, courts of, 150, 184,259; goddess of, 117 K. Kaaba at Mecca, 53 Kalends, see Calends. Keys, ancient, 212 King, Archon, 1^1 ; Roman priest so called, 234 Kings, power of the early Gre- cian, 150, 189; the'Spat- tan, 189; the Roman, 220 234, 24S; ensigns of, 24S; kissing the feet, 210 Knights, Roman, 254 L. Labvrinth, Egvptian, 54, 55; Cretan, 13," 135 Lacedseinon, see Sparta. Lachrymatories, 303 Lamps, ancient, 291 Language, early Latin, similar to Latin now used in Wal- lachia. 8 Lantern of Demosthenes, 33 LapithsB, 24, 131 Lares and Penates, 129 Latidave, 298 Laiona. 116 Lawgivers, of Athens, 188 Laws of Greece, early, 151 , of Athens, 188; Sparta and •Crete, 191 ; Rome. 261 Lawsuits. Athenian, 186; Spar- tan, 191 ; Roman, 259 Lawyers, Roman, 262 Leaping, game of Greeks, 172; of Romans, 243 Legion, the Roman, 270, 271, 272; Thundering, 238; number of legions, 284 Legitimation, Roman, 289 Leonidas, his tombi 38 Letters, used to represent num« bers, 213, 267 338 GENERAL INDEX. Levying, Roman system of, 271 Libations, 147, 163, 238 Licentiousness of the Greeks, 220 Lictors, 248, 250 Life, private, of Greeks, 204; Romans, 285 Ligiit troops, 194, 276 Lorelto, chapel of, 10 Lots, used for learning the fu- ture, 167, 240; in choosing magistrates, 180 Lucifer, 114 Lucina, 102 Lucretia, outrage upon, 75,227 Luculliis, his villa, 12 Luna, 114 Lunar cycle, 62 Lnpercus, 116 Lustrations, 147, 239 Luxury of Romans, 227, 267 Lycia, Greek tombs in, 223 Lycurgus, Spartan lawgiver, 73, 151 Lydian history, 70 r^-ynceus, 135 Lyncus, 112 Lyre, 216,217; invention of, 108 Lysander, 177 M. Maccabees, 69 Machaon, 117 Machines, used in war, 281 Magical arts, 167, 240 Magistrates at Athens, 180; Sparta, 190; Rome 251 Magnesia, battle of, 70 Maia, 108 Makrinoros, pass of, 26 Mamertine prison, 260 Manes, 129 Maniples in Roman army, 272 Manners, general, of Romans, 292 Mantlets, 280 Manumission ofslaves, 289 Marching, Roman order of, 278 Marines, 202, 282 Marius, 17 * Market days at Rome, 241 Markets, 17, 32 Marriages, Greek, 159, 218 Roman, 286 Mars, 105; priests of, 235 Marsyas and Apollo, 101 Martial rewards and punish- ments, 199, 275 Masks, ancient, 176, 217 Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- solus. 114,223 Meals, Spartan, public, 190, 191 ; Grecian generally, 157, 204, 206 ; Roman, 293 Measures and Weights, Gre- cian, 214; Roman, 268 Mechanical trades at Rome, 263 Medea, 135 Mediterranean, navigation of, 152 Medusa, 104. 130 Mflicertes, 125 Melpomene, 127 Memnon, sounding statue of, 115 Memory, systems of artificial, 67,68 Mendes, 116 Menelaus, 137 Menes, Egyptian king, 71 Merchants, festival of, 242 j Roman, 263 Mercury, 108 Mrrmaid, 126 Mesmerism, a supposition con- cerning, 166 Metals, used by Vulcan, 107 Metamorphosea,fables respect- ing, 85 Metempsychosis, 84 Methodicschool in medicine,137 Metics, or resident aliens at Athens, 178 Metis, wife of Jupiter, 94 Meton, his cycle, 62 Midas, gift of Bacchus to, 109 Milestones, Roman, 16 Military affairs, of Greeks, 152, 193; of Romans, 270 Milk in libations, 147 Mills, for grain, 264 Milo, catacombs of, 221 Milliades, 21,73 Minerva, 104; festival of, 171; temples of, 29, 37 Mines, 22, 26,38,262 Minos, 100, 131, 133 Minotaur, 131, 134 Mint, at Athens, 213; at Rome, 267 Mirrors, ancient, 209 Mithras, 100, 134 Mizraim, grandson of Noah, 71 Mnemosyne, 124, 126 Mnevis, 123 Moeris, lake of, 54 Moloch, 91 Momus, 119 Money, of the Greeks, 212, 213; the Romans, 266, 267, 275 Months of Greeks and Romans, 60, 61 ; personified, 127 Monuments to the dead, 221, 302 Morals and manners in Greece and Rome, 227 Morea, 34 Morpheus, 130 Mosaic floors, 290 Mosque at Cordova, 9 Mother of gods, 93 Mourning for the dead, 300, 302, 304 Mules, use of, by Romans, 266 Mummies, 55, 221 Municipal towns, Roman. 