rbs<; O i^ i^^O Book A/4i GopyiiglitW CJDP30RIGHT DEPOSIT. THE BOYS' OUTDOOR VACATION BOOK THE BOYS' OUTDOOR VACATION BOOK A Complete Handbook for Every Boy Fond of Life and Recreation in the Open ^,- BY aFhyatt verrill Author of "The Amateur Carpenter," "An American Crusoe," etc. With over 300 Diagrams by the Author NEW YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY 1915 SK.T.A 1 Copyright, 1915, by DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY nC APR 23 1915 CIA398503 7^^ / / I CONTENTS PART I— SUMMER CHAPTER I PAGE CAMPING OUT • • ^ • . •. • 3 Choosing companions. Camp outfits. Provisions. Clothing. CHAPTER H MAKING CAMP ..',•• ^^ Selecting a camp site. Building a lean-to. Making the beds. Building the fire. Camping with a tent. Order in the camp. Simple camp cookery. CHAPTER III WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING • 39 Blazed trails. Other trail marks. Signals and sig- nalling. CHAPTER IV EMERGENCY HINTS ^ • ■\ ^"^ Making fire without matches. How to render first aid to the injured. How to make and use bandages. How to make a sling. Injuries to the head. Injuries to hands. Injuries to hip. Making tourniquets. Injuries to arms and hand. Carrying an injured comrade. Miscellaneous hints. CHAPTER V HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE . . 82 The compass and how to use it. Using a watch for a compass. Finding your way by the North Star. Finding the height of objects. Making maps and charts. CHAPTER VI SAVAGE WEAPONS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM . 114 Indian bows and arrows. Boomerangs. Spears and throwing-sticks. CHAPTER VII TRAPS AND TRAPPING . I39 Snares. Deadfalls. Box traps. Coop traps. Steel traps. Muskrat traps. Turtle traps. vi CONTENTS CHAPTER VIII PAGE SKINNING ANIMALS AND TANNING HIDES . . i6i Tanning skins with the hair on. Tanning skins with- out the hair. How to make moccasins. The Algonquin moccasin. The Seminole moccasin. Sioux moccasins. CHAPTER IX PERMANENT CAMPS -.176 How to make an Indian tepee. Other permanent camps. Wattled huts. Thatching. Making bridges. Camp furniture. A simple canvas cot bed. Tables and chairs. CHAPTER X ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 200 Fancy knots and other rope work. CHAPTER XI SWIMMING AND DIVING 227 Swimming floats and springboards. CHAPTER XII HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE^SMALL BOATS . 240 CHAPTER XIII SAILING ON THE LAND 255 Sailing carts. How to build and use a glider. PART II— WINTER CHAPTER XIV SNOW SPORTS 287 Toboggans. Snow snakes. Snowshoes. CHAPTER XV ICE SPORTS 304 Making and sailing ice boats. Scooters. Sailing ice boats. Skate-sails. Fishing through the ice. INTRODUCTION Every boy longs to make the most of his vacation and to have just as much real fun as he possibly can. Unfortunately many boys find their vacations, either in summer or win- ter, very dull indeed, merely through a lack of knowledge of what to do and how to do it. This book has been written with the aim of showing healthy-minded, red-blooded boys just how to enjoy their vacations, the various things they can do and how they can employ their time profitably and pleasurably by making their own camps, traps, boats, weap- ons, toys and appliances; how they can cure and dress the skins of the animals they kill or trap and how they can lead an enjoyable out- of-doors life, and while enjoying themselves, at the same time acquire a vast deal of prac- tical knowledge. For the boy who spends his vacation m the country, or near the woods, camps and camp- ing offer great possibilities. Every boy loves to camp, to play Indian or pioneer, to trap and to live as near to Nature as possible. It is not necessary to go far into the wilderness to camp-out, nor to be provided with elabo- vii viii INTRODUCTION rate and expensive camp-equipments, tents, guides, etc., in order to enjoy a summer in the woods. Any two or three boys can build tight, comfortable camps in any patch of woodland, can hunt and cook their own game, make their fires in true savage style, tan the skins of their game, make their own moccasins and clothing and their own weapons and enjoy all the excitement of following trails and making " Injun signs " that most boys long for. It is a bare and poor country, indeed, that does not abound in enough fish, small animals and other creatures to make fishing, trapping or hunting of some sort possible, and there certainly can be no sentimental objection to boy campers taking wild life when it is neces- sary for food. The boy who spends his vacation where there are no opportunities for camping out can find a great deal of entertainment in occupying his time and displaying his in- genuity in building bridges, making charts and maps, flying model aeroplanes, throwing boomerangs, or even constructing a boy- carrying glider in which to enjoy all the pleasure and exhilaration of aviation without any of its risks or dangers. The boy who spends his summers at the INTRODUCTION ix seaside, on lake, or river, v/ill naturally turn to the water as a source of entertainment. Here he can swim, dive, sail, row or paddle, and if he builds his own craft, constructs his own spring-boards or diving-floats and learns to rig and handle his own boats his pleasure will be greatly enhanced and a great deal of valuable and practical knowledge will be obtained. Even in mid-winter a vacation may be spent largely out-of-doors, for with toboggans, skis, snowshoes, skates and ice-yachts there are abundant sources of sport and entertainment. All these things are easy to make and many dull evenings and rainy days may be trans- formed to profitable and pleasurable epochs if they are spent in constructing such objects. The woods, in winter, are a wonderful revelation to any boy who has not visited them, and a tramp on snowshoes or skis over hill and dale will disclose a world that most boys have never dreamed of. The boy that is fond of Nature and her wild creatures will find a great interest in tracking the various wild animals by the trails they leave in the snow, while in many places a considerable amount of pocket money may be earned by trapping animals for their furs. Fishing through the ice is a sport familiar to many X INTRODUCTION country boys, but comparatively unknown to most city boys, and yet easy of accomplish- ment wherever winter covers ponds, lakes or streams with a coating of ice. Even camp- ing in winter is most enjoyable and it will be a surprise to many boy-campers to find how warm, comfortable and cozy a boy-made win- ter camp can be. All these things and many more are fully described in the pages of this book, and all are practical, simple and within the province of every boy who can use his hands, feet and eyes. The author has camped, tramped, hunted and sailed from earliest boyhood and has personally performed every feat and ac- complished everything described in these pages, and hence the volume is in reality a record of actual experiences. The illustrations are prepared with special reference to simplicity, accuracy and detail, and each and every step in the construction of every object or appliance described, is fully illustrated. The author has confined himself to the de- scriptions of only the simplest, cheapest and most practical things and every objectionable, dangerous or impractical matter has been omitted. The book is intended as a guide, companion INTRODUCTION xi and helpmate for boys during their spare hours, holidays and vacations, and if it leads to a greater enjoyment of outdoor life, a better knowledge of Nature, a greater con- fidence in the boys' own resources and adds to the practical knowledge and training of its readers, the mission of the work will be accomplished. PART I SUMMER CHAPTER I CAMPING OUT Choosing Companions It is hard work for a boy to have a good time by himself, no matter how or where he spends his time; but it is far better to be alone than to have the wrong sort of com- panions. If you are going to camp out the matter of choosing the proper boys to ac- company you is of the utmost importance, for a camp to be pleasant and successful de- pends upon each of the campers doing his share of work and helping out willingly and pleasantly. Although this is absolutely essen- tial to an enjoyable outing of any sort, yet it is given but little thought by most boys, and as a result many trips or vacations are ruined and the boys' outings spoiled when every- thing would have gone smoothly and every- one would have had a bully time if care had been taken in choosing the right boys for the trip. In the first place, be sure and do not take any boys who are shiftless, hot-tempered, im- 3 4 CAMPING OUT patient or inclined to shirk. In every camp there will be trials and disappointments, bad weather and hard work. If these are taken good-naturedly and smilingly and are over- come they will prove but an added zest to camp life. Make the best of everything and do your share is the first and invariable rule of life in the woods. When your companions are selected, the next step is to choose a leader, for without someone to direct, your trip will be a failure. The leader should be the boy who has had the most experience in woodcraft or outdoor life, and if no member of the party excels in these matters, select the one who has the most practical knowledge, the calmest and best judgment, and to whom you would look for leadership if you were choosing a captain of a ball-nine or any other club or team. Having once selected your leader you should follow his directions implicitly unless he shows himself incompetent, ignorant or overbearing. It is a good plan, however, to always hold a council or meeting of the mem- bers of the party where there is any question as to matters concerning the outing, and if the majority do not agree with the leader, he should be manly enough to waive his author- ity and accede to their wishes, unless he feels CAMPING OUT 5 that there is some good and sufficient reason for not doing so. From the other members of the party the cook, hunter and others should be selected, for if each boy has certain duties and sticks to them, it will save a lot of delay, trouble and friction. When everyone is tired and hungry and camp is to be made it is very vexatious to try and decide v^ho is to cook, w^ho is to chop wood, and so on, when each one longs to put the work on the other fel- low's shoulders. Of course each boy selected for a certain duty should have an occasional change in his work, for even the simplest duties of camp life become tiresome if they are carried on day after day until they seem like work. Any decent set of boys will be able and willing to adjust such simple matters, however, and to exchange places and duties now and then, while everyone should help in every duty whenever possible. Camp Outfits The question of an outfit depends a great deal upon the tastes of the boys, the locality where you are to camp, the sort of camping you intend to do, the amount you can carry, 6 CAMPING OUT and last but by no means least, the amount you can afford to spend. There are so many different kinds of outings ordinarily classed as '' camping out " that it is almost impossible to make hard and fast rules as to an outfit. Of course if you intend to camp within easy reach of a road or on the borders of a lake or river, and are to use tents or have a per- manent camp, almost any amount of luxuries and conveniences may be taken along; but the best fun is in camping here and there, tramp- ing from place to place, stopping in the v^oods as fancy suits and carrying bed, board and everything else upon your backs. A good v^oodsman or an experienced camper can get along pretty well with only a knife and an ax for tools, a tin plate for cooking and eating utensils, a box of matches and the clothing he wears; but to get on with such an outfit is beyond the powers of most boys and re- quires years of practice and life in the wilds. For a trip, where temporary camps are to be made, I do not advise more than four boys, and it is far better for each mem- ber to carry his own individual outfit than to have one outfit for the crowd and try to divide it up for transportation. In such cases each boy usually feels that he is carrying more than his share and there will always be CAMPING OUT 7 dissatisfaction in packing up and distributing the outfit evenly, especially towards the end of the trip. The first and most important part of a camp outfit is the pack. There are a great many styles and makes of packs on the market and each section of the country has its favourite, but I have tried nearly all of them and have found the simple canvas pack, with shoulder and breast straps, by far the most satisfactory for all-around use, — espe- cially for summer camping and for boys' pur- poses. These packs (Fig. i) may be pur- chased ready-made from dealers in camping and sporting goods and cost about $3.00 each; but they may be easily made at home from 8 CAMPING OUT strong cotton drill, khaki, or light canvas. Such a pack for boys' use should be about 14x20 inches square and 6 inches thick. It will easily hold everything you require for a camping trip and will weigh as much, when filled, as you can conveniently carry on a day's tramp. Now for the goods to fill the pack. A first- class ax weighing about two pounds and v/ith a 14-inch handle is perhaps the most important item. A machete — the long, heavy- bladed knife of tropical America (Fig. 2) — is very handy and will often prove more useful than an ax, especially for chopping brush and small trees, blazing trails, splitting firewood and for various other purposes. A machete, in the hands of one accustomed to its use, can be made to serve almost any purpose from that of a toothpick to an ax, and even large trees may be easily felled with a machete when you learn how to use it skilfully. If more than two boys are going camping I advise only two axes, and machetes for the others. They are cheap — costing with leather sheath about $2.00 — and are lighter and easier to carry than axes, for they can be hung to a belt like a sword or from a strap or sash over the right shoulder and under the left arm. For the rest of your outfit you will need the following articles for each boy: CAMPING OUT 9 A waterproof cylindrical match-safe. A combination fork and knife or a common steel knife and fork (Fig. 3). A teaspoon and a tablespoon. A good ax-stone, preferably a carborundum stone. A bag containing thread, needles, wax, but- tons, shoelaces, pins, etc. A roll or hank of good strong linen, or braided cotton, twine. About one hundred feet of light, strong, rope (braided is the best). This is only re- quired for the party as a whole and is not needed for each boy. Fish hooks, lines and sinkers. A reliable pocket-compass. A good sheath-knife (a sailor's knife is the best). A pocket knife. A folding rubber or collapsible drinking cup. A tin cup and deep tin pie plate. Half a dozen candles. Some assorted or mixed wire nails, from 3 to 12 penny. All of these are important articles and will be found almost essential to enjoyable camp- ing. The rope should be strong enough to bear 10 CAMPING OUT the weight of any boy in the party and should invariably be kept neatly coiled and ready for use, as it may save your life more than once, and v^ill prove useful in a hundred places and a thousand ways. In addition to the above list you will, of course, provide your hairbrush and combs, toothbrush, etc., but don't clutter up your pack with a lot of useless toilet articles and similar things. A small pocket mirror will be handy, for if you get something in your eye you will find a mirror very useful; it is also valuable for signalling and it is more con- venient for a looking-glass than a pool of quiet water, although the last will answer very well. Every party of boy campers should carry a medicine-case containing sim- ple remedies, such as quinine, rhubarb, bicar- bonate of soda, bismuth-subnitrate, chlorate of potash, Warburg's tincture. Sun cholera tab- lets, etc. There should also be a roll or two of antiseptic bandages, a box of zinc-ointment, vaseline and some permanganate of potash, and if you are going into a wild country or more than a few hours' tramp from a settle- ment or house, be sure and have some sort of a stimulant along. This need not be alcoholic and I advise any boy who is going camping to have his family physician select CAMPING OUT 11 and label the various medicines and furnish written directions for their use. The most convenient form to carry them is in the little pocket leather medicine-cases that cost from $i.oo to $1.50 each. You may camp, tramp and hunt for years and never require medicines, stimulants or bandages; but accidents v^ill happen now and then and if you are almost drowned or faint from loss of blood or a sprained ankle or other cause, a stimulant may save a life. The permanganate of potash, if dissolved in water, will relieve the pain from insect bites and ivy poison and in a country where poisonous snakes are found it is the best and safest remedy known for their bites. Antiseptic tablets are also good things to have along on any trip, for a very simple cut, sprain, bruise or scratch may result seriously if neglected, and an ounce of prevention is worth many tons of cure in the woods. Old camp- ers and woodsmen may poke fun at you for carrying your medicine-kit; but it takes up little space, it is little trouble and if occasion does arise for the use of the medicine it will prove more valuable than all the other things put together. I should never have written this book if I had not carried these simple articles on my trips, for on more than one 12 CAMPING OUT occasion my life has depended upon them and more than one old woodsman, who pooh- poohed the outfit, has had occasion to thank God that I carried it along. Always have one boy, and one only, carry the emergency outfit both day and night, un- less every member of the party is supplied with his own kit, and allow no one to ad- minister or fool with the medicines unless in case of real necessity. This will result in your always knowing where the things are when you want them, and when you do want them, you'll want them quick. There are numerous other simple, light and inexpensive articles that will make camp-life more enjoyable and which you may or may not take as you see fit. Among these are folding lanterns (Fig. 4), of mica and alumi- num, costing $1.50 each and which weigh but a few ounces and fold into a flat, square pack- age and are very useful; Japanese mess-kits (Fig. 5), which cost $1.75, and being made of aluminum and folding into very small com- pass, are most convenient; campfire grates (Fig. 6), which cost $1.00 and save many a spilled cup of cofTee or burned pancake and various other handy inventions. A very useful and inexpensive article which I always carry is a pocket mechanical lighter CAMPING OUT 13 (Fig. 7). If matches are wet or lost you can light your fire with this and it will prove of great value many times over, for while a boy can light a fire with a simple flint and steel or even by means of two sticks, as will be described later, such methods take time and patience. The rubber, cylindrical match-boxes are the best form, as they are waterproof and float if dropped overboard; but if you do not care to buy one of these you can make a very good substitute from an old paper shot-gun shell. Cut the metal end from one shell and burn out the paper lining in a fire. This brass cap will fit snugly over another shell and will make a first-rate waterproof box; but it has the disadvantage of not holding many matches (Fig. 8). The pie-plate and cup are all the cooking utensils really needed, for coffee can be made in the cup or eggs may be boiled in it, while by splitting the end of a stick, slipping it over the edge of the plate and driving a nail through it, a first-class stew- and frying-pan can be rigged up in a few moments (Fig. 9). Provisions The amount and kind of provisions that you take on a camping trip depend largely 14 CAMPING OUT Upon where you are going, whether you will depend upon hunting or fishing or buying from farmers, or whether you intend to carry everything you will need. It is, therefore, im- possible to furnish any really complete and hard and fast list of what will be required; but among the following you will find a num- ber of good things that are readily carried and cooked, while such things as coffee, sugar, salt, lard or cottolene, pepper, bacon, salt pork, etc., are, of course, essential to every camper. Erbswurst — This is a compound of pea- meal, meat and vegetables compressed into a sausage-shaped roll and adopted by nearly all European armies as the nearest approach to a perfect food. It costs $0.32 per pound and may be eaten raw or may be cooked in a great variety of ways. Soup Tablets come in various styles and are very handy and useful, for by simply dis- solving them in hot water, a steaming cup of delicious soup may be prepared in a few moments. Dried Vegetables are the best quality of vegetables evaporated and compressed. They are equal to ten or twelve times their weight of fresh vegetables, are easily prepared and may be purchased at $0.20 per package and CAMPING OUT 15 are furnished in the following varieties: pota- toes, sliced beans, spinach, cabbage, celery, onions, leeks, carrots, turnips, etc. Grystalose is more compact and better than sugar, as one ounce equals in sweetening power one ton of cane sugar. It costs $0.25 per vial or $1.00 an ounce. Dried Eggs, called " Truegg," is a delicious and convenient article. It is made of per- fectly fresh eggs, beaten and evaporated, and simply has to be dissolved in water before using. It makes perfect omelettes, scrambled eggs and other dishes, and will keep in any climate. One pound is equal to four dozen fresh eggs and is far more convenient to carry. It costs $0.75 for a half-pound tin. Army Bread, or " Hardtack," is the best form of wheat food, while ordinary canned goods, corned beef, braised beef, veal-loaf, tongue and boneless chicken are all good things to have in camp. Condensed Milk, or Evaporated milk, is good, but the dried milk known as '' True- milk " is better and easier to carry about. The following has been decided upon by many prominent campers as the quantity of food required for one person for two weeks. Of course boys do not consume quite so much 16 CAMPING OUT as grown people; but it is better to have too much, rather than too little. Flour (or equivalents), 6 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs.; beans, i>^ lbs.; Erbswurst, Ya lb.; soup tablets, >^lb. ; sugar, 2 lbs.; baking pov^der, Vk lb.; coffee, V^ lb.; butter, i lb.; salt pork, 2>4 lbs.; evaporated milk, lYz lbs.; dried fruits, i lb.; salt, M lb.; chocolate or cocoa, Ya lb.; tea, Ya lb.; bacon, i>^ lbs.; dried potatoes, i lb.; other dried vegetables, Y^ lb.; dried eggs, \Ya lbs.; shelled nuts, Y^ lb. Sweet, or milk, chocolate is one of the best of foods and should always be carried. A small piece of this will keep one from hunger and fatigue in a remarkable way, and I have frequently tramped from daylight until dark with no other food than a cake of milk choco- late. Nuts are also very sustaining and pea- nut butter or " Peanolia '' is excellent. Flour and other dry groceries should be carried in waterproof bags as tins are cumbersome and heavy and pack badly. Bags of this sort can be easily made from waterproof canvas which can be purchased at almost any store. Clothing For clothing you should provide the stout- est, most comfortable things possible; but CAMPING OUT 17 even in midsummer the underclothing should be of wool, for in the woods one is often wet and dry by turns, and cotton undergarments are very bad under such conditions. Stout, easy shoes should be worn and moccasins will be found very comfortable about camp. Have hob-nails in your boots if you are going to a mountainous district or intend to ford streams and carry along at least one extra change of undergarments and several extra pairs of socks or stockings. Don't forget boot grease, it will save blisters and cracked shoes and will keep your feet dry. Blankets are not essential, although very comfortable and useful; but I have always found that a bed of springy hemlock or fir boughs and a well-built "lean-to" at the end of a day's tramp were comfortable and warm enough without bed clothing. A light, all-wool blanket and a very light rubber blanket are excellent to carry along, however, and they do not add much to the weight of your load. If the rubber blanket has a slit in the centre, —with the edges of the slit bound with tape, —it will serve as a waterproof cape or poncho by slipping your head through the opening. When I first went camping in northern New Hampshire, a boy of sixteen was sup- posed to carry a pack weighing fifty pounds; 18 CAMPING OUT but I think that for real fun that is too heavy and that thirty-five pounds is about the limit, while, if it is even less, your shoulders will be saved many an ache and you will enjoy your trip far more. In those days of which I speak, none of the modern conveniences of camping were to be had at any price, and we were obliged to carry eggs, vegetables and other food in bulk, which added a great deal of weight to cur packs. If you intend to carry guns and ammunition you will do well to carry a pack as light as possible, for a gun weighs a great deal at the end of a day's long tramp, — espe- cially if no game has been seen, — while in any decent sort of camping country you should be able to help out your larder quite a little by shooting and therefore you will not require so many ready-made provisions. Of course I am taking it for granted that my readers are ignorant of camping and camp life, and must learn how to build their camps and fires, blaze their trails and wrest a living and the necessities of life, as well as many of its luxuries and comforts, from the woods themselves; but I will leave these matters for other chapters. CHAPTER II MAKING CAMP After your camping trip is planned, and you have secured the necessary outfit and chosen your companions the next most important step is to decide upon the site for your camp and the sort of shelter you intend to use. Of course you may use tents and if you are planning to camp out near home, or in a permanent place for the entire vacation, a tent v^ill do very w^ell, — there is no denying they are acceptable and convenient in bad weather, — but to enjoy camping out to the limit the campers should make their own shel- ters. Moreover, even the smallest and lightest tents are clumsy and heavy to carry, and every ounce added to your pack will feel like so many pounds at the end of a day's hike. It is so easy and so much fun to build your own shelters that tents are only a nuisance and I advise every boy-camper to make his own camps. Any two boys can put up a " lean-to " or similar shack in a short time, and if well-constructed, such a shelter will keep you as dry and warm, save in the heavi- 19 20 MAKING CAMP est rains, as any tent. If you are to have a permanent camp to use season after season or are even to spend an entire vacation in one camp, a log-camp is good; but even if you decide to build such a hut, a lean-to will be found very useful to live in while you are building the more substantial cabin. If you are going on a canoe trip, or can ship your outfit by train or wagon to your camping site, and do decide to take a tent along, choose the lightest and smallest that will accommodate your party. Personally, I prefer a wall-tent. One of this type, 7/^ feet square, will easily sleep four boys and will weigh less than 15 pounds. In waterproof duck such a tent will cost from $7 to $8 when new. Plain duck will cost almost as much, but will leak badly in rainy weather, unless used with a fly, which is a grear nuisance. Many boys might like the tepee or Indian wigwam; but it is a heavy tent for the amount of room inside. Owing to its circular, conical form, there is a great deal of waste space and there is often considerable difficulty in getting enough long, straight poles with which to erect it. For a permanent camp, or for pure fun, wigwams are excellent and will be de- scribed in a subsequent chapter. MAKING CAMP 21 Selecting a Camp Site The selection of a proper spot for a camp is a most important matter. Many a camp is a failure owing to improper surroundings, and any old or experienced camper will select the most favourable spot by intuition. It is not expected that boys can do this until they have had a good deal of experience, however, and it is far wiser to spend an hour or two looking about and choosing a really suitable spot than to build a camp wherever you hap- pen to stop, without regard to its surround- ings. A spot may seem very favourable while the weather is pleasant; but a sudden shower in the night may flood the camp, unless you have provided for such a contingency before- hand. Select your camp-site with reference to wood, water and drainage, as well as in a locality where there is plenty of material for building your shelter. Choose a dry, level place a few feet higher than the surrounding ground. Usually a good location may be found near some lake, pond, river or stream, where the woods are fairly open and the trees of good size, and where the earth slopes enough to insure the water running away from your camp in case of a rain. A small 22 MAKING CAMP bluff, overlooking a lake or river, is a good location and there should be dead or fallen timber close at hand, which will save much weary work at chopping and attempting to burn green wood. Evergreens are an im- portant factor in building a lean-to, for they furnish both roof and beds. If birch- bark is abundant, it will prove a very useful article for making roofs, starting fires and for constructing various dishes and utensils, — tea or coffee may even be made in a birch- bark utensil or water may be boiled in an extemporised birch-bark pot. Building a Lean-to To build a lean-to is one of the first and most important things to learn when going camping, for this is the simplest, most prac- tical and quickest shelter known for a tem- porary one-night camp. If well and sub- stantially built a lean-to will do for a per- manent camp; but this type of shelter is particularly adapted to night shelters where a new camp is built at the close of each day's tramp. Although it is not at all difficult to make this popular shelter yet I advise you to prac- tice in woods near home until you are expert. MAKING CAMP 23 before starting off on your camping trip. This will save lots of time and trouble and you will know just the sort of materials to use, where to find them and how to use them and every camp you make will be an improve- ment on the last. After you have selected your camp-site, look about for a couple of strong trees stand- ing from eight to ten feet apart with branches from six to eight feet above the ground. Having found these, clear the ground between them and for some distance on each side. By bending over the bushes and young saplings with one hand and chopping through the strained fibres, even good-sized trees may be easily cut off with a few sharp blows of the ax or machete. As soon as the ground is cleared, cut three or four poles about twelve feet long and at least three inches in diameter at the large ends. Place one of these across the two trees, resting the ends in crotches of the limbs where they join the trunks (if your trees do not have any suitable limbs, the poles may be lashed on with ropes or withes), (Fig. i). Next place two other poles against this cross-piece with the butt-ends resting on the ground about eight feet behind the two trees (Fig. 2). Be sure that these two poles are level and parallel, and place a number of 24 MAKING CAMP smaller poles between them and parallel with them (Fig. 3). All of these poles should have the branches trimmed off in such a way as to leave stubs two or three inches long. Across these poles, and resting against the stubs, a number of lighter poles should be laid. The lean-to will now appear in skeleton-form as shown in Fig. 4, and the next step is to thatch it. While one or two boys are getting up the framework, another should be gathering fire- wood and preparing meals, while another should be cutting and bringing in soft, thick tips of hemlock or balsam boughs. Select the largest and flattest of these " fans " and beginning at the back of the framework, hook the hemlock boughs over the cross-pieces in layers, with each layer overlapping the one below it (Fig. 5). Continue this process until the entire roof is covered, and if it looks like rain, thatch a second layer over the first. If windy or stormy, place additional poles on top of all, and if necessary, bind them in position with hemlock roots or withes. These will keep the thatch firmly in place, even in severe storms. If you wish, and have plenty of time, the sides of the shelter may also be thatched in a similar manner to the roof. MAKING CAMP 25 and you will then have a very cozy little house. Sometimes two lean-tos are built facing- each other, about six feet apart, and this ^'i'^liiifW^i?^^'^^^^''^'^-^^ arrangement makes a very comfortable camp, as the fire may be built between the two, thus lighting and warming both. If you cannot find evergreen trees, peel the 26 MAKING CAMP bark from birches and use these sheets of bark-like shingles, holding them in place by light poles laid across them from side to side. Sometimes hemlock bark will peel readily and the large slabs of this strong bark make ex- cellent roofs, especially for a permanent camp. To. peel the bark of a birch, hemlock or other tree, make two cuts almost completely around the tree, one as high as you can reach, the other near the ground; connect these cuts by perpendicular incisions, joining the others at their ends (Fig. 6), and by starting the edge of the bark the whole piece will come off easily. The narrow strip of bark left on the tree will serve to carry the sap and prevent the tree from dying. If there are stubs, branches or twigs on the space you are to strip off, they should be cut down flush with the tree before peeling. This will prevent the bark from tearing at the projections and will merely leave small holes in the piece you take off. After your lean-to is built, the ground inside should be smoothed and softened. Pull up all small twigs and roots, remove the dead leaves and with the back of your ax, — used like an adze by swinging it between your legs, — knock down any knobs or small hum- mocks of the earth. These may seem trivial, MAKING CAMP 27 but if you lie upon two or three of the little projections all night you will feel as if you had been stretched upon a rack by morning. Making the Beds When the ground is thoroughly level and soft you can proceed to make your beds. To do this, chop down a young hemlock, balsam or other evergreen tree and pull off the soft '' fans " or flattened tips of the branches. Those that are too tough to pull off by hand are too large and too coarse for your use. Lay these criss-cross against the handle of your ax or along a light pole and in this way you can carry a great amount of twigs at one time. On the floor of your lean-to, place a thick layer of the fans, with the convex sides up and the butts of the stems toward the foot of the bed. Now thatch this over with more fans by thrusting the butt ends through the first layer at a slight angle toward the head of the bed, so that the soft tips will curve toward the foot of the bed, and be sure to make the head of the bed away from the opening of the shack with the foot toward the opening. Over this bed spread your blankets, if you have them; but even without a cover- 28 MAKING CAMP ing of any sort you will find this a surpris- ingly soft, springy and fragrant bed. Building the Fire The camp now being completed and ready for the night you may turn your attention to the fire, for no doubt the cook, — if he is a novice,— is having plenty of troubles of his own, especially if the woods are heavy and damp or if there has been a recent rain. To build a good fire in the woods is not so easy as the story-books would have us believe and requires quite a little skill and knowledge. Indians always build a small fire and tend it constantly, but the white trappers and hunt- ers usually make a roaring fire and trust to the coals keeping up enough heat to warm the camp over night and to start a new fire in the morning, with perhaps an occasional log thrown on in the night, if the campers happen to wake up. Personally I prefer to follow a middle course; I do not like to spend most of the night huddling over and nursing a tiny blaze like the Indian, nor do I approve of wasting a vast amount of fuel — to say nothing of alternately freezing and roasting — like the white woodsman. With a medium-sized fire the heat is under MAKING CAMP 29 better control, and you will soon learn to wake up and replenish the blaze at regular intervals. To start a campfire, first gather a number of light, dry chips and twigs. If there are birches and evergreens, gather a lot of birch bark (this will burn even if green), and some dry, resinous branches of the evergreens, such as are always to be found sticking out from these trees, whether living or dead. Make a little crisscross pile of your driest and most inflammable kindlings and shreds of bark, and lighting a piece of birch bark, thrust it underneath the kindlings and nurse and pro- tect the little flame until it catches and burns briskly. Do not smother it with too much fuel, and do not let it die down too far, but add bark and twigs, little by little, and grad- ually increase the size of the twigs until a good lively fire is going. When the blaze is well started, place two stout, green, hard- wood logs on either side. These should be of oak, maple or hickory, and should be about eight feet long and at least eight inches in diameter, and they should be placed near to- gether at one end so as to support various sized pots and pans. By having these back- logs long, and double, they can be pushed up as the fire eats them away. If you are so MAKING CAMP building a fire for warmth and cheer, do not try to cook over the main fire, but when a good mass of coals has accumulated, rake out a heap and cook over these, adding fresh ones and now and then a few pieces of wood as required. The fire should burn sticks sev- eral inches in diameter and three or four feet long, if for warmth, and if placed six or eight feet in front of the lean-to it will throw enough heat inside to warm it up in first- class shape. When ready to turn in for the night, place two or three heavy hardwood logs on the fire, and these will smoulder and give out quite a little heat all night, and if you should wake up and stir the fire now and then, you will sleep as warmly and soundly, and far more refreshingly, than in your own bed at home. The best firewoods are birch, beech, maple, oak, ash, chestnut and hickory, and each is good for a special purpose. Chestnut gives good coals and heat but does not last long; oak burns slowly with good heat; hickory makes a fine bed of coals but does not blaze readily, it has good lasting qualities but is apt to smoulder out, unless mixed with lighter wood; beech and maple are good heating woods, but the best of all for heat, blaze and MAKING CAMP 31 all-around use, is birch. This will burn when green or wet and will give a bright, cheerful blaze and lasts well, but it should be mixed with harder woods for the night fire. You will sometimes find great difiiculty in lighting your fire in wet weather or in the rain. An Indian can do it more readily than a white man, but his success lies in al- ways carrying some dry twigs or bark with him, or in knowing just where to find them in the woods. I advise every boy camper to carry dry birch bark and resinous twigs in his pack at all times, in readiness for the rainy day that will surely come sooner or later. In wet weather, it is a good plan also to build a good-sized fire on the spot where you intend to place your camp. This will dry out and warm the ground, and after the coals and cinders are raked and swept away will leave a nice spot on which to make your beds. Camping with a Tent If you intend to use a tent you will