A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Wiitl) m 3|ntroUuctton j]^arratmg THE DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA BY HORACE E. SCUDDER Author of "A Short History of the United States of America FOR THE Use of Beginners" WITH MAPS. PORTRAITS. AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK • . • CINCINNATI . • CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COIVIPANY ^l1^ s^ A 3 LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two 6ople« Received J\N 19 1907 /^Cowrlaht ERtry UOa^ /G>f9o7 J (p & O I, COPYB.__ Copyright, 1S97, 1901, By HORACE E. SCUDDER. COPYKIGHT, 1907, By GRACE SCUDDERo E-P 1 PREFACE. A DOZEN years ago I wrote a school history of the United States, and the test of its use has shown me wherein it was defective. My own study of history during the same period has furthermore enabled me to see how I could improve my original presentation of the subject. The present book is the result. The general structure remains the same as before; there is the same cleavage of periods, and the same interpreta- tion of cause and effect in the development of the Union. But the emphasis is somewhat differently placed, and a much greater attention has been paid to that element of personality which gives vitality to all history. By biographic detail and a liberal use of portraits I have sought to interest the student in the men who have been the architects of the nation. When I introduced my first book I said: "The secret of success in any history must lie in the power of the author to conceive the development of life, and to discover the critical passages, the transition periods, the great epochs. I hope I have helped young people to understand the movements which I see from the time when America was first disclosed to the eyes of Europe down to the present day. I wish to emphasize my sense of the importance to American children of connect- ing the history of their country with the changes which have been taking place in Europe during the period of our growth — changes of the utmost consequence in the development of our own national life, an understanding of which is essential to an intelligent reading of American history. Therefore I have never lost sight of the fact that down to the close of the last war with England, America faced the Atlantic j and any on© V vi PREFACE. who would read her history aright must often take his stand upon the European shore." But there are two other considerations whicli have grown to be still weightier in my mind during the past decade. One is the momentous importance of a clear conception in the minds of pupils in our schools to-day of the vital connection between the present and the past. The other is the equally important need of an interchange of acquaintance between the different parts of the nation. As the vigorous Scripture has it : " Now hath God set the members each one of them in the body, even as it pleased him. And if they were all one member, where were the body ? But now they are many members, but one body. And the eye cannot say to the hand, I have no need of thee ; or again, the head to the feet, I have no need of you." Therefore it has been of the greatest interest to me to try to give the students of American history in the East some notion of the great expansion of life in the West ; to give to Western students a clear intelligence of the beginnings of the nation in the East ; to reconcile the minds of the North and the South by a fair disclosure of the underlying conditions which led to the rupture, now happily closed ; above all, to show that insti- tutions of free government are not born in a day to be over- thrown in a night, but that they are the slowly developed results of struggle and toil and sacrifice, not to be lightly swept aside as if they were mere fashions of an hour. I have written in the thought that our country is a land "which was reserved until the new birth of Europe ; that it was peopled by men and women who crossed the seas in faith ; that its foundations have been laid deep in a divine order ; that the nation has been trusted with liberty. A trust carries with it grave duties; the enlargement of liberty and justice is in the victory of the people over the forces of evil. So I bid God- speed to all teachers of those who are to receive the trust of citizenship. H. K- ^, Cambridge, Ma8§, TABLE OF CONTENTS. Hints to Teachers Entiotiuctifln DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OF NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. V. VI. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. I. The II. Engl III. The IV. The V. The VI. The VII. The VIII. The IX. The X. The XL The XII. The Sfain and Amehr'a ..... The Natives of North America . The French, the Dutch, and the Swedes The English in America. I. The English in America. II. The Struggle for a Continent Book H. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. Thirteen English Colonies . .and and the colonies First Resistance .... Declaration of Independence War for Independence Confederation and the Constitution New Union ..... People of the United States United States and Europe Expansion of the Union United States entangled with Europe Second^ War for Independence Book M. DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNION. The Union and its Neighbors Internal Development .... The System of Slavery .... Administration of Andrew Jackson Texas and the Mexican War PAOE X 1 19 26 39 69 88 103 117 130 147 158 181 190 197 209 218 224 231 241 249 258 268 277 Vlll COiy TENTS ClIAPTKR XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXIL XXIII. XXIV. XXV. Oregon and Califoknia . The MiDDLii of the (Jentury . The Approaching Conflict Secession The War for the Union. I. The War for the Union. II. Reconstruction After the Centennial Year . ^ppcntiix. The Constitution of the United States Index ....... PAfJF. 288 297 310 318 329 346 359 370 COLORED MAPS. PAGE Routes of Navigators to India and America in the Fifteenth and Six- teenth Centuries 11 New Spain and the West Indies 15 English and French Possessions in North America at the Time of the French and Indian War; also Colonial Charter Claims . . . 89 New England and New Netherland 89 The New England States daring the War for Independence . . . 139 The Middle States during the War for Independence 159 The Southern States during the War for Independence .... 171 Territorial Acquisitions of the United States 221 Mexico. — To illustrate the War, 1846-1848 277 ' To illustrate the War for the Union 329«/ Note. — Red indicates non-seceding Slave States. Pink indicates Free States. The United States of America 359 ^ Tne United States and its Outlying Possessions 391 , PORTRAITS. Adams, John Adams, John Quiney . Adams, Samuel Arthur, Chester Alan . Boone, Daniel, Bryant, William Cullen Buchanan, James . yBurke, Edmund . Calhoun, John Caldwell Calvert, Cecil Clay, Henry . Cleveland, Grover Columbus, Christopher Corn wal lis . ^Custer, George Armstrong Davis, Jefferson . Drake, Sir Francis Edison, Thomas Alva . Emerson, Ralph WaLlo ^Ericsson, John Farragut, David Glascoe Fillmore, Millard . Franklin, Benjamin ^ Fulton, Robert Garfield, James Abram Grant, Ulysses Simpson (ireene, Nathanael Hamilton, Alexander . ^Hancock, John Harrison, Benjamin Harrison, William Henry Hawthorne, Nathaniel Hayes, Rutherford Birchard Henry, Patrick i'Af;K Jackson, Andrew . . 245 Jackson, Thomas Jonathan . ^342 Jefferson, Thomas . 150 Johnson, Andrew . . 3()1 Jones, John Paul . . 173 Lafayette . 15() Lee, Robert Edward . . ^43 Lincoln, Abraham . 240 Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth . 307 McClellan, George Brintoi 1 . . 331 McKinley, William . . 385 Madison, James . . 228 Marshall, John . 192 ^eade, George Gordon . 348 Monroe, James . 242 ,Morse, Samuel Finley Brt ese . 298 Oglethorpe, James , . 85 Penn, William . 71 Pierce, Franklin . . 311 Poe, Edgar Allan . . 304 Polk, James Knox . 282 Raleigh, Sir Walter . 42 Roosevelt, Theodore . . 398 Sherman, W^illiam Tecumseh Smith, John . Taylor, Zachary Tyler, John . Van Buren, Martin Vespucci, Amerigo Washington, George Webster, Daniel . Wliitney, Eli Winthrop, John , 351 47 286 281 275 13 102 273 19<) 54 ix HINTS TO TEACHERS. The history of the United States may fairly be said to begin with the fall of Quebec, for just as soon as it was determined that the English were to be masters of the continent, the spirit of self-government began to assert itself, and agitation did not cease till the colonies were organized as States, and the States composed a Union. All that precedes the fall of Quebec, there- fore, is treated as Introduction to the history. The plan of the book is designed to help the student to a logical conception of the history of the country ; for one of the great advantages gained by the study of history is the strengthening of the logical faculty, — the practice of answer- ing the ivhys of events. Thus, following the Introduction which shows the ways leading up to the Union, there are two books, one devoted to the establishment of the Union which took place when the new nation was rendered finally inde- pendent of Europe, the other devoted to the development of the Union, a process still going on. Again, each book is divided into chapters, designed to group the great topics of the book, and each chapter is broken up into sections, representing the succession of topics ; under these sections there are sometimes given unnumbered sub-sections, indicated like the main ones by heavy-face type, and for convenience in seeing distinct statements, these sections are often broken up into paragraphs. It will be found of advantage to give to each part, to each subdivision, indeed, a thorough review before proceeding to the next. For this purpose a series of aids to the pupil has been provided. At the end of each chapter will be found questions covering the paragraphs in the chapter. They are HINTS TO TEAL' HERS. XI questions which cannot be answered by //e.s or no ; they require the pupil to know what he has studied, and very often to have thought carefully about what he has read. They do not exhaust the subject, — any skillful teacher can vary and mul- tiply questions indefinitely, — but they serve the purpose of enabling a pupil to try himself. The best questions are those which grow out of the recitations of a pupil, and the series given ill this book should be taken as containing rather sug- gestions than a hard and fast set of questions. It is advised that these questions on the text be not used by the teacher in hearing the recitation, but for purposes of review. Along with each of these series is another briefer series, to be used, as the title Search Questions implies, to quicken the student's inter- est in the period just studied. There are numberless byways which a school history cannot explore ; no history will answer all the questions which spring up in the mind of an intelligent reader, but the life of historical study consists first in master- ing the material placed before one, and then in pushing on, in exploring the territory laid open. These Search Questions are not idle conundrums, and they do not often refer to what may be called the mere curiosities of history ; but they are designed to start the student upon research, and upon using the books whose titles are jotted down at the foot of the page. It is important to bear in mind that a capital opportunity is afforded by the study of history for the cultivation of the faculty of expression. A word for word recitation of the chapter is not to be encouraged. It is a feat of the memory, and may be quite unattended by any real appropriation of the passage recited. But pupils should be encouraged to use, when they recite, finished sentences, and not be allowed in a careless fashion to fall into a broken, halting, ungrammatical way of tumbling out facts ; a scholar who recites in this loose manner will not really know what he is reciting half so well as when he has trained himself to frame neat, clear, and com- pact statements. For this reason, a teacher should not only make much of perfection of the spoken answer, but should use xii HINTS TO TEACnijRS. the history work as the basis of literary work. To aid the pupils, a number of subjects for composition and debate have been provided after each chapter. They are suggestions only, but they may serve to prompt other subjects also. Especially it would be well to call frequently for the writing of bio- graphical sketches. Outlines of leading facts have been given both in the text and footnotes, and by means of these, ency- clopedias, and regular biographies, very interesting studies of the lives of men of importance can be drawn up. The debates which are suggested afford an excellent oppor- tunity for training in expression, and for bringing out the knowledge of the debaters, and the accuracy of their informa- tion. It is a good plan to let two of the class act as leaders and choose sides just as in any game; then to give the two parties time to divide up the subject, and to work by them- selves over the treatment of it. During the debate, if careful rules are regarded, it should be a part of the game for the opposite side to ply the debater with questions. Debates con- ducted before the whole school not only train the debaters, but serve as an excellent quickener of the wits of those who listen. The study of civil government may be promoted by an organization of the school or class into a Debating Club with officers and a constitution. The maps, large and small, offer good opportunities for special examination and review. In reviews of this kind, it is not necessary to draw the map upon the board. Let the pupil have the map before him. By a little practice he will become very expert in the needed preparation for these special exercises. It may be a disappointment to some not to find the facts of this history regularly marshaled under the separate adminis- trations. There is no doubt an advantage in such an arrange- ment. It helps the memory by associating the succession of facts with successive quadrenniums, which in turn are named after the Presidents in their order. On the other hand, there is a degree of artificiality in such a disposition of history. HINTS TO TEA ('II Eli S. ■ xiii The changes in administration have been of conseqnence, some- times of great consequence ; but it is likely to give a mistaken notion of the relation of administrations to the development of the nation, to mislead one as to the true cause for the effects produced, when the incidents of the history are tixed by the law of association with certain persons at the time holding office. I have, therefore, while noting the administrations in turn, treated them as parts of the incident of history rather than as four-mile posts. But it would be a fresh exercise of a review order to call for a recital of historic facts under each administration. Finally, a word should be said of the use to which the copi- ous Index may be pnt. The familiar use of an index is to find the page readily where a person or an incident is treated; the history becomes a good book of reference when it is equipped with a good index. But there is a further use which so full an index as the one here given will serve. It brings together many scattered references to some one subject which is not treated once for all in a single passage, and it may be made the means thus of a further review. Suppose, for example, a pupil is writing a biographical sketch of a character in history. By reference to the index he will very likely find incidental references which otherwise might escape him. Or again, if one wished to trace the relations of France with this country, the entry under the general head of France would enable him to follow the thread from the fishermen of Brittany to Maxi- milian. Thus I have tried to make every part of the apparatus of the book reenforce the teacher in his effort to use this History as a work to instruct, to train, and to inspire the pupil in the acquisition of that great and important task, a knowledge of the nation in which he is a freeman and in whose destiny he has a part. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY OF PROPER NAMES AND TECHNICAL TERMS IN CHAPTER I. Cristoforo Colombo (cies-tof'6-r6 co-loin'bo. Christopher (cris'to-fer). The word means "Christ bearer." There is a legend of a strong man who carried the child Christ across a river, and thence was named Christopher. Azores (a-zorz'). La Rabida (la ra-be'da). Pinzon (pen-thon'). Palos (pa'los). Khan (kan). Moham'medans. The followers of Mohammed, or jVIahom'et, an Arabian religious leader and sol- dier (A.D. 570-632). Santa Maria (san'ta ma-re'a) = Holy Mary. Car'avel. Sargas'so. The Sargasso Sea lies be- tween latitude 16° and 38" north and longitude 30° and 50° west. It is a great floating mass of sea- weed drifting about the Atlantic. Bahama (bah-ha'ma). Hispanio'la = Little Spain. Don, from the Latin Domimis, "■ master " or " lord." The title in Spain now means scarcely more than " Mr." means among us. Coat-of-arms. The knights in the Middle Ages wore over their armor a coat embroidered with figures which denoted their fam- ily or estate. These coats are no longer worn, but the figures con- tinue to be used as signs of noble birth, and are called coats-of -arms. Veragua (va-ra'gwa). Amerigo Vespucci (a-ma-ree'go ves-puot'chee). His name in its Latin form, was Americus Vespu- cius. Strasbur g ( stras ' boon; ) . Vasco da Gama (da gii'ma). Toscanelli (tos-ca-nel'li). Juan Perez (wan pa'reth). Diego (de-a'go). Granada (gra-na'Da). Cipango (chT-pan'go). Behaim (ba'him). League (leg) = about three miles. Porto Rico (por'to re'ko). Ponce de Leon (ponss de lee'on'). Pascua Florida (pas'koo-a flor-ee'- tha). Balbd'a. Magellan (in Spanish pronuncia- tion, ma-hel-yan', but commonly pronounced in P^nglish, ma-jel'- lan). Yucatan (yoo-ka-tan'). Hernando Cortez (her-nan'do cor'- tez, Spanish kor-tas'). Vera Cruz (vn'ra kroos), meaning " true cross." Montezuma (mon-te-zoo'ma). Pizarro (pe-zar'ro). Fernando de Soto (fer-nan'-do da so 'to. Coronado (ko-ro-na'-r>o). Canon (kan'yun). A deep defile between steep walls or banks, usually with a stream flowing at the bottom. Zuiii (zoon'ye). Moqui (mo'ke). INTRODUCTION. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT OP NORTH AMERICA. CHAPTER I. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 1. Christopher Columbus. — In Genoa, Italy, somewhere be- tween 1436 and 1446,^ was born Cristoforo Colombo. His name was written Columbus in Latin, which was then the language used by all who read and wrote, and as Christopher Columbus he has been known ever since to English-speaking people. He left school when he was about fourteen, and was sent to sea to finish his education and to learn to command a vessel. Like those seamen of his time, who were more than common hands, he made a careful study of maps and charts, read the stories of travelers, and busied himself with questions as to the shape of the earth and its size. Learned men had long held the opinion that the world was a globe instead of being flat, as the common people and the more ignorant supposed. Columbus also believed it to be a globe ; he thought it, however, not perfectly round, but pear- shaped. He thought it, too, much smaller than it really is. By his study of charts and his talks with scholars he decided that if he were to sail due west from the Canary Islands, he would cross about four thousand miles of ocean and reach the eastern shore of Asia. In point of fact, that was not far from the distance to the Gulf of Mexico. 1 The exact date is not known. B 1 2 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 2. Why should he wish to go by Sea to Asia? — Nowadays our geographies give us abundant information about Asia ; on our maps, every river and mountain range and cape can be traced;' we know the cities and provinces and separate nations ; and we have books which tell us of the people, their mode of life and what they produce. It was not so in the time of Columbus. Asia was a vast, vague land, at the extreme east of which lay the countries which we now know as China, Japan and the East Indies, while the ocean flowed beyond.^ From these countries caravans came, bringing silk, pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, and spices, and Genoa and other Italian cities grew rich through commerce ; for their merchants sent ships to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean to trade with the Asiatics who had crossed the continent. But when Columbus was a boy, a great blow had been struck at this commerce. The Turks, who before had lived in western Asia, swarmed into Europe and captured the great city of Constanti- nople. They controlled now all the eastern part of the Mediterranean, and it became a perilous matter to send ships there. Thus it was of the greatest moment to find, if possible, some new route to the Indies. The Portuguese, under the lead of their prince, Henry the Navigator, had been slowly following the coast of Africa.^ 3. The Struggle of Columbus to get a Hearing Columbus him- self went to Lisbon about 1470 and for a while carried on his business of map making there and sometimes went to sea with Portuguese captains. He knew therefore of the discoveries 1 The book above all others which gave Columbus and the men of his time their notion of Asia was the famous adventures of Marco Polo, .written about 1300. The Old South Leaflet, No. 32, contains Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java. 2 Prince Henry was filled with zeal for discovery. He built an astro- nomical observatory in the southernmost province of Portugal and devoted himself to study. From that point he directed a series of voyages from 1418 to 1463, and after his death the work went forward, until in 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to India. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 8 along the African coast, but he was convinced that there must be a shorter route to Asia, and he was confirmed in this belief by the advice of a great geographer and map maker, Toscanelli, who sent him, in 1474, a map which showed a straight course across the Atlantic.^ It was one thing to believe in such a route ; it was quite another to follow it. Map makers could bring forward excel- lent arguments in support of their belief; but the only argu- ment really convincing was to take a vessel and sail across the ocean. Columbus was a poor man, and he must needs per- suade some one who had money to join him. For twenty years he carried his great purpose in his mind before he could bring it to pass. He tried in vain to persuade the magistrates of his native city of Genoa to join him. He laid his plans before the King of Portugal, who took counsel with learned men about him. These men publicly ridiculed Columbus as a crazy adventurer; but privately they told the king there might be some truth in what Columbus said, and the king was base enough to send out a vessel secretly, to get all the advantage there might be for himself. But it needed a Columbus to carry out the ideas of Columbus. The captain of the vessel sent out by the king put out from the Azores, but meeting a storm, he was frightened and turned back. Columbus heard of what was done and indignantly left Portugal. He bent his energies toward persuading Ferdinand and Isabella,^ King and Queen of Spain, to give him aid, and failing in that, he tried to bring some of the noble families to his side; through his brother Bartholomew he made an equally vain attempt to interest the English court. 4. The Triumph of an Idea. — For seven long years he pushed his great enterprise. Poor, ridiculed as a madman, almost friendless, Columbus clung to his belief; and at last his faith 1 The letters which Toscanelli wrote to Columbus at this time will be found in Fiske's Discover]/ of America, I. 35(5-362. 2 The History of Ferdincmd and Isabella has been written by W. H. Pres- cott ; it is one of the most readable of American histories. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 5 was rewarded. Here one and there one was convinced by his persistence and his undaunted confidence. His best friends were in the monastery of La Rabida, not far from the seaport of Palos. The story goes that when, worn out with his dis- appointments in Spain, he was about to set out for England, he stopped at the monastery with his son, a boy of eleven or twelve.^ Here he met the prior of the monastery, Juan Perez, who had been the father confessor of Queen Isabella. Perez became greatly interested, and sent to Palos for two men of importance : one was a physician who was very curious in geographical matters ; the other was a shipowner and cap- tain, Martin Pinzon. So deeply did Columbus impress them, La Rabida. that the prior set off to the camp of the Spanish armies, for Spain was then waging war with the Moors, who had long before come over into the Spanish peninsula from Africa. There he saw Isabella, and persuaded her to send money to Columbus and invite him to appear before her. 5. The Queen of Spain is won over. — The queen and her counsellors were so convinced by the arguments of Columbus, that she promised to take up the matter in ea^rtiest just as soon as the Moors had been conquered. On the second day of January, 1492, the Moors surrendered Gra,nada,^ and Co- lumbus was summoned to the court. He went, but not as a suppliant. So filled was he with the 1 This boy, Diego, afterward became page to Queen Isabella. 2 One of Washington Irving's most captivating books is The Conquest of Granada. Irving was United States minister to Spain, and he wrote with the added charm of one who knew the country well. 6 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. magnitude of his enterprise that he demanded great power and honor for himself. The king and queen turned away from this dreamer, and Columbus, once more baffled, mounted his mule and set off this time for France. But the friends of Columbus, who had influence at court, could not bear that Spain should lose the glory so nearly in her grasp. They redoubled their appeals to the queen, and she, moved by their zeal, sent a mes- senger after Columbus. She would herself bear a large part of the expense, and an agreement was made between this adventurer and the crown of Spain. This agreement is an interesting one, for it shows what was in the minds of those who made it. Columbus was to have for himself and heirs the office of admiral ; he was to be gov- ernor general over all the lands and continent he might dis- cover or acquire ; he was to reserve for himself one tenth of all pearls, precious stones, gold, silver, spices, and all other articles of merchandise obtained within his government; he might share in the expense of the enterprise with his sover- eigns to the extent of one eighth and receive one eighth of the profit. Add to this that the king and queen gave Columbus a royal letter to the Great Khan, a vaguely known potentate of Asia, and that Columbus was to devote the wealth gained to fitting out a new crusade for the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher,^ and it will be seen that this voyage of discovery was in the minds of all a great religious enterprise. The one eighth of the expense which Columbus was to bear was lent to him by the brothers Pinzon, who were of the greatest service ; for it was very difficult to find sailors ready to venture out into the Sea of Darkness, as they called the unknown Atlantic, and the Pinzons by taking command of two of the three vessels of the fleet gave courage to their townsmen. The Santa Maria, the largest of the three, was commanded by the Admiral, as Columbus was now called. It was only about sixty-three feet long, twenty feet broad at the 1 For four hundred years the Christians of Europe had been engaged in an attempt to recover Jerusalem from the Mohammedans. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 7 widest part, and ten feet deep; indeed, no one of the three was larger than a small coasting schooner. In the whole ex- pedition were ninety sailors and thirty gentlemen and priests, and provisions were carried for a year.^ 6. The Sailing of the Fleet On the third day of August, 1492, the fleet set sail from Palos and steered for the Canary Islands, which were under the control of Spain. By the map of Toscanelli, which Columbus is believed to have taken with him, if they sailed due west, on the 28th parallel of latitude, Copyrigiit by L. Fiaiig & Co. Fleet of Columbus. they would strike the northern end of Cipango, or Japan. One of the caravels, as the vessels were called, lost her rudder on the way, and the fleet remained in port a month for repairs. On the 6th of September, they left the Canary Islands and sailed westward over the unknown seas. Terrors of the Voyage. — Ten days later they entered the vast tract of seaweed which forms what is known as the Sargasso Sea. The sailors were terrified, for they thought they must be 1 It is interesting to see just what was the fullest knowledge scholars had of the globe in the year when Columbus made his first voyage, and this can be seen by consulting the globe made by Martin Behaim, of Nuremberg, in 1492. It is not impossible that Columbus met Behaim in Lisbon, 8 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. over a reef or in shoal water, but when the vessels sailed on without harm, they took fresh heart, and believed themselves to be near land. More trustworthy signs of land appeared. They caught a crab ; they saw birds, among them a pelican, which they thought never flew more than sixty miles from shore; there was drizzling rain without wind, and that, they The Ocean Side of Behaim's Globe made in 1492. Dotted Lines have been added to outline the Position of the then Undiscovered Western Continent. said, meant that land was near. Still they sailed on without coming to land. Then distant clouds looked like solid earth, but vanished as the vessels approached. The sailors, who had not the faith of Columbus, were dismayed by this wild voyage ; every day brought some new alarm or cause for despair; they were mocked by the signs of land, when yet there was no land. SPAIN AND AMERICA, 9 So desperate did tlie men become, that they began to plot against Columbus ; and some went so far as to propose to throw him into the sea and return to Spain with the story that he had fallen overboard. But they feared that they had gone beyond the reach of any wind that could carry them back to their homes. Columbus used all his arts to govern the unruly sailors and discontented gentlemen. Sometimes he encouraged them with gentle words, telling them what great fame and riches would be theirs if they kept on, or what honor they would have in the Church. Sometimes he threat- ened them with the displeasure of the king if they disobeyed him.