Class Book SMITHSONIAN. DEPOSIT 7 '•. ^""^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/peoplesbookofancOObrow THE PEOPLE'S BOOK AICIEIT AID lODERI HISTORY; COMPRISING THE OLD WORLD: THE JEWS, ASSYRIA, EGYPT, GREECE, ROME, PERSIA, INDIA, CHINA, THE MAHOMETANS, SPAIN, GERMANY, FRANCE, ENGLAND, SWEDEN AND NORWAY, ' THE NETHERLANDS, DENMARK, PORTUGAL, ITALY, SWITZERLAND, ETC. HENRJ HOWARl) BROWNELL, A, M NUMEROUS COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS, BY EMINENT ARTISTS. H ARTFOED: PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. 1851. , OF CONGRESS ENTERED, ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1851, BY LUCIUS STEBBINS, IN THE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT OF CONNECTICUT. FOUNDRY OF SILAS ANDRUS AND SON, HARTFORD. PRESS OF F. C. GTJTrERREZ, NEW-TORE. ^%-S ^^^ INTRODUCTION. The attempt has been made, in the following work, to furnish, within limits accessible to the general reader, a succinct and con- nected historical account of such nations as have played the most important, conspicuous, or interesting parts in the progress of the World. To most minds, undoubtedly, the chief charm of such an account consists in the frequency of personal details ; and though the plan of this book necessarily precludes the narration of many extraneous events, the more momentous passages of history are displayed as fully as possible, and scenes characteristic of the age, or of any celebrated personage, are related with as much minuteness as may consist with the limits of the work. Much attention has been paid to the frequency and accuracy of dates^ so indispensable to a clear and connected view of the history of nations, especially in their mutual relations ; and the arrangement of the several articles has been made, as far as might be, with an especial view to the general connection and progress of mankind. Eepetition, as far as possible, has been avoided, and where, as it frequently occurs, the history of one nation is for a long period involved in that of another, the events common to both are detailed but once, though with the proper reference. The beauty of the typography, and of other matters which constitute the mechanical perfection of a book, will, it is believed, require no especial notice or eulogium ; and the number, selection, and excellence of the engravings, (mostly designed and executed by the first artists of the country,) are probably unequalled by those of any volume of a similar character ever published in America. 4 INTKODUCTION. No pains or expense have been spared to make the work altogether worthy of the patronage of an American community. This narrative commences with the origin of the Hebrews, the earli- est nation of which we have any authentic historical account. Events occurring before the Deluge can hardly be said to have a place in the records of national existence. They pertain rather to natural philosophy than to a history of human transactions. The terrible convulsions occurring in remote ages, and the strange and monstrous forms of life which then had their being, seem to indicate that the earth, at a certain time, was only adapted to the grosser and less refined existences, of whose traces geology furnishes the evidence. The book of Genesis (the Creation), a work carefully compiled by Moses, the great prophet and law-giver, from the traditions of his people, is perhaps the earliest reliable human record. Many nations have indeed cherished and handed down vague traditions of the creation and early history of mankind. These are mostly of a wild and fabulous character, though occasionally corresponding some- what with the Biblical relation. Even this, though of deep interest, is brief, partial, and meagre; containing little beyond a personal account of a few of the earliest dwellers upon earth, and of such human crimes and passions as usually characterize a rude and unformed state of society. The flood seems the great epoch from which human history takes its principal date. It is to be remarked that almost every nation, even the most uncivilized, has preserved some tradition of that dreadful catastrophe which submerged the mountains, and destroyed "all in whose nostrils was the breath of life." The polished Greek, with his legend of Pyrrha and Deucalion, and the Chinese, with the story of Fohi, evidently refer to the same universal calamity. The floating habitation, fraught with the destinies of mankind, is said to have finally rested on Ararat, a high mountain situated nearly on the present boundary of Persia and Turkey in Asia. From the eight individuals thus preserved, descended the various tribes and nations whose history we shall briefly examine. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION, . . 3 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 15 THE JEWS. C H A PT E K I. Early History of the Hebrews — The Patriarchs — The Departui'e from Egypt, . . . .17 CHAPTER II. The Desert— The Invasion of Palestine— The Judges, ....... 24 CHAPTER III. The Kings, until the Captivity, .......... 20 CHAPTER IV. The Restoration — Misfortunes of the Hebrews — The Maccabees — Gradual Ascendancy of Rome, 40 CHAPTER V. The Roman Government, and the Destruction of Jerusalem, . . . . . .46 ASSYRIA. CHAPTER I. Ancient History of Assyria, . . . . . . . , . ,57 CHAPTER II. Modern Discoveries, . . , . . . . . . , . .63 EGYPT. CHAPTER I. Ancient History of Egypt, . . . . . . . ■ . , , 67 CHAPTER II. Arts, Sciences, Customs, and Mechanical Labom-s of the Ancient Egyptians, . . . ,73 CHAPTER III. Modem Egypt, ... . . . . . . . , . 70 Q CONTENTS PAGE GREECE. H APTE R I. The Early History of Greece, ........... 86 CHAPTER II. The Persian Invasions, ........... 91 CHAPTER III. From the Defeat of the Persians to the End of the First Peloponnesian War, . . . .94 CHAPTERIV. The Second Peloponnesian War, .......... 97 CHAPTER V. The Thirty Tyrants— The Expedition of the Ten Thousand— The Death of Socrates— The Theban War, 102 CHAPTER VI. Philip of Macedon, . . . . . . . . . . . .107 CHAPTER VII. The Conquests of Alexander, .....,..,, Ill CHAPTER VIII. From the Death of Alexander to the Roman Conquest, . . . . . , , 119 CHAPTER IX. Modem Greece, ............ 123 ROME, CHAPTER I. The Early ana Partially-fabulous History of Rome under the Kings, ..... 126 CHAPTER II. The Consuls, Dictators, Tribunes, and Decemvirs — Wars with the Volscians and with Veil — Decline of the Roman Power, , . . , . . . , . . 130 CHAPTER III. The Invasion of the Gauls, ........... I35 CHAPTER IV. The Wars with the Samnites, the Latins, and Pyrrhus, ...... 137 CHAPTER V. The First Punic War, . . . . . . . . . ,-, 140 CHAPTER VI. The Second Punic War, ........... 143 CHAPTER VII. The Wars with Macedon, and the Third Punic War, . , . . . . . ,147 CONTENTS. 7 CHAPTER VIII. PAGB The Gracchi — The War with Jugui-tha — The Civil Wars of Marius and Sylla, . . . 149 CHAPTER IX. The First Triumvirate, and the Wars of Pompey and Csesar, ...... 153 CHAPTER X. The Second Triumvirate, ........... 159 CHAPTERXI. The Emperors Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius, ...... 163 CHAPTER XII. The Emperors Nero, Galba, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva, . . 167 CHAPTER XIII. Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, Pertinax, Didius Severus, Caracalla, Macri- nus, HeUogabalus, Alexander, Maximin, Gordian, Philip, and Decius, . . . 171 CHAPTERXIV. Gallus, Valerian, Galienus, Flavius Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Dioclesian, Constantius and Galerius, and Constantine — Removal of the Seat of Empire to Byzantium, . . 177 CHAPTER XV. Decline and Dissolution of the Empire, ......... 180 PERSIA. CHAPTER I. History of Persia before the Christian Era, ........ 183 CHAPTER II. From the Christian Era to the Conquest by Zinghis Khan, ...... 193 CHAPTER III. From the Invasion of Persia by Zinghis Khan to the Present Time, ...... 201 INDIA. CHAPTER I. The Ancient and Classic History of India, . . . . . . . , .209 CHAPTER II. The Early Mahometan Invaders and Conquerors of India— The Afghan Dynasty— Timur the Tartar, 214 CHAPTER III. The Mogul Dynasty, Baber, Akbar, Jehanghu-e, Aurengzebe— Decline of the Imperial Power, . 219 CHAPTERIV. Early European Discoveries and Conquests— Expeditions of the Portuguese and Dutch, . . 227 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER V . PAOB The Early English Expeditions and Settlements— The East India Company— Contests with the French 233 CHAPTER VI. The British Conquests in Bengal— The Wars with Hyder Ali and with the French, . 239 CHAPTERVII. The Wai-s with Tippoo Saib, and the Conquest of Mysoi-e, . . . 248 CHAPTER VIII. The Mahratta Wai-— Conquest of Central India, . . . • . . . 252 CHAPTER IX. The Pindaree War, and the Final Overthrow of the Mahrattas, . . . 256 CHAPTER X. The Religion, Customs, Industry, and Character of the Hindoos, . . . . . 260 CHIWA. CIIAPTERI. Native History of the Chinese, .......... 267 CHAPTERII. Characteristics of the Inhabitants of China, ........ 275 THE MAHOMETANS. CHAPTER I. The Inhabitants of Arabia— Their Ancient Government and Religion, . . . 285 CHAPTER II. The Early Life of Mahomet— His Religious Pretensions, ...... 287 CHAPTER I TI. The Life of Mahomet, from the Promulgation of his Doctrines until his "Hegtra," or Flight to Medina, 291 | CHAPTER IV. From the" Hegira" to the Capture of Mecca, ........ 294 CHAPTERV. From the Capture of Mecca till the Death of Mahomet, . . . 30O CHAPTERVI. The Caliphat of Abu Beker— The Wars in Syria— The Capture of Damascus, and the Defeat of the Imperial Forces ........... 305 CHAPTER VII. The Caliphat of Omar— The Capture of Emessa, Baalbec, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Cjesarea— Pinal Conquest of Syria, ...... . > • • 310 CONTENTS. 9 CHAPTEK VIII. PAGE The Caliphat of Omai-, contiuued— Conquest of Egypt and of Persia— Death of Omar, • . 316 CHAPTER IX. The Caliphat of Othman— The Invasion of Northern Africa— Naval Success of the Moslems, . 322 CHAPTER X. The Caliphat of AU— The Rebellion of Moawyah— Death of Ali — Caliphat of his son Hassan, . 325 CHAPTER XI. The Syrian CaUphat— Reign of Moawyah— The Siege of Constantinople — Wars in Africa— The Reign ofYezid, . .328 CHAPTER XII. The Rival Caliphs of Damascus and Mecca — Triumph of Abd'Almalec, .... 332 CHAPTER XIII. Revival of the Spirit of Conquest— The Reign of Waled— Final Subjugation of Northern Africa, 33C CHAPTERXIV. The Conquest of Spain, and the Invasion of France, ....... 339 CHAPTER XV. The Division of the Caliphat— The Dynasties of Spain, Africa, and Bagdad — Fm-ther Conquests — Decline of the Saracenic Power, ......... 341 CHAPTER XVI. The Tai-tar Conquests and Invasions, ......... 344 CHAPTER XVII. The Tmks— The Seljukian Dynasty, 347 CHAPTERXVIII. The Turks— The Dynasty of Othman — The Ottoman or Present Tm-kish Power, . . , 350 SPAIN. CHAPTER I. Ancient History of Spain — The Carthagenians, Romans, and Goths — The Saracen Conquest, . 355 CHAPTER II. The Formation of New Christian States: Asturias, Navarre, Leon, Castile, and Arragon — Continued Contests with the Moors — Union of Leon and Castile, ..... 358 CHAPTER III. From the Union of Leon and Castile to that of Castile and Arragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, 364 CHAPTER IV. Ferdinand and Isabella— Subjugation of the Moors— Charles 1. The Emperor Charles V.), . 366 CHAPTERV. From the Abdication of Charles I. to the Death of Charles U., the last Monarch of the Austrian Line, 371 10 CONTENTS. CHAPTERVI.. PAQE Tlie House of Bourbon, rnitil the French Revolution, ....... 374 CHAPTER VII. Charles IV. — Ascendancy of France — Abdication of the King, . . . . . . 378 CHAPTER VIII. Dethronement of the Bourbons, and, Accession of Joseph Bonaparte — Resistance of the Spaniards, 3S2 CHAPTER IX. The Peninsular War, . . . . . . . . . . . i 385 CHAPTER X. Expulsion of the French, and Restoration of the Bourbons, ...... 390 GERMANY. CHAPTER I. The Ancient Germans— The Empire of the West— The Elective Empire, .... 394 CHAPTERII. The Francoman Emperors— CJontests with the Papacy ....... 397 CHAPTER III. The Empire until .the Reformation, .......... 401 CHAPTERIV, The Reformation — Martin Luther — The Indulgences, &c., ...... 405 CHAPTER V. The Reformation Continued— The " Theses " of Luther— Contests with Rome— The Diet at Worms, 409 CHAPTER VI. Spread of the Reformation — ^The Bible— The Peasant- War — Persecutions, .... 415 CHAPTERVII. ReUgious Disputes— The Thirty Years' War, . . . . '. . . .419 RUSSIA. CHAPTER I. Early History of Russia— The Tartars— Ascendancy of the Muscovite Dynasty— Ivan the Great, 425 CHAPTERII. Ivan the Terrible — Foreign Wars — Accessiom of the Hoase of Romanoff, .... 429 CHAPTER III. Peter the Great— Peiils of his Youth— his Efforts for Refonn— Cruelties— Travels in Europe — War With Charles XII. of Sweden, 432 CONTENTS. 11 CHAPTERIV. PAGE Peter the Great, continued— Disastrous War with the Turks — Fresh Conqueste and Improvements- Death of his son Alexis — Expedition to the Caspian Sea — Death of Peter, . . . 437 CHAPTER V. Catharine I., Peter IL, Anna, Ivan, Elizabeth, and Peter III., ...... 442 CHAPTER VI. Cathiii-ine II. and Paul, . ... . . ... . . 445 CHAPTER VII. Alexander and Nicholas, ........... 447 FRANCE, CHAPTER I. The Early Inhabitants of France — The Romans; The Franks — The Merovingian and Carlovingian Dynasties, ........... 451 CHAPTER II. The House of Capet, . . . . . . . . . . . 455 CHAPTER III. The House of Valois, . . . . . . , . . . .462 CHAPTERIV. The House of Valois, continued, • . . . . . . . . . 470 CHAPTER V. The House of Bourbon— Henry IV. and Louis XIII., ...,,,. 477 CHAPTERVI. The House of Bourbon— Louis XIV. and Louis XV., . . , • . . . , 481 CHAPTER VII. The House of Bourbon, continued — Louis XVI. and the Revolution, .... 493 CHAPTER VIII. The Convention, and the Reign of Terror, ......... 502 CHAPTERIX. The Convention, and the Directory, . . . . , . , . . 506 CHAPTER X. The Consulate, .514 CH APTER Xr. The Empire, ........:.. 518 CHAPTER XII. The Decline and Fall of the Empire, ......... 527 12 CONTENTS. CHAPTER X I.I I. PAQB The Restoration of the Bourbous, and the "Hundred Days" of Napoleon, .... 535 CHAPTERXIV. The Second Restoration of the Bourbons, and their Expulsion — Louis Philippe, and his Expulsion — The Republic, 541 THE RULERS OF FRANCE, From B. C. 60 to the Present Time, ......... 547 EJV6LAJVD. CHAPTER I. Britain under the Romans, ........... 549 CHAPTER II. The Saxon Invasions and the Heptarchy, . . . , . . . . 551 CHAPTER III. The Anglo-Saxon Kings, . . . . . . . . ... 551 CHAPTER IT. The Danish Kings, and the Last of the Saxons, . . . . . . . . 558 CHAPTERV. William I., William II., and Henry I., ......... 5C3 CHAPTERVI. Stephen and Henry 11., .... . ..... 567 CHAPTER VII. Richard I., John, and Henry HI., ....... . . 572 CHAPTERVIII. Edward I., Edward II., and Edward III., ........ 577 CHAPTER IX. Richard H. and Henry rv., .......... 585 CHAPTER X. Henry V. and Henry VI., ........ ... 591 CHAPTER XI. Edward IV., Edward V., and Richard lU., ......... 593 CHAPTER XII. Henry VII., C04 CHAPTERXIII. Henry Vni., .608 CONTENTS. -JO CHAPTERXIV. PAGE Edward VI. and Maiy, •••••..,. 618 CHAPTER XV. Elizabeth, •■••...,,, 62R CHAPTER XVI. •f'""^*!-' 643 CHAPTER XVIX. Charles I., . . . . . . . ^^ CHAPTER XVIII. The Commonwealth, •......., 66'i CHAPTER XIX. The Protectorate, &c., , . /.<,„ CHAPTER XX. Charles II., .... .-,. •••••••. 070 CHAPTERXXI. '^^"'««"-' 684 CHAPTER XXII. William m. and Mary U., CHAPTER XXIII. "^■^^ 694 CHAPTER XXIV. George I. and George II., ... »^ • • , • • • • . 639 CHAPTER XXV. George III., ... ' 704 CHAPTER XXVI. George IV., WUUam IV., and Victoria, . . . . 716 THE RULERS OF ENGLAND, From B. C. 55 to the Present Time, Hi CONTENTS. SWEDEN AND NORWAY, ITALY, THE NETHERLANDS, - DENMARK, - - - - • PORTUGAL, . - - - SWITZERLAND, lESSER EUROPEAN NATIONS. fage 721 724 729 731 733 735 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IN ALL CASES WHERE THE NAME OF THE DRAFTSMAN IS NOT GIVEN, THE ENGRAVINGS ARE FROM CELEBRATED FRENCH AND ENGLISH ARTISTS; MOSTLY VERNET, OF FRANCE, AND GILBERT, OF ENGLAND. SUBJECTS. TITLE-PAGE, Joseph Sold by his Brethren, Moses and Aaron before Pharaoh, View of the Valley of the Jordan, Babylonian Captivity, Destruction of Jerusalem, The Funeral Pyre of Sardanapalus, Assyrian Monarch returning from Battle, Judgment of the Dead, The Battle of Aboukir, The Battle of the Pyramids, Mai's' Hill and the Acropolis, at Athens, Xerxes viewing the Sea-Fight at Salamis, The Death of Socrates, The Mother of Corlolanus, The Death of Virginia, Obsequies of Pompey, The Fortress of Gingee, India Costumes, Hyder AH, Palace of the British Resident at Hyderabad, Mausoleum of the Sovereigns of Mysore, The Great WaU of China, The Cultivation and Preparation of Tea, The Flight of Mahomet, The " Battle of the Bridge," at the River Euphrates, Spanish Costumes, Charles I. of Spain resigning the Crown, The Rock of Gibraltar, The Prison of the Inquisition at Cordova, Military Costume of the Twelfth Centuiy, Military Costume of the Thirteenth Century, RA.WN BY ENGBAVED BT PAGK Billings Clark 1 Billings Dodd 21 Darley O'Brien 23 Wallin Bobbett & Edmonds 2G Darley O'Brien 39 Darley Baker 53 Darley Richardson 60 Clark , 64 Darley Richardson 75 Dodd . 80 Dodd , 81 Doepler Bobbett & Edmonds 86 Dai'ley Herrick 93 Darley Clark -104 Billings Clark .132 Darley Herrick ^ 134 Darley Richardson 157 Crosby 238 Crosby 243 Crosby 243 Clark . 252 Clark 253 Wade O'Brien 269 Wade Clark . 2d4 Darley Bobbett & Edmonds 294 Dai-ley Bobbett &. Edmonds 319 Clark 1 368 Darley Bobbett & Edmonds 370 Thompson 375 Wade O'Brien 388 Crosby 400 Crosby . 400 16 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS StTBJBCTS. DRAWN 3T ENGRAVED BT PAGE Martin Luther, Wallin Bobbett & Edmonds 408 ■ Austrian Peasant, Clark 417 German Peasant, Clark 417 Isabel of Bavaria, Clark 417 Austrian Lady of Rank, Clark 417 Fredericlc the Great, Wallin Bobbett & Edmonds 422 Bronze Statue of Peter the Great, Clark 435 The Retreat from Russia, Dodd 445 Nicholas I., Emperor of Russia, Wallin Bobbett & Edmonds 447 - Peter the Hermit, Darley O'Brien 456 Departui-e of the First Cmsade, Darley O'Brien 457 French Costumes, Clark 476 The Contested Causeway at the Battle of Areola, Darley Richardson 510 - The Battle of the Pyramids, Dodd 5jl Napoleon Bonapai'te, Clark 518 Marshal Soult, Clark 519 Marshal Lannes, Clark 526 Napoleon Crowning the Empress Josephine, Clark 528 • The Private Supper at Dantzic, Clmk 528 Marshal Ney, Clark 530 An Officer of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon, Clark 538 Disinterment of the Remains of Napoleon, Dodd 540 ' The Funeral Car of Napoleon, Thompson 541 A Ban-icade, as attaclted and defended, at Paris, Darley Herrick 546 A Druid and Dniidess, Crosby 552 . A Druidical Altar or Monument, Crosby 552 . A British Wai-rior of the Southern Tribes, Crosby 553 A Knight Templar, in Full Armoxir, Crosby 553 English, Scotch, and Irish Costumes, Clark 568 The Murder of Thomas a Beclcet, Dai-ley O'Brien 570 Garter King-at-Arms, Chief Herald of England, Crosby 585 - Death of Richard HI., Darley Herrick 603 -' Henry VIIL, Thompson 609 Elizabeth, Queen of England, Thompson 629 Charles I., Clark 649 OUver Cromwell, Wallin Bobbett & Edmonds 659 Charge of Cromwell at Worcester, Darley Herrick 667 Charles II., Clark 675 Charles Edward (called the Pretender), Clark 702 The Duke of Wellington, Thompson 714 Charge of the Enniskillen Dragoons at Waterloo, Clark 715 Victoria, Clark 71G Danish Costumes, Clark 721 Jenny Lind, WaUin Bobbett & Edmonds 722 Bemadotte, Clark 723 Italian Costume, Clark 725 Murat, Clark 727 THE JEWS. EAELT HISTOEY OF THE HEBREWS. THE PATEIARCHS. — THE DEPARTUKE FROM EGYPT. The Hstorj of tlie Chosen People may be considered as com- mencing witli the preservation of Noah, although their laws and ceremonies were not prescribed until a later period. The Deluge having subsided, the Ark rested on Mount Ararat, and the patriarch offered a sacrifice to the Lord, in gratitude for his preservation. It is recorded that he survived for three hundred and fifty years after the flood, and died at the advanced age of nine hundred and fifty. His sons were Shem, Ham, and Japheth; "and of them was the whole earth overspread." It is told of the descendants of Japheth that by them "were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands." From Ham descended Nirnrod, the mighty- hunter, and the founder of Babylon. Asshur, a son of Shem, also founded Nineveh, after- wards united to Babylon, and forming the Assyrian empire. No especial record of events is given until we arrive at Abram, the ninth in descent from Shem, and the venerable father of the Hebrew race. His name is still held in reverence by nearly all the oriental races, and many accounts of his life and teachings are found in their legends. Some of these have been adopted in the Koran; but the only authentic record is to be found in the Book of Genesis, where we are informed that he was the son of Terah, and was married to Sarai, his half-sister. Such unions were not uncommon in that primitive age. Their dwelling-place was Ur, a region in the north- east of Chaldea, whence they migrated to Carrhan, a country farther 2 18 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. west. From this place, Abram, with his nephew Lot, and the rest of his numerous household, following a divine intimation, set forth to found a new race in other lands. Crossing the Euphrates, he arrived, after some delays, in Palestine, and pitched his tent in Sichem, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim. He afterwards dwelt north of Jericho, and descending southward in quest of pastures, was compelled by famine to seek the land of Egypt — a country whose fertility seems to have made it a frequent refuge for the destitute. Sarai, who passed as his sister, was taken by the king, who, on discovering his mistake, returned her to Abram, and with her sent many gifts of a pastoral nature — "sheep and oxen, and he asses, and men-servants and maid-servants, and she asses and camels." Eeturning to Canaan with an increased household and possessions, Abram and Lot agreed upon a separation, and the latter moved eastward into the fertile valley of the Jordan. Abram here received a renewed promise that his posterity should be a gTcat and chosen nation, possessing all the land of Palestine. Again migrating, the tribe encamped in the southern plain of Mamre. Soon after, a great contest occurred in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, where in the vale of Siddim, there were joined in battle "four kings with five." Lot, a resident in Sodom, one of the cap- tured cities, was carried away a prisoner. On receiving the intelli- gence, Abram, with three hundred and eighteen of his own clan, and with some assistance from the neighbouring tribes, pursued the enemy near the sources of Jordan. Falling on them by night, he rescued Lot and the other prisoners, and recovered the booty, of which he refused to receive any share. One-tenth, however, was consecrated as a divine offering, Abram still remained childless, but was cheered by a prophetical voice, proclaiming that his descendants should be numerous as the stars on which he was gazing. The destiny of his race Avas fore- told, and a miraculous appearance confirmed his faith. Shortly afterwards, Sarai gave to him Hagar, her Egyptian slave, who bore him a son named Ishmael. Many years afterwards, when both Abram and his wife were advanced in years, a new revelation announced that he should have a legitimate offspring by Sarai. The ancient and widely-adopted rite of circumcision was also at this time prescribed, and he was commanded to assume the reverend name of Abraham, signifying "the father of a multitude." THE JEWS. 19 At this time occurred the destruction of tlie cities of the plain, from which Lot and his family were preserved. The patriarch fled to Zoar, and thence to the mountains, where, overcome with wine, he became, by an incestuous intercourse with his two daughters, the parent of the famous tribes of Ammon and Moab. The son long promised to Abraham now was born, and named Isaac. At the jealous instigation of Sarai, Hagar and her son, Ishmael, now fourteen years old, were sent into the wilderness. The account of their fortunes, in Scripture, is most touching and beautiful. Preserved from death by the discovery of a well of water, they survived, and Ishmael became the father of those wandering tribes of Arabs who inherit the character of their progenitor, "the wild man, whose hand is against every man, and every man's hand against him." Once more to test his obedience, the patriarch was commanded to sacrifice his beloved son, the hope of his house, and the inheritor of his divine destiny. He consented, and made preparation: a victim was miraculously provided ; and the promise was renewed that his seed should be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on the sea-shore. At the death of Sarai, we find Abraham purchasing a place of burial, * * * «< jyiachpelah's honoured cave, Where Jacob and where Leah lie ;'' afterwards destined to contain the last remains of others memorable in Sacred Writ. A wife is next sought for Isaac, not from the neighbouring tribes, but from the relations of Abraham. A servant is despatched to the ancient settlement, who meets at the well the beautiful Eebekah, a grand-niece of the patriarch. She assists him in watering the camels, and is finally conducted back a bride. By Keturah, another wife, Abraham had many children, though Isaac continued his sole heir. At length, fall of years, he died, and was buried by Ishmael and Isaac in Machpelah. Isaac, who pursued the peaceful occupation of a husbandman, was father to Esau and Jacob — ^the one a hunter, rough in appear- ance, brave and generous — the other a herdsman, peaceful, crafty, and treacherous. By means of artifice, the latter secured to himself the birthright and the blessing destined for Esau ; but, fearing his 20 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. revenge, departed for tlie ancient dwelling-place of tlieir tribe in Mesopotamia. After receiving a divine instruction, he proceeded to tlie home of his ancestors, and admired his cousin Eachel, whom, according to the oriental and primitive manners of the daj, he found driving her father's flocks to water at the well. For her, and for her sister Leah, he served their father fourteen years, and finally departed secretly, taking with him his wives, his property, and the sacred utensils of his father-in-law, Laban. Before venturing to approach the home of his father, he deprecated the resentment of Esau (now the head of a powerful tribe) by sub- mission and by presents. These were not needed; for the rough forester, generous and forgiving, "ran to meet him, and embraced him, and fell on his neck, and kissed him, and they wept." By this time the family of Jacob appears to have formed the commencement of a nation; for we find Simeon and Levi, two of his sons, to avenge the seduction of their sister Dinah, falling upon the city of Shechem, and putting the inhabitants (enfeebled by a late circumcision) to the sword. The promise of inheritance was again renewed to Jacob, and he erected at Luz an altar, and called the place Beth-el, the House of God. Thence he removed to Bethlehem, the birth-place of Christ, where Eachel died, having given birth to Ben-oni, the "child of her sorrow," but called by his father, Benjamin, "the son of his right hand." At last he rejoined his father Isaac, in the plain of Mamre. Here the old man died, and was buried by Esau and Jacob, who met in peace, as the rivals Ishmael and Isaac had done before at the burial of Abraham. From this time the branches of the family constituted distinct nations. Esau and his descendants, the Edomites, dwelt about Mount Seir, and Jacob continued to remain in the land of Canaan. In the history of these early races we find only the records of a wandering and pastoral life. They migrate, with their camels and asses, wherever pasture or a supply of food invites them. Some traffic seems to have existed with Egypt, "tbe granary of nations," and gold and silver had been introduced. The soil, where cultivated, appears to have been of a virgin richness, returning, as in the tillage of Isaac, "a hundred for one." The supreme authority was vested in the patriarch or head of the tribe, who could transfer it, with the right of primogeniture, to any of his sons whom he preferred. The domestic customs and the ties THE JEWS. 21 of marriage seem to have been mucli as they are at the present day among the ruder nations of the East, From Jacob, who, by divine command, assumed the name of Israel, sprang twelve sons, each the father of a separate tribe. From Leah were born the four elder, Eeuben, Simeon, Leyi, and Judah ; from Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, Dan and Naphtali; from Zilpah, Leah's servant. Gad and Asher. Leah again bore Issachar and Zebulun, with a daughter, Dinah. Finally, Rachel became the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. Joseph, a beautiful and intelligent youth, had ever held the first place in the affections of his father. This excited the jealousy of his brethren, who determined, while tending their flocks, to put him to death. At the remonstrance of Reuben, they spared his life, and sold him as a slave to a caravan of Arabian traders passing into Egypt, and laden with spicery, myrrh, and balm. Having been bought by Potiphar, a chief ofl&cer of the court, he was soon found worthy, by his prudence and integrity, of the charge of his master's entire household. Attracted by his beauty, the wife of his master made advances, which being repelled, she caused him by a false complaint to be cast into prison. Having there distinguished him- self by his skill in the interpretation of dreams, he was summoned by Pharaoh to expound to him a perplexing vision. The king had dreamed of " seven well-favoured and fat kine," devoured by as many "ill-favoured and lean," and of seven ripe and goodly ears of corn devoured by the same number that were thin and withered. This the prisoner explained to signify that seven fruitful and abundant years should be followed by seven of barrenness and famine. He advised in what manner to meet the calamity ; and, being appointed vizier or prime minister over the land, exacted annually a fifth of all the produce, and caused it to be stored in the royal granaries. The king, to connect this talented stranger more nearly with his own people, gave to him in marriage Asenath, daughter of the priest of the sun in Heliopolis. The years of plenty having passed away, those of famine suc- ceeded; and were felt not only in Egypt, but in the adjacent regions. In the second year, the sons of Jacob came thither, sent by their father to purchase corn. The scriptural account of the various meetings of Joseph and his brothers, is too long and too beautiful to be compressed within the limits of this work. "And there stood no man near him, while Joseph made himself 22 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. known unto liis brethren; and lie wept aloud, and the Egjj)tians and the house of Pharaoh heard. And Joseph said unto his breth- ren, ' Come near to me, I pray you.' And they came near. And he said, 'I am Joseph; doth my father yet livef^^ — He forgave them, afforded them every relief and assistance, and sent for his father and all his household. The aged patriarch could not at first believe the wonderful account. Convinced at last, he said, "It is enough; Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and see him before I die." — Thus all the direct descendants of Abraham, seventy in number, migrated to Egypt, and were allotted, as their residence, the fertile land of Goshen. During this time, Joseph, by supporting the people, gradually acquired, as the property of the crown, the money, stock, and lands of all the inhabitants, except the priests, who were supported throughout at the public expense. After residing in Egypt seventeen years, Jacob died, at the good old age of one hundred and forty-seven. In his last moments, he uttered many remarkable prophecies of the future fate of his nation, gave his last blessing to Joseph, and enjoined that he should be buried at Machpelah, in the sepulchre of his father. Meanwhile, the Israelites had increased remarkably in number, and enjoyed peace and prosperity. At the age of one hundred and ten years, their great leader Joseph died, having directed that his body should be embalmed, and borne to the family-tomb in Canaan. At this period ends the Book of Genesis, (the creation,) the earli- est and sublimest record of human events. Our next source of information is Exodus, (the going forth,) in which the history of the Israelites is continued. They remained in Egypt, according to some authorities, for a period of two hundred and fifteen years ; according to others, four hundred and fifty. During this time, thej^ gradually increased into a large and distinct nation, and appear to have been well treated by the original inhabitants. At last, "there arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph." Forgetful of their claim to hospitality and protection, he sought to diminish the number of the foreign race by employing them in severe and exhausting labours. This plan failing, he com- manded, Herod-like, that all the male infants should be destroyed at their birth. A Hebrew woman exposed her child in a cradle of rushes on the bank of the river. Being discovered and adopted by And aftei-wa.rd Moses and Aaron went in, and told Pharaoh, Thus saith the Loi-d God of Israel, Let my people go, that they may hold a feast unto me in the wildei'- ness. And Pharaoh said. Who is the Lord, that I should ohey his voice to let Israel go ? I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go. And they said, The God of the Hebrews hath met with us: let us go, we pray thee, three days' jour- ney into the desert, and sacrifice unto the Lord our God, lest he fall upon us Avith pestilence, or with the sword. And the king of Egypt said unto them. Wherefore do ye, Moses and Aaron, let the people from their works ? get you unto your bur dens And Pharaoh said, Behold, the people of the land now are many, and ye make them rest from their burdens. And Pharaoh commanded the same d:iy the taskmasters of the people, and their ofliioers, saying. Ye shall no more give the people straw to make brick, as heretofore : let them go and gather straw for them- selves. And the tale of the bricks, "which they did make heretofore, ye shall lay upon them ; ye shall not diminish aught thereof : for they be idle ; therefore they cry, saying. Let us go and sacrifice to our God. Let there more work be laid upon the men, that they may labour therein : a.nd let them not regard vain words. And the taskmasters of the people went out, and their ofiicers, and they spake to the people, saying. Thus saith Pharaoh, I will not give you straw. Go ye, get you straw Avhere you can find it, yet not aught of your work: shall be diminished. So the people were scattered abroad throughout all the land of Egypt, to gather stubble instead of straw. And the taskmasters hasted them, s.'iying. Fulfil your works, TOUR daily tasks, as when there w^as straw. And the ofiicers of the chil- dren of Israel, which Pharaoh's taskmasters had set over them, "were beaten, AND demanded, Wherefore have ye not fulfilled your task in making bi-ick liotln yesterday and Lr-day, as heretofore ' THE JEWS. 23 tlie king's daughter, he received the name of Moses, an Egyptian word signifying " drawn from the water." Educated in the court of Pliaraoh, he became accomplished in all the learning and science of the Egyptians. Sympathizing with his oppressed nation, he killed a man, probably one of the task-masters, who was beating and ill- treating one of his people. In alarm for the consequences, he fled to Midian, and there for forty years pursued the humble occupation of a shepherd. One day he drove his flock into the solitudes near Mount Horeb, and received a divine command, enforced by miracles, to attempt the deliverance of his people from their slavery. His brother Aaron, a man of eloquence, was associated in the task. Proceeding to the throne of Pharaoh, they petitioned a brief respite from their labours, to offer sacrifice to the Lord. The prayer was rejected, and fresh burdens were imposed upon the unhappy bondsmen. Unconvinced by miraculous tokens, the king hardened his heart, and incurred for himself and his people awful calamities. The rivers were turned into blood; myriads of frogs swarmed over the land, and filled the royal palace ; the dust was changed to vermin, and swarms of flies infested the inhabitants. A destructive pestilence pervaded the flocks ; a loathsome disease attacked humanity, and dreadful storms of rain, hail and thunder, before unknown in Egypt, afflicted the land. The king's obstinacy began to relent, and he promised to let the people go. Eetracting his agreement, new terrors ensued. Swarms of locusts, ("such as had never been seen before, nor should be again,") a palpable darkness for three days, and finally the mys- terious destruction in a single night of stll the first-born in Egypt, overcame the fatal obstinacy of the king. "Knowest thou not yet that Egypt is destroyed?" On the occasion of the last judgment, the passover was instituted, in memory of the blood of the victims sprinkled on the door-posts, by which the avenging angel might pass over the chosen people. * * " Thus with ten wounds, The river-dragon, tamed, at last submits To let his sojourners depart; and oft Humbles his stubborn heart." The Hebrews departed, in a mighty caravan, encumbered with their helpless families, cattle, and all their household goods. Carry- ing the bones of their great ancestor, Joseph, they advanced into the 24 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. desert, and finally encamped by tlie Eed Sea. The haughty king, renewing the hardness of his heart, pursued. Hope almost deserted them, when a furious wind from the east began to blow — the dry bed of the sea appeared, and about nightfall they commenced defil- ing through the miraculous path. The chariots and horsemen of the Egyptians followed in full pursuit, and while in mid passage, the returning sea came in like an army, and they were swallowed up : * * * * "Gone — Gone with the refluent wave into the deep, A prince witli half his people." The tradition of this wonderf td event is still preserved among the wild inhabitants of these shores ; and the wandering Arab imagines that, among the breakers in a certain bay, he can still distinguish cries and wailings uttered by the ghosts of Pharaoh's army. THE DESEET. — THE INVASION OP PALESTINE. — THE JUDGES. Aftee this signal interposition in their behalf, the Israelites marched three days through the wilderness of Shur. Having drank of the bitter waters of Marah, they reposed a month in Elim, where they found twelve wells of water, and three score and ten palm- trees. In danger of famine, they were relieved by flocks of quails and by a sweet substance called manna, . distilled from certain shrubs in the desert. They arrived at last before that awful mountain which had already witnessed the first interview of Moses with the Divine Being, Water was miraculously supplied to them, and the Amalek- ites, who attacked the camp, were discomfited, and became the perpetual enemies of Israel. Here also Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, joined him, and, by his advice, a system of government and jurisprudence was adopted. THE JEWS. 25 And here, amid the savage rocks and precipices of Sinai, slirouded by thick darkness and tempest, was delivered to Moses that remark- able code of laws and ceremonies so long the giiide of the Jewish race. Though apparently severe and arbitrary in some points, they were probably well adapted for the government of a rude, semi- civilized race. They enforced strongly the worship of one God, innocence from the more obvious crimes, chastity, cleanliness, rever- ence to age, and a great number of minor obligations, the intent of which, at this time, is not very clear to us. During the absence of their chief, the people, in despair of ever seeing him again, recommenced their idolatry; and on his return, the tribe of Levi, at his command, slew three thousand of them, without regard to friendship or relationship. A tabernacle was next erected, splendid in workmanship and materials, and Aaron and his sons were appointed as heads of the priesthood. On the completion of the edifice, the pillar of cloud by day and of flame by night, which had hitherto guided the people, came and rested upon it. At length, a year after the departure from Egypt, the twelve tribes left their encampment, and marched northward in military array, singing, "Arise, O Lord, and let thine enemies be scattered!" On the way, to strengthen the authority of their chief, a council of seventy elders was appointed — the origin, according to the Jews, of their famous Sanhedrim. Arriving, at last, at Kadesh Barnea, on the southern frontier of the Promised Land, they sent a spy from each tribe to reconnoitre the country. These, returning, dwelt oh the richness of the soil and the beauty of the fruits, of which they brought specimens; but alarmed the people with a description of the inhabitants. " And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak; and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight." "Back to Egypt!" was the universal exclamation; and turning their faces from the Land of Promise, they commenced fulfilling their allotted destiny — to wander for forty years in the desert. For thirty-eight of these, we know little except the names of the stations where they halted, mostly near Mount Sinai. It is thought probable by some, that during this period Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, overrun a great part of the world, and that the Israelites, in this inaccessible retreat, escaped the vengeance of their former masters. At last, when the old generation had passed away, and a new race 26 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. had