pro- ceed to go into camp quite differently. Find a spot where there are two trees ten or twelve feet apart and clear up the ground between and around them as already de- scribed. Make a number of tent pegs by 32 MAKING CAMP placing a young maple, or birch sapling, about an inch in diameter, across a log, and by two sharp blows at an angle cut off sections at least eighteen inches long. These long pegs will keep the ropes from slipping off and will grip the ground better than short ones. When you have enough pegs made, cut a crotched stick about ten feet long. Run a rope through the ridge of your tent and fasten it between the two trees selected. Draw the rope as tight as possible and do not be discouraged if it sags, for this will be remedied by the crotched stick after the tent is pegged down. Stake down the four cor- ners of the tent and be sure to get them square and just the right distances from the centre and from one another, to make the tent hang smoothly. Then proceed with the rest of the pegs and finally wedge the crotched stick under the rope just outside the tent. If a few stubs of branches are left on this it will come in handy to hang things on. Sometimes you will have trouble driving the pegs in rocky ground. In such cases drive them at a sharp angle and pile flat rocks on top. They will then hold even in a gale. Make your beds as in the lean-to, and you will be snug and cozy even in the worst weather. MAKING CAMP 88 Order in the Camp I have always found it a wise plan to go about camping in a regular and methodical order. This saves confusion and time and prevents losing various articles. Have all your cooking utensils and food and fuel ready to your hand before commencing to cook. Stick a few light poles in the ground and bend them over the fireplace so that they will serve to hang pots on, and rinse your pots and pans. The fire between the logs will throw the heat straight up and in fifteen or twenty minutes the meal should be ready. While eating have some water boiling for dish-washing, and be sure and wash your dishes just as soon as the meal is finished. Then you should pack away the dishes neatly in readiness for the next meal, and you will feel free to laze around and enjoy yourselves without the thought that there is still work to be done. I take it for granted that my boy campers — or at least the cook of the party — will know something of simple cooking before starting ofT, but if you do not, you had better get your mother, sister or the hired cook to give you a few lessons. It is much harder to tell you how to cook than for you to learn in ^4 MAKING CAMP this way, but I will try and describe a few cooking wrinkles that may help you in your camp life. Simple Camp Cookery Nothing is much easier to cook than the game and fish that you may obtain from woods and waters on your trip, and yet even these things require some knowledge. Camp- ers usually have good appetites, and after a hard day's tramp almost anything in the line of food will be acceptable. Nevertheless well- cooked food is far more healthy and better than half-cooked or overcooked edibles and even if you do not miss the seasoning and flavour of your home cooking, yet the camp meals will prove far more satisfactory if well-seasoned and well-cooked. Most game should be skinned and usually small game, such as rabbits, squirrels, etc., are best broiled over the hot coals. To broil a rabbit or squirrel, first dress and skin the animal care- fully and remove all clots of blood or bruised flesh. Cut off and throw away the head and feet. Split into two pieces by cutting through the backbone. Spit each piece on a hardwood stick and hold over the coals until slightly seared; turn over, and sear the other side. MAKING CAMP S5 Sprinkle with salt and pepper, and then cook slowly over the coals until done, turning from time to time until both sides are cooked equally. To broil birds, pick as usual; open along the back in order to clean them; sprinkle with salt and pepper, and broil slowly over the coals. Slices of venison or beef may also be broiled in the same manner as the small animals. Sonietimes the manner of cooking game may be varied by baking or broiling. An excellent way to bake fish, birds and small game is as follows: Cover the birds, fish or animal, with a thick layer of clay and place in the midst of a hot fire. Cover with coals, and in about an hour rake out the clay mass (which will be baked hard), break it open, and your meat will come out beautifully cooked. When using this method do not try to skin or pick the game, for the skin or feathers will stick to the clay and peel ofT when the latter is broken open. To stew rabbits, or other small creatures, cut them into several pieces by removing the legs from the body at the joints and cutting the body into two or more pieces. Place these in a pot, cover with water, add a little rice, a few dried vegetables, a soup tablet or two (if 36 MAKING CAMP you have them), season to taste with pepper and salt and boil until tender. // you wish fried or roast rabbit you can proceed in the same way until the water comes to a boil, then remove and place in a frying pan or bak- ing pan. Pork or bacon is the best grease to use in frying when on a camping trip. It may surprise you to learn that muskrats are fine eating. If the musk glands are not broken or injured the meat will not have the least musky flavour, but it is always best to boil them in water a few moments before frying, broiling or baking. All the turtles, except the musk turtles, are good eating if properly cooked, and even the wood tortoises are toothsome, although there is not much meat on them. To cook turtles, first kill them by placing in a pot of boiling water. As soon as dead remove and let cool. Lay the turtle on its back and with ax or machete crack the joint where the bottom shell joins the upper one. Pull off the bottom shell, remove entrails and gall bladder, cut off the head and skin the legs, at the same time removing the toes and outer coating of shell, which will be loosened by the boiling water. Place the turtle in a pot of fresh hot water and boil until all the meat has left the bones. Remove the bones and add water, a few MAKING CAMP 37 dried vegetables, pepper and salt, and boil until the vegetables are done. To cook dried vegetables is an easy matter, for all that is necessary is to place in boiling water, stir and add salt and pepper. Dried potatoes also make first-rate griddle cakes, as follows: After they are thoroughly cooked, mash them with a fork or piece of flattened wood. Mix in some flour, moisten until they cling together well; pat into cakes; sprinkle with flour, and fry in pork fat or cottolene. To make regular flapjacks place two pints of flour in a pan, add two heaping teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one level tea- spoonful of salt, two or three spoonfuls of dried tgg, and mix thoroughly while dry. Add six heaping dessertspoonfuls of evapo- rated milk and water (or the equivalent amount of dried milk) and mix until a thick, creamy batter results. Fry in a pan greased with a piece of fat rubbed over it. At first you will find it best to try small cakes and turn them with a knife, but after you have practised a while you will no doubt be able to make cakes the full size of the pan and to turn them by a dexterous twist of the pan. When you can toss the cake some distance in the air and catch it, the other side up on the pan as it falls, you can consider yourself a 38 MAKING CAMP true camp cook. Another strictly camp dish is known as "dope," and is made as follows: Place a pound or so of salt pork (cut into dice-shaped pieces) in the frying pan with a little water and boil for one minute. Pour off water and fry the pork until nearly brown. Remove the pieces and rub into the hot fat three or four spoonfuls of flour and a little pepper and cook the flour without allowing it to brown. When perfectly smooth add a quart of water, in which twelve dessertspoon- fuls of evaporated milk have been dissolved; slowly bring this to a boil, stirring constantly; add the pork scraps and serve. This is a very good way to serve pork. It is used a great deal as a sauce or gravy, is a good substitute for butter, and is delicious on grid- dle cakes in place of syrup. I think that with the foregoing hints, combined with the help you can get from your mothers, sisters or cooks, that you need not fear to attiempt or- dinary camp cooking. CHAPTER III WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING It is a serious matter to get lost in the woods. Even when near home or settlements a person may become lost and wander for hours in a comparatively small area of v^ood- land. In deep or strange woods it is really unsafe for an unskilled or inexperienced per- son to travel far, unless some marks or signs are made so that you can retrace your steps. Experienced and skilful woodsmen seldom become lost; but even such people often v^ander a considerable distance from the most direct path, and for this reason nearly all forest trails are marked by places cut on trees and knows as *' blazes.'' Trails or routes thus marked are knov^n as *' blazed trails," and although a novice may be unable to '' read " the signs, yet a blazed trail is always easy to follow and we speak of people " leaving a blazed trail behind them," when we mean to impress the fact that their footsteps are easy to follow and we speak of explorers, pioneers or others '' blaz- ing a way " for others for the same reason. 40 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING Blazed Trails One of the first things for boy campers to learn is to follow a blazed trail; by that I do not mean merely to follow from one mark to another, but to learn the meaning of the various signs or " blazes," for each different form or position of one of these marks means a different thing and after you once learn them thoroughly you can follow a trail as easily as though signboards were nailed to the trees. Of course, different men have dif- ferent systems of blazing a trail, but, like the " pigeon Indian '' languages of Canada, the blazed trail in any form is easily under- stood if the key is once known, for all are read in the same way, no matter whether the marks are large or small, high or low. Now and then we may run across a blaze that con- veys no meaning to us, but this is of no importance, as it is doubtless a private mark of the maker to show some particular spot or to refresh his memory the next time he passes that way. All blazes may be divided into three classes: The first consisting of a single spot, the sec- ond of two spots side by side, and the third consisting of three spots one above another. The first of these is used in denoting a trail. WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 41 the second turns or directions, the third for warning of danger, traps, or other matters requiring caution. A glance at Figs, i, 2, 3, 4 will illustrate this far better than a description. Thus the single spot in Fig. i marks a trail, and the tramper should pro- ceed straight ahead from one such mark- to another. When you meet the mark shown in Fig. 2, turn to the right and look for another single spot. If you see a mark like Fig. 3, turn to the left. Fig. 4 would serve to show you that you must proceed with caution; per- haps it may be a bad windfall, a hidden mud hole, a steep ravine, or in fact anything re- quiring care before proceeding. As long as you find the three perpendicular marks use every care until the single blazes reappear on the trees. Figs. 5, 6, 7 show how the three warning marks are used in combination with single blazes for special purposes. Thus Fig. 5 means a trap is set to the right and you should therefore pass to the left. Fig. 6 shows a trap to left, so pass to the right. Fig. 7 denotes the site of a survey line, so do not mar or cut trees bearing it. Oftentimes when going into camp with some of the party absent a mark is made to show the position of the camp. This is usually a long perpen- dicular mark, with another below and to 42 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING Fio.3 Fio.4 one side, as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. The position of the lower mark denotes whether the camp is to right or left. Figs. 10 and 11 show special or private marks and are of no importance, save to the makers or those to WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 43 whom directions as to their significance have been given. As the blazed spots on the trees become weathered and healed in time the trail be- comes difficult to follow and hence it is cus- tomary for every traveller over such a trail to chop the blazed spots anew so that in time practically every tree along the line of march is marked. When going into a strange forest or when some of the party are straggling behind you should always blaze a trail as I have de- scribed. It is well to practise this near home before going on a trip and a fine game of hare and hounds may be played by two boys, starting out across country and blazing a trail and then having others endeavour to find them by following the marks. This is a far more useful game than real Hare and Hounds, especially if you ever expect to do much tramping, hunting or trapping in the woods. It is a good plan to get into the habit of always blazing a trail in the woods, and if you wish your party to be sure of your trail you can make the single- or " trail-mark " of a certain peculiar shape. It is very easy to blaze a trail and it takes practically no time, as you walk along, for all you have to do 44 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING is to clip off a piece of bark with ax or machete every few rods. Make the marks for the trail about as high from the ground as your eyes, as in that position they are much more readily seen and followed. Other Trail Marks In localities where there are no trees, or trees are scarce, the trails are marked by the same system, but in a very different manner, this is done by means of twigs, bunches of grass or even stones. One stone on another marks the trail, the same with a third stone to right or left shows which way to turn, while three stones call especial attention, or serve as a warning. A single twig bent or broken shows a trail, this, with a twig with base pointing to right means to right, if pointed to left turn to left, while the impor- tant, or warning, sign is shown by placing a detached twig or branch in the fork of another. Bunches of grass, or reeds, if tied or twisted together in a single knot mark a trail, if the wisp at top is turned to right or left it shows direction to follow, while the warning sign is shown by three bunches of grass. This use of three marks to signify danger, or to attract WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 45 Special attention, is universal and is very easy to remember. You will see by this, and by looking at Figs. 12 to 23, that these marks or signs are as easy to read, — after you learn the real blaze signs, — as are the latter. It is a good plan to always carry a card or a slip of paper 46 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING showing these various signals when in the woods. If you should get lost or become confused you may be so nervous or excited that you do not feel sure of your memory of the signs, and if you have them to refer to, there is no chance of making a mistake. Be sure to practise making and reading all the various trail-marks until you know them by heart. You will find it a lot of fun and it will always be useful in the woods. Of course a compass is a great help when in the woods and you should always have one along; but it is mainly of help when you are lost, as it aids you in proceeding in a straight line and prevents you from walking in a circle; but unless you know in which direction your des- tination lies you will have hard work to find it by compass alone. Bearings of prominent objects or landmarks seen from camp will help you, and the young woodsman or camper should learn to note the bearings of all hills, rivers, mountains, etc., by instinct and should train himself to retain a memory of direction in his mind at all times. Moss on the trees is sometimes a good indication of the points of the compass; but as this varies a great deal in different places and as it often takes an expert to determine on which side of a tree the moss is the thick- WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 47 est, I think it is more confusing than useful as a general rule. Sometimes a watch may be made to serve more or less accurately for a compass. If the watch is held so that the shadow of the hour hand casts its shadow directly beneath it, half-way between that point and the figure twelve will be south. This, of course, is only approximate, for the sun's direction varies with the season and latitude, but it will give you a more or less accurate idea of the points of the compass and will keep you from wan- dering about in a circle, as people invariably will when lost. If you blaze a trail, how- ever, this will never occur, for by sighting back to the last two blazes you can always be sure of taking a fairly straight line. Signals and Signalling While trail-signs, blazes, etc., will serve to guide you in following an old trail, retracing your path through the woods or blazing a new trail for others to follow, there are times when some other form of communica- tion must be used. Sometimes one or more of the party may be separated from his or their companions, or may become lost, and at such times a method of communicating 48 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING their whereabouts or location to their friends is very useful. The most careful person may meet with an accident and become helpless, far from home or camp, and at such a time a knowledge of signalling will prove of im- mense value. Even when no accident occurs, signal codes or signalling methods will often prove of great aid and value. A boy or a party may be sent to find wood, water, game or a camp-site and by the aid of simple signals the news of his discoveries may be com- municated to his companions many miles away, and save a long, hard, weary tramp and a great deal of time. Nearly all savage tribes have an intricate and elaborate system of signalling to one another and news is flashed from tribe to tribe over wide distances almost as rapidly as by telegraph. During the Boer war the natives often learned the result of a battle miles away, long before the whites knew through telegraphic advices. A great deal of information may be readily conveyed by very simple signals and it is best to begin on sim- ple things and work up to more elaborate methods and codes. Distance signals may be made by fire, smoke, flashes of light, flags, hats or other objects easily seen. Fires are used at night WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 49 while smoke or flashed signals are the most commonly and easily used during the day. Signals flashed by a mirror can be seen for immense distances and are the basis of the heliograph signals used in the army. Al- though a regular heliograph is easily made, a small pocket mirror is far more useful and easy to carry for ordinary purposes. The simplest signals for ordinary purposes, — whether made by smoke, fires or mirror flashes,— are similar to those already de- scribed for trail-signs. One smoke, fire or flash means location. Thus, if a member of a party is absent and the location of a camp is to be shown, a single column of smoke, a single bright fire or a single flash of a mirror will denote the position. Two smokes, two fires or two flashes, repeated at intervals, will mean trouble and that help is required. Three smokes, three fires or three flashes convey good news, or that a hunt or search is suc- cessful and four signal smokes, fires or flashes call all members of the party to a meeting spot or camp (Figs. 24, 25, 26). These same signals may be given by shots from a gun or pistol and any additional ones may be ar- ranged and decided upon among the campers as special signals. While these simple signals will answer very 50 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING well for ordinary purposes, yet one often wishes to convey some long, or unusual, message to friends or fellow woodsmen, and to do this you must learn one of the various signal-codes in common use. There are a number of these codes but the most widely used, and as simple as any, is the Morse Code used by telegraphers. Every boy would do well to learn this code or " alphabet " thor- oughly, for it is a most useful thing to know even if you never go camping or care noth- ing for out-of-doors life. In addition to its usefulness any boy can obtain a great deal of amusement from it and by signalling mes- sages in Morse two or more boys can readily talk for long distances across country — a real wireless system without instruments. Many devices and keys have been devised to make the Morse code easy to learn and memorise, but to my mind most of these are more difficult to remember than the code it- self. Ordinary Morse is a hard code to use in signalling with fire, smoke, etc., as there are many letters of spaced dots. For this reason it is better to use the Continental Morse or Continental Code, which has no spaced dots. As this is the code used to large extent in wireless it is a good code to know and is as follows: WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 51 A.— B— . .. C— .— . D— . . E. F..— . G . H.... I.. J. K— .— L.— . . M X—. O P. . Q .— R._. s... T— U..— V...— W. X— . .— Y— . Z .. By using this code any message may be spelled out, but in addition certain combina- tions have been adopted to signify certain things or sentences commonly used, thus, — D D means a call or " Signalling." W W means " Answering." F F means " Spell- ing." I M I signifies " Repeat." AAA means " Full stop." G means " Go on." M G, "Wait." R T, "Right." F I, *' Xumeral," etc., etc. Boys accustomed to using telegraph instru- ments will find it very easy to use the code in signalling, but to the beginner it will be at first rather hard to so time the flashes, smokes or fires, as to make an intelligible message, for dots, dashes and spaces will no doubt be hopelessly muddled at first. A dot consists of a flash, fire, or smoke of one sec- ond's duration; a dash should be two seconds long and a space should be four seconds. Between words a longer period of say six or eight seconds should be allowed until thoroughly familiar with the code and its use. To use the code with a fire, a blanket, 52 WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING coat, or any other object should be held in front of the flames and by removing this for one second a dot is given, then screen the fire for four seconds and remove for two sec- onds for a dash. When using smoke-signals a good fire should be made and then covered with damp wood, leaves or turf, until heavy rULL STOP smoke rises. A wet blanket, carpet, canvas or similar object thrown over this will stop the smoke, and if quickly removed and replaced puffs of smoke of varying sizes will be sent up. These should be sufficiently distinct in size and duration to admit of no mistake in reading. A straight stick or flag and a cap or hat may be used to transmit Morse; and for use aboard boats, or where the signaller is plainly seen, this system proves most use- ful. In using this method the stick, shingle, flag or piece of cloth, should be held in one WOODCRAFT AND TRAILING 53 hand and the hat, or cap, in the other. The flag or board means a dash and the cap a dot (Fig. 2y), while lowering both arms means a space and the space between words is signified by raising both arms over the head. Two flags of distinct colours may also be used to advan- tage and from a tree-top, flag pole or mast- head, signals may be sent for a long distance. This method has one great advantage inas- much as the boys using it may decide on any colour they wish for dot and any other colour for a dash and thus the signals, while easily understood by those in the secret, are abso- lutely meaningless to others. Almost as important as a knowledge of signalling is the ability to make either a bright, or a smoking, fire to use for signals and of far greater importance than either is the ability to kindle a fire quickly and surely under any and all circumstances. CHAPTER IV EMERGENCY HINTS Making Fire Without Matches There is really no excuse for anyone being- caught in the woods without matches, but ac- cidents will happen and matches may be lost or may be wet or damp, and the most careful person may at times forget, or use up, his supply of these useful articles. Even without matches there is no reason for going without fire, and every camper should be provided with the means and knowledge for producing fire without the civilised, and most conveni- ent, match. The next best thing to matches is a flint and steel with tinder. Flints and steel with tinder fuse may now be bought from any dealer in camping or sporting goods and such an outfit should be in possession of every boy who camps, traps, hunts or tramps. While these are the best and easiest to use, any piece of fiint, hornstone or quartz, and any piece of steel can be made to answer. The great secret in making a fire with flint 54 EMERGENCY HINTS 55 and steel is to have the right sort of tinder or " punk." Dry cedar bark, dry and rotten pine, or spruce shavings; dried lichens, or moss; dry, resinous pine or balsam, sawdust and various other common materials are all good, but the best of all are dried puff-balls and other fungus growths and cotton wicking soaked in saltpetre and dried. The large, fiat, white fungus-growths found on decaying trees are splendid tinder when thoroughly dry and a supply of these should be on hand. To strike fire with fiint and steel, hold a piece of punk against the lower side of the fiint, or bit of stone, and strike sharply down- ward across the edge of the stone with the steel (Fig. i). A shower of bright sparks will fiy off, and after one or two trials one or more of the sparks will probably rest on the punk and will begin to smoulder. As soon as this occurs blow it into a brisk glow and by plac- ing fine shavings, sawdust, cedar bark, and similar tinder upon the glowing spot and blowing it, a fiame will soon spring up. Infiammable material should then be added a little at a time until the fire is going briskly. All this sounds easy, in fact it is easy enough once you get the knack of it, and hours of practice will not be misspent in learning this useful accomplishment, which is 56 EMERGENCY HINTS nowadays known to comparatively few, al- though a few generations ago it was used by everyone in civilised lands. Sometimes even the flint and steel will be wanting and a fire may be required. At such times one should know how to build a fire by rubbing two sticks together, and while this method is slow and may at times fail en- tirely, yet it is not by any means as hard as many writers would have us believe. The rapidity and ease with which fire may be made by this method depends almost entirely upon having just the right sort of material in the first place. Many tribes of savages make fire in this way and there are innumer- able variations in the materials, implements and methods used. The easiest, surest and simplest method is that known as the bow and drill. To make a fire in this way you must have the following implements and ma- terials, — A Bow — consisting of a stiff, bent stick with a leather string; the bow should be about 27 inches long and from >^ to J4 of an inch in thickness (Fig. 2). A Drill — an eight-sided stick about 12 to 18 inches long and H of an inch thick, pointed at each end (Fig. 3). A Fire Block — a piece of flat very dry wood EMERGENCY HINTS 57 about H of an inch thick, of almost any width and length, with notches cut in one edge (Fig. 4). A Drill Socket — a small stone, knot or bit of hardwood with a small socket, or hole, in one side (Fig. 5). Tinder — shredded dry cedar bark or similar tinder. The material of which the above tools are made is of great importance. The bow may be of almost any strong, light wood, such as balsam fir, hemlock or cedar. The drill should be of old dry but not punky or rotten fir, or Cottonwood, basswood, cedar, larch, sagebrush or pine. The best materials are fir or Cottonwood roots. The fire block should be dry fir, pine or hemlock. To use these implements place a piece of pine punk on the ground, set the fire block over this and hold it in place with one foot. Take a turn of the bow-string around the drill (Fig. 6); place one end of the drill in a notch in the fire block and rest the drill socket (held in left hand) on the other end of drill, thus holding the drill perpendicularly between the left hand and socket and the fire block held in place by your foot. Hold the bow in your right hand and draw it back and forth with 58 EMERGENCY HINTS even, steady, long strokes, thus whirling the drill in its socket (Fig. 7). In a few moments you will see a brownish powder of wood run out of the fire block on to the punk below. As the notch in the block increases in size it will darken and a light smoke will arise. When this occurs increase the pressure on the drill with the socket and work the bow faster with the right hand. The smoke should now in- crease rapidly and the sawdust-like powder will begin to fill up the notch in the fire block. Presently the powder itself will begin to smoke and turn black and the bow should now be discarded and the heap of powder gently fanned, or blown, until it smokes freely. Then remove the fire block and insert bits of prepared cedar bark or other tinder in the pile of smoking powder. Place an- other piece of dry pine-punk over this and grasping both pieces of punk, — with powder and tinder between, — wave the whole back and forth and blow upon it until it flames. I do not suppose that you will accomplish this on the first trial, but with a little practice you will find it a very easy and interesting operation and you will soon be the envy of many other boys who have never learned the trick. In kindling a fire, from either matches, EMERGENCY HINTS 59 bow and drill, flint and steel or by any other method, it will prove of value to have some dry birch bark, cedar bark and resinous pine, Fig. 7 ^Bof^ FiQ. 2 Fig. 3 fii,h»*i it(/99 Fig. 5 or fir twigs on hand in a little pocket or bag. Even under the best conditions it is not al- ways easy to find dry materials for building 60 EMERGENCY HINTS a fire when you want it and in wet weather you will find that even a small supply of dry material on hand will prove of the greatest help and benefit in starting your fires in the woods. Birch bark will burn, even when wet, and green and dry wood may usually be found in hollow logs, stumps, or under dead pine bark; but such things are often at some dis- tance from camp and hard to find, and the boy who is always well prepared for emer- gencies will succeed best in the long run, — especially in the woods. How to Render First Aid to the Injured No matter how careful or cautious you may be, or what provisions you may make to avoid accidents, you are at all times liable to meet with some injury. Such things are not confined to the boy in the woods, on the water or camping out, for even on city streets, in vehicles or in your own home, accidents are liable to occur. Oftentimes a wound, sprain, dislocation or similar injury, if taken in time and properly attended to, will be of little moment, whereas if neglected or improperly treated it may prove dangerous or even fatal. Even if you do not meet with any casualty yourself you are always liable to find some- EMERGENCY HINTS 61 one who is injured, sick or disabled, and a knowledge of how to properly bandage, stop the flow of blood, revive drowning people or render first aid in any form, is of the utmost value and importance. Although this knowl- edge may come in handy at any time and in any place, yet it is of particular value to the outdoor boy. How to Make and Use Bandages Sprains, breaks, cuts and dislocations are of frequent occurrence and fortunately this class of injuries are the easiest to treat and to care for. Every boy or party of boys who tramp or camp should be provided with certain simple remedies and appliances and among the most important of these are bandages. Bandages are merely pieces of cloth of various lengths, widths and shapes used to bind up and retain dressings on wounds, to hold splints in place on broken or dislocated bones, to stop the flow of blood or to render immovable certain parts of the body. Band- ages are made of various materials, such as linen, muslin, flannel, gauze and cotton. Band- ages treated with antiseptic solutions may be purchased at any drug store and are most 62 EMERGENCY HINTS excellent, but any piece of clean cloth will answer in a pinch in case of emergency. The ideal bandage for first-aid use is that known as the Esmarch triangular bandage. It is easier to use by the amateur than either the plain, four-tailed or roller bandage. A triangular bandage may be easily formed by cutting any piece of cloth forty inches square into two triangular halves and may be made from linen, cotton or gauze, but is best when made from good, strong cotton cloth. The regulation triangular bandages fur- nished to the army have printed directions upon them showing their use with illustra- tions, which are not destroyed by washing and ironing. The longest edge of the bandage is called the " lower border " and the other two edges the " side borders." The apex of the triangle is the '' point " and the other two corners are called ''ends" (Fig. 8). The bandage may be used whole, as in the case of head injuries or when a sling is re- C[uired, or it may be folded into various widths and shapes to suit the needs of the part in- jured. When thus folded the bandage is of great use in holding splints or dressings in posi- tion, for slings or to serve as tourniquets for EMERGENCY HINTS 63 B>'»t- EmoL Enet. £-oi^vr Bord.^r Fia.9 64 EMERGENCY HINTS Stopping the flow of blood (Fig. 9). To fasten any bandage, use a strong safety pin, or tie the ends with a square- or reef-knot. Never use a " granny " knot, as it is liable to slip or become unfastened. The bandage should be used as a sling for injuries to arm, hand or shoulder by folding the triangle as shown in Fig. 9, making the folds the proper width to suit each particular case. How to Make a Sling The bandage thus folded is used by placing one end over the shoulder on the injured side and letting the other end hang down in front. The injured arm should then be bent at a right angle in front of the bandage with the thumb upward; then draw the loose end up in front of the arm and over the opposite shoulder, where it should be tied to the other end back of the neck (Fig. 10). A broad sling is useful in many cases and is used by placing the point below and be- yond the elbow of the damaged arm, and the upper end across the opposite shoulder, letting the point hang. Then bend the forearm across the breast with palm of hand inward and thumb up and bring the lower end of bandage up across the forearm, pass it over the shoul- EMERGENCY HINTS 65 der on injured side and fasten the ends to- gether firmly behind neck. Draw the point of bandage forward over the elbow and pin it snugly in place. This is an almost per- fect dressing for any injury to the upper arm, such as a broken collar bone, dislocated shoulder, dislocated elbow, broken upper arm bones or sprained wrist (Fig. ii). Injuries to the Head In case of extensive injuries to the head the bandage should be used as a whole and not folded. This is the case in scalp wounds, especially those that bleed freely, fractured skull, severe contusions, etc. In using the bandage for these purposes a hem should be formed along the lower border about two inches wide by folding the edge over once or twice. Place the lower edge of bandage, with middle of hem over centre of forehead with lower edge of hem on a line with eye- brows (this is important, as otherwise it will slip off). The point of bandage will then hang over the centre of the back of the neck. Both ends should then be gathered backwards around head just above ears, being sure to have the point of bandage underneath the two ends. Cross the ends and bring them ee EMERGENCY HINTS around to the front of head again and tie firmly over forehead. Pull the point of the bandage down so that the whole fits the head snugly and turn it up over the two ends and pin in place (Fig. 12). For small scalp wounds or injuries to ears or eyes, it is not necessary to use the band- age as a whole and in such cases it may be folded up as shown in Fig. 9, and used as shown in Fig. 13. For shoulder wounds the triangular bandage should be employed as illustrated in Fig. 14. Place the lower border downward across the middle of arm, the point on top of shoulder or beside the neck. The two ends should next be brought around the arm, crossed on the inside and tied on the outside. The forearm on the same side should then be bent and placed in a sling as already described. Next draw the point of the large bandage under and around the sling where it passes around the neck, and pin it in position. Injuries to Hands For wounds or injuries to the hand the bandage may be used in two ways, either when the whole hand is to be covered or where only a small part requires treatment. EMERGENCY HINTS 67 For a whole hand bandage, spread out the triangle, place the hand with palm down upon it, with the fingers pointing to the point of bandage and wrist in centre of lower border. Now turn the point over and back and down over wrist and bring the ends around the wrist, thus binding down the point. Cross the ends and bring them back again and tie over point. Now draw point up so that the bandage fits tightly; turn over and pin in place (Fig. 15). Where it is not necessary to cover the fin- gers, as in case of wounds to palm or back 6s EMERGENCY HINTS of hand, the bandage should be folded to a proper width, place the centre over injured spot with a compress on wound if possible, bring the ends around the hand and cross them obliquely, then bring them in front, bring them back around wrist and tie firmly. Injuries to Hip For injuries to the hip two triangular bandages should be used, and these are ap- plied very much in the same manner as al- ready described for injuries to the shoulders. First fold a narrow bandage and tie around the waist like a belt, with the knot opposite the injured side. Then place a triangular bandage across outside of injured hip with lower border on middle of thigh, and point upwards. Pass the ends around thigh, cross them and tie on outside. Pass the point under belt, bring it over and pin (Fig. i6). For wounds or injuries to the leg below hip and above the foot the bandage is applied folded as for a narrow sling, passed around leg several times and tied opposite to the injury so that the knot will not press on the wound. For injuries to the foot place the foot on the triangle with toes toward the point. EMERGENCY HINTS 69 Carry the point up over instep, take both ends forward around ankle to front and over point, cross them again behind, catching lower bor- der of bandage, bring the ends forward and tie in front of ankle. Then bring the point down over knot and pin as usual (Fig. 17). Making Tourniquets Tourniquets are used to stop bleeding and should always be applied above the wound and at some spot where the arteries are near the surface. Under the knee, under the arm- pit, above the elbow, on groin or on side of neck are the usual spots. For many cuts a mere folded rag or cloth placed around the leg or arm and twisted tight by means of a stick or rod, will serve every purpose, but in severe cases, as in deep cuts or gunshot wounds, a pebble, lump of clay, a bit of wood, a ball of stiff paper, a nut or even a knot in a cloth should be placed under the tourniquet in order to press upon the arteries and stop the bleeding (Fig. 25). Injuries to Arms and Hand If the cut is on the arm or hand, holding the injured member above the head will help stop the flow of blood, and in case of a cut 70 EMERGENCY HINTS or wound in the