* 7. The End of the Voyage — Five weeks, to a day, after leaving the Canary Islands there were unmistakable signs of land. A stick carved by hand was picked up from the water, and a branch with berries upon it. A reward in money had been offered to the first person who should see land, and all were now on the lookout. About ten o'clock at night, Colum- bus, standing on one of the castles ^ of his vessel, saw a light in the distance. The light moved, and he called two of his companions to see it. It may have been a light in a boat. Land was near and, at two in the morning, was seen in the moonlight by a sailor who was on the lookout in one of the other vessels. It was Friday, the twelfth day of October, 1492. Columbus, in a full suit of armor, carrying in his hand the royal banner of Spain, landed upon the island and planted the cross. He was attended by officers and gentlemen, and by many of the crew , and as soon as they touched the shore, they all fell upon their knees and with tears of joy gave thanks to Almighty God. 1 Columbus feared that if his crew knew how far they were from the land they had left, they might become desperate and mutiny ; accordingly, he kept two reckonings: one true, for himself, the other a pretended one, which made the distance sailed each day less; this was for the officers and crew. 2 The castle was a structure- like a raised deck, built at either end of the vessel. Heuce the term ** forecastle " in modern ships. Ohristopher GolninbTis. 1 There are many portraits of Columbus, and they do not all agree in likeness. One of his companions has described him as tall and strong, with a fair, fresh complexion, and bright, piercing eyes. In later life, he had long, white, streaming hair, Intent Applied for A Map to Illustrate Routes of Navigators to Copyright, iS84, by Jacob WeUa Lla and America in the 15th and 16tli Centuries. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 11 Return to Spain. — The island which had then been found was one of the group known now as the Bahama Islands. Columbus embarking again passed other islands, coasted by Cuba, and came finally to Hayti, to which he gave the name of Hispaniola. He was quite sure that he had reached Japan, and after building a fort and leaving some men to hold it, he sailed with his fleet back to Spain, taking with him ten of the natives of the land, of whom six lived to reach Europe. He carried with him also some live parrots and some stuffed birds, a few pearls and trinkets of gold. He had not much to show, but the imagination of men made these things into signs of vast riches.^ At all events Columbus had actually found a straight course by sea to the Indies. He had left the kingdom like an adventurer; he was received now as a hero. The king and queen paid him great honor. They gave him the title of Don ; they granted him a coat-of-arms such as only very noble men were permitted to bear; he rode by the king's side ; he was served at table as a great man ; and when he desired to make a second voyage, every aid was given him. Columbus knew that he had thus far visited islands only ; but he thought that they were islands lying near the eastern coast of Asia. The name Indies was given to the coast ; and since these islands had been reached by sailing westward, they came to be spoken of as the West Indies, and the people found upon them were called Indians. 1 Columbus's Letters to Gabriel Sanchez, deseribuig tlie First Voyage nnd Discovery, is printed iu No. o3 of Old South Leaflets. Coat-of-Arms of Columbus, 12 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 8. The Fate of Columbus — Columbus made not only a second voyage, but a third and a fourth. For ten years he was en- gaged in exploring the islands, and even set foot on the shore of South America. He was convinced that he had not reached the mainland of Asia and looked for a strait where the Isth- mus of Panama is ; but all the time he was endeavoring also to find gold mines and to establish the government he had been promised. He made many enemies and once was sent back to Spain in fetters. He spent his last days in sickness and poverty and died in 1506.^ He never fully perceived how he had opened the way to a great continent, though some of the men of his time were persuaded of it; his own brother Bartholomew made a map, recently discovered, which clearly shows it. Columbus had the courage and faith and wisdom that carried him across the Atlantic, when others only dreamed of such a thing. The men who came after him reaped the reward he never gained. He did not even have the honor of leaving his name upon the new world. That honor fell to another explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine, who sailed first in the employ of Spain and after- ward in that of Portugal. Vespucci made several voyages, including one which made known a large part of the Atlantic coast of South America, and wrote a letter containing an account of his discoveries.^ This letter, in 1507, the year after the death of Columbus, was printed at the printing press of a college near Strasburg; and the printer, who was a geographer, said in his preface : " And the fourth part of the world having been discovered by Americus, may well be called Amerige (that is, the land of Americus), or America." The name America was placed on maps of South America and printed in books, and finally was applied to all America. 1 A descendant of Columbus, the Duke of Veragua, visited the United States at the time of the Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The most readable life of Columbus is that by Washington Irving: the most learned, and the one that brings to light the latest researches, is Winsoi-'s Christopher Columbus. A very interesting account may also be read in John Fiske's The Discovery qf America, 2 See Old South Leaflets, No. 34. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 13 Amerigo Vespucci. Born 1451 1 died 1512. 9. The Line of Demarcation. — At the time when Columbus made his voyages, the great exploring nations of Europe were Spain and Portugal. Both countries recognized the pope as supreme, and to prevent them from quarreling over their dis- coveries, Pope Alexander VL decided in 1494 that there should be a " Line of Demarcation " drawn north and south on the map 100 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, and that what- ever was found to the west of that line should belong to Spain ; whatever was found to the east should belong to Portugal. A treaty shortly after between Spain and Portugal made it 370 leagues. By this agreement Brazil fell to the share of Portugal.' 10. The Extension of Geographical Knowledge. — From the islands where the Spaniards established government they 1 Brazil became independent of Portugal in 1822, when it became the Empire of Brazil ; the empire was overthrown in 1889 and a republic, the United States of Brazil, set up in 1891. 14 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. made their way to the neighboring mainland. One of the governors of Porto Rico, Ponce de Leon, when making a voyage, touched the coast of the continent somewhere oppo- site the Bahamas. It was Easter Sunday when he first saw the land. The Spaniards call that day Pascua Florida, ^ ' or " Flowery Easter " ; and so he named the country Florida. Like others, he was looking for what he had been told he should find in Asia, and his special desire was to find the fountain of youth, the waters of which made old men young again. Ponce de Leon was the first Spaniard, apparently, to land on the soil of what is now the United States, and that was twenty years after the first voyage of Columbus. There were two other men, near the same time, who did much to open the eyes of the world to the fact that America was not a part of the continent of Asia. One was Balboa, who was at the head of a company of men at Panama. The natives made out to tell him of another sea lying beyond the mountains, and he set forth with his men to find it. He fought his way through hostile tribes and at last saw before him a height from which, his Indian guides told him, he could look upon the sea. He bade his men remain behind, and went alone to the summit. There he stood and beheld the broad Pacific, the first man from Europe to see that sight.^ Something of the extent of this newly discovered ocean was learned when Magellan, a Portuguese captain in the service of Spain, boldly sought to follow the coast of South America, as others had followed that of Africa. He passed along the east- ern coast until he came to the strait now known by his name. He followed this strait and sailed upon the great ocean, crossing it and making his way to the East Indies. The islands in this archipelago had already been reached by Portuguese sailing eastward. This was the first time they had been reached by vessels sailing westward. 1 There is a line in Keats's famous sonnet, "On first looking into Chap- man's Homer," which is drawn from this incident. SPAIN AND AMERICA. 15 Mageflan himself was killed on one of the islands, but his companions kept on to Spain round the Cape of Good Hope. Thus men had at last sailed round the world. After this there was no longer any doubt that the world was a globe. 11. The Conquest of Mexico. — The Spaniards, as they pushed their explorations about the Gulf of Mexico, were always on the lookout for gold and silver, and they expected to come upon great cities and powerful kings. It is but a short dis- tance from the western extremity of the island of Cuba to Yucatan upon the mainland. The first Spaniards who crossed the channel brought back word that they had found men dressed better than those on the islands, and living in buildings made of stone and mortar, and in every way more civilized. Cortez. — The governor of Cuba thereupon sent an explor- ing expedition under command of his secretary, Hernando Cor- tez, who sailed along the coast until he came to a favorable point, where he established a fortified camp, and named the place Vera Cruz. From this point he marched his army, less than five hundred in number, into the heart of Mexico. Sometimes he made friends of the natives; some- times he fought them. He got possession finally of the most important chieftain, Montezuma, and, after a short period, Mexico, with its rich mines, became a Spanish province. Pizarro. — Another Spaniard, Pizarro, conquered Peru, and all the western coast of South America, as well as Central America, came under the control of Spain. A great many Spaniards came over to America to make their fortunes in these countries.^ 12. Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto. — Meanwhile the attempt to get control of that part of the country bordering on the Gulf of Mexico now occupied by our Southern States was less successful. Fernando de Soto, a companion of Pizarro, determined to conquer Florida, as all this country was then 1 Prescott's two books, The Conquest of Mexico and The Conquest of Peru, give brilliant accounts of the Spanish occupation. A novel, The Fair God, by General Lew Wallace, author of Ben Hur, states the traditions of Mexico under Montezuma. One of Henty's stories, also, By Right of Conquest, is based on Cortez's expedition. 16 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. called, and set out with a great expedition. The march was a continual fight with savage tribes, and the arni}^ dwindled away, but De Soto pushed on until he came to a point not far from where the city of Memphis now stands; there he saw the great river Mississippi, which lay across his path. But nothing came at the time of this discovery. De Soto died and was buried in the river; the gaunt, famished rem- nant of his party straggled back to the coast.^ A later expedition headed by Coronado,^ has a special interest for Americans to-day, because it penetrated what is now New Mexico and Arizona; and the chronicle gives an account of the Grand Canon of the Colorado Eiver, and of the strange cliff dwellings of the Zuiii and Moqui Indians, half-civilized tribes that have remained with little change in the same region to this day.^ 13. The Spaniards and the Native Americans The Spaniards thus had slight hold on the country which now forms our Gulf States, though they had made one small settlement in Florida, , Pjnp- of which the only remaining sign is St. Augustine ; but they were securely established in Mexico, Central America, the western part of South America, as well as in Cuba and other islands. By the force of a superior race, a comparatively small number of Europeans kept under their dominion the natives of these regions. The Indians submitted to the Spaniards, obeyed their laws, and adopted their religion. They tilled the ground, herded cattle, and worked in the mines. They were not slaves in name, and many laws were made to prevent them from being sold into slavery ; nevertheless they were in one form or other bound in service. 1 See "The Death of De Soto," from the Narrative of a Gentleman of Elvas, in Old South Leaflets, No. 36. 2 See Coronado's Journey to New Mexico and the Great Plains, 1540-42, No. 13 of American History Leaflets. 3 A lively account of these Indians was written by Mr. Gushing, who lived long with them. It may be found in The Century Magazine for December, 1882, February and May, 1883. 8PA1JV AND AMEliWA, St. Angastine. Gradually the Spaniards in- termarried with the Indians, and the present race in Mex- ico, Central America, and South America is largely a mixed race. To-day, though Spain has lost all her posses- sions in the Western Continent, the Spanish lan- guage may be heard from the northern part of Mexico to the southern extremity of South America; and Spanish customs and laws, as well as the religion of Spain, mark the hold which Spain once held in the Western world. Spanish Coat-of- Arms. Old Grateway, Fort San Marco. QUESTIONS. What was the birthplace of Columbus? What was his occupation after he left school ? What did he and others of that time think of the shape and size of the world ? How did Columbus propose to reach Asia ? H.-w far off did he think Asia to be by water? What book gave the fullest account of Asia in early times? What two ways of going to c 18 DISCOVERY ANi) SErfLEMENT. India by water were possible ? What nation took tlie lead in the route round Africa? Name the great Portuguese promoter of exploration. Who finally rounded the Cape of Good Hope ? Whom did Columbus seek to interest in his plan ? What trick was played upon Columbus in Portugal, and how did it turn out ? Tell the story of Columbus after he left Portugal. Who were the best friends of Columbus ? What were the terms of the contract between Ferdinand and Isabella and Columbus ? How did Columbus intend to use the wealth he should gain ? Describe the fleet of which Columbus was admiral. When did it sail, and where did it direct its course ? Point out on the map the location of the Sar- gasso Sea. What signs of land were seen ? How did Columbus encour- age his men? Describe the discovery of land, and the ceremony of taking possession. Describe his reception on his return to Spain. How many voyages did Columbus make ? Did he see the mainland of Amer- ica? What is the story connected with the naming of the New World? What was the Line of Demarcation ? What is the origin of the name Florida ? Relate the story of Balboa. When was the first voyage round the world made ? Who first of Europeans saw the Mississippi River, and at what point ? What is left to Spain of her American possessions ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. What is the meaning of the name Mediterranean Sea ? What great empire once controlled it wholly ? What is now the great Mediterranean of the world ? Columbus thought it four thousand miles from the west- ern coast of Europe to the eastern coast of Asia ; if there had been no American continent in the way, how far would it have been, sailing due west from Palos ? Is the Holy Sepulcher still in the hands of Moham- medans ? Mention some of the places and geographical points in America which owe their name to Columbus. Columbus looked for an opening in the Isthmus of Panama that he might push on to China and India ; how does the modern world hope to accomplish the same purpose ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : Boyhood days of Columbus. Influences that led Columbus to make his voyage. An imaginary letter from the sailor on the lookout. Debates : Besolved, That Columbus was justified in deceiving his companions Besolvedf That this continent should be called Columbia. CHAPTER II. THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. Pueblo (pweb'lo). Wigwam (wig' worn). Canoe (ka-noo'). Sa'chem. Mobilians (mo-bil'yanz). Palisade (pal-i-sad'). 14. The more Civilized Peoples When the Spanish took possession of Mexico and Central America, they found a peo- ple more civilized than the natives of the West India islands ; they found also remains of a still earlier civilization. AV^e find to-day, in New Mexico and Arizona, a remnant of the more civilized race of Pueblo Indians^ in the Cliff Dwellers, who cultivate fields which they have learned to irrigate, and weave and make pottery which shows a sense of beauty. In the Mississippi Valley, and especially in the valley of the Ohio, are found to-day great mounds, some of them shaped like animals. There is one in Loudon, Adams County, Ohio, known as the Serpent Mound. ^ These mounds have been opened, and a great many domestic utensils and what are thought to be burial urns have been taken out.^ Ashes have been found in them, as if great fires had been built ; but w^hether these mounds were burial places, or places of worship^ or sites for rude houses, cannot always be known. At first there was a 1 The Pueblo Indians lived in communities on the plains ; for defense they climbed to natural slielves along tlie sides of cliffs ; hence the name. 2 This mound and the land about it constitute a park of seventy-five acres owned by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. See a full account in The Century Magazine, March, April, 1890. 3 Squier's Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, though printed many years ago, is the most satisfactory account in general of the mounds. See also Short's Americaiis of Antiquity, and The Mounds of the Afir.sissippi Valley, by Lucien Carr, Smithsonian Report for 1891. 19 20 DISCOVERY AND SEl^TLEMENT. disposition to regard the people who built these mounds as a distinct race, but many scholars now regard them as the ances- tors of the tribes found by Europeans when they first visited the country between the Mississippi River and the Alleghanies. 15. The Indians on the Atlantic Coast The Indians living between the Atlantic coast and the Mississippi Valley were cinnamon-colored, had high cheek bones, long, coarse, black The So-called House of the Dwarf.^ hair, and small, black eyes. They lived upon the fruit they found, the fish they caught, the animals they killed; some 1 This is one of a great many buildings, tbe ruins of which riiay be seen to- day in Yucatan and Honduras, often in the depths of forests and overgrown with vegetation. Like a number, it is a temple crowning a pyramid. This pyramid has a very steep slope, about one hundred feet in height, and is reached by a succession of steps. The temple, which is richly ornamented, consists of two parts, one reared on the summit, the other looking like a chapel lower down. The cut is taken from Charnay's Ancient Cities of the New World, a book which describes the ruins in Central America as seen in 1880. See also Short's Americans of Antiquity. THE NATIVES OF NOBTH AMERICA. 21 Various Scenes in Indian Life : Cliff Dwelling. — War Dance. — Exposure of the Dead. — Travel by Water. - Chief s Head. lived upon maize or Indian corn which they planted. If every- thing else failed, they could dig roots and eat them. They did not look forward very far, however, so that there were times when they suffered severely from want of food. 22 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. They used bows and arrows in hunting. The arrows had flint heads, and their hatchets were made out of flint. They cooked their food by roasting it over a fire, or stewing it in unglazed earthenware pots. But since these pots would have been cracked in a fire, they heated the water by putting in red- hot stones. They wore as little clothing as they could in warm weather, and when winter came, they dressed them- selves in skins from the animals which they killed. On great occasions they used ornaments of claws and feathers. When they went to war, they smeared themselves with colored clay. Their houses were made by driving poles into the ground in a circle and drawing their tops together. Then they covered the poles with bark or skins, and the wigwam, as it was called, was finished. Inside there was a hole in the ground for a fire ; and the family slept on skins or bushes. The. women, who were called squaws, did the work, not only of cooking, but of planting the corn and gathering it, of dressing the skins, and of making the wigwams. They bore the burdens when moving from one place to another. Until Europeans came, there were no horses in the country. The Buffalo. — As the game upon which they depended moved about the country, so the Indians roved in search of it. . The buffalo was an animal every part of which the Indian used. He cooked or dried the flesh, for food. He tanned or other- wise dressed the skin and used it for his bed, and he cut it up for ropes and cords. The mar- row served for fat. The sinews made bowstrings. The hair was twisted into ropes and halters, and spun and woven into a coarse cloth; the bones made war clubs, and the shoulder blades were used for hoes. They made canoes from the bark of trees, and paddled along the rivers and lakes. By looking at a map which has no State lines Buffalo. THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. 23 upon it, one can see what a network of waterways covers the country now occupied by tlie United States. Their Country. — Living thus out of doors, the Indians learned the ways of bird and beast. They became swift of foot, quick of eye, cunning and ready. They learned to endure hardships ; to go a long while without food. They could find their way through the woods by signs which white people never saw. They had names for all the places which they visited. Every waterfall, river, lake, mountain, valley, and cape was named by them, and very many of these names were taken up by white settlers and remain to this day. Some of the names of our States are Indian names. A number of Indians living together and hunt- ing together formed a tribe, and these tribes had their own names. Each tribe had a sachem, who was chief; and the right to be chief often continued in the same family. But if a sachem lost the respect of the tribe, the warriors would choose another, who was usually one of his relatives. 16. The Main Groups of Indians. — There were three principal groups of Indian tribes east of the Mississippi. In the north the most powerful were those which went by the name of the Iroquois. They were made up of distinct tribes, at first five, afterward six, banded together in a league, with laws and gov- ernment.^ The Iroquois had their home within the borders of what is now the State of New York, but they also drove out the tribes living in the region south of Lakes Erie and Ontario, and on the peninsula east of Lake Huron. The Algonquins, the other great northern group, covered nearly all the rest of the country east of the Mississippi and north of what is now North Carolina. In the south were the Mobilians, comprising Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. These various groups had each its own language and customs. War was constantly car- ried on between the Iroquois and the Algonquins. They did not meet each other in the open field. The Indian mode of 1 For this reason they are sometimos called the Five Nations or the Six Nations. 24 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. warfare was to steal through the woods and come suddenly at night upon a camp of the enemy. 17. The Traits in Common Though the tribes differed from one another, all the Indians were in some points alike. They were brave, but they were also treacherous. They never for- gave an injury. They could bear hunger and torture in silence, but they were cruel in the treatment of their captives. They were a silent race, but often in their councils some of their number would be very eloquent. They had many legends about the world in which they lived, and they believed in spirits who lived around them in the water and the air. In each tribe there were "medicine men" so called, who were regarded as magicians. The brave Indian believed that after death he would go to the Happy Hunting Grounds. It is not possible to say how many Indians there were when Europeans first came to this continent. It is supposed that, through wars with one another and with the whites, the race has been fast disappearing; but it is known that during the past thirty years the number has increased.^ 1 A comprehensive book on the Indians is The Red Man and the White Man, by George E. Ellis. Parkman's The Oregon Trail gives an interesting account of his life among the Indians. The best stories in which Indians figure largely are Cooper's Leather stocking Tales. The most famous poem relating to the Indians is Longfellow's Hiawatha. QUESTIONS. Name the three classes of natives who have left monuments or other signs of partial civilization. What was the appearance of the Indians on the Atlantic coast ? What was their food ? How were they housed ? Describe the uses to which the buffalo was put ? What was their mode of life ? Describe the tribal life. Locate the Iroquois ; the Algorxquins ; the Creeks, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. What were their religious ideas ? Name some of the characteristics of the race. SEARCH QUESTIONS. Name some of the more considerable mounds. Name the rivers, mountains, lakes, and towns in your State which have Indian names. THE NATIVES OF NORTH AMERICA. 25 • Where are some of the tribes named in this chapter still to be found ? Name some poems with Indian characters. Which of the States have Indian names ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : An account of explorations in Central America. An account of the Zunis. Description of a mound. The story of an Indian from childhood till he becomes a warrior. An account of some Indians I once saw. Indian characteristics gathered from Hiawatha. Debates : Resolved., That the Indian was better off before the white man came to America. Resolved, That Indian names are better for places in America than European names. Resolved, That the mound builders were identical with the American Indians. Resolved, That the settlers were justified in taking the land from the Indians without paying for it. Resolved, That the Indian can be civilized. CHAPTER III. THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. Newfoundland (nu'fund-land'). The name was first applied to all the countries in the northeast discovered by the first English voyagers, but afterward was used only for the island which con- tinues to be so called. Nova Scotia (no'va sko'shia) was so named, later, because of Scotch settlers. The words are Latin for New Scotland. Banks. Shoals in the sea, near the coast. Breton (bret'on). Verrazano (ver-ra-tsa'no). Labrador (lab'ra-dor). Jacques Cartier (zhak kar-tya'). Chaleur (sha-loor'). From a French word meaning "heat." Neth'erlands. Originally both Hol- land and Belgium. The name signified "lowlands." Huguenot (hii'ge-not). Champlain (sham-plan'). DeMonts (deh mon'). Acadie (a-ka-de'). The English form is Aca'dia. The Indian form from which the name is derived appears in the ending qiioddy, a kind of fish, — as Pas- samaquoddy. St. Croix (saut kroi'). Port Roy'al. The king's harbor. Ignatius Loyola (ig-na'shus loi-o la), 1491-1566. Iroquois (ir-6-kwoi'). Ottawa (6t'ta-wa). Jean Nicolet (zhan ne-ko-la'). Joliet. The town in Illinois named from the explorer has been angli- cized to Jo'le-et. Marquette (mar-kef)'. Arkansas (ar'kan-sa'). Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ki-a). Chevalier de la Salle (shev'a-ler' deh la sal'). The title chevalier corresponds in general to the English "knight," and means, literally, a rider of horses. La Chine (la shen', China). Hennepin (hen'e-pin). Miami (mi-am'i). Louis (loo-ee'). But the English form "Lewis," is frequently used. D'Iberville (de-ber-veel'). Holland is a short form of " Hollow land," or "low land." Henry Hudson. The Dutch called him Hendrik Hudson. Minuit (min'ne-wit). Christina (kris-te'na). 18. The Breton Fishermen make their Way to America While the Spaniards were taking possession of the central and south- ern parts of America, other European peoples were making THE FRENCH, THE DUTCH, AND THE SWEDES. 27 acquaintance witli the more northern parts. At this time, by the rules of the Church, nearly one third of the days in the year were fast days, on which no meat could be eaten ; and in conse- quence the fisheries had become of great importance. On both sides of the English Channel, and on the western coast of France, a large part of the population was engaged in this business. The fishing grounds near at hand became so exhausted that the hardy fishermen ventured farther each year, until at last they came to the coasts of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia and fished on the Banks, which still furnish a yearly harvest to thousands of fishermen; but they troubled themselves very little about the land that lay near. A few captains, indeed, explored the coast. Cape Breton owes its name to the fishermen from the Breton country in France. When the French king resolved to have a share in the New AYorld, these fishermen became his best helpers. The explorers whom he sent out naturally gathered their crews in the Breton ports, and found that the men already knew some- thing of the coast. 19. The Voyages of Verrazano and Cartier Verrazano, an Italian sailor, was sent out by Francis I., King of France. He reached the American coast near what is now called Cape Fear, and cruised northward, visiting probably the bay of New York and Narragansett Bay.^ Like other explorers, he was searching for a passage to India. His voyage convinced him that the land which he had visited was a part of a great continent; and when he took into ac- count the southern voyages of the Spaniards and Portuguese, he came to the belief that a short passage to India was im- possible, since there must be land all the way from the Strait of Magellan to Labrador. Cartier. — The French were eager to know more of the new country, but wars followed, and it was ten years before the king took further action. Then he sent two ships to America under 1 Vei-razano's Voyage is the title of No. 17 of Old South Leaflets. It is a translation of his account. 28 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, the command of Jacques Cartier, to make further explorations, and still, if possible, to find a way to India. Cartier cruised about the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to which he gave that name. He entered a bay, which, on account of the heat, he named the Bay of Chaleur. There he landed and took possession of the country in the name of the King of France. This ceremony consisted in setting up a cross and fastening upon it the king's coat-of-arms. The next year he VC" ^ 1 /r^WJ;^AV m \^ .V 58 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. became a part of the Connecticut colony, which had its seat of government at Hartford. 