258 Murraor Murrhinum, vases of, 263 Musaeus, 150 Muses, 126; on the ring of Pyrrhus, 127 Music, in Greek education, 159, accompaniment of ban- quets, 216, and ofsacrifices, 238; science of, 216 Musical instruments, 216; in Roman army, 272 Myriologues, 221 Mysteries, of Cabiri, 136 ; Eleu- sinian, 112, 169 Mythic poetry, 88 Mythical personages connected with the gods, 124 Mythographers, Greek, 88 ; Ro- man, S8 Mythology. 83; utility of a knowledge of, 86; resem- blance between classical and oriental, 86, 94, 95; diiferences between Greek and Roman, 87 N. Nail, ceremony of fixing in the temple of Jupiter, 242 Names, of Romans, 285; of towns in England ending in cester, 280 Naval affairs of Greeks, 152, 200,212; of Romans, 282 Naval battle, 203, 282 Navigation of Greeks, 152 Nemean games, 174 Nemesis, 117 Neptune, 98 Nereids, 98 Nero, his tyranny, 78; burning of Rome, 225 Nessus, the centaur, 134 Nestor, 137 Netha, Egyptian deity, 104 Nets, for fishing, 158 New Testament, literary im- portance of, 242 ; Apocry- phal, 243 Newton's Chronology, 64, 66 New-vear's presents at Rome, 241 Nicias, 64 Night, goddess of, 101, 115, 117 Nimrod, 69 Ninias, 69 Niobe, 102, 117, 136 Nobility, Roman, 254 Nones, 61, 240 Notation, Greek, 213; Roman, 267 Nox, 100,115 Numa, his influence at Rome, 75, 226, 229 Numbers, designated by let- ters, Grecian, 213; Roman, 267 Nuptial celebrations, 159, 220 287 Nymphs, 126 O. Oases, Egyptian, 55 Oaths, of Greeks, 163; of Ro- mans, 239; Roman sol- diers, 270 Obelisks, 19, 55 Ocean, 98 Octavius or Augustus, 77 Odea, 19, 32 Odin, 105 Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, 79 CEnomaus and Pelops, 136 Offences, penal, at Rome, 259 Offerings to the gods, 148, 149 238 Official robe of magistrates, 297 Ogyges, 133 Ointments of the ancients, 158, 210,299 Old and new style, 62 Olympic games, 173 Olympus, residence of the gods, 88 Omens. 149, 168, 233 0(nphale, 134 Oplitodrome, 172 Ops or Rhea, 93 Oracles,l49, 164, 166; Sibyline, 240; of Apollo, 101 Organ, musical instrument, 217, 247 Orion, 114, 125 Ornaments, architectural, 290; personal of Romans, 299 Orthos, 131 Osiris, no, 122 Ostia, salt-works at, 262 Ostracism, 187 Otus and Ephialtes, 105 Ovation, 284 Ox, symbol of Osiris, 122; bones found in the Kgyp tian pyramid, 123 GENERAL INDEX. 329 p. Paederasty, 220 Pagan fables, coincidence of with scripture, 84 Paganism and Popery, 137 Painting, ancient, remains of, 5{) Palace, origin of the word, 16 Palaemon, 125 Palladium, 104, 113 Palm, token of victory. 243 Pan, 116; priests of, 235 Panathenaic vases, 172 Panathenaea, 171 Pandora, 107 Panic, origin of the word, 116 Pantheon, 17 Parents, respect to, 159 Parga, fate of, 25 Parks of the Romans, 292 Parnassus, 127 Paros, Chronicle of, 65 Parthenon, 104 Parthenopaeus, 136 Parthian history, 70 Patricians and plebeians, 243 Patroclus, funeral of, 222 Patrons and clients, 254, 295 Paulus ^niilius, and the Epi- rotes, 25 Peace, temple of, 18; temple of Janus in time of, 18, 93 Pegasus, 131, 133 Peiias, 135 Pelopidae, 136 Pelopidas of