leg the injured limb should always be elevated as high as possible. Carrying an Injured Comrade An important matter in the case of many injuries is that of helping or carrying the in- jured person to a spot where proper treatment or attention may be administered. If two or more people are present a stretcher of some sort should be used, but quite often one may be alone with the injured, and in such cases he should know how to carry the sufferer without further injury and with as little pain and discomfort as possible. If the in- jured person is not unconscious and can ren- der some help himself he should place his arm over the other's shoulder so that the arm- pit of the injured person rests on the shoulder of his bearer, with the arm passing around the latter's neck and over the other shoulder. The bearer then grasps the wrist of the arm over his shoulder with the hand of that side and with the other arm supports the patient's waist (Fig. i8). Another good way of carrying a conscious patient is '' Pick-a-Back." This is a particu- larly good method for carrying children or people light in weight. EMERGENCY HINTS 71 ' Unconscious people may be carried across the back. This is a particularly easy way to carry people who are insensible from smoke or gas, as it leaves the bearer free to use one hand in groping his way about. It is also an excellent method when obliged to carry a person up or down ladders or stairs. When the arm or leg is broken this method, however, cannot be used. There are several different methods of this back carrying, but that most commonly used and the easiest to accomplish is known as the '' Fireman's Lift." Several successive operations are required in order to get the injured person on your back and these are best understood by re- ferring to the Figs. 19, 20, 21, 22, 2^. First — Kneel on both knees at head of the injured person, facing the patient and turn him .over, face down, straighten arms at sides (Fig. 19). Second — Pass hands under body, grasp pa- tient under armpits, raise the body as high as possible while kneeling and let it rest on your knees (Fig. 20). Third — Pass both arms around waist of pa- tient and lift him to an upright position with his body inclined towards your right shoul- der (Fig. 21). Fourth — Grasp the patient's right hand 72 EMERGENCY HINTS right arm with your left; throwing his around your neck. Now stoop and place your head beneath his body, at the same time pass your right arm between or around his legs, Fig. 20 Fig. 21 The Fireman's Lift Fig. 23 bringing his weight on the centre of your back (Fig. 22). Fifth — Grasp the patient's right hand or wrist, with your right hand, balance his body carefully on your shoulders and rise to an upright position (Fig. 23). When litters or stretchers are not available and yet there are two or more persons pres- ent, the injured may be readily carried either by the well-known '' four-handed chair " or by the " Fore and Aft Carry." The former EMERGENCY HINTS 73 method is so well known to every boy that it is not necessary to explain it. The latter, or Fore and Aft, is not so well known. To do this the bearers should stand at the patient's head and feet. The one at the head should pass his arms beneath the head and under armpits and interlock the fingers in front of chest. The bearer at feet should pass one hand around each knee and thus carry a leg under each arm (Fig. 24). Miscellaneous Hints Never carry a patient face down by arms and legs. In using a litter, or stretcher, care should be used in making it strong enough to safely bear the weight and it should always be tested before placing a patient upon it. A door, shutter or blind may be used for a stretcher if nothing else is handy. A litter may also be improvised by use of an overcoat. Turn the sleeves inside out; button coat over sleeves and pass pole through each sleeve. In the woods, litters may be readily fashioned by using branches of trees fastened together by vines, roots, bark or even twisted handker- chiefs and then covered with branches, leaves, grass or ferns. Never carry an injured per- 74 EMERGENCY HINTS son on a loose blanket, clothing, curtain or similar object, as a corner may slip or the material tear and drpp the patient. When a litter is carried by two persons they should be careful not to keep step but the one in front should start with right foot and the one behind with the left foot. If the two bearers are of unequal height the taller should be at the head of the patient. Always carry patient feet first except in going up stairs or up a steep hill, when the he^d should be in front. In case of broken or injured thigh or leg, however, the feet should go first when ascending and last in descending. Never carry a stretcher with a patient on the shoulders, but always carry it by the hands, or hung on straps across the shoulders. All these first aid bandagings, carryings and similar treatments should be practised from time to time until expert, for you never know when a thorough knowledge of such matters may save life or limb. Never lose your head or get frightened at sight of broken bones or bleeding wounds. Use every bit of skill and knowledge you possess in doing what you can to relieve the injury and then obtain medical treatment just as soon as possible. Aside from bandaging for various injuries EMERGENCY HINTS 75 and flow of blood, there are numerous acci- dents met with which require very different treatment. Some of these are: Shocks of various sorts. In shocks the patient lies pale, faint and sometimes in- sensible. Place the patient flat on back with head and shoulders slightly raised. Loosen clothing about neck. Give a little brandy and water, whisky and water, or aromatic spirits of ammonia and water every two minutes. External warmth should be applied to limbs and pit of stomach either by hot applications, or rubbing briskly. Wrap patient in warm blankets. As soon as patient comes to, strong, hot soup or similar stimulating nour- ishment may be given. Fractured bones should be splintered by pieces of light wood fastened in place with a bandage or handkerchiefs. Severe bruises should be treated by hot water applications. After inflammation has subsided use stimulating applications such as vinegar and water, alcohol, etc. Sprains — Elevate limb, keep joint quiet; apply lukewarm lotions or compresses. When inflammation ceases apply liniments; spray parts with cold water, alternating with warm water, or apply hot and cold compresses alternately and bandage. 76 EMERGENCY HINTS Burns and scalds should be kept from the air as much as possible and to accom- plish this cover the burn with flour, oil and flour, lard and flour, limewater and oil, cooking soda and oil or grease and similar compounds and the blisters should not be broken. Sunstroke — Take patient into shade at once; place in recumbent position with head and shoulders elevated; loosen clothes about neck and body; apply ice, or cold, wet cloths on head and nape of neck, changing fre- quently. Douche head, spine and chest from a height of two or three feet. Fan patient briskly and treat limbs and sides with mus- tard, or administer stimulants. Poison — The first step in all poison cases is to administer an antidote and then cause vomiting. The best and handiest emetic is a tablespoonful of mustard in a cup of water or a spoonful or two of common salt in water. When vomiting has already taken place give draughts of warm water, soap and water or oil to keep up the effect until stomach is thoroughly empty. The following are antidotes for most of the common poisons: Strong Acids — Give common chalk, oil, soapsuds, soda or any common alkali. EMERGENCY HINTS 77 For Arsenic — Magnesia, milk, raw eggs, powdered charcoal, oil and limewater. For Prussic Acid — Cold affusion, brandy and ammonia or stimulants. For Opium, Morphine, etc. — Keep patient moving, give strong coffee, slap with hands and switches, sting with nettles, rub with mustard, etc. Asphyxia — In cases of patients overcome by gas, charcoal fumes, etc., the face becomes livid and the victim should at once be placed in clear air with head raised. The clothing should be removed and the body douched with cold water. Ammonia should be ap- plied to nose and the face and body should be sponged with vinegar and water and briskly rubbed. In severe cases artificial respiration, as described for drowning, should be re- sorted to. Frostbite and Freezing — Use friction on parts affected, commencing with snow or similar cold substances and later place in cold water until frost is removed. As soon as sensation returns, administer brandy and water in small quantities. If the patient is apparently dead, or insensible, the body should be stripped and then covered with snow or ice and placed in cold water. When the body is thawed, dry it, place in a dry, 78 EMERGENCY HINTS cold bed and rub hard under cover. Continue this for hours. If life appears give small in- jections of camphor and water, put a drop or two of spirits on tongue; then rub body with spirits and water and finally with clear spirits. Then administer hot tea, coffee or brandy and water. Drowning — First, unless in danger of freez- ing, do not try to remove the apparently drowned, but instantly expose the face to a current of air, wipe the mouth and nose dry, remove clothing across chest and waist and give two or three quick smarting slaps on stomach and chest with open hand. If pa- tient does not revive, proceed as follows: Draw off water from stomach and lungs. If jaws are clenched, separate them and keep mouth open by a bit of wood or cork between teeth. Turn patient on face, a large bundle of clothing, a log, barrel, or a person's knee being placed beneath the stomach, and press heavily upon the back for half a minute, or as long as fluids flow from mouth. Next, produce artificial breathing by clear- ing mouth and throat of mucus with a hand- kerchief wrapped around finger. Turn patient on back with roll of clothing or some round object under back so as to raise stomach above rest of body. If another person is EMERGENCY HINTS 79 present have him hold the tip of tongue out of one corner of the mouth, as this prevents the tongue from falling back and closing the windpipe, and with the other hand grasp both wrists and keep the patient's arms stretched back above the head. Kneel astride, or be- side, the patient with balls of thumbs resting on either side of pit of stomach, let fingers fall into grooves between short ribs so as to grasp waist. Now use your knees as a pivot and throw your weight forward on your hands, at the same time squeezing the waist between them as if you wished to force the contents of chest up through the mouth. Deepen the pressure while you count slowly one, two, three, and then suddenly let go with a final push which springs you back to your first kneeling position. Remain sta- tionary while counting one, two, three and then repeat the operation as before at a rate gradually increasing from four or five to fifteen times a minute and continue this bellows motion with the same regularity that is seen in the natural motions of breathing. If after three or four minutes, natural breath- ing is not restored, then without stopping the movements turn the patient on the stom- ach as directed for removing water, rolling the body in the opposite direction from that 80 EMERGENCY HINTS in which it was first turned. Continue the artificial respiration for from one to four hours, or until the patient breathes, and for a while after this aid the breathing- by help- ing pressure. Continue drying and rubbing, which should have been continued from the first. Rub the limbs upward towards the body and continue friction even after steady natural breathing is restored. Apply hot flannels to stomach and armpits and use hot- water bottles, heated bricks or the quickest means at hand to keep up artificial heat. When breathing is fully established the patient should be placed in a warm bed with plenty of fresh air and left to perfect rest. A little brandy and water, or other stimulant, should be given every ten or fifteen minutes during the first hour. The great danger now lies in congestion of the lungs and if perfect rest is not maintained for at least 48 hours death often results. In case any dif^culty in breathing develops apply a mustard plaster over breast, or assist with artificial respira- tion. Never give up trying to revive a drowned person, unless he has been under water over 30 minutes, or until absolutely sure that there is no hope. Four hours' work has been needed to revive apparently drowned persons EMERGENCY HINTS 81 and people who have been under water for 25 minutes have been resuscitated. No amount of work is too great when a human life may be saved and it too frequentl}^ happens that attempts are abandoned too soon, whereas by more patience and persever- ance the patient's life might have been saved. CHAPTER V HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE The Compass and How to Use It Every boy should know how to find direc- tion, how to use a compass, how to find his way by the stars and sun, how to steer a boat by compass, how to calculate the height of various objects and how to determine the dis- tance across rivers, ponds, ravines or other areas. These things are all useful whether on land or sea, on prairie or in the woods, in valleys or on mountain tops. In addition to the real value and use of such knowledge you will find that a surprising amount of fun may be obtained by employing it in many ways. Of course the commonest method of deter- mining the direction of one object from an- other, or of finding your way or steering a boat, is by means of a compass (Fig. i). Most boys have some idea of the use of a compass and are familiar with the cardinal points of North, South, East and West, but only a few boys can name more than eight HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 83 of the compass-points correctly and in proper order. Under many conditions this might prove sufficient for ordinary directions, for the landsman seldom finds it necessary to state that a certain wind is from the North- east by North, or that a certain spot is East One-quarter South from another. If he states that the wind is Northeast or that the spot referred to is East it serves his purpose well enough. It would be quite a different matter were he sailing a boat, following a trail through the woods or cross- ing a desert or plain. Under these circum- stances such general and indefinite directions would never answer, for while on a short trip, or where the destination could be plainly seen for some distance, a point or two off" would make little difference, yet in the course of a twenty- to fifty-mile trip the variation of a quarter-point might result in the traveller missing the objective point altogether. You can easily imagine what might happen if you were travelling across a desert, where your life depended upon reaching an oasis or water- hole only a few hundred feet in diameter. A variation of a fraction of a point under such conditions would carry you so far to one side that you would never find the coveted water and would wander about until ex- 84 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE FiG.l V> ^ . Fig. 6 ■^ 1^ >' .V^' hausted and perishing from thirst. The boy who takes to the woods must be careful of little things, and therefore I advise you all to spend ample time in studying the compass until you can rattle off the thirty-two points HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 85 or " box the compass " in sailor's parlance, with ease and rapidity both backward and forward, and can tell a direction or steer a boat within a quarter-point. In travelling, or sailing, a floating card compass (Fig. 2) is far superior to a compass with moving needle (Fig. 3), but as they are much more bulky and cumbersome than a pocket compass they are better suited to boat use than to tramp- ing outfits. In the floating card compass the needle is attached to or is part of the card bearing the points. This card either revolves upon a pivot or floats upon mercury or other material while its encircling case remains stationary and a small line or mark known as the '' lubber's mark " is indicated on the case and should be so adjusted that when facing the north the North on card and lub- ber's mark should be in line. In the movable needle compass the card with points remains stationary while a pivoted needle swings over it. In a boat the floating card compass is al- most a necessity, for with it the boat's head is pointed in the direction or " course " desired, whereas with a needle compass the card or dial remains stationary with the boat and the needle shifts about. As a result the helms- man must do some mental calculation to know how to hold his craft in order to follow 86 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE a given course. This peculiarity will be better understood by looking at Fig. 4. You will see that in " A " a floating card compass is illustrated and that the boat is headed North- east while in " B," although the same course is being steered, yet the boat's head is point- ing to the " North " of the compass and the needle is pointing Northwest, or in other words you are reading your card back- wards, and to steer a Northeast course you must swing your helm so as to bring the needle to Northwest. Of course this can be avoided by shifting the position of the compass so as to bring the needle directly over " North " and then steer so that the boat is in line with Northeast as shown at " C." This is frequently very inconvenient if not impossible, for in a seaway a compass will jump about and become very erratic unless fastened securely. On land, however, it is quite a different matter, for it is an easy mat- ter to turn your compass about until the needle and the " North " are in line and then head in the desired direction. Small pocket compasses are usually of the movable needle type, but they are made with swinging cards and these are so much better and easier to use that I advise every boy to obtain one if possible. HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 87 It is excellent training to practise sailing and walking by compass, and a novel and in- teresting game of '' Hare and Hounds " may be played by the " Hares '' starting out and tramping in a course across country, mean- while keeping a watch on the compass and travelling as nearly in a straight line as pos- sible, and at the end of two or three miles erect a flag or other mark readily seen for a few hundred yards. These boys should then give the compass direction and approximate distance to the " Hounds," who must find the goal by following the compass course. As the players become more expert the distance should be increased and the goal made smaller and the game more interesting and instructive by changing the course at certain given points and distances. Thus a course may be given as " Northeast by East for two miles to a white flag; then North-Northeast for one mile to a dead pine tree and hence Northwest for one mile to a pile of stones marked with a cross." On the water the same game may be played by placing buoys or stakes at certain distances and then by following the given course try to locate them. If a small flag, or marked rag, be placed on the buoy this may be brought back by the " Hounds " as a trophy. 88 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE The game may also be varied by making- charts or maps of the country covered and requiring the " Hounds " to find the hidden object by following the mapped direction. Later on I will give directions for readily making fairly accurate maps without the use of surveying instruments and you will find this a most interesting and instructive occu- pation. Although the amateur should always de- pend more or less upon a compass and should invariably be provided with one when on a trip in unfamiliar country or on unknown waters, yet many old sailors, woodsmen and hunters never carry a compass but possess a natural talent or '' sixth sense " of direction and can never become lost in strange woods or in strange lands. Personally I have this " sense " to a wonderful degree, and although I have tramped and hunted in many out-of- the-way lands and in the heavy forests of the tropics, I have never been lost and have never used a compass on land. But no matter how well developed this sense may be, a compass is a safeguard and convenience and the best sailors will often become confused and lost in a fog unless provided with this useful instrument. HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 89 Using a Watch for a Compass Aside from the compass there are many ways of ascertaining one's general direction, for to the well-trained woodsman the " lay " of the land, the bark and moss on trees, the flow of streams and the direction of light will all help in determining the compass points. A very useful substitute for the compass is an ordinary watch, for while known to com- paratively few, yet in reality a watch is a fairly accurate compass, although its use as such necessitates a knowledge of the location of the sun or bright sunshine. To use the watch for this purpose, place it on a level spot and turn it until the hour hand points directly at the sun, — or until the hand's shadow is directly underneath the hand itself. When this position is attained the south will be exactly half-way between the indicated hour and the figure 12 (if before noon count- ing from left to right or southward, and if after noon counting backward, or from right to left). This is very nearly correct for our latitude during the year, but while it will serve for all ordinary uses and distances, the mariner who depended upon his watch would have a hard time. The illustrations (Fig. 5) will make the above more readily understood^ 90 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE for in one figure the watch is shown in the position at 6 a. m., when the south would be at 9, and in the second figure the watch is shown with hour hand pointed to sun at 4 p. m., when south is found at 2. By re- membering this it may prove of service at times, but whether using a watch or a real compass you should never expect too much from it; a compass cannot show your way home unless you know in a general way which direction home is, and if at a loss as to which way to travel; it is mainly of value in keeping you from turning round and round and travel- ling in a circle. When a small boy I was once told a funny story by an old trapper which may help you to remember this. An old Indian took a fancy to a compass seen in the trader's store and asked what it was used for. He was told that with it the white men found their way from place to place, and, thinking this a fine idea, the redman at once traded off furs for the compass. A few days later he wished to visit a friend who was camping and trapping somewhere in the forest. Taking his compass the Indian placed it on a rock and said: ''Now tell me where Joe Bemis' camp be." Of course no reply came from the com- pass and the Indian became vexed and cried; HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 91 " Tell me where Joe Bemis' camp be or I break um face." As the compass still gave no sign the Indian grasped his hatchet and smashed the compass, exclaiming: "Huh! No speak um Mik Mak, break um face, now go find Joe Bemis' camp myself." Finding Your Way by the North Star In addition to knowing the points of the compass and how to use this useful instru- ment, every boy should also learn the posi- tion of the North or Pole Star. This is readily done by finding the " Great Bear " or " Great Dipper," — the beautiful large con- stellation in the northern sky. By following in a straight line from the two outer stars of the dipper, the uppermost of which would form the " lip " of the dipper or the " breast " of the bear, the North Star will be the first bright star in range of these two stars in the constellation, looking from the bottom, or foot, of the dipper upward. As the dipper revolves around the pole star it will some- times be above it; but by running your imaginary line from the foot or bottom of the constellation across the " breast " or '' lip " and then straight on, the north star may al- ways be located if the night is clear. The diagram (Fig. 6) will make this clearer. 92 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE Finding the Height of Objects Almost as important as a knowledge of direction is a knowledge of distance, size or Fio.4 fJJ-i' height. How often we would be glad to know the real distance from one spot to an- other; the width of a bay or river we cannot cross, or the height of some tree, building or similar object. Usually we have to merely HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 93 guess at such things, and often arrive at a result far from the truth, for distance and height are very deceptive. We are accus- tomed to comparisons in everything and un- consciously compare one thing w^ith some more familiar thing constantly. Doubtless you have all noticed hov^ huge the rising moon appears and yet how^ small it seems after it has fully risen. This is mainly be- cause we compare the moon v^ith trees, build- ings, etc., when near the horizon, which we cannot do after it is high in the heavens be- yond surrounding objects. Even more remarkable is the deceptive effect of atmospheric conditions. In the clear air of mountainous countries objects many miles away appear close at hand, and in Colorado they relate how an Eastern man looked from his hotel window the morning after his arrival and saw a towering moun- tain peak seemingly close at hand and started out to walk to it before breakfast. Of course he tramped for hours without apparently arriving any nearer the mountain, and finally asked a native how far it was. Imagine his dismay at learning it was nearly fifty miles away. A little later a native found the East- erner standing at the edge of a tiny brook removing his clothing. When asked for an 94 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE explanation he said he was going to swim across the brook. " Swim across! " exclaimed the Westerner; "why, that brook isn't six feet wide." '' I know it don't look so," said the tourist, " but judging by your mountains it may be a mighty long swim." Any boy can easily ascertain all ordinary heights and distances, to within a few feet, without instruments of any sort, and you will find it a most interesting and fascinating sport to measure trees, buildings and the width of streams, lakes, etc., in this manner. Perhaps to determine the height of an object is the easier of the two methods and this is accomplished as follows: Erect a stick or pole in the ground so that a definite length (say six feet) projects upward (Fig. 7 A-B). Now place your face close to the ground and sight across the top of the pole to the top of the tree which you wish to measure. Back off or crawl nearer until the top of the pole comes exactly in line with the top of the tree and your eye as shown by line C-E. Now measure the distance from your eye to base of pole (C-B) and distance from base of tree to your eye (C-D). Suppose you find the distance from pole to eye is 20 feet and from tree to eye is 120 feet, then by the simple sum in ratio of 20 : 6 : : 120 : X, we obtain HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 95 the result 36, so that 36 feet is the correct height of the tree. To find the distance of an object or the width of a river is equally simple. Select some prominent object as a building, isolated tree or rock on the farther side of the river and use this as a sight (Fig. 8 X). Now make a small equilateral triangle from three straight sticks and lay these on the ground in such a way that by sighting along one edge the points A-B will be in line with the object X. Mark the three angles of this triangle with small sticks or stones and walk along as nearly in line with the stones A-C as possible until the points E-F are in line with X, and then move about until the side D-F is in line with the marks at A-C. Now by measuring the distance from A to F you can determine the distance from G to X, for this will always be just % of the distance from A to F. Thus if from A to F is 80 feet, you may be sure that the distance from G to X is 70 feet. Making Maps and Charts The knowledge of how to find direction and distance is of the utmost value in map- making. Of course real maps and accurate 96 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE charts are made by the aid of various splen- did and expensive instruments, but for boy's use or for rough sketch-maps, instruments are not necessary. Of course such maps would never serve as a basis for building a railway, as grades, elevations and hollows can only be illustrated in a general way and the heights are merely approximate. For the boy hunter, trapper, camper, sailor or tramper or for the purpose of helping other boys to find certain spots or for use in lumbering work or for reference, such home-made charts will serve every purpose. In lumber districts even the roughest of maps will be very useful, for they can be made during the summer, and by their use the quantity of timber, wood roads, best trees, and other matters may be readily found in winter as required. The boy hunter and trapper will find maps of his dis- trict useful, for by them he can locate promis- ing spots, indicate where to set his traps, and by adding notes and details may in time, possess a very accurate record of his hunting grounds. All the map-making may be done in warm weather, and when the country is covered deep in snow and the brooks and rivers sealed with ice, runways, crossings and dens can be rediscovered through the medium of the home-made map without being obliged HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 97 to tramp aimlessly about in heavy snow. To the boy sailor, charts of the rivers, harbours and lakes in his vicinity w^ill prove most valuable, even w^here accurate government charts are available. Although the latter are extremely accurate as far as channels and the deeper v^aterways are concerned, yet in many of them small rocks, reefs, shoals, etc., close to shore, or in shallov^ v^ater, are omit- ted or only indicated in a general v^ay. These are the very obstacles that are most im- portant to the small-boat sailor, for in the deeper channels there is little danger to a light-draft boat while close to shore, — so close in fact that the bottom is of no interest to large vessels, — sunken snags, rocks and bars may prove dangerous to a boy's craft. The best form in which to keep and make maps is a good-sized note-book or sketch- book. The larger the pages the better, but they should not be cumbersome to carry. It is a good plan to make the preliminary sketches for the maps in one book, or on loose paper, and later copy them carefully in the permanent book. Quite often one makes a map or chart as he travels and the constant handling, numerous notes and changes result in anything but clean and neat work. A knowledge of the compass and 98 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE its use, how to find distance and height and familiarity with " pacing " distances are of importance. To learn to '' pace " properly you should first measure off various distances of from 30 to 300 yards on fairly level ground, and walking over these with long, even steps, count the number taken. The standard pace of an average man is three feet, but most men and nearly all boys pace shorter than this until accustomed to the work, and you will probably find that your paces do not average over 20 or 30 inches. By going over the distances again and again and taking longer steps you can soon get in the habit of making your paces average three feet. When this is at last accomplished over the known distances, try pacing off various distances on new ground and then measur- ing them. Of course some short boys, or boys with short legs, will be unable to pace in three- feet strides, but as long as you know the aver- age length of your paces and can make them regularly and evenly, the actual length of the stride matters little. It is just as easy to fig- ure up a distance from twenty-four-inch steps as from those of thirty-six inches. Although pacing is a very useful " rough and ready " way of determining distances, yet often one requires more accurate work. In the woods, HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 99 or on very rough and uneven ground, pacing cannot be used with good results and under such conditions a tape w^ill prove most val- uable. A steel surveyor's tape is, of course, the best, but a good strong linen tape v^ith large figures will answer. Should occasion arrive where a level is desirable — as in de- termining the depth of a depression or river- bed or the height of a small hill — an excel- lent level may be constructed from some bits, of light wood and a pail of water. We will imagine ourselves equipped with compass, tape, hatchet and small pail and start out on a map-making trip. Leaving the road we start across the field toward the distant woods. This is a good place to start our practice work, so let us jot down the first notes on your map paper. Draw a line at one edge of the paper and mark " road." Now look at your compass and find some prominent landmark; the tall pine directly north will do finely, while the old barn due east will serve for another bearing. Indicate the points of the compass at your starting point and jot down the notes of pine tree due north and old barn east. To determine our starting point more accurately we must meas- ure with the tape to some nearby object, as for example the scraggy wild-apple tree a 100 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE few paces up the road. The distance is found to be forty-five yards and so we mark a spot to indicate it on our map, giving direction as east-southeast and " distance forty-five yards." We propose to enter the woods on the other side of the field and as the latter has no interest for us and would occupy most of our map if included in proportion to the other objects or " to scale," we merely write '' open field " across the blank space above our starting point. Now glance at the compass and start pacing across the field. We find our direction is west-northwest, and we write this down and start forward. One hundred and twenty paces from our starting point we reach a bramble thicket. This is a mean place to tramp through, so mark " bram- bles one hundred and twenty paces west- northwest from starting point." To make a detour around the brambles we walk twenty- five paces west and then turn to due north- west. Notes are made of this, and two hun- dred and forty-six paces further on brings us to the edge of the woods. These facts having been entered on our map, we notice a broad shallow depression near us, with a ledge of rocks jutting up beyond, while on the other side a large oak tree attracts attention. These are good marks and we quickly determine HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 101 U^'G £.Jflrh,'fi '*A*r , Pio.12 foii^ SZff-/t/fi \ SiH hole. % .i^St^rhitjPet'xt- A/>/>l« trff 102 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE the distance and direction of the ledge and the distance and direction of oak tree by using the methods described under " Finding direction and distance." The map will now appear as in Fig. 9. This is a good oppor- tunity to experiment with our level and by its use find the depth of the little " sink-hole." Cut a thin flat piece of wood, a little shorter than the diameter of the pail, and in this insert two little pegs or '' masts " of exactly equal length, one in each end of the thin piece or float (Fig. 10). Fill the pail with water at the nearby brook and cut a straight, light sapling or branch. Measure off ten feet on this with your tape and mark them plainly by cutting through the bark into the white wood beneath. Our level is now ready for use. Set the pail at the edge of the sink-hole and while one of us sights across the two '' masts " the other should walk into the depression, holding the rod vertical with one end on the ground. Sight carefully across the " masts," keeping the two tops exactly in line, and when the rodman has reached the point where the last notch on his rod is exactly in line with the two tops of the sights, have him halt. The highest notch is ten feet, so we make a note of this and, with tape, measure off the distance HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 103 from pail to rod. This gives us thirty feet and we now move the pail to the spot where the rod was, and proceed as before with the rodman walking toward the bottom of the hole. Presently we notice that the marks on the rod are moving up from our sights, so we know our comrade has passed the deepest spot and is ascending. He must, therefore, return slowly until we find the lowest spot, whereupon we find the reading to be six feet. The tape is again brought into play and measurements show the distance at last observation to be fifty-four feet. Now we know that the hole is eighty-four feet from our side to the deepest point and that the depth from edge to centre is sixteen feet. Moreover as we have the heights and dis- tances of two levellings we can draw an ac- curate diagram of a sectional view of the pit, showing the grade of its sides. This will be easy to accomplish by laying off the two angles as illustrated in Fig. ii. You will find this very fascinating work and in com- pany with your friends you can make inter- esting sectional diagrams of cuttings, pits, quarries, beds of rivers, hillsides and many other natural formations. As we emerge from the sink-hole and start into the woods, a grouse whirrs up from 104 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE under foot and beneath the shelter of a clump of thick brush we find her nest with its twelve buffy eggs. This will be a fine thing to photograph some other day, but can we be sure of finding it again? Without the map we might have hard work, but with it, it will prove easy. Standing by the nest and sight- ing back through the trees, we catch a glimpse of our ledge and find the direction south- southwest. Turning slowly about we find a large chestnut tree due east by north, while a dead stub bears due west. The distance from the nest to each of these is soon de- termined and the results written on our sketch, which now appears as in Fig. 12. Of course we could have found the nest again by marking a tree or sticking up a peeled sapling, but such a method might result in the nest being disturbed and would moreover give us no permanent record of the nest on our map, and the pleasant recollections of interesting things brought up by looking over a map is one of its most valuable fea- tures. From the nest we walk through the woods in a westerly direction, for with con- stant detours around trees and other objects our course is more or less crooked and we can- not spend the time to make notes of all our turns and twists; still, frequent glances at the HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 105 compass show our course to be in a general western direction, while observations of the trees and ground show us that white oak trees predominate, that the ground is dry and rather sandy and a measurement of a few trees gives their trunks as averaging four feet in circumference and their height to the main branches as twenty feet. These are valuable notes, and to further aid us in the future we occasionally " blaze " a mark on a tree beside our trail. All of these points are entered on the map and presently we reach the edge of a wood road. Before pro- ceeding let us make an entry of the surround- ings to locate our position more accurately. Far down the road we see an old log bridge, and pacing to this, find it two hundred and sixty yards. The road runs northeast to the bridge and then turns and runs east. In the other direction we find the road runs southwest for two hundred and ten yards and then turns to northwest. These facts, written on the map, will locate our position nicely. At the bridge we look down on a little wood- land brook, and presently we see a mink steal