41. The Beginning of Rhode Island. — Ehode Island was formed partly by colonists from Massachusetts Bay and partly by companies from England. But the colonists from Massa- chusetts Bay did not go to Rhode Island of their own will. They differed, from the rulers at Boston, and were compelled to find some other home. They went to Narragansett Bay, which was claimed by the other colonies. The Puritans had come to Massachusetts Bay to be free from the Church of England and to govern themselves. But they were not all of the same way of thinking; hence the leaders took alarm. They thought the colony was in danger from those who differed from them in religious views ; and they either banished them or made it too uncomfortable for them to stay. A minister named Roger Williams said, for one thing, that the magistrates ought not to declare wliat a man's religion should be; what seemed to them more dangerous was his assertion that the Massachusetts people had no true title to the land they had bought of the Indians. The magis- trates said that Williams was a source of peril, and they drove him out of the colony. He went to the wilderness, where he was befriended by the Indians. At last, ' with five companions, he made his home at a place which he called Providence, because God had provided for him. In 1638 and the year following, settlements were made at Portsmouth and Newport on the island of Rhode Island, and other towns sprang up. These various settlements sent Roger Williams to England to obtain a charter for the government. It was full of his ideas, and gave the people great freedom, especially in religious matters. The settle- ments were constantly troubled by the Massachusetts and Plymouth people in regard to boundaries, and Massachusetts tried to bring the colony under her rule. 42. Maine and New Hampshire. — Sir Ferdinando Gorges, a man of great ambition, who had dreams of founding a great the' ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 59 kingdom in America, obtained a grant of land in New Eng- land. He began settlements at Portsmouth and Dover, and in 1623 joined with him Captain John Mason. Seven years later, Saco and Biddeford were founded. Immediately after this, Gorges and Mason divided their claims. Gorges took the country to the east of the Piscataqua River. Mason took the remainder of the grant and named it New Hampshire, because at the time he held high office in the county of Hamp- shire in England. Mason died, and the settlements in New Hampshire were left to themselves. Other people came from Massachusetts, and for a while the towns were under the rulfe of that colony. The little fishing villages in Maine were also left much to themselves, for Gorges never came over to look after his estate. 43. The Treatment of the Indians by the English As the colo- nies increased in number, and sent out their members farther and farther into the wilderness, the Indian saw that the land over which he had freely roamed was closing against him. He saw it was impossible to live by hunting where the white man was tilling the soil. The English showed little wisdom in their treatment of the Indians. They disliked them for their savage ways. They could not understand them, and tried to make them obey laws which it was impossible for an Indian to understand. They thought they might make ser- vants of the Indians ; but this was like taming wild animals. Attempts at Christianizing the Indians. — The Puritans, in- deed, regarded the Indians as heathen. Many treated them harshly, and wished them out of the way. A few sought to make Christians of them; and one holy man in particular, the Rev. John Eliot, was so faithful in his efforts for them that he came to be known as the Apostle to the Indians. He translated the Bible into the Indian tongue as well as various religious books and sermons. A hall for In- dians even was built in connection with Harvard College. There were few Indians, however, who would give up their wild ways. The rest hovered about the English settlements, 60 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. or retreated into the woods and talked over schemes for rid- ding the country of the newcomers. Both in New England and in New Netherland the whites and the Indians began to irritate each other more and more. 44. Indian Wars. — Those settlers who lived outside of Bos- ton and the few seaport villages built palisades about their houses and farm buildings. A group of buildings thus pro- tected was called a stockade. Sometimes they made the houses themselves into rude forts, in which they could defend them- selves in case of need. All the towns and villages had train- A Stockade. bands, — companies of men ready to march at a moment's notice. In any fight with the Indians the whites at first had the advantage of firearms ; but the Indians soon learned the use of these. The English forbade the sale of arms to the Indians, but the Dutch traders sold them freely. The Indians, however, depended chiefly upon their tomahawks when they suddenly appeared from the woods and attacked farms and villages. The Pequot War. — The first severe war with the Indians be- gan in 1636, and is known as the Pequot War. The Pequots were a fierce tribe living in the eastern part of what is now Connecticut. The English showed little mercy in this war and THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 61 almost utterly destroyed the Pequot tribe. The punishment was so severe that it was many years before another Indian war broke out. But the Indian hate was deepened. The United Colonies of New England. — An important effect of the war upon the New England colonies was to cause them to seek a close union. In the peril, each had helped the other. Connecticut and New Haven were especially anxious to have such a league because they were most exposed to danger from the Dutch and the Indians. They were willing to admit Rhode Island; but Massachusetts would not consent to that — she would not admit into such a league people whom she had driven out from her borders. The league, finally, was formed in 1643. It was called the United Colonies of New England, and embraced Massachusetts, Plymouth, New Haven, and Con- necticut. It was not proposed to unite these colonies under one government. Each was to continue independent ; but they formed the league for mutual advice and aid.^ 45. The Puritan Commonwealth in England. — One of the rea- sons which the people of New England gave for forming a closer union among themselves was the condition of England itself. That country was "distracted," and the colonies in New England declared that they must trust more to them- selves and less to the mother country. The conflict between the king and Parliament had become open war, and with the war emigration to America ceased. There was so much excitement in England, and the Puritan party was coming to have so much power, that few wished to go to the new land. The war between the king and Parliament continued for seven years, when King Charles I. was tried and executed. England was now declared to be a Commonwealth. The people were to rule through their representatives in Parlia- ment, and Oliver Cromwell became chief magistrate, with the title of Lord Protector. Although this success of the Puri- 1 See The Articles of Confederation of the United Colonies of New England in No. 7, American Hiatoin/ Leaflets, 62 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. tans in England was welcome to their friends in New England, great care was taken by the colonies not to join either party openly. They had been really governing themselves, ' and they wished to keep clear of the control of Eng- land, whether that control was exercised by the king or by Parliament. 46. The Navigation Acts. — The laws which Parliament made for the regulation of trade were of great importance to America. The first of a series of acts, called the Navigation Acts, was now passed. It declared that no goods should be carried to the colonies or brought from them except in English ships. This act was followed by others forbidding the colonies to send their products to any ports except such as belonged to England. These laws were intended to increase the ship- ping and benefit the merchants of England ; for it was com- monly held in those days that colonies existed chiefly for the benefit of the mother country. European Rivalries. — One effect of these laws was to make ill feeling between England and other commercial countries of Europe. Holland was the great rival of England, and war broke out between the two countries, which ended in breaking down Holland. England also went to war with Spain, and took from her the island of Jamaica, which she still holds. The Puritan Commonwealth of England did not last after Cromwell's death. The monarchy was restored, and King Charles 11. came to the throne. The Naviga- tion Acts, however, and other laws which Cromwell's Parliament had made, continued to be the law of the land; and the country sought to get rich through its colonies. 47. The Conflict between the English and the Dutch in America. — There had always been a dispute as to the first discovery of the coast of New Netherland. The king took advantage of this dispute to set up his claim ; and he made a formal deed of all the country between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers to his brother, the Duke of York. The New England colonies were well pleased at this, They had been crowding the Dutch THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 63 out of Connecticut, and had been claiming one piece of land after another. They were quite ready, therefore, to take sides with the king when he sent an English fleet across the Atlan- tic and took possession of New Netherland. The Dutch were in no position to resist. The governor, Peter Stuyvesant, a brave man, urged his countrymen to stand by him and attack the fleet ; but it was a hopeless endeavor. The English set up the king's standard, changed the name of New Amsterdam to New York, and that of Fort Orange to Albany. This act and others similar to it on the coast of Africa led to another war with Hoi- land. During the war New York for a short time ' was again under Dutch rule. But at the end of the war New Netherland was ceded to England.^ 48. King Philip's War. — And now a sudden and terrible blow fell upon New England. An Indian chieftain, named Philip, who was much above the common Indians in character and power of mind, brooded over the wrongs which his race had suffered from the strangers. He formed the purpose of uniting all the Indians into one body and sweeping the Eng- lish from the country. His plans were laid with great skill, and for more than a year the war raged, carrying desolation through the country. Almost every man who could handle a musket took part in the war, which came to an end when Philip was killed near Mt. Hope, Rhode Island. The population of Massachusetts at the time was about twenty-five thousand, and it was estimated that a tenth of the fighting men of the colony had been killed. This war, called King Philip's War, was the last conflict with the Indians in the settled parts of New England. The tribes were broken up'; many Indians were miserably sold into slavery in the West Indies; others fled farther west. The Christian or Praying 1 An entertaining account of early New York, in a half-burlesque form, is Knickerbocker's History of Neio York, by Washington Irving. A very good historical novel of the period is The Begum's Daughter, by E. L. Bynner. 64 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. Indians, as they were called, had saved the lives of many of the people. 49. The Loss of the Charters. — While the war lasted, the colo- nies were bound together by the common peril. When the war was over, each colony found itself weak, through loss of men and money. The confederation had gradually failed in authority, and in each colony there were divisions and parties. Every year it became more difficult to keep unbroken the early Puritan plan of a religious state. In Massachusetts the government was obliged to yield to the king's demand, and give men who were not members of the Church a right to vote. Complaint Pine-Tree Shilling. ^^^ made to the king that Massachusetts was coining money, — the right to do which belonged to the king alone. At last the king lost patience ; the courts declared the char- ter of Massachusetts void. Henceforth the king would rule the colony himself, through a council and president whom he would appoint. There was to be no General Court. The people were to have no voice in the government. It was the act of Charles II. ; but just as it was announced, he died, and left the throne to his brother, James II. This king regarded all the northern colonies as a part of the posses- sion of the crown. He claimed all the land as his ; he was to make all the laws and lay all the taxes, without asking any one's consent. Accordingly, he sent over Sir Edmund Andros to be governor of the Province of New England and New York. All the separate charters were to be revoked. The separate colonial governments were to be abol- ished where they interfered with the authority of Andros. A murmur arose throughout the country. For more than fifty years the people had been governing themselves ; now they were bidden to give up this right. In Hartford the colonial government met to deliver up the charter. It was THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 65 evening, and the charter lay on the table. Suddenly the candles were blown out. When they were relighted, the char- ter had disappeared. One of the members had carried it off ; and the story is that he hid it in the hollow trunk of the oak which long stood, and bore the name of the Charter Oak. 50. William and Mary. — Sir Edmund Andros was using in New England the despotic power which his master. King James II., was using in England. But- in neither country was liberty dead. In England the king was driven from his The Charter Oak. throne. By a bloodless revolution, William, Prince of Orange, the grandson of Charles I., and Mary, his wife, the eldest daughter of James II., were called to rule in his stead ; Parliament, which James had closed, again sat and made laws. In New England rumors came of these changes. Before the overthrow of King James was positively known, the people of Boston rose, seized the king's officers, shut up the governor in a fort, and took possession of the govern- ment. Shortly after, the tidings came that William and Mary were King and Queen of England. The several colonies of 1689. 66 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. New England again governed themselves under new charters. The governors of Massachusetts and for a time those of New Hampshire, indeed, were appointed by the crown, and the officers of the revenue were the king's officers. The towns elected representatives to the different assemblies, and made their own laws; but these were not to oppose the laws of England.^ 1 Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair is a pleasant series of sketches of early New England. QUESTIONS. Who was England's first discoverer of America ? What routes were successively tried by English sailors making their way toward India? Who was the first Englishman to visit California ? What great queen ruled England ? What part of North America did Raleigh seek to colo- nize ? Tell the experience he had in his attempt. Where, in America, is his name preserved? Narrate Gosnold's voyage. What was the for- mation of the Virginia Company, and how was it divided ? When and where was the first permanent settlement, by Englishmen in America, made? What members of the royal family of that date have their names preserved in Virginia ? What is the origin of the name Newport News ? Describe the beginning of the colony. What relation did the early Vir- ginians have with the natives ? Tell the story of Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. What did the English company expect of their colony in Virginia ? What production of the soil gave prosperity to the country ? Who were the Separatists ? Where did they go first ? Why did they go ? What induced them again to leave their new home ? Give an account of their adventures before they finally established a home. What is the name by which the settlers in Plymouth are known ? What English explorer had been before them, and drawn a map of the coast? What was the government of the colony ? Describe the experience of the first colonists. Who was their first captain ? What was the difference be- tween the Pilgrims and the Puritans ? Narrate the political conditions of England which led to a migration of the Puritans. What was the nature of the company formed ? How did their action with regard to the charter differ from that of other colonists ? Who was the first governor ? How large a company came to Massachusetts Bay in 1630 ? Where were the first settlements made ? What led to the chief settlement being made in Boston ? Describe the mode of life in the first years of the colony. What signs did the people give of their interest in education and religion ? TSE ENGLISH IN AMBRtCA. 67 What constituted the right to vote ? Describe the government of the colony. From what three sources was Connecticut first settled ? Name the origin of 8ay brook. What led to the first settlement in Rhode Island ? Who was Roger Williams ? What was his relation to the Indians ? How did Providence get its name ? What special service did Roger Williams render Rhode Island ? Give an account of Mason and Gorges, and the settlements made by them. How did the English and Indians get along together? Who translated the Bible into an Indian language? Who were the Pequots ? What was the result of the war ? What was the league of 1643 ? Was this the beginning of a union of the colonies ? When did the civil war in England break out ? What were the people fighting for ? How did the quarrel end ? Why did not the people of New England take part in the war ? What were the Navigation Acts ? What wars followed ? What claim was made by Charles II. ? Why did the Dutch call their territory New Netherland ? the town, New Amsterdam ? the settlement. Fort Orange? What changes were made by the Eng- lish ? What is said of Philip? What plan did he form ? How did the war begin, and what was the result ? What change took place in the Massa- chusetts colony? What was the "pine-tree shilling"? What did the king determine to do ? Who was sent over to rule New York and New England in the king's name? What is the story of the Charter Oak? When James II. was dethroned, what happened? What relation was William to Mary ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. What is the name of the legislature of Massachusetts to-day ? What title is given to the legislature of Virginia, and why ? Can you name any State in the United States which calls itself a commonwealth ? How many such States are there ? Did any of the persons who tried King Charles I. come to America? What were they called, and what became of them ? What families in Virginia trace their descent from Poca- hontas ? Who was the first child born to the Pilgrims after their land- ing at Plymouth ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : An account of Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation in its wan- derings to England and back. The finding of the letter sent home by Bradford, and what it contained. 68 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. Imaginary letter from a passenger in the Mayflower telling of the voyage. The difference between the Pilgrim and the Puritan. Contrast Boston of to-day with Boston of 1636. The treatment of the Indian by the Spaniard, the Frenchman, and the Englishman. The hiding of the charter in Charter Oak. Debates: Besolved, That the honor of discovering America belongs more to Cabot than to Columbus. Besolved, That the discovery of tobacco was an evil. Besolved, That the Massachusetts colony acted prudently in banishing Roger Williams. Besolved, That there was more bravery in the days of the bow and arrow than in these days of rifle and cannon. Besolved, That the treatment of the Indians by the Puritans brought about King Philip's War. CHAPTER V. THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. II. Dissen'ters. The name applied in England to those who dissented or separated from the Church of England. Dep'uty. A deputy acts in the place of the regular officer when that officer cannot be pres- ent. Schuylkill (skool'kil). A name given by the Dutch. Kill, which frequently is found in the end- ing of names in New York, as Catskill, Peekskill, means "creek." Schuyl finds its near- est English word in " skulk " : and Schuylkill means thus, "hid- den creek." Lenni Lenape (len'ni len-a'pa) = original men. Cal'vert. Cecil (ses'il). Leonard (len'ard) Susquehanna (sus'kwe-han'i). Annap'olis, i.e. Ann's town. Albemarle (al'be-marl). Barbadoes (bar-ba'doz). Og'lethorpe. Whitefield (whit'field). Frederica (fred'er-e'ka) . Altamaha (al'ta-ma-ha'). 51. George Fox and the Quakers. — When the Puritans were coming into power in England, a man named George Fox went about the country, preaching to the people. He interrupted the preacher in the pulpit and the magistrate on the bench. He rebuked them for their sins. He spoke like one of the ancient prophets, and was without fear of man. He taught that there was no church except in the meeting together of friends, who spoke as each thought himself or herself moved by the spirit of God. Thus there would be no bishops, or priests.; no taxes for their support, and no sacraments. The only law was to be the law of love in their hearts. He taught, also, that there was no difference between men in rank; and thus he would not take off his hat to another, — no, not if it were Cromwell himself, because that would be a sign that he was a servant of Cromwell. Neither would he 69 70 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. call any man by a title. Other men might address Cromwell as '' Your Highness " ; he would use the plain " Oliver." In like manner he dressed himself with great j)lainness. He would not, by his clothes, seem to be richer or greater than other men. Since each man was to do what was right, as God might tell him, it would be wrong to force any one to obey ; and that would make an end of all wars, and armies, and prisons. Friends and Quakers. — These doctrines seemed to many like light let in ui^on the confusion of the time. They declared that Fox was right, and began to adopt his way of dress and speech. They called themselves Friends; but others called them Quakers, because, in his preaching. Fox was wont to bid the people quake and tremble at the word of God. Persecution of the Friends. — Neither the Church-of -England nor the Dissenters could tolerate the Friends. If the Friends were right, they were all wrong; and so they persecuted Fox and his associates, shutting them up in prison, or driving them from the country. When the Friends came to New England, the magistrates and ministers imprisoned them, beat them, drove them away, and even hanged some of them. The more the Friends were persecuted, the more their number grew, and the more determined were they to bear witness to the truth. They never resisted the force which was used against them, and they constantly put themselves in the way of punishment. Wherever they believed the Lord sent them to preach their doctrines, thither they went fearlessly. 52. William Penn. — It was not poor and plain people alone who were Friends. Some were rich. Indeed, the very lives which the Friends led — lives of temperance and moderation and industry — kept them from being poor. Some even were of high rank ; and among these the most notable was William Penn. He was the son of an admiral in the English navy, and his early life was spent among noblemen, and at court. But he became a convert to the doctrines of the Friends. He adopted their dress and w^ys, spoke in their meetings, and used his pen in their defense. Like Fox and others, he WiUiam Penn. Born 1644 ; died 171.8. 72 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. was fined and imprisoned. He was, however, a rich man, for his father had died and left him a great estate. He had many friends at court and in places of power. Thus he was of more importance than most Quakers, and not so easily perse- cuted. He was, besides, very wise in his dealings with others, and, being very generous, he constantly befriended his poorer brethren. 53. New Jersey. — An opportunity occurred by which he became interested in affairs in America. When the Duke of York took possession of New Netherland, he gave the southern district to two Englishmen, who named it New Jersey, since one of them had defended the island of Jersey, in the English Chan- nel, in a recent war. A number of people, both from New Eng- land and from England, settled there. Among them were some Quakers. Two of these, large landowners, had a dispute and agreed to lay the matter before William Penn. Penn settled the dispute, and when one of the parties got into debt, he bought out his rights, in company with other creditors. The Occupation of New Jersey. — The result of this pur- chase was that West New Jersey, or West Jersey, as it was commonly called, came into the hands of Penn and a few other influential Eriends. In 1677 they began to send out colonies of Friends to occupy it. The colonists landed at Newcastle on the Delaware, moved up the river, and made their first settlement at Burlington. Five years later, when new difficulties arose, the West Jersey proprietors bought the territory of East Jersey. New Jersey and New York. — But when the King of Eng- land withdrew the charter from New England, and sent Sir Edmund Andros to be governor of New England and New York, he took possession of New Jersey also. In 1702 New Jersey and New York were formed into one province, under one governor, although each colony had its own assembly. This continued for thirty-six years, when New Jersey was separated from New York, and had its own governor. THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 73 54. The Founding of Pennsylvania. — When William Penn in- herited his father's estate, he came into possession of a claim for a large sum of money which his father held against the crown. Penn proposed to the government that he should be paid, not in money, but in a grant of land in America. He intended to send there colonies of Friends. The English colo- nies in America were all having difiiculties with the Indians, and some members of the government looked with great con- tempt upon the proposal to send out these non-resisting Quakers to face the savage Indians. But Penn prevailed and obtained a charter and a larore tract of land. This 1681. tract consisted of forty thousand square miles lying west of the Delaware for five degrees of longitude, and extending north and south for three degrees of latitude. Penn wished to call it Sylvania, or Woodland ; but the king insisted on calling it Pennsylvania, in honor of Penn's father. Immigration invited. — The owner of this vast farm at once set about his experiments in government. He invited the aid of all who were ready to work with him. He offered to sell portions of his land to families who should emigrate, and he advertised his purpose far and wide. He was known beyond the borders of England; and, among others, a company of Germans bought a large tract. One of their first settlements was called Germantown. The Friends could only preach their doctrines in England. Here they meant to put them all in practice. Penn declared that every peaceful citizen was to be free to come and go, to worship God as he thought right, and to have a part in making the laws. When a person was tried for an offense, he was to be tried by a jury ; and if the offender were an Indian, he was to have six of his race on the jury. There was to be no punishment by death except for murder or treason. Lying was to be punished. As far as possible, disputes were to be settled by laying the matter before friends, and not by going into a court of justice. The Rights of Indians. — Penn meant himself to live there and manage his great property. He was to be governor, with 74 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. the right to appoint a deputy governor. But the people were to choose delegates to an Assembly and Council. The rights of Indians were to be respected; and they had, Penn said, rights to the land. King Charles had granted Pennsylvania to Penn. In return he was to give the king each year two beaver skins, and one fifth of all the gold and silver that was mined. Philadelphia, 1682, with Perm's House. But Penn declared that the savages who roamed over the country were the real owners of the land, and he meant to pay them also. The Dutch and Swedes. — In 1681 three vessels left England with emigrants v/ho were the first to take advantage of Penn's offer. The next year Penn himself sailed to his new estate in the ship Welcome. One hundred Friends were with him, nearly all of whom were old neighbors. They sailed up the Delaware and landed at Newcastle, October 27, 1682. Penn confirmed the titles of the Dutch and Swede settlers to land TUE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 75 and office, and adopted them into his colony. Then he went up the river to Upland, now Chester, and there held his first Assembly. He expected to make this place the site of his chief town, but, going farther up the river, he found a more convenient spot. Philadelphia. — There was a broad tongue of land lying be- tween two rivers, the Delaware and the Schuylkill. Upon this plain Penn laid out Philadelphia in broad squares, shaded by trees, and ordered a house built for his own use. The town, as first laid out, extended from river to river, and was between what are now Vine and South streets. Treaty Elm in 1800. 55. Treaties with the Indians For two years Penn remained in the country, to look after his colony. His special business was to make friends with the Indians. A monument in Phil- adelphia marks the spot called by the Indians Shackamaxon, where, under a spreading elm, Penn is said to have made a formal treaty with the Indians. By this treaty he paid them for the land which he had taken, and made them presents. Keither Penn nor his companions carried any weapons, and the Indians laid aside their arms. It was a treaty of peace, and was honorably kept on both sides for sixty years. 