sprung up, invigorated bj the free air of tlie desert, the race of invaders once more marched to Kadesh. Fearing to engage at first with the sons of Anak, the Philistines and the Jebusites, they sought from the Edomites a passage over Mount Seir, that they might com- pass the Dead Sea, and crossing the Jordan, fall upon the richest and least protected region of the land. This being refused them, they retraced their steps to the Red Sea, and turned northward through Moab. On their way, Aaron died, and was buried on Hor, a rocky mountain, where his tomb is shown to this day. Still marching east of the Dead Sea, they overcame the Amorites, who had refused them passage, and slew Og, the gigantic king of Bashan. The Moabites in alarm sent for aid to Midian, a friendly power, describing the number and ferocity of their invaders, in the expressive language of the East: "They shall lick up all that is round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass." Moreover, to countervail the unseen and mysterious protection which evidently shielded the Israelites, Balak, king of Moab, sent for Balaam, a renowned prophet of the East, that by his imprecations the invad- ing legions might be disheartened and confounded. The divine intuition of the holy man acquainted him with the true destiny of events, and his curses were converted into blessings and favourable auguries to the enemy. The victorious army, still advancing, was overladen with booty, and half-satiated with slaughter. The rich meadows of Bashan and Gilead, east of the Jordan, were, at their request, allotted to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, who at once commenced a settlement. And now the end of the great Law-Giver drew near. He had lived an hundred and twenty years, yet "his eye was not dim, nor his natural force abated." His last work was the revision and compilation of those numerous edicts which he had from time to time promulgated. His last words to the people were an exhort- ation and a prophecy, unsurpassed for sublimity of expression, and fearfully realized in the event. He named Joshua as his successor, and as death drew near to him, ascended Mount Nebo, from whose loftiest eminence, Pisgah, he surveyed, for the first and last time, that beautiful Land of Promise, whose valleys and meadows he was destined never to tread. Beneath his feet flowed the Jordan, never to be crossed by him ; opposite was Jericho, in its forest of shady palms ; to the north lay the lovely plain of Esdrelon ; and far beyond, the mountains of THE JEWS. 27 Judea stretclied onward to tlie Great Sea. Gazing on this magnili- cent prospect with fjiding eyes, lie resigned his soul to its Creator. "But no man knoweth his sepulchre unto this day." For thirty days the people lamented their great leader, and then, under the direction of Joshua, prepared to recommence the war. Spies being despatched to the city of Jericho, reported, on their return, that the native inhabitants had become faint-hearted on learning of the valour and the miraculous protection of their invaders. Encouraged by this, the entire army crossed the Jordan, and laid siege to Jericho. At the end of seven days, it was taken, and every living thing within its walls put to death, except the family of Rahab, a harlot, who had harboured and concealed the spies. The next expedition was against Ai, a neighbouring city, and was at first repulsed with much loss. Being finally taken by stratagem, the place was burned, and the people exterminated — the usual consummation of a Jewish conquest. Palestine seems at this time to have been governed by a number of petty independent sovereigns. Five of these, headed by Adoni- zedek, king of the Jebusites, (whose city was afterwards Jerusalem,) attacked Gibeon, which had made an alliance with the enemy. Defeated by Joshua, they took refuge in a cave, whence, being dis- covered, they were taken, and hanged, as usual. Another confeder- acy at the north was likewise defeated in a single battle, and the chariots and horses, their main implements in war, were destroyed. This contest with the native tribes lasted for seven years, during which time, seven nations — the Canaanites, the Amorites, the Hit- tites, the Hivites, the Perizzites, the Girgasliites, and the Jebusites — had been entirely subdued ; thirty-one chiefs had fallen, and many cities had been depopulated and razed to the ground. Weary of war, they desisted from further slaughter, and their leader portioned out the conquered country among the successful tribes, assigning to each a separate tract. By these it was divided among the people, and every estate was held, as in later feudal times, by a tenure of military service. A tax of two-tenths was levied on all produce, one-tenth for the Levites, and the other for the support of the poor. After seeing his people peacefully settled in their new country, Joshua died, appointing no successor. The gov- ernment was thenceforth vested in chieftains and petty magistrates, called judges, who were, in reality, a species of military dictators. Ere long, a war with the remaining aborigines succeeded, which / 28 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. terminated in the destruction of many of their towns, and the pay- ment of tribute by others. Only the fierce inhabitants of the south, defended by their chariots of iron, remained unsubdued. An out- rage committed upon the concubine of a Levite, by some of the tribe of Benjamin, aroused all Israel against them. The offending tribe were cut off — men, women, and children — to the number of twenty-five thousand, and the lives of six hundred alone were spared to perpetuate the name of Benjamin. During many years which succeeded, portions of the Hebrews were alternately enslaved by the neighbouring people, and delivered by the craft and valour of their judges. Sisera, a powerful king of the Canaanites, having oppressed the northern tribes for twenty years, a confederacy was formed to recover their freedom. Under the command of Deborah, an Ama- zon and prophetess, Barak marshalled the forces of Israel on Mount Tabor. The vast army of their enemies, with nine hundred char- iots of iron, entered the plain of Esdrelon — ^the great battle-ground of nations. Overcome by a sudden attack from the mountain, many were slaughtered, and others perished in the overflowing Kishon. Sisera, taking refuge in the tent of Jael, a Kenite woman, was treacherously slain by her, a nail being driven into his head while sleeping. The hymn of Deborah, in honour of the victory, is one of the most striking specimens of primitive poetry, and valuable as an historic record. After forty years of peace, the wild tribes of Midian and Amalek marched fi:om their wilderness, overspread the whole country, and reduced the people to slavery. Gideon, a leader of the tribe of Manasseh, again delivered them, by a sudden night attack upon the camp of their invaders, whose arms, in the confasion, were turned upon each other. Fresh victories ensued, and the war ended with a loss of one hundred and twenty thousand of the Midianites and their allies. Some generations had passed away, when a new enemy, the Ammonites, crossed the Jordan, and threatened the destruction of the nation. Jephthah, a jndge of Israel, going forth to meet them, rashly and impiously vowed, if victorious, to sacrifice the first living thing that should meet him on his return. Having gained a great victory, his only daughter came forth, with music and dancing, to welcome her father home from the wars, and on her was his rash and cruel vow fulfilled. THE JEWS. 29 We next learn tliat, tlie Philistines prevailing against the southern tribes, a hero arose, named Samson, whose exploits seem to resemble those of Hercules and Antar, the strong-limbed champions of a primitive world. Among the many feats which he is recorded to have performed against the Philistines, are the destruction of their fields, the slaughter of an immense number at various times, the gates of Graza carried awaj, and finally, when, blind and captive, he was brought into their great temple to amuse them with feats of strength, his tearing its pillars from their foundation, and over- whelming himself and his enemies in a common ruin: * * * * " Straining all his nerves, he bowed — As with the force of winds and waters pent, When mountains tremble — those two massy pillars With horrible convulsion to and fro. He tugged, he shook, till down they came, and drew The whole roof after them in burst of thunder, Upon the heads of all who sat beneath ; Lords, ladies, captains, counsellors and priests, Their choice nobility and flower." — Milton. LJ ujJj dido dj cb tXJ Jj oj Jj iL o THE KINGS, UNTIL THE CAPTIYITT. A CHAMPION more efficient than the hero of mere physical force was soon to arise in behalf of Israel. The Philistines had now defeated them in battle after battle, and at last taken the Ark, which, as a last resort, had been carried to the field by the disheart- ened tribes. This mysterious emblem, however, was the cause of such trouble and annoyance to the idolators, that, at the end of some months, they gladly restored it to its rightful owners. Twenty years longer were the people oppressed by their enemy, when a new ruler arose in Israel. Samuel, a Levite, educated in the house of Eli the high-priest, had, from his early youth, received intimations of divine favour and 30 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. inspiration. Having done mucli to extirpate idolatry among tlie people, he now stood forward as a civil and military dictator. Assembling the terrified Israelites, lie reassured them, gave battle to the enemy, and entirely defeated them. His administration of civil affairs was not less successful; but his sons proving corrupt and faithless, the people demanded the appointment of a king. This event had been anticipated by Moses, Avho provided both for the royal election and administration. The reverend man remon- strated, but left the people to their choice, which was for a mon- archy — "that our king might judge us, and go out before us, and fight our battles." By the divine command, Saul, a youth of tall and striking figure, and of resolute courage, was selected for their future ruler. To prepare him for this elevated station, his educa- tion was entrusted to the school of the prophets; but even during this tutelage, he signalized himself by his conduct and courage in defeating the Ammonites. Hereupon, Samuel resigned his author- ity; and with him ended the line of judges, during which Israel had been enslaved and harassed by its enemies for one hundred and thirty years, and had enjoyed peace and prosperity for more than three hundred. At a later period, the Philistines again overran the country ; but were, after various fortunes, totally discomfited by Saul and his valiant son Jonathan. The Amalekites, again disturbing the fron- tier, were almost entirely exterminated; and Agag, their king, whose life had been spared by Saul, was hewed in pieces before the altar, by command of Samuel. From this period, the life of Saul, rendered dangerous and unhappy by attacks of insanity, is closely connected with that of David, a brave and beautiful youth, whom Samuel had privately anointed as his successor. His early exhibitions of courage and prudence, his destruction of the gigantic Philistine Goliath, and his soothing with music the disordered mind of the king, are too well known to be repeated. Having attained great popularity by his prowess against the enemy, and being married to Michal, the daugh- ter of Saul, his life was often endangered by the king's wayward jealousy. He perceived that, despite the generous devotion of his friend Jonathan, there was no safety for him at court, and, taking refuge in a cave at Adullam, became the leader of a band of dis- contented adventurers. Saul, meanwhile, suspecting the priesthood of a conspiracy, THE JEWS. 31 slauglitered many of them witliout mercy, and thus lost the sup- port of that dangerous and influential class of people. At times, the unfortunate king of Israel, touched by the virtues of David, and his reverence for the royal person, had become reconciled to him; at others, an insane jealousy prompted him to seek the life of his unoffending son with the first weapon. Barely escaping from his vengeance, and often exhibiting great forbearance and magnanimity, the persecuted man at length took refuge with the enemy, where Achish, their king, assigned Ziklag as a residence for him and his two wives. Meanwhile, the venerable Samuel, so long the hope and oracle of the nation, died, and with great lamentation was buried at Eamah. The end of the unhappy Saul was at hand. Deserted by many of his people, haunted by a dread of impending misfortune, and refused all comfort and oracular encouragement from the priests, he sought in despair the haunt of a noted witch — one of a race which he had endeavoured to extirpate from the land. He proceeded to her cave in disguise, and desired that the shade of Samuel might be evoked. Mighty sj^irits arose from the earth, and among them the prophet, an old man covered with a mantle, who responded with a fearful warning of his defeat and death on the morrow. The next day the king gave battle to his enemies on Mount Gilboa, and, pierced with arrows, fell on his own sword. His brave son Jonathan and the flower of Israel died with him. The lament of David over the royal chieftains, his former friends, is sublime and beautiful: "Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death they were not divided," Called to the throne by universal acclamation, David displayed all the qualities of a brave leader and a sagacious prince. The Philistines every where withdrew, and left the chosen people in peace. After reigning some years at Hebron, he seized a citadel of the Jebusites, most favourably situated, and there laid the founda- tions of the wondrous city of Jerusalem. The ark was removed thither, and the national religion established in security and magnificence. Desirous of building a suitable tem- ple, he was deterred by a divine prohibition, through the prophet Nathan: "Thou hast shed blood abundantly, and hast made great wars; thou shalt not build a house unto my name, because thou hast shed much blood upon the earth in my sight." Pursuing his victorious and sanguinary career, he overthrew with 32 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. great slaughter the Philistines, the Edomites, Moabites, and Syrians, and extended his empire until it was bounded by the Euphrates and the southern desert. Insulted by the Ammonites, who had shaved the beards and curtailed the skirts of his embassy, he defeated them with great loss, and subjected the survivors to the most cruel torture and execution. From this time a series of errors and misfortunes followed him to the grave. His licentious seizure pf Uriah's wife, with the murder of her husband, and its punishment, incest and murder among his children, and finally the rebellion of Absalom, his favourite son, followed each other in rapid succession. The prince, a young man of great beauty and popular manners, aided and incited by Ahito- phel, a subtle conspirator, raised the standard of revolt, and the king in his old age was compelled to flee from Jerusalem. His usurping son seized the capital, and took possession of the royal harem, David, in time, assembling an army, sought to regain his crown. Battle being joined, and the revolted forces defeated, Absalom, in flight, was entangled by his long hair among the boughs of an oak, and there slain by Joab, the fierce and unscrupulous general of the royal forces. The king's anxiety for his safety, and his grief on learning the fatal issue, are most eloquently described: "Would God I had died for thee, oh Absalom, my son, my son!" Another rebellion succeeded, headed by an adventurer named Sheba. This suppressed, a famine ensued, and seven of the descend- ants of Saul were sacrificed, as a propitiatory offering. But Kizpah, the mother of two of them, watched the remains "from the begin- ning of harvest until water dropped on them out of heaven, and suffered neither the birds of the air to rest on them by day, nor the beasts of the field by night." The king now determined to number the souls in his extensive dominions, and after a census of nine months, discovered that in Israel and Judah there were one million three hundred thousand men fit to bear arms. A desolating pestilence succeeded. The old age of David was passed in making great preparations for a temple to be erected by his successor. Having anointed Solomon, his son by Bathsheba, as successor to the throne, he enjoined upon him, on his death-bed, that he should keep inviolate the Mosaic laws, and take the first opportunity to destroy Joab and Shimei, who had been his enemies. He then died, having reigned forty years, first over scattered and oppressed tribes, and afterwards over the empire which THE JEWS. 83 he had founded, extending from Egypt to Lebanon, and from the Euphrates to the Great Sea. He was a man of the greatest and most diversified talent — a warrior, a legislator, a prophet, and a poet of the highest order. Though often manifesting great affection and magnanimity, some of his deeds are strongly marked by the fierce and merciless spirit of the age. At the age of twenty, Solomon ascended the throne. His first act was to put to death his brother Adonijah, of whom, he was jealous. He next killed Joab and Shimei, according to his father's direction. Despite these acts of violence, his reign was eminently peacefal, judicious, and prosperous, and Israel and Judah dwelt safely "every man under his vine and under his fig-tree, from Dan to Beersheba." The administration of justice, the financial affairs of the kingdom, and its foreign relations, were all carefally and wisely overseen. Then, too, for the first time, the Israelites engaged largely in commerce. The trade through Tyre to Tarshish, (proba- bly Carthage,) the overland caravans to Egypt and the Arabian peninsula, and the venturous expeditions to Ophir by the Eed Sea, were the fruits of the king's enlightened policy. He built as sta- tions for the trafiic between the Euphrates and the sea, the splendid cities of Palmyra and Baalbec, whose ruins still excite the highest admiration. The magnificent temple at Jerusalem was another trophy of his genius and resources. His wisdom and learning were as proverbial among his contemporaries as they have been with suc- ceeding generations. His many works of poetry, natural history, and philosophy, have perished, except the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, and a fragment of his thousand and five songs. His government was strengthened by judicious alliances with Tyre and with Egypt, a princess of which he took to wife. His later days appear to have been marked by a strange idolatrous infatua- tion, or perhaps rather a weak deference to his wives and concubines, many of whom held the idolatrous belief After a reign of forty years, Solomon expired, and with him the renown and strength of the Jewish nation. Eehoboam, his son, succeeded. This headstrong youth, when the people remonstrated against their burdens, replied, "My, father made your yoke heavy, and I will add to your yoke ; my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." Ten of the tribes instantly revolted, and made Jeroboam, their leader, ruler over the new kingdom of Israel or Ephraim. Eehoboam was reduced 3 34 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. to his native possessions in Judea, and to the allegiance of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, Ere long, Shishak, king of Egypt, attacked Judah, and plundered the temple of its treasures. Abijah, the son of Eehoboam, succeeding him, attacked Jeroboam with a great force, and totally defeated him. At the end of three years he died, and his son Asa succeeded to the kingdom of Judah, B. C. 959. Meanwhile, the posterity of Jeroboam being extirpated, the new kingdom of Israel became the prey of a succession of adventurers, who slew and replaced each other, very much in the manner of the smaller Eastern nations at present. Finally, about B. C. 919, Ahab, the son of Omri, surpassed all his predecessors in wickedness. Having espoused Jezebel, daughter of the king of Sidon, he intro- duced the worship of Baal or the sun, and slew the prophets of the true God. These inspired and influential men were always especially obnoxious to a tyrannical government : they stood forward boldly in defence of their laws and religion, and fearlessly denounced oppression and backsliding among the rulers of the land. Elijah, one of the most eminent, having escaped, appeared before Ahab, reproved his apostacy, and announced its punishment in a fearful drought. This having occurred, he challenged the idolatrous priests to a trial of power ; in which, being vanquished, they were put to death, to the number of four hundred and fifty. Ben-hadad, king of Syria, twice attacking Samaria, was totally defeated. Mes- sengers being despatched to sue for peace, Ahab, with unwonted magnanimity, exclaimed, "Is he yet alive? he is my brother!" and accorded honourable terms. Having committed many crimes, he was finally slain in battle with the Syrians. During this time, Asa had reigned peacefully for forty-one years over the kingdom of Judah, and his son Jehosaphat had succeeded him. The latter having made an alliance with Ahab, was defeated in the battle above referred to. Ahaziah, son of Ahab, after a brief reign, was succeeded by his brother Jehoram, who, in concert with the forces of Judah and Edom, defeated the king of Moab. To Jehosaphat succeeded his son Jehoram, each kingdom being at this time governed by a ruler of the same name. The Judean having killed his brothers at his accession, experienced a series of misfor- tunes. Edom, which had heretofore been tributary to him, revolted, and the successful insurgents took possession of Elath, his only remaining port on the Eed Sea. Attacked by the Philistines and THE JEWS. 35 Arabians, his capital and seraglio were taken, and his children, except one, were slain. He died nnhonoured, and Ahaziah, his son, mounted the throne. Meanwhile, the king of Israel was engaged in a desperate war with the Syrians. Elijah had bequeathed his mantle and his spirit of prophecy to Elisha, on whom the hopes of the Jewish race now rested. Already the fame of his miracles had spread through the land, and had even reached Syria, where Naaman, a high officer of Ben-hadad, was cured by him of a leprosy. The city of Samaria was now beleagured on all sides, and the sufferings of the people, and their dreadful resort to cannibalism, remind us of that more terrible siege so often predicted by the prophets, and so fatally fulfilled. At length the seer announced the departure of the Syrian army ; and three lepers sallying forth, discovered that the enemy, alarmed by mysterious sounds of battle, had fled in dismay. Soon after, Hazael, a Syrian officer, having murdered his sovereign and seized the crown, defeated at Ramoth the king of Israel and Ahaziah, son of the Judean Jehoram. By command of Elisha, Jehu, the furious driver, was now anointed as king of Israel. The army revolted, and espoused his cause. He drove rapidly to Jezreel, where his first act was to slay the two kings, Jehoram and Ahaziah, who had come to meet him, in their chariots. Entering Jezreel in triumph, and irritated by the taunts of Jezebel, he commanded her to be thrown from her window into the street, where the dogs gnawed her remains, according to the prophet's prediction. Seventy descendants of Ahab and forty -two of Ahaziah were put to death, and the usurper mounted the throne of Israel without opposition. Assisted by Jehonadab, the ascetic, he totally exterminated the priests of Baal, and rooted out all idola- tries, except that of the golden calves, which had always been especially dear to the people and their rulers. Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and wife of Jehoram of Judah, seized the throne of that country, murdered all the heirs, except one, and reigned for six years, during which the worship of Baal was established at Jerusalem. At the end of this time, Jehoiada the" high-priest organized a conspiracy, slew the queen and the priest of Baal, proclaimed Joash, the surviving heir, a child of seven, and, during the minority, took the government into his own hands. Hazael, the usurping king of Syria, had gradually encroached upon the possessions of Israel during the reign of Jehu; and in that of Jehoahaz, his successor, had almost reduced it to a small 36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. tributary province. He now turned his arms upon Joasli, (who had received his crown,) took Gath, and advanced on Jerusalem. After various reverses, having apostatized, and been denounced by the prophet Zachariah, Joash was defeated by the Syrians, miirdered by his own officers, and refused the honour of royal sepulture. Amaziah, his son and successor, with a great army, invaded the revolted kingdom of Edom, and took the city of Petra. Elated by success, he attacked Jehoash, king of Israel. The army of Judah was totally routed, Jerusalem taken, and the treasures of the temple carried to Samaria. Fifteen years afterwards, Amaziah fell, the victim of a conspiracy, and was succeeded by his son Uzziah or Azariah. During a prosperous reign of fifty-two years, this prince did much to restore the kingdom to its former flourishing condition. He defeated the Philistines, recovered the important port of Elath, on the Ked Sea, fortified Jerusalem, and improved the agriculture of the country. Being smitten with leprosy, he was, in conformity with the law of Moses, deposed from his office, and his son Jotham appointed in his stead. The kingdom of Israel, also, had now regained a portion of its ancient prosperity. Jeroboam II., who succeeded Jehoash (B. C. 825), reconquered the eastern provinces, and even took the city of Damascus. At his death, anarchy prevailed : his son Zachariah was killed by Shallum, and he by Menahem, during whose reign the nation became tributary to Assyria. That mighty empire, indeed, now seemed advancing to universal conquest. Syria was half over- thrown, and Palestine lay before it an easy prey. The prophets lifted their voices in wilder warning and denunciation, and the fall of nation after nation bore witness to the truth of their inspiration. In the midst of terror and prophetical foreboding, they chanted the death-song of surrounding empires — of Moab and Ammon, of Tyre and Damascus, and of their dreaded oppressor Nineveh herself. But over the land of the Chosen People — over Judah and Israel, arose more eloquent and pathetic wailings than ever lamented the fall of nation or dynasty. All national poetry sinks into insignificance before these sublime prophecies and lamentations. A long succession of genius and inspiration found its appropriate and sufficient climax " In rapt Isaiah's wild prophetic fire," where first the promise of a Comforter and Eedeemer is fully and vividly accorded. THE JEWS. 87 To Menaliem succeeded Peliekiali, who was slain by Pekah, a new usurper. In Judak, Jotkam left the crown to his son Ahaz, the most unfortunate monarch of his line. Pekah and Pezin, king of Syria, joined in confederacy, invaded his bounds, and after a terrible battle, carried two hundred thousand of his subjects into captivity. Eezin seized Elath ; the Edomites and Philistines revolted ; and Ahaz, in despair, sought the aid of Assyria. Eelieved thus of his immediate enemies, he fell into a more degrading and dangerous servitude to his ally, and imitated his idolatries. Pekah, meanwhile, had. been assassinated, and Hoshea, who suc- ceeded him, was made tributary to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria. Finally, that monarch advanced into his territories, took Samaria, after a siege of three years, and terminated for ever the independent existence of the kingdom of Israel. Great numbers of the unfortunate Israelites were transplanted to a mountainous region in Media, and their places filled by colonists from Assyria. From this time we lose sight of the ten tribes, as a distinct people. Many fanciful theories of their destiny have been framed ; but it is most reasonably inferred that they gradually became mingled and absorbed among the people with whom they were settled. Six years before the destruction of Israel or Samaria, Hezekiah, a pious and sagacious monarch, replaced his father Ahaz on the throne of Judah. Idolatry was once more extirpated, and the ancient rites restored. Even the brazen serpent of Moses was destroyed. The passover was celebrated with great magnificence. He defeated the Philistines, and threw off the yoke of Assyria, daily increasing in weight. For a time, the vengeance of Shalmaneser was diverted from Judah by the conquest of Tyre, which sustained with great bravery a siege of five years. His son Senacherib sent an immense army, which took up its position before Lachish, The unfortunate Hezekiah submitted, and ransomed his crown by pay- ment of an enormous tributCj which compelled him to strip the very walls of the temple. The Assyrian leader marched to the conquest of Egypt, but a portion of his army which remained, renewed a demand for the surrender of Jerusalem, and sent the townsmen a message, which Eabshakeh, their envoy, delivered in most insulting language. By advice of Isaiah, the king refused submission ; and on receiving a second summons from the Assyrian monarch, trusted for defence to the Protector of the chosen race. His trust was not in vain. In a 38 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. single night, smitten by an unseen destroyer, (supposed by some to have been the simoom,) ttie mighty host of the invader was annihi- lated, and Senacherib himself, flying in terror to his capital, was assassinated by his own sons. Hezekiah survived this wonderful event fifteen years, during which, he strengthened the cities, improved agriculture, and saw his people prosperous. He was succeeded by Manasseh, whose irreligion and cruelty became proverbial. Idolatry was restored, and the temple itself polluted with a graven image. He laid violent hands upon the prophets, shed the blood of innocent persons, and is said to have caused the revered Isaiah to be sawn asunder. Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, appearing before the walls, he submitted without a struggle, and with his people was carried in captivity to Babylon. The policy of transplanting the inhabitants, and replacing them with Assyrians, was continued by Esarhaddon. From this union of nations, a mingled worship of true religion and idolatry sprang up in the land. Manasseh being finally permitted to reoccupy his throne, completed a reign of fifty-five years, latterly with more observance of laws and religion. His son Amon being murdered by his own officers, was succeeded by Josiah, whose memory is deservedly dear to the Jewish nation. He extirpated idolatry, repaired the temple, and inculcated the true religion. The original book of the law being discovered by Hilkiah the high-priest, the king was struck with terror at its awful warn- ings and forebodings, and, with all the nation, renewed a solemn covenant with the Lord. This wise and religious monarch, had he survived, might, perhaps, have restored Judah in some degree to its ancient grandeur ; but espousing the cause of Assyria against Necho, king of Egypt, he was slain in battle with the latter, near the frontier. At this period appeared the prophet Jeremiah, whose sorrowful and desponding tone of genius was well fitted to bewail the fall of the last kingdom of the race of Abraham. Necho having defeated the Assyrians, seized Jerusalem, deposed the new king, Jehoahaz, and appointed another, Eliakim (Jehoiakim). In the fourth year of his reign, Nebuchadnezzar, son of the Assyrian monarch, was associated with his father in the empire and command of the army. Jehoiakim, resisting his authority, was carried in chains to Babylon, the temple was plundered of its treas- ures, and many youths of high family were carried into captivity. Among these were Daniel, and the celebrated three — Shadrach, mi o a> \ ^r pj 1) i' t>. 'p 4_« cj :' 1^ Q q 0) o o ,a OT 1^ o ^C c: PH o o 'v » THE JEWS. 89 Meshach, and Abednego — wliose striking story is so universally known. The king having been reinstated, and again revolting, was again besieged in Jerusalem, and finally slain (B. 0. 598). His son Jehoiacliini had hardly ascended the throne, when the Assyrian army appeared before Jerusalem, and carried away the royal family, the treasures, and many of the nobility and artisans, to Babylon. Over what remained, Zedekiah, a son of Josiah, was appointed as a kind of viceroy. Encouraged by the Egyptians, in the ninth year of his reign he revolted, notwithstanding the remon- strances of Jeremiah. His allies were defeated, and Jerusalem was again besieged. After a long and determined resistance, the inhab- itants, subdued by famine, opened their gates. The king was seized, and his children were slain before his eyes. He was then blinded, and led away to an Assyrian dungeon. Soon after, the city, palaces, and temples were levelled in universal ruin. The remaining treasures of the temple were sent to Babylon, the chief-priests slaughtered, and the others carried to the enemy's capital. On this occasion Jeremiah delivered that sublime elegy which forms a fitting climax to all former lamentations and prophecies of wo. The miserable remnant of the Jewish nation was placed under the rule of Gredaliah, as a pasha of the Assyrian ; and the seat of govern- ment was fixed at Mizpeh. Many of the inhabitants fled to Egypt; and thus closes the first period of Jewish history. Nothing is more unusual than that a people, enslaved and expatriated, should resume their national existence, and retain their distinct national character- istics. But the wonderful principle of vitality inherent in the Mosaic Law preserved them a distinct race, as well during the Babylonish captivity, as during that wider dispersion, which at later times suc- ceeded. We shall see them again, ere long, take their place among nations, pursue a more extraordinary career, and at last encounter a more fearful overthrow and dissolution. On reviewing the various records of their chequered existence to this period, we perceive a strong family resemblance in the various branches of the Jewish race. Often revengeful, treacherous, and cruel, they were capable, at times, of high magnanimity and refinement of feeling. The social affections were exceedingly strong, though sometimes sacrificed to revenge and ambition. Considering their lim- ited number, they were among the most valiant and warlike of nations ; and peculiarly excelled in that stubborn, resolute endurance, which often carries its point against the most disproportionate odds. 40 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Arts and manufactures had. attained a certain perfection, thougli probably not excelling that of surrounding nations; in the science of architecture, they were certainly inferior to many of their con- temporaries, especially the Greeks and Egyptians. Marine com- merce appears to have been principally carried on by the aid of their neighbours, the Phoenicians, and the overland caravans to Egypt and the East constituted their most important trade. Their superi- ority to the surrounding tribes and empires is principally to hd found in their clearer and more exalted ideas of a single Divine Being, though they still exhibited that perpetual tendency to lapse into idolatry, which characterizes a semi-barbarous race. CHAPTEEI?. THE RESTOEATION. MISFOETUNES OP THE HEBEEWS. — THE MACCABEES. GRADUAL ASCENDANCY OE ROME. Though the grief of the captive nation was naturally great, and though they "sat by the waters of Babylon, and wept as they remembered Sion," yet the conduct of their new masters appears to have been mild and considerate, and their treatment rather that of colonists than slaves. Daniel and other youths of good family were entertained at the king's court, and instructed in all the learning of the Chaldeans. Assyria soon falling before the united power of the Medes and Persians, Daniel, already distinguished by his skill in prophecy and interpretation, was advanced to a high oflice under the new govern- ment. Darius, and afterwards Cyrus, appreciated and rewarded his talents ; and it was probably through his influence that the latter, seventy years after the captivity, issued a decree for the restoration of the Hebrews to their native land. Assembling to the number of forty-two thousand three hundred and sixty, under Zerubbabel, a descendant of their kings, they returned to Jerusalem, bearing a few relics of the sacred treasures which once had adorned the splendid edifice of Solomon. THE JEWS. 41 Eenewing tlieir ancient rites, they laid tlie corner-stone of a new temple, amid the tears of a few old men, who yet remembered its former glory. Their resources were indeed miserably insufficient, compared with the wealth of David and Solomon, The Samaritans, a race descended from the ten tribes and the Assyrian colonists, offered, it is true, to assist in the great work devoted to their common religion. Their overtures, however, were contemptuously rejected on account of the ancient animosity between Judah and Israel — an animosity afterwards deepening into the most bitter and irreconcila- ble hatred. During the captivity, the national faith had undergone consider- able modification. The belief in a future life, and the coming of a Messiah, their exclusive king and redeemer, had, from the teachings of the prophets, assumed a firm place in their peculiar belief. While Cambyses reigned, and pursued his conquests, the people made little progress in rebuilding their city and temple ; but Darius Hystaspes, his successor on the Persian throne, in reverence to the ancient edict of Cyrus, furthered their wishes. The temple was completed in six years, and its dedication celebrated with sacrifices — few and meagre, indeed, compared with those of their ancestors. Darius was succeeded by the celebrated Xerxes, supposed to be the Ahazuerus of the Book of Esther. In this interesting and truly oriental tale, we see a daughter of the dependant race advanced to high station in the royal harem, procuring the ofl&ce of vizier for a friend, and causing the execution of his rival, the enemy of her people. Before his deposition and death, however, he had issued an order for the destruction of the Jews throughout the Persian empire. At the request of the favourite, messengers were despatched, on horses and fleet dromedaries, to the various cities, with permission to the proscribed race to defend themselves. This they did so effect- ually as to slay seventy-five thousand of their antagonists in the several provinces. The reign of Artaxerxes, the next king, was favourable to them„ Ezra, a man of priestly descent, headed a new migration from Baby- lonia, and established laws and magistrates. Afterwards ISTehemiah, a Jewish favourite, was permitted to rebuild and fortify the city, which he accomplished in the incredibly short time of fifty -two days. Every tenth man, by lot, was compelled to enrol himself as a citizen and defender of Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Ezra had com- piled the Sacred Writings in nearly the same order in which they 42 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. now stand, tliougli several books were subsequently added. Dissen- sions occurring between Nebemiah and the priesthood, Manasseb, son of tbe bigb-priest, was expelled from Jerusalem. In revenge, bis friends built a rival temple on Mount Gerizim, and appointed bim bigb-priest. Tbe breacb between Samaria and Jerusalem was tbus widened still furtber, and tbe latter by degrees fell entirely under tbe government of ber bigb-priests. One of tbese baving murdered bis brotber in tbe sanctuary, tbe Persian governor entered tbe temple, and imposed a beavy penalty on tbe wbole people. About tbis time, Alexander tbe Grreat was besieging Tyre, and tbe Jews made submission to bim. Tbe Samaritans revolting, be expelled tbem, and planted Macedonians in tbeir room. After bis deatb, Ptolemy of Egypt, assaulting Jerusalem on tbe Sabbatb, took it witbout resistance, and carried one bundred thou- sand captives to Alexandria and Gyrene. It was twice taken by Antigonus, and twice regained by Ptolemy, witb wbom it finally remained. Antiocbus of Syria baving seized Judea, and been com- pelled to rebnquisb it, again attacked it, in tbe reign of tbe next Ptolemy (Epipbanes), and at last wrested it from tbe Egyptians. It was afterwards bestowed upon Ptolemy as tbe dowry of bis daugh- ter Cleopatra (tbe elder). After it bad been for a long time distracted by internal factions, Antiocbus Epimanes, baving conquered Egypt, and learning of a revolt, marched against Jerusalem, put to death forty thousand of the inhabitants, and sold as many more for slaves. After pillaging and marring tbe temple in every way, be sacrificed a great sow upon tbe altar, boiled a part, and caused the defiling fluid to be scattered over tbe sacred building. Two years afterwards, in execu- tion of another sanguinary edict, Appolonius, bis legate, attacked the unresisting people on the Sabbatb, slew a vast number, pillaged the. city, and set it on fire. The temple was dedicated to Jupiter Olympus, Bacchanalia were substituted for tbe national festivals, and the unfortunate survivors throughout Judea were compelled to join in idolatrous rites, or to undergo tbe most cruel martyrdom. Tbe Jewish nation and the worship of Jehovah were near tbeir total extermination, when a new deliverer arose. Mattathias, a man of priestly descent, with bis five sons — Johanan, Simon, Judas, Eleazer, and Jonathan — excited a most vigorous resistance near tbe coast. After obtaining important successes, be died, bequeathing bis command to Judas, called Maccabseus, the most prudent and THE JEWS. 43 valiant of his sons. He defeated general after general of the Syrian forces, and at last entered in triumph the city of Jerusalem, now desolate and overgrown with thick underwood like a forest. The city was fortified, the temple was purified, and the national worship restored. Many oppressed provinces were enfranchised, and the valiant Maccabees continued to pursue a series of victories until the death of Antioohus. Under his successor, after a desperate contest, they were compelled to retreat to Jerusalem, and finally to surren- der. Again defeating his enemies, the wise and patriotic Judas entered into treaty with Rome, for the sake of her important coun- tenance and protection; but ere the news of its ratification reached him, fell gloriously in defending his country against a fresh attack. After great reverses, his brother Jonathan succeeded in again assert- ing the national independence, and, with the title of high -priest, governed and defended Judea bravely and sagaciously. Being treacherously murdered by a Syrian ofiicer, he was succeeded by his brother Simon. Under his wise and impartial administration, the country enjoyed great prosperity. The former magnificence of the temple and capi- tal were, in a great degree, restored; but like his brothers, he perished by violence, being assassinated in his old age by an ambitious conspirator. His son John Hyrcanus, inheriting the ability of his family, eluded the danger, and was proclaimed high-priest and ruler at Jerusalem. Besieged there by the Syrians, under another Anti- ochus, he was compelled to become tributary; but on the death of the king, reasserted the independence of Judea, which was main- tained until the Roman conquest. Among other achievements, he took Sichem, and destroyed the rival temple on Mount Gerizim, which had been for two hundred years an eye-sore to the Jewish nation. He took Idumea, and completely incorporated it with his dominions ; and, after a most obstinate contest, became master of all Galilee and Samaria, and razed the hated city to the ground. His reign, which lasted twenty-nine years, was much troubled with dissensions between the Pharisees and Sadducees, who by this time had formed two great and irreconcilable factions. His son Aristobulus, after murdering several of his relatives, died of remorse, and was succeeded by Alexander Jannasus, the next heir. His reign was marked by continual contests with the Syrians and with his own people, of whom he put great numbers to death. 