out from the crevices of the bank and cautiously travelling down the waterside he leaps upon a fallen log and disappears in a cavity. This is interesting, and as his actions 106 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE plainly show that it is his usual haunt, we will be sure to locate the spot for trapping purposes next winter. Again resuming our tramp, we travel over the old road and pres- ently find it ascending a rise and note that birches and chestnuts are mixed with the general oak growth. This should be entered on the map as well as any distinct turns in the road. Soon the road descends and the earth becomes damp and presently we reach the borders of a dense alder swamp. The swamp extends on either hand and the road passes through it east by north. All this time we have been talking and have neglected to note distances, so let us at least determine some distance to locate the swamp more accurately. Looking back up the road we estimate the distance to the crest of hill at three hundred and ten yards, and pacing it, find it to be two hundred and eighty; looking down the other side to the bridge we guess it to be at least twice as far and so enter the fact. The distance across the swamp is six hundred yards and just beyond we enter a large clearing. This space is practically oval, is four hundred and sixteen yards across; eight hundred and five yards long and runs N.N.W. and S.S.E. At its northern corner is a pile of about six cords of mixed wood, HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 107 while a broken cart wheel forty-six yards from the entrance of road on the western edge will serve to identify this clearing whenever we find it again. Walking down the clearing we find a little path which leads us to where a sparkling brook crosses our way. The brook crosses ninety yards from the clearing and we wonder if it is the same brook which we crossed on the old wood road, when we saw the mink. It would save a long walk if it proved such and so we follow up its bed, until we find the brook issuing from a deep swamp. Perhaps this is our alder swamp near the clearing. If so we will soon know, for by reference to our map we find the swamp was but six hundred yards across and that its eastern edge bordered on the clear- ing. So we turn to the east and presently come out on the clearing, about half-way down its length. This gives us additional data regarding the size of the • swamp, and we now know that it extends for at least four hundred yards south of the wood road. Re- turning to where the brook issued from the alders we find the ground too swampy to enter, but again referring to our sketch, we find there was no brook crossing the swamp at the road and that the mink brook was the only stream encountered on our walk. We 108 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE therefore must skirt the western edge of the swamp to find where the brook enters, and doing this, we soon encounter it again. Here we find the brook flows from the west a trifle north and as this would indicate that it is the same brook that crosses the road, we continue a little further until we sight the old bridge. Rather than go back by this circuitous route we decide to cut straight through the woods and by referring to our map and notes and looking at our compass, we start in a direc- tion due southeast. Presently we pass a tree freshly " blazed '' and know we are passing our first trail and soon we see the open field before us and come out into the sunlight close to the ledge of granite where we first entered the woods. This will complete our first day's experience in map-making, and the result of our labours should appear as in the illustration. Fig. 13. If you are a boy sailor and wish to make sailing charts, your method will be some- what similar but in many ways will differ greatly. Here a tape, or knowledge of pacing, is of little value and your distances must be determined either by patent log, guesswork, dead reckoning or by bearing on shore ob- jects whose distances are well known. If you use a motor boat and its speed is accurately HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 109 known it is an easy matter to determine dis- tances by timing the run and deducting or adding the speed of tides or winds, accord- ing as to whether they are with or against you. In a sailboat, dead reckoning is next to impossible for a beginner and good judg- ment and frequent bearings on prominent landmarks are necessary. To locate rocks or reefs, soundings should be made and the state of tide at such times should always be noted with care. A rock that would prove dangerous at low water, or half tide, might be six feet beneath the surface at high water and the depth of water on a reef — unless the state of tide is given also — is of little help. Most rocks and reefs can be readily located by a long sounding rod or a weighted line, but frequently one strikes a rock which is so narrow or pointed that it is next to impos- sible to find it with line or rod. When a rock of this character is encountered you should use two boats and a drag line. This is merely a long line with several fathoms kept on the bottom by lead or iron weights attached at intervals. Each boat takes one end of the line and pulling along slowly a few yards apart, drag the entire bottom between them and any rocks are soon located and are readily sounded and buoyed. The accom- no HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE Fig. 14 Fig. 13 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 111 panying illustration of a home-made chart of a river and harbour will show the sort of work you should strive to accomplish (Fig. 14). In this case there were already plenty of excellent charts of the main river and the har- bour channels, but these were so large that the boys did not care to carry them about and there were no charts obtainable of the " gut " or cut-off across the mud-flats. It occurred to the boys that if a channel could be found across the flats which would ac- commodate their little launch at half tide it would save a run of several miles down the river and around the island to the bay. The map shows how well they succeeded and while formerly the flats and their channels had been beneath the notice of the govern- ment charts, yet since the boys found and charted its waterways it has become of con- siderable value to light-draft boats and is well illustrated on more recent charts. Whenever you find a rock, reef, sunken spile, snag or any other impediment to navi- gation you should note down its bearings accurately. A tree, rock, hill, house or barn on shore answers very well as a bearing, but of course you must give cross bearings in order to locate the object properly. As an 112 HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE Fig. 10 ^ 8-f ft-, t^t^-^ius Fig. 11 Tf^H ?meh'f<^ Tto. 15 Mt. /^iietree 1' example take the little diagram of a bit of shore shown in Fig. 15. Here the bearings are given for several rocks. By having three bearings to each rock there is no danger of mistaking a location and where distances can- HOW TO FIND DIRECTION AND DISTANCE 113 not be measured the importance of having such is most important. Thus in the case of rock '' A." If the distance offshore was known, two bearings would be ample, but as this is not given the third bearing serves instead. Aim at accuracy and full details in your work and keep on adding notes and sketches to the original map or chart until you are sure you have embodied everything of interest or importance. If I am not greatly mistaken you will find map- and chart-making a most enjoyable sport, and, moreover, it may sometime prove of the utmost value. The miner, forester, sailor, engineer or explorer who can furnish an accurate, if crude or rough, map of the country over which he has travelled, possesses an enormous advantage over the man who is compelled to depend upon the maps of others, or must trust to memory or mere sketches. CHAPTER VI SAVAGE WEAPONS AND HOW TO MAKE THEM Indian Bows and Arrows The majority of boys who are fond of out- of-doors life have a strong desire to get back to primitive conditions and " play Indian." Scarcely a boy exists who has not at one time or another danced impromptu war- dances, uttered weird cries which he thought were war-whoops and has painted his face and stuck feathers in his hat, and imagined he was a noble redman. While many of the Indian's traits and habits are scarcely to be recommended for civilised boys to follow, yet the self-reliance, healthy life and knowledge of woodcraft and nature, which are brought about by imitating the savage, are most beneficial. Even if the outdoors boy does not play Indian, he will find an added interest and much greater pleasure in his woodland life if he makes his own weapons and traps, con- structs his own camps, tans the hides of his game, fashions his own moccasins, and de- 114 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 115 pends upon his individual prowess as a hunter and trapper for a large portion of his food and other necessities of life. Almost any boy can become a good shot with a rifle or shot-gun and with modern fire- arms comparatively little real skill is required to hunt and kill game, and all too many boys carry a gun or rifle constantly when in the woods and blaze away at every living thing in mere wantonness. This is a practice which cannot be too strongly condemned, as un- necessary slaughter is cruel, wasteful and unsportsmanlike, and with firearms the ad- vantage is all on the side of the hunter. While a sort of latent savage instinct causes civilised boys and men to enjoy hunting, yet the real pleasure is in the chase itself and not in the actual killing. Hunting is the best of training for body, mind and eye, but far more real pleasure may be obtained by using bow and arrows for weapons than by the use of your up-to-date gun. The boy who hunts with bow and arrows and depends upon matching his own skill and cunning against that of his quarry gets far more enjoyment and benefit from his hunt than his friend with the gun, and gives his prey a fair show be- sides. Moreover, wild creatures, hunted with bow and arrows, seldom become shy or wild. 116 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM even if shot at repeatedly, whereas the report of a gun soon frightens all the game within hearing. Even if you do not hunt, a good bow and arrows will lend added pleasure to your out- of-door life, for target shooting at imitation animals can be made quite interesting and exciting. Many of my readers may scoff at the idea of using a bow and arrow, for nowadays these implements have come to be regarded as mere toys or playthings by most people. You should not forget that the bow was the most important weapon of our ancestors for many centuries, and that the prowess of the Eng- lish archers won many a hard-fought battle- field and laid the foundation for the great British Empire. Even our pioneer fore- fathers found the Indian bows and arrows dangerous weapons, while at the present time many tribes depend entirely upon the bow for hunting. Archery reached its highest de- velopment in the days of Robin Hood and the English bowmen, and while the stories of their deeds are doubtless greatly exaggerated, there is no question of the remarkable skill acquired by many of the British archers. It is an easy matter to become proficient in the use of the bow, and within the last SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 117 few years many lovers of out-of-door life have adopted the bow and arrow as hunting weap- ons. It seems almost incredible that geese and ducks may be killed in flight by an archer, and yet such men as Maurice Thomp- son and his followers have repeatedly accom- plished this feat. Armed with a really good bow and prop- erly made arrows any boy may easily become an expert archer, for practice is the only re- quirement, and you will be mightily sur- prised to find what a lot of fun you can de- rive from the use of these simple weapons. No one who has not experienced the sensa- tion can possibly imagine the thrill felt by the archer at the twang of a taut bowstring and the soft whistle of a well-driven arrow, or the breathless interest with which he watches the flight of his feathered shaft as in a graceful curve it speeds straight and true to its mark. The first and most important requirements for the archer are perfect bows and arrows, and of the two the arrows are far more diffi- cult to make and are of greater importance. As there is little chance for outdoor life dur- ing the late winter and early spring, much of your time may be happily employed in pre- paring your equipment for the coming season, 118 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM and no portion of your outfit is worthy of more care and trouble than your bow and arrows. It takes time and patience to make these weapons properly, and it is an excellent plan to have several bows and a large num- ber of arrows and strings on hand. The first step in making a bow is to secure the proper wood. Yew, Cedar, Orange Wood, Lancewood, Ash, Elm, Hornbeam, Apple and Hickory all make good bows, but of all the native woods, I prefer good, straight-grained white Hickory. The wood should be thor- oughly seasoned winter-cut sticks, and if there is a carriage or wagon shop in your town, you will find that the best place to obtain the right material. Bows vary greatly in length, width, thickness and shape with different tribes and people, but as a rule the long, slender bows are best adapted for target work and long range, while the shorter and broader forms are more suitable for hunting. The North American Indians use short, broad bows, while the Central and South Americans use very long, slender bows, and both seem to succeed equally well. The arrows vary as much as the bows and many of the South and Central American tribes use arrows four to six feet in length and entirely destitute of feathers. With such weapons I SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 119 have seen them kill birds from the tops of tall forest trees and shoot fish several feet beneath the surface of rapid mountain streams. These peculiar arrows are, how- ever, the exception, and you will do best to follow the most usual and conventional styles. For ordinary hunting use, your stick of wood should be about five feet long and two inches square and should be cut so that the line between heart and sap wood runs exactly through the centre. However, you should not be discouraged if you cannot obtain a piece with both heart and sap wood, for excellent bows may be fashioned from clear hickory or other wood, provided the grain is straight, fine and free from knots or curls. The stave should then be worked down with draw shave and plane until about an inch thick and an inch and a half wide for fifteen to eighteen inches in the centre, and from this should taper off to about three- fourths of an inch wide and half an inch thick at the ends.. Great care should be used in scraping and working down the bow, in order that the heart and sap wood may remain of equal thickness the entire length. As you work you should test the bow frequently to see that both ends bend evenly, and all the surface should be scraped with glass, rubbed 120 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM smooth with fine sandpaper and kept as smooth and even as possible. The bow should be flat on one side and slightly convex or rounded on the other, and the flat side should be the outward side when bow is bent (Fig. i). The exact size of the bow depends upon your own strength and judg- ment, but as a rule a bow drawing at from fifteen to thirty pounds is about right for boys' use. A short distance from each end you should file or cut a smooth diagonal notch on each side and connect these by another groove across the flat side (Fig. 2). The bow should now be rubbed with linseed oil (being very careful not to put on too much or the spring will be lost), and then rubbed until polished with parafline, bayberry wax or sim- ilar polish. At the centre of the bow a space about six inches long should be covered with soft leather or cloth, glued in place and with the edges neatly sewed together on the back side of bow. This serves as a grip for your hand and prevents slipping of the arrow (Fig. 3). An excellent grip may be made by winding the bow with fine and strong waxed linen thread or by winding with adhesive bicycle tape. The string is now the next thing to make, and as bowstrings are often SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 121 broken or frayed, the boy archer should pro- vide himself with a number of extra strings. Catgut, sinew and rawhide are all used as bowstrings, but I have found clear, unbleached flax or hemp the best material. To make a hemp or flax bowstring secure the best shoe- makers' flax and some shoemakers' wax. Wax the thread thoroughly and wind it around two nails or pegs seven feet apart until you have fifteen or twenty strands (Fig. 4). Wax these and cut through the bunch of strands where they cross one of the pegs. Divide the strands into three equal parts and braid them loosely together. Now wind one end of the braided string with fine silk or linen thread thoroughly waxed. At the op- posite end make a neat, smooth loop by wind- ing the string where it goes around the peg and then, removing it from the latter, wind the loop formed by the unbraided threads (Fig. 5). Now slip this loop over one end of your bow, draw the other end of string around notch in opposite end and bend the bow carefully until the string stands out about six inches from the bow at its centre (Fig. 3). Secure the string by a timber hitch (Fig. 6) around the other notch and wind a space of six or eight inches in the middle of the string with fine silk thread (Fig. 122 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 3). Loosen the string by slipping off the loop (so it slides down on the bow) (Fig. 2), and give all the windings a coat of quick-drying varnish or shellac. For arrows you may use either White Pine, Oregon Spruce, Norway Pine, Ash or Hick- ory. For target use, pine arrows will do, but for hard use and hunting, ash is the best ma- terial. Indians often use straight shoots of arrow-wood (Viburnum) and similar shrubs, but it is very difficult to obtain these per- fectly straight. If you wish to try this sort of material you can make the shoots much straighter and better by hanging them up while green by one end with a heavy weight attached to the other and allowing them to dry thoroughly in this position. In making arrows from wood, secure a block of perfectly straight-grained, well- seasoned pine or ash about 24 to 28 inches long and split this in half; split each of these pieces in half again and continue halv- ing the pieces until the pieces are all split into straight sticks about half an inch to three-quarters of an inch square. Place these sticks on a smooth level board or bench and plane them straight, working around and around until the sticks are smooth, fairly round and absolutely straight and true. SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 123 When all your sticks are in this state go over them with coarse and then fine sandpaper and work at them until they are as round and smooth as possible. If you work the sand- FiG. 7 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 15 S-- SMct /•..» A„>( y £■■-» fitk he. paper with your hand or fingers your arrows will be very likely to have hollows in them, and to avoid this cut a half-round groove lengthwise of a block of soft wood and place your strip of sandpaper in this and use it like a plane (Fig. 7). The next step is to cut notches in the arrows. Examine each stick and determine 124 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM which way the grain runs, and in the end towards which the grain runs cut a smooth notch quarter of an inch deep and wide enough to readily admit the wound, central part of the bowstring. A fine saw-notch, smoothed and widened with a fine file, is the best and easiest to make, but very good notches may be made with a small-bladed penknife (Fig. 8). To feather your arrows secure a number of stiff wing feathers of some large bird, such as turkey, eagle, swan, goose, blue heron, gull, cormorant, pelican or crane. Keep the feath- ers from each side of the bird by themselves, for if feathers from opposite sides are placed on one arrow, you will obtain very poor re- sults, owing to the different curves of the feathers. Strip the feathers or plumes, with a thin piece of the midrib attached, from the quill and cut these into pieces of even length and trim so that a short piece of the midrib projects at either end (Fig. 9). Now mark three lines on your arrows, spaced equal dis- tances apart and so arranged that one comes opposite and at right angles to the notch, while the others are nearly parallel with it (Fig. 10). These lines should be drawn on with a ruler, or straight edge, and if they all turn slightly at an angle or " twist " they SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 125 will result in better feathering, for these marks are to guide you in fastening on the feathers, and the feathers act like the grooves in a rifle barrel, causing the arrow to revolve in flight and thus travel straighter and more evenly, as well as to prevent its tendency to turn end over end or '' keyhole." Your arrows being marked, glue the strips of feath- ers along the lines, keeping them straight and true, and finish by winding or lashing the projecting ends of midrib with fine waxed silk or linen thread. Indians use sinew to wind on the feathers and there is no reason why you should not use similar material if you wish. Remember, however, that the ma- terials used by savages are due to necessity and not choice, and that the uncivilised man is only too anxious to adopt civilised materials whenever he can obtain them. Place your arrows in a cool, dry spot, and while the glue is thoroughly hardening you may prepare the tips, or heads, of your arrows. These may be made of hardened wood, brass, horn, stone, bone or iron. For hunting purposes wooden heads, hardened by fire, will answer, but these soon become dull and their light weight has a tendency to cause erratic flight. Brass or steel ferrule heads may be purchased of sporting goods dealers 126 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM at nominal cost or may be made by any black- smith or machine shop by drilling a hole in pieces of rod (Fig. ii, i). Bone makes very good heads, but is too brittle for everyday use. Horn makes good hunting points and is excellent for birds and small animals, al- though for birds blunt wooden, or bone, heads answer very well (Fig. ii, 2-3-4). In certain districts, — such as Ohio and Indiana, — where stone arrowheads are found in large num- bers, the boy archer may readily obtain ex- cellent stone arrowheads for hunting use (Fig. II, 6). The best heads of all for hunt- ing and general utility are made from thick hoop iron, or thin steel, and these can be cut up into any shape desired (Fig. 11, 5). Steel wire nails may also be used as arrow- heads with good results (Fig. 11, 7). Use your own taste and judgment as to material and shape of heads, and when you obtain good results, stick to your own style. The heads, — if of ferrule pattern, — are merely glued in place, but if made of horn, bone, stone or sheet metal, should be inserted in a notch, glued in place and the shaft wound tightly with very fine copper wire or strong thread (Fig. 12). This lashing holds the head in place and prevents the arrow from splitting, and should be wound as evenly and SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 127 tightly as possible and thoroughly waxed and varnished. The last step in finishing your arrows is to varnish or paint them, and as bright colours render arrows more readily seen among brush or grass and serve to dis- tinguish one boy's arrows from those of another, there is nothing better to use than quick-drying enamel paint. When the arrows are thoroughly dry you may go forth and try your new weapons, al- though before doing so I advise you to pre- pare a quiver and an arm guard. These may well be made while your arrows are drying, and while not absolutely neces- sary, they are very useful. A bow case and quiver combined is easily made from leather or canvas and may be ornamented and fringed to suit your own fancy (Fig. 13). The bow case should be long enough to com- pletely cover the bow and loose enough so that the bow may be readily and quickly drawn when needed. The quiver should be a little shorter than the arrows and fairly stiff, and a study of the illustration will show you how to make it without any description (Fig. 14). The arm guard consists of a piece of flexible leather, — an old boot leg does very well, — laced or buckled on the arm which holds the bow to protect the wrist from the 128 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM bowstring (Fig. 15). You will also find gloves, with tips of fingers cut off, a great help for the feathers of the arrow, and the snap of the bowstring will soon chafe and cut your hand and fingers if you shoot very much. To use the bow with success you should stand with your heels in line with the target, your left hand with bow extended toward the object and at almost right angles to your feet. Place the arrow on the string and rest it across the bow and on and across your thumb and finger of the bow hand. Now hook your first three fingers of the right hand over the string with the notched end of arrow between the first and second fingers (Fig. 16). Raise your bow hand to the level of your chin and draw back on the string and arrow with your right elbow raised almost to your shoulder line and in line with the arrow (Fig. 17). Draw until the head of the arrow is almost to the bow and, glancing along the arrow until in line with the target, release the string by open- ing the crook of right fingers. Keep your left hand and bow fixed till the arrow strikes and watch the result. Doubtless your first few arrows will fly wide of the mark, but note whether they travel to right or left, above or SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 129 below, and you will rapidly improve. Learn to draw your bow in exactly the same man- ner every time and remember to draw your right thumb to the same spot on your cheek at each shot. This will result in uniform shooting and failures may be more readily corrected. You will find that there is a most remarkable variation in the way your arrows act. Some will fly almost straight, others will swing and wabble, others will travel through a wide arc or curve and still others will prove so erratic that they cannot be depended upon to shoot true. Discard the latter, if after trying trimming the feathers or fitting new heads they are still unsatis- factory. All arrows (even though made exactly alike) have distinct individuality and the successful bowman studies the peculiari- ties of each shaft until he knows instinctively just which arrow to select from his quiver for each and every purpose and condition. Some arrows travel best on windy days, others on calm days; some will shoot straight- est against and others with the wind, and some are better for long than short shots, and vice versa. An expert arrow-maker can fashion an arrow for a certain purpose and knows just how to trim and set the feathers and balance the head to develop the best 130 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM possible results; but this knack can only be acquired by long and constant practice and experiment and cannot be described or taught. As a rule the long, small-feathered arrow is best in the wind, while a large-feathered shaft is superior in calm weather, but much de- pends upon the size and weight of the head and the general balance of the arrow. In shooting at a mark use an old sack or similar object stuffed with hay, leaves or straw; or place your mark on a haystack. Unless you have arrows to waste, never shoot at a hard object, such as a tree, fence, barn or post, for the impact will be almost sure to spring or split your arrows. Excellent practice may be obtained by set- ting up cardboard or cloth birds or animals backed with a sack of straw, for in this way you learn far more than by shooting at a con- ventional target of rings and bull's-eye. You should commence shooting at a mark not over twenty or thirty yards distant and gradually increase the range as you become more skil- ful. When you can drive three out of five arrows into a paper deer at sixty yards, you may consider yourself quite proficient and need not fear to try your hand at real game. You will find, however, that shooting among trees or brush is far harder than in the SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 131 open, and for that reason I strongly advise you to practise in the woods a great deal, setting up your imitation game at various distances and under various conditions of light and shade. A very interesting and instructive game may be played by a number of boys travelling through the woods and dropping bits of paper, or beans, for a '' trail " and setting up cardboard or cloth targets representing game, in spots that the real game might select as resting-places. The archers are to follow the " trail " exactly as if they were stalking real game, and as soon as they see the quarry are to shoot. This method may be varied by having the trail-makers attach a string, or rope, to their targets and as the archer draws to shoot they should endeavour to jerk the target out of sight before the arrow reaches it, thus more closely imitating the action of a wild animal. This will teach the bowmen to act more rapidly and surely, and will de- velop far more skill in stalking and shooting than a fixed target. Running or jumping targets are easily de- signed and will prove most useful in perfect- ing your marksmanship, while the ambitious bowman will not be content until he has be- come an expert wing shot and can pierce a 1S2 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM cloth ball or pasteboard box when thrown into the air at ten or a dozen yards. Boomerangs Nearly every boy has read of boomerangs, those strange wooden weapons used by the native black men of Australia. Boomerangs, in the hands of an Australian native, are deadly weapons and with them the black fel- lows kill wild game, such as emus, kangaroos, etc., and in former times they even fought battles with the queer crooked sticks, which in skilled hands can perform most wonderful feats. As means of killing game, boomerangs are far inferior to other implements for civil- ised man, but it is lots of fun to throw them and it does not take a great deal of practice to become very expert in their use. The ordinary idea that a boomerang will invariably return to its thrower is erroneous, for in unskilled hands a boomerang is liable to do almost anything, and is quite as likely to sail away and land at a distance as to re- turn. In skilled hands the same weapon may be made to return, or not, and by dexterous throwing the boomerang may be made to perform most marvellous gyrations and weird SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 133 evolutions, eventually returning to the very spot from v^hich it was cast. It must always be borne in mind, however, that a boomerang, after striking any object, remains at the spot where it struck and does not continue its flight. Boomerangs are very easy to make, but a great many may be constructed before a single one is obtained which will work well. There is almost no limit to the number of forms of boomerangs which are in use, and each variation in form, shape or size has a different manner of flight and requires dis- tinct manipulation in throwing. It is im- possible to tell beforehand which shape will work the best or which will perform the most wonderful flights, and it is very interesting to make several different styles and try each one in turn. You will find that one will soar high, whirl round and round and return in a long graceful curve; another may fly low, clipping across the tops of the grass, and will suddenly turn, rise perpendicularly and dash back at redoubled speed. Another will zig- zag and twist, turn somersaults and spirals and fall like a plummet from a height, while still another may fly straight away, turn about and sail back in a most staid and matter-of-fact manner. 134 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM The accompanying illustration (Fig. i8) shows several typical forms, and the types shown in Figs. A and B are the conventional and best known. They are far harder to make than those shown in Figs. D, E, F, however, and are no better, in fact I have had better success with these angular two- piece affairs than with the one-piece curved SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 135 forms. The two-piece boomerangs are glued and screwed together, each piece being rounded on one side and flat on the other, as shown in Fig. I. To make the curved forms, a natural bent piece of tree must be shaved down to the desired thickness, or a piece of wood may be steamed and bent into the de- sired shape and then sawed into sections, which are worked down to the proper shape and thickness (Fig. H). In any case the finished boomerang should be light, smoothly finished, flat on one side and rounded on the other and should not be less than ten or twelve inches long on each side. The exact weight, width and curve must be determined by experiment. Con- stant practice is required in order to throw a boomerang exactly the same way every time, but with practice wonderful skill may be acquired. Recently I saw a juggler on the stage of a theatre, who threw over a dozen boomerangs out over the heads of the audience, and, although every one circled about in a different manner, each returned to the thrower, who caught them in his hands. At one time four of the odd instruments were in the air at once. These were all the angular two-piece affairs shown in Figs. D, E and F. Do not attempt such " stunts " 136 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM until you are thoroughly master of your boomerangs, however; even a light wooden boomerang can inflict serious injuries if it strikes a person on the head or face. Spears and Throwing -Sticks Another peculiar implement of the chase and of warfare, which is used by the Aus- tralians and many other savages, is the spear and throwing-stick. Although an ordinary throwing spear or javelin is a powerful and deadly weapon in the hands of an expert, yet its range is limited and tremendous muscular power is required to throw it with sufficient force to be effective. By the use of the ingenious throwing-stick, the spear or javelin may be cast two or three times as far and with less effort than by the unaided arm. The throwing-stick consists of a piece of wood, shaped as shown in Fig. 19. The small, narrow end is the handle, the spear rests upon the broad flattened centre and the little hook at the other end presses against the end of the spear haft. The stick and spear are held as shown in Fig. 20, and by bringing the stick violently forward and releasing the spear at the same instant the stick acts as a lever or an extension of the thrower's arm SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM 137 exactly as the springy stick thrust into a green apple will enable the boy to throw the fruit much farther than it is possible to do by hand. Throwing-sticks may be constructed of any fairly hard, tough wood, and the hook at the end may be carved from the wood or may be made of metal, bone or wood, and lashed in place. Some of the best throwing-sticks I have ever used or seen were made from a nat- ural branch, with a side branch trimmed close, to form the hook. Care should be taken not to have the hook sharp enough to catch on the end of the spear. It should be quite broad, blunt and merely deep enough to hold the spear in position until it is actually cast. At first you will find there is a tendency to throw the spear downward, but with a little practice you can throw it as straight and much more accurately than with the unaided hand. The spear itself should be from six to ten feet in length with a light, straight haft and a head heavy enough to prevent it from flying wild. A haft of straight cane or bamboo will answer, but straight-grained spruce is far better. The head may be of brass, iron, stone or even hard wood, and it should be lashed in place and the spear, for some dis- 138 SAVAGE WEAPONS— HOW TO MAKE THEM tance below it, should be wound with linen thread or fine wire to prevent the haft splitting from the force of the stroke. It is also a good plan to wind the other end of the haft for a few inches as well. CHAPTER VII TRAPS AND TRAPPING Every outdoors boy, who goes into the woods, should have some knowledge of trap- ping. To be able to trap the wary, valuable, fur-bearing animals, for their hides, is an art in itself and requires a great deal of skill, practice and knowledge. To trap common creatures for food or skins is quite a differ- ent matter and requires comparatively little skill. Trapping at its best is somewhat cruel, and a great many forms of traps cause the victims the utmost torture. For that reason no one should trap wild animals unless it is neces- sary, or of such great importance, as to more than offset any suffering caused the animals. If you require food, skins, furs, or animals are a pest or a nuisance, it is all right to trap or kill them; but in any and every case you should use traps which cause as little suffering as possible and should use every effort and care to prevent needless pain. Many of the fur-bearing creatures are so 139 140 TRAPS AND TRAPPING destructive to poultry, game and other ani- mals and birds that they may be classed as pests and may be killed and trapped without compunction. Weasels, ermine, foxes, mink, and in some places badgers and skunks, as well as coyotes, belong in this class. More- over the furs of these creatures are valuable and useful and I can see no objection to boys trapping them, provided the traps used are merciful and are visited regularly. In many places rabbits, hares, gophers, squirrels, muskrats and similar small animals are very abundant and are a serious menace to crops. Such creatures may be trapped, their skins used for various purposes and the cultivated things benefited at the same time. Nearly all these small, common animals are good to eat and the boy camper need not hesitate to eke out his larder by trapping, if he does not trap during the breeding season when the animals have young that would be left to starve if their parents were destroyed. There are a great many kinds of traps in use, some of which catch the animals alive, while others kill them outright. The latter are the most merciful and are usually the surest. Such traps are known as " deadfalls " and " snares," and while there is an almost unlimited variety of each, a knowledge of a TRAPS AND TRAPPING 141 few kinds will prove sufficient for ordinary purposes. Snares Snares consist of slipnooses of wire, cord, horsehair or other material arranged to catch the feet or neck of the victim. They are most useful in catching birds, especially such species as quail, grouse, partridge, etc., but they may also be used in capturing rabbits, hares, squirrels or various other small ani- mals. The simplest of all snares consist simply of a noose of hair, fine fish-line or wire, at- tached to a spring pole or swinging weight and set in the accustomed path or runway of the creature it is intended to capture. A small tree or sapling may be lashed to a tree like an old-fashioned well-sweep (Fig. i A), and the noose attached to the small end and held down by catching it under a forked stick, or the noose may be attached to a springy sapling bent down as shown in Fig. I B. The principal skill required in setting successful snares is in arranging the trigger and noose, so that the animal or bird will be sure to get caught. One very good method is to build a little brush or twig inclosure and 142 TRAPS AND TRAPPING set the noose in an opening therein, as shown in Fig. 2. The