76 DISCOVERY AND SEWLEMENT. The Lenni Lenape. — The Indians of that region were the Delawares, or the Lenni Lenape, as they called themselves. They had recently been conquered by the savage Iroquois, and compelled by Indian usage to bear the name of " women," and to surrender their tomahawks. Now the Iroquois, as we have seen, were enemies of the French and friends of the English, so that the Delawares did not dare offend their neighbors. The Friends, on their side, by their peaceful ways and honest deal- ings, were able to live in harmony with the red men. The country about Philadelphia was exceedingly fertile. This fact, with the wise laws and liberal policy of Penn, made the colony very popular; so that when Penn returned to Eng- ,r,r.» land fifty townships had been settled, and Philadel- phia had between three hundred and four hundred houses. In 1703 the people occupying the district known as the Territories and comprising what is now known as Delaware, separated from Pennsylvania, and had their own Assembly. The two colonies had, however, the same gov- ernor. 56. The Calverts. — At the time when the Puritans were flocking to Massachusetts Bay to escape from evils in England, England was scarcely a more comfortable place for Koman Catholics, who were feared by some and hated by others. One of their number, George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, deter- mined to plant a colony in America which should serve as a refuge for his brethren. Experimental Voyages. — He tried Newfoundland, which had been described by voyagers as a fertile and beautiful land, but he found the country bleak, and sailed farther south to Virginia. The Assembly was sitting at Jamestown ' when he arrived, but it did not welcome him though he had been an influential member of the Virginia company; for in Virginia, as in England, Puritans and Koman Catholics were equally disliked. He sailed up Chesapeake Bay, and was so delighted with the country that he resolved to plant his colony there. THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA, 77 Founding of Maryland. — King Charles I. granted him and his heirs a charter, in 1632, with authority to occupy what is now Maryland and part of Delaware. The name "Maryland" was given by the king in honor of his wife Henrietta Maria. The Baltimores were to rule there much as the king rules in England, with an assembly like Parliament. The laws were to agree with the laws of England, and nothing was to be done offensive to the Church of England. George Calvert died while the charter was in the king's hands; but his son Cecil succeeded him, and carried out his plans. In the autumn of 1633 Cecil sent out, under his brother Leon- ard, the first company, of about three hundred people, who made a settlement, called St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac River. The many names of places in Maryland be- ginning with " Saint " attest the large element of religion which entered into the settlement. Indeed, the zealous priests who accompanied the settlers looked upon the country as the land of the ^^irgin Mary. Religious Toleration. — The Calverts were wise and xar- sighted men. They wished to have a prosperous and peaceful colony, and they knew this could not be if they favored one religious party above another. They sent out both Protestants flnd Eoman Catholics, and they caused laws to be passed for- Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore. 78 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. bidding persecution for religious faith. Quakers, even, were to have all the rights of other Englishmen. When Puritans in Virginia were vexed by the harsh governor, Sir William Berkeley, they found a hospitable refuge in Maryland. The colony contained many who sustained the Calverts in their policy, and the governor was careful not to offend the ruling powers in England. When Cromwell was in ■ power, Lord Baltimore appointed a Puritan governor, William Stone. 57. The mode of life in Maryland was similar to that in Vir- ginia. There were large plantations upon which tobacco was grown. Whatever the planter needed, beyond food and shelter, was brought from England. But after the begin- ning of 1700 the people began also to raise wheat like their northern neighbors. The country at the back of the seacoast was more suited to grain than to tobacco, and tobacco im- poverished the soil very fast. Then the Susquehanna River offered a natural waterway from Pennsylvania; so commerce sprang up. Towns in the Colony. — There was a greater variety of occu- pations and trades, and towns began to be formed. Provi- dence was the name of a settlement which was the center of the Puritan population. Afterward, when for twenty-four years Maryland was under royal government, the name was changed to Annapolis and the place made the capital. In 1729 Baltimore was founded, and speedily became one of the most important towns in the country. The Boundaries of Maryland were long a matter of dispute. The Dutch and Swedes had upon the Delaware Eiver settle- ments which belonged to Maryland by the charter given to Calvert. When the Dutch lost New Netherland, they lost also this part of their territory. Then Penn claimed the same portion under his charterj and afterward Delaware was set off as a separate colony. It was not until 1760 that the boundary dispute between Maryland and Pennsylvania was settled, and a careful survey begun. The northern boundary line of Mary- THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 79 land has ever since been known, from its surveyors, as Masoii and Dixon's Line.^ 58. The Government of Virginia When Virginia held its first Assembly, the colony was still under the government of the London Company for Virginia. That company was composed largely of Englishmen who opposed the king. As they demanded a free Parliament for England, so they insisted that Virginia should have its regular Assem- bly. One result of the conflict going on in England was an im- petus given to the colonization of Virginia, which was looked upon as a refuge from an oppressive government at home. In the struggle which followed, the king took away the charter from the company, and after that he himself appointed the governor of Virginia. But since the colony still had its Assembly, it was better off than before. The company, when the colony was fairly established, was more likely to be a hindrance than a help. No body of men, how- ever upright, 'could govern wisely a growing colony across the ocean. 59. Plantation Life Virginia was growing rapidly. The settlements were at first confined to the peninsula between the James and the York. Here the planters lived in comfort in roomy houses, surrounded, for protection against the Indians, by palisades. Their chief business was to raise tobacco to send to London; for this they employed indented servants and African slaves. The indented servants were men and boys sent out from England by the company. They were bound out to the planters for a term of years to repay the expense of their passage. In 1619 twenty African slaves were brought into the colony ; thirty years later, there were three hundred. There were no large towns in Virginia. Each planter had his estate, and lived there as English gentlemen lived in England. He had a warehouse in which he stored his tobacco, and a wharf to which once a year a ship came to be loaded. 1 Rob of the Bowl, by J. P. Kennedy, gives pictures of early Maryland life. 80 DISCOVERY AND SEfTLEMENT. The ship carried tobacco to London, and brought back what- ever the planter needed. Not only was tobacco the staple product of the country, it served as currency in mercantile transactions. The planters kept their accounts in it; salaries and taxes were paid with it. The chief value of Virginia, in the eyes of England, was that she could furnish the mother country with tobacco. 60. English Parties in Virginia Unlike the people of New England, the planters of Virginia were mostly Church-of- England men, and partisans of the king. When Charles I. was executed, great numbers of his friends came over to Virginia and began life again there. Yet there were many also in the colony who sympathized with Cromwell and the Commonwealth ; some of these had come to Virginia from New England. Living as these Englishmen did, each on his separate estate, with servants and slaves, and having their own Assembly, they governed themselves, and were very jealous of their rights. The Royalists. — But they were so loyal to the king that when Charles I. was executed, they declared it was treason to question the right of Charles II. to the throne. Parliament therefore sent a force to subdue the colony. There were some who favored resistance ; but wiser counsels prevailed, and the colony was governed by the Puritans so long as England was a Commonwealth. The royalist party, however, was strong, and it had large accessions from England, Just as thousands of Puritans left England for New England in the reign of Charles L, so thousands of royalists came over to Virginia when Cromwell was Protector; . it was even proposed at one time to set up there the banner of King Charles XL, before England recalled him. The formal name of Virginia was the Colony and Dominion of Virginia. When England called itself a Commonwealth, the royalists in Virginia spoke proudly and affectionately of their country as the Old Dominion of the king. There was great rejoicing among them when Charles II. was crowned, TEE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 81 and Virginia came again under a royalist governor, Sir Wil- liam Berkeley. For a time the king's partisans had things very much their own way. The Assembly, instead of being reelected every two years, continued to sit without change. The same persons held office and controlled the colony. They came to regard the offices as belonging to them, and used them as a means of getting rich. The laws which England made to regulate trade with Virginia were very severe upon the planters. Every ship laden with tobacco had to pay a heavy duty before it left Virginia, and another when it reached England. By the Navigation Act the planter could send his tobacco to none but English ports. 61. Bacon's Rebellion. — When the people had borne these evils until they seemed intolerable, a new danger arose. The Indians on the Potomac River were drawn into a quarrel with the English. What at lirst was a petty dispute became rapidly a general outbreak. The people, already discontented with Sir William Berkeley and his asso- ciates, found fresh cause for complaint; they said that the government did not protect them. A young planter, Nathaniel Bacon, demanded a commission to raise troops against the Indians. The governor refused to give it, and Bacon put himself at the head of a company with- out the governor's consent. For a summer Virginia was en- gaged in civil war, with 'Berkeley, representing the king, at the head of one party, and Bacon, representing the people, at the head of the other. There was some fighting, and Jamestown was burned. But the death of Bacon deprived the opposition of their leader, and the rebellion faded out. The rebellion had apparently accomplished noth- ing, but it showed the temper of the Virginia people. 62. Growth of Virginia. — In spite of the severity of the English laws, Virginia steadily grew stronger and richer. The plantations spread farther into the interior. Each planter was like a governor upon his own plantation; and the Q 82 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. habit of ruling servants and slaves made him resolute and independent. All the planters together formed a class like the nobles in other countries. Thus in the Assembly the planters often found themselves upon one side, and the gov- .ernment and king's officers on the other. The planters learned more and more to act together, and to resist whatever threat- ened to injure their prosperity or lessen their rights.^ Virginia Halfi)enny. Lord Baltimore Shilling. Colonial Currency. 63. Carolina. — To the south of Virginia lay a country which extended to the Spanish settlements in Florida. Now and then an adventurous Virginian planter pushed his way south- ward and settled on the shores of Albemarle Sound. The Virginian Assembly made grants of land there to emigrants ; they did not pay much attention to the fact that Charles I. had already given away the country to some English noblemen. These noblemen had done nothing for the territory except to name it Carolina, after the king, a name changed by the grants of Charles II. to its present form. The Northern Settlements. —Some New England men had settled on the Cape Eear River, but had become discouraged and gone away, leaving the clearing to some people from the Barbadoes Islands. When Charles II. came to the 1643- 1653. 1660- 1661. throne he made a fresh grant of the country to certain gentlemen of his court. The Proprietors, as they were called, appointed a governor and called an Assembly. They 1 A readable history of the State, especially in the early period, is that by John Esten Cooke, Virginia, in American Commonwealths, THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 83 encouraged emigration; and the two colonies, the Albemarle and Cape Fear, became the chief centers of population. For the most part, a scattered population cultivated small farms in a rude way. The people were sturdy and inde- pendent. The Southern Settlements. — In the southern part of Caro- lina the Proprietors wished to gather the settlers about some chief town. After ten years of experimenting, they fixed upon the site of the present city of Charleston.^ Charleston was long the extreme southern settlement. There was no continuous line of settlements connecting it with Virginia; the only travel by land was by an Indian trail ; the way by sea round Cape Hatteras was hazardous, and the colony had thus much more direct intercourse with England than it had with the other American colonies. A connection was kept up with the English settlements in the West Indies. The Barbadoes Islands formed a stop- ping place on the way from England; the Proprietors had established a colony there in which African slavery was a regular part. South Carolina was largely settled at first by colonists from the Barbadoes who brought this system with them. Charleston. — For many years Charleston was practically all of South Carolina there was, and after the back country began to be settled, it was governed from Charleston. In this way, there grew up a compact society, and the colony, unlike the others, was under the control of a few prominent families. The planters who had estates on the seacoast or in the back coun- try made their home in Charleston, and left their estate in charge of overseers. In the immediate neighborhood there were also plantations where the planters themselves lived, while the huts of their slaves formed villages about the great houses. Social Life. — Thus in Charleston and its neighborhood there was a rich class, enjoying one another's society and having 1 The name as first used was Charles Town. 84 DISCOVERT AND SETTLEMENT. abundant leisure. Half of the population of Charleston was made up of slaves who performed all the manual labor. They were the mechanics also. The chief product of the colony was rice ; but it was not sent direct from each plantation to England, as was the case with tobacco in Virginia. The rice was sold to merchants in Charleston, who shipped it and brought back English goods and luxuries, which they sold in turn to the planters. 64. A Royal Province. — The nearness of the Spanish posses- sions led to many conflicts. Pirates, too, infested the coast, making use of the harbors and inlets. There were frequent wars with the Indians ; and many of the captives, especially in the early years of the colony, were sold into slavery. The troubles with Spaniards and with pirates led the English gov- ernment to interfere with the government conducted by the Proprietors. The crown bought the rights of the Proprietors, and, in 1729, divided Carolina into two provinces, North Caro- lina and South Carolina. After this the governor of each province was appointed by the king, while each had its Assembly chosen by the people. New Settlers. — Early in the history of South Carolina, French Huguenots, driven from their own country, formed settlements in the colony. At first the English distrusted them, and refused to give them the rights they themselves enjoyed. Afterward the colony was more liberal. It invited men of all religious faiths ; and many Germans came, as well as men from Scot- land and the north of Ireland. These last settled also in North Carolina. The difficulties which South Carolina had with the Spaniards in Florida were lessened when the country between began to be settled. 65. Oglethorpe and the Founding of Georgia. — When the Caro- linas became provinces of the king, the country beyond the Savannah River was not included in South Carolina. It was named Georgia from George II., who was King of England at the time. It was in his reign that the first settlement of Georgia was made. THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 85 James Oglethorpe,^ a humane Englishman, was distressed by the miserable condition of many of his countrymen. He pitied especially those who were oppressed by the harsh laws against debtors ; and he determined to make a colony in America, where they could begin life anew. He formed an association which was to be governed by a Board of Trustees, and ob- tained from the king a charter, which gave them possession of Georgia for twenty-one years. The Wesleys and Whitefield. — He select- ed the best colonists he could lind, and sailed for Charleston. Thence he carried his company to the Savannah B-iver, and laid the founda- tions of the city of Sa- vannpJi. He returned to England for more colonists ; and with, him, when he came back, were Charles Wesley, who was his secretary, and John Wesley, who came as a missionary to the Indians. Afterward George Whitefield came for a time. These were famous preachers, with whom the Methodist movement began in England. They did not stay long in Georgia, but they attracted attention to the colony. Enlargement of Georgia. — Large numbers of people joined the colony from England and from Germany. Oglethorpe was governor, and showed the greatest energy in planning for James Oglethorpe. Born 1689 ; died 1785. 1 See Life of General Oglethorpe by Henry Bruce in Makers of America series. 86 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. the welfare of the settlements. He was especially desirous of bringing out emigrants who were familiar with different forms of industry. He occupied new points at Darieii, Augusta, and Frederica, on an island at the mouth of the Altamaha. In 1739 war broke out between England and Spain, and the American settlements at the South were in great danger. A fleet of Spanish vessels with five thousand men appeared off the coast and threatened Frederica. General Oglethorpe, with only eight hundred men, attacked the invaders and saved the colony. At the end of twenty-one years the Trustees found themselves beset with difficulties in governing a distant colony. They gave up their possessions to the crown, and Georgia was ' ruled like other parts of America, — by a governor appointed by the king, and an Assembly chosen by the people. QUESTIONS. What did George Fox do and teach ? What was his success in making converts ? How did the Church of England men and the Dissenters treat the Friends, and with what result ? Who was William Penn ? How did he become interested in this country ? When the Friends sent colonies to this country, where did they settle ? What did Andros do when he became governor ? What was the final settlement of the New York and New Jersey affair ? What grant was made to Penn, and why ? What did Penn do with his land ? What rules were adopted for the government of the colony ? How did Penn treat the Indians ? What was to be given to the king each year ? Why ? What emigrants came in 1681 and 1682 ? What settle- ment was made, and where ? What is said of the tree shown in the picture ? Of what tribe were the Indians, and why were they so friendly ? What is said of the condition of the colony when Penn left it ? Why did Lord Baltimore sail for America ? What difficulties did he find in selecting a place of settlement ? Give an account of the charter granted. Where was a colony planted, and by whom ? What v^^as the reason for naming the country Maryland ? What arrangements were made by the Calverts in regard to religion ? What troubles arose ? How did Lord Baltimore avoid trouble with Cromwell ? How long did the Calvert family hold control of the colony ? Why were there more towns in Maryland than in Virginia ? What is said of the boundary troubles ? How and when were these difficulties finally settled ? THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA. 87 What is meant by the term, Old Dominion ? Why did Virginia find it easy to have an assembly ? How did the company lose its charter ? the effect? Describe the planter's life, and his mode of doing business. Why was Virginia more loyal than New England ? How was the feeling shown ? What was done by Parliament ? What is said of the office holders? How did the Navigation Laws affect Virginia? What out- break in 1676 ? What brought on Bacon's rebellion ? What is said of the prosperity of Virginia ? How came the Carolinas to be so named ? What grants of the country were made ? What was finally done with it ? When was Charleston founded ? What connection did the colony have with northern colonies ? What islands in the Atlantic had close connection with South Carolina ? How did this city differ from others farther to the north ? What was the staple product of the colony ? What troubles did the colonists have ? What did the British government finally do ? When was Caro- lina divided into two provinces ? What new emigrants came to North Carolina ? AVho settled the country between South Carolina and Florida ? What was his object ? When was Savannah founded ? Who came as emigrants to Oglethorpe's colony ? The picture shows him to be a soldier; how did he prove that he was so? What difficulties did the Proprietors have, and what was finally done ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. What is the meaning of the name, Philadelphia ? Name some places in Maryland beginning with "St." Where does Whitefield lie buried ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Composition : A contrast between Massachusetts Bay Colony and Virginia Colony, 7>ijbate: Mesolved, That Bacon's rebellion was justifiable. CHAPTER VI. THE STRUGGLE FOR POSSESSION OF A CONTINENT. Cordon (cor'don). A chain. Alleghany (al'e-ga'ny). Schenectady (ske-nek'ta-de). Armistice (ar'mis-tis). A cessa- tion from fighting, by agreement of the parties in conflict. Monongahela. Kanawha (ka-na'wa). Du Quesne (du kan'). Militia (mi-lish'a). A body of citi- zen soldiery, trained to bear arms, but called out for ser- vice only in special emergencies ; distinguished from professional soldiers, sometimes called regu- lars. Minas (me'nas). Montcalm (mont-kam'). Pon'tiac. Bouquet (boo-ka'). 66. The Difference between the English and the French Settle- ments. — By natural boundaries, and by a cordon of military posts, the French country of Canada and the Great West was separated from the northern English possessions. The Alle- ghany and Cumberland Mountains and the Blue Ridge formed another barrier, extending far down toward the Gulf of Mexico. The English occupied the long strip of Atlantic coast, and their settlements at one point and another brought them into the neighborhood of the French. There was, however, this difference between the occupation of the land by the two nations. The English planted colo- nies of men and women who made homes for themselves, tilled the soil, carried on trade, had their schools and churches, formed towns, and took an active part in the gov- ernment; as the land was taken up, newcomers pushed on into the wilderness, felling the forests, and establishing new set- tlements. The French, on the other hand, set up, as we have seen, trading posts, forts, and mission stations. About each of these widely separated places gathered a few EENOH POSSESSIONS AMERICA AT THE Quebec, ENCH AND INDIAN WAR. NiAL Charter Claims. J 00 Miles L. ^ NEW ENGLAND AND f^^A/y y NEW NETHERLAND 5 ^wfetow^" igTpe May Twice the Scale oftMlarge Map. THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 89 The Rock of Quebec. families, but for the most part the colonists were made up of men, adventurous, brave, and restless; they plunged into the woods and consorted with the Indians, but there was little of that steady industry which made the English settlements strong, and there was scarcely a sign of self-government. The army was the power by which the governor ruled, and the governor was an officer of the French king. The English, the French, and the Indians. — The English colo- nies, especially the Puritan ones of the North, were very sus- picious of the French settlements. They had an English and a Protestant dislike of the Roman Catholic French; besides, they wanted the country which the French were holding, and the entire control of the fishing ground off the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Indians, although they were opposed to all Europeans, feared and hated the English most. The English treated them with contempt. The farms of the colonists spoiled their hunt- ing ground and as fast as a colony grew it crowded them out. The French, with their scattered forts and trading posts, did not interfere so much with the Indians, and they adapted themselves more readily to Indian ways, living with them more as companions. Whenever there was war between the 90 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. French and the English, many Indians fought, after their own fashion, on one side or the other. With each war between France and England, the contest for supremacy in America grew more intense. To the English colonies it was not a matter of European politics, but of the safety of their homes. The danger from Indian attack was greater when the savages were led and encouraged by French soldiers. The French, with their military organization, had a great advantage over the English in any campaign. They were soldiers, bred to lighting. The English, for the most part, were farmers, who fought only when the war was brought close to them, and then with little military organization or discipline. The Attack on Schenectady.^ 67. King William's War and Queen Anne's War. — There had been scattered fighting since 1689, when the Iroquois fell' upon La Chine and committed the most terrible massacre that Canada had ever known. The French and Illinois Indians retaliated by destroying Schenectady the next year. A party 1 So little did the garrison fear an attack that they posted two snow images for sentinels. THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 91 of French and Indians also attacked Deertield in Massachu- setts. After killing many men, women, and children, and burning the village, they carried the remaining inhab- itants into captivity. The two periods of lighting were called after the sovereigns of England then reigning — King William's War and Queen Anne's War. 68. King George's War. — But in 1744 a series of conflicts began which lasted with intervals for nearly twenty years, until the great question whether the French or the English were to be masters of the continent was settled. The first important movement resulted in the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. The French had made this strongly fortified place a means of controlling the fishing ground in the neighborhood ; and as it was captured by a ^ew England expedition, aided by British ships, the achievement was received with enthusiasm by the colonies and with aston- ishment in Europe. The war of which this action was a part is known as King George's War, and came to an end in 1748. In the treaty of peace, Louisburg was restored to the French, to the bitter dis- appointment of New England. The colonies seemed to have gained nothing by the victory except a heavy debt, which, however, was soon reimbursed by Parliament, the remembrance of glory, and an increased confidence in their soldiers. The peace was of short duration. It was rather an armistice, dur- ing which both parties were making ready for a final contest. Acadia. — The English sent out a large colony to Acadia, and founded the town of Halifax. The French strengthened their settlements in the same country. The English power lay in its occupation of the land by people rather than by forts. While the French were thinking to fence off the western country by a line of forts, the English were slowly moving their frontier line by an irregular march of settlers. They were organizing emigration companies also. 69. The Ohio Company was formed in 1748 by gentlemen in Virginia and Maryland. They obtained from the king a grant 92 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, LAKE EUTE NEW of five hundred thousand acres, chiefly on the south side of the Ohio River, between the Monongahela and Kanawha. It was their intention to connect this country by roads with the two colonies. In the years immediately following they made surveys and established a few settle- ments. One of the surveyors was a Vir- ginian, named George Washington.^ Washington's Journey. — When ru- mors came that the French were en- croaching on this territory with their forts. Governor Dinwiddle of Vir- ginia sent Washington to look into the matter. He brought back such a report of the activity of the French that the Virginia Assembly at once took measures to build a fort at the junction of the Monongahela and Allegheny. Suddenly the French appeared upon the scene, drove away the English, and finished for themselves the fort, which they named Fort Du Quesne. 70. The French and Indian War. — This was just before war was again formally declared be- tween England and France, and the colonies were at once aroused. They sent delegates to Albany, to a congress called to consult upon the best way of resist- Braddock's Route. -^^^ ^^^ French. Here they met also representatives from the Indians of the Six Nations. William Johnson, an Englishman of great influence 1 Thackeray's The Virginians introduces Washington as a young man. THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 93 among the Indians, urged these Indians to join them against their old enemy the French. The English government sent out troops and vessels to Amer- ica, and appointed a commander-in-chief, General Edward Braddock. Braddock set out from Fort Cumberland, in Mary- land. He had with him English regulars, some colonial troops, and a few friendly Indians. Washington was on his staff. Braddock marched slowly, stopping to make better roads and erect earthworks. He followed the methods of marching and fighting to which he was used, and paid no attention to the advice of Washington and others who knew the ways of the country. The French, with their Indian allies, kept them- selves informed of every movement that Braddock made. Braddock's Defeat. — The English general was cautiously moving along and preparing to lay siege to the fort, accord- ing to the regular rules, when suddenly, soon after crossing a ford, his army was surprised by Indians, and by French who fought in the manner of Indians. The English were utterly defeated. Braddock was mortally wounded. He transferred his command to Washington, and died V755' overwhelmed with remorse. Washington led back the broken army; and the French and Indians followed up their victory by laying waste the back country of Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania. The disaster to Braddock's army was terrible, but it had an important influence for good. It taught the colonies to rely on their own soldiers rather than on British regulars. They began at once to organize a militia, which was under training upon the battle field during the remainder of the war. This war is known in America as the French and Indian War.