Thebes, 74 Peloponnesian war, 74 Pelops,133, 136 Peperino, stone so called, 303 Pericles, statesman, &e. 73 Perjury, at Rome, 239 Persecution of Christians, 78, 261 Persephone, or Proserpine, 99 Persepolis, ruins of, 44 Perseus, 133 Persian Chronology, outline of, 70; kings, their residences, 44 Personification of various ob- jects, 119 Pessinus, origin of the name, 94 Petalism, 187 Petrified city, 56 Phaeton, 101 Phalanx, Grecian, 196 Phial of tears, 303 Philip of Macednn, 73 Philippi, siteof, 22; battle of, 77 Philopcemen, 75 Philosophy, Christian, 210 Phlegon, eclipse named by, 64 Phlegyas, 100 Phocian, or Sacred War, 74 Phocians, 27 Phoebus, 100 Phoenician history, 70 Phoroneus, 133 Physicians, Roman, 262 Picus, king of Latins, 130 Pierus, 126 Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 149, 302 Pillars, or columns, 19 Pipe,of Pan,&c.,216, 217 Pirithous, 135 Pisistratus, 72, 177 Plavs of the Greeks, 172; Ro- 'mans, 243, 295 Plebeians and Patricians at Rome, 75, 253 Pleiades, the constellation, 108 Pleione, 105 Plow, Grecian, 212; Roman, 264 i Pluto. 98 Plulu's, 118 Podalirius, 117 Poetry, mythic, 88 Poets, influence on religion of Greeks, 146 Polemarch at Athens, 181 Pollux and Castor, 18, 135 Polydectes, 133 Polydorus, 136 Polygamy, not allowed by the Greeks, 220 Polyhymnia, 127 Polynices, 136 Pomona, 119 Pompeii, implements, &c., dis- interred at, 291, 292, 294, 300 Pompey, 70, 77 Pompey's Pillar, 55 Pomptine or Pontine marshes, 11 Pontiffs, Roman, 232 Poor, at Athens, how support- ed, 183 Populace, Roman, 253 Population of Rome, 225 Populousness of ancient na- tions, 178, 225 Porticos, 19, 31, 36, 38 Portunmns, 125 Posthumius, 11 Posts, on Roman roads, 15 Pottery, Roman, 263 Pound, Roman, or libra, 270 Pracriti, Hindoo goddess, 94 Prsedial servitudes, 268 Praefects, 251, 285 Praetorian soldiers, 284 Praetors, Roman, 249 Praetus, 131 Prayers, of Greeks, 147; of Romans, 237 Precession of the equinoxes, a means of settling dates, 64 Priam, kingdom of, 70 Priapus, 119 Priests and priestesses, Greek, 147,162; imposture of, 164; Roman, 232, 235 ; classes of them made by later writers, 235 Prison of state, at Rome, 260; Sparta, 187, 191 ; Athens and other places, 187 Prizes, in the funeral games, 222, 304 Procession at the Circensian games, 243 ; triumphal,283 ; funeral, 302 Proconsuls, 252 Procris, 115 Professions, at Rome, 262 Property, among Romans, 268 ; basis of division into class- es, 253 Propraetors, 252" Proquaestors, 252 Proserpine, 99, 112 Provinces, Roman, 226, 258 Provincial niHgistraies of Ro- mans, 252, 258 Prytanes, at Athens, 184 Psammelicus, 71 Psyche and Cupid, story of, 107 Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71 Publicans of the New Testa- ment, 262 Pulpit, origin of the word, 247 Punic language, 40 ; wars, 72 Punishments, Athenian, 186, 199; Spartan, 191 ; Roman, 260; of Roman soldiers, 275 Purifications, Greek, 147, 163; Roman, 239 Purple dye, its costliness, 297 Pygmies, 125 Pyramids, 55, 123 Pyrrha, 133 Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76 Pythian games, 101, 174 Pylho, 101 Q. QuEestors, Roman, 250 Queen of gods, 96 Quinquatria, 104 Quirites, rights of, 258 Quoit, or Discus, 173, 243 R. Race, Grecian, 172; Roman, 243 Races or families at Rome, 286 Rainbow personified, 96, 115 Raising a child, 287 Rama, Hindoo deity, 110 Ras Sem, the petrified city, 56 Religion of the Greeks, 145, 160; expenses