bent sapling is held down by a strong cord attached to a trigger, which is merely a light cross-piece set into slight notches in two stakes driven into the ground. Bait may be placed just within the noose in the inclosure, and a slight pressure against the noose will dislodge the trigger and allow the sapling to spring up and swing the snared creature into the air. Another form of '' twitch-up " snare is shown at Fig. 2a, In this form a circle of sticks is made by driving short stakes in the earth, setting them one inch apart and forming a circle five or six inches in diameter. The tops of the stakes are notched and the noose laid evenly in the notches. The sapling to which the noose is attached is held down by a cord fas- tened to a simple trigger. A reversed " Figure Four " is excellent for the purpose, and the long end is baited and projects within the circle of sticks. Another adaptation of this trap is when the noose is set in an opening in the side of an inclosure. Partridges and other ground-loving birds may often be snared by means of nooses caught into little arched doorways in a brush fence as shown in Fig. 3. Other birds may be snared by setting a number of small horse- TRAPS AND TRAPPING 143 hair nooses attached to a central line, as shown in Fig. 4, and scattering grain, crumbs or other bait about over the snares. Still another form of bird-snare is illustrated in Fig. 5. This is a twitch-up and its construc- tion is so obvious that no explanation is required. Snares should never be used unless it is absolutely necessary to capture birds or ani- mals for food and in nearly every state they are forbidden by law. Deadfalls Deadfalls consist of heavy weights, usually a log or stone, so arranged as to fall upon the head or back of an animal when a trigger is sprung. Deadfalls are the best of all traps for catching weasels, skunks, marten, mink and other small animals, and when made large enough, they are often used for killing wolves, foxes, lynx or even bears. There are various methods of constructing a dead- fall. Two of the simplest are shown in Figs. 6 and 6a. The first consists of a log with a space on the upper surface cut smooth and with a slight ridge as shown in section at A, and with another similar log, B, held directly above the first by the stakes C driven into 144 TRAPS AND TRAPPING the ground for guides and with the trigger D, to which the bait is attached. In order to compel the animal to take the bait in such a manner that the log will fall upon its neck, a little fence or inclosure of sticks is built, as shown at E. Instead of using the forms of triggers illustrated, the old and reliable " Fig- ure Four " may be used. This is shown in Fig. 7, and the construction and operation is so simple and easily understood that no de- scription is required. The best bait for dead- falls, when set for carnivorous animals, is chicken or turkey heads, but any raw meat or dead birds will answer. It is not necessary to set deadfalls near the animals' dens or holes; a fence corner, stone wall or any partly sheltered spot will serve just as well. Many animals have the habit of frequenting definite paths or " runways," and if one of these is discovered a deadfall may be set in such a position that the animal passing along his accustomed pathway will be almost cer- tain to spring the trap. Squirrels usually travel along old fences or walls, and in such places deadfalls may be set to advantage. Rabbits usually travel over well-worn and easily recognised paths, and a deadfall set on one of these will usually bring results. In setting a deadfall it is not always necessary TRAPS AND TRAPPING 145 146 TRAPS AND TRAPPING to use a trigger with bait, triggers arranged as shown in Figs. 8a and Sb are often excel- lent when the trap is set on a runway, for the animal stepping upon the part A springs the trigger and causes the log to fall. Although a heavy log makes an excellent deadfall, yet stones or any other weight will serve just as well. In setting a deadfall be sure that the weight is sufficient to crush the skull or break the back of the victim instantly. If this is done there will be no pain or suffering caused, and for this reason a well-constructed deadfall is probably the most humane of all traps. Box Traps Among the most useful of all traps are the old-fashioned box traps, which catch animals alive and unhurt. The box trap consists of a box-like contrivance with the top and one end hinged or pivoted as shown in Fig. 9, and with the other end carried up to a sort of peak as illustrated. The trigger (Fig. 9 A) is passed through a hole in the high end and a cord passing from the pivoted top over the peak and to a small piece of wood shown at B, which is caught in a little nick in the end of the trap and in a notch in the end of the TRAPS AND TRAPPING 147 fio.7 ■^c^&/:ii 148 TRAPS AND TRAPPING Spindle as shown at C. As long as the spindle is undisturbed the cover to the trap will re- main suspended by the cord, but with the slightest movement of the spindle the cover drops into position, thus closing the trap. Box traps are excellent for rabbits, squirrels and other small creatures, and birds are also frequently captured in them. For catching animals for pets there is nothing better. For squirrels, rabbits and birds the trap should be baited with green vegetables, corn on the cob, apples, or similar things attached to the sharpened end of the spindle. For carnivo- rous creatures chicken heads, raw meat or similar baits should be used. If the trap is set for mice, rats, squirrels or gnawing ani- mals it should be lined with tin or zinc around the edges, to prevent the captives from gnaw- ing out. Another style of box trap is illustrated in Fig. lo. This trap has a hinged end and cover exactly as in the last, but instead of the high peak at the other end and the spindle and trigger, this form of trap has the spindle passed through the top and a long piece of wood or a stick for a trigger. The manner of adjusting and setting this trap is plainly shown in the diagrams and an explanation is not necessary. TRAPS AND TRAPPING 149 This is really a simpler trap than the one just described and it has one advantage, inas- much as the rear end may be covered with v^ire netting, thus enabling you to see the captured animal without opening the trap itself. Sometimes a box trap is constructed with a sliding door instead of the hinged door. This method of construction has one great merit; the captured animal cannot lift the door and escape and you can open the door slightly without any danger of the crea- ture escaping through the top, which often occurs when the pivoted door trap is used. A box trap may also be modified to operate as a deadfall. This is done by making the slid- ing door operate in a groove or guide a few inches from the end of the spindle, and by weighting it with some heavy object, such as a large stone, a piece of old iron, a piece of lead or even a heavy log resting upon it, and kept in position by means of guides. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. ii. Coop Traps The coop trap or " hen-coop trap " is a splendid form of trap for capturing live birds, such as quail, pigeon, grouse, etc. It will also do well for small animals and is very easily 150 TRAPS AND TRAPPING constructed from materials found in the woods. The trap consists of a coop or box held tilted up by some form of trigger. The common figure-four trigger or the two- spindle triggers described under Deadfalls will serve very well for coop traps, but for birds the form shown in Fig. 12 is preferable. This trigger consists of two forked sticks (A B), and a piece of pliable stick or withe (C). The withe is bent into a half-circle a little smaller than the diameter of the coop and the two ends are kept from springing apart by two short sticks driven into the ground just inside the rear end of the coop as shown at D D. One of the forked sticks, — the long- est, — is then placed upright outside of the withe and with the fork uppermost. The second and shorter stick is then placed in the position illustrated with one end of the fork resting in the fork A and with the tip supporting the coop and with the lower end inside the bent withe. The pressure of the coop upon the fork forces the lower end against the bent withe and the coop cannot fall. As soon as a bird alights upon the withe the latter slides down and releases the forked trigger and the coop drops over the bird. The coop may be built of rough sticks tied TRAPS AND TRAPPING 151 U^i/iiV ij/// /\ (/*' ' " Wt/u^ Fig. 11 Ci^T^rrc—rl,' -^ Fio. 13 Fio. 16 152 TRAPS AND TRAPPING together with bark, grass withes or string, or it may be constructed of sticks or lathes nailed together. The bait for birds may be dried corn, grain, peas, etc., and for animals, nuts, fruit, corn or meat, according to the habit of the creature you wish to capture. If a figure-four or spindle trigger is used the bait should be fastened to the trigger in- side of the coop, but if the forked stick and withe arrangement is used the bait may be simply scattered on the ground within. It is usually a good plan to scatter some bait out- side to attract the birds or animals. When this trap is set for animals it is usually neces- sary to weight the coop with stones or similar things to prevent the captive from lifting it up. Moreover a layer of fine netting should be set on the ground under the coop, or the trap should be set on a rock, to prevent the captive from digging out. Steel Traps These are the most widely used and the most cruel of all traps, and unless you de- pend upon trapping for a living or are anxious to capture some obnoxious or dangerous crea- ture, you should never use them. Steel traps are baited with something which is a favourite TRAPS AND TRAPPING 153 food of the creature it is designed to catch, and in order to succeed well with this class of traps you must study the habits of the animals and must know just how and where to place the trap for each particular species of animal. Nearly all wild animals are very suspicious of steel traps, and if they are set openly, the animals will seldom approach them. It is usually necessary to cover the traps with sand, earth or leaves, and they should be smoked or rubbed with grease to destroy any human scent. An excellent method is to wash the traps in weak lye and water and afterwards rub them with chicken or goose fat. After the traps are washed you should never touch them with your bare hands before setting them, but should wear gloves of some sort. There is nothing that will create greater suspicion in a wild animal than the smell of a human being. Oftentimes ashes or burnt wood, or chicken or rabbit manure, or even horse or cow manure, scattered about the trap will prove valuable in destroying human scent, and in addition will attract many animals. Do not forget that the chain to the trap must be just as carefully treated and just as well concealed as the trap itself. When setting traps for mink, muskrats or 154 TRAPS AND TRAPPING water animals of any sort, an excellent plan is to attach the chain to a stout wire, one end of the wire being fastened to a stake driven in the bottom of the pond or stream or to a heavy rock and the other end being fastened to some higher spot on shore. The struggles of the captured animal will cause the chain to run or slide down the wire and the creature will be drowned. Meat, chicken or turkey heads, offal, small animals or birds and similar things are all good bait, but these should never be placed on the trap itself, but should be suspended a short distance above it so that the animal will step upon the trap in endeavouring to reach the bait. Few wild animals will step upon a dead or brittle twig or branch, and trappers frequently take advantage of this trait and place dry twigs about the trap so that any animal, in attempting to avoid the twigs, will step on the trap. Traps set for mink, otter, muskrat, etc., are usually placed on a stone or log close to water or even in the water or under water near the shore. If a trap is set in shallow water, with a chicken or fish head hung above it, mink and otter may often be captured, when all other methods fail. TRAPS AND TRAPPING 155 In most places it is necessary to make a trail or " scent " to lure animals to the traps. This is done by fastening a piece of bloody meat or a freshly-cut chicken's head to a stick and smearing it over with fish oil, oil of anise or some similar strong oil, and dragging it over the ground in several directions leading to the trap. The passing animals v^ill smell this odour and v^ill usually follow it to the trap and bait. Oftentimes a trap is set carefully hidden on a path or runway frequented by animals and the trapper trusts to passing creatures step- ping upon the trap and uses no bait whatever. Sometimes animals may be induced to step upon a trap by building a little pen or in- closure, like that described for the deadfall, and placing the bait within, with the steel trap concealed at the entrance. In setting steel traps for large animals the traps should never be chained to a solid object; in that case the captured animal will often break loose by pulling his leg out of the trap or by biting or chewing it off. To prevent this, the chain should be attached to a heavy log or stick known as a " drag." This will prevent the captive from travelling far or rapidly and will leave a trail which the trapper may easily follow. 156 TRAPS AND TRAPPING Muskrat Traps These well-known and common creatures are fairly easy to trap. They are valuable for their furs, they are good to eat, and in many places they are serious pests, so the boy trapper need have no compunction about trapping them, provided he does so in a merciful manner. Steel traps are the commonest form used for catching these creatures, but they are not nearly as satisfactory and are far more cruel than many other forms of easily-made traps. One of the most deadly forms of muskrat traps is merely a barrel half filled with water and floated by a frame or platform of boards as shown in Fig. 13. The bait of fruit, vege- tables, etc., is placed upon the boards and barrel with some more bait scattered upon bits of board floating inside the barrel. The rats jump from the boards into the barrel and cannot escape. Another form of trap is shown in Fig. 14. To make this trap, con- struct an oblong four-sided box, eight inches square and from four to eight feet long, using one-inch boards. Bend some stiff wire into the shape shown at A, and across this weave some stiff wire — hay-bale wire is good, — as shown at B. Place two of these doors on the TRAPS AND TRAPPING 157 box, one at each end, pivoting them so they swing easily by passing a wire through the eyes as shown at C, and placing the doors so that they slant slightly towards the centre of the box as shown at D, with the lower edges resting against the bottom of the box. In this position the doors can swing inward, but not outward. To set the trap, sink it with stones or other weights, in a stream or pond, and be sure that it is completely under water so that the captured muskrats will drown. Place bait, consisting of fruit, green vege- tables, etc., in the trap. The muskrats will dive down and swim into the trap to secure the bait, but they cannot get out and will soon drown. Sometimes a dozen or more rats are captured in a trap of this sort in a single night. Turtk Traps In nearly every pond, lake or stream, tur- tles are found, and, although they are very common and may be seen sunning themselves on rocks and logs, they are by no means easy to catch. Turtles are invariably interesting to boys; and many a boy spending his vaca- tion in the country has longed to capture some of the turtles that he sees on the old 158 TRAPS AND TRAPPING stumps in the mill pond, but which dive into the water long before one can come within reach of them. Moreover turtles are nearly all good to eat and boy campers will find that snapping tur- tles, terrapin and even the ordinary " mud turtles " are not to be despised as an addi- tion to camp menus. Like a great many other things it is easy to catch turtles if you know how, and with a very simple sort of trap you may catch all of these creatures that you wish, either for food or for pets. The best turtle trap, which is shown in Fig. 15, consists merely of a box with perforated sides and with a cover made in one or two pivoted sections (A A), which are arranged to tip down, but are prevented from tipping up by the cleats (B B), and are held in position by the weights (C C). When this trap is weighted and placed in the water, with the top an inch or so above the surface, and a turtle crawls upon it, his weight tips the pivoted door down and Mr. Turtle slides into the box. The weights (C C) then pull the door back into position and the trap is thus automatically set, ready for the next visitor. The only care is to get the weights (C C) just heavy enough to swing the doors into position, for if they are too heavy the TRAPS AND TRAPPING 159 weight of the turtle will not spring the trap and he will enjoy a nice place to sun him- self at your expense. The trap should be set in some spot where turtles are common and are in the habit of sunning themselves. No bait is required for this trap, as the turtles are attracted to it merely as a convenient spot to crawl out on to enjoy the sunshine. I have sometimes caught over fifty turtles of all kinds and sizes in a single day with one of these traps. In addition to turtles this trap often catches large frogs. Another form of turtle trap is shown in Fig. i6. This operates much in the same manner as the muskrat trap already de- scribed. It consists of a perforated box, fitted with a door at one or both ends, so ar- ranged that the door swings in, but not out. There should be a space of half an inch or so beneath the doors and meat, dead fish or similar bait should be placed in the box, which should then be weighted and sunk be- neath the water. The turtles, in attempting to reach the bait, will push in the doors and will be unable to get out again. A piece of lead, iron or some similar weight should be fastened to the doors at the lower edge in order to prevent them from floating open. This is an excellent trap for snapping turtles, 160 TRAPS AND TRAPPING terrapin, etc., but is not as satisfactory for ordinary turtles as the one first described. Moreover you must visit and examine this kind of trap at frequent intervals for the turtles, unable to reach the air, will drov^n, v^hereas v^ith the former trap they will re- main alive for days as the trap is not com- pletely submerged. Sometimes a trap, designed and set for one creature, will accidentally catch some very different animal, and it is always wise to look into a trap with caution. It is an un- welcome surprise to find a lively and angry skunk in a box trap set for rabbits, and in turtle traps you will often find muskrats, mink or water snakes. CHAPTER VIII SKINNING ANIMALS AND TANNING HIDES There is scarcely any animal whose skin or hide is not useful or valuable for some pur- pose. In the winter the hair or fur of all animals is thicker, softer and warmer than in the summer, and it is at that season that all the fur-bearing animals are killed or captured for their pelts. If you wish hides with the hair or fur on, you should preserve the winter skins, but the creatures trapped or killed at other seasons for food, or because they are pests, will furnish skins which may be tanned and used for leather for a variety of pur- poses. Skins to be sold for furs are merely dried, for the manufacturers have their own methods of tanning or dressing. For your own use, however, you may dress and tan the fur-bearing skins so they are as soft, pli- able and tough as those tanned by profes- sionals. A hat, gloves or other fur garments made from the skins of the animals caught or killed by yourself will seem much nicer than those bought ready-made, and you will 161 162 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES take pride in knowing that you tanned the skins and obtained the hides by your own skill and knowledge. The skins of animals captured in warm weather may be tanned with the hair off, and you will be surprised to find what good leather some of these will make, and what a variety of uses you will find for them. Many small animals, such as rabbits and hares, have such thin, papery skins that they are worthless for leather, but all the weasel family, the cat family, woodchucks, squirrels and muskrats have good, thick, tough hides that make excellent leather. For pouches, bags, gloves and many other purposes these small skins will serve very well, but for leg- gins, moccasins or similar things, larger and heavier skins are required. Deer have the best of all skins for such uses, but calf-skin, sheep-skin or goat-skin may be tanned soft and pliable and will make excellent moccasins, etc. The first step in preparing a skin for tan- ning is to skin the creature properly. If you are saving the hides to sell as furs they should be '' cased," that is, the animal should be skinned by making a slit across the belly from the inside of one hind foot to the inside of the SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES l63 Other, and drawing the animal's carcass out through this slit. In doing this the skin is turned inside out. When removed from the body the hide is slipped over a piece of board v^hittled in a wedge shape, and is dried in a shady spot. For your own use, however, the skins may be cut along the abdomen and taken off flat, using great care not to cut or tear the skin. The skins may be tanned at once, or they may be dried and saved until you have a num- ber and then all may be tanned and dressed at one time. This is the best method with small skins, but if you have a large skin, such as that of a deer, goat, calf or cow, it is better to tan it at once. Tanning Skins with the Hair On The main secret in tanning skins so they will be soft and pliable is to use plenty of '' elbow grease." Unless the skins are worked, rolled, rubbed and pounded they will not be soft, and unless you are prepared to use plenty of time and exercise in finishing them you need not expect to get soft, pliable skins. There are various methods of tanning and nearly every professional tanner has methods 164 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES and formulae of his own, and many of these are kept as trade secrets. Many of the best methods of tanning are very simple, and the following- will be found very satisfactory. As soon as the skin is removed from the animal, place it over a smooth, rounded sur- face, such as a log or tree trunk, and scrape off all adhering bits of meat, fat, etc. In doing this use a blunt knife or scraper and take great care not to cut or tear the skin. Next wash the hide thoroughly in strong soap-suds, or in a weak solution of washing soda, until the grease and dirt are all removed. Hang up the skin to drain, and when half dry, place it in a tanning liquor composed of the following: I lb. salt; J4 lb. alum; 2 oz. of saltpetre and 2 oz. of sulphuric acid to each gallon of water. Soak the skin in this liquid and turn it each day for from two to ten days, according to the size of the skin. After the first day or two, take out the skin, drain it and scrape off all remaining flesh, fat and sinews. While doing this note if there are any dark, bluish spots on the skin, and if so, be sure and have these come in contact with the liquor when the hide is again placed in the tanning mix- ture, as such spots indicate unequal tanning SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 165 and show that the area where they occur did not come in contact with the tan. Replace the skin in the liquor and let it soak (turning and sousing it about fre- quently) until there is no sign of slipperiness or jelly-like consistency to the skin. Wash the skin thoroughly in fresh water, drain and scrape it until smooth and clean and nearly dry. Give the skin-side a coat of neatsfoot oil and lay it away in damp sawdust. When the oil has thoroughly soaked in, apply a coating of soft-soap, roll the skin tightly and place it again in sawdust. When again dry unroll the skin and work it back and forth over a beam and beat and pound it until thoroughly soft and pliable. Another process which produces a water- proof leather is to soak in the solution above described and then place the skin in a 5- to 10- per cent, solution of either sulphate of chro- mium, sulphate of aluminum or sulphate of copper, after which the scraping, drying and softening are accomplished as described. Extract of sumach, tannic acid, solution of oak bark or galls and various other com- pounds are used in place of the chemicals, but when these vegetable compounds are used the skin will turn brownish. If an extra fine 166 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES finish is desired the skins may be smoked over a fire of green birch or other wood, but care should be taken not to allow the hides to become heated or burned. The smoking gives the skins a pungent odour like Indian-tanned buckskin, and makes them softer and more pliable, besides rendering them more or less moth-proof. Tanning Skins Without the Hair If you wish to tan skins for purposes where the fur or hair is objectionable, you may easily remove the hair by soaking them in water in which some wood ashes have been dissolved. The hides should remain in this solution until the hair rubs off readily, but if left too long the skins themselves will be in- jured. Another method is to bury the skins in mud for a few days, being careful to have the mud touch every portion of the hide. In either method, as soon as the hair comes away readily the skins should be washed in fresh water and then laid hair-side up over a log or other rounded object. By going- over the skin with a piece of board with nar- row edge or with the back of a large knife, the hair can be all rubbed and scraped off after which the skin should be again washed SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 167 and tanned exactly as described for skins with the hair on. After you have tanned some nice hides you will wish to make some use of them and one of the best uses to which you can put well- tanned strong skins is to make some moc- casins. How to Make Moccasins Moccasins are the best of all footwear for the woods, for they are soft, comfortable and almost silent. Moreover they will not slip on smooth rocks or logs and will stand an enor- mous amount of hard wear. Do not be de- luded into thinking that ordinary moccasins are waterproof, however. Moccasins can be made waterproof, but they must be made of specially-tanned leather and must be sewed and fitted with great care to withstand water satisfactorily. The ordinary Indian moccasin is not supposed to be waterproof, but if moc- casins are wet they can be readily dried and are as good as ever, and they are so easily made and so cheap that a boy camper should always have several pairs on hand so that if one pair gets wet another can be worn until the first are thoroughly dried. Every different tribe of Indians has a par- 168 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES ticular form of moccasins and an Indian or a skilled woodsman can tell the tribe to which an Indian belongs merely by his moccasins, or even by their imprint in many cases. Our Eastern Indians used moccasins with soft soles made in one piece with the uppers, but many of the Western tribes used moccasins with heavy soles sewed to the uppers. In some cases the soles were of thick, flexible leather while in others the soles were made from stiff, hard rawhide. These Western moccasins are not nearly as easy to make nor as comfortable as the Eastern forms, the commonest of which is that used by the Algonquins and with minor variations by the majority of Eastern Indians. The Algonquin Moccasin (Figs. 1-5) From soft, tough leather or buckskin, cut two pieces shaped as in i, and two others of the form shown in 2. The size of these pieces must be gauged by the size of your feet, or by a last of the size shoe that you wear. The length from A to B should be one-third longer than the sole of your foot, while the width from C to D should be the same as the circumference of your foot around the instep and sole. In other words if you SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 169 stand on the piece of leather the sides C and D should just meet over your instep. The flaps E and F may be as long or as short as you please, depending upon whether you desire a low or high moccasin. Having cut out the four pieces as directed, next cut some long straight pieces or strings from the same leather. These may be cut from a very small piece of leather by cutting around and around a circle in spiral form as shown in diagram 12. Commencing at the point marked G, in 2 and 3, make holes with an awl in the pieces 2 and 3, and sew the pieces together with a strip of the leather, tough shoe-thread or sinew. Make each stitch short on^ the tongue 2, and long in the edge of the piece 3, and thus gather the edges of the moccasin in tight, neat tucks as indicated in the diagrams 4 and 5. Some little practice will be required before you learn just how large to make the stitches in order to have the two sides of the moccasin and the edges of the tongue come out even; but if you fail at first, pull out the stitches and try again. If the leather is thick and stiff it will prove a help to wet the edges of the moccasin, and if this is done and the tongue remains dry, the lower part will pucker readily without puckering the tongue. If you can secure a wooden shoe-last of the 170 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES right size, it will help you a great deal in making the moccasins, for they can be fitted tightly over the last and will be much neater and more workmanlike when completed. When the tongue is sewed onto the moc- casin satisfactorily, cut two little slits in the back of the sole, as shown at H H, and then sew up the back as illustrated at 5, sewing- over and over through both sides until the little tab H is reached. This should be sewed down closely and neatly as shown in the illustration. Tie a string of leather at the bottom of each side of the uppers, or pass a string through a hole in each edge and around the back and your moccasins are finished. The Seminole Moccasin (Figs. 6-12) The Seminole Indians of Florida use moc- casins that are very distinct in appearance and construction from those of other tribes. They are splendid moccasins and made of a single piece, and a Seminole can make a pair in a few minutes with only a knife for tools. To make the Seminole moccasin, illustrated in Figs. 6-12, cut two pieces shaped as in 7 and two strings with a large end on each like 8. The size of the pieces 7 is determined in SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 171 the same manner as for the Algonquin moc- casin, except that the width should be a little greater than the distance around your foot. Make a hole at the toe end of 7, as shown at A, and thread the piece 8 through this from the under side; the large end B will stop it from pulling clear through. Then with this thong, sew over and under as illustrated, pull- ing the stitches tight each time until neat puckers are made, but gradually decreasing the length of the stitches and making the 172 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES tucks looser and looser as you work up to- wards the instep. By wetting the edges near the toe and leaving the portion near the in- step dry, this may be easily accomplished. When the two sides are thus gathered to- gether to the side-flaps, knot the thong so it cannot slip back and leave the long end loose as a tie-string to wrap about the leg. Sew up the heel and back as in the Algon- quin moccasin, but leave a loose end of thong projecting at the top as shown at lo. When the string C is wrapped around the leg it is tied to this thong D, and holds the flaps smoothly in place. After you have learned either or both of these moccasins you may wish to try your hand at making one of the Western Indian forms. The easiest of these is the style worn by the Sioux. Sioux Moccasins (Fig. 13) For these moccasins you must have some soft, thin, tough leather or buckskin, as well as some very heavy, soft hide, such as elk- skin or soft-tanned horse or cow hide, or if you prefer, some heavy rawhide. Place your foot upon a piece of the heavy leather and mark around it and cut it out to the approxi- mate form shown in A. Using this as a pat- SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 173 tern, cut another similar piece, but be sure and have the two pieces right and left by turning the first piece upside down when you use it for a pattern in cutting the second. These will be the soles of the moccasins, and the lower side should be the hair side of the skin. Next spread out the thin leather and with a string, or rule, measure the length of the sole, and, adding one inch to this mark, the length on the thin leather. Now measure from one side to the other of your foot across the instep and mark this length at one end of the first measurement and at right angles to it, as shown at B. Draw a curved outline as indi- cated by the dotted line in diagram B, from one end of the instep measurement around the lengthwise measurement and back to the other end of the instep line. Cut out around this line, place the piece upside down on the remaining leather and cut out another piece of the same size. In each of these pieces make a cut as indicated by C C, and another as shown by D D, and make two holes close together at E E. These will be the uppers of your moccasins and must be sewn to the soles by stitching through as illustrated at F, taking care that all the stitches pass diag- onally through the edge of the sole, for if they go straight through they will soon wear 174 SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES off and the moccasins will come apart. Com- mence the stitching at the rear, or heel, of the sole and at one of the rear corners of the upper as shown at G, and work around to the other end. When this is done, sew up the back seam neatly and sew a tongue of soft leather in position as shown at H. If the sole is of rawhide, or very heavy leather, you will find that it will be much easier to sew it if it is soaked for a few hours in warm water until thoroughly soft. You may have some trouble at first in making neat stitches and keeping the uppers from puckering, but as the moccasin may be turned inside out until the heel-seam is sewn up you will be able to work at it quite readily. It may seem easier to sew the tongue in place before sew- ing the uppers to the soles, but I have always found that the tongue is a nuisance and in the way while the uppers are being stitched on. When all the sewing is done, thread a soft leather thong about eighteen inches long through the holes for a tie-string and the moccasins will be complete. Sioux moccasins are low, slipper-like affairs, and if high moccasins of this style are desired, leg-pieces must be sewn onto the uppers after the moccasins are completed. SKINNING ANIMALS— TANNING HIDES 175 Even if you do not tan skin« yourself you will find it economical to make moccasins for use in the woods and in camp. Any kind of soft, pliable leather will serve for making moccasins, but in order to wear well the leather must be tough. Indian-tanned buck- skin, elk-skin, soft-tanned horsehide and sim- ilar leathers are excellent and the leather known as " Chrome calf " is probably the best of all. CHAPTER IX PERMANENT CAMPS For a temporary or one-night camp, there is nothing handier and more satisfactory than the Lean-to, already described, but for camps to be used for several days or weeks, some- thing more substantial is usually required. A lean-to may be constructed so strongly and well that it is practically waterproof, and will stand the storms and weather of several seasons. If built on a stout frame and con- structed of birch bark, held in place with lashed poles, or of slabs of hemlock bark, a lean-to may be made tight and warm enough for even mid-winter use. Tents are all very well for summer camp- ing, and if near a town or city or where the camp-site may be reached by wagon, canoe or other conveyance, tents will be found of great service. They are cumbersome to carry, however, and the light-weight silk tents are too easily injured for rough work and boys' use. Moreover tents are quite expen- sive and it never seems like real '' camping out " to carry along a tent and set it up. 176 PERMANENT CAMPS 177 There are many forms of tents and a smart boy or boys can easily make a tent during spare hours. The easiest of all tents to make and the one which is the easiest to set up and carry about is the Indian wigwam or '' tepee." Moreover the tepee always seems in harmony with the woods and fields, and gives a feeling of real '' wild life " to its occupants, that is quite lacking when the civilised wall or " A " tents are used. How to Make an Indian Tepee The size of the tepee to be used depends very largely upon the number of boys who are to occupy it, as well as upon the distance it has to be carried. A tepee 14 feet high and with a floor space 14 feet in diameter is large enough for three or four boys. To make a tepee of this size you will require canvas or cotton drill ten yards long and five yards wide and this will have to be made up by sewing several breadths together. In sew- ing the breadths let each seam lap slightly and sew both edges as shown in Fig. i A. When the piece of cloth is ready, stretch it out flat on a floor or on a smooth piece of ground and mark the exact centre of one of the long edges as at B. Drive a stout nail at this point and tie a strong piece of twine 178 PERMANENT CAMPS loosely around this nail and make a loop in the other end of the cord, which should be 15 feet in length. Slip a piece of coloured chalk, a piece of charcoal or a soft lead pencil through the loop and with the string and pencil draw a half-circle on the cloth as shown at C D. Mark two V-shaped places at E E, each ten inches deep and ten inches wide. Then mark off seven feet eight inches on each side from C to F, and from D to G; divide each of these spaces into eight equal parts of ii>4 inches each. On each of these marks draw two small circles or place two dots two inches from the edge and two inches apart, as shown at H H. Along the curved edge from C to D mark off twenty-five spaces each two feet apart. From the corners of the square canvas outside of the circle or from another piece, cut two pieces the shape shown in J J, each seven feet on the long side, six and one-half feet on the shorter side and with the ends three and one-half and one and one-half feet wide. In the corners of these pieces at K K, sew small triangular pieces and fasten pieces of light, strong rope (L L). Now cut out around the half-circle from C to D, cut out the triangular pieces E E, and your tepee will be ready to sew and finish. PERMANENT CAMPS 179 180 PERMANENT CAMPS The edges C to F and D to G should be hemmed, and the edge from C to D should have light rope hemmed in the edge with a loop at each of the marks I I, about an inch and a half in diameter as shown at M. The two pieces J J should then be sewn in place as illustrated and a piece of stout line should be attached to the point B. The edges of the " smoke-flaps " J, and the edges of the cuts E E, should also be neatly turned over and hemmed. At each of the marks I I, holes should be punched in the cloth and " button- hole stitched/' and your tepee will be ready to set up. For erecting the wigwam you will require ten straight, strong poles, about sixteen feet long, and two lighter poles twenty feet in length and a piece of light rope about twenty- five feet long. You will also require eight lacing-pins of hard wood, each about eight inches in length by M inch square, and twenty- flve tent pegs one foot long and one inch square. To erect the tepee, mark off a circle on the ground fourteen feet in diameter, and erect three poles (with their tops tied to- gether by the long rope) in the form of a tri- pod (Fig. 2a). Against these lay six more poles at equal distances apart and fasten all together by winding a few turns of the rope PERMANENT CAMPS 181 about them (Fig. 2b). Drive a stake into the ground near the centre of the floor and tie the end of the rope firmly to this as shown. Now tie the short rope shown in Fig. i, at B, to the end of the tenth pole and lift the tepee cover into position as shown at Fig. 2c, letting the tenth pole lean against those in place and pulling the bottom around and pegging it in place with the tent pegs driven into the ground through the loops provided for the purpose. The front edges should then be lapped over and through each of the holes I I a lacing-peg should be thrust as shown in Fig. 2/. The two long, light poles should then be inserted in the little pockets in the smoke-flaps (K K), and the flaps swung into position quartering the wind as indi- cated at Fig. 2d. The door of the tent may- be closed by merely lapping the two sides across, but it is better to provide a regular door (Fig. 2e). This may be made of can- vas or other material sewed onto a frame and hung to a lacing-pin as shown at Fig. 2g, or it may be simply a loose piece or flap of canvas sewed to one of the edges of the open- ing and fastened shut by strings of lacing- pins. Indians, as a rule, erect their wigwams facing the east. In this way they receive the morning sun and light and are protected 182 PERMANENT CAMPS from the west winds that usually prevail. In bad weather, or in an easterly wind, the smoke-flaps are swung about by means of the poles until the flaps are crossed, and if there is difficulty in making the fire draw, the lower edge of the cover is slightly lifted. During the day the lower edge of the tepee may be raised a foot or two to allow a free circulation of air. As the tent pegs, lacing- pins and poles may be cut from standing trees, it is not necessary to carry them along when shifting camp, and the cover alone, rolled into a compact bundle and tied up with the rope, is easy to carry. The tepee may be left its natural colour or may be painted, dyed or ornamented with Indian patterns to suit the owner's taste. If properly made and erected a tepee will prove a very cozy, dry and comfortable dwelling-place in the woods and with a small fire in the centre it will be warm even when a winter storm rages without. Other Permanent Camps For a permanent home in the woods, one that is to be used year after year, there is nothing better than a log cabin. Log cabins are not difficult to construct, but to build one PERMANENT CAMPS 183 a person must be an expert axman, and a great many large forest trees must be sacri- ficed. Our forests are being far too rapidly destroyed, and to cut trees for the sake of making a log cabin, save where absolutely necessary, is a waste of material not to be encouraged. Many other forms of camps may be constructed of waste material or of small growth, which will serve every purpose as well as a log cabin for boys' use. Wattled Huts In many parts of the world the natives live in houses or huts made of grass, reeds or branches, and known as " wattled " construc- tion. For many places wattled cabins are excellent as permanent camps. They are wind, water and storm proof, and are warm in winter and cool in summer if well made, but they will not prove as enduring as log cabins. For warm climates they are excel- lent and as they are easy to make they serve very well for one or two seasons in any lo- cality where the materials used in their con- struction can be obtained. Wattled huts may be made of withes or small boughs of willow or other trees or of bundles of grass, bunches of reeds, bulrushes. 