^ 71. The Expulsion of the Acadians. — While Braddock was marching against Fort Du Quesne, another force was engaged in reducing the French forts in Acadia. That name was then 4 1 Parkman's narration of Braddock's defeat is contained in No, 7 of His- torical Classic Readings. Cooper's The Last of the Mohicans has its scene* iaid in the French and Indian War. 94 DISCOVEBY AND SEHTLEMENT. applied to what* is now Nova Scotia and a large part of New Brunswick. The forts guarded the neck of land which con- nects the two portions. The English held Nova Scotia, but they also claimed part of the rest of Acadia. The peninsula was occupied partly by French and partly by English farmers, but the French were more numerous. There were prosperous Frencn settlements about the Bay of Minas, under English '^ GULF OF S T. LAWRJSNCE^ \\^ ^^,% ST JOHN'S .y-' Ciaii. 5>^ , ,A.?.^ ^;^ *-' . » :>-^ .^^ V j^y ^ >i ' t 'T C-, -^ J ./^ ' / ^ ^ ^ ^ V ' ^ C.Sable > Map of Acadia. law, but not far from the French forts. Most of th? French Acadians were simple-minded, peaceable people, who desired only to live undisturbed upon their farms. But among them were some who were bitterly hostile to the English, and took every opportunity to favor the French and menace the English settlement at Halifax. When the war broke out, the danger from these increased. At last the English authorities determined to solve the diffi- culty by removing all the French families out of the country. THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 95 It was difficult to make distinction between tlie peaceable settlers and those who caused disturbance, since these were sheltered by the others. The authorities called all the men and boys to assemble in their churches to hear a notice read. Then, when the churches were full, companies of soldiers sur- rounded them. The people within the churches were prisoners, and were told that they and their wives i^lc'c' and children were all to be sent away. The poor French had no arms, and could make no resistance. The English made haste and crowded them into ships to send them away to the other colonies. In spite of precautions,, families were separated, and great misery fell on all the people. The villages were laid waste, and about six thousand persons were homeless.^ 72. The Seven Years' War. — Everywhere, save in Acadia, the French seemed to have the advantage. There, too, at the end of 1757, the English were in great peril, for a powerful French fleet was gathering at Louisburg. This fleet threatened, not Halifax alone, but New England also. All along the frontier of the middle colonies the English settlers were flying before the French and Indians. But in the long run it is not armies that conquer, but people behind the armies. The French had this disadvantage, that almost all their men and supplies had to be brought from France. They had no great farms in America, and no flourish- ing colonies. They had soldiers and generals, but these had to be fed and supported. The English, on the other hand, while sending over troops from England, depended most on the strong colonies in America. These colonies had for a hundred years been growing rich, independent, and self-supporting. The European Conflict. — Moreover, the contest in America was only part of a great war in which nearly all the nations of Europe were involved. The war, covering the period 1756-1763, is known in history as the Seven Years' War. 1 The expulsion of the Acadians gave rise to Longfellow's well-known poem Evang€H7ie. 96 DISCOVER r AND SETTLEMENT. France, Austria, and Eussia were upon one side; Englanci and Prussia on the other. Two men were conspicuous in the struggle: Frederick the Great of Prussia, a military genius, and William Pitt, a masterly English statesman. Pitt saw more clearly than the king and other Englishmen what was needed in America, and how the struggle with France there was a part of the great world conflict that was going on. He was Secretary of State and the foremost man in the kingdom ; it was his genius that directed the war to a brilliant close. He had faith in the colonies, and his policy was a generous one. The Policy of Pitt. — England was to furnish arms and am- munition. The colonies were to enlist the men, clothe them, and pay them. England was to provide the generals and division officers; but the colonial troops might choose their own colonels and subordinate officers. The generals and naval commanders whom Pitt appointed were abler men than those who had heretofore been sent to America. A new campaign was planned; but the points of attack were the same, for the strong points of the French position were Louisburg, Ticon- deroga, Crown Point, and Fort Du Quesne. The Campaigns. — The first move was by a combined naval and land attack under Sir Jeffrey Amherst against Louisburg. In less than two months this important place was J. ^ ' captured, and six thousand prisoners taken. New England was overjoyed that this prize was again in her possession. The movement against Ticonderoga at the same -j^cr. time resulted in a serious defeat of the English; but Fort Du Quesne was taken, and renamed Fort Pitt. Fort Frontenac was destroyed and Fort Niag- ara captured. Then Amherst t^ok the field at Lake George, and drove the French from Ticonderoga and Crown Point. This brilliant series of successes was due partly to the energy of Pitt, partly to the steady decrease of the French resources. France was becoming nerveless under a corrupt government, and gave its American settlements but little substantial aid. THE smUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT. 97 73. The Capture of Quebec. — The French had been crowdea back into Canada, and tlie next summer the English prepared to advance upon Quebec, the stronghold of the country. From Louisburg a fleet bearing eight thousand men moved up the St. Lawrence and dropped anchor before Quebec. Outside the fortifications on that great rock, Montcalm lay with his army. The commander of the English forces was a brave young gen- eral, James Wolfe, who had taken part in the siege of Louisburg. He was the idol of his sol- diers, but he was of feeble frame, wasted by disease. He saw before him the frowning cliff of Quebec, and he knew that every point was guarded by the enemy. He made one desperate and disastrous attempt to capture the outworks near Montmorenci. The failure proved that the only chance lay in sur- prising the enemy and reaching the heights from the river. Wolfe's Stratagem. — Accordingly Wolfe divided his army. . He left a portion to make a feint of attacking Quebec upon the north side, where the St. Charles Eiver separates the rock from the mainland. Then he sent his ships and transports up the St. Lawrence, while he marched the remainder of his army along the south- ern bank out of reach of the enemy's guns. When he had passed the town, he reembarked his soldiers on board the vessels, and waited his opportunity. About two hours before Wolfe's Cove. 98 DISCOVERY AND SETVLEMENT. daybreak, thirty barges, bearing sixteen hundred soldiers, dropped silently down the stream to a cove where a narrow path led up a wooded defile in the steep hillside. Sentinels challenged the boats at one or two points as they passed down ; but they were answered in Erench, and made to believe that they were boats which were expected with provi- sions for the besieged town. Some of the men sprang ashore and seized the sentinel at the foot of the pass. Then they scram- bled up the height and captured the guard which was posted at the head. The rest of the troops climbed rapidly 175Q ' "^P ^^^® pass. The ships dropped down the stream with reenforcements J and when the sun arose the British army was drawn up in line upon the Plains of Abra- ham behind the town, and partly intrenched. The Battle of the Plains of Abraham. — The French looking out from the walls could scarcely believe their eyes. Mont- calm and the bulk of the French army were upon the other side of the St. Charles Eiver, where they had been stationed in a fortified camp which ex- tended along the river, to prevent the English from apx)roaching the town from that quarter. He brought them hastily over, led them through the town to the plain, and at once attacked the English. The English met the attack with coolness ; they waited until the French were within forty yards ; then they fired. The ranks of the French were at once broken, and Wolfe, dashing to the front, led his men in a fierce charge. The French, exhausted by their long march, turned and fled, and the English drove them behind the walls of the town. THE STRUGGLE FOR A CONTINENT, 99 Deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm. — Almost at the same mo- ment both Wolfe and Montcalm fell, mortally wounded. Wolfe lived to hear that the French were everywhere giving way, and to issue his final orders. Montcalm, borne to the hospital, sank into despair, comforted only by the thought that he should not live to see the surrender of Quebec. He died of a broken heart as much as of his wounds. The French, shut up in the town, their brave commander gone, laid down their arms, and the English took possession of Quebec. The diminished French army gathered at Montreal. Some fighting followed; but the English brought their forces from Oswego, from Crown Point, and from Quebec; and September, 1760, Montreal surrendered.^ 74. A treaty of peace was signed at Paris early in 1763. France gave up to Great Britain Canada and all her posses- sions east of the Mississippi, except two little islands near Newfoundland, which she kept for fishing stations; except, also, New Orleans and the district about it, Spain, the ally of France, gave up Florida to Great Britain. On the same day France secretly made over to Spain all that she claimed under the name of Louisiana, and also New Orleans, and the district about it. 75. Pontiac's War. — New France disappeared from the map of North America, and England was supreme save in a vaguely known region to the west of the Mississippi which Spain nominally held. But the French inhabitants remained in Canada; and in the west, although the forts had passed into English hands, the traders and traffickers were French. The Indians, meanwhile, were not ready to see the country which they regarded as their own transferred by a stroke of the pen from one European power to another. It was one thing to have the French trading among them; another to have the hated English occupying their lands. A remarkable man named Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, now 1 The war which closed with the surrender of Montreal is graphically nar- rated by Parkman in his Montcalm and Wolfe. 100 DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. made a final stand against the power which threatened the Indian race. He succeeded in forming a league of almost all the tribes, though Johnson, who had been made Sir William, pre- vented the greater part of the Six iSTations from joining Pon- tiac. The Indians captured and destroyed eight of the twelve forts, but failed in their attempt upon the important posts of Detroit and Fort Pitt, now Pittsburg. Rogers and Bouquet. — For three years they waged war on the frontier; but the English were led by two notable men, Major Kobert Eogers and Colonel Henry Bouquet, and, at last, so completely did they break the power of the tribes, that Pontiac and other chiefs met Johnson at Oswego, and entered into a treaty of peace with the English.^ 1 The most thorough and absorbing account of this war is Parkmau's Con- spiracy of Pontiac. QUESTIONS. What are natural boundaries, and what ones separated the English from the French ? What trade was there in the French possessions which they wished to keep ? How did the French and Enghsh differ in race, religion, and politics ? What special dishke did the New England people have towards the French ? Through whom did the furs of the North and West come to New York ? Who had built La Chine ? How did the French avenge the attack on La Chine ? Who was Fronte- nac ? In what way were the French a source of danger to the English colo- nists ? How was it that the French were better soldiers than the Eng- lish ? Name the limits in time of King William's War ; of Queen Anne's War. Did the French give these names ? Why was an attack made on Louisburg? What was done with Louisburg ? How did the English attempt to gain possession of the country ? the French ? What was the period of King George's War ? of the French and Indian War ? How happened Washington to have anything to do with Fort Du Quesne ? What council was held ? What was the plan of campaign ? Tell the story of Braddock's defeat. Why were regular troops poorly fitted for Indian warfare ? Where was Acadia ? Describe the country and its inhabitants. Why were the Acadians not allowed to remain upon their farms ? Describe the action of the English authorities. What became of the people that were forced THE STRUGGLE FOR A COJSITINENT. 101 from their home ? What was the Seven Years' War in Europe ? What two men stand out in the great struggle ? What was the condition of the French in 1758 ? the English ? Who was William Tilt ? What did he do to carry on the war ? What was the plan of campaign ? What was the result ? Who took command of the expedition from Louisburg ? Describe the man. What was the result of the first attack on Quebec ? Give an account of the change of plan, the surprise, and the battle. Tell the story of Wolfe and Montcalm. When did Montreal surrender ? By the treaty of 1763 what territory was given up by France, and what was retained ? How did the Indians look upon these changes ? Who was Pontiac, and what were his plans ? What other Indian chief had formed a similar plot, and with what result ? What were Pontiac's first successes ? Who opposed him ? What prevented the Iroquois from joining the other tribes ? How did the war end ? What three English- men were conspicuous in Pontiac's War ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. Who built Fort Necessity ? Give the story connected with this fort. What events in Europe were connected with King William's War ? Queen Anne's War ? King George's War ? By what name was each of these wars known in Europe ? What lolace has been called the Gibraltar of America ? When was held the first American congress ? Where was it held, and what colonies sent delegates to it? What became of the Acadians after their dispersion ? What well-known Acadian names are to be found and where ? Who commanded the expedition against Louis- burg? What was the title of William Pitt after he was raised to the peerage ? What poem did Wolfe recite as he was rowed up the river to Wolfe's cove ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : The surprise of Schenectady. The attack on Deerfield. Describe the burning of the village of Grand Pr6 and the scenes ac* companying it. Contrast the characters of King Philip and Pontiac. Debate : Resolved, That the English were justified in removing the Acadians. G-eorge WasMj „ nn Born Pebruary 22, 1732 1 died December 14, 1799. 102 BOOK I. ESTABLISHMENT OP THE UNION. CHAPTER I. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. Dress'er. A cupboard, or set of shelves, for holding plates and dishes. Faneuil (Fan 'el, or, as old-fash- ioned people in Boston pronounce it, Fiin'el). Peter Faneuil was of a Huguenot family. Privateer'. A private vessel fitted out for war purposes. Quilting Bee. A company of neigh- bors met to make bedquilts for the family inviting them. Sher'iff. An officer of the shire or county, who executes the orders of the court. Back'woodsmen. People living in the wilderness, away from settle- ments. 1. The Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. — When the French lost control of that portion of North America which they had explored and had begun to colonize, there were thirteen sepa- rate English colonies which lay along the Atlantic coast. The strip of the continent which they occupied, except in southern Georgia, was separated from the interior by a mountain bar- rier. This barrier was not far from three hundred miles in width and covered with a dense forest in which the Indian might at any time be met. Here and there were trails through gaps in the ridge, but to follow these trails was a matter of great difficulty and peril. Only one really broad valley, that of the Mohawk, opened a way, but the river was not naviga- ble for large craft, and the region through which it passed was held by the Mohawk tribe of the Iroquois, the most powerful body of Indians east of the Mississippi. 103 104 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. The great natural entrance to the interior of the continent was by the broad river St. Lawrence and the chain of great lakes. On the other hand, the seacoast along which the English dwelt had good harbors, and there was a constant passage back and forth between the new World and the Old. Thus the people who lived in English settlements kept up a busy connection with England, buying much of what they needed in the old country and sending over their own prod- ucts, especially tobacco and lumber. Moreover, the easiest way of going from one colony to another was by vessels along the coast, and in this way, and because of the extensive fish- ing interests, especially in New England, which was near the grea,t fishing grounds, the people were largely a seafaring people. Distribution of Population. — There were at this time not far from sixteen liundred thousand persons living in the thirteen colonies, about equally divided between the colonies north and south of Mason and Dixon's Line; about one fourth of the whole population consisted of negro slaves, and of these three fourths lived in the Southern colonies, the remainder being chiefly house servants in the North. The whites were for the most part of English blood, and the English language was the common speech; the chief exception was to be found in a considerable body of Germans in Pennsylvania and a smaller number of descendants of the Dutch in New York and New Jersey. There were French Huguenots in small numbers in most of the colonies, and notably in the Carolinas. They all lived under the English law, and much the largest part was of the Protestant faith. All the colonies had thus a common likeness, but there was a difference in the character of each. This character was determined by the kind of soil on which the colony was planted, by the people who formed it, their origin, their occupation, and their way of thinking about religion and government. 2. Life in Massachusetts. — Massachusetts was the most northern and eastern colony. It then included wliat is now THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 105 the State of Maine. It had a long seacoast with many excel- lent harbors; the interior was covered with dense forests. The soil was not very productive; but the land was divided into small farms, which by hard labor were made to yield an abundance. The people of the colony were descendants mainly of Englishmen who had come over in the first ten years after Winthrop and his company landed. They were farmers, who raised, besides what tbey needed themselves, hay, grain, and cattle. They exported these to the Southern colonies and to the West Indies. They were fishermen. A figure of a codfish hangs in the hall of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. It is a sign of what, with the whale fishery, was once the greatest source of wealth in the colony. Tliey were shipbuilders and sailors. Their ships carried goods back and forth between the colonies and between Europe and America; tJiey even carried goods from one port of Europe to another. They were mechanics also. They built sawmills and grist- mills by the banks of streams. They set up blacksmiths' forges, not only to shoe their horses, but to make tires for wagon wheels. They were coopers, and made barrels in which to pack fish. They made rope for their vessels. They had tanyards where they dressed leather. On all sides was the busy hum of industry. Moreover, these various occupations were not very carefully separated; the same man might be by turns, farmer, fisherman, seaman, and mechanic. Mode of Life and Domestic Customs. — In the country, people bought few things and hired very little labor. The new settler cleared a place in the forest, and built his house of logs, stop- ping the chinks with clay; by and by, as he grew more pros- perous, he built a frame house. The two principal rooms in his house were the kitchen and the best room. In the kitchen was a great chimney, with a fireplace so large that there was room within it for seats, where the family gathered in the cold winter evenings. They burned huge logs which had been cut in the woods and hauled on sleds. 106 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. The cooking was done over a wood fire. An iron crane swung in the fireplace, and pothooks hung from the crane. The pots which iiung from the hooks held the vegetables and the salt pork which were boiled for the dinner. It was seldom that the family had fresh meat, except when they shot or trapped game. They baked bannocks — flat cakes of rye or Indian meal — over the hot ashes on the hearth, and in the better houses a brick oven was built in the chimney. This was filled with hot wood coals ; and when it was thoroughly heated, the coals were swept out and bread or beans set to bake. They used wooden platters for the most part, with a few pewter dishes which stood in a shining row on the dresser. In the kitchen stood the spinning wheel, with which the women spun the wool and flax for family use. The loom for weaving was usually kept in another room. The best room was rarely used by the family. It was kept for company and special occasions. The floor was sprinkled with fine sand, and figures were traced on it like the figures in a modern carpet. Brass andirons shone in the fireplace, which in summer was .filled with the green tops of asparagus. Social Habits and Distinctions of Rank. — Where all worked with their hands there was little difference in social rank. People came together for a house raising or harvest, for corn husking or a quilting bee. The family at whose house they met provided good things to eat and drink, and the day ended with a frolic — blindman's buff, fox and geese, and other sports. People knew each other familiarly in both work and play. There were some distinctions made. The minister was the great man of the place. He had his farm, like others, and worked with his hands ; but he was looked up to as a man of learning and piety. He was a college-bred man, and often prepared the boys of his parish for college. He was the leader of the church; and the church was the highest institution in the colony. In the church, people were placed according to their dignity. The deacons sat in front, near the pulpit. The THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 107 minister's family, the magistrates, and the chief farmers had the best seats given them. Often families were angry because they were not given seats as good as they thought they should have.^ Except in one or two large towns, the only church was what is now known as the Congregational. Civil Government. — However lonely separate farms might be, each was included in some town.^ The meeting house was at the center of the town, and there also were the country store and the blacksmith's shop. The schoolhouse was some- times there ; but that was built in the place most convenient for the families whose children went to it. Once a year, at least, a town meeting was held. The men chose the officers of the town for the next year and decided all questions which came up about the affairs of the town, such as schools, roads, and taxes. They also chose persons to represent the town in the Great and General Court, which met at Boston. Thus the people discussed the affairs of the whole colony as well as those of the town. Their representatives, when they went to Boston, knew how their neighbors felt and thought about public affairs. . The town meetings of Boston were especially important, be- cause that was the chief town and the seat of government. They were held in Faneuil Hall, — a building given by Peter Faneuil, a citizen of Boston. In the town meeting the people learned to govern themselves. Every voter used his vote. He knew the rules of debate, and he made his opinion known. There was free discussion, and the people were quick to learn the meaning of every law which was passed. 1 lu college, students were arranged in the catalogue according to their social position, and had corresponding rights and privileges. Yale College adopted the alphabetical order in 17G8, and Harvard followed five years later, 2 The town in New England differs from the tov/nship of the West, of which an explanation will be found on p. 219. Geographically, the boundaries of a New England town are irregular, being determined partly by natural objects, partly by surveys made from time to time to fix the limits of grants of land or settlements made by the first inhabitants. Its origin was in the company of people who formed a church, and were set off thus from similar companies. But a town once formed, other churches might be formed in the same town. I 108 ESTABLISHMENT OF WIE UNION. Faneuil Hall, 1763. Country and Town Life. — There was a marked difference between the life of the merchant class in the towns and that of the farmers. Spacious houses, often of brick, stood in large gardens and were furnished well. The growth of cities and towns in the last sixty years has swept away most of these, but a few still remain, and have even served as models for houses now building, which are said to be in colonial style.* The people who lived in them dressed richly and lived in comfort. The royal governor and the officers of the crown in Boston formed a miniature court about which the richer folk gathered. 3. Life in Other New England Colonies. — What was true of Massachusetts was true also, in the main, of the other colonies 1 A good example of this may be seen iff the well-known Craigie House in Cambridge, once Washington's headquarters, and afterwards the residence of the poet Longfellow. Many new houses in the neighborhood are in architec- tural harmony with it. TUE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 109 of New England, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island. Vermont at this time was a sparsely settled country claimed both by New Hampshire and New York, and witli a good many settlers from Connecticut ; Maine, as we have said, was a province of Massachusetts. The forests of Maine and New Hampshire afforded lumber for export, and the seaports were lively centers of shipbuilding and the coasting trade. During the French and Indian War great numbers of vessels all along the New England coast, and especially in llliode Island, were fitted out as privateers, and carried on the war on their own account. In Rhode Island the government was less prominent than in Massachusetts; there was more individual freedom. In Connecticut the whole terri- tory was cut up into little towns, and there was no ■'■'^■'■° one place of great importance, though Yale College had been established at New Haven. ^ 4. Life in New York. — In New York the population lived mainly near the great rivers. There was a cluster of towns about New York Bay ; then settlements followed the course of the Hudson to Albany; and along the valley of the Mohawk westward, descendants of the Dutch and of the English occu- pied the country. The Dutch language was very generally used, and the old Dutch customs were still followed. The houses were built after the pattern of houses in Holland, and usually of brick. Within they were kept scoured, so that no spot of dirt could be seen. The wide chimneys had tiles sur- rounding the fireplaces, with pictures on them of Bible scenes. Great chests of drawers held piles of linen, woven by the mothers and daughters. Behind glass cupboards were shining silver and pewter ware and delicate china. There was an air of comfort and ease. In the shops at Albany, one would see furs and skins brought by the Indians, and silks and satins brought by vessels from the East Indies for the rich Dutch families. 1 There have been many books treating of New England in colonial days. Among the most particular in detail are Mrs. Alice Morse Earle's Customs and Fashions in Old New England. 110 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. The Patroons and their Influence The large grants of land originally made by the Dutch West India Company had led to the establishment of great estates. The patroon lived in a great house, with many servants about him. He did not sell his land, but let it out in farms. This interfered with the growth of independent farms, but the patroons with their wealth were able to introduce better cattle, horses, and modes of farming. These landowners formed a class like the Eng- lish aristocracy, and their homes were the scenes of great hos- pitality in the summer time. It was hard for the farmers who cleared away the forests and broke up the new soil on these great estates not to believe that they made the land their own. They rarely saw the patroon, and they began to- ask what right he had to their rent in the wilderness. Many refused to pay rent, and drove off the sheriff who came to demand it. The great estates interfered also with the growth of towns. Thus, though there were towns in New York, and the govern- ment was much the same as in New England, each person did not, as there, feel an interest in the whole colony. The peo- ple lacked the town meeting in its best form. The town of New York was a military post of Great Britain. It was also a busy commercial port. The English officers and the rich merchants lived in better style than other people. Throughout the colony there were more who were very rich and more who were very poor than in New England. The col- ony also differed from New England in having within its borders a large number of Indians of the powerful tribe of the Iroquois. These were made peaceable neighbors first through their hatred of the French, and then by the strong influence of Sir Wil- liam Johnson, who had married into the tribe and had encour- aged settlements of them about his own estates at Johnstown.^ 5. Life in the Middle Colonies. — New Jersey, enclosed by New York and Pennsylvania, was protected by both from Indian disturbances. It was a farming country, with a sea- 1 An interesting contemporaneous account of life in New York may be found in Mrs. Grant's An American Lady. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. Ill coast which had few harbors. Thus there was little trade. Small villages and small farms covered the country more closely than in other colonies, and the people were nearly all of one class in life. The Friends were still the most impor- tant people both in New Jersey and in Pennsylvania, though they, had lost much influence b}" their refusal to do their part in the French and Indian War. They were prosperous and charitable, and lived mainly on the rich farms and in the thriving towns of the eastern settlements. There were many Germans in the middle and eastern parts of Pennsylvania. The Germans agreed well with the Friends, but were frequently engaged in quarrels with the Irish, who lived chiefly on the western frontier. These backwoodsmen were constantly in difliculty with the Indians. When they demanded military help, they were opposed by the Friends, and all these quarrels were carried into the Assembly. The Largest Town in the Country. — The most thickly settled part of America was the country about the shores of Delaware Bay and River. Three colonies bordered on this water, — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. The last two were under the same governor, but had separate legislatures. Philadelphia, the center of this population, was the largest town in the country, and numbered about twenty-five thousand inhabitants in 1763. It was laid out in regular squares, lined with trees. The houses were mainly of brick, sometimes of stone, rarely of wood. There were sidewalks to the streets, — an unusual thing in those days. There were gardens and orchards about many of the houses, and there was an excellent market. A trading community occupied the town. There were many rich merchants who lived handsomely, and a large number of prosperous mechanics. Benjamin Franklin One of these mechanics was Benja- min Franklin,^ who had come to Philadelphia from Boston 1 Franklin was born in Boston and was one of a family of seventeen chil- dren. He showed so early a brightness of mind that his father sent him to school and meant to make a minister of him. He quickly made his way to 112 ESTABLISHMENT OF •THE UNION. when a young man, had set up as a printer, and was now the foremost man in Pennsylvania. Franklin was a hard-working, clear-headed man, who took the liveliest interest in the affairs of the people. He persuaded the Philadelphians to keep their city clean, to light it with lamps, to protect it from fire, and to give it a good police. Through his influence, largely, the city was the most orderly and the most flourishing in the country. He was a man of science. He discovered protection against lightning by the use of iron rods. He invented the Franklin stove, which increased the comfort of houses and economized fuel. He printed every year Poor Richard'' s Almanac,^ in which he gave good advice to his countrymen about habits of prudence. His advice was so sensible, and given in such homely language, that everybody read and remembered it. He was one of the most active in raising supplies to aid in carrying on the war with the French and Indians. His townsmen sent him to the Assembly, where he became a leader of the people in opposition to the Penn family; for this family, which was still in power, was unwilling to bear its share of expenses in protecting the colony against the top, but his father was alarmed at the expense of sending liim to college and so took him into his shop and set him to making candles. Franklin was a leader among the boys and was so full of enterprise that his father feared he would run away to sea, so he finally made him an apprentice to another of his sons who was a printer. James Franklin set up a newspaper and Benja- min began to write for it, but without letting his brother know he wrote the pieces. The brothers did not get along very well, and when he was seventeen Benjamin left James in the lurch, got together some money by selling his books, and made his way to Philadelphia. I have given a fuller account of Franklin in my Short History, and Hawthorne has a sketch in his Biographical Stories. But every one should read Franklin's Autobiography, not only for its delightful narrative by a great man of his own life, but for the glimpse it gives of life in America before the Revolution. 1 A convenient collection of bits |rom these almanacs as well as passages from other of Franklin's writings may be found in the Riverside Literature series, No. 21, and also in The World's Classics. The proverbs and wise sen- tences were introduced by the phrase "As Poor Richard says"; thus, "God helps them that help themselves, as Poor Richard says." The signature which Franklin used was Richard Saunders. Some of the proverbs were familiar sayings, cleverly applied, some were of Franklin's own invention. Benjamin Franklin. Born January 6, 1706 | died April 17, 1790. 113 114 ESTABLISHMENT OF 3'BE UNION. the enemy. Franklin was not alone in his love of science and interest in public affairs. There were other men in Pennsylvania only less distinguished than he, whose names are still remembered,' and there were flourishing societies, and the first medical school in the country was established in Philadelphia. 6. Life in the South. — The colonies lying to the south of Mason and Dixon's Line differed from those of the North in being wholly agricultural and in having their labor done by black slaves. The chief products were tobacco in the northern parts, rice, indigo, and a little cotton, in the southern. The land was held in large estates, so that power was in the hands of a comparatively small number of families. In Virginia, the water ways were so excellent that vessels from England or the Northern colonies could receive and dis- charge cargoes at the wharves of the several plantations. Thus towns were insignificant, and the merchants were few; the planter shipped his tobacco direct and received in return, landed at his own door, whatever he needed that his own plantation did not produce. Baltimore was the only town of importance in the tobacco country. Farther south, in the rice country, was Charleston. The planters in South Carolina divided their time between their plantations and Charleston. They could not live much of the year on their estates, and tlie care of the black slaves was left largely to overseers. Thus slavery in Virginia was less harsh than in South Carolina. In the former colony, masters and servants formed one great household; in the lat- ter, the unhealthy country led to frequent deaths among the slaves; their number was filled up with fresh importations from Africa, and the masters and mistresses might have slaves whom they never saw. Early Influence of Slavery. — Since almost all manual labor in the Southern colonies was done by slaves, the free men felt 1 Among these were John Barti-am, the botanist; David Rittenhouse, the astronomer; Benjamin Rnsh, the physician. THE THIRTEEN ENGLISH COLONIES. 115 it to be beneath them to work with tlieir hands. The better class, who owned the slaves, had no need to labor; the poorer sort were unwilling to do what slaves did. Thus, between the planters and the blacks, there came to be a class of poor whites who lived from hand to mouth and learned no habits of industry and saving. The planters often sent their sons to Europe to be educated, and they had teachers for their younger children at home. There were, therefore, not many schools, and the poorer people grew up in ignorance. The rich had books and pictures, and were a courteous, generous class, high-spirited and well- educated. In Maryland the proprietary government continued. In Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, the governors and other officers were appointed by the king, while the members of assemblies were chosen by the people. The people who chose the members were the landholders and slave owners, and they naturally took a great interest in politics.^ 1 A good many interesting items of life in the colonies will be found in the narratives I have brought together in Men and Manners in America a Hundred Years Ago. Another book which goes over much general ground in a pictur- esque fashion is Charles Carleton Cothn's Old Times in the Colonies. See also Kellogg's Good Old Times, dealing especially with western Pennsylvania. QUESTIONS. What was the general character of the country occupied by the thirteen English colonies ? How many inhabitants were there, and. what propor- tion were blacks ? Name the thirteen colonies in their order beginning with the one farthest north. Describe life in Massachusetts. What determined the industries of the colony ? Name the occupations of the people. Describe their houses ; the rooms ; the fireplaces ; the fuel ; the food ; the clothing ; the best room. How did the people amuse them- selves? What were the social distinctions ? What was at the center of the town ? What was the local government ? Explain the difference between a New England town and a Western township. What was Faneuil Hall ? What was the difference between town life and country life ? What constitutes the chief industry of Maine and New Hampshire ? What effect did the French war have on New England industry ? Where were the settleinents in New York? Why was the Dutch Ian- 116 ESTABLISHMENT OF* THE UNION. guage used there ? Describe the houses ; the fireplaces ; the chests of drawers ; the glass cupboards. Of what trade was Albany the center ? Describe the farms. Describe the town of New York. What was lack- ing among the Dutch to cultivate the spirit of liberty ? What Indians were in New York, and what Englishman had great influence among them ? Describe New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and the people who lived there. Where was the most thickly settled portion of America? Describe Philadelphia. Give the story of Benjamin Franklin. What was Poor Bichard's Almanac? Describe the planters' manner of living. What is said of the governments of the Southern colonies ? of the people who composed all the colonies ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. Who were the Huguenots, and what brought them to this country ? Name some instances in recent history when Faneuil Hall has been used for great public meetings. What are the principal colleges in New Eng- land, and when were they established ? What old scientific association has its home in Philadelphia? What part did Franklin have in the establishment of public libraries ? Why did slavery die out in the North- ern colonies ? When did it disappear by law in Massachusetts ? in New York ? Wiiat customs inaugurated by the Dutch in New York remain in vogue ? How did ten ministers bring about the founding of Yale Col- lege ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : A New England town meeting. Franklin's boyhood. How Franklin once flew a kite and what came of it. A Sunday service in a Puritan church. Poor Bichard's Almanac and some of its maxims. Debates : Besolved, That Franklin became of greater importance to the country by taking up his residence in Philadelphia. Besolved, That the absence of towns in Virginia was of advantage in the development of the colony. CHAPTER II. ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. Ex'ports. Goods sent out of the ports of a country. Im'ports. Goods brought into the ports of a country. Smuggle. To import goods secretly, * so as to escape the payment of duties. Ad'\rocate General. An officer of the government who represents it in cases brought before the courts. Direct Tax. A tax collected directly fron: a person, as a poll tax, or a percentage upon his property. An indirect tax is one which is collected on the value of goods, and thus is usually added to the pr'ce of the goods by the owner. A duty on imports is an indirect tax. Effigy (ef'fi-i>y), A figure in imi- tation of a person. To hang or burn in effigy is to hang or burn a stuffed figure intended to repre- sent the obnoxious person. 7. The thirteen colonies were thirteen distinct governments, but they had also mueh in common. They were English colonies; they obeyed English laws; they called the King of England their king; they traded with one another, both by land and by water; families mov^ed from one colony to another; letters and newspapers were sent back and forth. There was no such quick movement as is now possible. The roads were rudely made and ill kept. People traveled chiefly by their own conveyances. In 1756 the first stage ran between New York and Phila- delphia, and was three days making the journey. Those who traveled by sloop packets were dependent on the winds. They might be three days in going from New York to Providence, Ehode Island, and they might be three times as long. The mails were carried mainly on horseback, and connected the line of settlements regularly from Portsmouth, New Hamp- shire, to Philadelphia. 117 118 ESTABLISHMENT OF ^HE UNION. South of Philadelphia the rider went only when he had col- lected what he thought enough matter. In JSTortli Carolina the mail passed through the coast towns only about once a month. The different colonies had also their separate postal arrange- ments within their own borders. Early Newspapers. — The people in different parts of the country depended for news chiefly on the letters which they received. The newspapers did not at first tell much of what was going on in the places where they were published. They contained advertisements, and news about European affairs copied from the London papers. The first newspaper was the Boston News Letter, established in 1701. In 1763 there were only between thirty and forty newspapers in the entire country. The printer, who was often the postmaster, did not usually write many articles himself. He printed letters written to him by his fellow townsmen, and these letters told what the writers thought of the government or of public affairs. Thus, when the colonies began to have common interests, the news- paper came to be of importance. 8. Plans for Union. — The dangers which threatened the colonies had more than once led them to seek some union among themselves. This is seen in the confederation of the New England colonies in 1613, in the congress held in New York after the destruction of Schenectady, in 1690, and in the congress held at Albany in 1751. These all arose from diffi- culties with the Indians. Franklin, who wafe a delegate from Pennsylvania to this last congress, drew up a plan on his way to Albany for a more perfect union of all the colonies under one government. When he met the other delegates he found that some of them had drawn up similar plans. There was a growing belief that some union was necessary. The congress at Albany discussed the matter, and agreed upon a plan which was mainly that of Franklin. He impressed his view of a Federal union upon the people in a characteristic fashion, for his newspaper, the Pennsylvania Gazette, for a long time bore a device which ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 119 represented a snake cut up into fragments, each fragment labeled with initials of the colonies from New England to Georgia, and the motto beneath," Unite or Die." ^ This plan was rejected both by the English government and by the separate colonies. England thought it gave too much power to the j)eople ; the colonies thought it gave too much power to the president, who was to be an officer of the crown. Reasons for and against Union. — After all, there was too much difference in the size and importance of the different colonies to permit them to agree upon any union. The small colonies were jealous of the great ones; there were many quar- rels over boundaries; they were not all in equal danger from the Indians. It was only when they were all in danger that they could forget their differences and unite in a common cause. They were all a part of the British Empire, and they had the independence and love of liberty which belonged to Eng- lishmen. Twice since America began to be settled by English men and women, the people of England had resisted the gov- ernment because it was unjust and was taking away their liberty. More than once in the American colonies the people had risen when they thought their liberties in danger. 9. Political Liberty in America. — The people in America were separated by a w^de ocean from England, and what was more important, living as they did in a new country which they were subduing to their own use, they were separated from the hard-and-fast customs of England. An Englishman, unless he had unusual gifts, lived and died in the class to which he belonged. In America there was already greater equality, and there was a chance for every one to better his condition. The farmer or the planter living on his own place could earn his livelihood and was not constantly reminded that there was somebody over him to whom he must pay taxes. On the 1 Franklin's Plan of Union is given in No. 9 of Old South Leaflets. 120 ESTABLISHMENT OF 'MHE UNION. contrary, he decided, either himself or by his representative, what taxes should be laid. It must be borne in mind con- stantly that the colonies had from the beginning performed the fundamental act of government in taxing themselves. The people, in fact, had so long made their own laws, and for the most part chosen their own rulers, that they were inde- pendent in fact before they were independent in name. It was mainly in the seaport towns that people were reminded frequently of England and English laws. 10. Parties in England. — In England, meanwhile, a change had been going on, especially since the advent of George III. to the throne. For fifty years or so the control of ' the government had been practically in the hands of a group of persons, knov/n in history as the Old Whigs. They made Parliament supreme and reduced the power of the crown. Now Parliament was supposed to be the choice of the people; in reality it was the mouthpiece of a few powerful families. There was, however, one notable exception, — William Pitt/ called the Great Commoner, because the people at large instinctively felt that he was their champion and leader. Pitt was at the head of a rising party known as the New Whigs. Their aim was to make Parliament really repre- sent the people instead of being a political machine used by the Old Whig group. This party, though a small one at first, was, in fact, fighting for constitutional liberty in England. When George III. came to the throne, a new, or more strictly speaking, the revival of an old force in government was seen. As the Stuart kings had tried to establish a nearly absolute monarchy, so George III. was determined to be the real ruler of the country. He drew about him the Tory party, and under- took by means of his cabinet to manage the affairs of England and her colonies. It is needful to bear this in mind, if one would understand the attitude which America bore to Eng- land. 1 See Macaulay's Essay on the Earl of Cliatiiam (William Pitt), ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 121 11. The Treatment of America by England. — The English did not know much about America, or understand the people there. They knew there was a vast country beyond the sea which belonged to England, and that it was growing rich. They were like landlords who own distant farms, and care only to get as much proht as possible out of them. They regarded the colonies chiefly as a market for their goods, and the laws made by Parliament were designed to limit the trade of the colonies to English markets. The furs brought in by the hunters, tlie fish caught by tlie fishermen, the pitch, tar, turpentine, and ship timbers from the forest, must all go to England. In the -wild woods of Maine and New Hampshire no tree of more than twenty-four inches' diameter at a foot above the ground could be cut down except for a mast for one of the king's ships. The laws also laid a duty upon exports and imports. The colonists could trade only with England, and they were required to pay a tax to the government upon all that they bought and all that they sold. If other countries wanted their goods, they must buy them of English merchants. The colonies could not even sell freely to one another. Restriction of Manufactures. — Besides this, England forbade tlie colonies to carry on manufacturing except in a small way. They might take iron from the mine, but they must send it to England to be manufactured. They paid a tax when they sent their iron ore to England. They paid English merchants for carrying it, English manufacturers for working it, English merchants for bringing it back, and then another tax to the English government. Thus English merchants and manufacturers grew rich, and were very careful to keep the colonies from trading with other countries. A host of officers were stationed in the American ports to collect the revenue and see that the laws were enforced. The colonists were impatient under these restraints; but they were prosperous, and paid the taxes out of their abundance. 122 ESTABLISHMENT OF .THE UNION. The long extent of seacoast and the scattered population made it eas}^ to smuggle goods into the country. In New England, especially, a great trade was carried on in this way and large fortunes were made, so that the complaints against the revenue laws were not so loud as they might otherwise have been. 12. Writs of Assistance. — There was nothing unusual in the attitude which England took toward the colonies. They be- longed to her according to the theory of the time, and more- over she had just been waging a costly war. The French and Indian War was a part of the Seven Years' War between England and France. When peace came, England was mis- tress of America, but she was also heavily in debt. She looked around for means to pay the debt, and to lessen the burdens which Englishmen were bearing in England. The American colonies offered the easiest means. The colonies had, it is true, taxed themselves to meet the ex- penses of the war in America; but the English government declared that the war had been fought mainly to benefit the colonies, and that the colonies ought to pay still more. It determined to enforce more strictly those laws of trade which had hitherto brought in so much revenue; but its intention was to use the revenue thus acquired mainly in America it- self. The authority of the king's officers in the ports was increased, and they were armed with Writs of Assistance. These were legal papers long in use in England, which gave those who held them power to enter any warehouse or dwell- ing, to search for smuggled goods which they might suspect to be hidden there. What rendered them especially obnox- ious was that they were general in their nature, for they did not define the goods hunted for, and they were unlimited in time. Armed with one of these writs, an officer could go into any house, and he could require the assistance of citizens. He was not obliged either to return the paper to the court after he liad made his search. He could use it again and again. Tliere is a saying, "An Englishman's house is his castle": ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 123 that is, he has rights there which the king is bound to respect. If these writs were given, the people knew that their houses would be entered by tlie king's officers on the merest suspi- cion. They said that the writs were illegal, and they deter- mined to prove this in the courts. In 1761 the collector of the port of Boston ordered his dep- uty in Salem to procure a Writ of Assistance from the court, to enable him to search for smuggled goods. Objection was raised that it was against the law to give the writ, and the judge decided to hear arguments before he issued it. James Otis, Jr., was advocate general of the province. It was his duty to defend the legality of the Writ of Assistance. He re- signed his office rather than take that side, and appeared in behalf of the people. It was a famous trial; and Otis in his speech used the words, " Taxation without representation is tyranny." ^ 13. "Taxation without Representation is Tyranny." — This sentence became a watchword in America during the exciting times which followed. The people meant by the phrase that they were as much Englishmen as those who lived in England. They said that for Parliament to tax them without giving them a voice in making the laws, either in Parliament or in their own assemblies, was to treat them as if they were a subject people. The force of the watchword is more apparent if we con- sider that the American people were far more directly and completely represented in their assemblies than the English were in Parliament. The right to vote for members of Par- liament was confined to certain classes in England, and the members elected did not in any special way represent the interests of the place where they were elected. In America, . all but a few men had the right to vote, and the members elected to the assemblies spoke for their neighbors. What irritated the Americans was the exercise of power 1 Dr. Samuel Johnson, the famous English author, was a staunch Tory, and wrote a pamphlet called Taxation no Tyranny. K 124 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION, over them by what they regarded almost as a foreign body, the English Parliament, and what they resented most was the exercise of that power in taxing them. They were ready to tax themselves in support of the crown ; they would not sub- mit to have that tax imposed on them by Parliament. 14. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — The first direct issue of importance between the colonies and England came when Parliament undertook to lay a tax to be collected by officers appointed for the purpose. This was the Stamp Act, by which it was required that a stamp should be affixed to any deed, contract, bill of sale, will, and the like, made in America before it could be legal. These stamps were to be made in England, and sent over to America to be sold by the government officers. It was in- tended that the money thus raised should be used for the support of B the king's troops in America. The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament in March, 1765, and as soon as this was known in America, the colonies, from one end of the land to the other, were full of indignation. Parliament, they said, might make laws to regulate the commerce of the empire, and so draw revenue from America; but it had no right to lay a direct tax like this. Only the colonial governments, elected by the people, could lay such a tax. Virginia's Action. — In the Virginia legislature a famous orator, Patrick Henry, introduced resolutions, which declared that the people, and the people only, had the right to tax the people. They had this right, not as colonists, but as Eng- lishmen. They had their own assemblies^ where they could Stamp. ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 125 Patrick Henry. 1 Patrick Henry did not come of one of the rich and influential families of Virginia, but both his father, who was of Scotch birth, and his mother, who was Welsh by extraction, were persons of character and ability. Patrick Henry was born May 29, 1736, and until he was twenty-four gave no evidence of special intellectual force. Then he became a lawyer, and it was not long before he became noted in his neigliborhood for his oratory. He made a great reputation in the Continental Congress, and was the first governor of the State of Virginia. He was one of the party that stood out against the adoption of the constitution. He died June 6, 1799. A convenient life of Patrick Henry is that by Moses Coit Tyler. A fuller one in two volumes has been written by William Wirt Henry. 126 ESTABLISHMENT OF ^THE UNION. vote the taxes. Many of the members objected to the tesolu- tions, fearing that they were too emphatic. Patrick Henry replied with a powerful speech. In the midst of it he ex- claimed: "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Crom- well, and George the Third" — "Treason! treason!" cried some of the excited members. Henry waited a moment, then added solemnly — "may profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it." 15. The Stamp Act Congress. — The Massachusetts legislature proposed a general convention of all the colonists, which met at New York in October, 1765. Nine colonies took part in it, and sent their most distinguished men. For the first time the whole country had a common cause, and there was need that the people should consult together. Congress, as the convention was called, drew up a declaration of rights. The people of the colonies, it said, had the same rights as the people of England. It was the right of Englishmen to be taxed only by their own consent. This consent was given through representatives. Englishmen had their Parliament; the people in the different colonies had their assemblies. The assemblies had the sole power to lay taxes in America. Congress demanded the repeal of the Stamp Act; and the people everywhere showed their determination to support this demand. 16. The Attitude of the Colonists — They declared that until the stamp act was repealed, they would not import English goods. They held fairs to encourage home manufactures. They would not eat mutton, so that they might have more wool to spin They would not wear mourning, because all mourning goods came from England. When the stamps v/ere received in America it was impossible to compel the people to use them The officers who were to supply them were some- times made to resign, sometimes hanged or burned in effigy ; ' 1 In the face of a building at the corner of Washington and Essex streets in Boston is a carving which typifies the Liberty Tree which, in 176G, stood m a green at that spot It was an ancient tree with spreading branches, and ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 127 copies of the Stamp Act were publicly burned, bells were tolled, flags hung at half mast; and in some towns mobs destroyed the houses of the revenue officers.^ 17. The Stamp Act in England. — The effect was felt in Eng- land, where a small party in Parliament upheld the colonists. In the House of Commons William Pitt uttered the memo- rable words: "The gentlemen tell us that America is obsti- nate, America is almost in open rebellion. Sir, I rejoice that America has resisted! Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the rest." At that time it was the custom of the different colonies to employ agents, who lived in London and looked out for the interests of the colonies which sent them. Benjamin Frank- lin was one of these agents, and his words had great weight with the wise Englishmen. The British ministry, before the act was passed, had asked Franklin how the people in America would regard it. He told them tliat the people would never submit to it. Now the ministry sent for Franklin again, and asked if he thought the people would pay for the damage done in the destruction of the stamped pcaper if Parliament would repeal the Stamp Act. Franklin replied with a characteristic story. A Frenchman, he said, rushed into the street once with a red-hot poker in his hand, and met an Englishman. " Will you let me run this poker a foot into you?" screamed the French- man. "What!" said the Englishman. "W^ell, six inches, then? " " Never ! " " Then will yon pay me for the trouble and expense of heating the poker?" The Englishman walked off. under it open-air meetings were held. From a branch of the tree hung an effigy of Andrew Oliver, the stamp officer ; and a number of the Sons of Lib- erty, as a half-secret organization was called, took the effigy down at night and burned it in a bonfire before Oliver's house. 