44 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. His son Hyrcanus II. espoused tlie cause of the Pharisees, and by their support had reigned in tolerable quiet for some years, when his brother Aristobulus, who headed the opposite party, usurped the government. After various contests, the brothers submitted their quarrel to Pompey the Great, then at Damascus, who, after several delays, settled the question by marching into and taking possession of the disputed territory for the Eoman people. Having entered Jerusalem, the most resolute of the factions took possession of the temple and citadel, which sustained a siege of three months. It was finally taken by means of military engines brought from Tyre ; and the conqueror excited the wonder and terror of the Jews by exam- ining every part of the sacred edifice, and even profaning the Holy of Holies by his heathen presence. He spared the splendid treasures, commanded the temple to be piirified, appointed Hyrcanus high- priest over Judea, fixed a tribute, and departed. Nothing, however, could induce the Jews to forgive his desecration of their temple ; and in the civil wars which ensued, they embraced, throughout the world, the party of Caesar; for by this time extensive colonies of them had settled in other lands, especially in Egypt, where their numbers have been estimated at a million. During the war, Aristo- bulus and his talented son Alexander, who had made many attempts against the Eomans, were cut off, and Hyrcanus remained in posses- sion of his office. Antipater, his prime minister, by his influence with Caesar, gradually supplanting him, appointed Phasael, his own son, to the government of Jerusalem, and Herod, another, to that of Gralilee. After various reverses, Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus, claiming the kingdom, and seizing Jerusalem, by aid of the Parthi- ans, Herod barely escaped with his life. He fled to Eome, and such was his influence with Augustus and Antony, that in a brief time he returned with the crown of Judea. He suffered, at first, various defeats and reverses; but finally, with the assistance of the Eoman legions, under Sosius, took Jerusalem after a siege of half a year, saved it from destruction at the hands of his allies, and sent Anti- gonus in chains to Antony. The chiefs of the opposite faction were mostly executed, and the whole Sanhedrim, except two, shared the same fate. Having espoused the beautiful Mariamne, daughter of Alexander, and raised her brother Aristobulus to the office of high- priest, he soon caused him to be treacherously murdered, dreading his popularity. Having experienced great danger, first from the hatred of Cleopatra, the mistress of Antony, who had begged his THE JEWS. 45 kingdom from her lover, and afterwards from lier love, lie thought to have her assassinated, but was dissuaded by his friends. About this time, a dreadful earthquake overthrew many cities in Judea, and destroyed thirty thousand lives. After the battle of Actium, fresh perils awaited him, from his intimacy with the defeated Antony. But with that extraordinary boldness and presence of mind which never deserted him, he imme- diately sought the conqueror, and addressed him in a speech of such art and persuasiveness, that Augustus loaded him with renewed honours and possessions. Meanwhile, his palace was filled with wretchedness and domestic crime. The murder of one relative after another was succeeded by that of Mariamne, whose execution he ordered in a fit of jealousy. From that moment his life was marked by the deepest gloom and frequent insanity. Yet his administration was in general judicious, liberal, and magnificent ; and the success and splendour of his public career contrast most strongly with the cruelty and weakness of his domestic life. He endeavoured, by introducing Greek refinement and Eoman amusement, to soften the narrow and sectional character of his people; he erected splendid public buildings, founded new citadels, and rebuilt the ancient city of Samaria. In a dreadful fam- ine, he imported corn from Egj^pt, and supported the necessitous. Among other public-spirited acts, he founded and completed in twelve years the splendid city of Ci3esarea, named in honour of his patron Augustus Caesar, in whose favour he stood next to Agrippa ; and he rebuilt the temple with unprecedented magnificence. The wretchedness of his private career continued. Constantly suspicious of his sons, he was often on the point of despatching them. At last, he ordered the execution of Alexander and Aristobulus, the innocent sons of Mariamne ; and, on his death-bed, that of Anti- pater, another son, who had in reality attempted his life. An atrocious order, which he is said to have given, for the massacre of all the principal persons in Jerusalem at his death, was disregarded. Among his later atrocities, was the "Murder of the Innocents" in the little town of Bethlehem. Having in his last moments disposed of his kingdom, and ordered the execution of his son, he expired, leaving a character for talent and wickedness seldom equalled. By his will, Galilee and Perasa were assigned to Herod Antipas, one of his sons, and Judea, Samaria, and Idumea to Archelaus, another. During the absence of the latter at Eome, to support the 46 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, will before Augustus, the most terrible anarcliy prevailed, and tlie neighbouring Eoman generals, taking advantage, seized Jerusalem, and put to death great numbers of the people. Despite a petition from the Jews for the restoration of their ancient government, the will of Herod was, for the most part, confirmed by the emperor; and Archelaus returning, ruled for nine years with great tyranny. An accusation being then preferred against him at Eome, he was banished to Gaul, and his kingdom reduced to a Eoman province ; and thus the sceptre for ever departed from Judah. CHAPTER ? THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT, AND THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. The government was now that of a colonial district, dependant on the prefecture of Syria; the judicial and ecclesiastical authority being still vested in the Sanhedrim, or Council of Elders, which was in communication with the Eoman governor. The population was mostly divided into two great factions ; first and most popular, that of the Pharisees, who believed in a future existence, and pretended to great sanctity ; and secondly, the Saddu- cees, who, denying a future existence, were inflexibly severe in the enforcement of human law and punishment. There was also a small sect called the Essenes, of exceedingly rigid and ascetic manners. Publius Sulpicius Quirinus, being appointed governor of Syria, found it necessary to take a census of the population and property in Judea, for purposes of taxation. A resistance to this, headed by one Judas, was suppressed, and the insurgents executed with the most cruel torture. Throughout the remainder of the reign of Augustus, Judea was subject to a succession of Eoman governors. In the long reign of Tiberias, he appointed only two, Yalerius Gratus and Pontius Pilate, (A. D. 27,) comparing a Eoman province to the wounded man (in the fable) attacked by a swarm of flies, from whom THE JEWS. 47 it would be folly to drive them away, that the more hungry might instantly succeed. During this period, though Judea enjoyed tranquillity, the Jews, from a jealousy of their influence, suffered great persecutions in Italy. Pontius Pilate, the Eoman praetor, now removed the seat of government from Cassarea to Jerusalem. Of a stern, decided char- acter, yet not disposed to unnecessary cruelty, nor heedless of popular favour, he ruled the people with firm, yet judicious control. His worst act appears to have been the weakness or policy of yielding the Saviour to the infuriated priesthood. He would gladly have transferred the case to the jurisdiction of Herod, and was evidently smitten with remorse at his own injustice; for he took water, and washed his hands, saying, "I am innocent of the blood of this just person; see ye to it." This is not the place for a recital of the wondrous life, teachings, and martyrdom of Christ ; suffice it to say, that the Hebrews dis- played, on this occasion, the same narrow and unrelenting spirit which had always characterized their treatment of all opposing the popular religious belief Pilate having been recalled, and Caiaphas degraded from the priesthood, Tiberias died, and was succeeded by Caligula. His insane vanity prompted him to demand divine honours from his subjects throughout the whole empire. The Jews in Alexandria not complying, underwent a dreadful persecution ; and soon an edict was issued that the emperor's statue should be placed in the temple at Jerusalem. The effect upon the popular superstition was terrible : the people, in despair, left their occupations throughout the country, and offered their breasts to the Roman swords; and Petronius the praetor was so far moved as to suspend the execution of the decree until it was repealed by the interest of Agrippa. Meanwhile, in Babylonia, certain of the people revolting, terrible massacres had taken place, and the assassination of Caligula alone delivered the race from more grievous injuries. Claudius, succeed- ing him, appointed Agrippa king over all the dominions ruled by the first Herod. After a splendid reign of three years, he died, and ^'Judea became once more a Roman province under a succession of prsetors. And now commenced that series of crimes and errors which led to the final destruction of the holy city. The people had become excessively corrupt and turbulent. Bands of assassins scoured the country : the fanatical populace was contin- 48 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ually embroiled witli the Koman soldiery; and Felix, the governor, in vain endeavoured to suppress the spirit of revolt. In Csesarea the most violent conflicts prevailed between the Greeks and Jews ; in Jerusalem the authority of Festus and Agrippa (the second), Eoman preetors, was set at naught. To Felix succeeded Albinus, a corrupt and avaricious man, and to him Gessius Florus, whose oppression and treachery were among the principal causes of the insurrection which followed. Some terrible phenomena, which appeared about this time, were supposed to portend calamitous events. A comet in the shape of a sword hung over the city for a whole year; the massive gates of the temple were thrown open, and a luminous appearance covered the altar ; and the evolutions of chariots and horsemen were seen in the heavens. A man filled with insanity, or the spirit of prophecy, for four years went about the city, crying "Wo to Jerusalem!" And the Christians, in obedience to the divine premonition, aban- doned Jesusalem in a body, and retreated to Pella beyond the Jordan. At this time, when the inhabitants of Judea amounted to about three millions, and vast numbers of Hebrews were settled in other countries, that fatal series of events commenced, which terminated in their entire destruction as a nation. The feud in Csesarea being renewed, and the Jews getting worsted, Florus took advantage of the discontent excited in Jerusalem, and committed a terrible massa- cre upon the people, hoping, in the event of a general insurrection, to plunder the temple of its vast treasures. Disappointed in this, and finding his position unsafe, he retired to Csesarea. By the prudent counsels of Agrippa, peace was well nigh restored, when a party of insurgents seized a small fortress near the Dead Sea, and put the Eoman garrison to the sword. A decree was further made in Jerusalem, prohibiting the Komans from sacrificing in the temple, which, as a piece of conciliatory policy, had always been done in the name of the emperor. This being an open declaration of hostilities, the more moderate citizens sent to Agrippa, entreating a force to preserve the peace. This having arrived, a contest commenced, which lasted with great desperation for seven days, at the end of which the insurgents, under Eleazer, gained the advantage. Afterwards, the remaining troops of Agrippa were suffered to leave the city, and the few Eomans who still held out, were massacred after capitulation. On that very day, however, a fresh misfortune awaited the Jews. THE JEWS. 49 The Grecian party in Ceesarea, bj previous agreement, rose suddenly, and in one liour destroyed them, almost to a man, to the number of twenty thousand. Maddened by this outrage, and perceiving them- selves fully committed against the Eomans by their own conduct in Jerusalem, the whole nation took up arms, and commenced an indiscriminate slaughter in all the cities on their borders. The Syrians and Greeks, in revenge, put to death great numbers of Jews residing in their nation. In Alexandria the Jewish populace, revolting, were cut off with prodigious slaughter, and fifty thousand dead bodies were heaped ujd for burial. Cestius Gallus, the Syrian governor, now marched against the revolted city, at the head of twenty -three thousand troops, and after meeting a severe reverse in the pass of Beth-horon, laid siege to the city. Naturally irresolute, and meeting a fierce resistance, after a few days, he raised the siege, and retired. His retreat, which soon became a flight, was harassed by the victorious insurgents, and he finally entered Antipatris, with the loss of nearly six thousand troops, and all his battering rams, catapults, and engines of war. These were afterwards used with dreadful effect against their former owners. After this defeat, the most disgraceful which Eoman arms had experienced for a long time, Judea was in open rebellion against the Mistress of the World. Undisciplined, entirely without allies, and opposed to a power which could command nearly all the forces in the known world, the Jewish nation made a defence which, if fierce and fanatical, was certainly the most daring, desperate, and patriotic that has ever been recorded in the annals of the earth. Naturally of a fierce and clannish nature, exasperated by great oppressions, and committed by great crimes, looking forward with confidence to the speedy coming of a Messiah, and relying on a renewal of ancient miracles in their behalf, the whole nation now prepared for a most determined resistance. The reduction of the revolted province had been entrusted by ISTero to Yespasian, the most distinguished commander in the empire, who immediately hastened to Syria to collect the Eoman forces and those of their tributaries. Eleazer, the leader of the first insurrec- tion, though not possessing nominal office, was in reality the chief leader of the Jews. Over the different districts, of&cers of trust and fidelity were appointed by the insurgents ; and over that of Gahlee in particular, Josephus, the celebrated historian of his people. In Jerusalem, preparations for war proceeded with great 4 50 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOPvY. energy; the walls were strengtlienecl, engines constructed, and stores laid in with great care and promptitude. They first attacked Antonius, the Eoman commander of Askelon, but were repulsed with great loss in two attempts, Vespasian advanced to Ptolemais, and was there joined by his son Titus, who had been despatched to Alexandria for reinforce- ments. Their united force amounted to sixty thousand regular troops, besides followers of the camp. They took up the line of march, but halted on the frontiers of Galilee, to give an opportunity for submission. The army of Josephus dispersed in every direction, and the Hebrew general threw himself, with all his available forces, into the strong city of Jotapata, situated among the mountains. For forty-seven days it resisted all the attacks of the Eomans, and the garrison, in their courageous sallies and sudden attacks, evinced all the bravery and adroitness which usually characterizes a race of mountaineers. After a most valorous defence it was taken, with a loss of forty thousand men during the siege and capture, and Josephus fell into the hands of the Eoman commander. He was received with great courtesy, and eventually obtained the fullest confidence of both Yespasian and Titus. The Eomans now retired to Csesarea, exhausted by the late terrible conflict, and destroyed Joppa, which was held by the revolted forces. Thence returning to Gralilee, and taking Tiberias, Yespasian made a terrible slaughter among the inhabitants after capitulation, sold more than thirty thousand as slaves, and sent six thousand to Nero, who was then engaged in a scheme for cutting a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. The province, overawed, submitted; some citadels which yet held out were taken after obstinate resistance. In Gamala, especially, four thousand were put to the sword, and the bodies were found of five thousand who had cast themselves from the rock, on seeing the assault successful. Meanwhile, the unhappy city of Jerusalem was involved in all the horrors of a civil war. One faction, including the most respectable and wealthy, were for peace and submission ; the other, more des- perate, and fired with fanatical zeal, was determined to resist to the last. Immense numbers of the latter party, many of them robbers by profession, flocked into the city, and, under pretence of patriotism and religious enthusiasm, plundered, imprisoned, and murdered the more peaceable. These Zealots, as they were called, after a desperate conflict, took possession of the temple, an immense citadel, adapted THE JEWS. 51 either for worship or defence. Their leader was Eleazer. Besieged there, they sent for aid to the Idumeans, who came before the city to their assistance to the number of twenty thousand. Entrance being obtained for them by a stratagem, the Zealots with their new allies recommenced the contest, the temple was deluged with blood, and eight thousand five hundred bodies strewed its courts. Unsat- isfied with victory, they continued for a long time to massacre the people, and spared neither age nor innocence. The high-priests were slaughtered, and the most celebrated officers put to death. Vespa- sian, urged to march upon the city, replied, that such a step would at once unite the factions, and that he preferred allowing them, like wild beasts, to tear each other to pieces in their dens. He had now taken many of the cities, and on one occasion had slain or drowned in the Jordan fifteen thousand fugitives. The river and the Dead Sea itself had been almost choked with bodies. He was daily expected at the gates of Jerusalem, when news arrived of the death of Nero, and for two, years the Eoman kept his forces fresh and inactive, that he might profit by a favourable opportunity for seizing the empire. During this time Galba, Otho, and Yitellius had in turn gained and lost the imperial crown. The politic Vespasian at last attained the purple, and the command in Judea was delegated to his son, the celebrated Titus. During all this time, Jerusalem had been distracted by a civil war of the fiercest character. Two new factions had arisen, headed by Simon, son of Gioras, and by John of Gischala, who had played a conspicuous part in the commencement of the war. They were both men of remarkable bravery, craft, and ambition, and both utterly destitiite of scruples. Simon, who had long ravaged the country with a large force, was at last permitted to enter the city that he might protect it from the atrocities of the Zealots. The city was now the prey of three farioiis factions — that of Simon, in the upper city; John, with the Zealots, in the temple ; and Eleazer, with others, in the inner court. These alternately slaughtered each other and the defenceless citizens. Many were killed in worshipping at the sanc- tuary-; for, strange to say, amid all this havoc and violence, the cus- tomary rites were observed as usual. At last Titus with a great force once more approached the gates of Jerusalem, Hardly had he pitched his camp, before the besieged made a furious sally, and the commander was nearly taken by a surprise. The factions now perceived the necessity of making common cause 52 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY against the enemy, and of burying their animosity for tlie present. By agreement they made a simultaneous attack on the tenth legion, which was stationed at the foot of the Mount of Olives. By the fierce- ness and suddenness of their onslaught, it was, at first, entirely roiited, and Titus himself exposed to the greatest danger; at length, rallying, after a contest of an entire day, the Eomans repulsed their enemies. It was now the Passover, and vast multitudes fi^om the most dis- tant regions, had entered the beleagured city to celebrate their most revered and important festival. This circumstance added gTcatly to the suffering and famine which ensued. Meanwhile, the Eomans, in forming military approaches, had laid waste all the surrounding country; but being enticed under the walls by a stratagem, were defeated with great loss. The city was, at that time, fortified by three walls, one within the other, strengthened by one hundred and sixty -four towers. More- over, there was a fortress of unusual strength, called the Antonia, and three towers built of such immense stones as to defy the engi- neering of the day. High over all rose the temple, an impregnable citadel in itself, covering a space of a furlong square, and its walls, the rock included, five hundred and twenty-five feet in height. This splendid structure, with its marble pillars and gilded roof, "a mount of snow, fretted with golden pinnacles," excited the admiration of Titus, and a regret at the necessity of destroying so much magnificence. The approaches to the city were at last perfected, and the huge engines, called Helipoleis (city takers), began to shake the outer wall in three different places. The most furious resistance was made by the besieged, now united in a common defence. They made des- perate sallies, and often nearly succeeded in destroying the machines. On one occasion these were fired by the insurgents, and would have been destroyed, but for the bravery of Titus, who killed twelve of the assailants with his own hand. At last the great engine, called Nico (the conqueror), threw down a portion of the outer wall. The garrison retreated to the next, and still fought with desperate valour. In five days more, the second fell, and Titus entered the suburbs, sparing the lives and property of the peaceable citizens. . By a fierce sortie, the Eomans were again driven from their position, which they could not regain for fou.r days, when they threw down a large por- tion of the wall. The temple, the hill of Zion, and the impregnable forts, still defied the invader; and the Jews now plied with tremen- dous effect the balistas and other engines taken from Cestius in his I ^tvv^^l ^o- THE DESTRUCTION OE JERUSALEM. "While the Holy Houae was on fire, every thing was plundered that came to hand, and ten thousand of those that were caught were slain ; nor -was there a commisseration of any age or any reverence of gravity, hut children and old men, and profane persons, and priests, "were all slain, in the same manner — as well those that made supplication for their lives, as those that defended themselves hy fighting." — Whiston's Josephus. THE JEWS. 53 fliglit. They scoffed at tlie idea of surrender, and offered violence to all Avho came to parley. Famine had now commenced, and many of the vast multitude pent up in the city were dying with hunger. Many others fled with all the wealth they could carry, and Titus allowed them to pass unmolested, though John and Simon put to death without mercy all who seemed desirous to fly. Their soldiers used the most cruel tortures to compel all who had a little provision to yield it up ; and all natural affection seemed lost and absorbed in this dreadful calamity. Titus was now crucif)dng all his prisoners, sometimes to the number of five hundred in a da}^, and this added to the rage and desperation of the besieged. After seventeen days of great labour, the embankments had befen made, and the engines mounted for an attack, when the whole Avere seen to sink into a fiery abyss, and be consumed. John had undermined the whole, filled his cavern Avith combustibles, and set fire to the wooden supports. Two days after, Simon with a croAvd of his partisans, made an attack on the remaining engines, and after a most furious conflict, burnt nearly all of them. It Avas then decided to blockade the city, and starve the garrison into a surrender. In three days, working with incredible diligence, the besiegers had, in the inspired Avords of prophecy, "cast a trench about them, and compassed them round, and kept them in on every side." Well might they noAV recall, too, the terrible denunciations of Moses in his djdng prophecy: "The Lord shall bring a nation against thee from far," "a nation of fierce countenance, which shall not regard the person of the old, nor shoAV favour to the young." '• And he shall besiege thee in all thy gates, until thy high and fenced Avails come do Avn." "The tender and delicate Avoman among you, which would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the ground for delicateness and tenderness, her eye shall be evil toward the hus- band of her bosom, and tOAvard her son, and toward her daughter, and toAvard her children Avhich she shall bear : for she shall eat them for Avant of all things, secretly in the siege and straitness wherewith thine enemies shall distress thee in thy gates" — a prophecy Avhich Avas now fearfully realized. Half the city was dying of starvation, or resorting to the hideous resource of cannibalism. Many died with their eyes fixed on the temple to the last, and others crept to ceme- teries, and there laid their OAvn corpses. Without, the ravines were filled with dead bodies throAvn fi-om the Avails; Avithin, the city, strcAvn with unburied corpses, reeked like a vast sepulchre. 54 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF 11 IS TO EY. Still the enfeebled garrison maintained an unfailing resolution. Matthias tlie high-priest, and others suspected of favouring the Romans, were slain in their sight, and their bodies tumbled from the walls. The insurgent chiefs melted the sacred vessels of the temple, and served out the sacred oil and wine as rations to the famished defenders. A fresh horror was soon added. Many deserters, escaping to the Roman camp, had swallowed their treasures to preserve them ; and this fact coming to the knowledge of the fierce Syrian and Arabian allies, they commenced a horrible course of murder and dissection: two thousand Jews are said to have thus perished in a single night. "With the greatest difficulty Titus put a stop to this atrocity. At length, after stripping the whole country of its woods, the approaches were renewed, and the tall engines once more stood menacing the walls. Both parties were almost exhausted by the long contest, but especially the Jews, who had also famine to contend against. The wall fell, but another was discovered within. An attack of the enfeebled defenders was repulsed ; and during the night a few resolute Romans, taking the enemy by surprise, stormed the wall. A day of hard fighting left the besiegers in possession of the strong fortress Antonia. Another fierce attack was made in vain upon the temple, now slippery with blood, and encumbered with corpses. At no time had the Jews fought with more desperate and unwearied courage than now, when outnumbered, famine-stricken, and reduced to the last extremity. The cloisters of the temple were set on fire, and their destruction enabled the Romans to penetrate to the outer court, where their engines soon began to batter the stronghold. Repulsed by the fury of its defenders, Titus set fire to the gates, and enough was destroyed to allow the Romans to enter. A most terrible encounter ensued in the temple itself, and despite the desire of Titus to save this mag- nificent building, it was fired by his enraged soldiery. Multitudes perished in the flames and by the sword, and the plunder was so great, that gold fell in Syria to half its former value. John and Simon still held out in the upper city, seized the palace, and massacred eight thousand four hundred people who had taken refuge there. After eighteen days the Romans took it, almost with- out a struggle, and the leaders, on surrender, were reserved for the triumph of Vespasian and Titus. More than one hundred thousand of the inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the city was razed to the THE JEWS. 55 ground Ly command of Titus. The number who had perished was prodigious; for vast multitudes from the adjoining regions had been shut wp at the time of the Passover. It has been calculated that one million one hundred thousand lost their lives in this most calamitous of sieges, and including those slain elsewhere, half Judea may be said to have perished. " Thus fell, and for ever, the metropolis of the Jewish state. Other- cities have arisen upon the ruins of Jerusalem, and succeeded, as it were, to the inalienable inheritance of perpetual siege, oppression, and ruin. Jerusalem might almost seem to be a place imder a perpetual curse; it has probably witnessed a far greater portion of human misery than any other spot upon the earth." Here, too, ends the history of the Chosen People as a distinct nation • — a distinct race they have ever been, though scattered widely throughout almost every nation on earth. And we are again reminded of the striking language of their great law-giver: "Thou shalt become an astonishment, a proverb and a by- word among all nations whither the Lord shall lead thee." "And the Lord shall scatter thee among all people, from the one end of the earth even unto the other." "And among these nations shalt thou find no ease, neither shall the sole of thy foot have rest : but the Lord shall give thee a trembling heart, «and failing of eyes, and sorrow of mind. And thy life shall hang in doubt before thee ; and thou shalt fear day and night, and shalt have none assurance of thy life." i These remarkable words describe the condition of the Jewish people since the destruction of their national existence as accurately as any which could be used. Despised, oppressed, and wantonly murdered for nearly two thousand years, they have still maintained, imshaken, their laws and customs, their theology, and their firm belief in a Messiah yet to appear for their deliverance. To the disgrace of nations calling themselves Christian, this scat- tered and defenceless people has sustained, till recently, the most unrelenting persecution at their hands. Wanton outrages, cruel tor- tures, degrading and oppressive impositions, have characterized their treatment' throughout the world. But since mankind have learned to think more justly and rationally on matters of mere belief, the spirit of persecution has gradually died away, and now appears in its worst form only in some of the half-civilized nations of the East — as Russia, Syria, and some Mahometan provinces. By their industry, acuteness, and strong commercial spirit, the 56 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. Jewisli strangers generally attain prosperity whenever free from outrage and spoliation, and among their number have been found the most eminent bankers and financiers. Whatever may be thought of their belief, it will be generally admitted that they are useful members of most communities which they enter. Perhaps, with the ceasing of that persecution which is one of the strongest incentives to obstinacy, they may gradually adopt a more rational belief, and become amal- gamated with the nations in which they are settled. But at present they remain, throughout the world, a race as separate and distinct from all others, as that which followed Moses into the wilderness, or rebuilt their temple after the captivity of Babylon. ASSYRIA. U dJi dX if i oil si io ANCIENT HISTORY OP ASSYRIA: Assyria lias always been considered as tlie most ancient nation of which we have any authentic history. It was founded not long after that dispersion of mankind which succeeded the Deluge. We read in Grenesis that out of the land of Shinar "went forth Asshur," (the second son of Shem,) "and builded Nineveh, and the city Reho- both, and Calah." About the same time Nimrod, the grandson of Ham, built the city of Babylon, and founded Babylonia. "And the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." We are further told that he "began to be a mighty man upon the earth," and "a mighty hunter before the Lord." The chase has ever been held the fittest school for war, and accordingly, we find Nimrod a hunter, a warrior, and a king. He was probably the first who assumed the title of a monarch, and entered on a career of conquest for the sake of enlarging his territories. At the end of about one hundred and twenty years, ISTinus, the sov- ereign of Assyria, to whom the Babylonians had become tributary, deposed JSTarbonius, their king, and united the two nations, which henceforth we are to regard as one — the Assyrian empire. This monarch, it is related, extended his conquests from Egypt to India. Semiramis, his widow, who at his death assumed the government, is the most celebrated name in Assyrian history: she was alike dis- tinguished for her beauty, her talents, and her vices. Of obscure 58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. parentage, and married to Menones, an officer, slie attracted the notice of the king. Her husband, despairing before such a rival, killed himself, on which Ninus espoused her, and at his death left her on the throne of his widely-extended empire. Having removed the seat of government from Nineveh to Babylon, she made the latter, by the grandeur of her improvements, the most magnificient city on the earth. It is difficult to credit all that ancient writers have told concerning these wonders of architecture ; but it seems certain that the city was decorated with the most splen- did structures, both for use and ornament: bridges, palaces, and temples; walls upon which three chariots might drive abreast, and vast forests suspended at an immense height in the air. These were the celebrated "hanging gardens," which she is said to have con- structed for the purpose of reminding her of the mountainous scenes amid which her youth had been passed. Eestless without excitement, she engaged in war; conquered Lybia and the greater part of Ethiopia, and finally led an immense army to attempt the conquest of India. Crossing the Indiis on a bridge of boats, after a fiercely-disputed passage, she advanced a considerable distance into the country. Being at last defeated with great slaughter by Stabrobates, a king of India, she retreated home- ward by forced marches, leaving the greater part of her numerous legions " To dry into the desert's dust by myriads, And whiten with their bones the banks of Indus." The private vices and licentiousness imputed to Semiramis by some historians, are too enormous to be entirely credited; it would appear, however, that she lived in the utmost luxury and profligacy, and was finally put to death by Ninyas, her son, who availed him- self of these causes to hasten his accession to the throne. Ninyas appears to have been a prince of an easy and dissolute temperament, and devoted to sloth and voluptuousness. He lived entirely secluded within the walls of his seraglio, securing the fidel- ity of his forces by a yearly change of the soldiers, lest they should be gained over by ambitious officers. From this time, with few and unimportant exceptions, we lose sight of Assyrian history for a period of more than eight hundred years. Ctesias, a physician of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the Younger, and wrote about B. 0. 399, gives, it is true, a long list of ASSYEIA. 