of, 182; the Romans, 229 Repasts, of Greeks, 157, 204; Romans, 293 Residents at Athens, 178 Revenue of Athens, 181; of Rome, 261 Review-muster, or Armilus- trium, 242 Rewards of Athens, 187; Spar- ta, 191 ; of Roman soldiers, 274; Roman generals, 2S3 Rhadamanthus, 100 Rhea, 93 Rhodes, Greek letters at, 34 Riches, god of, 118 Riding on horseback, 156, 266 Rights of citizens and subjects of Rome, 258 Ring, badge of knighthood, 2-50; ofGyges, 99 Rings, 299 Rites, of marriage, 220, 287; religious, 147, 148, 237 River* called infernal, 99 Roads, Roman, 15 Roman antiquities, 227 Romans, their empire, 75, 226 ; most brilliant era, 227 Rome, goddess of, 119; foun- dation of. 225 ; govern- ment of, 248, 2J9; extent of empire, 226 ; luxury and decline, 227 ; classes or di- vision of the people, 252; population, 225; topogra- phy, 16; chronology of, 75 •Romulus and Remus, 225 Rope-dancers, 244 Rotunda or Pantheon, 17 Rowers, their benches in the ancient galley, 202 Runners among the Greeks, 199 Runninii, one df the games, 172 Rural deities, 120 S. Sacer, Mt. 76 Saikbiit, 217 Sacred or Phocian War, 74, 165 Sacrifices, human, 91 ; of the Greeks, 117, 148, 163; Ro- mans, 232, 237; origin of, 148 Saddles and stirrups, 266 Saguntuni, siege of, 76 Salamat or Menmon, statue of. 115 330 GENERAL INDEX. Salaries, at Rome, 262 Sale by aiiGlion, 268 Salic priests, 235 S;'.lt, token of friendship, 207 Salt-works, Roman, 262 Siliis, goddess of health, 118 Saititiel, 69 Saidutiapaliis, 69 Sa/dis, biirnitig of, 73 Sardonic laugh, 40 Saturn, 91 Satvrs, 130 Scaling l;ulders, 230 Scepiers. 248 Scliiva, Hindoo deity, 110 Scipio, conqueror of Carthage, 77 Scironian rocks, 28 Scriptures, Sacred, attested in Pagan fictions, 84 Scylla and Charybdis, 132 Scytliinn guards at Athens, 32 Sea-fi?ht, 203, 282 ; mock, 243 Seasons personified, (31, 127 Seaiur, German deity, 91 Sertorian war, 8 Seleucidae, 70 .Self-devuiion, 239 Seineie, 109 Semiiamis, 69 Senate, Athenian, 184; Spar- tan, 190; Roman, 256 Septuagint, chronology of, 66 Sepulchers, Greek, 222; of early Christians, 223 ; Ro- man in England, 303 Serapis. 123 Serfs, in Italy, 290 Serpent, in fables respecting Apollo, and Crishna, 101; emblem of health, 117 Servitudes, 268 Sesostris, 71 Sesterce, value of, 267 Seven wonders ofthe world, 114 Sewers of Rome, 19 Shield, the sacred, 235 Shields, ancient; 153, 194, 274; of Hercules and Achilles, 153 Ships, Grecian 154, 200'; Ro- man, 282 Shipwreck, prs-ctice of those surviving. 238 Shoes, 208, 298 ; of horses, 266 Shows or spectacles at Rome, 243 Sibyls, books of, 240 Sieges, manner of, 198, 280; celebrated, 282 Signals of battle, 198 Signs, in the heavens, &.c. 167 Silence, god of, 121 Sileni, LiO Silenus, curious image of, at Paros, 110 Silk, known to the ancients, 209, 298 SingiuL' at feasts, 207 Shreiis, 125, 126 SistruMi,2]8 Sisyphus, 100 Siva, Hindoo deitv, 95 Slaves, in Greece,' 159, 178, 180; at Sparta, 189; Roine, 285, 289; patron srnddess ofthe freed, 120, 290 ; trade in, 263;repnt)licof, in Sicily, 41 [ Sleep, god of, 130 " i Sneezing, ominous, 149 Sobriquet or burlesque name, I 286 *locial entertainments, 214, 295; war in Italy, 77 I Socrates, his trial, &c. 74 Sofa-bfd,212 Sol, 114; statue jf, at Rhodes, 114 Solar cycle, 63 Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 193; of Roman, 271, 272; load carried by Roman, 274, 280 Solomon, reisn of, 69 Solon, his influence on Athens, 177 Somnambulism, in ancient times, 166 Soul, state of, after death, 95; weighing of, by Egyptians, 100 Spain, mines of, 262 Sparta, under Lycurgus, 142; rival of Athens, 142; changes in government, 151; system of educaiinn, 189; magistrates of, 189; public meals, 190; consti- tution, 188. 