1 Before the Stamp Act Congress, the term Americans had been applied generally to the natives of North America. It was now that on both sides of the Atlantic it began to be used of the inhabitants of the English colonies. 128 ESTABLISHMENT OF *I'HE UNION. The Stamp Act was repealed, for the English government saw that it was impossible to enforce it. At the same time Parliament took care to say that it had the right to -in^oo' tax the colonies. In America people were overjoyed at the repeal of the act, and did not trouble them- selves much about the claims which Parliament might set up in words. QUESTIONS. What were the relations of the colonies to each other and to England ? What is said of the roads ? the modes of travel ? the mails ? the news- papers ? What attempts at union had been made ? Why did Franklin's plan of union fail ? What stood in the way of a union ? What was the difference between political life in America and in England ? What had been the practice regarding taxation in America ? Describe the political parties in England at this time. Who was the Great Commoner ? What part had he already played in American affairs ? [See Introduction, Chapter VI.] How did England look upon America ? What laws were made restricting trade ? What regulations in regard to manufactures were made ? What acts had England formerly passed making the colo- nies dependent on England? [See Introduction, Section 49.] Why were English revenue officers in American ports ? Why was it not con- sidered disreputable to smuggle ? How had the colonists paid a share of the expenses of the French and Indian War ? How did England pro- pose further to relieve herself ? What were Writs of Assistance ? Why were they obnoxious ? What was done by James Otis ? What is meant by the words "Taxation without representation is tyranny"? Wliat was the difference between popular government in America and England ? What were the stamps, and what use was made of them ? What was the American ground of resistance to the Stamp Act ? Tell what Patrick Henry did and said. Why did a Congress assemble in 1765, and what did it do ? What did the people do, and how did they treat the officers who sold the stamps? What did William Pitt say? What story did Franklin tell, and how did it apply to the case ? What was finally done, and why ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. Why are taxes needed in government ? How are they laid in America to-day, and who collects them ? What is the real difference between a postage stamp and a revenue stamp? How were the stamps in 1765 affixed to papers ? What revenue stamps are now used in the United ENGLAND AND THE COLONIES. 129 States ? When were they imposed by the government to a large extent and cheerfully accepted by the people ? Tell the story of Brutus and Caesar ; of Cromwell and Charles I. What word is in common use to- day to express a systematic refusal to trade with a particular person ? In what country did it originate ? How were tlie stamps fixed to papers ? What were the leading articles of manufacture in the colonies at this time ? Did the colonists really desire to be represented in Parliament ? What then was the meaning of '' no taxation without representation" ? In what way was this phrase a watchword of William Pitt as well as of Patrick Henry and James Otis ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : Narrative of a journey from Boston to Philadelphia in 1763. A sketch of the life of William Pitt. How the colonists in some cities set about defeating the Stamp Act ? A sketch of the life of James Otis. Debates : Besolved, That England was justified in drawing revenue from Amer- ica for the payment of government expenses in America. Resolved, That the colonists were justified in smuggling, under the navigation laws. Resolved, That England was acting under her constitutional rights in passing the Stamp Act. CHAPTER III. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. Quartered. Given quarters or houseroom among the people- East India Company. A corporation in England, formed for trading with the East Indies. It laid the foundation of p]nglish rule in India. Common. A piece of ground in a town, left uninclosed, for the common use of all the people in the town. Outskirts. The border of a town. Par'apet. A fortification, breast high. Ticondero'ga. 18. The Quartering of Troops. — The object of the Stamp Act had been to raise money for the support of the king's troops in America. That object still remained, and Parliament now passed an act by which the colonies were to quarter the troops sent among them. It also imposed certain duties on colonial trade and declared that the revenue from these duties should be used to pay the salaries of officers of the crown in America. It reaffirmed the legality of Writs of Assistance. The attitude of Parliament was clearly one of tighter control of the colonies. To make this more evident, a colonial department was made a distinct branch of the government. Pitt had grown feeble and had withdraw^n practically from power. He had been created Earl of Chatham. The ministry, headed now by the brilliant Townshend and a little later by the dull and obsti- nate Lord North, was a Tory ministry. The old Whigs were out of office, and the party of new Whigs, though vigorous, was small. There was no quarrel between the king's ministry and Parliament, but the colonies for some time maintained the position that they were loyal subjects of the king and resisted only the illegal acts of Parliament. 130 THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 131 The Boston Massacre. — The principal places affected by these acts were New York and Boston. The Assembly of New York refused to make provision for the troops, and Parliament or- dered the Assembly to close. Massachusetts sent a circular letter to the other colonies, proposing a petition to the king. This petition protested against acts of Parliament which taxed them without their consent. The answer of the king's minis- ters was to send four regiments of soldiers to Boston. The people there, both in town meeting and in the legislature, demanded that the troops should be withdrawn. They were a constant cause of irritation ; and the petty quarrels between the soldiers and townspeople broke out hnally into a light in which some of the townspeople were killed. This fight, which goes by the name of the ^;fyyQ^' Boston Massacre, produced an intense feeling of anger. For several years the 5th of March was a day for a great town meeting, and an oration by some Boston patriot. By such meetings and addresses the people kept alive the mem- ory of a wrong, and encouraged one another to resist tyranny. Samuel Adams/ a popular leader who had great influence, especially among the workingmen of Boston, headed the citi- zens, the day after the Boston massacre, in a demand for the removal of the troops. The governor, Thomas Hutchinson,- 1 Samuel Adams was born in Boston, September 16, 1722. His grandfather and the grandfather of John Adams were brothers. Samuel Adams was grad- uated at Harvard College, and the subject of his commencement, piece was significant, " Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved." He was distinctly the mouth- piece of the citizens of Boston in their dispute with the authorities. He was a member of the Continental Congress, and afterward Governor of Massachu- setts. He died October 2, 1803. His statue stands in Dock Square, Boston, and an excellent life has been written by James K. Hosmer. ■^ Thomas Hutchinson and Samuel Adams were on opposite sides in politics, and as Adams represented the new party springing up which was satisfied finally with nothing short of independence, Hutchinson was the ablest of those who held by the Crown, and finally was compelled to leave the country. He was an honest, unselfish man, and no one can rightly understand the position of those who tried in America to keep the British empire intact, without becoming acquainted with Hutchinson. Mr. Hosmer has written his life also. 132 ESTABLISHMENT OF^THE UNION. seeing the entire community aroused, was wise enough to order the troops to be removed to the fort in the harbor, called the Castle. But the people were fast coming to look on the English government as hostile, and Adams, who was one of the first to see that entire independence was logically the end, proposed a committee in Boston town meeting to correspond with other towns on the affairs of the people. This practice was taken up by the towns, and later by the colony with other colonies, and commit- tees of correspondence became an important agency in organizing the people. 19. The Tax on Tea. — England now com- mitted a blunder which brought affairs to a cri- sis. The colonies, by their firmness, had com- pelled Parliament to remove one tax after an- other ; that on tea alone remained. The people accordingly refused to buy tea, although for- merly they had bought large quantities. The East India Company found itself with seventeen million pounds of tea in its English warehouses, which it could not sell. The failure of the company would greatly impoverish the king, who owned shares in it. It be- came necessary to do something to relieve the company. Accordingly Lord North, the king's chief adviser, persuaded Parliament to pass an act taking off the tax of sixpence a pound which the tea paid in England. It was supposed this would so reduce the price of tea that the Americans would Samuel Adams. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 1.^3 not mind the tax of threepence per pound which was still to be paid in America, and would buy largely. The company was shrewder than Lord North, ^, and asked to be allowed to pay the English tax, duty, in America. " No,' be one tax, to keep up the right As soon as the colonies learned of the act of Parlia- ment, there was great in- dignation. It was not cheap tea that they wanted, but untaxed tea. They saw the English govern- ment taking off the tax in Eng- ^ land, but keeping it on in America. They knew that this was intended by the king as a declaration of his right to tax the colonies. When the vessels bring- ing the tea reached America, the citizens in many of the ports compelled the captains to sail back with their cargoes to England. The Boston Tea Party. — In Boston the royalist governor at- tempted to secure the landing of the tea. The citizens, under the lead of Sam Adams, as he was popularly called, would not permit it. For twenty days the committee of the people strove to compel the governor to send back the vessels. Faneuil Hall, where the town meetings were held, was Old South Church. 1773. 134 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UiWlON. crowded day after day with people who met to consult. At last, in the twilight of a December day, when the people were gath- ered in the Old South Church, because Faneuil Hall was not large enough, a messenger came from the governor with his final refusal. Sam Adams stood up and declared, " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." A voice in tlie gallery called out, " Hurrah for Gritfin's Wharf ! " It was at 1773 ' Crriffin's Wharf ^ that the tea ships lay. Immediately the people poured out of the church and hurried after a party of young men disguised as Indians, who set up a war whoop. These men took possession of the vessels, seized the tea chests, broke them open, and poured the contents into the harbor. 20. The Boston Port Bill — As soon as the news reached England, Lord North brought into Parliament a bill, which was passed, ordering that after the first of June no person should load or unload any ship in the port of Boston until the town apologized, and paid for the tea which had been destroyed. The Boston Port Bill, as it was called, was the punishment which the British government inflicted on the rebellious town. To close the port of Boston was to strike a severe blow at the prosperity of the town and of the entire colony. When the act went into operation, the bells were tolled and the peo- 1774' pl® hung out mourning. Throughout the country there was the greatest sympathy shown for Massachusetts. The other colonies urged the Bostonians to remain steadfast, and showed their sympathy by gifts of money and provisions. 21. The Loss of Governmental Rights. — When the port of Boston was closed, a British fleet lay at the entrance, and regi- ments of British soldiers occupied the town. A still severer blow was struck at the liberties of the people. Parliament had passed two acts for the regulation of the government of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. 1 A tabiot is inserted in the wall of a building on Atlantic Avenue where the wharf formerly stood. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 135 By these acts nearly all the power was lodged in the hands of the governor and of officers appointed by the king or gov- ernor. The people conld hold town meetings only once a year. The courts had power to send prisoners to England or to other colonies for trial, instead of being required to try them before juries of their neighbors. The people now knew that they had something more to struggle for than freedom from taxation. They were to con- tend for rights dear to every free Englishman, and they pro- ceeded at once to take measures to assert those rights. Since Parliament chose to take from them their customary govern- ment, they would make a new government. The people in Massachusetts, as in the other colonies, had been used to acting according to law. So now, when they rebelled against the government, they went about the business not as if they were breaking laws, but as if they were keeping them. They were forbidden to have more than one town meeting a year. In Boston, accordingly, they had only one, but by adjourning from time to time they made it last all the year. 22. The Provincial and the Continental Congress. — General Gage, the new governor, who had been sent over from England, refused to recognize the legislature chosen by the people. There- upon the legislature formed itself into the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, and withdrew from Boston to Concord. This Congress was regarded by the people of the colony as the real government. It appointed a Committee of Safety, which met frequently and had power to act in any emergency. The colonies all had committees of correspondence, and kept one another informed by letter of what was going on. Massa- chusetts now invited the other colonies to send delegates to a congress at Philadelphia. This is known as the First Continen- tal Congress. The name is significant of national feeling. All the colonies were represented except ^^J*^^^' Georgia. They drew up an address to the king, setting forth their grievances, and formed an agreement to 136 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. October, 1774. refuse to carry on any trade with Great Britain until their wrongs should be righted. 23. Lexington and Concord. — The towns of Massachusetts had always had their militia companies. Now these were newly organized, under patriot captains, and an active training and drill began. General Gage, on the other hand, began to move his sol- diers back and forth, to fortify Boston, and to secure the cannon and powder which might be in the province. The Provincial Con- gress had col- lected military stores in Concord. Gen- eral Gage, who had made unsuccessful attempts in other directions, planned a secret night excursion to Concord to destroy the stores. But he was in the midst of a hostile and vigilant people, and his plans Avere discovered in season to warn the Committee of Safety. Among the means taken by the patriots to warn the country, was a lantern signal hung from a church tower in Boston.^ Messengers rode by night through the country, carrying the news that British soldiers were marching to Concord, and peo- ple took down their muskets and hurried to join their neighbors. Thus when the British troops, early in the morning of the 19th of April, reached Lexington, two thirds of the April 19 o ' 1775 ' ^^^-^ ^^ Concord, they foiind a small body of country- men, under Captain Parker, drawn up on the com- mon to dispute the way. Captain Parker had given orders 1 This incident has been graphically set forth in Longfellow's "Paul Revere's Ride." Carpenters' Hall, where the First Con- gress met. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 137 not to fire unless they were fired upon. The British troops called upon the rebels to disperse, and opened fire on them, killing seven men. The little band of patriots retreated slowly, returning the fire as they went ; the British kept on to Concord, where they began to destroy the military stores. A detachment was sent across the river to destroy other stores farther off, when they heard the sound of firing near Concord Bridge, and quickly turned back. The Americans had attacked the troops left to guard the bridge. The whole countryside had been roused. The news of the attack at Lexington had spread like wildfire. Companies of minute men, so called because they were to be ready for move- ment at a minute's notice, were pouring into Concord and joined in the attack of the British, who were overpowered by the number of countrymen. 138 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE UNION. The British forces began a retreat toward Boston, bearing their dead and wounded with them. All the way, from be- hind stone walls, and from houses, the angry farmers harassed them with shot. They did not desist until the troops had crossed Charlestown Neck at sunset, and were safe under the guns of the British vessels. The news of the tight traveled swiftly. The colonial militia had attacked the king's troops. There were no railways or telegraphs in those days, but every man sent word to his neighbor, and one town rallied the next. The farmers left their plows, and the artisans their tools. They took their guns and horses, and marched straight to Boston. The women were full of patriotism. A mother had two boys, one nineteen, the other sixteen, years of £ige. Her husband was at sea. She gave her eldest boy his fowling piece ; and since the duck and goose shot were too small, she cut up her pewter spoons and hammered the pieces nito slugs. She had only a rusty sword for the younger boy, but she sent them both off to join the men. The Patriots' Rally. — All through the 19th of April and the night that followed, the tramp of men and horses was heard on the roads. They came from every quarter; and on the morning of the 20th a great company had gathered at Cam- bridge, upon the outskirts of Charlestown, and at Roxbury. Boston was surrounded by camps of patriots. Every day their numbers were swelled by newcomers. Each company of soldiers chose its own officers, and was under the general orders of the colony to which it belonged. The oldest-commissioned and most experienced officer was Artemas Ward, who commanded the Massachusetts troops at Cambridge. Upon a monument which stands near the scene of the little battle of Concord, are four lines from a poem written by the American poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson : " By the rude bridge that arched the flood, Their flag to the April's breeze unfurled, Here once the embattled farmers stood, And fired the shot heard round the world.'* > THE NEW ENGLAND STATES DURINGTHE WAK FOR INDEPENDENCE Scale of — ■ 100 aiilcs THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 139 24. The Second Continental Congress While these things were going on, the Continental Congress was again in session in Philadelphia. The delegates to the Congress were by no means John Adams. ready to separate the colonies from England. They were bent only on maintaining the resistance which had been made until England should right their wrongs, and they clung as long as they could to the theory that Parliament was undertaking to govern them contrary to the laws of the empire, but that an 140 ESTABLISHMENT OB THE UNION. appeal to the king and to their friends in England would bring about a change of policy. They were fortified in this belief by the energetic support which they received from a small party in Parliament. The resistance to the king's troops had been most open in a single locality, but there was a determined spirit of resist- ance everywhere. It was clear that the colonies must act together if they would accomplish anything. So when the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts, after Lexington and Concord, asked the Continental Congress to take charge of the army which was gathered about Boston from other colonies than Massachusetts, the Continental Congress did assume the general control, and the colonies took together the important step of raising troops and money to resist England. John Adams ^ was a delegate from Massachusetts, and on his nomination George Washington ^ of Virginia was '^^°®^^' unanimously elected general and commander-in-chief of the Army of the United Colonies.^ He imme- diately set out for Cambridge, and on his way heard an impor- tant piece of news. 1 John Adams was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 19, 1735. At the outbreak of the war for independence he was a lawyer. He was a man of sturdy nature who was willing to do unpopular things if he thought they were right; he defended the soldiers engaged in the Boston Massacre, for instance. He will be met later in our history, for he was a conspicuous states- man and became the second president of the Union. Some of the most ani- mated accounts of the historic days in which he lived are to be found in the Familiar Letters of John and Abigail Adams, Abigail Adams being his wife, who stayed at home much of the time that John Adams was in the Conti- nental Congress. His life in the American Statesmen series is by John T. Morse, Jr. 2 There are many easily accessible lives of Washington. I have written one, Geoj-c/e Washington, an Historical Biography. There is one in two vol- umes in American Statesmen series, by Henry Cabot Lodge, and an illustrated one by Woodrow Wilson. AVashington Irving's Life of Washington is one of the fullest. 3 As the Congress was called continental, so the army was called the conti- nental army and the paper money issued by Congress, continental currency. The word is significant as indicating that the people had caught at the idea of a comprehension of all the colonies in one great nation. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 141 25. Battle of Bunker Hill. — On the evening of the 16th of June the Committee of Safety had sent troops to Charlestown, for they had lieard that the British meant to occupy that place. There in the night they had thrown up fortifications upon a hill commanding Boston. The part of the hill nearest Boston was called Breed's Hill ; behind it rose Bunker Hill. The British had been unwilling to make an attack upon the camps about Boston, for that meant open war ; but such a movement as this could not be overlooked. As soon (on the morning of the 17th) as they discovered the Americans intrenched, they sent troops across the river from Boston to dislodge them. They were very confident of quickly routing these raw troops with their regular soldiers. The Americans, behind a hastily built redoubt and a rail fence padded with new-mown hay, awaited the coming of the British as they marched up the hill. They had orders not to lire till they could see the whites of their enemies' eyes. Not a soldier stirred till the British were within fifty yards. Then, as the order was given, the Americans poured a deadly volley into the ranks. The redcoats, used to war, stood their ground for a moment, and then, seized with panic, rushed down the hill. Three times the British regulars were ordered up the hill. Twice they were driven back by the countrymen, who from behind their slight fortifications coolly fired upon the redcoats. Then the Amei'icans' ammunition gave out; and when the third attack came, they fired stones from their guns and slowly re- treated, leaving the British in possession.^ The battle of Bunker Hill had been fought. The Ameri- cans, led by Prescott- and Putnam,'^ had lost their brave gen- 1 Read Dr. Holmes's dramatic poem " Grandmother's Story of the Battle of Bunker Hill." '2 Colonel Prescott was .grandfather of the historian. 3 Israel Putnam, who had fought in the French and Indian War, was a farmer in Pomfret, Connecticut. When the news of Lexington reached him he was plowing a field. He took the horse out of the plow, jumped on his back, and leaving orders for the militia company to follow him, was off at once for the scene of action. 142 ESTABLISHMENT OF ^TIIE UNION. eral, Warren, and about four hundred and fifty men had been killed, wounded, or captured. The British loss was ^yyg ' more than twice as great. It was a bold movement of the Americans, and the colonial militia had stood the fire of the I>ritish rei^Milars. The Washington Elm and Headquarters. 26. Washington takes Command. — AYlien Wnsliincrton heard this, he was .i^reatly enconracjed. On the 3d day of irjrjr * July he took command of the American army, beneath an elm tree still standi nc^ by Cambridge Common. He found a crowd of brave, undisciplined^ soldiers, ill provided 1 How nnrlisfiplined thoy were may be seen by an incident which a visitor to the camp reports. He overheard this dialogue between a captain and one of the privates nnder him : " Bill," said the captain, " go and hrin's^ a pail of water for the men." "I shan't," said Bill. "It's yonr turn now, captain : I j?ot it last time." But Washinfrton soon saw that there was stuff in iho sturdy men. He wrote to Congress : " I have a sincere pleasure in ohsf^rving that there are materials for THE FIRST liES! STANCE. 143 Oct. 17, 1775. with arms, ammunition, and provisions. His first business was to organize them into an army, while he kept watch of the British in Boston. The British army did not come out from the town ; but some of the vessels which blockaded- the harbor were sent down the coast and burned the town of Falmouth, now Portland, Maine. This was a direct act of war. It did much to weaken the lin- gering hope of some Americans that the trouble was confined to Boston, and that there would be no general war. 27. Movements in Other Directions. — Meantime the Americans had not been idle elsewhere. Ethan Allen, at the head of a party of mountaineers, sur- prised the British garrison at Fort Ticonderoga, and cap- ™f- ' tured that fort as well as Crown Point. These were on the old route to Canada; and men who had fought in the French and Indian War were eager to get possession of that country. General Montgomery moved down Lake Champlain and captured Mon- treal. Benedict Arnold se- cured Washington's approval, ^Z'rj^ ' and w^ith some of the forces which were besieging Boston, made a terrible march through the wilderness of Maine to the St. Lawrence. He followed the plan Wolfe Arnold's Route. a good army, a great number of able-bodied men, active, zealous in the cause, and of unquestionablecourage." Washington's account of tlie army as he found it at Cambridge is reprinted from his letters in Old South Leaflets, No. 47. 144 ESTABLISHMENT OP THE UNION. had adopted, and occupied the Plains of Abraham. Arnold reached Quebec just as Montgomery entered Montreah It was intended that the two armies should unite; but Arnold could not hold his position, and retreated to a less exposed place. After Montgomery arrived from Montreal, an attack was made upon Quebec ; but it was disastrous. Mont- gomery was killed, the British army was reenforeed, and the Americans were obliged to abandon Canada. 28. England's Reply to America If any still hoped that England would yield, they were convinced that the hope was vain when they heard how the address of Congress to the king had been received. The king returned no an- swer, but notified Par- liament that the colonies were in a state of re- bellion. He announced that he should at once increase his forces in , ^ , ^ ,0.. ,. , ,r,.r, America and crush the Edmund Burke. Born 1729; died 1797. , „. rebellion. And yet the cause of the Americans was upheld by some of the greatest Englishmen of the day, who perceived clearly that the cause was one of free government, and that England was deeply concerned. Edmund Burke, one of the most far- sighted statesmen of the time, spoke earnestly in Parliament against the policy the king was pursuing.^ The Earl of Chat- ham, also, in the House of Lords, though failing in strength 1 See especially his great speech on Conciliation with the Colonies, delivered March 22, 1775. THE FIRST RESISTANCE. 145 of body was unceasing in his opposition to the repressive policy.^ 29. A Union Flag and the Siege of Boston raised On the first of January, 1776, Washington caused a flag to be adopted by his army, with thirteen red and white stripes and the Brit- ish union jack in the corner. Early in March, Washington was ready to drive the British out of Boston. He now had cannon, which had been dragged over the snow from Ticonder- oga, and he proceeded to occupy Dorchester Heights, over- looking the harbor. General Howe, who had succeeded Gen- eral Gage, saw that he must fight at a great disadvantage or abandon the town. He gathered his forces, took to the fleet, and sailed away. With him went those families which had remained loyal to the king. The siege of Boston was raised. There was now open war between the two countries ; but after this Massachusetts scarcely knew the presence of soldiers. It became the policy of England to strike at the heart of the colonies.^ 1 Franklin wrote to a friend in England in October, 1775: " Britain, at the expense of three millions, has killed a hundred and fifty Yankees this cam- paign, which is £20,000 a head ; and at Bunker Hill she gained a mile of ground, all of which she lost again by our taking post on Ploughed Hill. During the same time <)0, 000 children have been born in America." From these data he would have a friend calculate "the time and expense necessary to kill us all and conquer the whole of our territory.'* * One of Cooper's novels, Lionel Lincoln, has to do with this period. QUESTIONS. The Stamp Act having been repealed, what action did Parliament take to raise revenue in America ? What was its general attitude toward the colonies? Who controlled the action of Parliament ? What was the effect of sending regiments to Boston ? Name the two Massachusetts men of prominence who played opposite parts at this time. What were committees of correspondence ? Narrate the steps that led to the tax on tea. How was the act of Pai'liament received in America? What took place in Boston ? What punishment did government inHict on Boston for its action ? What further policy did Parliament pursue in support of its authority ? How did the people of Massachusetts meet the situation ? 