59 Babylonian monarclis, who are said to have ruled in regular succes- sion. But this account is usually considered to be, for the most part, fallacious, bearing internal evidence of its incorrectness. It seems probable that many revolutions and changes of power must have taken place, so as to efface the records of the ancient dynasty. It is certain that during this period the country was overrun by Sesostris, the Egyptian conqueror, but that the conquest was not retained for any great leng-th of time. At last, about eight hundred years before Christ, we again gain sight of an Assyrian monarch, in the person of Pul or Phul, by whom the Israelites were subdued and made tributary, in the reign of Menahem. Some have supposed that this Pul was the king of Nineveh, who, with his people, repented at the preaching of Jonah. The account in Scripture of this occurrence is very beautiful and pathetic. We are told that the wickedness of Nineveh had arisen before the Lord, and that he commanded his prophet to go and warn the inhabitants: "Arise, go to Nineveh, that great city, and cry against it ; for their wickedness is come up before me." — Jonah, whose disposition seems to have been timid and irresolute, endeav- oured to escape the will of God by embarking on a long voyage. He set sail from Joppa, the most ancient of sea-ports, in a vessel bound for Ta];shish, a city supposed to have been the celebrated Carthage. Being miraculously compelled to return, he journeyed to Nineveh, and approaching it, cried: "Yet forty days, and Nine- veh shall be overthrown." — The king and his people believed, and signalized their repentance, not only by the customary tokens of "sack cloth and ashes" and fasting, but by a sincere and humble reformation. "And God saw their works, that they turned from their evil ways ; and God repented of the evil that he had said that he would do unto them, and he did it not." But Jonah, valuing his reputation as a prophet more than the divine and merciful will, which had spared the city, was "displeased exceedingly," and "very angry." He remonstrated with his Maker; and going out of the city, sat sullenly under a booth which he had constructed, "till he might see what would become of the city." His ill-regulated pas- sions probably made him desirous of witnessing its destruction. But the Lord, typifying the vakie of his creatures by the grief which Jonah manifested at the loss of a perishable gourd, gently rebuked his hardness of heart: "Thou hast had pity on the gourd, for the which thou hast not laboured, neither madest it grow. And should 60 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. not I spare JSTineveli, tliat great citj, wlierein are more tlian six score thousand persons that cannot discern between their right hand and their left, and also much cattle ? ' ' Sardanapalus, supposed by some to have been the son of Pul, appears to have been the last ruler of the Assyrian empire who inherited its wide possessions in their full extent. He was of an effeminate and dissolute disposition, entirely immersed in sensual pleasures. His time was usually passed among his women, whom he imitated in their dress and amusements, and whom he is even said to have joined in spinning with the distaff. Placing the sover- eign good in ease and pleasure, he is reported to have inscribed upon two cities which he had built, the following inscription, as versified by a modern poet: * * * "Sardanapalus ■ The ]dng, and son of Anacyndaraxes, In one day built Anchialus and Tarsus. Eat, drink, and love the rest's not worth a fillip." At last, about the year 767 B. C, an insurrection broke out, headed by Arbaces, the governor of the Medes, and Belesis, an eminent priest and astrologer. Aroused by this emergency from his effeminate life, Sardanapalus defended his throne with great bravery, and evinced a kingly courage and magnanimity. Being gradually overpowered by the insurgents, he retreated to Babylon, his capital, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. He was the more encouraged in this, because an oracle had declared that the city should never be overthrown, until the river should become its enemy. He held out against the besieging armies for some time, until the river Euphrates, which washed the walls of Babylon, rose in a great inundation. By undermining their foundations, it threw down a vast extent of the ramparts, for a distance of twenty stadia, or two and a half miles. Seeing all farther resistance useless, he constructed an immense funeral pile within the palace, and con- sumed thereon his treasures, his women, and himself: * * "In this blazing palace, And its enormous walls of reeking ruin. We leave a nobler monument than Egypt Hath piled in her brick mountains o'er dead kings." After the death of Sardanapalus, his dominions were separated into three kingdoms, the Medes retaining their independence, and "%. THE FUNERAL PYRE OF bARDANAPALUS A S S Y E I A , 6i Assyria Proper being divided between the kingdoms of Nineveli and Babylon. This last, however, remained an independent nation for only seventy years, being conquered and annexed to that of Nineveh by Esarhaddon. The history of the Assyrian empire, from the time of its separation, is intimately connected with that of the Hebrews, and we are indebted to the Bible for the greater part of our knowledge concerning it. The first ruler of the new kingdom of Nineveh was Tigiath-Pileser, who is recorded in the Book of Kings as having taken many cities of the Hebrews, and carried their inhabitants in captivity to Assyria. We also read that Ahaz, king of Judah, being besieged at Jerusalem by the Syrians and Israelites, entreated assistance of him, and sent as a propitiatory offering the sacred vessels of gold and silver from the temple. Being freed from his enemies by the aid of the Assyrian, he joined in his idolatries. We next find that Shalmaneser, his successor, made Hoshea, king of Israel, tributary to him, and finally carried the Israelites into captivity. He pursued a frequent policy of conquerors, distributing his prisoners among various provinces of Assyria, and supplying their places in Samaria by colonists of his oavu people. Senacherib, who next succeeded to the throne, attacked and took possession of the fortified cities of Judah, in the reign of Hezekiah, son of Ahaz. The defeated prince humbled himself before the invader, and sacrificed all his own treasures and those of the temple to secure a peace. It was not long, however, before the Assyrians sent a fresh army against Jerusalem. The king and his people, des- pairing of succour, were encouraged by the prophet Isaiah, who fore- told the destruction of their enemies. Accordingly, a vast number of the Assyrian host perished in their camp that same night, smitten by an imseen and mysterious hand. "For the Angel of Death spread his wings to the blast, And breathed in the face of the foe as he passed; And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill, And their hearts but once heaved, and for ever were still." Senacherib returned discomfited to Nineveh, and while worship- ping "in the house of Nisroch, his god," was murdered by Adram- elech and Sharezer his sons. They escaped into Armenia, and Esarhaddon, another of his sons, reigned in his stead. This prince subdued Babylon, and added it to his own dominions, about 680 B. C. Q2 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Next, and about one hundred years afterwards, we find Nebucli- adnezzar, one of his successors, frequently mentioned in the inspired writings. He conquered Syria, Egypt, Palestine, and other nations, and appears to have been the most powerful monarch of his age. Connected with the captivity of the Jews, appear some of the most striking incidents of his reign : His dream and its interpretation by Daniel, the miraculous preservation of the three Hebrews, and finally his own pride, his degradation to the condition of a beast, and his final conversion. Belshazzar, (sometimes called Evil-Merodach,) his son and succes- sor, released the king of Judah from prison, and restored him to his kingdom. On the occasion of his marriage to Nitocris, a Median, he incurred the enmity of her nation, with which he was thencefor- ward at war. After experiencing defeat and adversity, he met a tragic end. Unwarned by the fate and humiliation of his father, he presumptuously despised the power of which he had seen such won- derful evidences. "And Belshazzar the king made a great feast to a thousand of his lords," and while drinking, in the pride of his heart, commanded that the sacred vessels taken from Jerusalem should be brought in for their use. A hand appeared, and wrote four words in an unknown character: "and the king saw the part of the hand that wrote." Greatly troubled, he sought in vain for an interpretation from the Chaldeans and soothsayers, but could obtain none. Resort- ing to the prophet Daniel, the meaning of the mysterious symbols was unfolded to him : that his kingdom was numbered and finished by Grod ; that he was weighed in the balance, and found wanting ; and that his kingdom was divided, and given to the Medes and Persians. In the same night he fell a victim to the conspiracy of his nobles, one of whom, Darius the Median, took possession of the kingdom. The usurping monarch was killed, some time afterwards, in a bat- tle with the Persians. His son, after a reign of nine months, was murdered by Nabonadius, a son of Belshazzar and Nitocris, who assumed the throne. After reigning seventeen j^ears, he was besieged by the Great Cyrus in Babylon. Having provision for twenty years, his confidence was unbounded. The besiegers passed two years before the walls, and were beginning to despair, when a great festival arrived, which the Babylonians were accustomed to spend in drinking and revelry. Taking advantage of their security, Cyrus diverted the river from its course, and entered the city in its dried-up channel. Nabcnadius was slain, and the city submitted to the conqueror. ASSYEIA, 63 Thus ended the Assyrian empire, about tlie year B. C. 536, and thus were fulfilled the prophecies long before uttered by Isaiah and other inspired writers of the Hebrews. MODERN DISCOVERIES; Much interest has lately been excited by the discoveries of Mr. Layard, the enterprising explorer of Assyrian antiquities. The most remarkable results have rewarded his sagacious and perse- vering researches. Along the Tigris, for many miles, lie a succession of vast mounds, which have long been considered as the remains of the mighty city of Nineveh. So great is the extent of these ruins that it renders intelligible the account of the prophet Jonah, who proceeded "into the city a day's journey '' before commencing his fearful mission. At Kouyemjik and at Nimroud, (whose very name seems to recall the founder of the Assyrian empire,) the most interesting discoveries repaid the zeal of the antiquarian. At the latter place, the remains of a dam, built of heavy masonry, still obstruct the river, and the tradition of the natives still ascribes its construction to Nimrod. Having commenced his excavations, the labours of Mr. Layard were soon rewarded by the discovery and exhumation of an enormous winged lion, with a human head, sculptured in alabaster. " It was in admirable preservation. The expression was calm, yet majestic, and the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of art scarcely to be looked for in the works of so remote a period." "I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and terrified at this apparition. It required no stretch of imagination to conjure up the the most strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with age, thus rising from the bowels of the earth, might well have belonged to one of those fearful beings which are pictured in the traditions of the country as appearing to mortals, slowly ascending from the regions below." 64: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. As tlie work was steadily pursued, twentj-eiglit lialls and gal- leries, filled with the wonderful remains of this strange species of civilization, were gradually brought to light. The discoverer was soon able "to behold chamber after chamber, hall after hall, unfold themselves, as it were, from the bosom of the earth, and assume shape, dimensions, height; to watch the reliefs which line the walls gradually disclosing their forms. As the rubbish cleared away, the siege and the battle and the hunting-piece becoming more and more distinct ; and the king wearing more manifestly his lofty tiara, and displaying his undoubted symbol of royalty; the attitude of the priest proclaiming his office, sometimes his form and features, his imperfect and effeminate manhood; the walls of the besieged cities rearing their battlements, the combatants grappling in mortal strug- gle; the horses curveting; the long procession stretching out, slab after slab, with the trophies of victory or the offerings of devotion; above all, the huge symbolic animals, the bulls or lions, sometimes slowly struggling into light in their natural forms, sometimes develop- ing their human heads, their outspread wings; their downward parts — in their gigantic but just proportions — heaving off, as it might seem, the encumbering earth." — Many of the walls were painted in dazzling colours, and every where statues, reliefs, and symbolic ornaments met the eye. The entire construction and arrangement of an ancient Assyrian palace were disclosed. "Three great edifices of different periods, adorned by sculptures of different characters — one at the north-western corner, one in the centre, and one to the south-east — ^revealed to the light of day the Nineveh perhaps of Ninus and Semiramis, of Shalmaneser and Senacherib, of Esarhaddon and Sardanapalus." Many curious and elaborately-carved ornaments of ivory were found in a tolerable state of preservation, and, by a peculiar pro- cess, were restored to their former condition. Long inscriptions, explanatory of the various events recorded in stone, have been carefully copied, and engage the attention of antiquarians. The list of a succession of kings has been detected by Mr. Layard; and in his more recent excavation, a chamber has been discovered, in which tablets of terra cotta, covered with inscriptions, were jDiled in great numbers. It is confidently hoped, that the history of a large portion of mankind, which for many ages had apparently perished, may thus be recovered, and especially that the great chasm in Assy- rian events, which has so long puzzled historians, may be filled up. ASSYEIA. 65 A most remarkable correspondence has been discovered between tliese sculptured representations and tbose on the monuments of Egypt, so long the only rival capable of competing with Assyria. In each, the battles, spoils, and trophies from foreign nations, are minutely represented. In each may be found sculptured the pre- sentation of heads to the victorious monarch, and a scribe carefully enrolling the number. Apparently the most ancient monument yet discovered in Nine- veh, is an obelisk of black marble, on which are sculptured figures of the elephant, the rhinoceros, and a tribe of monkeys; thus forcibly carrying back the mind to the time of Semiramis, and to her Eastern trophies, or perhaps those of her successors. The vast mounds from which these and many other objects of interest have been rescued, are composed of the decayed masses of brick which formed the principal building material of the city. In these "mountains of brick rubbish" lie whelmed the walls, the palaces, and the hanging-gardens which once reared themselves so splendidly on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. The present inhabitants of this once renowned region, are mostly ignorant Arabs, governed by their almost equally ignorant and bigoted masters,- the Turks, Every obstacle (probably with a view to extortion) was at first placed in the way of the enterprising dis- coverer. At one time his proceedings were stopped, by order of the pasha, under pretext that he was disturbing, by his excavations, the tombs of the "true believers." The appearance of a cem- etery was certainly found, but, as it proved, constructed by the orders of the wily governor himself "Daoud Agha," says Mr. Layard, "confessed to me on our way that he had received orders to make graves on the mound, and that his troops had been employed for two nights in bringing stones from distant villages for that pur- pose. 'We have destroyed more real tombs of the true believers,' said he, 'in making sham ones, than you could have defiled between the Zab and Selamiyah. We have killed our horses and ourselves in carrying those accursed stones.' " The native tribes exhibited the greatest awe and superstition on beholding the evidences of the power and religion of their myste- rious predecessors. Some ran away in alarm, and others were struck with a pious horror at the monstrous images. "When they beheld the head, they all criod together: 'There is no God but God, and Mahomet is his prophet ! ' It was some time before the 5 6Q THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. slieik could be prevailed ■upon to descend into the pit, and convince Hmself that the image he saw was of stone. ' This is not the work of men's hands,' exclaimed he, 'but of those infidel giants of whom the prophet — peace be with him ! — has said that they were higher than the tallest date-tree; this is one of the idols which ISToah — ■ peace be with him!' — cursed before the flood.' In this opinion, the result of a careful examination, all the bystanders concurred." These discoveries, so splendidly commenced, and still progressing with much encouragement, will probably form a most important epoch in our knowledge of antiquities. The names and achieve- ments which we have been accustomed to receive as doubtful or fabulous, may be confirmed as authentic, or superseded by others more real and more satisfactory. The numerous inscriptions and records, if deciphered by a skill like that of ChampoUion, may yet open to us a page of history, which for some thousands of years has been entirely hidden from the world. EGYPT. ANCIENT HISTORY OP EGYPT. No nation has bequeathed to mankina more gigantic remains of former grandeur and civilization than Egypt ; none has been more solicitous for the commemoration of her conquests and achieve- ments ; and the early history of none is more utterly obscure and perplexed. Mythological and human personages are so confounded in her primitive narrations, that the antiquarian turns for safer infor- mation to the strange characters and emblems sculptured on her palaces and obelisks; and these, being partially deciphered, have thrown some light upon the doubtful relations of early historians. The first authentic name which occurs in the records of Egyptian polity, is that of Menes, a monarch who reigned about B. C. 2200 or 2400. It is related that he turned the course of the Nile, near the site of Memphis, and led it to the sea, through the centre of the valley. He is farther said to have invaded the neighbouring countries in a warlike manner, and finally to have been destroyed by a hippopotamus. The next and most important event in the early affairs of Egypt is her invasion and conquest by a wandering race fi:om the east; usually called the Invasion of the Shepherd Kings. Menes and his successors had ruled for two hundred and fifty-three years, when, in the reign of Timaus, the last of his dynasty, these strangers ravaged the country, demolished the temples, and reduced the people to slavery. They appointed as king, Salatis, one of their leaders, and he resided in Memphis. He strongly garrisoned the whole region, especially the east, where he fortified the city of Abaris, and filled 58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. it witti two hundred and forty thousand soldiers. During the new dynasty, whicli lasted for two hundred and sixty years, the first pyramid was begun (about B. 0. 2095), and the visit of Abraham to Egypt occurred (about B. C. 2077). The conquerors were perpetu- ally engaged in war with their new subjects, and treated them with oppressive cruelty. The enormous structures which still raise their peaks along the Nile, are supposed to have been mostly erected by the compulsory labour of the enslaved inhabitants. At length, (about B. C. 1899,) the native princes revolted, and, after a long contest, expelled their invaders. Besieged in Abaris, (afterwards Pelusium,) the remaining foreigners, with their house- holds, in all about two hundred and forty thousand, were at last allowed to depart, and, emigrating to Judea, there settled and built Jerusalem. This event, related by Manetho, has been by some confounded with the Exodus (emigration) of the Hebrews ; but the best authori- ties suppose that the Philistines were the descendants of this expelled people, and derive the term Pali-stan (Shepherd-land) from the nomadic race which founded it. The hatred still felt by the native Egyptians toward shepherds in the time of Joseph, tends strongly to prove that their subjugation and the expulsion of their conquerors occurred before his day.* This fact is in some degree confirmed by the statement of Herodotus, who says that the Egyptians of his time ascribed the building of the pyramids to one Philitis, a shep- herd, whose name was held by them in utter abhorrence. During the next native dynasty, which lasted for two hundred and fifty-one years, occurred the migration of the flebrews to Egypt, and their settlement in Goshen (B. 0. 1863). The beautiful and romantic account of their adventures belongs rather to their own history than to that of Egypt. The genius and policy of Joseph introduced great changes in the relative condition of the people and their monarchs ; and with his administration of affairs commenced that entire subserviency of the inhabitants, and that royal monopoly of lands, which have usually prevailed, and which exists at the present day, in their most odious forms. Their depart- ure occurred B. C. 1648. Pharaoh, it may be remarked, was a common name of the Egyptian kings, being bestowed in somewhat the same manner as the title of Caesar upon the Eoman emperors. * "Ever}'' shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyptians." — Genesis xlvi. 34. EGYPT. 69 A long list of sovereigns filled the throne, of whom little is known except their names. B. C. 1327 commenced the reign of Moeris, famed for the excavation of the celebrated lake, which still bears his name. His son, the renowned conqueror, Sesostris, suc- ceeded him. The exploits and conquests ascribed to this sovereign, like those of early periods in general, are dovibtless exaggerated and incorrectly related. Under the names of Sesostris, Ozymandias, and Eameses, he was regarded by the Egyptians as the founder of their mightiest edifices, and the hero of their most famous exploits. His real achievements were sufficiently great. He subdued the Abyssinians, and rendered them tributary. Turning his arms toward Asia, he conquered the Assyrians and Medes; thence pass- ing to the boundaries of Europe, he made war upon the Scythians, and finally returned to his kingdom, after an expedition which had lasted nine years. The pillars which he erected to commemorate his various conquests were long afterwards to be seen in Palestine, Arabia, and Ethiopia, bearing the haughty inscription: "sesostris, king of kings, and lord of lords, SUBDUED this COUNTRY BY HIS ARMS." The immense treasures, and the multitude of captives gained by his successes enabled him to commemorate them by the most splendid structures and moniiments. He built or greatly adorned the mighty cities of Memphis and Thebes. The former, situated amid the over- flowing of the Nile, and plundered of its materials by successive conquerors, has almost entirely disappeared; but the latter still stands upon the banks of the river, and its majestic ruins, the most wonderful in the world, excite the awe and admiration of all behold- ers. No nation has ever rivalled the grandeur or magnitude of these ancient temples and palaces, which appear, says Belzoni, to have been built by the hands and for the residences of a race of giants. For several centuries after the reign of this renowned sovereign, we find nothing very memorable in the history of Egypt. About B. C. 770, Anysis was expelled from the throne by Sabaco, an Ethi- opian, who descended the Nile. Sixty years afterwards, Senacherib, king of Assyria, prepared an immense host for the conquest of Judea, and the invasion of Egypt ; but it was destroyed in a single night by some unknown pestilence. In 619 B. C. Pharaoh Necho ascended the throne. His reign was 70 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOliY. memorable for the taking of Jerusalem by bis forces in the reign of Josiali, and for tbe attention wliich be bestowed on navigation and discovery. He attempted fruitlessly to connect tbe Nile witb tbe Ked Sea — an enterprise wbicb bas engaged tbe attention of suc- cessive sovereigns of Egypt. Under bis direction an expedition was fitted out, wbicb performed a task, wonderful indeed for tbe age ; tbe circumnavigation of Africa. It was absent for tliree years, and tbe adventurers made as many settlements on tbe coast for tbe purpose of raising grain for tbeir support. Tbe circumstance wbicb caused Herodotus to doubt tbe trutb of tbis relation, is tbe strongest proof of its autbenticity — tbat tbe mid-day sun was observed by tbe mariners to be upon tbeir rigbt band, or to tbe nortbward. Tbe Assyrian empire bad long been formidable to its neigbbours ; Egypt was repeatedly menaced witb invasion; and at last, B. 0. 535, Cyrus tbe Grreat, wbo by conquest or inberitance commanded nearly all tbe East, overran and subjugated tbe wbole country; allowing it, bowever, tbe form of an independent government. Ten years afterwards, tbe people revolting, Cambyses, bis succes- sor, witb a great army, marcbed upon Pelusium; and placing tbe sacred animals of Egypt in front of bis ranks, took tbe city, unmo- lested by tbe superstitious garrison. He sbortly after reduced Mempbis, and slaughtered two thousand of tbe first inhabitants. He outraged tbe religious feeling of the wbole nation by slaying tbe biill Apis, tbe object of tbeir universal adoration. He also threw down and destroyed some of tbe most splendid monuments in Thebes and elsewhere. The government of Persia was maintained more than two hun- dred years. A series of revolts were successfully repressed, in turn, by Xerxes, Artaxerxes and Ochus. During tbis period, Egypt was visited by tbe celebrated historian Herodotus, to whom we are. indebted for so many important particulars in its history and customs, B. C. 448. In the year B. C. 332, it was added to bis other conquests by Alexander, wbo built tbe splendid city which yet bears his name ; and at bis death, was allotted to Ptolemy Lagus, one of his generals, who assumed the crown, under tbe title of Soter. He founded tbe famous Alexandrian Library, and was distinguished for his love of letters, and bis patronage of philosophers. He turned bis acquire- ments to practical account, promoting the knowledge of medicine, geometry, history, and other useful sciences. EGYPT. 71 Pliiladelplius, his son, wlio succeeded, during a reign of thirty- eight years, executed many works of public utility — canals, aque- ducts, and a light-house at Alexandria. Among his successors, Ptolemy Euergetes carried his conquests beyond the Euphrates, and restored to Egypt many splendid and valuable spoils, which had been carried away by Cambyses. Under his successor, whose reign commenced B. C. 221, Syria recovered the provinces which had been wrested from her; and his kingdom experienced the evil effects of a weak and cruel govern- ment. After his death, the guardians of Ptolemy Epiphanes, his infant son, threatened with invasion by Macedon and Syria, applied for assistance to the Eomans; an important step, and one usually followed, in the end, by annexation. Their interference was success- ful, and the kingdom was secured to the prince, until, in his twenty- ninth year, he perished by assassination. The throne was at first seized by the queen, Cleopatra, a Syrian princess, for her infant son. The Eomans again interfering, divided the command between the young prince, Philometer, and his brother Euergetes (or Physcon). The former dying, his infant son was murdered by Euergetes, who took entire possession of the govern- ment. During a long and tyrannical reign, he grievously oppressed the people, while science and learning, which had heretofore distin- guished Egypt, took refuge in other lands. Lathyrus, one of his sons, succeeded; and after defeating his brother Alexander, who disputed the throne, laid waste the city of Thebes, and completed the destruction commenced by Cambyses. On his death, B. C. 81, the Eomans, under Sylla the dictator, set- tled the succession by a marriage between his daughter Cleopatra and her cousin Ptolemy; who, however, murdered his wife, was expelled the kingdom, and dying, by will bequeathed the country to the Eoman people. Auletes (the flute-player) the son of Lathyrus, a weak prince, and a mere instrument of the Eomans, succeeded ; but was soon expelled, and his daughter Berenice substituted on the throne. He was restored by Pompey and Mark Antony, and after murdering Berenice, and perpetrating other cruelties, died, leaving his throne and children to the guardianship of Eome. Among the latter were the celebrated Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy. On coming of age, they were associated in the govern- ment, but soon disagreeing, engaged in a civil war. Cleopatra was 72 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. compelled to retreat into Syria ; but sliortl j afterwards betook her- self to Alexandria, where Caesar, then master of the Eoman empire, had arrived, to settle the affairs of Egypt. He espoused her cause, and the war which ensued resulted in the death of Ptolemy, the establishment of Cleopatra upon the throne, and the complete ascendancy of the Eomans ; her subsequent career, and her suicide, with that of Antony, her lover, on their defeat by Octavius, are well known. With her ended the line of Grecian sovereigns, which had com- menced with Alexander, two hundred and ninety-six years before. The country was now openly transformed into a Eoman province; and its history, for a series of centuries, rather belongs to that of the vast empire of which it formed a part. Occasional insurrections were suppressed, and foreign invasions repelled ; and the province was firmly and efficiently retained until the time of the later emperors, whose forces were drawn from all the distant provinces to protect the frontier against the northern barbarians. Both Adrian and Seve- rus passed a considerable time there, endeavouring to improve the condition of the people, and to restore learning and science to their former flourishing condition. At a later period, Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, as a descendant of the Ptolemies, advanced a claim upon the sovereignty ; but, being overcome by Aurelian, was carried cap- tive to Eome. The Emperor Probus, on his visit to Egypt, executed many works of utility and ornament. The navigation of the Nile was improved, and temples, palaces, and bridges were erected by his army. Under Diocletian, a formidable revolt occurring, he laid siege to Alexandria, and took it, after a siege of eight months. He also destroyed the splendid cities of Busiris and Coptos. The introduction of Christianity was marked by the usual outrages and mutual persecution which attend the progress of a new rehgion among a fierce and bigoted people. EGYPT. 73 kJ d)ci> buui iL (L W O THE BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. As the Mamalukes, under Mourad Bey, came charging desperately upon the French line, which extended to the right, Napioleon ordered the infiintry to throw themselves into squares ; and, with that classic enthusiasm which no army hut his own coald have appreciated, cried out. "Soldiers 1 from yonder pyramids, twenty centuries behold your actions ' The enemy, after a mooc frantic and persevering series of attacks, were almost entirely cut off. EGYPT. 81 eighteen thousand men at Aboukir. After a most desperate contest, this force, with the exception of one-third, was cut to pieces or driven into the sea. Soon after, entrusting the command to Kleber, the French general returned to France, where his presence was required, not only for his own interests, but for those of the nation. The new commander was soon assassinated by a fanatical Turk, and Menou, who took the command, was compelled to defend himself against a fresh force des- patched by England under Sir Kalph Abercrombie. After various undecisive actions, the French were defeated, and Menou was besieged in Alexandria. Their communication with the interior was also cut off by the English, who admitted the waters of the sea into Lake Maraeotis ; a barbarous act, which submerged an immense extent of fertile country, and deprived thousands of their homes and possessions. Cairo being besieged by the new invaders, and Beliard, who commanded there, seeing no prospect of assistance from France, sur- rendered; and Alexandria soon followed its example. All the French soldiers were, by agreement, sent to France; and Egypt, having been the scene of a destructive war for two years, was once more subjected to the government of Turkey. The authority of the remaining Mamaluke beys was, indeed, by the interference of the British, still in a great measure confirmed. The chiefs were, however, soon massacred, in a most treacherous manner, by command of Hassan, the grand vizier. Having perpe- trated this deed, he departed, leaving a favourite slave, Mohammed Khosrouf. pasha of Cairo. The latter despatched a force against the Mamalukes in Upper Egypt, who still held out. This was defeated with great loss, and the pasha took occasion to attempt the ruin of Mehemet Ali, the second in command, of whose growing influence he had become jealous. This remarkable man, who has played such a conspicuous part in the modern history of the East, was an Albanian by birth, and by profession a tax-gatherer under the Turks. This office he discharged with such severity and efficiency as to obtain preferment and assist- ance from the Turkish governor. He next entered into business as a tobacco merchant, and was successful in trade, until the French invasion of Egypt gave him an opportunity to display his military talents. With a force of three hundred men he joined the Turkish forces, and soon so distinguished himself as to be promoted to a higher command. 6 82 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. Being summoned by Kliosrouf, on the occasion before mentioned, to appear privately before him in the night, the Albanian, well knowing the usual termination of such interviews, refused to comply, except in daylight and at the head of his troops. The pasha hoping for protection from the Albanians commanded by Taher pasha, admitted them into the city. The event did not answer his expecta- tions. Clamorous for their pay, these wild troops attacked the citadel, compelled him to flee from Cairo, and installed their own chief as governor. The tyranny of the latter soon brought his government to a close, and the Mamalukes, recovering their power, appointed three chiefs to the command, of whom Mehemet Ali was one. By artfal intrigues he contrived to embroil his associates, and gain possession of the capital. For greater security, he then rein- stated the exiled pasha, intending to use him merely as the instru- ment of his own purposes. The sultan, perceiving his ambitious designs, in the year 1804 issued orders that the Albanians should be sent to their own country, and replaced by troops more to be depended on; but Ali, artfully evading this command, soon took upon himself the office of pasha or viceroy of Egypt. The Porte, seeing that it could do no better, confirmed the self-appointed governor, and established him in power. The Mamalukes, who had gathered in force to oppose him, were inveigled into Cairo, and there slaughtered in such numbers as to render them far less formidable. The sultan, still jealous of his power, summoned Mehemet to leave his capital, and be invested with the government of Salonica. The wary usurper was too well versed in eastern policy to comply. "Cairo is to be publicly sold, " said he; "whoever will give most blows of the sabre, will win it." At the same time, he maintained, in appearance, a profound defer- ence to the Porte, which finally, seeing that he could not be dispos- sessed, yielded to circumstances, and invested him with a written title to the viceroy alty of Egypt. His position secure, he .again advanced against the remaining Mamalukes in Upper Egypt, and completely defeated them. In 1807 the British government, through jealousy of French influence at the court of Constantinople, despatched a force of five thousand men to seize Alexandria. This object they effected, but subsequently were entirely defeated, and great numbers were killed and taken prisoners — four hundred and fifty heads being pubhcly exposed at Cairo. EGYPT. 33 The paslia, still jealous of the remaining Mamaluke chiefs, now resolved to commit the most atrocious act of perfidy and assassina- tion which modern times have witnessed. On the 1st of March, 1811, on the occasion of conferring a new dignity on his son Toussoun, he invited the devoted victims to share in the splendour of the ceremony. He received them with the greatest affability and courtesy, and the procession moved to the appointed place. Suddenly, while passing through a narrow square, the Mamalukes found themselves shut in, and a destructive fire opened upon them by their concealed enemies from all sides. Strength and courage were of no avail, and these splendid soldiers perished without being able to strike a blow in their defence. One only escaped, who, spurring his horse up a rampart, leaped over it, and, though falling about forty feet on the other side, came off unhurt, and was secreted by certain Arabs. Several hundred perished on this occasion, and the number of victims altogether was about a thousand. Mehemet next entered upon a war with the Wahabees, in Arabia, and after a contest of several years, conducted by his sons Toussoun and Ibrahim, succeeded in subduing them. His success was princi- pally owing to the European discipline introduced into his army by the French officers whom he employed. When first subjected to the new system, the soldiery evinced the greatest discontent, and even, at one time, endangered the power and life of the pasha himself To restore order, he proclaimed a general amnesty, and the troops returned to their duty; but shortly after, many of the chief movers in the mutiny died, or mysteriously disappeared. His next movement was to despatch his son into Upper Egypt and Sennaar, with instructions to capture as many of the blacks as possible. He succeeded so well as to bring back a vast number of these unhappy creatures; but out of twenty thousand who were subjected to the improved discipline, at the end of two years, not three thousand survived. Undeterred by the difficulty or cruelty of his project, he next levied a conscription of thirty thousand Arabs and peasants, whom he placed under the direction of Colonel Seve, his principal military adviser, with five hundred Mamalukes, who were to fulfil the duties of oificers. This scheme succeeded better, and the pasha soon found himself in possession of a large and tolerably efficient army. So great, however, is the horror of the conscription, that it has been a very ordinary thing among the lower classes to put out one of their Q4: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ejes, or otherwise to mutilate themselves, in hopes of avoiding it. To overcome this last refuge of the unhappy peasants, the tyrant organized a one-eyed regiment. Having subdued all Upper Egypt and a great part of Nubia, he formed the project of more extended conquests. His reputed son Ibrahim, distinguished for his cruelty, valour, and military skill, was despatched with a select force to reduce Syria to submission. Acre, the key of the East, was compelled to surrender, the Turkish forces were every where defeated, and their fleet was overcome by that which the vigorous policy of the pasha had already called into existence; Constantinople itself was threatened by the victorious arms of Ibrahim. At this juncture, several of the European powers, headed by England, interfered in behalf of the Turkish empire, which seemed threatened with annihilation. A fleet was despatched against Acre, and after a terrible bombard- ment, gained possession of that important post. Beirout shared a similar fate. The pasha and his enterprising son were forced to abandon most of their conquests, and the former was compelled to hold Egypt itself as nominal viceroy of the sultan. After a long and sanguinary career, in which he had exercised an authority more despotic and unlimited than any monarch of the East, the intellect of Mehemet began gTadually to decline. In 1847, he became imquestionably deranged, and in the following year his relatives found it necessary, to secure the lives of those around him, to subject him to some constraint. The succession had been long settled upon Ibrahim, whose cruel and ferocious disposition caiised the unhappy nation to regard with deep alarm the prospect of his accession. To the great relief of all, however, he expired, at this critical period, worn out with excess and intemperance. By this event. Abbas Pacha, a grandson of the viceroy, became heir to the pachalik, and lately received from the sultan a solemn investiture in his rank. Though a bigoted Turk, and deeply addicted to the vices of his nation, he is said to be good-natured, and free from the cruelty which has disgraced his predecessors. During his entire reign, Mehemet Ali paid much attention to manufactures and the useful arts, many of which he successfally introduced into the country. On account, however, of his despotic system of forcing them into existence, irrespective of true political economy, or the rights of individuals, little good has resulted to the EGYPT. 85 people. Moreover, tlie monopoly of all profitable brandies of trade, whicli lie held in bis own bands, greatly repressed tbe spirit of industry and enterprise. A noted instance of bis tyrannical metbod of improving tbe country at tbe expense of tbe inbabitants, may be found in tbe Mabmoudieb canal — a gigantic work, extending from Alexandria to tbe navigable portion of tbe Nile. An immense number of Fellahs or peasants from tbe surrounding country were burried to tbe spot, and compelled, witb insufficient provision and implements, to work day and nigbt at tbis laborious undertaking. In six weeks, tbe excavation was nearly completed ; but during tbat brief time, twenty tbousand of tbese unbappy serfs died from bunger, overwork, and exposure. Tbe condition of tbe lower classes is, indeed, at all times truly wretcbed. Tbe pasba's tax-gatberers watcb every garden, tree, and meadow ; and every tbing, except a bare subsistence, is wrung from tbe working classes tbrougbout tbe country. It bas been tbe fasbion among tbose wbo admire a strong and successful tyranny to praise tbe administration of Mebemet; but tbe best comment upon bis system may be found in tbe fact, tbat since be gained possession of tbe country, tbe population of Egypt bas dwindled to one-balf of wbat it was even under tbe tyranny of bis predecessors. Mucb attention bas lately been directed to tbis interesting country, on account of tbe newly-adopted passage to India by tbe istbmus of Suez and tbe Eed Sea. Tbat its acquisition would be very desirable to England, is unquestionable ; and almost any cbange of government would probably be for tbe benefit of tbe oppressed inbabitants. It seems probable, bowever, tbat tbe jealousy of France and otber continental powers will prevent ber from making any direct movement at present in accomplisbment of ber wishes. GREECE. u dJj dX Sf Jj £^ xi i THE EAELY HISTOEY OF GREECE. Geeece, tlie most interesting and celebrated of lands, anciently occupied the modern kingdom of that name, and a considerable part of Turkey in Europe. It was divided into a number of small inde- pendent states, sometimes at war with each other, and sometimes joined in alliance against a common enemy. It comprised, on the main land, the provinces of Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Doris, vEtolia, Locris and Meggera. North of these were Epirus, Thessaly, and Macedonia, which, though not belonging to Greece Proper, are usually included in its historj^ Lower Greece formed a peninsula, then called Peloponnesus, (the island of Pelops,) and now the Morea. It was joined to the continent by the isthmus of Corinth, and was composed of the states of Corinth, Sicyon, Arcadia, Argolis, Laconia, Messenia and Elis. Many of these were very limited, hardly exceeding in extent the county of a Western state. Moreover, there were many islands, in the Archipelago and elsewhere, some belonging to the foregoing states, and others independent. Like most nations of antiquity, their origin is doubtful. So many of their accounts are fabulous and mythological, that we know little beyond the fact, that they were descended from an extensive tribe, called the Pelasgians, and from the Hellenes, a race from the north of Thessaly. The first kingdoms supposed to have been founded, are those of Sicyon, Argos, and Mycense, on the peninsula, which are referred by some to the time of Abraham. About B. 0. 1556, Cecrops, an Egyptian, travelling into Attica, founded the city of Athene l< ^V ^^' '^^ " GEEECE. 