190; topogra- phy, 36 Spectacles or shows, Roman, 243 Sphere of Chiron, 64 Sphinx, 132 S()irits, departed, 99 ; fallen, 129 Spoils of war, how divided, 154, 199 S()oletto, aqueduct at, 10 Spurs, 266 Stage, actors on Greek, 176; parts of Roman, 247 Staircases, 291 Standards, military, Grecian, 198; Roman, 272 Statues, found at Pompeii, 298 Stheno, 130 Stirrups, 266 StonehengH, 148 Storms, goddesses of, 128 Strangers, treatment of by the Greeks, 207 Stucco-painting, 290 Styx, 99 Suliotes, bravery of, 25 Sun, the Fountain of, 56; sta- tue of at Rhodes, 42 Sun-dial, 60 Sun-god, 93; worship, 114 Superior gods, 91 Suppers of the Roinans, 294 Supplicants, 147 Surgical instruments, of Ro- mans, 263 Swearing, among the Romans, 239 Swimming among the ancients, 293 Swords, 196, 274 ; of Noricum, 7 Sybarites, 13, 15 Syenite, .54 Sylla, and Marius, 77 ; conque- ror of Athens, 177 Syracuse, constitution of, 192; lopoirraphy of. 40 Syria, kingdom of, 70 Syrinx, 116 Svthes, chariots armed with, 194 Table, of Isis, 123; genealogi- cal, of mvthology, 90; an- c'ient for eating, 206, 294 Tables and charts, 66 Tables, twi-lve, 261 Talent, value of, 213 Tammuz, Syrian deity, 106 Tantalus, 100. 136 Tapestry, ancient, 218 Tarentines, 15 Tarpeian rock, 16, 260 Tarquin, expulsion of, 75, 2i!} Tartarus, 99 Taxes at Rome, 261 ; Athens 181 Teachers at Rome, 262 Tears, preservation of, 303 Telesphorus, 118 Temples, ancient, 148; Gre- cian, 146, 148, 160; in time of Homer, 148; Roman, 18, 230; dedication of, &c 238; at Athens, 178; of .Jupiter Amnion, 95; of Isis, 123; Janus, 18; June Lacinia, 15 ; Solomon's, 52, 69 Tents, of Greek soldiers, 154 Terminus, 119 Terpsichore, 127 Terra cotta, 263 Thalia, 127 Theatre, performances in, 176; of Romans, 246 ; of Greeks, 175 Theban war, heroes of, 136 Thebes, constitution of, 192; supremacy of, 74 Themis, 94, 117 Themistocles, his eminence in Slate, 73 Theogony, Greek, 87, 146 Theomaiicy, 167 Thersander, 136 Theseus, 134 Thessaly, 24 Thrace, 20, 21, 145 Thracians, widows, 149 Thrasybulus, 177 Thrasyilus, monument of, 33 Threshing-floor, 264 Thyestes, 136 Thymbra, battle of, 70 Thyone, 109 Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 110 Time, personified. 91 Titanides, 91, 124' Titans, 124 Tithonus, 114 Titus, conqueror, 70 Tityus, 100 Toilet, Grecian, 209; Roman, 299, 300 Tomb, of Cyrus, &c., 223 ; Rr,. man at Pompeii, 303; at Cyrene, 66; of Virgil, 12 Tombs of early Christians, 303 Topography, of Rome, 16; of Athens, 28; Sparta, 36 Totila,Rome laid waste by, 225 Towers, ancient, 281 Towns, with names ending in cester, 280 Trade, at Rome, 263 ; in slaves, 2«9 Traditions of mythology, 83 Translucent stone, 290 Treasury, Athenian, 182; Ro- man, 261 Treaties, 157, 234 Trees, cultivated by Romans, 264 Trial, of persons accused, 185 259 Tribes, of Athens, 177, 178; Sparta, 188; Rome, 252 Tribunes, Roman, 76, 250, 251 Trident, 98 'I'ripods, consecrated to Apollo 149, 165; street of, 33 Triptolemus, 110 Triremes, 202 GENERAL INDEX. 831 Trismegistus, 108 Tritons, 125 Triumph of Roman generals, 2Sd Triuiiivirate, 77, 252, 267 Irojan history, 70 ; war, 70, 72 Trophies, 19, 149, 199 Trophonius, oracle of, 166 Trumpets. 