184 PERMANENT CAMPS cat-tails or any flexible material of a similar nature. In order to construct a wattled hut it is first necessary to build a rough framework of the desired size and proportions. This may be of logs, poles or timbers, and may be lashed or nailed together. In the illustration (Fig. 3), a framework of rough poles is shown. In this case no nails are used in the entire construction and all the materials used may be obtained in almost any part of the country. The framework, having been constructed, the next step is to tie poles or sticks from the upper poles of the framework to the ground frame or " sills " (Fig. ^a). These should be about three or four inches apart and spaces should be left for door and windows as illustrated. Next with light, flexible withes, strips of bark, stout rushes or any similar material (even benches of grass or straw will answer) weave the material in and out between the upright poles as shown at b. This will seem like slow work, but if you have an abundance of material you will find that it proceeds very rapidly. When the withes, branches or rushes come to the edge of a door or window, bend them around the pole and back under and over one or two poles, as at c. The roof should then be treated in PERMANENT CAMPS 185 the same way and made waterproof by laying sheets of bark, bunches of rushes, layers of evergreen boughs or other materials over the wattling like shingles (Fig. 3^). If the weaving or wattling has been done well the sides of the house will be quite tight and 186 PERMANENT CAMPS little wind will penetrate, but it may be made quite waterproof and windproof by daubing clay or mud over it and thus filling all the cracks and crevices. The door may be made of similar construction or of canvas and the window may be covered with a shutter of wood, canvas or wattled work. Another method of building a house is by " thatching." In many parts of the world thatched houses are used by thousands of people and even in England and other Euro- pean countries thatched roofs are in daily use. Thatching To make thatching, bunches of straw, grass, rushes or leaves are used, and for temporary purposes evergreen boughs will serve. In making a thatched hut the framework should be constructed as in the wattled hut, but the light poles should be placed from end to end, longitudinally, instead of from top to bottom, perpendicularly, as shown in Fig. 4. Beginning at the bottom place the thatch- ing material on these light poles, finishing one complete row before commencing the next higher, and thus letting each successive layer overlap the one beneath like shingles. In Fig. 4a the method of thatching with PERMANENT CAMPS 187 various materials is shown. The roof is finished in the same manner and the thicker the bundles of thatch and the closer the lay- ers the tighter and more waterproof will be the finished hut. Making Bridges If you are camping out near a brook or stream which must be frequently crossed, you will find some sort of a bridge very useful and you have no idea how much fun it is to build bridges until you try it. Even if you are not camping you will find that building bridges across small streams is lots of sport, and you can spend many a vacation day in bridging the small streams of your neighbourhood. There are many easy ways of building bridges and the simplest of all is to fell a good-sized tree across the stream and cross over on this. Such a bridge is by no means satisfactory, however, and unless one '' coons it " across one is apt to get a ducking, es- pecially if it is raining and the tree trunk is wet and slippery. A better method is to fell two trees side by side and lay branches or limbs across from one to the other, thus form- ing a walk or pathway between the trunks. Such extemporised bridges serve very well 188 PERMANENT CAMPS over narrow streams, but quite frequently a stream may be too wide to bridge with any nearby trees or there may be no large trees near the banks. In such cases a suspension bridge is probably the best style to construct, and if you have some strong rope or cable, a serviceable suspension bridge may be easily constructed. By using a stone attached to a light line, or an arrow with a string at- tached, the line may be carried across the stream and once you have a string across it is easy to pull over a larger line and by this you may pull over a still larger rope. If there are trees or stumps on the banks of the stream they will make good supports for the cables to your bridge, but it is seldom that four stout trees can be found at equal dis- tances apart and at the same distances from the banks of the stream. It is usually neces- sary to make special supports or " towers '* on each side of the brook. These may be made in a variety of ways, but the simplest is to erect four stout posts with a crotch at the upper end of each, as shown in Fig. -^a. These four sticks should be driven firmly into the ground and should point slightly back- ward from the brook or stream as shown. When driven into the ground all should be the same height and they should be at least PERMANENT CAMPS 189 six feet apart. It is a serious mistake to make the cables of a suspension bridge too close together, for if you do this the bridge will swing badly, whereas if the cables are wide apart and the footway is narrow the bridge will be very steady. About ten feet behind the crotched supports drive stout stakes deep into the ground for " anchors." If there are trees available use these, for the anchors do not have to be exactly in line or 190 PERMANENT CAMPS all the same distance from the " towers," al- though it is better to have them so. If there are no trees near and the ground is too soft or too hard to drive stakes, you may construct anchors by burying large rocks and attaching the cables to these or a large log may be used and held in place by small stakes driven in front of it, as shown at B. The next step is to stretch the cable from one anchor over a tower across the stream, over the other tower and last attach it to the anchor on the further side. It is not necessary to have the cables very tight, but they should both be stretched the same amount, and the crotched sticks should be high enough to let the cables swing well above the water at their lowest point (Fig. 5c). When the cables are in posi- tion you can proceed to build the bridge proper, and this can be done by commencing at either bank and building a footway as you proceed, so that by the time the footway is completed you have crossed over the stream while constructing it. To construct the footway, you will require a quantity of rope strong enough to support your weight, as well as numerous stout poles or sticks as long as the width of the footway. The amount of rope you will require and the number of sticks will depend upon the length PERMANENT CAMPS 191 of the bridge. If the supporting ropes and cross-pieces are three feet apart they will be near enough for ordinary purposes, but if they are closer together the bridge will be firmer and steadier. First, tie a rope to each cable close to one pair of the " towers," using a slipknot about the cable and letting the ropes hang almost to the ground and cutting both exactly the same length (D). Tie these to the ends of one of the sticks (E) and guy the cross-piece to the " towers," as shown at Fig. 6, and place light poles, boards or mill slabs with one end resting on the ground and the other on the cross-piece, to which they should be lashed with ropes, withes or cord. Standing on this you should fasten the two next ropes, making them slightly shorter than the first two and attaching them to a cross-piece and placing the footway as before. Proceed in this way toward the centre of the supporting cables and then grad- ually increase the length of the hanging ropes toward the further shore, so that the bridge appears as in Fig. 6. If slipknots are used in attaching the hanging ropes to the cables, they will not slide out of position. The exact dimensions of the various parts will depend upon the size of the stream to be bridged, the width of 192f PERMANENT CAMPS the footway and various other matters. A footway two feet wide should have the sup- porting cables at least four feet apart and the hanging ropes should be so graduated in length that the footway arches up at the centre of the bridge. Instead of lashing each footplank to the cross-pieces the latter may be connected by side ropes, as shown in Fig. Sh G. A suspension bridge may even be con- structed of wild grape-vines or twisted withes and in many out-of-the-way countries bridges of this sort span deep canyons and roaring torrents. I have seen native-made suspension bridges constructed of lianas or tropical vines, which seemed most frail and insecure and which supported pack-trains of burros with perfect safety. Some of the South American suspension bridges that are built by the In- dians are very crude and consist of but one cable with a line of bamboo poles for a foot- way beneath it. These affairs swing and sway horribly and one expects to be dashed to pieces upon the rocks far below at any minute. Nevertheless they have been in con- stant use for many years and serve every purpose for the natives' use. PERMANENT CAMPS 193 Camp Furniture When camping only at night and tramp- ing and fishing or hunting during the day you will not require any camp furniture, for a log will serve very well for a chair and a couch of fragrant balsam twigs makes the softest and most comfortable of beds. In a permanent camp or where one spends sev- eral days or weeks in one camp, simple camp furniture is a great convenience and you can obtain a great deal of pleasure and may occupy many spare hours in constructing tables, chairs and other furniture from the material that grows in any patch of wood- land. A very simple camp bed may be constructed by merely cutting four logs, two about eight feet long and two four feet long, and arrang- ing these in the form of a rectangle and se- curing them in position by means of stakes, as shown in Fig. 7. The space between the logs should then be filled by placing balsam " fans," as for the lean-to bed already described. In the present bed, however, the balsam branches should be placed thicker and larger branches may be used than for the lean-to affair. The four logs will prevent the boughs from 194 PERMANENT CAMPS spreading out sideways and a very soft springy bed will result. Another form of camp bed, much used by the Western Indians, is the willow bed To construct this bed you will need about "sixty PERMANENT CAMPS 195 or seventy straight rods of willow or other flexible wood, each about the size of a lead pencil and thirty inches in length. You will also require a few rods that are longer than the above and at least half an inch in diam- eter. These should all be pulled and at each end of every rod you should cut a small notch or groove about half an inch from the end. In addition to the rods you must have a ball of strong cord about an eighth of an inch in diameter, a spool of fine, strong linen thread and some shoemakers' wax. Cut four pieces of cord each twenty feet in length and double each piece in the centre and tie a loop-knot, as shown in Fig. 8 A. Find two trees about seven or eight feet apart and in these drive four nails or pegs nine and one-half inches apart up and down the tree, as shown at B. Slip the loops of the cords over the pegs and twist the doubled cords tight and secure them in position by twisting around the pegs in the second tree (Fig. 8 C). Select one of the stouter rods and opening the twisted strands of the cord insert the ends of this stick (at the notches) and push the rod up tight against the knot (D). Place another rod in position in the same way, but leaving a space of an inch between the two and placing the large or butt 196 PERMANENT CAMPS rfflilllP^' end of one next to the smaller or tip end of the other (E). Continue to insert rods in this manner and wherever a rod passes through a cord (four places on each rod) lash rod and cord with waxed linen thread PERMANENT CAMPS 197 as shown at F. When the rod work has progressed for six feet, insert a stout rod and tie loops in the cords. From this point insert rods of shorter length so that for eighteen inches more the frame narrows down as shown at G. The bed is now complete and only requires placing on a frame or support to be used. The bed may be supported on logs or poles three or four inches in diameter with the ends of the rods resting on the logs and the loops of the cords staked out with short stakes driven at an angle in the earth to support the head (Fig. 8 H). If desired, the head may be covered with canvas or cloth. Such a bed is easily rolled up for transportation and is really very comfortable when covered with a blanket or even a layer of fir twigs, the butts of which may be stuck between the rods. If made with good, stout cord the bed may be supported by the end loops only, thus forming a sort of hammock. If there are no trees at hand on which to stretch the cords while making the bed, a frame of wood may be built or a couple of sticks may be driven into the ground or the cords may be fastened to an overhead beam and the lower ends held taut by a heavy pole or log suspended from them. 198 PERMANENT CAMPS A Simple Canvas Cot Bed A very simple and easily transported bed for camp use may be made as follows. Take a piece of light canvas or heavy twilled cotton fifty-four inches wide and seventy-two inches long and fold it lengthwise and sew the edges together to form a cylindrical case twenty- seven inches wide and six feet long. Along each side, about four inches from the edge, run two or three rows of strong stitching, as shown in Fig. 9 A. To use the cot, set four strong crotched sticks in the earth about six and a half feet apart one way and twenty-six inches apart the other (Fig. 9 B). Cut two stout strong poles two or three inches in diameter at the large ends and seven feet long. Slip one of these through each of the two sleeves in the sides of the canvas, with the ends of the poles projecting six inches at each end and rest the ends in the crotched sticks and your bed is complete (Fig. 9 C). By lashing a short crotched stick between the ends of the poles, as shown in Fig. 9 D, the cot may be used as a hammock by attaching ropes to the poles as illustrated in Fig. 9 E. When not in use the canvas may be rolled up and carried easily. PERMANENT CAMPS 199 ^ Tables and Chairs Tables may be arranged by driving forked sticks in the ground, placing a rectangular frame around from stick to stick (Fig. lo A), and covering the top with birch bark lashed around the frame with withes, hemlock roots or cord. If no birch bark is available the top may be made of cords stretched from one side of the frame to the other and " wattled " with rushes, light willow-withes or similar materials. Chair seats may be made in the same way with legs lashed to the corners and with other pieces lashed from one leg to another for rungs (B), or permanent chairs may be made just like the table, but smaller. If you have saws, hammers, nails and other civilised tools with you, it is easy to make all sorts of rustic furniture, but the ones de- scribed may all be constructed with the ma- terials found in the woods, a little cord or rope and the ordinary ax and jackknife. CHAPTER X ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES One of the most useful accomplishments for any boy, and especially for the outdoors boy who camps, sails or tramps, is a thorough knowledge of knots and splices. Many times human life may depend upon a knot or a rope, and while practically everyone can tie some sort of a knot, yet, as a rule, they are un- dependable, makeshift affairs which cannot be trusted to hold or may become so jammed as to be impossible to untie. We often hear of a knot being " tied like a sailor's," and while it is true that the old-fashioned, deep water sailors were experts in handling and knotting rope, yet many landsmen, such as lumbermen, plainsmen, campers and others are fully as adept at such work. Sailors' knots are, as a rule, quite different from those used by landsmen, for they are designed and used for very different purposes, and although at first sight it may seem as if any good knot would serve to tie a rope, yet in reality every knot and splice known is best adapted to some particular use or purpose. There 200 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 201 are such a vast number of knots and splices in everyday use that they are really bewilder- ing, but among them all there are a certain number which are most useful or important. Knots may be roughly divided into two gen- eral classes: useful knots and ornamental knots. The line between the two classes cannot be made hard and fast, however, for many of the most useful knots are highly ornamental as well and a great many of the ornamental knots serve useful purposes. It is best to learn the really useful ones first, however, for, as a rule, they are the simplest, and if you once learn the simple knots the others will come easy later on. In the first place a knot to be useful must possess several essential features. It must be easily and quickly tied; must be firm and strong, with no possibility of being accident- ally untied or loosened, it must be equally easy to untie or '' capsise," as the sailors say, and finally, it must be adapted to the specific purpose for which it is to be used. Before attempting to learn knots you must understand something about ropes, as well as the terms applied to the various parts of a rope, line or cable. A rope is made up of a number of fine threads or '' yarns " twisted together into a strand and three or four of 202 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES these " strands " form the rope itself. In the following descriptions I shall speak only of three-stranded rdpe such as is commonly seen and used. Some ropes are '' laid up," or twisted together " left-handed " or " cable laid," but most of the rope we usually see is right-handed and three-stranded. In the directions the " standing part " must be understood to mean the principal portion or longest part of the rope; the "bight" is the part curved or bent in the rope while working, while the " end " is that part used in making the knot (Fig. i). Before com- mencing to work with a rope the loose strands at the ends should be '' whipped " to prevent the rope from unravelling. To do this take a piece of strong, soft twine and lay it on the rope an inch or two from the end, pass the twine several times around the rope, keeping the ends of the twine under the first few turns to hold it in place; then make a large loop with the free end bringing it back to the rope, continue winding it for four turns round rope and end of twine and finally finish by drawing the loop tight by pulling on the free end (Fig. 2). In Fig. 3 are shown two loops, or rings, of rope known as '' Cuckold's necks." These are easily made by merely bringing the end ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 203 Fig. 2 Whlppme a Rope. B." amch''''^ ^''^^^ Ovefh^nAnou. Fie. 17. Bowline Knots. Fig. t4. Catspav of a rope around in a circular bight and by placing a seizing of rope or twine about the end and standing part where they cross, a 204 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES "clinch" is formed (Fig. 3 B). These cuck- old's necks are used in forming many knots and the " clinches " are often useful about a boat, as they are much stronger than one would think. The simplest of all true knots is the " overhand knot " (Fig. 4). To make this knot merely pass the end of the rope over the standing part and through the bight or "cuckold neck" thus formed (Fig. 4 A). When drawn tight it appears as in Fig. 4 B. A " figure-eight knot " is also easily made, and in Fig. 5 this knot is shown com- menced in A and drawn taut in B. The most useful of simple knots is the "square knot" or "reef knot" (Fig. 6). This knot is used in tying reef points, to furl sails, to fasten two lines together and for various other purposes and is the best all around knot known; if all the boys would learn to tie this knot without mistake and would use it in tying their shoe strings they would never become difficult to untie or " jammed " as a sailor says. To make a reef knot take one end of the rope in each hand, pass the left over and under the right, then the right over and under the left. If you remember the formula " left over, right over " you will never make a mistake and tie a "granny" (Fig. 7). To tie a "granny" ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 205 shows the maker to be a land-lubber and the knot is a useless, bothersome and in- secure thing for any purpose. If in tying a reef knot the bight of the left or right end is used instead of the end itself, the knot becomes a '' slippery reefer " and may be quickly untied by jerking on the free end (Fig. 8). A very useful and easily made knot for fastening a boat or any other object where it may be necessary to unfasten quickly is the ** Lark's Head " shown in Fig. 9. To make this knot pass the bight of a rope through the ring or other object to which you are making fast and then pass a piece of wood, marline spike or any other object through the sides of the bight and under or behind the standing part as shown in Fig. 9 A. The end of rope is then laid over and under the standing part and back over itself. This knot is instantly unfastened by pulling out the ''toggle" (A). Another useful and easily made slipknot is the ''slippery hitch" (Fig. 10). To make this run the end of the rope through the ring or eye, then back over the standing part and pull a loop or bight back through the cuckold's neck thus made. To untie merely pull on free end. A more secure hitch for fastening a boat or other object is made by two " half-hitches " (Fig. 206 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES ii). This knot is widely used by sailors and others and is the most reliable and secure of quickly tied and easily learned knots. To make it pass the end of the rope around the post, ring or other object, then over and around standing part between itself and the post, then under and around standing part and between its own loop and the first one made. It will be more easily understood by referring to the illustration and after a little practice you will find that you can tie this useful knot in a few seconds. It will hold forever with- out working loose and even on a smooth spar or stick will stand a great strain without slipping. A more secure knot for fastening to a round stick or spar or to another rope, is the "clove hitch" (Fig. 12). To make this pass the end of rope around spar or stick, then over itself, over and around the spar and pass end under itself and between rope and spar as shown in figure. Often you will have occasion for fastening a rope to a block or hook and for this purpose the " Blackwall hitch " (Fig. 13) is very useful and is quickly made. To make it merely make a loop or cuckold's neck with end of rope underneath and pass it over the hook so that standing part jams the end. Another strong knot for fastening to a hook for hoisting is known as ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 207 a "catspaw" (Fig. 14). To make this lay the bight of your rope over the end and stand- ing part, then with a bight in each hand, take three twists from you, then bring the two bights side by side and hook over the hook. For towing a log or piece of timber, or for fastening to a spar or mast without danger of slipping, the best knot to use is the "timber hitch" (Fig. 15). This is easily made by passing the end of the rope around 208 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES the spar or log, round the standing part and then twist it three times around under and over its own part. If you wish this still more secure, a half-hitch may be taken with the line a couple of feet farther along the spar (Fig. I5<^). Sometimes you may need to fasten two very stiff or heavy ropes or hawsers together and will find it impossible to do this by any of the knots you know. In such cases nothing is better than the " Carrick bend " (Fig. i6). Form a bight by laying the end of a rope on top of and across the standing part. Then take the end of the other rope and pass it through this bight first down then up over the cross and down through the bight again so that it comes out on the opposite side from the other end, thus bringing one end on top and the other below, as shown in the figure. If the lines are very heavy or stiff the ends may be seized to the standing parts by twine or light rope in addi- tion. The last knot I shall describe is the '' bowline." This is the sailor's knot par excellence, and when you can readily and surely tie this knot you may consider yourself quite an adept. It is useful for a great variety of purposes, never slips, never jams, is easily untied and will prove of the greatest value around boats. In Fig. 17 the knot is shown ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 209 in its various stages of tying and by following the figure you will understand it much better than through a description. In A the rope is shown with bight or cuckold's neck formed with end over standing part. Pass A back through the bight; under, then over, then under again, as shown in B, then over and down through the bight, as shown at C and D, and draw taut, as in E. Although knots are fairly easy to learn and are very useful, yet splices are often more valuable than knots and really are no more difficult to master. The simplest splice is the " short splice," shown in Fig. i8. This is made as follows: Untwist the ends of the rope a few inches and wrap some twine around it to prevent further untwisting, as shown at A A. You should also tie bits of twine around the ends of all strands to prevent them from unravelling. After you have be- come an adept at splicing you will be able to splice a rope without these seizings of twine, but they are quite necessary at first. It will also be far easier to learn to splice if you wax or grease the strands of the rope. Now place the two ropes together, end to end, as shown in B B. With a marline spike or a smooth pointed stick or piece of smooth iron, such as an old ice-pick, work open the 210 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES Strand i C, and through this push the strand A of the other rope. Next open strand 2 and pass the next strand of the other rope through ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 211 the aperture. Then treat the third strand in the same way. Now open the strands of the second rope in the same manner below the seizing and through the openings push the strands of the first rope. The two ropes will now appear as at D D. Next untwist each strand and cut off about half the yarns in each and seize the ends with string as before. Each of these reduced strands must then be poked under the whole rope strands as you did before reducing them. After drawing each strand tight pass them once more under the whole strands and then trim off close to the rope. If you wish a really neat, fine splice you may cut out a little of the yarns each time the strands are passed, thus grad- ually tapering the ends and in this way mak- ing a splice that is but slightly larger than the original rope. An '' Eye splice " (Fig. 19) is made in the same manner as the short splice, but instead of splicing the two ends of separate ropes to- gether the end of the rope is unlaid and then bent into a loop and the ends spliced into its own strands as shown in the illustration. A '' Cut splice " (Fig. 20) is made much in the same way as the eye splice, but instead of turning the rope in a loop or '' bight," two ropes are spliced together overlapping, or a 212 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES short rope is spliced at both ends into another rope. A "Long splice" (Fig. 21), is the hardest splice to learn to make, but if it is well done it cannot be distinguished from the original rope and will pass through a block or an eye as readily as a whole rope. To make the long splice, unlay the ends of the ropes about four times as much as for a short splice or from four to five feet and unlay one strand in each rope for half as much again. Place the middle strands together as in A, so that the long strands will appear as at B and C and the spiral groove left where they were unlaid will look like D E. Take off the two centre strands F and G and lay them into the grooves D E until they meet B C and be sure to keep them tightly twisted while doing this. Then take the strands H and J, cut out half the yarns in each, make an overhand knot in them and stick the ends in the same way as in making a short splice. Do the same with the strands B C and F G, dividing, knotting and sticking the reduced strands in the same manner. Finally stretch the rope tight, pound and roll it until smooth and trim off any loose ends of yarn close to the rope. Another very useful piece of rope work is a ring, known as a '' Grommet " (Fig. ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 213 22). This is very easily made by taking a strand of rope, unlaid from any common rope, laying one end over the other at the size of the ring you desire and with the long end follow the grooves or '' lay " of the strand until it comes back to where you started, thus forming a ring of two strands. Continue twisting the free end into the groove between the other strands until the ring is completed with three strands all around. Next finish the grommet by dividing the yarns of the two ends where they meet, making overhand knots in them and passing them underneath the nearest strands as when making a splice and finally trim off all loose ends. Such rings or grommets make very nice quoits and are useful for a variety of other purposes as well as for handles of chests and boxes, rings for masts of small boats, etc. If you learn all these useful knots and splices you will be able to form a knot or make a splice for any and every occasion, and if you master the fancy or ornamental knots you will find a great deal of amusement in making them and in many cases they will come in very handy. Many dull hours or wet, unpleasant vaca- tion days may be spent pleasantly and ad- vantageously in making various knots, and 214 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES you will find that you and your boy friends can get a lot of fun out of knot-tying com- petitions. Fancy Knots and Other Rope Work After you have learned how to tie the knots already described and how to splice ropes properly, you may find a great deal of amuse- ment and may pass many a spare hour learn- ing the more ornamental knots and " ending knots/' A great many of these pretty knots are very useful, especially about boats, and if you look about on board any sailing vessel, whether yacht, man-of-war or merchantman, you will be sure to find a number of them in use. Many of these knots appear very intri- cate and difHcult to the inexperienced ob- server, but in reality it is no harder to learn to tie a good " Turk's Head " or '' Matthew Walker " than a reef-knot or bowline, and after you once learn how to tie them you find it an art you will never forget. In the old sailing ship days every able-bodied seaman could tie practically every knot known, and " marline-spike seamanship " was considered of great importance. With the increase of steam vessels and the adoption of wire rig- ging; knots, splices and fancy work became ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 215 of less value and importance, but even to-day nearly every ship that sails has at least one member of her crew who is a proper sailor and can tie knots, splice ropes, serve, or weave sennet as well as many of the old- time salts. Once you have learned how to tie the various knots you will constantly find new uses for them which never occurred to you before, and if you own a boat of any sort you can add much to her appearance and " yacht- iness " by a liberal use of your skill in knot- ting and splicing. The most important of the ornamental knots and the ones I shall try to teach you to make, are the Crown, with its variations (Figs. 2^, 24) ; the Wall (Figs. 25 and 26); the Matthew Walker (Fig. 32) and the Turk's Head (Fig. 33). By the use of these and combinations of two or more an immense number of fancy knots may be devised and many of these combina- tions have been in such general use that they have become recognised as regular knots, such as the Wall and Crown, Double Wall and Crown, etc. In addition to these real knots, the covering of rope or rigging to make a smooth even finish or " Worming, Parcelling and Serving," should be included as ornamental work, while Four-Stranded 216 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES Braid and Crown Braiding are widely used in making lanyards, hand lines, fenders, etc. In addition to these the amateur rope worker should be familiar with the '' Monkey Chain," and should know how to properly sling a barrel, cask or bundle. The material best suited to tying fancy knots is either very fine stranded and flexible hemp or closely twisted soft cotton rope. Either of these is good, but ordinary manilla is too stiff and bristly to work well for the beginner. Select a piece of new rope and some fine cotton twine and if possible have a fid, marline spike or piece of smooth-pointed hard wood to help in your work. Unlay the strands of the rope for six inches or so and pass a seizing of twine around the end of each strand and around the rope below as shown in the figure. This will keep your strands and the rope from unlaying further and will save lots of bother. An expert can work without the seizings but you will find it best not to try this. We will now try the simplest of fancy knots, known as the Crown. Hold- ing the rope in your left hand, fold one strand over and away from you, as shown in A, Fig. 23, then fold B over A and, holding these two strands in place by your thumb and fin- ger, pass C over B and through the bight of ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 217 A as shown. Now pull all the ends tight and work the bights up snug and you will have the single Crown knot shown. This is a poor knot to stand by itself, however, and is mainly of value as a basis for other Fig. 33 knots and for ending up rope. To end up a rope with a Crown it is merely necessary to tuck the ends of the strands under and over the strands of the standing part as shown in Fig. 24, and taper them down and trim closely exactly as in making an Eye Splice, described already. This makes a most 218 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES neat and ship-shape way of ending up ropes such as painters, halliards, etc. It will never work loose like a seizing and is quickly put on at any time, whereas one often wants to end up a rope when no small stuff for seizings is at hand. The Wall (Figs. 25, 26) is almost as sim- ple as the Crown, and in fact is like a Crown reversed. In making this knot bring C downward and across standing part, then bring strand A over C and around standing part and finally bring B over A and up through bight of C. As in the Crown, the Wall is of value mainly as an ending knot when ends are tucked as in Fig. 26, or as a basis for other knots. Either the Wall or Crown may be rendered more orna- mental and useful by '' doubling." This is done by following around the lay of the strands on a single Wall or Crown. That is, after making your single wall knot, bring strand A up through its own bight, beside the end of C. Then bring B up through its own bight beside A and bring C up through its own bight beside B. This will give you the knot illustrated in Fig. 27. A still better effect may be had by crowning a Wall knot. This is done by first making a Wall and then bringing the strand A up over the top, lay- ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 219 ing B across A, and bringing C over B and through bight of A. This is the foundation of the most beautiful of rope-end knots known as the Double Wall and Crown or Man-Rope knot, shown in Fig. 28. Make your single Wall and Crown it, but leave the strands slack. Then pass the ends under and up through the bights of the slack single wall and then push the ends by the side of those in the single crown, pushing them through the same bight in the crown and downward through the walling. It sounds quite diffi- cult, but if you have learned to wall and crown before attempting it, you will find it easy enough, for it is really merely '' follow- ing " the