87 (Athens), civilized the inluibitants, and instituted laws. He also founded the famous Court of Areopagus, and his second successor, Amphictyon, the renowned council which bore his name. Codrus, the last monarch of this line, devoted himself to death for his coun- try, and afterwards the title of archoji, or governor, was substituted for that of king. Cadmus, who invented the Greek letters, or perhaps borrowed them from the Phoenicians, founded Thebes, the capital of Boeotia, about B. C. 1453. Sparta, or Lacedaemon, was founded about the same time. To avenge the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, its king, the Greeks united in besieging the city of Troy, and took it by storm, after a contest which lasted for ten years. It may be remarked, as a proof of the rude manners of the age, that about the same time when Jephtha fulfilled his rash vow in Israel, Aga- memnon sacrificed his daughter Iphigenia, to propitiate the offended Diana in favour of the Grecian arms. Corinth was formed into a kingdom about B. C. 1184, by Sisy- phus, and numbered among its kings Periander, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. Macedonia was first ruled by Caranus, a descendant of Hercules. In all the states a kingly government prevailed at first, but was afterwards changed into republican, except in Macedonia, These states, independent, yet united by a common language and religion, were further leagued together by the famous Amphictyonic Council, which met twice in the year to consult for the general good, and to which many of them sent deputies. The communities, however, which played the most conspicuous part, both in domestic dissensions and in confronting a foreign enemy, were Athens and Sparta. To the history of these, more particular attention will be given, and that of the others will be found, in a great measure, interwoven with the affairs of the two leading nations. Sparta was governed by thirteen, in succession, of the Pelopidae, or descendants of Pelops, from whom the peninsula was named. These being supplanted by the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, the throne was shared for several centuries by two kings, equal in sovereignty. During this time, the peasants or Helots, having taken up arms to assert their right to equal privileges, were subdued, and, with their posterity, condemned to perpetual slavery. At this period, also, Lycurgus instituted his celebrated body of laws. Hav- 88 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ing travelled into Asia and Egypt, studying the laws and institutions of other nations, he framed a code by which it was enacted that the royal authority should be subject to that of a senate, chosen for life, and this, in its turn, to that of the people. (A century later, the Court of the Ephori was instituted, consisting of five members, annually elected by the people from among themselves, and possess- ing almost supreme power.) The law-giver divided all the lands of the state among the people, and prohibited the use of any metal for coin except iron. Further to enforce temperance and frugality, all the men were compelled to eat at a public table, where the provisions were strictly specified. All children born with any important defect, were exposed to perish in a cavern near Taygetus — a high mountain over- hanging the city of Sparta. The strong and healthy were taken from their parents at the age of seven, and educated by the state. From their tenderest years they were trained in the severest discipline. They were taught to be indifferent to their fare, quiet in their man- ners, to bear exposure to cold, and to overcome fear. Their heads were shaved, and they fought each other naked, with such obstinacy, that they would lose their eyes, or even their lives, before yielding up the contest. Until the age of thirty, (till which period these exer- cises continued,) they were not allowed to marry, to serve in the army, or to hold any office. The discipline of the weaker sex was not less rigorous. Until the age of twenty, when they were allowed to marry, they were trained to severe industry, and shared all manly and invigorating exercises ; whence they became a fierce and patriotic race of Ama- zons. One, giving his shield to her son, bade him "Eeturn with it, or on it!" such being the manner of carrying the dead who had perished in conflict. Another, learning that her son had died in battle, answered, "It was for this that I brought him into the world!" War was the principal employment of the Spartans ; they exer- cised no mechanical art, but in time of peace, employed themselves in hunting and athletic games. Their unfortunate slaves, the Helots, supported them by tilling the ground. These were treated with great severity, and if the jealousy of their masters was excited by the increase of their numbers, it was allowable by a secret law to put them to death. Two thousand are said to have thus disappeared on a single occasion. G E E E C E . 89 The citizens, thus supported in leisure and competence, passed mucli of their time in the public halls, where they conversed together, and cherished a spirit of patriotism. Their law-giver prohibited them from walling the city, lest they should rely too little upon arms; and it was enacted, on penalty of death, that they should never fly from an enemy, however numerous, or resign their arms except with their lives. Having framed these laws and institutions, with some others, and having persuaded the people to take an oath for their strict observ- ance while absent, Lycurgus departed to consult the oracle of Delphos. This authority affirming, in answer, that his decrees would render the Lacedemonians prosperous, he never returned, and at his death ordered his ashes to be thrown into the sea. By these severe and martial regulations, the Spartans became exceedingly expert in war. They first turned their arms against the neighbouring state of Messenia, which they conquered after a war of twenty years. Thirty-nine years afterwards, the Messenians endeavoured to throw off the yoke ; but after a most sanguinary contest, were expelled from their country, which was added to Sparta, and greatly increased her power and resources (B. C. 664). Not long before this, the Athenians had also become desirous of adopting a written code of statutes ; and Draco, a man of great integ- rity and severity, was selected to frame one. His laws were so cruel and sanguinary, that they were said to be written with blood — death being the punishment for all offences indiscriminately. Such rigour, however, defeated itself; through humanity, the statutes were not executed, and soon fell into disuse. Licentiousness and disorder succeeding, the people applied to Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece. (The others were Thales, the Milesian ; Chilo, a Lacedemonian; Pittacus, of Mitylene; Periander, of Corinth; Bias, and Cleobulus.) This man, famous for his prudence and virtue, was elected archon, or chief magistrate of Athens, and entrusted with full power to remodel the laws. In this task, as he said, he was rather guided by expediency, and the necessity of the times, than by pure justice, abstractly considered. He repealed the laws of Draco, except those against murder, and relieved the poor by abolishing their debts to the rich. On the other hand, he divided the people into four ranks, according to their wealth, excluding from the poorest and most numerous the right to hold any office whatever. All citizens, however, were allowed to vote in the popu- 90 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, lar assembly; and as an appeal to this from the magistrates was permitted, in time all matters of consequence came before them. The Areopagus was remodelled, and acquired much renown by the wisdom of its decisions ; the Romans themselves sometimes referring to it the most intricate causes. He further appointed a council of four hundred, who were to examine all questions before they were submitted to the people. No person was allowed to remain neuter in ptiblic dissensions, on penalty of exile and confiscation. The Areopagus might inquire into the private affairs of any one, and if he had no visible means of gaining a subsistence, inflict punishment. Chastity and temper- ance were enforced with reasonable severity. Having made these enactments, Solon commenced his travels, having bound the citizens, by oath, religiously to observe his laws for at least one hundred years. He had not been long absent, how- ever, before the country was distracted by three different factions. The most powerful of these was headed by Pisistratus, a man of great talent and many virtues, but of inordinate ambition. Learned himself, he was a patron of learning ; and is said to have introduced the works of Homer, and caused them to be written in correct order. Solon returning at the end of two years, in vain endeavoured to oppose his designs. Pisistratus artfully wounding himself, appeared covered with blood before the people, and so enlisted their sympa- thies, that they granted him a body-guard of fifty men. Making this a nucleus, he soon increased it to an army, seized the citadel, and usurped the supreme power. Solon did not long survive the independence of his country; and the dictator, with the same art and ability, maintained his power during life, and transmitted it to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. Following the example of their father, they reigned for eighteen years, encouraging learning, and promoting the education of the people. Among other poets, the celebrated Anacreon and Simonides were attendant on their court. At last, to fevenge a private injury, Hipparchus was slain by the friends Harmodius and Aristogiton, who also lost their lives in the attempt; and Hippias, by the influ- ence in Sparta of the Alcm^onidEe, who had been banished from Athens, was likewise dethroned (B. C. 508), the same year in which the kings were expelled from Eome. The statues of the two friends were erected in the market-place, and their names ever after were held in the highest veneration at Athens. GEEECE. Ql Hippias, however, sought the court of Persia, and by representing Attica as an easy conquest, gained its support; and the Athenians, refusing to restore him. to the throne, were compelled to make preparations for defence. THE PERSIAN INVASIONS. Persia was at this time the most powerful nation in existence ; while the little state of Athens only contained about ten thousand citizens, besides strangers and servants. Sparta at the same period was peopled by only nine thousand citizens and thirty thousand slaves. The Grreek colonies in Asia Minor, then dependent on Per- sia, revolted; and being assisted with ships by Athens, invaded Lydia, burned the city of Sardis, and maintained a war with their oppressors for six years. Darius, the Persian king, in revenge, determined to attempt the conquest of all Grreece. Mardonius, his son-in-law, was first sent in command of the fleet and army; but suffering disaster from a tempest, was attacked by the Thracians, and returned defeated. Datis and Artaphernes, two experienced generals, replaced him. The king now sent heralds into the various states of Greece, requiring submission. The smaller communities yielded, but the spirited Athenians, when earth and water were demanded of them, as the usual token of vassalage, threw one her- ald into a ditch and another into a well, and sneeringly desired them to help themselves. JEgina, having succumbed to the foreign influence, was attacked, and finally subdued by its neighbours the Athenians. The Persian generals now commenced the campaign, with a fleet of six hundred ships, an army one hundred and twenty thousand strong, and instructions to destroy and depopulate the resisting prov- inces. They overcame the Eretrians, after a gallant defence, burned their city, and sent the inhabitants in chains to Darius. They then advanced to Marathon, a plain by the sea side, a few miles from Athens, and ever since memorable for the most glorious of the victories of freedom. 92 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. To oppose the immense force of their enemies, tlie Greeks liad only ten thousand citizens of Athens, and a small band of allies, from Plataea; but these were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles, men whose names are yet proverbial for valour, wisdom, and patriotism. Miltiades, the chief in command, drew up his little army at the foot of a height overlooking the plain, that famous field, where stiU "The mountains look on Marathon — And Marathon looks on the sea." The shore was lined with the Persian galleys, and tne plain was half-covered with their army. As they advanced, the Athenians charged in an extended line — the centre, which was weakest, being commanded by Aristides and Themistocles, and the wings being strengthened as much as possible. The enemy engaged the centre with great bravery, and it was on the point of giving way, when the two wings, being victorious, attacked them on both flanks, and threw them into confusion. The rou.t soon became universal, and they fled to their ships, pursued fiercely by the Greeks. Seven ves- sels were seized, others were set on fire, and six thousand of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle. Many, also, were drowned and burned in attempting to regain their fleet. Of the Greeks, only two hundred fell ; monuments were erected over them, and a statue, dedicated to Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, was carved by the celebrated Phidias, from a block brought by the Per- sians to commemorate their anticipated victory. The mound or tumulus, in which the defenders of their country were interred, is still an object of interest to travellers. This battle, fought B. C. 490, is one of the most important in the annals of warfare — ^both as a splendid example of patriotic courage, and for its influence in check- ing the tide of Eastern barbarism, which threatened to overflow the nations most advanced in civilization. The Athenians, with their customary caprice, soon became dis- contented with Miltiades, and this eminent commander died in prison. Darius also died as he was preparing to invade Greece in person, and his son Xerxes succeeded to his throne and his project. Declaring that he did not choose any longer to huy the figs of Attica, he prepared an immense force both by land and sea. His fleet is said to have consisted of nearly two thousand five hundred vessels, transports included, and his army to have been composed GKEECE. 93 of two millions of Persians, Medes, Bactrians, Lydians, Assyrians, and others, over wliom his empire extended. Much of this is prob- ably exaggerated; but it is certain that he built a bridge of boats over the Hellespont, and that his immense army was seven days in crossing. With this vast army he marched upon Greece, ten years after the battle of Marathon. The smaller states submitted; Athens and Sparta alone determined to defend their liberties to the last. Aristides the Just, who had been banished, was recalled, and Themistocles, the ablest general since Miltiades, was appointed commander of their little army of eleven thousand men. With the greatest industry a fleet of two hundred and eighty sail was equipped by the allies, and the command given to Eurybiades, a Spartan, It was determined to make the first stand at Thermopylae, a narrow pass in Thessaly, and Leonidas, one of the kings of Sparta, led thither a force of six thousand men. For two days he maintained his post against the whole Persian force, and repulsed every attack with great slaughter. ■ By the treachery of a Trachinian, twenty thou- sand of the enemy were conducted to a mountain commanding the strait, and Leonidas perceived that his situation was no longer tenable. Dismissing his allies, he remained with only three hundred Spartans, and a few Thespians and Thebans, in all not a thousand men. Devoting themselves to death, they made an attack at mid- night on the Persian camp, and having slain an immense number of the enemy, died almost to a man. On the same day, the Persian fleet was defeated by the Greeks, with the loss of many ships. The invading army now marched on Athens, and the inhabitants took refuge in Salamis, a small neighbouring island. The city was taken, the citadel burned, and its few defenders were put to the sword. The Greeks built a wall across the isthmus to defend the peninsula, and their vessels, to the number of three hundred and eighty, assembled at Salamis, under the command of Themistocles and Eury- biades. The fleet of the Persians, far more numerous, advanced to engage them, and the sovereign himself, from a high promontory, surveyed the contest. "A king sat on the rocky brow That looks o'er sea-born Salamis, And ships, in thousands, lay below, And men in nations — all were his! He counted them at break of day, And hen the sun set, where were theyl" 94 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, The Grecian admiral prudently delayed tlie action until a strong wind, which usually rises at a certain time, had commenced to blow ; and with this in his favour, bore down upon the hostile fleet. Their vessels, from their great height and bulk, being unmanageable in the narrow strait, were dashed together by the waves, and were sunk and boarded in all directions by the swift light gallej'^s of the Greeks. Two hundred were burned and many were taken. Xerxes, in chagrin, left Mardonius in command of the remainder of his army, and hastened back to the Hellespont, which he was compelled to pass in a fishing-boat, his bridge having been destroyed by the waves. Mardonius, with three hundred thousand men, again overran Attica, and the Grecian force, now increased to seventy thousand, engaged them near the little city of Platsea. Aristides was in com- mand of the Athenians, Oleombrotus of the Spartans, and Pausanias, a Lacedemonian, was the chief general. Mardonius falling, Arta- bazis, with forty thousand men, fled to Asia; and the remainder of the army being routed, were refused quarter, and put to the sword, to the number, it is said, of one hundred thousand. Thus ended this formidable invasion; and thus perished the last Persian army that ever crossed the Hellespont. On the same day, a most import- ant victory was gained at Mycale, in Ionia, by the Greeks over Tigranes, the Persian general. His ships were burned, and he perished in the battle, with a vast number of his men. PROM THE DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS TO THE END OF THE FIRST PELOPONNESl AN AVAR. The Athenians now fortified their city, and increased its strength, thus exciting the jealousy of Sparta. A secret project of Themis- tocles for burning the fleet of their allies was defeated by the uprightness of Aristides. The two nations next sent out an expedition under Pausanias, and Cimon the son of Miltiades, which, among other victories, took the city of Byzantium (Constantinople), and brought away many captives, and a vast amount of plunder. GREECE. 95 This newly-acquired wealth, and the imitation of foreign habits, appear to have corrupted the Greeks from the primitive simplicity of their manners. Pausanias, through ambition, entered into an intrigue with Xerxes, and offered, as the price of his daughter's hand, the betrayalof Sparta, and of all Greece. Being detected, after two trials he was found guilty, and taking refuge in the temple of Minerva, there perished of hunger. Themistocles being also accused, though falsely, of sharing the plans of Pausanias, was compelled to fly for his life, and after various wanderings, took refuge at the Persian court. The king, admiring his eloquence and self-possession, entei-tained him with great magnificence, and assigned three cities for his support. But Avhen he proposed to his guest to take command of an expedition against Greece, this eminent patriot, rather than turn his arms against his country, put an end to his life by poison. His remains were afterwards carried to Athens by the repentant citizens, and a monument erected over them on the shore at the Piraeus. Aristides, having Ax^on the highest honour by his honesty and disinterestedness, while holding the treasury at his entire disposal, died so poor that he was buried at the public expense. After the death of these great men, Cimon the son of Miltiades began to acquire honourable distinction. He delivered the Greek cities in Asia Minor from the rule of the Persians, destroyed their fleet, and compelled them to relinquish jurisdiction over the contested colonies. Ere long, he found a rival in Pericles, a young man possessed of the highest advantages in birth, fortune, person, talents, and education. This new favourite of the people lessened the power of the Areopagus, by causing frequent appeals to the people from its decisions. A jealousy against Sparta again arising, Cimon, who v/as supposed to favour that nation, was banished, and the alliance dissolved. The Athenians further took the high-sounding title of "Protectors of Greece," and conducted so haughtily, that a collision ensued between the rival nations. The people of Athens were at first defeated, though Cimon came to their assistance, but afterwards were victorious. This turned the popular opinion in his favour, and he was recalled after a banishment of five years, Pericles himself proposing the decree. Peace being restored by his mediation, he set out Avith two hundred sail for the conquest of Cyprus, where dying, and his death being concealed, the country submitted before the terror of his name. 96 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Pericles, now left free from opposition, found himself without a rival in the popular affection. He distributed the conquered territory, exhibited public shows, and so won upon the minds of the people, that he may be said to have attained sovereign power in a free republic. To his administration Athens owed the Parthenon, and other splendid buildings, whose ruins still excite universal admira- tion. Among other exploits, he led an expedition against Samos, in favour of the Milesians, and besieged and took its capital with battering rams and other engines, then for the first time used in war. On occasion of a war breaking out between certain petty states, the powerful republics of Athens and Sparta, espousing different sides, after fruitless negotiation, became involved in a long and terrible contest — the famous " Peloponnesian War," recorded by Thucydides. The inferior states also took part in the dispute, the majority siding with Sparta which was considered a protector of the rights of provinces. That people, with their allies, took the field with sixty thousand men. To these the Athenians were able to oppose only thirty thousand in all. Being thus overmatched, by advice of Pericles, they shut themselves up in Athens, determined to resist to the last extremity. Meanwhile, their fleet of three hundred galleys, more powerful than that of the Spartans, ravaged the enemy's coasts in all directions, and levied contributions suf6.cient to carry on the war. The invading force marched within seven miles of Athens. The people, eager for an action, were restrained by the wisdom of Pericles, who shut the gates, and sent a hundred sail to distress the coasts of Peloponnesus. After laying waste the country around Athens, the besiegers retired; and the Athenians, sallying forth, invaded the enemy's country in turn with consider- able success. The next year the siege was renewed. At the same time a more terrible calamity befell the Athenians. A plague, one of the most dreadful recorded in history, travelled from Egypt through Lybia a,nd Persia, and finally fell with intense fury upon the multitudes cooped up within the walls of Athens. The scene, as described by Thucydides, is terrible ; the living and dead seemed huddled together in a confused mass. The blame was laid on Pericles for gathering such gTcat numbers within the narrow limits of the city. He still, however, refused to risk an engagement, though the enemy was laying waste the country without, and the multitude within was daily decreasing by pestilence and famine. He was deposed from com- GEEECE. 97 mand, but, with tlie characteristic fickleness of the Athenians, soon reinstated with more than former honours. He died not long after of the prevailing disorder. The next year the Spartans and their allies laid siege to Platasa, a city which had faithfully espoused the cause of Athens. After a heroic resistance, only five hundred of the garrison were left, half of whom cut their way through the enemy by night, and arrived safely at Athens. The remainder, after a further defence, being compelled by famine to surrender, were put to death. Cleon, a popular and boisterous demagogue, now controlled the counsels of the Athenians. The Spartans would have been willing to make peace, but Cleon, with Demosthenes, (the admiral, and ancestor of the celebrated orator,) made a descent on Sphacteria, and after a desperate contest, made prisoners of all the Lacedemo- nians on the island. The war, after being conducted with alternate success for some years longer, was finally brought to a temporary close, principally by the death of Cleon and of Brasidas, the opposing generals. Thus, in the tenth year of the contest, a peace for fifty years was concluded between the rival states and their confederates. Towns and prisoners were to be restored on both sides. This was usually called the Nician peace, because effected by Nicias, a prudent Athenian general, the rival and opposer of Cleon. CHAPTEE I?. THE SECOND PELOPONNESIAN WAR. This agreement, however solemn, was brief in its duration. A new favourite of the people arose, destined to add greatly to the renown and calamities of Grreece. Alcibiades was a young man of the highest fortune, family, and personal beauty. His talents were exceedingly versatile, and though addicted to some vices, he was in a degree reclaimed by the lessons and example of Socrates, who was his teacher, and had already saved his life in battle, during the recent war. Ambition was from childhood his ruling passion, and 7 98 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. this soon found a field for action, in opposing Nicias before the people, and rekindling the war with Sparta. The Lacedemonians, apprized of certain intrigues designed to render Argos hostile toward them, sent ambassadors to Athens with full power to settle the question amicably; but Alcibiades, having artfully persuaded them to disclaim any such power before the people, at once cried out they were rogues and liars; and caused them to be dismissed in disgrace. A treaty was made with Argos, and Alcibiades declared general-in-chief; but his arms were soon turned in a more adventurous direction. The inhabitants of Egesta, in Sicily, applied to the Athenians for aid against Selinunta and Syracuse, and to prove the solvency of their treasury, exhibited to the Greek deputies a great number of gold and silver vases, of immense value, which they had borrowed for this occasion from the neighbouring states. Their request was complied with, and Alci- biades, Nicias, and Lamachus were despatched to their assistance with a fleet of one hundred ships, Nicias in vain opposing the expedition. The fleet was fitted out with great care and magnifi- cence, and the whole population flocked down the Piraeus to see it set sail. Eeaching its destination, it took Catana by surprise ; but Alcibiades was here recalled by the people, who had been excited by some absurd accusations. He started to return, but disappeared on the way, unwilling to face the prejudice of the fickle multitude. He was therefore in his absence condemned to death, his immense property confiscated, and an anathema pronounced against him by all the priests. Nicias, meanwhile, attacked Syracuse, and defeated its army under the walls. The contest was prolonged till Spring, when he received reinforcements from Athens, and seized Epipolse, a high hill commanding the city. Lamachus fell in a skirmish, and he was thus left in sole command. The Syracusans were greatly reduced, when they were relieved by G-ylippus, who came to their assistance with a large force from Lacedemon. He notified to Nicias that he would allow him five days to leave Sicily, to which the Athenian disdained returning an answer. After several battles,, fought with various success, Nicias was besieged in a strong position near the harbour, and sent an account of his situation to Athens. Eeinforce- ments were ordered, but before they could arrive, he met with further misfortunes, both by land and sea. His anxiety was at last relieved by the arrival of Demosthenes, GREECE. 99 the Athenian admiral, with seventy-three ships and eight thousand fighting men. Again attacking Epipolse by night, they were terri- bly defeated, with a loss of two thousand men. Nicias would now have retreated from the island, but for an eclipse of the moon, which was declared by the augurs unfavourable for such an undertaking. Thus delayed, he was compelled to hazard another engagement by sea, in which the Athenians were again defeated. Moreover, the enemy shut up the mouth of the harbour, with a row of galleys secured by iron chains, and thus cut off their retreat. Attempting to force their way, they suffered another reverse, and were com- pelled to return. The Athenians, in opposition to the advice of Demosthenes, now determined to retreat by land to Oatana. Nearly forty thousand in number, they commenced their march, the third day after the sea fight. After being much harassed by the enemy, and losing great numbers, the army separated in the night, and Demosthenes, with the rear guard, lost his way. Surrounded in a narrow pass by the Syracusans, they fought with great bravery, but were at last compelled to surrender, to the number of six thousand. Nicias, with the remainder, overcome with thirst and fatigue, was defeated, and surrendered near the river Asinarius. Nicias and Demosthenes were cruelly put to death by the victors, in spite of the efforts of Grylippus to save them ; and the prisoners, many thousand in number, were confined in dungeons and sold as slaves. It is said that some of them, repeating scenes from the plays of Euripides, their masters were so aftected as to restore their freedom. The Athenians were at first unable to believe the terrible news of their misfortune ; and with customary precipitation condemned to death the first man who brought the tidings. Never had they found themselves in such a condition — destitute of money, ships, mariners, and soldiers — and expecting daily an invasion of Attica. They, however, busied themselves in retrieving their aifairs as far as possible; built new ships, retrenched all superfluous expense, and did their best to put the country in a state of defence. But from the time of this signal disaster, they no longer occupy the principal place in Grecian history ; reduced in spirits and resources, they ceased to attempt the regulation of the affairs of Greece, and were content with defending their own territory from the invasion and rapacity of their neighbours. Alcibiades, who had taken refuge with Tissaphernes, a high officer 100 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY of the king of Persia, persuaded tlie people to change their form of government to that of an oligarchy; assuring them, if this was done, of the protection of that monarch. Accordingly all power was vested in a council of four hundred, with the shadow of a final appeal to the citizens. The new rulers, however, did not think fit to recall Alcibiades, dreading lest he should possess himself of the supreme authority. They conducted with great tyranny and rapacity, banishing and putting to death all obnoxious to them, and confis- cating their estates. The army, then at Samos, viewed these proceedings with dis- pleasure, and by advice of Thrasybulus, recalled Alcibiades, and made him their general. He prudently forbade an open attack upon the new authorities ; but these had become so unpopular, that they were obliged to fortify themselves at the Piraeus. The Lacede- monians took advantage of these disturbances, to renew the war; and defeated the small fleet of the Athenians. The people enraged, immediately deposed the four hundred, and entreated Alcibiades to return. He was, however, unwilling to present himself, after his long exile, without having performed some notable exploit; and immediately renewed the war with the Spartans. He twice defeated them at sea with great loss, took their whole fleet, reduced several revolted cities to submission, and sailed to Athens with a fleet of captured vessels loaded with spoils and tro23hies. He was received with the greatest rejoicing, his excommunication was taken off by the priests, and he was appointed commander-in-chief, with almost unlimited powers. Lysander, the Lacedemonian general, a man of the greatest bravery, and renowned for his craftiness, now sought Cyrus, son of the Persian king, and so far gained his confidence that he increased the pay of the Spartan mariners — a circumstance which operated injuri- ously upon the manning of the Athenian fleet. Alcibiades being compelled to leave it for the purpose of obtaining supplies, Antio- chus, who was left in command, in spite of strict orders to the contrary, sailed for Ephesus, engaged the Spartan fleet commanded by Lysander, and was defeated and killed. Alcibiades was again deposed by the disappointed populace, and Lysander, his year expiring, was succeeded by Callicratidas, a man of equal courage and far greater honesty. He besieged Conon, the Athenian com- mander in Mitylene, and took forty of his ships. Leaving a part of his fleet to continue the siege, with an hundred and twenty GREECE. 101 vessels lie engaged an Athenian fleet of superior force, wliich had been fitted out to oppose him. His ship was sunk, charging through the enemy, and seventy of his vessels were lost and taken: the Athenians lost twenty-live, with most of their crews. The Athenian commanders, immediately after their victory, were accused of not having taken sufficient pains in rescuing their men and recovering the bodies of the dead for burial. They alleged, reasonably, that a violent storm succeeding the action, had prevented the performance of this duty; yet six of them, one being the son of Pericles, were put to death, Socrates alone daring to raise his voice against the popular prejudice. Lysander had now been reappointed by the Spartans, and with his allies commenced operations by destroying Lampsacus. He was followed by the Athenian fleet to a place called ^gos Potamos. For five days the Athenians regularly went up to his squadron, and offered him battle, which being declined, they returned to the shore, and spent their time in amusement. Alcibiades, who was living in the neighbourhood, better informed of the nature of their enemy, entreated more caution, warned them of their danger, and offered his aid, with a body of Thracians, which was rejected. On the fifth day, after they had retired as usual, and were dis- persed along the shore, Lysander suddenly attacked them with his entire force, captured nearly their whole fleet, and took three thou- sand prisoners. By this signal victory, the war, which had lasted twenty-seven years, was in effect brought to a close ; and Lysander put all his prisoners to death, in retaliation for a similar act of the Athenians. He then sailed for their city, which he strictly block- aded by sea, while Agis and Pausanias, the Spartan kings, besieged it by land. Overcome by famine, the citizens were compelled to submit to the severest terms. All their ships, except twelve, were to be delivered up ; the fortifications and long walls to the Pirseus to be demolished — and the vanquished nation to serve its invaders as an allj both by land and sea, in all expeditions. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, the longest and most destructive in which Greece had ever been involved. During the brilliant period of Athenian history, flourished many of their most celebrated authors and philosophers. Among the dramatists were JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes; among the historians, Herodotus and Thucydides: Socrates and Plato, among the philosophers. 102 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. CHAPTEB ?. THE-THIETY TYRANTS, THE EXPEDITION OF THE TEN THOUSAND, THE DEATH OP SOCRATES, AND THE THEBAN WAR. The democratic form of government at Athens was now abolished, and the people were compelled to submit to the rule of thirty officers, immediately under the influence of Lysander, and called, for their oppression, the Thirty Tyrants. Protected by a guard from Sparta, they pursued a course of violence, confiscation, and butchery. Among other atrocious acts, they procured the death of Alcibiades, then residing in Persia. Dreading the popular hatred, they invested three thousand of the citizens with some degree of power, and, by their assistance, kept the rest in awe. Socrates alone dared to raise his voice in opposition to their tyranny ; but imprisonments, confiscations, and murders still went on. At leng-th Thrasybulus, a patriotic citizen, who had long deplored the wretched fate of his country, resolved on making an effort to relieve it. With seventy men, he seized the citadel of Phyle, not far from Athens, The tyrants and their followers, marching out to attack it, were repulsed, and, on account of a great snow-storm, retreated to the city. Having increased his force to a thousand men, he sallied forth, and took the Piraeus. A battle instantly ensued, and the thirty, with their adherents, were put to flight. They appealed to Sparta, but Pausanias, commiserating the Athenians, refused to countenance them. Again taking up arms to regain their authority, they were defeated and put to death. An amnesty was now pro- posed by Thrasybulus, by which all past offences were overlooked. The ancient laws and magistracies were restored, and the remaining citizens, after so many years of misfortune and bloodshed, formed themselves once more under a partially democratic government. A scene was next enacted in Asia, in which the Greeks played a conspicuous part. Cyrus, the younger brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, had made several attempts to seize the throne, and as often been generously pardoned. He was even put in possession of exten- sive provinces. Resolved to make another trial, he enlisted as GEEECE. 