146 ESTABLIi^iUMENT Ob\ THE UNION. What gave rise to the first Continental Congress ? Narrate the events which occurred at Lexington and Concord. Describe the incidents of the retreat of the British. What effect did the affair have on the country people ? Where was the chief camp of the patriots formed ? Repeat the lines on the Concord monument. What was going on «Tt this time in Philadelphia ? What was the effect upon Congress of the fighting in Massachusetts ? How did Washington come to be conspicuous in Con- gress? Narrate the events of the battle of Bunker Hill. When diil Washington get news of the battle, and on what day did he take com- mand of the army ? How did tlie British forces further estrange the people ? What forts did Ethan Allen and his men capture ? Narrate the attempt of Montgomery and Arnold to capture Canada. What was England's reply to the address of Congress ? What was the end of the siege of Boston ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. What were the Mecklenburg resolutions ? How did the personal characteristics of George III. enter into the great question of governing America ? Sam Adams is said to have originated the caucus ; what was the origin of the word ? State the plan of conciliation which Burko proposed. Was the British attack on Bunker Hill well planned from a military point of view ? What is the story of the Boston boys having their coast spoiled by British soldiers? What were the non-importation agreements made by the colonists after the repeal of the Stamp Act ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : An account of the meeting at the Old South, December IG, 1773 A prose version of the warning of Lexington by Paul Revere. Life in Boston during the siege. Imaginary letter from a British soldier in the battle of Bunker Hill. Imaginary letter of a minute man in the battle of Bunker Hill. An account of the retreat of the British from Concord to Charlestown. A sketch of the life of Israel Putnam. Debates : Besolvecf, That Parliament had the same right to control the colonies that the United States Congress has to govern the territories. Besolved, That the tax of threepence per pound on tea should have been paid by the Americans. CHAPTER IV THE DECLAIMTION OF INDEPENDENCE. Moultrie (moo'tri). Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko). Kalb. Sometimes De Kalb. Steuben (stfi'ben). Pulas'ki. Marquis de la Fayette (mar-kee' de-la- fa-yet'). But the English form {mar'quis) is commonly used, and the French name writ- ten as one word, Lafayette. 30. Movements of the British. — When General Howe left Boston he carried his army to Halifax ; but it was well under- stood that his plan was to take possession of New York. The patriots there had been busy, ever since the fight at Concord, raising an army, and throwing up fortifications. Washington hurried forward his troops, and prepared to defend the town, and the mouth of the Hudson. Meanwhile the British had sent an expedition to secure the Southern colonies. The fleet appeared off the harbor of Charleston, but the people erected defenses with great energy. When the British made their attack. Colonel yjno ' Moultrie, commanding at Sullivan's Island, gallantly repulsed them. They could not capture the town, and so sailed away for Xew York, where they were to join Howe. 31. The Formation of States. — All this time the Continental Congress was in session at Philadelphia. Heretofore each colony had been governed in the name of the king ; courts were held and the laws were executed in his name. Now that there was open rebellion against the king's authority, all this must be changed. The people had their legislatures ; they had all the machinery of government; and by the advice of the Conti- nental Congress the colonies quickly formed themselves into States. 147 148 ESTABLISHMENT OF^ THE UNION. South Carolina was the first to adopt a constitution for its government. It did this with the distinct purpose of carrying on the government only till there should be reconcili- ^^^J'^' ation with England, for which it still hoped. Ehode Island was the first publicly to declare its absolute independence of the crown. Immediately afterwards the Con- tinental Congress advised all the colonies to set up ■^^}^' their own governments. Before the close of 1776, six of the colonies had adopted State constitutions. Three others did the same in 1777. Two only, Connecticut and Rhode Island, continued into the next century to carry on their governments under the old royal charters; but they omitted the king's name from legal and business papers. 32. The Question of Independence Some of the colonies when they became transformed into States instructed their delegates in Congress to declare for independence. Still there were many persons who clung to the hope that difficulties might yet be settled, and the old relations with England restored. One of the most effective arguments employed in favor of independence was a small pamphlet by Thomas Paine, to which he gave the name Common Sense} On the seventh day of June, 1776, Eichard Henry Lee, act- ing under instructions from Virginia, submitted this resolution to Congress, "that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." Thereupon Congress agreed to consider definitely the ques- tion of independence, but it took a recess of three weeks to give the delegates an opportunity to go back to the people and 1 The pamphlet was published anonymously. It had a good deal of foolish abuse, but it argued that common sense should lead the Americans to seek independence, and it pointed out that inasmuch as the Americans acknowl- edged the king, though they were fighting to resist Parliament, no foreign nation would interfere in their behalf. The essay was written in plain, direct English, which made it very popular and intelligibleo DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 149 leai'u what was the general judgmeut. When the members returned to their seats, there was no h)nger any doubt what course should be pursued. In different parts of the country, in town meetings, county meetings, and provincial congresses, resolutions were passed declaring that the time had come for the colonies to separate from Great Britain. 33. The Declaration of Independence The delegates w^ere by no means unanimous. There were able men who still urged more moderation. John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, advised a more solid confederation first. But the great fact remained that all the colonies had practically become independent. On the second day of July, 1776, a final vote was taken, and Con- gress adopted a Declaration of Independence, written mainly by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia.^ It declared what were the nat- ural rights of all men ; it recited the acts of George III., King of Great Britain, by which he had abused his authority over the colonies and deprived them of their rights and authority. It reminded the world how patiently the colonies had borne their injuries. It told of the petitions they had addressed to the king, which had no answer except new injuries. It showed that the colonies had appealed, not to the king only, but to their brethren, the people of England ; but that all had been in vain. Therefore, as representatives of the United States OF America, in general congress assembled, the delegates published this declaration of the independence of the States. 1 Thomas Jefferson was born in Albemarle Co., Virginia, April 2, 1743. He was a graduate of William and Mary College, where he was a hard student as well as a good horseman and hunter, and what was less common, an excel- lent performer on the violin. His father died in his early manhood, and Jefferson came into the management of a large estate. He took his seat with AVashington in the Virginia House of Burgesses, and on becoming a public man he made a resohition which, fifty years after, he said he had always kept, "never to engage while in public office in any kind of enterprise for the improvement of my fortune." His marriage brought him still more wealth. In January, 1779, he was governor of Virginia, and this history refers to him more than once. He was a man of scientific habit of mind, and one of his most useful contributions was our decimal system of coinage. See Morse's Tliomas Jejj'erson. 150 ESTABLISHMENT 03 THE UNION. They appealed to the Supreme Judge of the world, and ended with these words: " With a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor." Thomas Jefferson. The Fourth of July, 1776. — The Declaration was agreed to on the 4th of July. Later in the session it was signed by John Hancock of Massachusetts, President of Congress, and by fifty- five delegates from the thirteen colonies. Every man who DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 151 signed it knew that if independence were not secured he would be in peril of being hanged as a rebel and traitor.^ A great crowd was gathered before the State House in Philadelphia, where Congress held its sessions. From the balcony the Decla- ration of Independence was read, and the bell in the tower rang out the news. From that time the State House began to be called Independence Hall. The 4th of July has ever since been cele- brated as the birthday of the nation. One im- portant consequence of the formal Declaration of Independence was that it divided the peo- ple of the country into patriots and loyalists. No one could any lon- ger persuade himself f, ^ \ , , John Hancock. Born 1737 ; died 1793. that he was a loyal subject of Great Britain when he was making war upon her, 34. The Loyalists In the eyes of Great Britain those who called themselves patriots in America were rebels ; the real patriots were the loyalists. Many of these were sincere well- 1 John Hancock's signature was a very bold one, and he said the King of England could read it ^vithout spectacles. When the members were about to sign, Hancock said: "We must be unanimous; there must be no pulling dif- ferent ways; we must all hang together." "Yes," said Franklin, "we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." One of the signatures, that of Charles Carroll of Maryland, was that of a partly palsied hand and looked thus rather trembling. The story goes that some one jocosely remarked this, and Carroll added to the signature " of Car- roUtou " that there might be no mistake as to who he was. 152 ESTABLISHMENT OF* THE UNION. Independence Hall, 1776. wishers to America when they held by the crown. To them, it seemed as if the great British empire were being dismembered by the unwise action of their hot-headed countrymen. They had no wish to. have an independent nation ; the}^ were content to remain as they were. Others among them took a narrow view, and thought only of their personal comfort and fortune. ^Nearly all suffered the loss of property, and many became exiles.^ 35. The Formation of a Confederation. — The constitutions which the States formed were afterward revised from time to time ; but they all had one feature in common : whereas the 1 The diaries of some who went to London are pathetic with the expression of homesickness for America, while some show a bitterness of feeling. The most important account of the loyalists is to be found in Sabine's American Loyalists. Long after the Revolution there lived two old ladies in Boston, who were daughters of Mather Byles, a loyalist minister. To the day of their death they made believe as hard as the*^ could that there had been no Revo- lution, and when King William IV. came to the throne in 1830, they wrote to him telling him he still had loyal subjects in America. On the 4th of July they closed their blinds and tied them with black ribbons. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 153 charters of the colonies derived their authority from the king, the constitutions of the States recognized the supreme au- thority of the people. The States proceeded to manage their own affairs very much as the colonies had done, each inde- pendently of the others. But they needed a common power in dealing with the enemy, and a common authority in treat- ing with other nations. The Continental Congress was the most convenient means at first. It had, by common consent, brought all the colonial troops into one army, and it had made a Declaration of Inde- pendence in the name of all the colonies.^ It was clear that Congress could act and speak with power only when all the States were agreed. If they disagreed, there was no higher authority which could keep them together. The war and a common enemy now held them in union ; but that could not last, and Congress recommended that the States should form a confederation. - It drew up thirteen articles of confederation, which, when accepted by all, were to be the rules by which the States should be governed in what related to their common interests. It did not propose that the Confederation should have h°™ ' anything to do with the management of those affairs in each State which concerned only the citizens of that State. To the Confederation they gave the name of the United States of America. The United States was to treat with foreign powers; declare war; appoint officers in the army and navy; direct military operations ; levy taxes ; fix the standard of money, weights, and measures; manage Indian affairs; and establish post offices. This was in name very much the same authority which the 1 Congress emphasized the union of the colonies by providing a symbol in the form of our present flag, which was developed out of the one raised by Washington when he was in command of the army in Cambridge. It retained the stripes, but in place of the British union jack it represented the thirteen states by thirteen stars. This was the final mark of complete independence. The flag has remained the same ever since, except that a new star has been added for every new State. Congress adopted the flag Juue 14, 1777. 154 ESTABLISHMENT OF t'HE UNION. king and Parliament of Great Britain had formerly exercised in the colonies ; but it was not the same in power. The States which had just rebelled against the tyranny of the king were very careful not to give the Confederation or Congress too much power; all the States together should not compel any one State to act against its will. Thus, though they called these articles the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, they had really formed only a league of friendship. It was the first and most important step toward real union ; and the name which they chose, the United States of America, came at last to have a full meaning. At first it meant only that the several States in America were united in a common cause against a common enemy. The articles were accepted by eleven of the States in 1778, and by the thirteenth in 1781. Attempts were made to persuade Canada to join the Confed- eration. But the Canadian people were chiefly Frenchmen, who had little in common with their English neighbors. They had never governed themselves, and made no great objection now to being governed by England. 36. Diplomatic Relations with Europe. — Before the Decla- ration of Independence had been made, there had been in Congress what was known as the Committee of Secret Corre- spondence. Its business was to seek the friendly aid of foreign nations, especially of France and Holland: of France, be- cause she was the enemy of England ; of Holland, because the merchants of that country were rich and might lend money to the United States. This committee had sent agents to Europe. Now that the United States professed to be one of the na- tions of the world. Congress determined to send commissioners to form alliances and make treaties. The States were indeed still a part of Europe. Their commerce was with that country ; their manufactured articles came from there. Though they had a country and began to call themselves Americans, the world to them was on the other side of the Atlantic. Franklin in France. — The one man to whom everybody looked as the representative of America in Europe was Ben- DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 155 jamin Franklin. He was now seventy years of age. He was the only American whose name was universally known and honored in Europe. Besides, he had long been an agent for American colonies in England, and he knew, better than any one else, the ways of kings and courts. Franklin was sent to France at the end of 1776. The King of France and his counselors were not ready to aid the new republic openly, for to do that would be to run the risk of war with England. But the French people were stirred with enthusiasm. Many of their own nation had written of liberty; here was a nation in America fighting for liberty. The Declaration of Independence was read everywhere, and Franklin was received as a hero. 37. Foreign Officers in the Continental Army. — There was peace throughout Europe now, after a period of war. Thus there were many soldiers and officers without employment. Great numbers flocked to America to join the army. Some went from love of adventure, some from a sincere enthusiasm for liberty. Among the most notable of the officers were Kosciusko, Pulaski, Kalb, Steuben, and Lafayette. Kosciusko and Pulaski were Poles who had fought in vain for the freedom of Poland. Kalb was a German who had re- cently been a secret agent of France sent to America to inquire into the condition of affairs there. Steuben was a German, a soldier by profession. He had learned the art of war under the greatest of European generals, Frederick the Great, King of Prussia. The Marquis de la Fayette was a young French noble- man, full of fiery zeal for freedom. He gave his money, and though his friends and the court tried to dissuade him, he gave himself; he crossed the Atlantic, and from the first made himself the warm friend of Washington. He was a brave, cheerful leader of men. Congress found it hard work to give a place to every French and German officer who applied for service. There was much jealousy shown by Americans, But the best of these foreign- 15G ESTABLISHMENT OF*THE UNION. ers were of great value; they helped in training an army of courageous but unskilled men, and in leading them against the regular troops brought into the field by Great Britain. Lafayette. Born 1757 ; died 1834. QUESTIONS. What were the movements of General Howe after he left Boston ? What Southern town did the British attack ? How were the colonies turned into States ? How did the idea of independence grow ? How did Congress find out the public sentiment ? What was the Declaration DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 1;37 of Independence ? How did it close ? Who signed the document ? Why did it require courage to do so ? What was done by the people of Phila- delphia ? What was the position of the loyalists ? What is a confedera- tion ? What chief authority had the colonies when they broke away from Great Britain ? What scope did the articles of confederation have ? How did the authority of the Confederation compare with tha,t of the king and Parliament ? What name was given to the Confederation ? Why did not Canada join the Confederation ? How were affairs with foreign nations conducted ? When and why was Franklin sent to Europe ? What foreigners came over to help us ? Give an account of the leading ones. Of what use were these foreigners ? SEARCH QUESTIONS. What became of the Bostonians who sided with the British govern- ment, when Howe sailed away ? Who composed the committee appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence ? When the Declaration of Independence is read in public now on the Fourth of July, how much of it pertains to general problems, and how much to the particular historical event of the separation of the colonies from Great Britain ? Repeat the exact language of the first two paragraphs. Who was the King of France at the beginning of the American Revolution ? How old were the follow- ing on July 4, 1770 : Franklin, Washington, John Adams, Sam Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, Alexander Hamil- ton '? What was the contest in Poland that finally brought Kosciusko and Pulaski to this country ? SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERARY TREATMENT. Compositions : An analysis of the Declaration of Independence, showing its different parts. Sketch of the life of Lafayette. A letter from a boy who heard the Declaration read in Philadelphia. The after history of Liberty Bell. Historical footnotes to the Declaration, giving examples of the several indictments of the king. Debates : Besolved, That the loyalists were patriots. Hesolved, That it would have been of great advantage to the Confed- eration if Canada had joined it. Hesolved, That John Hancock was a rebel. CHAPTER V. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE.! Hesse-Cassel (hess-cas'sel). A principality in the western part of Germany. Stat'en. A Dutch word for " States." Its original form was 8taaten. Schuyler (skl'ler). St. Leger (sant lej'er). Her'kimer. Oris'kany. Cabal (€a-bal'). A number of per- sons joined in a secret plot for their own advancement. Court-martialed. Tried by court- martial, that is, by a court within the army for the trial of offenses against military discipline. Marque (mark). Bon Homme Richard (boij om re- shar'). Sera'pis. The name of an Egyptian deity. Andre (an'dra). De Grasse (de gras). Gloucester (glos'ter). Rochambeau (ro-shan-bo ). 38. King George III. and his Hessians. — The people had declared they were independent of Great Britain; they must make good their words by hard lighting, for the king and Parliament had no intention of letting the colonies go. There was indeed a party in England, as we have seen, opposed to the king's policy. It grew stronger year by year. In it were men who said that if the king subdued the Americans he would increase his own personal power. Then Englishmen might lose their liberty, as they had come nea,r losing it under Charles I. and again under Charles II. 1 The most satisfactory work dealing with the war and with the causes that led up to it is John Fiske's The American Revolution. The same writer has, however, written a brief book for young readers entitled The War of Inde- pendence. Another useful work is G. W. Greene's A Historical Vierv of the American Revolution. Winsor's Reader^s Handbook of the American Revo- lution is an excellent companion, for it is a bibliography of all the works of various sorts that may be consulted for this period. An admirable narrative is The Boys of '76. 158 THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. 159 King George III. was an upright man, but narrow-minded and stubborn. He refused, to listen to men who counseled conciliation, and was resolved to conquer his rebellious sub- jects. He did not care where his soldiers came from, so long as they fought for him ; and he hired whole regiments of men from German princes, especially from the Prince of Hesse- Cassel, whose subjects were called Hessians. Such was the miserable condition of the common people in many parts of Europe, that these Hessian soldiers were almost as much the property of the prince as if they had been his slaves. He gave them to King George in return for money. The Americans, fighting for their liberty, were made angry by the sight of armies filled with men v/ho had been hired to fight them.^ 39. The Battle of Long Island. — In carrying on the war against the colonies, England had the advantage of control of the seacoast. She could transport her troops to America and shift them from one port to another; for there were no forts worth speaking of, and the Americans at the end of 1776 had only thirteen ships in the navy, although some of the colonies had a few active privateersmen. With their navy and their land forces the English undertook to occupy the main points on the seaboard, and from these as bases to move into the interior. The first campaign was directed toward the occupation of New York and the possession of the Hudson. In August, 1776, Sir William Howe, the commander-in-chief of the Brit- ish forces, entered New York harbor with an army of twenty- five thousand. His brother, Lord Howe, accompanied him with a great fleet. The troops were landed on Staten Island. The American army, less than ten thousand strong, was in- 1 The most thorough account of the part played by the Hessians is in The German Allied Troops in the North American Wur of Independence. Many of the soldiers remained in America after the war and became good American citizens. Many officers tui-ned their experience to good account in the defense of Germany during the French Revolution. 160 ESTABLISHMENT OFl THE UNION. trenched on Long Island and the heights overlooking New York. The two British commanders opened negotiations with General Washington. They had been instructed to propose conditions of peace, but they had no authority to grant inde- pendence, and Washington refused any other terms. ^ The whole Britisli army then crossed the bay and landed on Long Island, south of Brooklyn. General Israel Putnam was in command of Brooklyn Heights, and General Sullivan, with a smaller force, held the roads leading to the Heights from the south. Earthworks extended from Wallabout Bay, the site of the present navy yard, to near the site of South Ferry. On August 27, General Howe surrounded General Sullivan's force and won the battle of Long Island, capturing more than a thousand men, including Sullivan himself. Howe did not advance at once on the Heights, but set about laying siege. The position could not possibly be held by Putnam, especially in the presence of the fleet, and on the night of August 29, under cover of fog and rain, Washington withdrew the entire army, and slowly retreated up New York island, while Howe followed him. 40. Captain Nathan Hale. — It was during his retreat that an event occurred which showed how much Americans were willing to venture and how bravely they could die for the cause in which they were engaged. A young Connecticut soldier, a Yale student. Captain Nathan Hale, had volun- teered to go within the British lines on Long Island ^y^'J?' that he might learn the position of the enemy. On the way back he was arrested. No trial was allowed him. He was not shot as a soldier, but was hanged. "I only 1 When General Howe sent a communication to Washington he addressed it to " George Washington, Esq." The American officer refused to receive it, and sent it back. Then General Howe tried " George Washington, Esq., etc., etc.," as if these et ceteras would cover any possible title. But Washington still refused to receive a letter so addressed. The British officer was trying to avoid recognition of the American as an officer and general. Congress passed a resolution approving Washington's course. THE WAB FOR INDEPENDENCE. 161 Nov. 16, 1776. regret," he said, as he was about to die, "that I have but one life to give for my country." 41. The Operations about New York and in New Jersey New York remained in the enemy's hands during the rest of the war. For two months after the battle of Long Island the two armies confronted each other, Washington aiming to hold his little forces together and to avoid a general engage- ment. A battle was fought at White Plains, October 29, in which Howe forced Wash- ington back, but did not pur- sue his advantage. There were two forts on opposite banks of the Hudson, Fort Washington on the east bank, and Fort Lee on the west, A traitor in Fort Washington had carried plans of the fort to the enemy, and Howe sud- denly attacked the place and captured it with its garrison of nearly three thousand men. This rendered Fort Lee useless, and it was abandoned. The British now had control of the river, and Washing- ton retreated slowly through New Jersey, followed by the enemy, until early in December he crossed the Delaware River near Trenton. Howe now tliought the campaign over, and went into winter quarters. The succession of disasters, beginning with the battle of Long Island, greatly discouraged Statue of Nathan Hale. 162 ESTABLISHMENT OF^THE UNION. the Americans. The army was very imperfectly clad and equipped. Many of the soldiers marched with bare, bleed- ing feet along the frozen roads. The people in New Jersey were in a panic, and in many cases accepted the pardon offered by Howe. To add to Washington's trou- bles, General Charles Lee, the second in command, had repeat- edly disregarded his or- ders to join him with his forces, and at last was surprised and taken pris- oner. It was suspected then, and known certainly long af- terward, that he was a traitor to the American cause. Yet he was exchanged for a British officer a few months after his ca])ture and returned to his command. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. — Washington had made a series of masterly retreats. Now he revived the spirits of THE WAR FOn INDEPENDENCE. leg his countrymen by a brilliant advance. Suddenly, on Christ- mas night, he recrossed the Delaware,^ surprised the enemy in camp at Trenton, and took a thousand ™cj ' prisoners This bold stroke annoyed and alarmed the British. Cornwallis was sent to capture the American army, but Washington made a forced march, and defeated and scattered the British forces at Prince- ^^'nq ton. There were only eight days between the two battles. Washington then went into winter quarters at Morris- town, a controlling position. Howe, instead of occupying all New Jersey, as he had supposed he should, found himself cooped up at Brunswick and Amboy. The whole country was cheered by these successes. VICINITY OF PHILADELPHIA SCALE OF MILES 42. The Campaign in the North. — When the spring of 1777 opened, the British formed a plan of campaign, by which, first, 1 Great blocks of ice were swirling along in the river. General John Glover, with his fisherman soldiers from Cape Ann, in Massachusetts, managed the ferrying across. 164 ESTABLISHMENT OF. THE UNION. they should cut off New England from the rest of the Con- federation, and second, they should take possession of Phila- delphia, where Congress was sitting. The great highway between the two parts of the country was that narrow belt which lies between the w^aters of Lake George and the navigable waters of the Hudson. To hold this belt was to hold the gateway of the North. The plan of the British government was to send an army by Lake Champlain from Canada, and another up the Hudson from New York; the two were to meet, and a third division going up the St. Lawrence and by Lake Ontario was to move down the Mohawk Valley and join the other two at Al- bany. Thus all western New York was to be sub- dued to English rule.^ Capture of Ticonderoga. — The English general, Bur- goyne, left the northern point of Lake Champlain, on his southward way, _e6\^^J>