strands of the single wall and crown. The result, if properly done and ends drawn tight and cut off closely, is sur- prising and, to the uninitiated, most perplex- ing, for if the ends are " tucked " through the strands of the standing part, as shown in Fig. 2S, there should be no sign of beginning or ending to this knot. This is, perhaps, the most useful of ornamental knots and it comes in very handy in many places. It is often used in finishing the ends of rope railings to gangways, the ends of Man-ropes (hence the name), for the ends of Yoke-lines, and to form " stoppers " or toggles to bucket han- 220 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES dies, slings, etc. Its use in this way is illus- trated by Figs. 29, 30 and 31, which show a handy topsail halliard toggle formed by turn- ing an eye splice in a short piece of rope finished with a double wall and crown at the end. Such toggles are very useful about small boats. They may be used as stops for furling sails, for slings around gaff or spars for hoisting and in a variety of other places v^hich will suggest themselves to the young sailor. The most difficult of ending knots and one which every amateur sailor should learn is the Matthew Walker, or " Stopper Knot" (Fig. 2>^). To form this knot, pass one strand around the standing part and through its own bight, then pass B under- neath and through the bight of A and through its own bight also. Then pass C underneath around and through bights of A, B and its own bight. The knot will now appear as in Fig. 32 A, but by carefully hauling the ends around and working the bights tight a little at a time, the knot will assume the appear- ance shown in Fig. 2>^ B. This is a very handsome and useful knot and is widely used on the ends of ropes where they pass through holes, such as bucket handles, ropes for lift- ing trap-doors, chest handles, etc. The knot is well adapted for this purpose as it is hard, ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 221 close and presents an almost flat shoulder on its lower side. The Turk's Head (Fig. ;^2>) is a knot much used aboard yachts and warships and is so handsome and ornamental that it is a great favourite. It is used in ornamenting lower rigging, in forming rings or shoulders on stays or ropes to hold other gear in place, to ornament yoke lines and for forming slip- collars on knife lanyards, gun lanyards, etc. It is also used to form collars around stanch- ions or spars, and placed around a rope close beneath a Man-rope knot it gives a beautiful finish. Although so elaborate in effect it is really an easy knot to make and while you may have difficulty in getting it right at first, a little patience and practice will enable you to become proficient and capable of tying it rapidly and easily in any place or position. To make the Turk's Head, have a smooth round stick or other object and some closely twisted or braided small line. Pass two turns with the rope around the rod. A, Fig. ^3'^ pass the upper bight down through the lower and reeve the upper end down through it, B, Fig. 33. Then pass the bight up again and pass the end over the lower bight and up be- tween it and the upper bight. Dip the upper bight again through the lower one and pass 222 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES the end over what is now the upper bight and between it and the lower, C, Fig. 33. Work around in this manner to the right until the other end is met, when the other part is followed round until a plait of two or more lays is complete, as shown in Fig. 33. The Turk's Head may be drawn as tight as de- sired around the rod or rope by working up the slack and drawing all bights tight. A variation of this knot may be formed by making the first part as directed and then, by slipping the knot to the end of the rod, work one side tighter than the other until the Head forms a complete cap. This makes a splendid finish for the ends of stanchions, poles or fiagstafTs. Ropes that are to be used for hand lines, stanchions, man ropes or life- lines or, in fact, for any purpose where ap- pearance counts, are usually wormed, par- celled or served. Worming consists in twist- ing a small line into the grooves between the strands of a rope (Fig. 34 A). This fills up the grooves and makes the ropes smooth and ready for parcelling. This is done by wrapping the rope with a strip of canvas (Fig. 34 B). This is tarred and the whole finished by " serving " or wrapping tightly with spun yarn, marline or other small stufT (Fig. 34 C). Although this may all be done by hand, yet ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 223 the serving is usually accomplished by using a " serving mallet," shown in Fig. 34 D. This instrument enables you to w^ork tighter and more evenly than by hand-serving, but in either case the rope to be treated should be FiQ. 37 stretched tightly betw^een two firm supports. Often a rope is served without parcelling and for ordinary purposes the parcelling is not required. A variation of serving is made by " half-hitch " work, as shown in Fig. 35. This is quite pretty when well done and is very easy to accomplish. To do this, take a half-hitch around the rope to be covered, then another below, draw snug, take another half- hitch and so on until the object is covered 224 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES and the half-hitches form a spiral twist as shown in the illustrations. Bottles, jugs, ropes, stanchions, fenders and numerous other objects may be covered with this orna- mental half-hitch work and as you become expert you may be able to cover things with several lines of half-hitch work at the same time. Four-strand braiding is highly orna- mental and is very easy and simple. The process is shown in Fig. 36 and consists in merely crossing the opposite strands across and past one another as illustrated in A, B and C, Fig. 36. A still more ornamental braid is made by crowning four or more strands or separate lines and looks like the right-hand illustration in Fig. 37. The proc- ess is exactly like ordinary crowning and does not require any description. Walling may be continued in the same way, but is not as handsome. The Monkey Chain is some- times used in ornamental rope work, but is principally useful for shortening rope in such a manner that it may be readily lengthened. It is well shown in Fig. 38. To make the chain draw a loop of the rope through its own bight, A, Fig. 38, another loop through this, C, Fig. 38, another through this, and so on until the rope is shortened to the re- quired length. The end may then be passed ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES 225 throdgh the last loop as shown at E, Fig. 38. If to be used for a permanent chain, the end may remain thus and the chain will never work loose. If used to shorten rope and the slack is required at any time, it is only nec- essary to slip out the loose end and jerk on the end, when the entire chain will unravel instantly. No article on knots would be complete without some mention of slings, for to sling a barrel, cask, box or bale safely and easily is often of great value and importance. While the boy familiar with knots and splices will no doubt devise practical slings of his own, yet the three shown herewith in Figs. 39, 40 and 41, may serve as hints to readers. Fig. 39 shows a useful sling for bags or bales, and consists merely of a length of rope spliced together and slip-noosed around the object as shown. Fig. 40 shows how to sling a barrel upright, while Fig. 41 shows how to sling a cask in a horizontal position. In this case the rope may be used with an eye- splice at one end, as illustrated, or it may be merely tied at both ends. Sometimes a similar sling is used in which an eye-splice is turned in each end in place of the knot shown. There are numerous other knots both useful and ornamental, but those described 226 ROPES, KNOTS AND SPLICES are the more important and if you learn to make all of these you will be able to pick up others from sight or description, for each one learned makes the next easier. CHAPTER XI SWIMMING AND DIVING Every boy should know how to swim, even if he never expects to go on the water. Fortunately nearly every boy wants to learn how to swim and comparatively few out-of- doors boys fail to learn. The best way to learn to swim is to get some other fellow to teach you; it's a hard matter to teach any- one to swim by writing about it, for even with the help of a good swimmer it's not al- ways easy to learn. One tries and tries again and again and almost gives up in despair and then suddenly, without just knowing- how, you find you are really swimming. Some boys never can learn the trick, but with patience and perseverance nearly everyone can learn to swim after a fashion. Of course some people are more expert than others, — there are always experts in every line, — but as a rule, after you once learn to swim a little, you can rapidly improve and learn a number of strokes and '' fancy swimming." If you once learn to swim you never forget how and although you may go for years without 327 228 SWIMMING AND DIVING swimming a single stroke, yet the first time you try you find all your old skill comes back instinctively. The first thing to learn, and to always remember, is that the human body will float as long as the lungs are filled with air; that is, the body is lighter than the water it dis- places. It is so slightly lighter, however, that only a small portion of the body will remain above the surface, but few people, — if indeed any, — will actually sink if they do not become frightened or thrash about. Some people float better than others and women float better than men as a rule; but it is only necessary to have confidence and keep your head in order to float quite com- fortably without the slightest effort, and by a slight motion of your hands or feet a good portion of your head and body may be kept above the surface. The first step in learning to swim is confidence. If you fear the water it will take a long time to learn to swim, for you must have full confidence in your ability to conquer the water if you expect to learn to swim well. Perhaps the best way to gain confidence is to practise floating and this can be done in quite shoal water where you feel perfectly safe. To float on the back one needs to merely lie down on the water, throw SWIMMING AND DIVING 229 the head well back, with mouth and chin up, and drop the arms beneath or hold them at the sides. If you find the water rising around your ears or even to the corners of your mouth, do not get nervous or try to rise; remain perfectly still or paddle downward slightly with your hands, and you will find that before the water rises to your mouth and nose you are floating upon the water as com- fortably as if lying on a soft feather bed. The next step in learning to swim is to learn to breathe properly. More swimmers have been drowned by improper breathing than by any other cause. A good swimmer may drown by having cramps, by becoming chilled, by striking some other object or by exhaustion; but if he has learned to breathe properly he will never choke or drown by his mouth and lungs becoming filled with water. The majority of people, when rising to the surface, attempt to expel the air in their lungs and inhale a new supply as their head bobs into the air. This is a mistake, for if the air is expelled just before you rise to the surface, you can inhale a good long breath before a wave slaps you in the face or you sink again. In order to learn to breathe properly it is 230 SWIMMING AND DIVING a good plan to stand in water about up to your shoulders and move your head up and down in the water by bending the knees, keeping the head well below the surface by lifting the mouth clear. Take a long, deep breath with your mouth open, turn the head beneath the water, exhale the air through the nostrils, swing the mouth up again and repeat over and over again until it becomes per- fectly natural to breathe in this manner. Water-wings are an excellent aid in learn- ing to swim and every beginner will do well to use them. The commonest, and supposedly easiest, of all styles of swimming is the '' breast stroke," but it is by no means the swiftest or the easiest and nowadays it is largely giving place to the '' crawl," " side " and " back " strokes. In using the breast stroke the head, and often the shoulders, are held above water and the result is that a good deal of energy must be used in keeping them there. Moreover when swimming on the breast a " bow-wave " is made and the body presents a large, broad surface to the water. In addition, the kick required for the breast stroke is a complex afifair and is far from natural. By turning on the back the frog- like kick is easier and the mouth may be held out of water without a strain on the neck SWIMMING AND DIVING 231 muscles. In the " crawl " the entire body and head are beneath the water in a hori- zontal position, the head being merely turned to one side to inhale the air, and thus no effort is wasted in keeping afloat and com- paratively little resistance is offered to the passage of the body. A person may learn to swim with the crawl-stroke with wrists and hands alone, but the leg work is important and is also far more diflicult to learn than the hand work. The old-fashioned side stroke is another good form of swimming and even the despised " dog-paddle '' is far better than nothing and serves a useful purpose. No matter which style you learn first you should not rest con- tent until you have mastered them all, for on a long swim or when in the water for some time, you will find it a great relaxation to shift from one stroke to another. It makes little real difference which stroke you acquire first, for if you are learning to swim in order to be safe in the water you can just as well learn one stroke as another at first. Long be- fore the crawl-stroke was known in America people saved their own lives and the lives of others with the old-fashioned breast stroke and I doubt if there are any more lives saved 232 SWIMMING AND DIVING to-day in proportion by the newer and show- ier crawl-stroke. Nevertheless the newer strokes are splendid and for fast, easy work are far superior, but if you find it easier to learn to swim on your breast or back or even to dog-paddle, by all means learn that way; you will have greater confidence in yourself if you can swim some one way and that will make learning other methods much easier. Diving, like swimming, requires practice in order to become proficient and the only way to learn to dive properly is to have someone teach you, you cannot learn from printed directions. There are a few important points in regard to diving which you should always bear in mind. Never attempt to dive unless you are able to swim well, and never dive unless you are sure there is sufficient depth of water to insure your not striking bottom. Many boys and men have lost their lives by neglecting this simple precaution. Com- mence diving from a short distance above the water and increase the height as you learn to dive better. Do not hesitate too long; as soon as you are ready and properly balanced dive at once; to hesitate and dally invites disaster in diving, and people are often injured in this way. Do not dive if you feel nervous, uncertain or lacking confidence. SWIMMING AND DIVING 233 The chances are that under such circum- stances you will involuntarily make some motion or effort to check yourself at the last instant and as a result will strike the water in a dangerous, or at least uncomfortable, attitude. If you use a springboard have it smooth and free from splinters; spruce or yellow pine is better than oak. Do not try fancy diving until you are expert in straight- forward diving. Do not dive where others are swimming or bathing; a human body fall- ing from even a few feet strikes with dan- gerous force. If you wish to have real fun make a rope swing, as illustrated in Fig. i. This beats a springboard all to pieces for sport, but it cannot be called either a graceful or useful method of entering the water. To make the swing, merely fasten a smooth round stick to a piece of rope, the other end of which is at- tached to a branch or beam over or near the water. Grasp the two ends of the stick in your hands, walk back to the limit of the rope, run rapidly forward and as the rope swings you off your feet and over the water let go with both hands. With practice you may learn to turn somersaults or double somersaults before striking the water, but at first you will strike the surface in a heap 234> SWIMMING AND DIVING and with a mighty splash. The swing should be so arranged that it is a little higher than your head as you stand directly beneath it. Finally let me advise you not to overdo things and stay in the water too long; an hour is as much as most people can stand. And last and most important of all, never go into the water right after eating; there is no better way of bringing on peritonitis and other deadly stomach and intestinal troubles; wait at least an hour and a half after meals before entering the water, and always avoid plunging into cold water when you are warm, perspiring or overheated. SWIMMING AND DIVING 225 Swimming Floats and Springboards As a rule the shores of lakes, ponds, streams or even salt water are seldom safe places from which to dive and swim. Of course there may be deep water close to shore, but in the majority of cases there are stones, stumps, shoals or other obstructions which make diving dangerous. By building a swim- ming float a safe and convenient place may be made from which to dive. By attaching a springboard to the float and by erecting a shelter on one end, the float may be made to serve many purposes. It may be moored in any convenient spot and will serve as a raft, house-boat, fishing-float, boat-dock and swimming-float combined. It is a very easy matter to construct such a float, and if several boys work together the whole affair may easily be built in a couple of days. The first requisite is six strong, water-tight barrels, which should be given a good coat of paint, tar or pitch. Secure two pieces of 2 x 6 scantling, each ten feet long, and four pieces each twenty feet in length, and nail these firmly together in a rough frame, as shown in Fig. 2, having the space between A and B and C and D just wide enough to ad- mit the barrels easily, as illustrated. Place the ^36 SWIMMING AND DIVING ii 1 m Fig. 2 ;i- ■lli^H Pro. 3 \^iJZ ^^^C— six barrels in the frame, as illustrated, having a barrel close against each end on both sides and with the odd ones half-way between. Cut eight short pieces of the scantling, each SWIMMING AND DIVING 237 the length of the barrels, and nail these in position on either side of the middle barrels and on the inner sides of the end barrels as shown at Fig. 2 A, A, A. Now lift the framework from the barrels and placing it on a smooth, level surface or on horses, proceed to nail boards across the top, as shown in Fig. 3. The boards or planks should be smooth on the upper side and those at the ends should be long enough to extend clear across from one side of the frame to the other, but those in the middle may be shorter pieces extending only from one timber to another. Drive the nails well below the sur- face of the boards and if the planking is rough or splintery, cover the deck with old canvas or carpet. A fish-well may be added to the float by boarding up a space in the middle, as shown at Fig. 4, and boring a small hole through the bottom. A trap-door should be fitted over this in the deck and in this well you may keep live fish, turtles or other aquatic creatures for as long as you please. At one end of the float a bracket and socket should be made for the springboard. The construction of this is so plainly illustrated in Fig. 5 that no explanation is required. By merely pushing the board into the socket A and placing the support B beneath it the 238 SWIMMING AND DIVING board is ready for use, and the springiness and angle may be varied to suit your taste by simply moving the support B forv^ard or back. When the board is not in use or when the float is being moved from one spot to another the board may be lifted from the socket and placed on deck out of the v^ay. A hand-rail may also be added and you will find this a great convenience in getting onto the float from the water, as well as in tying up boats or in fastening the float to the shore. The method of constructing the hand-rail is shown in Fig. 6. At one end of the float a lean-to tent or a light board hut may be erected and if it is desired to move the affair about, crotches should be placed on the sides and ends and long sweeps or oars should be provided. The crotches, which serve as oarlocks, may be cut from natural forks of trees and may be set into holes bored in blocks spiked to the side timbers (Fig. 7). If the water is far from where the float is built the latter may be carted to it and the barrels rolled or carted to the shore. Do not launch the float before placing the barrels in position, but set the frame over them and roll the whole affair into the water, using planks or timbers for a track if the ground is rough or uneven. If there are large mill-logs SWIMMING AND DIVING 239 in your vicinity and no barrels are handy, you may use logs instead of barrels, placing the logs crosswise, as shown in Fig. 8. You will find no end of fun in such a float and may camp out on it all summer, moving from place to place along the water-course or lake as your fancy dictates and having just as much sport and comfort as if you owned a palatial houseboat. In winter the float may be drawn up anywhere on shore and left without further attention until spring, and if the barrels are given a coat of paint each season and new hoops are added as the old ones rust out, the float should serve you well for many years. CHAPTER XII HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS Nearly every out-of-doors boy who lives near a body of water longs to have a boat of some sort and sooner or later he will be- come tired of rowing and paddling about and will wish to try his hand at sailing. There are numerous fatal accidents every year due to the careless or improper handling of sailboats, and many people have become so fearful of sailing craft and so prejudiced against them that they have an idea that to venture out in a sailboat is far more danger- ous than to paddle a canoe. As a matter of fact a sailboat, if well built, properly rigged and intelligently handled, is as safe as a row- boat or launch and far safer than the best canoe ever built. Everyone who uses a sailboat, however, should learn to swim, for although excellent swimmers are often drowned, yet the knowl- edge that you can swim will give yourself and your friends confidence and may result in saving your own or some other person's life. The same is true of rowboats, launches ^0 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 241 or canoes, and a person who cannot swim has no business fooling around in boats. No matter how well you can swim never take to the water, as long as the boat floats; stick to your ship no matter in what condition she may be, until compelled to desert her by her sinking beneath you. A water-logged or capsised boat will float for hours or even days, it will support several persons and is far more likely to be seen by other boats or by people ashore than a swimming person. It takes very little to support a person in the water, — an old bucket or pail held perpen- dicularly wrong side up, an open umbrella, a high hat, or even a derby will hold enough air to support a person for a long time, while an oar, a grating, a plank or a spar will serve the same purpose. There is no need of having a boat capsise or sink under normal conditions, but even the best sailor may meet with an accident, a sudden squall or a collision, and it is well to be prepared. In boat sailing, as in many other things, it is of the utmost importance to keep your head; don't get "rattled" no matter what happens. Learn to move and act quickly, surely and intelligently without clumsiness or getting tangled up in ropes or gear. " Make haste slowly " is a fine motto 242 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS for boat sailing and never take chances; it is far better to reef or shorten sail too soon or in a moderate wind than to wait too long or carry too much sail in a blow. One often sees some foolhardy boy or man sailing in a stiff blow with all sail set and risking boat and life to " show off," and although such people may laugh at your caution, in the end you will come out the best. Remember that no two boats handle alike and if possible confine yourself to one boat and learn her every whim and trick; just how much sail she requires to do her best; just how she sails, to the best advantage; just how she steers and handles and all the other little peculiarities belonging to that boat. Before telling you how to sail, it may be well to explain in a few words just how and why a boat under sail does certain things, such as sailing against the wind or sailing with a beam-wind without tipping over or capsising. In the first place the wind pressing against a sail has two effects on the boat; one tending to push it ahead or sideways, the other to push it over or upset it. Whereas the pushing effect must be preserved and en- couraged, the upsetting effect or " heeling " must be overcome or resisted. The resist- ance to this upsetting force is called '' sta- HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 243 bility," and many boats have sufficient sta- bility arising from form alone to overcome the tendency to upset, but more often addi- tional stability is obtained by adding extra weight near the bottom of the boat, either by a heavy metal keel, a v^eighted centreboard or ballast v^ithin the boat. In addition to sta- bility a boat, in order to sail v^ell, must pos- sess lateral resistance, or in other v^ords must be so constructed as to offer a greater resist- ance to travelling sideways than ahead. When sailing in any direction, except before the wind, there is a strong sideways pressure against sails and boat as well as the forward pressure, and unless the boat is provided with means of resisting this she will slide sideways, or diagonally, over the water, or in other words will make " leeway." This lateral mo- tion is usually overcome by a deep, narrow keel or by a centreboard which consists of a metal or wooden plate let down through the bottom of the boat to prevent the sideways motion but which may be pulled up when sailing before the wind and thus cause less resistance to the speed of the boat. The action of the wind on the sails has a tendency to force the stern of the boat away from and the bow towards the wind, and to overcome this the rudder must be turned 244 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS until the pressure of the water against it has sufficient force to balance the action of the wind on the sails (Fig. i). If a boat is prop- erly rigged and planned and if left with the rudder loose and sails up she will sail a short distance and then come up into the wind and lose headway; after a few moments she will again sail a short distance and repeat the operation, and so on over and over again. If, on the other hand, she is not properly planned and rigged she will sail along faster and faster, falling off more and more from the wind until the sail suddenly flops over to the other side, carrying away ropes and mast or upsetting the boat. Such a craft is exceed- ingly unsafe, and a good plan is to always try a new boat by sailing a short distance and then letting the rudder swing free. If the boat comes up to the wind quickly and her sails shake, you may be sure she will come about readily and will take care of herself if the rudder is free in case you should be obliged to leave the tiller. To many people, the fact that a boat can sail against the wind is very perplexing and hard to understand and it really is a rather difficult thing to explain simply and plainly, but in Fig. 2 is shown a diagram of a boat sailing against the wind or " tacking." If HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 245 we suppose the wind to be blowing from the direction of the arrow and the boat to be in the position shown at A, we will see that the Pig. 5 1^. V'ui. %t Fio.8 /(( I r I I' Fig. 7 sail is in such a position that the wind striking it tends to push the boat sideways. As the centreboard, or keel, prevents this, the boat must move forward diagonally in the direc- tion of the dotted line C while the wind 246 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS glances off the sails toward the stern. This direction, however, would never bring the boat to the destination D, so that when we have sailed as far as we consider advisable the tiller is pushed over; the boat comes around and the wind filling the sails on the other side pushes the boat as shown in B. A little further on the rudder must be again turned and the boat headed as in E and so, by sailing diagonally first in one direction and then in another, or zigzag, the destination is at last reached. This sailing against the wind or, in sailors' terms " tacking " or " beating " to windward, requires considerable practice, skill and judgment, as well as an exact knowledge of your boat and her capability. Some boats will sail much closer to the wind than others, or in other words will " head up " nearer the direction in which the wind comes from, and the nearer to the wind you can point the boat, the more closely the sail must be hauled in toward the centre of the boat. If the boat is kept too close to the wind, or the sail trimmed in too fiat, the boat will move so slowly ahead that she will drift sideways and nothing will be gained. In sailing into the wind, therefore, you must endeavour to keep your boat pointed as near the wind as she will sail well and the sails HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 247 should be trimmed in quite flat and then grad- ually eased off until the edge of the sail next to the mast just commences to flutter and wrinkle. This shows you are sailing '' full and by " or in other words as close to the wind with sails as flat as is advisable. Every few minutes the boat should be brought up a trifle closer to the wind and then eased off so that the sails are always filled and yet the edge, by its fluttering, shows the sailor that the sheet is trimmed correctly. When ready to come about on the next tack the boat should be eased off a trifle, the sails loosened slightly and as soon as increased speed is gained the rudder should be thrown hard over, the tiller being pushed away from the wind, and as the boat wheels about, the sail should be hauled in briskly until it begins to fill on the opposite side. Then ease it off* again gradually until she is sailing on the other tack, as nearly as possible under the same conditions as already described. As a matter of fact very few boats will sail equally well on both tacks, and you must learn by experiment which tack gives the best results with your craft, and must aim to secure your greatest windward gain on that tack. When tacking with other persons in the boat you should always signal before going about or 248 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS tacking. This is usually done by crying '' Hard a-lee " and at these words your pas- sengers should duck their heads as the boom swings over or should shift their seats to the other side of the boat, if she keels over very much. Some boats are very difficult to bring about when tacking and in such cases, if they fail to swing around on the other tack even with the sheet eased off quite a little, the centreboard may be swung up just as you tack and again dropped after you have come about, or the stern may be swung around by an oar. This failure to come about is called " missing stays," but if the boat is well built and rigged it will hardly ever happen except in a strong tide or current. Sailing on the wind, or in other words, with the wind blowing to one side or partly from the stern (Figs. 3 and 4), is very easy and in this position most boats get their greatest speed and are the easiest to handle. If, when sailing in such a direc- tion, you wish to turn about you should al- ways haul in your sheet, push tiller to leeward (away from wind) and bring the boat around into the wind as in tacking and then ease off until you are sailing in the direction you wish. This is shown in the diagram (Fig. 5). If you attempt to turn about without doing this, the sail will swing suddenly across the HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 249 boat or will " jibe," and although an old sailor can jibe in moderate wind with perfect safety an amateur may capsise his boat or carry away masts and rigging. In sailing be- fore the wind as in Fig. 6, great care must be used, for many boats have a decided tendency to '' yaw " or swing wildly from side to side in this position. If care is not used under such conditions the boat may jibe with serious results or the sail may '' kick up " and become unmanageable, and wind itself around the mast or break away entirely. If a boat shows a tendency to yaw when sailing before the wind it is best to sail partly side to, or with the wind over the quarter (Fig. 4), and go about, as described above, every little while and in this way tack down the wind instead of trying to sail di- rectly before it. This is known as '' wearing- ship," and although a good sailor can safely jibe a boat in a stiff wind it is far better to take no chances. If it does become necessary to jibe, it should be done by hauling in the sheet rapidly until the boom swings over to the other side and then pay out the sheet smoothly and quickly, so that there is no jerk or sudden pull as the wind swings the sail over. If there is much wind it is also a good plan to lower the peak of the sail before 250 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS jibing. In sailing before the wind it is of great importance to have your boat ballasted or " trimmed " properly. If the weight is too far forward she will '' yaw " or swing about badly and will be hard to steer and handle, and will be really dangerous if there is a brisk wind and sea. Too much weight near the stern will also result in difficult handling, but is not so bad as the forward weight. As a rule the weight should be so distributed as to bring the boat a little deeper aft than for- ward, and while the effect of poor trim is more apparent when sailing before the wind it is really a great disadvantage when tacking also. The figures in diagram (Fig. 7) will show about how a boat's sails should be trimmed for sailing with the wind in various quarters. A, shows the boat sailing against the wind or "close-hauled"; B, with wind forward of the beam; C, with wind abeam; D, with wind abaft the beam; E, with wind on the quarter, and F, with wind astern or sail- ing free. Remember that a boat's sheets can be trimmed flatter in light winds and smooth water than in rough seas and heavy winds and that most boats will sail nearer the wind with full sail than when reefed. As soon as the wind freshens so that the boat tips down or " heels over " to any great extent, or if HOW TO SAII< AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 251 a squall or storm is likely to come up, the sail should be reefed without delay. This may be done either by anchoring or while '' laying to/' In either case bring the boat into the wind, drop the peak of the sail or partially lower it and bring the boom amid- ships. Tie the front edge of the sail to the boom with a short piece of line called a " reef-earing," then pass the earing of the cringle on the leech (after edge of sail) (B, Fig. 8) through the eye in the boom and stretch the foot of sail as taut as you can and tie it securely. When this is done roll up the bottom of sail neatly and tie all the reef points (C, Fig. 8) tightly with good square or reef knots, around bottom of sail as shown in Fig. 9. The sail may then be hoisted and unless the wind is very stiff your boat will be able to carry the reefed sail with safety. Most boats have two or more sets of reef points and, if necessary, a second reef may be taken over the first. Then if the wind dies out, the second reef may be shaken out and later the first. If taken unawares in a sudden squall or puff, the peak of the sail may be dropped and thus the size of sail reduced very quickly. In case you are caught out in a severe blow or thunderstorm, where there is plenty of room and you cannot anchor, you 252 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS may ride out the blow by means of a drag or sea anchor. This is easily made by tying oars, old sails, cushions, or, in fact, any objects that will float, on the end of a line and passing it over the bows of your boat. This serves as a drag on the boat, and keeps her head to sea and wind. Remember never to make your sheet fast, even in the pleasantest weather. Hold it in }our hand, or take a turn around a cleat so that it may be eased off instantly in case of puffs or squalls. In puffy weather it is best to ease off the sheet and bring the boat into the wind a trifle as each puff comes along, and bring her back to her course and haul in the slack of the sheet as they pass. Many a boat has been upset and many lives lost by making a sheet fast. As long as sheet and sails are free a boat cannot be upset by any ordinary wind, for it then will shake free and offer but little surface to the wind. In bad weather keep as near the bottom of the boat as possible and keep to windward of the tiller. Always have sheets, halliards and all ropes free from tangles and neatly coiled so they can run freely in case of need. Nothing is more dangerous than to have a tangle of ropes and gear in the bottom of a boat. Al- ways keep steerage way on a boat if possible, and in case of doubt be on the safe side and HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS 253 reef, anchor or get to land as soon as possible. Never go out without oars, water and com- pass (except on small lakes or rivers). Never sail strange waters without a chart or pilot. Remember that when tacking, a boat on the starboard tack (with wind from right-hand side) has the right of way over a boat on the port tack (wind from left side). Avoid breakers, rapids, tide-rips and whirls. Keep your eyes to windward and watch out for squalls, puffs and storms. Never try to tack or go about in the face of a heavy wave, wait until a '' smooth " comes. Remember that a boat may always be helped- about with an oar. In rough water watch out that the boom does not catch in a sea and " trip " when run- ning free; this may be avoided by trimming in sail and bringing the boat on the wind slightly, or by reefing. Always stand to wind- ward of a sail when reefing. Never luff a boat in bad weather so as to lose way; better ease the sheet a little, for if way is lost you may quickly upset when you try to get her on the wind again. A boat will steer easier before the wind with centreboard up. If sailing in heavy seas that threaten to come over the stern, a pail, or a couple of oars towed behind will break the seas, or oil dropped over will help. Be cautious when passing in the lee of 254 HOW TO SAIL AND HANDLE SMALL BOATS a large boat or island, the wind may come quick and strong when passed. Never try to sail near a moving steamer to " feel the swells." Never leave the tiller when sailing, or jump about. Never sit on the gunwale or climb the mast. Never let clothing, sails or rope trail overboard. Never trust a squall or thunderstorm. Never sail in fog. Never lose your head or get nervous, and if you are cap- sised try to crawl up on the side or bottom of your boat and she will keep you afloat. If you strike a rock or snag do not get frightened and leave the boat until you are sure she is sinking. A coat, hat, piece of sail or any other object may be stuffed into a hole and a boat worked to land even when badly stoven in. CHAPTER XIII SAILING ON THE LAND Sailing Carts In a great many places there are broad, level open stretches of country or long, wide smooth sand-beaches, and the boys who are fortunate enough to live in such districts can have lots of fun with Sailing Carts. It is not at all difficult to build a good sailing cart and as they are perfectly safe and are handled in much the same manner as a sail- boat you will obtain a lot of practice in handling boats, in tacking and in steering by amusing yourself with one of these land craft. The first step in building a sailing cart is to construct the frame or chassis. This may be of almost any size, but a very good size is fourteen feet long by four feet in width. At one end, which will be the stern, make a support for the steering-post as shown in Fig. I A. This is essential, for a bicycle wheel with fork is to be used as a rudder and the space beneath the truss must be high enough to accommodate the fork and wheel. 