103 many troops as possible, and among tliem a body of thirteen thou- sand Greeks, under command of Clearclius, an able Lacedemonian. Apprized of his intention on the march, they refused to proceed; but by kind treatment and an augmentation of pay, the adventurer induced them to continue in his service. After long and tedious marches, they arrived at Cunaxa, near Babylon, and engaged the royal army, immense in number, and commanded by Artaxerxes in person. The Greeks were successful in their charge, but their Per- sian allies were routed, their camp plundered, and Cyrus himself was killed fighting hand to hand with his brother. The battle was renewed, and the Greeks again came off victorious. Still, their situ- ation was exceedingly critical. In the heart of the enemies' country, two thousand miles from home, surrounded by hostile forces, and destitute of provisions, they still maintained a resolution not to yield. Their homeward march (the famous "Eetreat of the Ten Thou- sand ") was commenced, and the king's army followed in pursuit. By a treacherous device, Clearchus and four of the principal generals were persuaded to enter the tent of Tissaphernes, the Persian general ; their attendants were put to the sword, themselves bound, sent to the king, and beheaded. Others were appointed in their places, and among them Xenophon, the admirable historian of the expedition. Destroying all unnecessary baggage, they again set forth, and after a march of many months, fighting their way, and overcoming the diflBculties presented by nature — -crossing rivers, mountains, and des- erts — they finally succeeded in gaining a height, whence they could behold the Euxine. The whole army, weeping for joy, cried out, "Thalassa! Thalassa!" — "the sea! the sea!" They embraced their generals, and erected a trophy on the spot, as if for a victory. After many reverses, they regained their country and the shore of that sea so beloved by all the Grecians. At Athens a tragedy of the deepest character was now enacted. Socrates, the most virtuous and sublime of uninspired philosophers, had always been celebrated for his patriotism and bravery. His teachings had been the most remarkable which ever emanated from the soul of a heathen. He was now arraigned by his wicked and malicious enemies, on a charge of introducing new gods, and corrupt- ing the youth of Athens. At his trial he disdained the customary arts for exciting compassion, and his defence, reported by Plato, his pupil, is one of the most able, dignified, and eloquent compositions on record. He was nevertheless convicted; and treating such con- 104 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. viction with just contempt, was sentenced to drink the juice of hemlock — a customary method of inflicting death. For thirty days, during which executions were suspended on account of the absence of the Sacred Galley,* his calm and cheerful deportment excited the admiration of all. He was offered the opportunity to escape, but refused, deeming it wrong to evade the action of the laws; and smilingly asked his friend if he knew of any place out of Attica where people did not die! He preserved the same cheerful and serene demeanour to the last, consoling his friends, enforcing the immortality of the soul, and finally taking the fatal draught with the utmost tranquillity and resignation. The scene is beautifully described by a poet, who, more fully and feelingly than any other, has illus- trated the scenery and associations of Greece : " Slow sinks, more lovely ere his race is run Along Morea's hills, the setting sun; Not as in Northern climes, obscurely bright, But one unclouded blaze of living light. O'er the hushed deep the yellow beam he throws, Gilds the gi'een wave, that trembles as it glows, On old ^gina's rock and Idra's isle The god of gladness sheds his panting smile; O'er his own regions lingering loves to shine, Though there his altars are no more divine. Descending fast, the mountain shadows kiss Thy glorious gulf, unconquered Salamis! Their azure arches through the long expanse, More deeply purpled, meet his mellowing glance. And tenderest tints, along their summits driven, Mark his gay course, and own the hues of heaven ; Till, darkly shaded from the land and deep. Behind his Delphian cliff he sinks to sleep. "On such an eve, his palest beam he cast, When, Athens, here thy wisest looked his last. How watched thy better sons his farewell ray. That closed then- murdered sage's latest day! Not yet — not yet — Sol pauses on the hill — The precious hour of parting lingers still ; But sad his light to agonizing eyes, And dark the mountain's once delightful dies. * A ship was yearly despatched by the Athenians to offer sacrifice in the temple of Apollo, at Delos, and until it returned, no person could legally be put to death. THE DEATH OF SOCRATES. — ^ — — "He extended the cup to Socrates But Socrates received it from him, indeed, ■with great cheerfulness ; neither tremhling nor suffering any alteration for the -worse in hia colour or countenance. — — — And at the same time, ending his discourse, he drank the poison with exceeding facil- ity and alacrity. Thus far, indeed, the greater part of us were tolerably well able to refrain from weeping , but -when we saw him drinking, we could no longer restrain our tears. — — — — — But Socrates, upon seeing this, esclaimed : "What are you doing, excellent men? for I principally sent away the women, lest they should produce a disturbance of this kind." — Thk PH.a!:Do OF Plato. GEEECE. IQQ Gloom o'er the lovely land he seemed to pour, The land where Phoebus never frowned before, But ere he sank beneath Cithseron's head The cup of wo was quaffed — the spirit fled ; The soul of him who scorned to fear or fly — Who lived and died, as none can live and die." After the death of this great man, when the people reflected on the true merits of the case, all Athens was overwhelmed with afflic- tion. The remorse of the people was excessive, and they bitterly reproached themselves for their cruelty and rashness. The schools were closed, and all public exercises suspended. Melitus, one of his accusers, was condemned to death, and the rest were banished. All who had any share in the persecution fell into such detestation, that no one would have any intercourse with them, and many of them, in despair, took their own lives. His statue by Lysippus was erected, a chapel was dedicated to him as a demi-god, and the people exhib- ited all that excessive revulsion of feeling which characterizes an ignorant and impulsive populace, and which especially distinguished the people of Athens. The impulses which prompted this persecu- tion, and the subsequent reaction of popular feeling, are well depicted by a distinguished American poet. "Far Humanity sweeps around; where to-day the martyr stands, On the morrow crouches Judas, with the silver in his hands. Far in front the cross stands ready, and the crackling fagots burn, While the hooting mob of yesterday in silent awe return To gather up the scattered ashes into History's golden urn." LOWELL. Sparta now held the chief position among the Grrecian communities. Agesilaus, the king, invaded Asia, and gained a signal victory over the Persians, under Tissaphernes. Through Persian influence and subsidies, a confederacy, headed by the Thebans, was formed against the Lacedemonians. The Athenians threw off their yoke, and Argos, Corinth, Euboea, and other states, joined in the new alliance. After various actions by land and sea, peace was again concluded, with disgraceful stipu- lations in favour of Persia. Thus relieved from her principal foe, Sparta proceeded to overawe the smaller hostile states ; and among other acts of authority, placed a garrison in the citadel of Thebes. Four years afterwards, an insurrection, headed by Pelopidas and jQg THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. Charon, and supported by seven thousand men from Athens, com- pelled the foreign troops to surrender. Agesilaus, on hearing the news, marched for Thebes with twenty thousand men; but, having ravaged the country, withdrew without an action. The reputation of the Thebans had now rivalled that of the Spartans for bravery and generalshi|) — at the battle of Tegea the Spartan force was routed by a third of its number, and lost both its generals. The Sacred Band, a body of three hundred men, of remarkable bravery and fidelity, contributed greatly to the success of the Thebans. Under Epaminondas and Pelopidas, the rising state became so pow- erful, that the Athenians, through jealousy, broke off their alhance, and joined the Spartans. The latter now determined on making a vigorous effort to crush their rival ; and Cleombrotus, their general, with twenty -four thousand foot and sixteen hundred horse, marched to the frontiers of Boeotia. Their demands were refused, and they invaded the country. Epam- inondas, with only six thousand troops, gave them battle near the little town of Leuctra. After a long and desperate conflict, the Spartan phalanx was broken by Pelopidas, at the head of the Sacred Band, Cleombrotus was slain, and his army put to flight. In this defeat, the most terrible ever experienced by the Lacedemonians, they and their allies lost four thousand men. Great numbers soon joined the Theban confederacy, and Epami- nondas, with seventy thousand men, overran Laconia. He did not attack the city of Sparta, but reinstated certain communities in their ancient rights, which had been taken away by the Lacedemonians. The defeated nation now applied for aid to its old enemies, Athens and Persia ; and succeeded in gaining that of the former. Pelopidas had been slain in an action against Alexander, king of Pherae, and all the confidence of the Thebans was now reposed in Epaminondas. Learning that the army of Argesilaus was on its way, he suddenly marched upon Sparta by night, intending to capture it by surprise. This attempt was defeated by the return of the king and a portion of his forces; a desperate contest ensued, and the Thebans, after having taken a part of the city, sent a detachment of horse to take possession of Mantinea. This was defeated by six thousand Athe- nian auxiliaries, who had just arrived by sea. Epaminondas followed with all his force, and with the enemy in close pursuit. Before reaching the town, he determined to halt, and give them battle. This battle, called that of Mantinea, from the GEEECE, 107 town near wbicli it was fought, was the most obstinate and the best- contested in the annals of Greece. The numbers engaged were greater than had ever fought in the civil dissensions, being nearly sixty thousand, of which the majority were Thebans and their allies. After the fighting hand to hand had continued for a long time with great slaughter, Epaminondas, at the head of a chosen troop, succeed- ed in breaking the Spartan phalanx, and securing the advantage, but was mortally wounded in the hour of triumph. Being carried to the camp, and expressing anxiety about his arms, and the fate of the battle, his shield was shown him, and he was told that the The- bans were victorious. He replied^ " It is well ! " and drawing the head of the javelin from his wound, instantly expired. With Epaminondas fell the power and glory of Thebes. A peace soon followed, by which it Avas agreed that each state should hold what it possessed, and be independent of any other. Agesilaus soon afterwards made an expedition into Egypt, where he controlled and settled the dynasty of that country, and finally died in Africa at the age of eighty, having reigned forty years. The Athenians were again engaged in war with their neighbours, B. C. 858, which, how- ever, was not of long duration, or marked by important events. C H A P i- £ R Y I . PHILIP OE MACEDON. A NEW and formidable power had now grown up in Greece, and began to take an active part in the international interests. Philip, w^ho began, to reign over Macedon in the one hundred and fifth olympiad, and the twenty-fourth year of his age, was a man of the greatest sagacity and most comprehensive ambition. He was the most able general of his day, having learned the art of war under Epaminondas. At his accession to the throne, he was environed with enemies. The Pasonians and Illyrians were menacing his frontiers, and the Macedonians had lately lost four thousand men in a battle with the latter. There were, moreover, two pretenders to his crown, one supported by Athens, and the other by the Thracians. 1QQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. His first care was to gain the confidence of his people and to improve their military discipline, and with this view he invented the famous Macedonian phalanx, consisting of eight thousand pike- men formed into an impenetrable square. To this piece of tactics the nation was indebted for many of its subsequent victories. Having defeated the Athenians who espoused the cause of his rival, he turned his arms against the Pseonians and Illyrians, subdued them both, and compelled them to restore their conquests. Having seized certain disputed cities, he discovered at Crenides (which he named Philippi) a most productive gold mine ; which was of great use to him afterwards, especially in negotiation. The states of Greece at this time were in open dissension. The Phocians, who had charge of the temple of Apollo, at Delphos, had ploughed up a piece of ground belonging to the god ; being cited, and fined heavily by the Amphictyonic council, they resisted, and, encouraged by the Spartans, seized the temple. The council, aided by the Thebans, Locrians, Thessalians, and others, decliared war against the contumelious state; Athens and Sparta supported her. The conflict which ensued, called "The Sacred War," was distin- guished only by those cruelties and reprisals which usually charac- terize a religious contest; the prisoners were mutually put to death, much to the satisfaction of Philip, who was pleased to see the Greeks wasting their forces against each other. About the conclu- sion of this war, his son, Alexander the Great, was born, on the same night when the temple of Diana was fired at Ephesus. Having destroyed Methone, which obstructed his designs on Thrace, Philip marched to the assistance of the Thessalians, who were oppressed by Lycophron, of Pheraj, Attacked by the Macedonian, six thousand of his men were slain in a battle, and three thousand of his Phocian allies being taken prisoners, were thrown by Philip into the sea, as being guilty of sacrilege. He would next have taken possession of Thermopylae, the key of Attica, but for the opposition of the Athenians, who, urged by the famous Demosthenes, occupied the pass before him. This distinguished patriot and orator was the son of an armourer at Athens, who left him a large fortune. His first appearance as a public speaker was in- a suit against his guardians, who had man- aged his estate dishonestly. He laboured under many disadvantages : such as stammering, a feeble voice, and natural awkwardness. All these he overcame by severe study, exercise, and discipline; some- GREECE. 109 times, it is said, sliutting liimself up for montlis in an apartment underground, and shaving half his head, lest he should be tempted to emerge. He was also instructed in the art of elocution by Satjrus, an able actor. He finally attained such a degree of eloquence and celebrity, that people flocked from all parts of Greece to listen to him ; and his countrymen were so much under his control, that Philip declared him more formidable than all the fleets and armies of Athens. Philip, not wishing to incur the enmity of the Athenians at present, directed his hostilities against the Olynthians, took their city, and put his two brothers, who had taken refuge there, to death. He also espoused the cause of Thebes against the Phocians, and com- pelled the latter to surrender at discretion. Their fate was referred to the Amphictyons, who decreed that all their cities should be demolished, the fugitives excommunicated, and the remaining citi- zens dispersed in villages, and burdened with heavy tribute, until the loss sustained by the temple at their hands was made up. Their seat in the council was likewise declared forfeited, and Philip afterwards contrived to have it conferred on himself The king, pursuing his system of self-aggrandizement, offered his protection to the Argives, Messenians, and Thebans. To counter- balance this league, the S|)artans pressed a union between their state and Athens, and Philip avoided coming to an open rupture. On an artful pretence, however, he sent a body of troops into Euboea, seized the citadels, and established a government of three kings or tyrants. Assistance being supplicated by the inhabitants from the Athenians, they despatched a few troops under Phocion, a com- mander worthy of the early days of the republic. His manners and countenance were rigid and severe, but his heart was humane and open. Being rallied before the people on account of the severity of his aspect, he replied, addressing the citizens, "The sternness of my countenance never made any of you sad, but the mirth of these sneerers has cost you many a tear." In assemblies, his unstudied eloquence rivalled that of Demosthe- nes ; yet he was so superior to mere popular approbation, that once, being applauded by the people, he asked a friend what weak or improper sentiment had escaped him. He was chosen to command their armies forty-five times, without any application for the office. Such was the man, who, though strongly inclined to peace, was chosen to oppose the selfish and ambitious designs of Macedon. 110 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. Inflamed by the ardent invectives of Demosthenes, the people now entered into open hostilities with Philip, Phocion compelled him to raise the siege of Byzantium ; drove him out of the Hellespont ; and recovered many fortresses which he had seized. The Athenians next blockaded all his ports, and cut off his commerce. He would now willingly have made peace, and Phocion supported the proposal; but the people, influenced by Demosthenes, refused. The king, however, artfully contrived to revive the dissension concerning sacrilege, among the lesser states, and was appointed com- mander in chief to the Amphictyons, which he used as a mere mask to cover his ambitious designs on Attica. His intentions at last being evident, in an assembly of the Athenians, Demosthenes alone ventured to ascend the tribunal, and animate them to resistance. In a speech of great force and eloquence, he recommended that immediate assistance be despatched to the Thebans, whose territories were menaced; his advice was followed, and he was sent in person with a large force. The battle took place on the plain of Cheronoea, the allied forces amounting to thirty thousand, and those of Philip to a little more. On the one side were the Thebans, headed by their Sacred Band; the Athenians, com- manded by Lysicles and Chares ; the Corinthians, and the allies from Peloponnesus. On the other, Alexander headed a chosen body of Macedonians, supported by the renowned Thessalian cavalry; and the king himself commanded the phalanx. The prince, after rout- ing the Sacred Band, who sustained their ancient reputation, and died at their posts almost to a man, attacked the Thebans; the Athenians, meanwhile, putting to flight the enemy opposed to them. Carrying the pursuit too far, they were attacked in flank by the phalanx, and completely defeated. Demosthenes himself, throwing away his shield, fled among the first ; and the whole army was soon routed or forced to surrender. A thousand of the Athenians lay dead on the field, two thousand were captured, and the loss of the Thebans was equally severe. Philip, however, treated the defeated states with mildness, and agreed on a treaty of peace; hoping at some future time to unite them under himself in an attack on the Persian empire. Lysicles was condemned to death by his fellow-citizens ; but nothing could shake their confidence in Demosthenes. His counsels were followed throughout, and for the assistance which he gave from his own resources, it was publicly proposed that a golden crown should be GREECE. Ill •awarded him. On this occasion, (the person who suggested this pro- posal being impeached by JEschines, the celebrated orator and rival of Demosthenes,) occurred that famous contest of eloquence in which ^schines lost his cause, and was banished from Athens. Philip was now chosen general-in-chief of the Grecian forces, and prepared to invade Persia. Consulting the oracle as to the success of his undertaking, he received this ambiguous response: "The victim is already crowned, and will soon be sacrificed." This he interpreted in his favour, but it was soon verified in a different manner; the king being murdered at a festival by Pausanias, who was supposed to have been instigated by Olympias, the queen. CHAPTER ?H THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, The news of Philip's death was received with great joy in Greece, and especially in Athens, where the people who had a little while before appointed him their chief, and loaded him with adulations, now crowned themselves with garlands, and sacrificed to the gods in gratitude. Alexander, already distinguished, succeeded him. His ruling pas- sion was a love of glory, and that of the most distinguished kind. When young, being asked if he would contend at the Olympic games, "Yes," he replied, "if I can have kings to contend with." He lamented the conquests of his father, fearing that his own exploits and renown would be anticipated. At an early age, he astonished the Persian ambassadors by inquiring the road to Asia, the resources of their king, the order of battle, and the manner of their government. His chief teacher was Aristotle, to whom doubtless are owing those traits of magnanimity and virtue which occasionally shone forth in a long career of conquest and violence; and of him he learned that true, manly eloquence, which is founded on facts and 112 THE TEOl'LE'S BOOK OF lilSTOKY. common sense. His spirit of ambition and exclusiveness showed itself in a letter, still extant, in whicli he complains to Aristotle that he had made public certain portions of that learning, of which they had before been in exclusive possession. He was attached to the arts, and was a discriminating patron of music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. He was fond of poetry, and almost idolized Homer, the poet of battle and romance. On his accession to the throne, he found himself, like his father, surrounded by dangers on every side; both from the barbarous nations, ready to fling off the yoke imposed by Philip, and from the Greeks, who were resolved to seize this opportunity to recover their liberties, in reality subverted. Disregarding the counsels of those who advised a temporizing policy, he took up arms at once, crossed the Danube, defeated the king of the Triballi in a great battle, and overawed the surrounding nations. The Thebans, at the instigation of Demosthenes, and encouraged by a report of his death, had risen and massacred many of the Macedonian garrison; he appeared before their cities in an incredibly short time, and demanded that Phoenix and Prothules, the chief insurgents, should be delivered up, offering a general amnesty to all Avho would join him. The Thebans, in return, contemptuously demanded Antipater and Phi- lotas, two of his first generals; and appealed to all the states for assistance in defending the liberties of Greece. Battle being joined, they defended themselves with great bravery, though vastly outnumbered ; but, being attacked in the rear by the garrison from the citadel, were totally routed, and mostly cut to pieces. The city was plundered, and razed to the grotmd, and the inhabitants, to the number of thirty thousand, were sold as slaves ; the priests and the descendants of the poet Pindar excepted. Six thousand had perished in the battle. Those who escaped were received with the greatest kindness at Athens. That city now appeared to lie at his mercy, and, knowing that the popular love of liberty was kept alive by the eloquence of their orators, he demanded that ten of these should be surrendered into his hands. On this occasion, Demosthenes related to the people the fable of the wolves demanding from the sheep, as a condition of peace, that their watch-dogs should be delivered up ; this increased their reluctance, and Alexander, through the mediation of Demades, his personal friend, at last waived his demand. From a spirit of policy he even bestowed flattering attentions on the commonwealth. GEEECE. 113 No longer dreading any domestic opposition, he now summoned at Corinth an assembly from all the communities of Greece, and proposed that the expedition against Persia, projected by his father, should be intrusted to him. Animated by the love of glory, and a remembrance of ancient invasion and injury, they all consented, with the exception of Lacedemon. This decision was destined to have a most important and controlling influence on human affairs. He settled the affairs of Macedon, during his absence, by appoint- ing Antipater viceroy, with a force of twenty-four thousand troops. He then exhausted his treasures and revenues in providing for his friends, and being asked what he had reserved for himself, only replied, "Hope!" He set out for Asia in the spring, with an army of thirty thou- sand foot, and four thousand cavalry — all veteran soldiers, inured to hardship and the art of war. So far advanced in age were most of them, that they are said to have had the venerable appearance of a senate. "With this force, destined to decide the fate of Greece and all the oriental world, he arrived at the Hellespont. Steering his own galley, he crossed without opposition ; a neglect which proved the destruction of his opponents. From Lampsacus, which was saved from his anger by Anaximenes, his former tutor, he pro- ceeded to Troy, and caused funeral games to be performed in honour of the heroes of the Iliad. He is even said to have run naked three times around the vast mound which contains the relics of Achilles. Darius, king of Persia, treated this invasion with the utmost con- tempt, and sent particular directions to his satraps for the treatment of Alexander and his army, when captured. Arriving on the banks of the Granicus, a river of Phrygia, the invaders found an army of an hundred and ten thousand men, commanded by Memnon and Arsites, drawn up on the opposite shore, to dispute their passage. Against the advice of his ofl&cers, Alexander determined to seize this occasion of impressing the enemy with a belief in the invinci- bility of the Greek forces; and with a large detachment of horse, plunged into the river. The contest was obstinately disputed, but the Macedonians were at first repulsed from landing, by Memnon, the ablest and most resolute commander of the Persians. Alexan- der hastened to the head of the column, and by desperate exertions succeeded in gaining the shore. The Macedonians followed, and the battle became general. Spithradates, son in law of Darius, was killed fighting hand to hand with the king, and the entire army of 8 114 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the Persians was routed, except a large body of Greek auxiliaries, soldiers of fortune. These being refused permission to retreat, the battle was renewed, and the most terrible part of the contest ensued. These mercenaries, fighting desperately, were all cut to pieces except two thousand, who were made prisoners ; and the Macedonians lost more in this conflict than in the other. After this victory, he proceeded to make himself master of the cities, some of which, as Sardis and Ephesus, submitted without much resistance ; others, as Miletus and Halicarnassus, he took by siege, and razed the latter to the ground. Among other chiefs, he was sought and faithfully served by Mithridates, king of Pontus, an ancestor of that monarch of the same name who at a later period figures so famously in the Koman wars. Opening his campaign early the next year, Alexander proceeded to subdue the maritime provinces. He took Celsenge, after a siege of sixty days, and then advanced to Gordium, the capital of the mythological king Midas. At this place was a chariot, in the fast- enings of which was such an intricate knot, that no one had ever been able to untie it, though, according to an ancient oracle, the man who could perform this feat should possess the empire of Asia. Alexander, after a number of futile attempts to disunite it in a legitimate way, drew his sword impatiently, and cut it apart, which was hailed as a fulfilment of the prediction Subduing Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, he advanced upon Tarsus, and arrived just in time to save it, the city having been fired by the retreating Persians. Darius now marched against him with an immense army, securing the passes, lest his enemy should escape ; — an utterly needless precaution, for Alexander was . equally anxious to stake the empire upon a battle. Long descriptions are given of the pomp and magnificence which distinguished the royal army. Immense treasures, costly apparel, numerous concubines, and a vast host of domestic attendants, gave it rather the appearance of a pro- gress of pleasure than a formidable armament. This useless and cumbrous splendour excited only the contempt of the Greeks, and their rapacity to obtain possession of such valuable spoils. After various manoeuvres, the hostile armies met in the neighbourhood of Issus. Like the locality of Marathon and other celebrated battles, the scene of action was a plain lying between the mountains and the sea. The river Pinarus flowed through it, dividing it into two parts nearly GEEECE. 115 equal. The Macedonian phalanx was composed of six bodies, each commanded by a distinguished officer ; the other forces were skilfully distributed, and Alexander, in person, directed the whole. The field could hardly contain the immense forces of Darius, but he placed in the centre thirty thousand Greek stipendiaries, the most effective part of his army. The front line was drawn up on the bank of the river to oppose the crossing of Alexander. The latter, how- ever, at the head of his men, plunged boldly into the stream, and directed his first attack against the person of the king; who was forced to leap from his chariot, and betake himself to another. The Persians were soon routed, and Darius, with the greater part of his army, involved in a common flight, were pursued by the Macedo- nians. The mercenaries, however, made a vigorous and successful resistance, until Alexander, returning from the pursuit, attacked them in flank, and completed the victory. It is said that in this battle seventy thousand of the Persians perished, and that forty thousand were taken prisoners. The wife, mother, and children of the defeated prince, being found in his camp, were treated by the victor with the greatest courtesy and respect. All Phoenicia, except Tyre, now submitted. The Persian fleet was defeated at sea, and great part of it captured. Damascus, in which the royal treasures had been deposited, surrendered to Par- menio. The Persian monarch, in a haughty message, demanded his family, on paying ransom. This was refused, and he was told that they should be restored without ransom, but only on his submission. Alexander now resolved to form the siege of Tyre. This cele- brated city was built upon an island, about three-quarters of a mile from the shore. It was surrounded by high walls, and was con- sidered almost impregnable. The inhabitants, encouraged by prom- ises of assistance from Carthage, a powerful Phoenician colony, resolved to hold out. They killed the Macedonian ambassadors, and threw their bodies from the walls into the sea. Enraged at this act of violence, Alexander resolved never to desist until he had taken their city, and razed it to the ground. An immense pier, principally of wood, had been carried fi-om the main land nearly to the city, when it was burned by a fire-ship sent out by the Tyrians. This disaster having been repaired, and the mole carried yet further, a furious storm again sAvept away all the structure. Undismayed, the besiegers immediately commenced anew, and Alexander with a fleet protected the works, and offered 116 THE PEOTLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY battle to the Tyrians. This they dechned; and withdrew their gal- leys into the harbour. The pier was once more advanced to the walls, and an attack com- menced simultaneously by land and sea, when a storm so shattered the vessels as to render it ineffectual. The joy of the besieged was somewhat alloyed by news from Carthage, that the Syracusans had attacked that city, and all her resources were necessary for self- defence. The Tyrians, however, resolved to continue their resistance to the last. The women and children were all sent to Carthage, and every preparation was made to resist the invaders, who were again sharply assaulting the walls. The greatest ingenuity was displayed in warding off the force of the engines, in destroying the ships, and annoying the besiegers. They shot immense arrows studded with scythes, and showered burning sand among the besieging squadron. At length, a breach being made in the walls, Alexander, with the Argyraspides (Silver-shield bearers), stormed the town, which was defended with great bravery. The fle.et forced its way into the har- bour, and the citizens being defeated, an indiscriminate slaughter took place. A vast number were slain, two thousand were crucified after the victory, and thirty thousand sold as slaves. Of Tyre, the earliest and first great commercial city in the world, nothing now remains but a small village, connected with the land by a mole, formed by accumiilations of sand around the pier constructed by Alexander; and, according to prophecy, fishermen now "dry their nets " where the stately city once raised its walls and palaces. Darius now offered further conditions, so advantageous that Par- menio, a prudent officer, observed that he would certainly accept these, were he Alexander. "And so would I," replied the king, " were I Parmenio." From Tyre he marched to Jerusalem, intending to punish the inhabitants for their contumacy in refusing him pro- visions during the siege ; but he was pacified by Jaddua, the high- priest, who went out to meet him with a select body of citizens, and showed him the prophecies of Daniel, in which his conquests were foretold. He thence proceeded to Gaza, took it after an obstinate resistance, put ten thousand of its defenders to the sword, and, in emulation of Achilles, dragged the body of Boetus, the commander, around the walls, behind his chariot. Leaving a garrison here, he next directed his forces against Egypt, which submitted without resistance. On this occasion he made a journey of twelve days through the desert, to visit the celebrated GREECE. 117 temple of Jupiter Amnion, situated in a fertile oasis in the wilderness. On his way, he founded the city of Alexandria, afterwards one of the most famous commercial cities in the world. Arrived, an oracle uttered by the complaisant priest declared him to be the son of Jupiter, a title which he thenceforth was strenuous in asserting. Returning to Asia, he found Darius prepared to renew the contest, with greatly increased forces ; and having crossed the Tigris, received overtures from that monarch, with advantageous proposals for peace. He rejected them, with the haughty reply that the world would not admit of two suns, or of two sovereigns ; and both parties prepared to stake the empire upon a last battle. Darius, with a vast but undis- ciplined and irregular army, was encamped near the city of Arbela, from which the battle receives its name. On the side of the invader were less than fifty thousand troops, but mostl}"" veterans, and accus- tomed to victory. The only really formidable force in the Persian army, was a body of Greek mercenaries, who fought, as usual, with great skill and courage. The charge, led by Alexander in person, was successful; and Darius himself narrowly escaped death at the hand of his adversary. The Persians were defeated on every side, and such terrible havoc was made among their disordered and flying masses, that it is said (probably with exaggeration) that three hundred thousand were put to the sword. Darius fled, with his enemy in hot pursuit, to Arbela, whence he barely escaped Avith the loss of his treasure, his army, and his throne. This decisive victory, indeed, gave Alexander full possession of the empire of Asia. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, and all the Persian provinces, surrendered without opposition. In the last-named city he found and relieved four thousand Greek captives, who had been barbarously mutilated by their conquerors. Having found immense treasures here, the Macedonians abandoned themselves to revelry and dissipation. The king, at a banquet, overcome with wane, was persuaded by Thais, an Athenian courtezan, to avenge the injuries of Greece by firing the magnificent palace of the Persian king. Seizing a torch, he led the way ; his chief officers and many of the army followed; and the splendid edifice was soon reduced to ruin. Meanwhile, Darius pursued his flight to Ectabana, the capital of Media. Being there endangered by the treachery of his officers, the Greeks in his service offered to protect him to the last; a devo- tion which he magnanimously rejected, thinking it unbecoming a 118 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. monarcli to confide his safety in the hands of any but his own people. The Greeks then withdrew to Alexander, and were enrolled among his forces. The traitors now seized Darius, and threw him in chains, and being closely pursued by the Macedonians, left him mortally wounded on the road-side. Being there found by the victorious pursuers, he sent a message of thanks to Alexander for the kindness bestowed upon his family, charged him to avenge his murder, and expired. His request was complied with, and Bessus, the principal traitor, when taken, was tied to four trees bent to the earth, and thus torn asunder. The character of Alexander was now tarnished by the execution of Parmenio and his son Philotas, two most faithful officers, whom he condemned on suspicion of a plot. He next, in a fit of drunken rage, at a banquet, slew his friend Clitus, who had saved his life at the passage of the Granicus. The most violent remorse succeeded. After some doubtful successes against the Scythians, he determined on attempting the conquest of India, a country whose vast extent and niimerous nations were as yet little known. Proceeding toward the Indus, he received the submission of most of the nations on his route; but near the Hydaspes, met with a fierce resistance from Porus, a native king, of great power and ability ; who was, however, defeated with much loss. Being asked by the victor how he would desire to be treated, he replied, "Like a king !" Alexander, admiring his fortitude, restored and augmented his kingdom, and the Indian prince remained faithful to his interests ever afterwards. The invader thence proceeded further into the interior, exacting- submission from the native tribes, and amusing his mind by inquiries into the Braminical philosophy. The Macedonians, worn out with marches and encounters, at last refused to accompany their leader any further, and he was compelled to direct his course to the south- ward, in search of the Indus. Arrived there, he voyaged down the river, and reached the Indian Ocean. Here the whole army, accus- tomed to the tideless shores of the Mediterranean, beheld with astonishment the extraordinary periodical rise and fall of the sea. Weeping that he could carry his arms no farther, he made preparation for the homeward march, Nearchus, with a fleet, coasted along the shore, seeking the Persian gulf, and the main body of the army proceeded by land. After experiencing great want and hard- ship, they arrived at the rich province of Gedrosia, and abandoned themselves to intemperance and excess. Alexander himself, in GEEECE. 119 emulation of Bacchus, who had conquered India before, was carried along on a platform drawn by eight horses, where, with his chief officers, he passed the time in revelry, the whole army following his example. In this manner he proceeded toward Babylon. It would seem that, satiated with conquest, or despairing of effecting greater achievements, he now gave himself up entirely to drinking and revelry. It was thought that he attempted thus to drown remorse for his treatment of Parmenio, Clitus, and other friends who had perished by his violence. He entered Babylon, and the drinking-bouts became more frequent and protracted. In one of these, his dearest friend Hephestion was carried off by excess. Alexander shortly followed him; for having spent two nights in continued debauchery, he fell senseless on the floor, and was imme- diately seized with a violent fever, which in a few days proved mortal. Being asked to whom he would leave the empire, he replied, "To the worthiest!" and then expired, at the age of thirty-two, after a reign of twelve years, mostly passed in war and conquest. CHAPTER Till. FROM THE DEATH OP ALEXANDER TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST. We return to the affairs of Greece, with which the wars of Alexander have little connection, except as being principally carried on by Greek forces. The Lacedemonians, who had never concurred in the expedition to Persia, after his departure, under their king Agis, organized a confederacy to check the growing power of Macedon. With an army of twenty-two thousand, the Spartan king attacked Megalopolis, a city in the Peloponnesus, under the control of the enemy. Antipater, the viceroy, engaged in action against him with a greatly superior force, and gained the victory, though with a loss of three thousand five hundred men. The Spartans lost an equal number, and among them Agis, one of the wisest and most patriotic of their kings. This insurrection crushed, little of interest is found in the subse- 120 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. quent history of Sparta; and the efforts of Antipater were directed to disarm opposition from other quarters. Demosthenes falling under a suspicion of having received bribes from Macedon, was condemned by the Areopagus to fine and banishment. Thus freed from the only man whose name was formidable to his designs, the viceroy issued a decree, in which authority over all the Grrecian states was directly assumed. Under Leosthenes, an Athenian, however, the people prepared for a vigorous resistance; and the death of Alexander, which occurred about this time, added to their confidence. Demosthenes was recalled, and Antipater, engaging the confederates with inferior forces, was defeated, and forced to take refuge in Thessaly. The Greeks, elated with their success, would now have openly declared war upon Macedon, but were restrained by the prudence of Phocion. Eeceiving reinforcements, Antipater renewed the war; and soon engaged the Greeks, and utterly defeated them. Athens, the city most obnoxious to his displeasure, was only spared on condition that it should receive a Macedonian garrison, and deliver up the prime mover of hostilities, Demosthenes. That great man, knowing the danger of his situation, fled to Calauria, a neighbouring island, and took refuge in the temple of Neptune. Pursued thither by the emissaries of Antipater, he ended his life by taking poison from a ring or bracelet which he always carried. A statue was afterwards erected to him, and other honours to his memory were decreed by the Athenians. The Macedonian victor used his power with such moderation and equity as to gain from the different states the title of Protector of Greece. The ^tolians alone continued their resistance, but were finally defeated, and compelled to submit. Soon afterwards he died, at a great age, leaving the government of Macedon and Greece to Polyperchon, one of the generals of Alexander. Under his administration the brave and virtuous Phocion was condemned to death by the Athenians, for having opposed a change in the form of government. "With characteristic magnanimity, he sought only to save the lives of those condemned to die with him, and charged his son to forget the injustice of the people. A decree was even passed, prohibiting any person from supplying fire for his funeral pile. The last honours were paid to his remains by a woman of Megara, who secretly preserved his ashes in an urn buried under her hearth. As in the case of Socrates and other illustrious victims GREECE. 