217 1 ubal-Cain, 107 Tunnel of Pausilypus, 12 Tusks of the Calydonian boar, 26 Twelve Tables, laws of, 261 Tvdeus, 136 Typhon, 125, 132 Tyranny, Roman, over pro- vinces, 258 Tyrants, the thirty, 74, 177 Tyre, capture of, by Alexan- der, 70 U. Ulysses. 137 Urania, 127 Uranus, 113 Urns, for voting, 184; for de- positing the ashes of the dead, 221, 303 Utensils, ancient, found at Pompeii, 291, 300; repre- sented on Egyptian monu- ments, 232 Vdlor, 18 Valley of Moffeta, 12 Valmic, Hindoo poet, 110 Vases, Paiiathenaic, 172; sa- crificial, 232; Egyptian, 124 Veils, 208, 209 Venus, 105; places sacred to her, 106 ; temple of, at Hie- rapolis, 106; at Paphos, 53; Anadynmene, 106 Vertumnus, 119 Vessels, for holding wine, 296, 297; nf war, 200, 282; sa- cnticial, 232 Vesta, 93. 113 Vestal virgins, 113,236 Vices, deified, 122 Victims, in sacrifice, 237 Victory, goddess of, 120 ; re- wards of, 199, 204 Vigils, or watches of Romans, j 59 Villas, or country seats of Ro- mans, 12, 291 Violet, robe of office, 297 Violin, ancient, 217 Virgo, 117 Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 95 Virtues, deified, 122 Voting, Athenian rnnde of, 183, 18'4; Roman, 256, 257 Vows, 238 Vulcan, 107 Vulcanalia, 107 W. Waaes of Roman soldiers, 274 Walls, Roman in England, 40 Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 108 War, heroes of the Theban, 136; of the Trojan, 136; affairs of, among Greeks, 153, 193; Romans, 270: declaration of, 197, 234; the Social, 77; the Sacred, 165; the Sertorian, 8; of Troy, Bryant's view of it, 137 War-chariots, 193 W'ar-engines, 280 W^ar-galleys,200, 282 Wards or boroughs of Attica, 178 Watches, divisions of the night, 60, 240, 280 Watch-word, 280 Water-clock, 60 Wealth, instances of Roman, 267; god of, 118 Weapons or arms, of the an- cients, 153, 194, 274 Weeding, goddess of, 120 Week, known to Egyptians, 61 Weights and measures, Greek, 214; Roman, 266 W'ell of Syene, 54 Widows, burning of at fune- rals, 149 Wife of the Rex Sacroriim, and of the Flamen Dialis, 234, 235 Wills, 221 Wind-instruments of music, 217 Wind, woven, 209 Windows, of Roman houses, 290 Winds, as gods, 123; temple of, 31. 60 Wine-cellars, 291,296 - Wines, of Greeks, 204 ; of Ro- mans, 295; history of, 204, 297 Winter-quarters, of Roman soldiers, 280 Witnesses in courts, 239 Women, condition and em- ployments of among the Greeks, 158, 218; Romans 287 Wonders of the world, seven. 114 World, as known to the an- cients 3 Worship, Greek religious, 148; Roman, 237 Wrestling, 173,243 Writers, on mythology, 68, 89; on Greek antiquities, 144, 146; Roman antiqui- ties, 227, 228 ; Roman mili- tary affairs, 270; ancient weights and measures,270 ; chronology, 6b; on horo- logy, 60 ; topography of Rome, 16; topography of Athens, 33; of SpartH, 38 ; Byzantium, 20; Babylon and Nineveh, 53; Jerusa- lem, 52. — See also refer- ences under specific sub- jects ; e. g for writers on Jewish history, see Jewish history, in this Index. Xerxes, king of Persia, 70 Y. Year, division of by the an- cients, 62 Yero or Jero, 117 Young, time of burying among the Greeks, 221 Youth, goddess of, 96 Zama, battle of, 72, 77 Zodiac of Denderah, 54 Zones 4 THE END. \; TlT> -9.0 h\ -^oif ' ^°-n.. ' "^ *^^A»:* =* aP "1."..°' > v^ iili^^ cP yf^ o J "^ r/^'.- :?^ "• ^ ^ . » O ,1 »■ O rv o N o w o '■' <.0' " c • / ■> ■ T.AUGUSTINE' Q ''♦^T^^* '^'^ -o- -. ■W\/°'^-.%*