256 256 SAILING ON THE LAND This gallows-like truss should be firmly built with the uprights mortised into the side tim- bers as shown at Fig. i B, and in addition there should be braces at the corners as illus- trated. The upper piece of this support must be af least three inches thick, in order to pro- vide a firm, steady bearing for the steering- post and if possible a bushing or piece of metal tube should be inserted in the hole for a bearing to the steering-post of the wheel. The main frame should be of 2 x 4 material, edgewise, with a space of twenty-four inches between the inner sides, and the main beams should be mortised firmly to the two cross- pieces (C C) of 4x I stuff. Across the ends of these cross-pieces fasten the pieces D D, of 4 X % material, with two more pieces inside (E E) just far enough from the pieces (D D) to admit the rear wheels of old bicycles. The wheels should be supported by setting the cones on the hubs in holes bored in the tim- bers and fitted with metal plates as shown in Fig. 2, and great care should be taken to have both front wheels in line and parallel. This is the only difficult part of the work and it can only be accomplished by frequent mea- surements and care in lining up and squaring the frame and holes. The rear wheel or rudder is simply placed SAILING ON THE LAND 257 under the support provided for it with the upper part of the fork passing through the hole in the timber. A tiller should be at- T Pig. 1 Fig. 2 tached to the fork of the wheel as shown at Fig. 3, and a step should be fastened near the front end to hold the mast as shown at 258 SAILING ON THE LAND F, Fig. I. The mast should be about fourteen feet in length and should slip readily through the hole in F and rest in a socket in a second cross-piece G. The sail may be of any de- sired style, such as the leg-of-mutton, sprit, fore-and-aft, lateen or lug design. Without the sail the car may be used for coasting and with a fair wind the owner may sail gaily along any fairly smooth road. A great deal more fun may be obtained, how- ever, by taking your sail cart to a smooth hard beach, to an open level field or to a circular race-track. In such places, especially on a track, you will be able to try sailing be- fore the wind, on the wind and against the wind and will be able to learn all about tack- ing, going about, jibing and reaching. How to Build and Use a Glider Nearly every boy has longed to fly at some time during his life and since aeroplanes have come into use and man has learned to actually fly, a great many boys long to be- come aviators, or at least to soar far above the earth in an aeroplane. Aeroplanes at best are more or less danger- ous and moreover they are excessively expen- sive toys, and a great deal of experience and SAILING ON THE LAND 259 not a little skill are required to handle one at all. There is a way for boys to fly, however, and a safe way at that, and this is by using a '' glider." Gliders paved the way for the solution of the problem of human flight and in a broad sense are nothing more nor less than aeroplanes without power. In one of these affairs a boy may have all the exhilara- tion and sensations of flight without any more danger than coasting down hill and, more- over, a glider may be built by any handy boy at very small expense. There are many forms of gliders, the two most common forms being known as " Mono- plane gliders " and '' Biplane gliders " just as aeroplanes are known as Monoplanes and Biplanes. While some of the monoplane glid- ers work very well, they are not so easy to build nor so safe and satisfactory as the biplane type. Before commencing work on your glider have all the materials ready and familiarise yourself with the names of the various parts, so that you can easily follow the directions for building, assembling and using the glider. The parts of a glider are not many and all the important parts are shown clearly in Fig. 4. 260 SAILING ON THE LAND This diagram represents the completed glider frame without the covering and with portions of the lower plane removed in order to show the stays, trusses and rudder-parts and to avoid confusion. At the front and rear of each " plane " or surface are long slender pieces known as '' horizontal beams " and extending from the upper to the lower beams are a number of uprights called " stanchions." From the front horizontal beam to that at the rear on each plane are six pieces on each surface which are known as " struts." Between these struts and parallel with them are a number of curved pieces called " ribs." Between the centre struts on each plane and parallel with the long horizontal beams are short, stout pieces to which the long, light " rudder beams " are fastened, and the latter have braces or struts connecting them at their extreme ends and at a spot between the ends and the planes. Hung between the two rudder beams and two " rudder-frame struts " is a rectangular frame which forms the " horizontal rudder " when covered with fabric. In addition to these essential parts there are two stout sticks on the lower plane be- tween the two middle struts. These are SAILING ON THE LAND 261 used as supports for the operator of the glider and are known as " arm pieces." All of these " timbers " are made from the best selected dry spruce with a straight grain and free from knots, and each and every piece ^'"^^^Ji /r'nauaxUl Ortimj Strytii ffUidr, Se^^s ■■■•••. r^ "''^•/,*'//>-~--' must be made as carefully as possible and all must be finished with sandpaper and coated with two good coats of spar varnish. It is usually a waste of time to try and obtain the proper lumber for a glider from local dealers and you will get better results and will save time and money by securing your wood from a dealer in aeroplane supplies. In every large city there are dealers in such things and by looking through any one of the 262 SAILING ON THE LAND various aeronautical magazines you will find their advertisements. The material that you will require for the glider is as follows: Struts Twelve pieces each 3 feet long, ij4 inch wide and >^ inch thick. Horizontal Beams Four pieces each 20 feet in length by iK inches wide by H inch thick. Stanchions Twelve pieces each 4 feet long and % inch square. Ribs Forty-one pieces each 4 feet long and K inch square. Arm Pieces Two pieces each 3 feet long, i inch wide and iH inches thick. Rudder Frame Two pieces each 8 feet 11 inches in length; two pieces 3 feet 10 inches in length; four pieces 2 feet in length and two pieces 6 feet in length and all i inch square. SAILING ON THE LAND 263 Rudder-Beam Supports Two pieces 2 feet 11 M inches long, i>4 inches wide and H inch thick. Covering About twenty yards of either silk or cotton fabric one yard wide. Stout silk or plain unbleached cotton will answer, but you will have better success if you purchase the regu- lar aeroplane fabric, as this material is ex- ceedingly tough and light in weight and is treated chemically to make it waterproof and airtight. Stays One roll of No. 12 piano wire. Miscellaneous Twenty-four strut or stanchion sockets. These may be obtained ready made and these regular sockets are more satisfactory than anything you can make yourself. Some copper or galvanised carpet tacks; some stove bolts, shellac, glue, carpenter's tools, varnish, sandpaper. After the various parts are cut to the exact dimensions and have been smoothed carefully 264 SAILING ON THE LAND .. .zof iKi you should round off all square edges and should work the stanchions into the form shown at the section in Fig. 5. The pieces intended for ribs should next be steamed and bent on a wooden form so as to make the curve shown in Fig. 6, the central SAILING ON THE LAND 265 portion of each rib being some two inches above the ends. The form may be built of planks sawed the right shape and with strips nailed across, as shown in Fig. 7, and on this a number of ribs may be bent at one time, which will result in a uniform curve in all. The curve required is very slight, and you will find but little trouble in bending the ribs, which should be held in the proper position while drying by cleats placed over them and secured to the sides of the form by hooks or twisted wires, as illustrated in Fig. 8. Although steaming is the best way to pre- pare the ribs for bending, yet they may be soaked in boiling water in an old wash boiler and may thus be softened sufficiently to bend them into shape. The ribs having been bent and the other woodwork rounded off at the edges and the proper shape given to the stanchions, go over them all with fine sandpaper and varnish with the best spar varnish obtainable. When the first coat of varnish is thoroughly dry, smooth it off with fine sandpaper and apply a second coat of varnish. Do not attempt to proceed with the work until this second coat is thor- oughly hard and dry. The next step is to select two of the long 266 SAILING ON THE LAND horizontal beams and lay them on a smooth floor so that they are exactly parallel and three feet apart. Between the two beams place six of the struts, arranging them so there is one at each end of the beams and the others are spaced two feet apart and 4/^ feet distant from the end struts. You will now have a rectangle composed of the two horizontal beams and the end struts and with the interior divided into five sections by the struts (Fig. 9). In fitting these struts in place be very careful to see that their ends fit snugly against the beams and true up every point of contact so that each strut is exactly at right angles with the beams. This is of the utmost importance, for if the plane is askew or out of true the machine will never fly well. After attending to this detail, mark the position of every strut and then carefully cut away one edge of each strut for a dis- tance of i>^ inches from the end and J4 inch deep (Fig. 10). These notches must be cut true and square and when this is done place the struts on the beams and fasten them in position by small wire nails and glue. When the glue sets the struts must be attached to the beams SAILING ON THE LAND 267 by '' clamps." These are simply pieces of sheet brass each ^Vs inches long, i inch wide and 1-16 inch thick with the corners and ends rounded off and with a /4-inch hole bored in eachendasshowninFig.il. You can easily make the clamps yourself, but as they are secured in position by the stanchion socket eyebolts you can make them while waiting for the glue to harden. After completing the frame for one plane proceed with the other in the same way. Then place one of the planes with the struts above and the other with struts beneath and across the beams place the ribs with the curved side up, as indicated in Fig. 12. On the upper plane, which is the one with the struts above, place twenty-one ribs spaced one foot apart and on the lower plane place twenty ribs, leaving a two-foot space in the centre of the frame for the operator's body. Arrange the ribs carefully and see that they are absolutely square with the beams and that one end of each rib is flush with the front beam with the other end projecting a foot beyond the other beam (Fig. 13). You may now secure the ribs in position by tacking them in place with fine wire nails and then over each rib place a strip of brass or copper 2}i inches long and Vs inch 268 SAILING ON THE LAND wide with the corners rounded, fastening the pieces to the beam on each side of the ribs with No. 5 round-headed, brass wood screws inch long (Fig. i^^). Before attempting to place these screws in about K 04»v» St'^f the wood be sure and start a hole, for if you do not you will probably crack or split the wood and if this happens you will have to throw it aside and start all over again. When all the ribs are clamped in position the skeletons of the wings or planes will be com- plete, and you may go ahead and fasten them SAILING ON THE LAND 269 together by means of the stanchions. In doing this you will require the twenty-four brass or aluminum sockets mentioned. These are shaped as shown in Fig. 14, and may be purchased of any dealer in aeroplane supplies. The sockets come designed to receive either round, stream-line or oval stanchions and in various sizes. Those used for the glider should be of the form decided upon for the stanchions and about 3/4 inches long, iji inch wide and }i inch thick on the base with an internal diameter of H inch and an outside diameter of iM inch. The height from the base to the top should be one inch and the screw holes should be >4 inch in diameter separated iji inch apart. Two smaller 3-16 inch holes should be bored in the base out- side of the larger holes. It is a good plan to secure the sockets be- fore working down the stanchions, as in this way the stanchions may be smoothed down to exactly fit the metal sockets. The sockets should be placed, six on the front beam of one plane with one exactly over the end of each strut, but on the opposite side of the beam as shown in Fig. 15. Each socket should then be screwed into place with small wood screws inserted through the smaller holes in the bases and 270 SAILING ON THE LAND over each strut a brass clamp (already de- scribed) should be placed and the eyebolts for the sockets should be passed through the base of the latter and through the j4-inch holes in the clamp underneath and the nuts screwed firmly in place so as to draw socket, beam, strut and clamp together (Fig. 15). After the sockets are all attached to the front beam, place another set on the rear beam and when these are in place fasten the other twelve to the other plate in the same manner, taking care to place the struts of the upper plane above the beams and those of the lower plane below the beams. The next thing is to set up the stanchions in the lower plane sockets, and when doing this you should use care to keep the ends snug in the cups. In case they are too tight to slip in with a little pressure you can rub them down a little with sandpaper, but you should never whittle or cut them down or attempt to drive them into the sockets. If they are too loose you will have to make new stanchions, although a thin piece of cloth glued about them will make a good fit if the looseness is not too great. After all the stanchions are placed in the sockets of the lower plane lift the upper plane-frame and set it carefully on the stanchions. You will SAILING ON THE LAND 271 probably require a couple of friends to help you at this, for the frame, while light, is very clumsy and it is a hard matter to handle it alone while placing the upper ends of the stanchions in the sockets. If your friends will lift the frame and hold it steadily in position it is easy to fit each stanchion in its proper socket and to get them all evenly and snugly in place. You should next place the arm pieces in position after rounding them smoothly on the top, as shown in the section in Fig. i6. Bore holes through each arm piece and the lower frame beams, using a 3-16 inch bit and placing the holes so that the pieces are 6>^ inches on each side of the exact centre of the beams, thus leaving an open space 13 inches wide be- tween the arm pieces. Bolt the pieces in place with stove bolts (Fig. 16), and then place a cross-piece 2 feet 11 34 inches long and 1/4 X M inches between the two central struts, 8 inches from the lower beam, and another in the same position on the upper plane (Fig. 16). These should be fastened in place with fine wire nails and glue, and with small brass angle-irons screwed onto struts and cross-pieces with round-headed screws. These angle-irons may be made from sheet brass or may be purchased already made 272 SAILING ON THE LAND as desired. The cross-pieces are to support the rudder frame, which should next be con- structed. You must also make some rudder- frame sockets which are simple affairs of 1-16 inch sheet brass, 4^2 inches long. Two of them should be Va- inch in width and the other two iYa inch wide bent, as shown in Fig. 17, with all ends rounded off and with holes drilled as indicated and with additional 3-16 inch holes through the centre of the smaller sockets, as shown in the cut. One of the large sockets is attached to each of the rear beams and the smaller ones are fastened to the cross-pieces by bolts, as illus- trated in Fig. 16, the utmost care being taken to have the sockets absolutely in line and exactly in the centre of the beams. If you have done your work carefully the frames will now be quite stiff and strong, but they must be still further strengthened by staying with wire trusses before they will serve to support the weight of your body and bear the strain of the air against the surfaces of the planes. To accomplish this properly the framework should be placed on a couple of horses so that it is perfectly level and true and so that no unequal strain comes on any one portion. Place the roll of No. 12 wire handy as well as SAILING ON THE LAND 273 some pliers, some short pieces of brass or copper tubing of ys inch inside diameter and about H inch long, and your soldering outfit. There are several methods of trussing in use, but the simplest and best for your glider is the only one I will describe. A great many builders trust to pulling the wires tight by hand, but this is a difficult and far from satisfactory method, and it is much better to use small turnbuckles. Turnbuckles for the purpose cost but ten or fifteen cents each, and it is not worth while to spoil a good frame by attempting to use makeshifts. To truss the frames slip a piece of the copper or brass tube over the end of a wire, pass the wire through an eyebolt, run the end back through the tube, bend the end sharply back over the tube and press the latter down close to the eyebolt, as shown in Fig. i8. Although this fastening will usually hold without anything further being done, yet it is far wiser to solder the tube and wire together. This may be done as fast as the wires are attached, but it may be accomplished just as well after all the wires are in position, thus saving a lot of bother and time. After fastening one end of the wire to an eyebolt, place a turnbuckle on the opposite diagonal corner of the section of the frame, 274 SAILING ON THE LAND loosen it nearly to its full extent, pass the wire through the end eye of the turnbuckle, draw it tight and fasten it as already de- scribed. Continue fastening wires and turn- buckles on the various corners of the sec- tions until the trussing appears as in Fig. 19, each section except the small central ones being wired diagonally as shown. As such wires would interfere with the operator of the machine in the centre, a wire is here run diagonally from the junction of each central strut with the upper beams to the opposite corner (Fig. 20). When all the wires are in position the turnbuckles should be screwed up gradually until every rectangular section is absolutely square and every wire is taut and gives out a musical note when struck with the fingers. It may take a little time to get everything just right, but by tighten- ing in one spot and loosening in another per- fect alignment may be obtained. To test the strength of the frame, place it across two saw-horses, one at each extreme end, and taking your position in the centre, place your hands on the arm pieces and lift your weight off the floor. If the frame bends or sags ever so slightly you must increase the tension on the wires until the whole affair is perfectly rigid, even when you spring up and down SAILING ON THE LAND 275 or add twenty pounds more to your weight. The only things to do now are to build the rudders and cover the planes, and it makes very little difference which you do first. As a rule it is better to complete the entire wood- work before touching the fabric, for then you can lay aside your carpenter's tools and have but one kind of work to attend to. The rudder frame is made up of two rec- tangular frames joined so that they cross at right angles, one being perpendicular and the other horizontal. The latter is first con- structed with the six rudder frame pieces mentioned in the list of materials, the lengths of six feet being joined by the four two-foot pieces, thus making a frame six feet long by two feet wide, with cross-pieces two and one- half feet from each end and one foot apart (Fig. 21 ). The corners of this frame must be joined by half-and-half lapped joints glued and nailed and re-enforced by sheet metal angles, as illustrated in Fig. 22. The frame for the vertical rudder is built up from the pieces 8 feet 11 inches long for the top and bottom, connected by the pieces 3 feet 10 inches long. One of these shorter pieces connects the two long pieces at their ends, another is placed two feet from the first and between these exactly midway from top 276 SAILING ON THE LAND to bottom, the horizontal frame is fastened by means of 3-16 inch bolts, which may be easily withdrawn. When in position the two frames will appear as in Fig. 23, and each joint should be carefully made and re-enforced with metal braces, for the rudder will receive a great deal of strain when the glider is in use. At the points marked B B B B, eyebolts are placed through the corners of the frames to receive stay wires, which support and stiffen the rudder frames. The complete frame is merely slipped into the sockets already pro- vided on the planes and by passing bolts through these sockets and the frame it is secured in position while truss wires run, as shown in Fig. 21; steady the frame and keep SAILING ON THE LAND 277 it true. Two truss wires should be carried from the top of the vertical plane to the lower sockets on the rear beam of the planes 4>4 feet from each wing-tip, and two other wires should be run from the lower corners of the rudder to the top sockets of the same stanch- ions. Four other wires are used to brace the horizontal plane of the rudders extending from its corners to the socket eyebolts which support the inner beds of the rudder beams. The eight additional wires simply serve to brace the vertical and horizontal rudders and secure them together and pass from eyebolts in the corners of the two frames to eyebolts in the opposite frame, all of which are plainly shown in Fig. 24. The next and last step in the construction of the glider is to cover the main planes and rudders, and upon the material you use and the care with which you cover the planes a great deal of the success of the glider depends. Nowadays there is no need to use makeshift materials for covering a glider, for special fabric is sold at all dealers in aeroplane sup- plies and costs little more than plain silk or cotton. There are several methods for covering planes in vogue. One is to cut the fabric into seven strips, each 4 feet 6>^ inches long, 278 SAILING ON THE LAND and sew the several pieces together to form a single piece a little over 20 feet long. The seams should be re-enforced by sewing narrow strips i>^-inch wide across the cloth and turn- ing these over to form a double thickness above each rib. An easier method is to cut the cloth into strips a little more than four feet long and glue the end of each strip around the front horizontal beams and tack them in posi- tion with small copper or galvanised tacks. Then draw the other end of the fabric back over the ribs and tack the edges of the strips to the ribs as you go along. When placing tacks through the fabric, a narrow strip of felt or tape should be placed under them to prevent them from tearing out, but such strips must be almost as narrow as the width of the tack-heads, and each piece of tape and fabric must be kept very tight and smooth and free from wrinkles. The ribs are one foot apart and, as the cloth is one yard wide, the edges will lap on the ribs. The rear edge of the fabric, outside of the rear beams, will be loose and flexible between the rib ends. This is intentional and you cannot get it other- wise. Planes that are covered in this way are known as " single surfaced," and some- what better results may be obtained by cover- ing both upper and lower surfaces of the SAILING ON THE LAND 279 planes. This, in the case of real aeroplanes, is important, but for a glider it is a waste of time and trouble and merely adds to the weight of the machine. It is a difficult job to cover the planes with the stays and everything in position, but you are far less likely to strain or injure the frames if it is done at this time. The sur- faces of the two rudder frames must also be covered with fabric, which is stretched over both sides of each frame, passing completely around one end, and is then tacked along all the edges. The last edge must be turned under before tacking in place in order to prevent any possibility of tearing out. When you have driven the last tack in the fabric and have trimmed off the last rough edge, your glider is ready to fly, and all that is necessary is to find a proper spot in which to try it. If such a place is near your home, you can easily carry the glider entire, but if it is far away the rudder should be disconnected and carried separately. The rudder is very easily detached by merely removing the bolts that hold the frame to the cross-pieces and loosening the truss wires that extend from the rudders to the frame of the planes. The machine may be readily taken apart and shipped flat for long 280 SAILING ON THE LAND distances by removing the rudders, loosening and unhooking all the turnbuckles, lifting the upper plane from the stanchions, removing the stanchions from the lower plane and tying all the parts neatly together. In packing the machine be very careful to coil up the w^ires neatly and tie each coil to its proper socket; for if the w^ires are bent or kinked they w^ill never come true again. Wooden plugs four inches long should be inserted in each corner socket and the four central sockets of the lov^er plane and the upper plane should then be set onto these, thus keeping the two planes a few inches apart and avoiding all danger of chafing or rubbing. The coiled wire may be slipped between the planes and the turn- buckles, tied to the sockets so they will not get lost. The two rudder frames should be tied flat together and in this way the entire glider may be packed in a space 20 feet long, 4>4 feet wide and 10 inches thick. How to Use the Glider Although a biplane glider is perfectly safe after you once get accustomed to it, yet you should begin carefully and should not attempt a flight or glide from a high hill for some time. Make your first experiments on a low SAILING ON THE LAND 281 gently-sloping hillside, with a light wind blowing, and never attempt a flight in a strong, gusty or uncertain wind; even if you do not injure yourself, you may wreck your machine. Always run toward the wind when gliding and remember that in order to make a glide you must jump into the air while run- ning down hill. Never try to glide over rough, broken or uneven ground or over a place that is rocky or has stumps, brush or other ob- jects that might injure you if you fell. In your first attempts at gliding you will require two friends to help you. Have these two companions hold the ends of the lower plane, and while they do this, get beneath the machine, grasp the front main beam and lift the glider until the arm-rests are close up under your armpits. Now run quickly down the hill, your two friends letting go of the plane as soon as you are in motion, and you will not proceed more than a few yards before you discover that the glider has apparently lost all of its weight and is really trying to lift you from your feet. This is the time to elevate the front edge of the machine slightly and at the same moment leap into the air. If your glider is well made and your position is correct, you will leave old mother earth behind and sail smoothly 282 SAILING ON THE LAND off to the foot of the hill. As you near the ground again push yourself towards the rear of the glider. This will tip the forward edge up and cause it to rise slightly, but at the same time it will act as a brake, and the machine will lose its forward motion and will drop slowly and gently to the earth, where you may alight on your feet as easily as a bird. Don't attempt to fly more than a few feet at first, start near the bottom of the slope and gradually walk higher and higher up as you gain confidence and experience. If, during the glide, you discover that there is a tendency to tilt to one side or the other, you may maintain your balance by swinging your legs and body toward the higher side. Only a very slight motion is needed to ac- complish this and at first you will no doubt swing too far or too quickly, but practice will soon make perfect and you will find that you keep the glider on an even keel almost by instinct. Remember that if you swing your body for- ward the centre of gravity will be changed toward the front and the glider will descend. On the other hand, swinging your body back- ward will tilt the forward edge of the ma- chine up, and the machine will rise, but de- crease in speed. Most beginners throw their SAILING ON THE LAND 283 weight too far back, but with a little care the operator will learn just the angle to maintain in order to secure the longest glides under various conditions and will be able to adjust his balance in such a way as to increase or decrease the velocity of the glider at will. The principle of thus regulating a glide by varying your centre of gravity is illustrated in Fig. 25. At the point A', the operator starts to run down the slope for a glide, and the dotted line from A' to A" shows the line of flight first taken by his machine. If his weight is too far back the glider will con- tinue to rise, but will rapidly slow down and will drop to earth swiftly and from a consider- able height, as shown at B. On the other hand, if the operator throws his legs back when he reaches the point A", the machine will travel downward but with increasing speed to the spot indicated at C, when the operator, realising that he is approaching the earth, swings his legs forward, as shown at D, and the machine again rises and sinks gently to the ground from a low elevation. This is the safest and most pleasant kind of a glide, for a much longer flight is made and the low elevation prevents any danger of a bad fall. Always bear in mind that a gust of wind from ahead will cause the glider to rise, while 284 SAILING ON THE LAND a sudden wind from the rear will cause it to fall. Thus if you are gliding along and you feel a sudden wind from in front and the machine starts to " rear up," throw your legs back and your weight forward, while if the machine starts to dive and you feel a gust from behind, throw your legs forward and your weight back. Gliding is not difficult and any smart boy should be able to make long and enjoyable flights in a couple of hours' practice. Never, under any circumstances, attempt to make a glide from a house-top or other elevation. Nine times out of ten injury or death will result from such an attempt; you can get all the fun there is in gliding from a sloping hill-top. PART II WINTER CHAPTER XIV SNOW SPORTS The healthy, red-blooded out-of-doors boy enjoys the cold winter weather fully as much as the summer, and looks forward to his winter vacation with as much pleasure as to his summer playtime. When the country is covered deep in a mantle of snow there are a thousand-and-one things a boy may do for amusement. He may tramp through the silent woods, mysterious and strange in their white blankets, may trap and trail wild things for furs, may build snug winter camps, in which to sleep and loaf in comfort while raging blizzards howl outside; or he may spend days and nights coasting on the snowy hillsides. When all these things pall, there are still wonderful possibilities on frozen lakes, rivers or ponds where, shod with steel, one may skim with the speed of the wind across the glassy surface, sail with the rush of an ex- press train, in an ice-yacht or fish for pickerel and other finny creatures through the ice. Although the average boy knows so many 287 288 SNOW SPORTS ways of getting fun out of winter weather, yet there are numerous other winter sports which are comparatively unknown to the ma- jority of American boys, especially in the Eastern states. In Canada, and many parts of Europe, regular winter ice carnivals are held, and winter is considered the best of all seasons for merry-making and out-of-doors fun. In certain parts of our own country snow- shoeing, tobogganing and skiing are known and indulged in to some extent, but as a rule, the snowshoe and toboggan are considered more as necessities than as playthings, and the boys use bob-sleds, double-rippers and the common runner-sleds for the greater portion of their coasting. Perhaps the most exciting and healthiest of out-of-doors winter sports, — as well as the safest, — is ski-running. The Norwegian ski (pronounced " ske ") is a long, narrow wooden snowshoe, quite different from the common Indian snowshoe of Canada and our northern states. The American shoe is an oval or racket-shaped affair of netting, made from rawhide stretched over a light wooden frame, and is designed to prevent the wearer from sinking too deeply into soft snow. The ski, on the other hand, is a mere runner of polished wood, which is not in- SNOW SPORTS 289 tended to prevent the wearer from sink- ing, so much as to enable him to glide rap- idly over the surface of crusted or hard snow^. Any boy who is at all accustomed to using carpenter's tools can make a pair of skis. Select some straight-grained, tough, elastic wood, such as white-ash, hickory, cedar, tupelo or sycamore, and get out two pieces six or eight feet long, from four to six inches wide and about an inch thick. Have these two pieces as nearly alike in weight and grain as possible and find which way the grain runs. Mark the end from which this runs and con- sider that the front. A little more than half the length back from this make another mark which will serve to show where the foot will rest when the skis are complete. For six inches on either side of this mark leave the ski the full thickness, and from these points work down the upper surface of each ski toward the two ends. This should be done so that the ski thins gradually from the full thickness at the foot-rest to about one- quarter of an inch at the front end and half an inch at the rear (Fig. i). The upper edges should be rounded or bevelled off. The thin front ends should now be bent sharply up for six or eight inches, and this is easily done by 290 SNOW SPORTS dipping the ends in boiling water and bending them over any convenient object, where they are to be left in place until dry. A ladder is ^ feet long, the sails will be large enough for any boy. Bamboo is excellent material to use in mak- ing this sail and good bamboo fish-poles may be employed, using the entire poles for the long spars (binding them with the butt end of one to the small end of the other) and splitting the poles up for the shorter pieces. Light, clear-grained spruce is just as good as bamboo and a neater job can be made with it. Near the ends of the cross-pieces metal buttons or knobs should be placed, and in the centre of each piece a cleat should be lashed, as shown in the illustration Fig. 13. The sails should be made of strong cotton, measuring four feet across the diagonal, and well bound with strong tape. At the corners small rings or loops should be placed. The sails are attached to the cross-yards by slip- ping the rings or loops over the knobs or buttons. The main spars are then sprung apart and the cleats slipped between them. The sails are then stretched taut by lashing the outer ends to the extremities of the long spars and drawing the two inner ends to- gether by a lanyard through the rings or loops, as shown. In making any kind of a skate-sail, double-stitch and hem all edges 318 ICE SPORTS and re-enforce the corners with a piece of cloth sewed on. No particular skill is required in order to use a skate-sail, but of course the sailor must have some knowledge of how to skate and also of tacking and sailing. By altering the position of the sail you may readily sail in any direction, but you must bear in mind that you must always have the sail between your body and the wind and must preserve your balance by leaning against the sail. In using the Lake Erie model, the sailor " tacks " by running dead into the wind, letting go of the long spar when the sail flutters and swinging it over your head as you come about. Then grasp the spar on the other side and dart off on the next tack. To stop with this rig, either shift the position of the sail until the mast is close to your body, let go of the boom and let the sail shake or come up into the wind and stop by means of your skates. Any boy can readily make one or another of these forms of skate-sails and can have lots of sport with them, for even on ice that is too soft, too rough or too snow-covered to afford good skating, you can skim swiftly and easily by means of the sails; they trans- form one to an individual ice boat, and you will find ordinary skating unattractive work ICE SPORTS 319 after using a skate-sail. Little muscular ex- ertion is required in skate-sailing; all one has to do is to lean easily against the sail, keep his feet and turn and manoeuvre as his fancy wills. Fishing Through the Ice Most boys think of fishing as a summer pastime, but in reality one may obtain some of the best fishing in the dead of winter. In many of our northern and eastern states fishing through the ice is a regular occupation for many fishermen. If one is skating or sailing with skate-sails, it is an easy matter to attend to numerous set lines for pickerel and other fish. If on the other hand you wish to fish through the ice as a means of profit or pastime you may build little shanties on runners and sit over a hole in the ice and fish comfortably for hours at a time. The shanty may be of canvas stretched over a light wooden frame (Fig. 14), or it may be 4)uilt of thatch, wattled reeds or even of tarred roofing-paper tacked to a frame of light boards. If a small stove or even an oil or alcohol lamp is placed in the shelter, the in- terior may be made quite warm and com- fortable. The floor of the shanty may be an 320 ICE SPORTS Open framework or it may be boarded over and a hole cut through the centre. In the latter case the water and the fish in it may be quite plainly seen through a hole cut through the ice beneath the movable hut, and in this way it is possible to spear or snare fish which are attracted to the spot by bait dropped in the water at the end of a line. The commonest and most interesting method of ice fishing, however, is to cut numerous small roundish holes through the ice and in each one set a baited hook and line attached to a simple little contrivance, which automatically raises a red flag when a fish is hooked. These devices may be made of stiff wire, as shown in Fig. 15, or they may ICE SPORTS 321 be constructed of two sticks tied loosely to- gether, as shown in Fig. i6. Do not trust to merely binding the sticks together, however; have a fork on the upright resting against the cross-piece, as shown, and be sure to have both sticks strong enough to withstand the pull of any fish that the line will hold. It is easy to set and attend several dozen such set-lines and enjoy skating at the same time and it is quite interesting and exciting to see the red flag bob up, and to dash to the spot, not knowing what you may find on the hook, — for muskrats, and even mink, are frequently captured on lines set in this man- ner for pickerel. ul^^^