121 to tlie caprice of the Athenians, a great revulsion of feeling soon followed. liis accusers were, as usual, condemned to death, his ashes honourably brought to Athens, and a statue erected to his memory. Polyperchon, a man of weak and cruel disposition, was, in his turn, dethroned by Cassander, supported by other inheritors of the power of Alexander. Greece and Macedon were now, for a consid- erable time, the prey of rival pretenders to the throne. About this time an immense army of Gauls, three hundred thousand in number, issuing from their forests in the west, overran a great part of southern Europe. They took and plundered the city of Eome, invaded Macedon, slew the king, and directed their march to Greece. The states, with great resolution, united to oppose them, and they were repulsed with much loss in several attempts to force their way through the straits of Thermopylge. Succeeding in gaining the interior, by the way of Mount (Eta, they proceeded toward Delphos, intending to plunder the temple. The inhabitants bravely repulsed their invaders from the sacred precints, and, aided by a severe storm, slew vast numbers. Brennus, their leader, in despair, put an end to his life, and the remainder attempted a retreat. But of all the multitudes which had passed from Macedon into Greece, it is said, not one returned to his native country. Among others who seized the throne of Macedon in these unset- tled times, was Pyrrhus, the celebrated king of Epirus and invader of Italy. He also made an assault iipon the city of Sparta with a great force, but was driven back by its defenders, and his son Ptolemy was killed in the retreat. He soon afterwards marched upon Argos, and was there slain in a fight ivithin the walls. Antigonus, son of the famous Demetrius Poliorcetes (taker of cities), had been deposed by Pyrrhus. He now reascended the throne, and defeated a body of Gauls making a fresh irruption into his kingdom. He compelled the Athenians to receive a Macedonian garrison; and was entertaining designs upon the liberties of all Greece, when death ended his ambitious projects. His son Deme- trius took the throne, and was in his turn succeeded by another Antigonus, his kinsman. A fresh power, the Achaean League, now sprang up, which promised fairly to restore in a great degree the ancient spirit of freedom among the Grecian republics. It was a confederacy for mutual defence first formed in Achaia, and afterward extended among 122 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. many of the states, on somewhat the same plan as the American Union. By the wisdom and patriotism of this association, and of their general, Aratiis, nearly all the Greek communities were placed upon an independent footing; but its increasing power excited the jealousy of the ^tolians and the Spartans, now greatly degenerated from the ancient simplicity of their manners. The Acha3ans, attacked and defeated by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, solicited the aid of Antigonus, and placed him at the head of their confederacy; a movement so unpopular, that most of the Grecian' states espoused the cause of Sparta. She was, nevertheless, defeated, and Cleomenes was forced to fly into Egypt. Philip, the successor of Antigonus, further assisted the Acha3ans, and reduced the strength of their enemies, the ^tolians. Hoping to make himself master of all Greece, he entered into an engagement with Hannibal, then at war with the Eomans, that each should assist the other in their respective designs on Greece and Italy. Philip, however, in attempting to carry out his plan, was defeated by the Bomans, who immediately entered into an alliance with ^tolia and Sparta, and, according to their customary policy, commenced securing a footing for themselves in the country (B. C. 208). The Achseans, com- manded by Philopoemen, carried on the war six years longer, when it was concluded by a peace between Philip and the Romans. This, however, was not of long duration. Philip having invaded Egypt, and encroached on some of the territories of Greece, was forbidden by the Roman senate to continue his hostilities. The king refusing compliance, war ensued, and the Romans, under Flam- inius, soon compelled him to make peace upon very severe conditions ; a restoration of his Grecian conquests being one (B. C. 199), Under pretext of supporting the liberties of Greece, the Romans soon contrived to acquire a strong ascendancy. The vEtolians and the Acheeans were overawed in succession; and a thousand of the principal men of the latter were transported to Rome, charged with aiding Perseus, the son of Philip, and now king of Macedon. The king himself, defeated in a great battle, was carried to Rome, where he put an end to his life by starving himself in prison. With him fell the last hope of Grecian independence. Macedon was formed into a Roman province, and the remaining states of Greece soon shared the same fate (B. C. 163). From this time the history of Greece seems rather to belong to that of the widely-extended Roman empire; and is principally to GKEECE. 123 be found in tlie humanizing influence wliicli lier art and literature exerted over the vigorous but unpolished minds of her conquerors. While the joke was yet fresh, occasional disputes broke forth; always ending in accession of power to the Eomans. Metellus, and afterwards the consul Mummius, defeated them successively, and the conquest of Grreece was completed by the taking of Corinth, B. C. 145, the same year in which Carthage was added to the empire. The city was plundered, and the finest works of art des- troyed. It is said the rude soldiers were seen throwing dice upon the paintings of the greatest masters. Many works of taste were carried to Eome, which served as models for imitation, and laid the foundation of that excellence in art to which the Italians afterwards attained. The unfortunate city was razed to the ground, and its inhabitants sold into slavery. About A. D. 86, the Athenians, hoping to fling off the foreign government, made an alliance with Mithridates, king of Pontus. Sylla, in revenge for their defection, destroyed the fortifications of their city, and defaced many of the public buildings. The court of Areopagus still continued to exist, and Athens was still the school of philosophy, to which the learned and inquiring resorted from all the civilized world. Several of the emperors, and many of the most celebrated Romans, distinguished it by their resi- dence and munificence. With other contiguous portions of the Roman empire, Greece fell before the power of Alaric, king of the Visigoths, and shared the usual devastation which marked the course of these barbarian hordes. Vj tiith ti/d) Ji Jj lU JjO J> t/oj < MODERN GREECE. After the division of the immense dominions of the Romans (A. D. 364) into the Eastern and Western Empires, the influence of Grecian manners and colonization were so extended as to cause the former to be called after their country — the Greek Empire. Under this power, Greece Proper continued to exist until about the year X24: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. A. D. 1200, when the greater part of it was conquered, and formed into small principalities by various Italian adventurers, with whom it remained until its invasion and complete conquest by the Turks under Mahomet II. Though allowed to retain their national religion, (that of the Greek or Patriarchal church,) the Greeks were cruelly oppressed and enslaved by their new masters for nearly four hundred years; and under these unfavourable circumstances the national character became lowered and degraded. A spark of the ancient spirit yet survived ; in 1820, the inhabit- ants throughout the Morea raised the standard of revolt, and the revolution soon became general. The most atrocious cruelties were inflicted on the insurgents and all the Grecian race whenever cap- tured; the venerable Patriarch was hanged at Constantinople, and in every direction thousands of defenceless persons were massacred without mxcrcy. These acts of violence were retaliated by the Greeks whenever successful. The Turks soon sustained a severe reverse. Besieged in Tripolitza, near the centre of the Morea, they were compelled, after an obstinate resistance, to surrender, and fifteen thousand of them perished. They met with signal defeats in other parts, and more than one Turkish army left the bones of thousands scattered through the narrow passes of the Peloponnesus. Many acts were performed worthy of the best days of Ancient Greece. The brave Marco Botzaris, with an army of two thousand men, marched against Mustapha Pasha, the Turkish commander of fourteen thousand. Emulating the example of Leonidas, with his little force he attacked the enemy's camp by night. "If you lose sight of me," said he, "seek me in the pasha's tent." After having thrown the whole army into confusion by the suddenness and fury of his attack, he was mortally wounded, carried off the field, and expired. Among other acts of atrocity committed by the Turks, the beau- tiful and peaceful island of Scio was ravaged with fire and sword, twenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, as many sold for slaves, and the remainder compelled to fly for their lives. The island was completely depopulated, and nothing was left but smoking ruins and ravaged plantations. The fleet of the Turkish admiral, who had performed this atrocious deed, was soon afler destroyed by the brave Canaris. GREECE. 125 In this long and terrible struggle, the Greeks were not without sympathy and assistance. Many lovers of freedom flocked to their standard from other countries, and among them the illnstrions Byron, who perished at Missilonghi. Assistance was rendered them in money, provisions, and clothing, by the people of England and the United States ; and at last the British government decided to interfere in their behalf with an armed force. The Turkish fleet, reinforced by that of Ibrahim Pasha, their Egyptian ally, lay at anchor in the harbour of Navarino. A squad- ron of English, French, and Eussian vessels appeared before it, though without provoking an encounter. By the rashness of a Turkish commander, the two squadrons soon became involved in a general engagement; which resulted in the complete destruction of the Ottoman fleet, with an immense loss of life. This event decided the fate of Greece. Her independence was guarantied by the larger powers of Europe, and, by their influence. Prince Otho, of Bavaria, ascended the throne. The condition of the country, though improved, has remained somewhat unsettled. A jealousy of the Bavarian of&cers, who had too great a share in the royal favour, and other defects incident to a new dynasty, have fre- quently caused popular demonstrations against the government, in which much of the ancient democratic spirit has been manifested. The latest movement of this nature, however, was conducted with such admirable firmness and moderation, that the king, with his absolutist advisers, was compelled to succumb to the popular will, and yield his assent to a constitution, far more liberal than any which the nation had yet enjoyed. The rights and representation of the people were guarantied by this instrument in the fullest man- ner, and the royal prerogative was limited and defined. The improvement, indeed, both in public order and capacity for self-government, seems to be decided ; and we may hope yet to see this classic and celebrated land once more take her place among nations, with greater happiness and more real freedom than ever existed, even in her most renowned and victorious days. ROME. THE EARLY AND PARTIALLY FABULOUS HISTORY OF ROME UNDER THE KINGS The origin of few nations is more obscure than that of the Eomans. Wrapped in the mists of fable and mythology, the account of their primitive national existence affords few reliable or satisfactory points on which the historian may rest. The stories so popularly received, both among the later Eomans and many writers since, are founded upon ancient traditions, and on certain poems of doubtful authenti- city, and long since lost to mankind. In the midst of these romances, a few plain and well-substantiated truths have been gleaned, and illustrated from other sources. It appears true, that from a period far beyond the time when the Eoman people make their first appearance in history, their city, per- haps under another name, occupied its present site on the Palatine Hill ; that it was peopled by a combined race of native Oscans and foreign Pelasgians ; that the nation Avas afterwards further increased by a union with the Sabines, a neighbouring people ; and that, lastly, there occurred a further union with (and perhaps a subjugation by) the Etruscans, a powerful and refined nation, which infused into the Eoman national character its own greatness and peculiarities. It also appears that from the earliest period Eome was governed by kings, elected for life by the people, with a senate selected from an hereditary nobility ; that the people, desirous of more influence, were often at issue with both, and that, finally, the monarchy was overthrown, and a republic or commonwealth established in its stead. The account of these early transactions, as given by Eoman histo- rians, is, in a few facts, from external evidence, true; in others, ROME. 127 indisputably false. Much remains wliich may liave some foundation in fact, but of tlie truthfulness of which we have no means of judg- ing. The story of their origin and early history, as generally received among them, is briefly as follows : ^Eneas, a prince of Troy, after the destruction of that city by the Greeks, sailing in quest of a new home, and having experienced many strange adventures, ascended the Tiber, and landed in Italy, After a fierce war with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, he espoused Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latin race, built a city, and founded a new nation. From this tradition originated that beauti- ful poem, the ^neid, in which the wars and wanderings of the hero are described with great genius and interest. After fifteen kings had reigned, Amulius, a usurper, caused two infants, lineal descendants fi:"om the royal family, to be exposed on the banks of the Tiber. The fabulous narration states that these children, Romulus and Eemus, were suckled by a wolf; and a bronze statue, representing this event, was long held in reverence at Rome, and even exists at the present time. Preserved by a herdsman, and attaining a manly age, they destroyed the usurper, and restored their grandfather, ISTumitor, the rightful claimant to the throne. They then resolved to found a city, and while laying the founda- tions, Remus was slain by his brother, who was offended because he had contemptuously leaped over the wall. Romulus, thus left in sole authority, completed the city upon the Palatine Hill, named it Roma, (B. C. 752,) and peopled it by inviting thither all slaves, criminals, and other lawless persons from the surrounding country. He was chosen king, and a council of a hundred senators was appointed. "Women alone were wanting to the new state, and as the neighbouring people declined intermarriage, Romulus resorted to stratagem to accomplish his wishes. Having instituted a feast to Neptune, with attractive games, he invited the surrounding people, who came readily, and among them the Sabines, a warlike nation in the vicinity. While all were intent upon the spectacle, the Roman youth suddenly rushed armed into the assembly, and carried off the youngest and most beautifal women. War of course ensued, and, after mutual successes and reverses, was at last ended by the intervention of the captured females, who, now reconciled to their ravishers, rushed into the midst of battle, and besought their husbands and parents to relin- quish arms. Peace was restored, Tatius, a Sabine king, being admitted to share 128 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. the tlirone with Romulus, and a hundred Sabines being introduced into the senate. The city retained its name, but the citizens were called Quirites, after Cures, a Sabine town — a name which they always retained. Romulus, affecting supreme power, was, it is said, after a reign of thirty-seven years, assassinated by the senators, and his remains care- fully concealed; while the people were persuaded into a belief that he had been translated to heaven as a god. A temple was dedicated to him under the name of Quirinus. He was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and a man of great learning, piety, and justice. So wise and virtuous was his reign, that the people supposed him to be intimate with the nymph Egeria, and to receive instruction from her. He built temples, insti- tuted sacred ceremonies, divided among the poorer people the lands obtained by war, and effaced the distinction between the Roman and Sabine population. He died, after a peaceful reign of forty-three years. After an interregnum (vacancy of the throne), Tullus Hostiiius was next elected, (U. C* 82,) a prince of warlike disposition, who soon commenced hostilities against the Albans. As battle was about to be joined, it was proposed and agreed to stake the event upon a combat between three champions on each side. With the Romans were three brothers called the Horatii, and with the Albans three others called the Curatii, all of great strength and courage. The account of the contest and its sequel is romantic and interesting. The Romans triumphed, and the Alban army and people submitted. Ancus Marcius, the grandson of Numa, was the next king, (U. C. 115,) being elected by the people, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. Like his ancestor, he was of a pacific and virtuous charac- ter, though possessing talents for warfare. Attacked by the Latins, he defeated them, destroyed their cities, and removed the inhabitants to Rome. He likewise obtained success over other enemies. He beautified and fortified the city, and, among other public works, built the sea-port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, a foreigner from Corinth, succeeded to the throne. He gained victories over several of the adjoining nations, and improved the city with public edifices. He first assumed * U. C, "Urbe Condita," — "from the foundation of the city," which took place, according to this account, B. C. 752. ROME. 129 tke emblems of royalty in tlie shape of crown, throne, and sceptre. After a reign of thirty-eight years, he was murdered by the sons of Ancus Marcius. Servius Tullius, his son-in-law, was raised to the throne by the voice of the senate only. He repaid this service by increasing their power as much as possible, at the expense of the people's. After a prosperous reign of forty-four years, he was murdered by his son-in- law Lucius Tarquinius, who ascended the throne, (U. C. 220,) being the seventh and last king of the Roman people. Secure in power, the usurper governed with great tyranny and cruelty. He put to death all who had been attached to the late king, and, to overawe the people, increased the guard around his person. By force and treachery, he gained many advantages over the surrounding nations ; and to employ his people, completed the building of the capitol. In his reign the famous Sybilline Books were also purchased, and deposited in the new edifice. The lawless passions of his son Sextus, who had committed an outrage on Lucretia, the wife of Collatinus, cost him his throne. Revenge was sought by the injured family, and especially by Junius Brutus, whose father and brother had been murdered by the king. Exposing the body of Lucretia (who had stabbed herself) in the public forum, he so excited the vengeance of the citizens, that a decree was passed, by which the whole family of Tarquin was dethroned and banished. The exiled prince took refuge in Etruria, after a reign of twenty-five years (U. C 245). It would appear that the Roman nation, under the latter kings, was more powerful, and more commercial in its nature, than has been generally supposed; for a treaty with Carthage was made about this time, by which the respective limits of navigation and the rules of international commerce were prescribed. The maritime skill of the Romans, however, became almost entirely disused and forgotten during the decline of their power which succeeded. 9 130 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. \j (L(L luuj Jf w iLi ujO Ui ui e THE CONSULS, DICTATORS, TRIBUNES, AND DECEMVIRS. WARS WITH THE VOLSCIANS AND WITH VEIL DECLINE OF THE ROMAN POWER. A MORE republican form of government was now instituted, tlie influence of the senate, however, being still predominant. Two magistrates, called consuls, (or probably at first praetors,) were annu- ally chosen from that body by the people, with authority equal to that possessed by the kings. Brutus and Collatinus were first elected to the office. A great danger soon menaced the new commonwealth. A conspiracy in favour of Tarquin was formed by some of the young men at Eome. Among them were the sons of Brutus and the nephews of Collatinus. The plot was discovered, and the conspira- tors condemned to death — Brutus alone beholding, with unfaltering countenance, the execution of his children. Tarquin, assisted by the Veiians, with a considerable force, marched upon Eome ; Brutus and Valerius went forth to oppose him. The former, meeting Aruns, the son of Tarquin, in single fight, both were slain ; a desperate contest ensued between the two armies, and Valerius, having obtained the advantage, returned to Eome. The defeated adventurer next sought assistance from Porsenna, a valiant and powerful king of the Etrurians. Marching to Eome with a numerous army, and laying siege to it, they gained great advan- tages, and would have taken the city, but for the valour of Horatius Codes, who, with two others, defended the entrance to a bridge over the Tiber, until it had been broken down by the citizens ; then plunging with his arms into the torrent, he swam safely to the oppo- site shore. The city was now blockaded, and the besieged began to suffer extremities from hunger. In this strait, Mutius Scsevola, a young man of great bravery, entered the camp of the invader in disguise, determined to kill the Etrurian king, and deliver his country. Having by mistake stabbed the royal secretary, he was taken and brought before Porsenna, where, being interrogated, he at once avowed his intention ; and EOME. 231 thrusting liis right hand into a fire which glowed upon the altar, manifested his contempt of torture. He further assured the king that three hundred Roman youths had taken a vow to accomplish the same deed which he had attempted. It is said that Porsenna, struck with his heroism, dismissed him, and shortly afterwards granted peace to the besieged, on the deliverance of hostages. (It is thought by some tliat this invasion of Eome resulted in the entire subjugation of the people, and that it did not reappear as an independent power until some time afterwards, and then with the loss of great portions of its territories. It should be remarked that the chronology up to this time, and somewhat later, is entirely defective — the events alluded to having probably occurred at a much earlier period than that which is thus ascribed to them.) A further disagreement between the people and the nobility resulted in the appointment of a dictator, who was invested with absolute power over both (U. C. 255). Largius, who was first appointed, exercised his authority in a lenient manner for a short time, and then resigned it. The plebeians, or common people, (of whom the army was composed,) weary of the oppressive conduct of the nobility, who, as their creditors, held them in almost complete servitude, took a new and singular resolution. Headed by a plebeian, named Sicinius Bellutus, they quitted the city en masse, and encamped upon the Mons Sacer, (the Sacred Mountain, so called from this event,) about three miles from Eome. After some ineffectual negotiation, ten commissioners were appointed by the senate to confer with them, and settle the matters in dispute. Among -these was Menenius Agrippa, a man of great shrewdness and humour, who, to persuade and amuse the discontented plebeians, related to them the well-known fable of "the belly and the members," showing the mutual depend- ance of the people and their rulers. It was finally conceded that a new office should be instituted, charged expressly with the protection of the popular rights. Five tribunes (afterwards increased to ten) were to be annually elected by the people, and in them was to be vested the power of confirming or annulling every decree of the senate. Besides this formidable concession, an edict was made for the abolition of debts; and the people, having carried their demands triumphantly, returned in peace to the city (U. C. 260). Tillage having been neglected during this difficulty, famine ensued ; which, however, Avas relieved by the importation of grain from Sicily. 132 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOKY. Coriolanus, a distinguished noble and general, opposing the distri- bution of this to the people, was cited by the tribunes to undergo a popular trial; and other charges being alleged against him, was condemned to banishment. In the midst of great lamentation, especially of the senate, he quitted the city, and took refuge with Tullus Attius, a powerful chief of the Yolscians, and a determined enemy of Eome. His resentment soon made itself formidable. On a slight pretext, the new confederates declared war against Eome, and marched toward the city, devastating all lands except such as belonged to the nobility. The Eomans, filled with consternation, and finding the arms of their ablest general turned against them, made but a feeble resistance, and took refuge in their city. After taking many of their towns, he sat down, with a numerous army, before the walls of Eome. The citizens, dreading the worst, sent out an embassy to deprecate his vengeance, and obtain moderate terms of peace. It was dismissed with contempt, and another, composed of priests, pontiffs, and augurs, shared the same fate. At last, yielding to the entreaties of his wife and mother, who came forth beseeching him to spare the city, he consented to withdraw his arniy, exclaiming, " Oh, my mother, thou hast saved Eome, but lost thy son!" Not long afterwards, he was slain in a tumult by the discontented Volscians. Soon after these events, Spurius Cossus, aiming at supreme power, was thrown headlong from the Tarpeian Eock; the customary punishment of traitors. Great dissensions now arose between the senate and people on account of an agrarian law, or edict for the division of public lands, which was proposed by the tribunes. A dictatorship was again resorted to, and the most fitting occupant of this high office was found in Cincinnatus, a man of great virtue and poverty, who quitted his little farm to assume the entire control of aftairs at Eome. By his influ- ence with the people, he restored harmony, postponed the passage of the obnoxious law, and induced thern again to enlist in the army — a refusal to do which was their common method of testifying resentment and embarrassing the government. He retired, but was soon again summoned from his seclusion by the necessities of the state. The Equi and Yolsci, resuming the war, had made fresh inroads, and at last besieged the consul, Minu- tius, with his army, in a narrow defile, whence he could not escape. Cincinnatus, hastily levying forces, marched to his aid, and the Equi, THE MOTHER OE COEIOLANUa ENTREATING HER SON THAT ROME MAT MR STARED 'VoLUMNiA. — — — — — He turns awiiy! Down, ladies; let us shame him -^-ith our knees; To his surname, Coriolanus, 'longs more pride Than pity to our pirayers. Do^wn ; an end: This is the last; so Ave -will home to Evome, And die among our neighhoiirs. Coriolanus. — — — Oh, mother! mother!' What have you done? Behold, the heavens do opie, The gods look down, and this unnatural scene They laugh at. Oh, my mother, mother! Oh, You have won a happy victory for Rome , Eut for your son — helieve it, oh, helieve it! — Most dangerously with him you have prevailed. If not most mortal to him." Shakspeare EOME. 1 V J-Ot attacked on both sides, were compelled to surrender. The officers were sent to Eome, and the soldiers were obliged to pass under the 3'^oke, in token of humiliation. Having further taken their city, and fortified it for the Romans, he resigned his command, and returned to the quiet seclusion of his farm. The clamours for the agrarian law were soon renewed; and with reason: for the people, who, by their bravery and endurance, had gained the enemy's lands, Avere debarred from sharing them. Being strongly urged by Siccius Dentatus, a veteran soldier, it would probably have passed, but for the violence of the young patricians, who, attacking the crowd, destroyed the balloting urns, and defeated the resolution (U. C. 302). Both senate and people were now desirous of adjusting their disputes by the adoption of a written code of laws, which should be obligatory on all parties. Three commissioners were despatched to Athens and other Grecian cities, to collect and bring home the most useful laws and institutions which they could discover. During their absence, a terrible plague ravaged the city. At the end of a year they returned, having collected a number of ordinances, which were embodied in ten tables, which, with the subsequent addition of two more, formed the celebrated code of the "twelve tables," some frag- ments of which remain to the present day. It was resolved that ten of the senate should be annually elected, with power equal to that of the consuls, to carry the laws into effect; and these decemvirs, by private agreement, each exercised authority in turn for one day. Artfully procuring their power to be extended beyond the stated term, they soon commenced acts of tj^ranny and proscription, aggravated by the popular resistance. No one ven- tured to attack them openly, being surrounded at all times by a host of lictors and dependants. The Volsci and Equi, constant enemies of Rome, profiting by the general discontent, renewed their attacks, and even advanced within ten miles of the city. Appius, one of the decemvirs, with a portion of the army, was left at Rome, to overawe the people, and his col- leagues, with the remainder, marched out to meet the enemy. They were shamefully put to flight ; the people, after their usual fashion, testifying their discontent by refusing to engage. Dentatus, being sent to the army, as legate, was assassinated by order of the treach- erous decemvirs, after a brave resistance, in which he killed many of his assailants. 134 THE PEorLE's book of histoey. A deed yet more detestable was now perpetrated at Eome. Appius, a man of unbridled passions, and utterly lawless, one day, sitting on liis tribunal, beheld a beautiful young girl, named Vir- ginia, about fifteen years of age, passing on lier way to school. He at once determined, at all hazards, to possess her, and made inquir- ies concerning her parentage, and all other circumstances. She was the daughter of Virginius, a centurion, then with the army, and was contracted to Icilius, a tribune of the people. After several fruitless attempts, he suborned a villanous dependant to claim her as his slave, and to swear that she had been born in his house, and adopted by the wife of Virginius, who was childless. Virginius hastened to Rome, and exposed the falsehood of the claim by indis- putable proof; yet the wicked decemvir gave judgment that his daughter should be delivered up to the new claimant. The centu- rion, under pretext of taking farewell of his child, was permitted to speak with her privately, and seizing a knife from the shambles near the forum, embraced her, and stabbed her to the heart. Then, devoting Appius to the infernal gods, he hastened to the army, and excited a general insurrection. The people left their commanders, and again sullenly too]^ their station on Mount Aventine, whither they had retired forty years before. The tumult in the city increased, the senate succimibed, and eight of the decemvirs went into exile. Appius and his remaining col- league, being thrown into prison, ended their lives by suicide. Meanwhile, the hostile nations in the vicinity became bolder and more successful, sometimes carrying their incursions to the very walls of Rome. Dissension within still prevailed. The senate, with indignation, submitted to a law proposed by the tribunes, allowing intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians ; another, permit- ting consuls to be chosen from the latter, they absolutely refused to pass. The people then resorted to their old expedient of refusing- enlistment ; and a compromise was finally entered into, by which it was agreed that in place of the consuls, six military tribunes should be appointed, of whom half might be chosen from the people (U. C. 310). The new aiithorities, before long, were discontinued, and the consuls resumed their function. A new office, that of censor, was now instituted, the business of which was to estimate the property and numbers of the citizens, to oversee morals, and to degrade nobles, knights, and plebeians, for misconduct, into a lower rank. The THE DEATH OF VIRGINIA. — — — — — — 'Spurned, "betrayed, berefc, Thy father hath in his despair one fearful refuge lei't He little deems that in this hand I clutch what still can save Thy gentle youth from taunts and blows, the portion of the slave , Tea, and from nam.eless evil, that passeth taunt and blow — Foul outrage which thou know'st not, which thou shalt never know Then clasp me round the neck once more, and give me one more kiss And now, mine own dear little girl, there is no way but this.' With that he lifted high the steel, and smote her in the side. And in her blood she sank to earth, and with one sob she died Then, for a little moment, all people held their breath, And through the crowded forum was stillness as of death, And in another moment broke forth from one and all A cry as if the Volscians were coming o'er the wall." La.ys of Ancient P^ome KOME. 135 incumbent was cliosen every fifth year, and was usually a patrician. Concord was thus, in some measure, restored; and was farther enhanced by a victory over the Volscians under Geganius the consul. A famine arising, Spurius Melius, a wealthy Equestrian, took advantage of it to increase his popularity by importing and distrib- uting corn to the people in great quantities. Thus strengthened, he conspired to seize the government. Suspicion was aroused, and, to meet the crisis, Cincinnatus, now eighty years old, was again chosen dictator. Melius refused to appear before him ; and resisting Ahala, his deputy, was killed by the latter on the spot. The people, who espoused the cause of Melius, again demanded military tribunes. The senate complied, but they were soon again discontinued and consuls reappointed. The inhabitants of Yeii had long been at enmity with Eome ; and it was determined to destroy their city. The siege is said, probably with exaggeration, to have lasted ten years, and to have consumed by warfare or exposure a great part of the population of Eome, It was at last taken by a mine, under Furius Camillus, who had been appointed dictator ;~ and the Eomans also regained much of the territory which they had lost in fornaer wars. The siege of Falerii was noted for the treachery of a school-master, who, having charge of the children of the chief men of the city, delivered them up as hostages ; and for the magnanimity of Camillus, who returned them to their parents. The dictator, soon after falling before the caprice of the multitude, was cited for trial, and refusing to submit to it, took refuge in Ardea, a city not far from Eome. He was adjudged, in his absence, to pay a heavy fine. kj Jjjj ciii) i X lLI i)X Ji X X a THE INVASION OF THE GAULS. A NEW and terrible danger now threatened the destruction of Eome. A vast number of Gauls, issuing from their forests beyond the Alps, commenced to overrun Italy, and wherever they made their appearance, dispossessed the original inhabitants. Of giant 136 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. stature and barbarian manners, they struck witb terror tlie more effeminate Italians. The inhabitants of Clusium, a city of Etruria, being besieged by them, sought the assistance of Eome. An embassy of three senators was accordingly sent to interfere in their behalf These, after vainly attempting negotiation, entered the city, and headed a sally of the besieged. Enraged at this interference, the Gauls immediately broke up their encampment, and marched directly upon Rome. Leaving the intervening countries unharmed, they pursued a steady course toward the city. A Roman army, which encountered them near the river Allia, was totally defeated, with a loss of nearly forty thousand men. The city now lay at their mercy, and most of the inhabitants took refuge in the neigh- bouring towns. After two days of feasting and exultation on the scene of their victory, the barbarian army marched to Rome, which they found almost abandoned, except by a force in the capitol. It is related, probably with invention or exaggeration, that these rude natives of the forest, entering the forum, and beholding the most aged senators and priests sitting in their robes of office, each with an ivory sceptre, supposed them to be the tutelary deities of the place, and would have offered them worship. One of them, through curiosity, attempting to stroke the beard of Papyrius, a noble Roman, was struck to the earth by his sceptre; upon which an indiscriminate slaughter of the senate and all the remaining inhabitants took place. The city was then set on fire, and all the houses burned to the ground; the capitol, strongly fortified and bravely defended, still held out. An attack by night was made, and would have been successful, but for the alarm given by the cries of certain geese, sacred to Juno, which were kept in her temple. The assault being thus discovered in time, the Gauls were repulsed, and many of them thrown from the top of the precipice. Despairing of taking the fortress, Brennus, their leader, agreed to withdraw his army on payment of a thousand pounds of gold. While it was being weighed out, amid the insults of the conqueror, Camillus suddenly appeared at the head of a large army, which he had raised for the assistance of his countrymen. Commanding the gold to be restored to its coffers, he sternly informed the Gauls that it was the custom with Romans to ransom their country with iron alone; a battle instantly ensued, in which the Gauls were utterly defeated, and compelled to fly the country. EOME. 1^>j This account of tlie return of Camillus, is by some considered untrue, though it is certain that the invaders were compelled to abandon their conquest. The city (except the capitol) was now a heap of ruins, and the people, in despair, wished to abandon it entirely, and make their homes at Veii. By the remonstrances of Camillus, this design was relinquished, fresh buildings were commenced, and Eome began to rise from her ashes. Domestic troubles soon again ensued. Manlius, a patrician, whose bravery in defending the capitol had induced the Eomans to provide him with a dwelling and public support, began to aspire to the sovereignty. To oppose his design, Cornelius Cossus was appointed dictator by the senate, but found his authority unequal in power to the popularity of Manlius, whose insolence and seditious conduct became worse and worse. As a last resort, Camillus was appointed military tribune, and summoned Manlius to take his trial before the people. They refused to condemn him while in sight of the capitol, the scene of his former patriotism ; but the trial being adjourned to another place, he was found guilty, and sentenced to be thrown from the Tarpeian Eock. About this time occurs the fabulous tale of a gulf which opened in the midst of Eome, widened daily, and refused to close, until Curtius, a brave soldier, devoting himself to the good of his country, leaped in, and was swallowed up. Such relations as this, cause us to look with distrust upon other matters recorded by the early historians, especially their narratives of personal adventures. From this time, however, the history of Eome becomes far more reliable, and its authenticity is soon found to be unquestionable. CHAPTEH 17. THE WARS WITH THE SAMNITES, THE LATINS AND PYREHTJS. A WAE soon occurred between the Eomans and the Samnites, a I powerful nation in the south of Italy. The consul Cornelius led an | army against Samnium, and obtained signal success ; his colleague, ! 138 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Yalerius Corvus, who had gone to the relief of Capua, also gained a great victory over the enemy on his way. A large force was left at Capua, which soon became mutinous, and marched back to within eight miles of Eome, Corvus was appointed dictator, and led out an army against them ; a terrible civil contest, however, was averted by his moderation and influence with the soldiery. The Eomans were next engaged in war with the Latins ; and the similarity of the two nations in language, arms, and appearance, was so great, that the strictest discipline was required to prevent con- fusion. Orders were issued by Manlius, the consul, that no one should leave the ranks, on pain" of death, at any provocation what- ever. As the battle commenced, Metius, the Latin general, riding before the Eoman lines, challenged any knight in their armj^ to a single combat. Titus Manlius, son of the consul, unable to resist the temptation, encountered him, and after a desperate conflict, slew and despoiled him of his armour. To the horror of the whole army, the rule was enforced, and the youth publicly beheaded by the lictors, at the command of his own father. The battle lasted long, and the issue was doubtful, when Decius, a tribune of the people, who commanded the left wing, resolved to offer his life to his country, by fulfilling an augury, which foretold success to the party whose general should voluntarily seek destruc- tion. Having solemnly devoted himself, as a sacrifice, to the infernal and celestial gods, he rushed on horseback into the midst of the enemy, and, covered with wounds, expired. The Eomans, emulating his example, and encouraged by the prophecy, gained so complete a victory that the enemy was almost exterminated. The Latins were compelled to sue for peace; their chief city, Ptedaeum, was taken, not long after, and they were reduced to entire subjection (U. C. 431.) The contest with the Samnites still continued. The Eomans, having refused to make peace, suffered a signal reverse. Their army, being entrapped into a narrow defile by Pontius, the Samnite general, was compelled to capitulate, and then, disarmed and half- stripped, to pass under the yoke. This incident caused the deepest mortification at Eome. The success of the Samnites, however, was but temporary, and their enemies, under Papyrius Cursor and Fabius Maximus, gained repeated triumphs, and finally reduced them to an enfeebled condition. In this extremity, the defeated nation sought assistance from KOME. 139 Pjrrhus, the powerful and warlike king of Epirus. This monarch, of great talents and ambition, readily undertook a scheme which promised farther conquests, and first sent them a force of three thousand men, under the command of Cineas, a distinguished soldier and orator. He soon afterwards followed in person, with a force of twenty-three thousand men and twenty elephants. A great part of his armament was, however, dispersed and lost in a tempest. Arriving with the remainder at Tarentum, he took the entire command, and instituted strict discipline among the luxurious inhabitants of that city. The Eomans omitted no preparations for defence ; and the consul Ltevinus, with a numerous army, was despatched to oppose him. Rejecting an offer of mediation from Pyrrhus, he pitched his camp on one bank of the river Lyris, while his antagonist occupied the other ; somewhat disappointed by the able disposition of the Roman forces. The battle was commenced by Lajvin^is, who crossed the river in spite of opposition, and the action soon became general. This battle, the first in which the Greeks and Romans had encoun- tered each other, was long and obstinately disputed; but the scale was finally turned in favour of Pyrrhus by his elephants, which struck terror into the minds of the inexperienced Romans. A charge of the famous Thessalian cavalry completed their defeat, and they retreated, leaving fifteen thousand men upon the field. The victory had cost the Epirotes almost as dearly. The king, struck with admiration at the bravery of his opponents, and surveying the manly forms stretched upon the battle-ground, is said to have exclaimed, "With what ease I could conquer the world, if I had the Romans for soldiers, or if they had me for their king!" Cineas was now despatched to Rome with overtures of peace, which were sternly rejected, except upon condition that the foreign auxiliaries should leave the shores of Italy. Returning, he informed his master that the city seemed peopled by kings, and that the senate was like an assembly of demi-gods seated in a temple. Undismayed at their defeat, the Romans renewed the war ; and, with a force of about forty thousand, encountered the enemy, equal in numbers, near Asculum. After a fiercely-disputed contest, the Romans, under their consuls, Decius and Sulpicius, were again defeated, with a loss of six thousand men. The loss of Pyrrhus was almost as severe, and he exclaimed to those who congratulated him, "One such victory more, and I shall be undone!" The Romans, though defeated, were still magnanimous; and an 140 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. offer by the physician of Pjrrhus to take off his master by poison, was at once disclosed to him. As an acknowledgment of their courtesy, he dismissed his prisoners without ransom, and again offered to negotiate a peace. This was refused, except upon the same condition as before, and, after an interval of two years, both parties renewed the war, Pyrrhus, strengthened by new levies, despatched one part of his army against Lentulus, the Eoman consul, and marched in person with the remainder against Curius Dentatus, Failing in his attempt to surprise the latter by night, battle was joined, and finding his opponents gaining the advantage, he brought up his elephants to the attack. These, however, had now lost their original terror, and the Eomans, with flaming balls of tow and rosin, drove them back into the ranks of the enemy, and soon put his entire army into confusion. In spite of the greatest exertions of Pyrrhus, he was utterly defeated, with a loss of twenty-three thousand troops. His camp was also taken, and the Romans learned, from its construction, most important lessons in the art of entrenchment. The war had now lasted six years, and Pyrrhus, finding little to be gained among these stubborn, impracticable people, took his departure, leaving only a garrison in Tarentum, This also was reduced, not long afterwards, by a combined force from Rome and Carthage, acting under the ancient treaty of the kings, which had lately been revived with additional provisions for mutual assistance in time of war. The walls were demolished, but the inhabitants were treated with mildness and lenity. CHAPTER ?, THE FIRST PUNIC WAR. The amicable relations of Rome and Carthage were of short continuance. The latter, a flourishing colony founded by the Phoenicians on the coast of Africa, (about 889, B, C) had now become one of the most powerful nations on the earth. She was EOME, 141 in possession of a part of Sicily, and had long been ambitious of adding the whole island to her territories. Pyrrhus himself had predicted the contest which ensued. Hiero, the king of Syracuse, attempting to reduce a revolted garrison at Messina, its defenders applied for assistance to both the rival nations. Each sent a force, with intent to gain possession of the place, and the Carthagenians, who had arrived first, were dispossessed by the Eomans. A war thus broke out, the cause of which, a mutual jealousy, had been evident for some time, and had even showed itself in the siege of Tarentum (U. C. 490). Carthage, essentially a maritime nation, possessed great advantages in her fleets and the skill of her seamen ; the Eomans were at this period almost wholly unacquainted with the construction or naviga- tion of vessels. With indomitable perseverance, however, they set to work; and a Carthagenian galley, wrecked on the shore at Messina, is said to have served them for a model in the art of ship- building. A fleet being finally equipped, ventured to sea under the consul Decilius, and with characteristic audacity and good fortune, engaged the Carthagenians, and defeated them, with a loss of fifty ships. The senate now resolved to carry the war into Africa, and des- patched to the enemy's shores a fleet of three hundred sail, carrying an hundred and forty thousand men, under command of Manlius and of Eegulus, the most eminent Eoman general then living. They were engaged by the Carthagenians with an equal force, and, though worsted in manoeuvring and fighting at a distance, soon dis- covered their superiority in close combat. The fleet of the enemy was dispersed, and fifty -four vessels were taken. Following up their advantage, the Eomans made a descent upon the coast of Africa, and took the city of Clypea, with twenty thousand prisoners of war. The charge of the war in Sicily was now committed to Manlius, and Eegulus continued to prosecute the campaign in Africa. This he did with such energy and success, that, after sustaining a fresh defeat, the Carthagenians were reduced almost to despair, and more than eighty of their towns submitted to the Eomans. As a last resort, they sent to Lacedsemon, and engaged the services of Xantippus, a commander of experience and distinction. By his skill and discipline, and by the confidence which he revived, their affairs soon began to wear a more cheerful aspect. His forces being sufficiently trained, he took the field, supplied with cavalry, 142 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. elephants, and otlier necessary forces, and in a great battle com- pletely defeated the Eomans, destroyed the greater part of their army, and captured Regulus himself. Fresh disasters awaited them; their whole fleet was lost in a storm ; another, which they built, was driven upon quicksands, and shared a similar fate ; and Agrigentum, an important town in Sicily, was taken from them by Karthalo, the Carthagenian general. Satisfied with these successes, Carthage would willingly have made peace; and for this purpose sent ambassadors to Rome, carry- ing with them Regulus, who had now been confined in a dungeon for four years. A promise to return, if peace was not agreed upon, was exacted from him ; and his captors supposed that all his influence would be exerted to effect an arrangement so much for his interest, especially as his life depended on the result. Arrived at Rome, he refused to enter the walls or to behold his dwelling, alleging that he was still a slave of the Carthagenians. A council was held by the senate, and proposals of peace were made by the ambassadors. The Romans, wearied with a war which had now been protracted more than eight years, were not averse to the proposition. But, to the surprise of all, Regulus, who gave his opinion last, strongly advised against any other course than that of continuing the war. The senate, moved by this magnanimity, were unwilling to devote him to certain destruction ; but he insisted on the correctness of his views, refused to consent to a peace, and, amid the lamentations of the whole city, returned to Carthage with the ambassadors. The enraged and disappointed citizens put him to death with the most cruel and studied tortures. The war was now recommenced with fresh animosity. Victory soon declared itself with the Romans, who first, under Fabius Buteo, the consul, and again, under Lutatius Catulus, defeated their ene- mies at sea so signally, that their naval force was almost annihi- lated. The discomfited people now sued for peace, which was granted them only on the same terms which Regulus had formerly dictated at the gates of Carthage. They agreed to pay down a thousand talents of silver, (about one million of dollars,) to defray the expenses of the war, and, in ten years, two thousand two hundred more ; to quit Sicily entirely, to deliver up their prisoners, and never to molest a Roman ally, or come with a vessel of war within the Roman dominions. Thus ended the "First Punic War," (IT. C. 513,) after having lasted twenty-four years. EOME. 143 Soon after these events, the Romans, being at peace with all nations, began to give greater attention to the arts of polished and civilized life. Poetry began to flourish, especially satire; and the drama, principally formed on Greek models, succeeded. Pastoral and other poetry by degrees assumed its place, and became more refined and elegant. About U. C. 527, the Illyrians, a piratical nation, had despoiled certain subjects of Rome, and had murdered the ambassadors sent to complain and demand restitution. For this outrage, war was declared; many of their towns were taken, a great part of their country was compulsorily annexed to Rome, and a yearly tribute exacted from the remainder. The Gauls now made a fresh irruption into Italy, laying waste Etruria with fire and sword, till they had advanced within three days' journey of Rome. But the time had passed when these undis- ciplined barbarians, by the mere fury of their attack, could over- throw armies regularly disciplined. They were defeated by the consul with immense slaughter. Another victory was soon obtained by Marcellus, who slew their king with his own hand, and compelled them to retreat. They purchased peace on conditions which greatly strengthened the commonwealth. CHAPTER TI. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. At last, the Carthagenians, recovered from their exhaustion, recommenced the war ; and opened hostilities by besieging Sagun- tum, a city of Spain, and a faithful ally of Rome. Desistance and redress being refused, both parties prepared for another contest. The Carthagenians were now commanded by Hannibal, the most extraordinary general of antiquity. Of remarkable address in win- ning the affections and commanding the minds of others, he was perfectly skilled in all personal exercises and accomplishments. He was gifted with untiring perseverance, with most remarkable talent in the art of war, and by his personal courage and power of endurance, set an example to all under his command. 144 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. He possessed an hereditary enmity toward the Eomans; his father Hamilcar having caused him, in youth, solemnly to swear before the altar an eternal hatred and opposition to those enemies of his country. With equal boldness and sagacity, he determined to carry the war into Italy itself Leaving Hanno to secure his conquests in Spain, he raised a numerous army, and with a great force of elephants and cavalry, crossed the Pyrenees into Gaul, the modern France. March- ing with incredible celerity, and overcoming the most formidable obstacles, he arrived at the foot of the Alps, then covered with the snows of winter. Entering by the pass which appeared most practicable, (supposed to have been the lesser St. Bernard,) he pursued his Avay for fifteen days, amid difficulties which seemed almost insurmountable, and at last beheld the fertile plains of Italy spread before him. This terri- ble march had been commenced with upwards of an hundred thousand men; of which there remained on his arrival into Gaul fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse. Thirty -seven elephants only had survived the passage. These forces were yet further greatly reduced by the passage of the Alps. Scipio, who was sent to oppose him, retreated with considerable loss, while his adversary, by conciliating treatment, largely recruited his forces from the Gauls, through whose country he was passing.* A second battle was fought on the banks of the river Trebia, where the Carthagenian, by an artful manoeuvre, enticing the enemy to ford the river, easily defeated them, fatigued with the passage and benumbed by the coldness of the water. Twenty-six thousand were slain or drowned, and the remainder, ten thousand in number, fighting desperately, broke through the opposing ranks, and retreated to Placentia. The Romans sustained another and most terrible defeat near the lake of Thrasymene, where the scene of battle is still pointed out. The Carthagenian troops were posted on an eminence, overlooking the lake, and Flaminius, the Roman consul, imprudently led his forces into a narrow defile beneath it. So desperate was the contest that, according to Livy, during the battle, "An earthquake reeled unheededly away;" * The term Gallia (Gaul) was at this time applied to a vast region, extending from the Pyrenees into the north of Italy. KOME. 145 the fury of the combatants not allowing them to perceive it. The Romans were utterly defeated, with a loss of their general and fifteen thousand men. Six thousand were made prisoners. Tradi- tion has still preserved the remembrance of this ancient fight among the inhabitants, and a little rivulet still retains the name given it by the carnage of that day : * * * "And Sanguinetto* tells ye where the dead Made the earth wet, and turned the unwilling waters red." These successive disasters created the greatest consternation at Rome. Fabius Maximus, a commander of the highest reputation, was next appointed general, and determined upon pursuing an entirely new system of strategy. Avoiding a general engagement, he kept upon the higher ground, and harassed the enemy with annoying attacks, distressing his quarters, and cutting off his pro- visions. At one time he had enclosed the Carthagenians among mountains in such a manner that their extrication seemed impossi- ble, when Hannibal by a singular device forced his passage during the night. The term of office for which Fabius was elected having expired, he was succeeded by Terentius Varro, a rash and ignorant man, and by Paulus Emilius, a brave and prudent general. The colleagues, whose army was now increased to ninety thousand, marched in quest of Hannibal, who was encamped near the village of Cannse, with a force of about half that number. By an unwise arrangement, the two Roman generals, each in turn, commanded for a day. Emilius was averse to an engagement; but Varro on his day, without con- sulting his colleague, commenced the action. The Romans, ill-directed, and inferior in cavalry to their opponents, and embarrassed moreover by clouds of dust, which blew in their faces, were, after desperate exertions, routed and put to flight. Emilius, refusing to fly, died valiantly in the midst of the enemy, and an immense slaughter of his forces ensued. In this battle, the most disastrous that Roman arms ever experienced, fifty thousand men were left dead upon the field. At Rome, though firstly struck with consternation, the people bravely prepared for further hostilities. Thanks were even returned to Varro for not having despaired of the safety of the republic. * Sanguinetto. Literally, " the bloody brook," a name which, from similar circum- stances, hns been applied to streams in our own country. 10 146 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Fabius and Marcellus were again appointed to the command. Han- nibal now offered peace, but it was refused, as in the time of Pyrrbus, except on condition of bis evacuating Italy. Unable to march upon Eome, the Carthagenian general led his forces to Capua, where the softness of the climate, and the luxurious habits of the place, did much to enervate and enfeeble them. Up to this time, his career had been one of unvaried and astonishing success, A series of reverses now awaited him. Soon after the battle of Cannae, he was repulsed in an attempt upon the city of Naples, and, laying siege to Nola, a small town, met with a considerable loss from a sudden sally of Marcellus (U. C. 544). The war had been prolonged between the two armies for some 3^ears, without any decided advantage on either side, when the Car- thagenian senate resolved to send a body of troops to the assistance of their general, under his brother Asdrubal. After experiencing long and vexatious delays, the latter, emulating the exploit of Han- nibal, advanced by forced marches to Italy ; but was intercepted and defeated, with the loss of his life, by the consuls Nero and Livius. The Koman arms were not less successful elsewhere. Marcellus took the city of Syracuse, so ingeniously defended by the philoso- pher Archimedes. This great man, to the grief of the Roman general, was killed by a soldier while meditating in his study. In Spain, where two of the Scipio's had been slain, a third, the cele- brated Scipio Africanus, was destined to retrieve the fortunes of his family and of the Roman people. This famous commander was equally distinguished for his martial talents, and for the gentleness and amiability of his character. After subduing the forces of the enemy in Spain, he returned to Rome, and was chosen consul at the age of twenty-nine. He now resolved again to carry the war into Africa, and to divert the scene of contest from his own country. Soon after landing, he found himself opposed by Hanno; but the latter was defeated and slain. Syphax, who had usurped the throne of Numidia, led a large army against him. This prince, attacked in his camp, was also defeated, with the loss of an immense number of his followers. Carthage itself was now threatened with a siege, and positive commands were despatched to Hannibal that he should return for its defence. With the greatest grief and vexation he complied ; and with tears quitted that Italy which he had once almost conquered, and whose most beautiful regions he had held for sixteen years. EOME. 147 Arrived in Africa, lie marclied. to Zama, a city witliin five days' journey of Carthage; and the Koman general, reinforced by Massin- issa the Numidian with six thousand cavalry, advanced to meet him. Negotiations for peace being vainly attempted, both parties prepared for battle; and the attack was commenced by the Carthagenians with their elephants. These being driven back, caused, as usual in such an event, the greatest confusion in their own ranks; and the Romans, with the assistance of Massinissa, who attacked their enemy in the rear, gained a complete victory. Twenty thousand Cartha- genians were killed in the battle and the pursuit, and as many more were taken prisoners. Hannibal, having done every thing which skill and courage could accomplish, fled with a small escort to Adramentum. By advice of their general, the defeated nation now sued for peace ; which was only granted them on conditions as severe as those to which they had formerly submitted. They were compelled by these to quit Spain and all the Mediterranean islands; to pay ten thousand talents (about ten millions of dollars) within fifty years, to deliver up their ships and elephants, and to make no war in Africa without permission of the Romans. Thus closed the "Second Punic War," after having lasted seventeen years, during which, Italy, Spain, and Africa had been the scene of fierce contention. CHAPTEK ?IL THE WARS WITH MACEDON, AND THE THIRD PFNIC WAR. During this time the Romans, at the solicitation of Athens, and in pursuance of their usual aggrandizing policy, had been also actively engaged in war with Macedon. Philip, king of that coun- try, had been defeated in several engagements by the consul Galba and by Quintus Flaminius. He was obhged to purchase a peace on expensive terms, and for the present the liberties of Greece seemed restored. They were next engaged in war with Antiochus, king of Syria; 148 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. who finally, with, an immense army, suffered a complete defeat from Scipio, near the city of Magnesia, and was compelled to submit to the severest conditions of peace. One of these was, to deliver up to the Komans their ancient enemy Hannibal, who, in his old age, had entered the service of Antiochus, and had been promoted by him to the command of his fleet. This celebrated general, quitting the country secretly, wandered among various states, vainly seek- ing protection, and at last took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia. -iiEmilius was sent to demand him, and the persecuted chief, per- ceiving that it was intended to surrender him, ended his days by poison. Rome was next engaged in a second war with Macedon (U. G. 553). Perseus, the son of Philip, after protracting the contest for three years, was completely defeated by ./Emilius, captured, and reserved to adorn the triumph* of his adversary. The fate of the unhappy Carthagenians was next resolved upon, and a pretext was readily found for recommencing hostilities. Massinissa, who had been restored by the Romans to the throne of Numidia, invaded a portion of their territory. Their defence against this attack was construed into an infraction of the treaty, and it was resolved to demolish their city, and for ever rid the Roman people of an enemy who had been so formidable. It is said that Cato, whenever the subject was introduced in the senate, invariably ended his remarks with the same inexorable sentence, "Delenda est Cartago," — " Carthage must he destroyed.'''' In spite of the entreaties of the unfortunate inhabitants, they were ordered to quit their city, that it might be levelled to the ground. Finding their supplications to the consuls ineffectual, they departed to their homes, resolved, with the courage of despair, to defend them to the last extremity. Every thing was now sacrificed to the terrible emergency. Vessels of gold and silver were converted into arms; the luxuriant tresses of the women were surrendered for bowstrings. Hasdrubal, their general, who had been imprisoned to appease the Romans, was placed in command, and the consuls arriving before the walls, found them strongly and skilfully fortified. Several attacks were repulsed with loss to the assailants, who had serious thoughts of raising the siege. Scipio ^milianus was now * It was customary at Rome, after any conquest or splendid exploit, to grant the successful commander a triumphal procession into the city, in which trophies of the enemy and any distinguished captives were exhibited to the people. EOME. 149 appointed to the command, and by the treachery of Phaneas, the master of the Carthagenian cavalry, he soon turned the tide of affairs. The walls were at last demolished, and the city, after an obstinate defence, taken ; many of its defenders throwing themselves into the flames rather than surrender. The city was levelled to the ground. Thus fell Carthage, after having flourished about seven hundred and fifty years, during a part of which, it had been among the most powerful of nations. Fresh conquests succeeded. ISTumantia, the most important city in Spain, was besieged by Scipio, and the inhabitants, in despair, set fire to it, and perished in the flames of their dwellings. All Spain was soon conquered, and formed into a Roman province, governed by two prsetors, appointed annually. The splendid city of Corinth was also taken and demolished by the consul Mummius. Many of the treasures of art which it con- tained were carried to Rome, and served as useful examples to the Italians in their future progress toward refinement. As an instance of their ignorance at this time of the true value of these monuments of genius, it is related that Mummius, to deter his soldiers from wanton injury, assured them that if they destroyed any statues or paintings, they would be compelled to make new ones to replace them. CHAPTER YIII. THE GRACCHI. THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. THE CIVIL WARS OF MARIUS AND SYLLA. The state, increased in wealth and numbers, soon after became a prey to domestic dissensions (U. C. 621). The overbearing influence of the patricians had formerly been repressed by a law called the Licinian, which provided that no one should hold in possession more than five hundred acres of land. Through the influence of Tiberius Gracchus, an eloquent and ambitious leader of the people, this law, to the great indignation of the nobles, was reenaeted. A fresh cause of dispute arose in a valuable legacy bequeathed to the nation 150 I'lIE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IlISTOKY. by a foreign prince. Gracclius proposed that tliis sliould be divided among the people. AVhile haranguing them, an attack was made upon him by the partisans of the senate, and, witli three hundred of his party, he was slain. In justification of this outrage, it was given out that he was aspiring to the sovereignty. By this act of violence, the aristocratic party gained a temporary cessation from popular opposition ; but a new and more formidable opponent awaited them. Caius, the brother of their victim, had been overlooked in the massacre on account of his youth; but having attained to maturer years, he acquired a high reputation in the army for virtue and courage. The king of Nvimidia, sending a present of corn to Rome, desired his ambassadors to say that the offering was a compliment to the merits of Caius Gracchus. The senate, indignant at this mark of attention to their hereditary foe, dismissed them with contempt, as barbarians. They could hardly have taken a step more fatal to their own interests. Gracchus immediately left the army, came to Rome, was elected tribune, in spite of all their opposition, and prepared to stand forward as the champion of popular rights. He commenced his attack by a scrutiny into the corruptions of the senate; and the greater part of its members being found guilty of bribery, extortion, and other venalities, the trial of magistrates was transferred to the knights. Among other popular measures, he regulated the sale of corn, and extended the freedom of the city to all on the Italian side of the Alps — a measure designed to hold in check the patrician influence within the walls. The Licinian law was again revived. The patrician party left no means of opposition unused. Opimius, the consul, enlisted a number of mercenaries in his service, and sought by all methods to provoke an open contest. In his third competition for the tribuneship, Gracchus was defeated ; it was supposed through the falsity of the returning of&cers. After various quarrels between the two parties, Gracchus and his followers left the city, and encamped on Mount Aventine. A reward was offered by the senate for his head, and for that of Flaccus, a popular tribune. The people gradually falling off, Opimius, with an armed force, made a furious attack upon the remainder, and slaugh- tered three thousand unresisting citizens. Gracchus, pursued by the enemy, took refuge in a grove dedicated to the Furies, and there persuaded a slave, who followed him, to take his life. These trans- actions, which lasted a number of years, have iTSually been called EOME. 251 "the sedition of the Gracchi," but seem rather to deserve the title of a civil dispute, in which the patricians, from their violence and martial spirit, gained the advantage. The nation was now subjected to an odious aristocracy, composed not only of the nobles, but of all who had acquired wealth. By means of the laws concerning debt, the poorer classes were almost effectually enslaved; and the tribunes, prosperous themselves, no longer stood forward in defence of their rights, but rather aided the nobility. A war in Africa next engaged the attention of the nation. Jugurtha, a grandson of Massinissa, and usurper of the throne of Numidia, had murdered Hiempsal, the rightful heir, whose brother Adherbal fled to Rome, and entreated assistance. The ambassadors of Jugurtha, by large bribes to the senate, procured the most valuable share of the kingdom to be decreed to their master; and he soon took advantage of this position to besiege, capture, and murder Adherbal. To avenge this crime and the slight thrown upon Rome, an army was sent against him, which was beaten, and obliged to pass under the yoke. Metellus, the succeeding consul, took command ; and in the course of two years, defeated the usurper in several battles, and forced him to fly the country, and sue for peace. By an artful intrigue, Caius Marius, his lieutenant, a man of great talent, ferocity, and courage, obtained the consulship for himself, and reaped all the fruits of victory. Jugurtha, in despair, sought the aid of his father- in-law, Bocchus, king of Mauritania. After meeting with some slight success, they were defeated, with immense loss, in two engage- ments. By the artful persuasions of Sylla the quaestor, the Mauri- tanian treacherously consented to deliver up his guest; who, being entrapped, under pretext of an interview, was carried in chains to Rome, adorned the triumph of his victor, and perished of starvation in prison. About this time most of the Italian states had entered into a con- federacy against Rome to extort from the senate an admission to the freedom of the city, and for the redress of other grievances ; and the contest which followed, called "the Social War," lasted for two years. The senate then yielded to their demands for the most part, and arms were laid aside, after the most devastating slaughter on both sides. Two victories, which Marius gained over the Gauls, increased his renown ; and, supported by the popular party, he began to entertain the most ambitious hopes. 152 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Mithridates, king of Pontus, the most powerful monarch of the East, was the enemy whom Rome next encountered. The command of the forces despatched against him was, by an intrigue of Marius, transferred from Sylla to himself The soldiers, however, refused to accept the change, put to death the officers whom he sent, and, placing Sylla at their head, marched to Rome. Marius and his party, after vainly opposing them, were compelled to seek safety in flight ; and Sylla found himself in complete possession of the city. The defeated leader, at the age of seventy, was declared a public enemy. Closely pursued, he took refuge in the marshes of Minturnas, and being there discovered, was carried prisoner to a neighbouring town. The governor, solicitous of pleasing the successful party, sent a Cimbrian slave to despatch him in prison ; but the barbarian was so much awed by the fierceness and majesty of his demeanour, that he returned, saying it was impossible. His master, touched at this circumstance, dismissed his prisoner, and supplied him with a ship to leave the shores of Italy. Repelled from Sicily, he landed in Africa, and seated himself among the ruins of Carthage, a scene congenial to his fallen for- tunes. Ordered to retire by the Roman praetor, he spent the winter at sea, vainly endeavouring to find a refuge with some protecting power. "While in this deplorable situation, he learned that Cinna, an able member of his faction, had raised a large army in Italy, and was anticipating a successful movement against the predominant fac- tion. Marius hastened to join him. Sylla was absent, contending with Mithridates, and his opponents, entering the city, made a terrible slaughter among all who were obnoxious to them. They then caused themselves to be declared consuls, and shortly afterwards Marius died, glutted in his last hours with ambition and revenge. Sylla, on hearing the news, at once made peace with Mithridates, and set out on his return. Cinna, while making preparations to oppose him, perished in a mutiny, and Scipio, the consul, having agreed on an armistice, his troops, seduced by those of Sylla, left him in a body. The younger Marius, who inherited the talents and ambition of his father, still maintained a claim to the supreme authority; but eight legions of his army were defeated by Pompey (afterwards the Great), and the remainder, under Carbo and Urba- nus, by Metellus. Sylla again entered Rome in triumph, and, while addressing the senate in a quiet manner, caused eight thousand EOME. 153 of Ms enemies to be put to death. He furtlaer proscribed an infinite number of senators, knights, and wealthy citizens. Invested with an absolute and perpetual dictatorship, he ruled with the caprice of tyranny for three years, and then, to the surprise of every one, resigned his authority, and retired into the country, where death soon overtook him (U. C. 680). ij Sa> JX i i &i dii i tA) , THE FIRST TEIUMYIRATE, AND THE WARS OF POMPEY AND CiESAR. PoMPEY and Crassus were now the two most conspicuous charac- ters in the state; the first from his military reputation, the latter from his inordinate wealth. Each sought to obtain the popular favour ; Crassus by largesses to the people, and Pompey by proposing democratic laws. He had lately gained great popularity by suppress- ing the pirates, who in vast numbers had infested the Mediterranean. The tribunes, who supported his interests, next proposed and carried a decree that the war against Mithridates, and the government of all Asia, should be committed to him alone. Superseding Lucullus, he completely overthrew the enemy, and added large regions to the Roman dominion. Meanwhile, a great danger menaced the very existence of the republic at home. Cataline, a patrician of the greatest ambition, courage, and dissoluteness — utterly unscrupulous, and overwhelmed with debt — formed a conspiracy to overthrow the government. Many of the nobility, in desperate circumstances, joined the plot, and it was resolved that, by a simultaneous moveinent, a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy, the capital fired, and the senate massacred. Lentulus, Cethegus, Gabinius, and many others of noble family, were implicated in this horrible design, and a part was assigned to each. By the address and vigilance of Cicero, who was then consul, their attempt in the city was disconcerted ; and the chief conspirators soon paid with their lives the penalty of their crime. Cataline, X54 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. escaping to Etruria, where lie had raised an army, took the field with twelve thousand men. Pursued by Petreius, the Eoman com- mander, they fought desperately, and were cut off almost to a man. Pompey had now returned from his conquests in the East, and the jealousy between him and Crassus was renewed. But a name destined to surpass them both was now becoming familiar on the lips of the Eoman people. Julius Caesar, a nephew of Marius, who had been praetor in Spain, returned with large resources and high reputation. He had alwaj^s been a favourite of the people, and a staunch supporter of popular decrees. By his intervention, the con- tending politicians were reconciled, and admitted the new comer into their councils. A triumvirate was thus formed, consisting of the three most influential men in the state, leagued together for mutual support, and entirely controlling the government (U. C. 694). Coesar was chosen consul, and farther ingratiated himself with the people, by procuring the passage of a new law for the division of public lands. By mutual agreement, the foreign provinces were shared among them. Pompey chose that of Spain, which, however, he governed by deput}?-, residing at his ease in Eome. Crassus selected Syria and the East; while to Cassar was assigned for five years the province of Gaul, offering an immense field for warlike operations. During his administration, which was continued for ten years, he performed the most remarkable exploits yet achieved by Eoman courage and discipline, fie subdued the Helvetians, with a loss of two hundred thousand of their fighting men ; reduced the Germans to submission ; and defeated the Belgi with a most terrible slaughter. The Nervii, the most warlike of these barbarous tribes, made a fierce resistance, and, though finally routed, at one time nearly destroyed the Eoman army. Having overcome the Celtic Gauls, and all the surrounding nations, he resolved to push his conquests into Britain. Landing with difficulty, he overcame all opposition, and granted peace to the natives, on delivery of hostages. Taking advantage of a storm, which destroyed a great part of his fleet, they renewed the contest with a numerous army, but were again defeated, and forced to submit. Pompey, meanwhile, had remained faithful to his interests at Eome ; but at last awaking to a sense of his diminished importance, endeav- oured secretly to undermine the reputation of his rival. The death of Crassus, who was killed in a war with the Parthians, removed EOME. 155 another tie wliicli had bound them together ; and the senate, acting under Pompey's influence, ordered home two legions from the army in Gaul. Cassar was next recalled from his government, the allotted term of which had nearly expired. Instead of complying, he advanced with his army to the confines of Italy, and wrote to the senate that he would lay down his arms, if Pompey, who was in command of the forces at Kome, would do the same. It was replied, that unless he disbanded his army, he should be declared an enemy to the commonwealth. With a portion of his forces, he arrived at the little river Eubicon, the boundary of Italy. After hesitating a moment at incurring the responsibility of a civil war, he cried out that "the die was cast," and plunged in, followed by his soldiers. Great consternation was excited at Eome, where Pompey was insufficiently prepared for defence. The senate espoused his cause, and, with the two legions which had been ordered home, he retired to Capua, pursued by Caesar, who took possession of the towns on his route. Pompey next retreated to Brundusium, whence, being besieged by his adversary, he sailed for Dyrrachium, leaving all Italy unde- fended, Csesar, unable to follow him for want of ships, marched to Eome, and plundered the treasury to an immense amount, to provide for carrying on the war. He thence went to Spain, defeated Pom- pey's lieutenants, in forty days made himself master of the whole province, and returned to Eome. The citizens, whose favourite he had always been, received him with enthusiasm, and conferred on him the offices of consul and dictator — the latter of which after a few dsijs he resigned. Pompey, meanwhile, assisted by all the eastern monarchs, made active preparations to oppose him, in Greece and Epirus. JSTine legions, with five hundred ships and an abundant supply of treasure and munitions of war, were at his disposal. He had defeated Cassar's lieutenants, Antony and Dolabella; and crowds of distinguished citizens and nobles flocked to his camp. Among these were two hundred senators, including Cicero and Cato. His rival now made overtures of peace, offering to refer all dis- putes to the senate and people of Eome. This was refused, and Cffesar transported his legions to the scene of warfare as fast as pos- sible. In the first battle he was entirely defeated, and pursued to his camp ; but Pompey neglected to secure the fruits of this advantage, which might have ended the contest. His enemy retreated to Thes- 156 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. saly, and soon made himself master of tlie wiiole province, except Larissa, wMcli was held by Scipio with a legion of the army of Pompey. That general was now prevailed on by the entreaties of all around him to seek another battle, and, marching into Thessaly, encamped on the plains of Pharsalia, where, being joined by Scipio, he awaited the enemy. The event was anticipated with the greatest anxiety, as the fate of Rome and her immense dominions was staked upon the issue of the contest. The forces of Pompey amounted to above fifty thousand men ; those of Caesar, to less than half that number ; but these were veterans, accustomed to conquer, and trained in the rugged wars against the barbarians. The hostile force approaching, both parties prepared for action; and it is a remarkable proof of the excellence of Cesar's discipline, that both Pompey and he took under their immediate command such troops as had been trained and exercised by him — the one selecting the two legions from Gaul, and the other his celebrated tenth legion, victorious in a hundred fights. Pompey's cavalry, which charged first, was received in an unexpected manner, and the handsome young cavaliers of whom it was principally composed, were disconcerted, says Plutarch, by finding the blows of their enemies always directed against their eyes and faces. They were thrown into confusion, and fled ; and the foreign allies, after a long resistance, followed their example. The defeat became general, and a terrible slaughter was committed, though Csesar cried out to spare the Romans, who mostly received quarter. As he entered the enemy's camp, luxurious preparations for a banquet were found, so confident had they been of victory. The victor was strongly afiected as he beheld the field of battle strewn with the bodies of his coun- trymen, and exclaimed, as if in self-justification, " They would have it so!" He behaved with great clemency to the senators and other distinguished prisoners, giving them their liberty, and refusing to read their letters to Pompey, which had been taken. Fifteen thou- sand of Pompey's soldiers had been slain in this disastrous defeat, and the remainder, to the number of twenty -four thousand, joined the victorious army. The defeated general, in disguise, fled to Larissa, and thence passing along the vale of Tempe to the sea, espied a ship, in which, being acquainted with the master, he embarked. With his wife Cornelia, who joined him at Lesbos, he sailed for Egypt, hoping to THE OBSEQUIES OF FOMPET THE GREAT. ■"'The murderers, having cut ofT Fompey's head, threw the body out oJ' the boat naked, and left it exposed to all Avho "were desirous of such a sight. Philip staid till their curiosity "was satisfied, and then "washed the hody "with sea "water, and "wrapped it in one of his o"wn garments. — — — — — An old Pv,oman, A^rho had made sonae of his first campaigns under Pompey, came up, and said to Philip, 'Who are you that are pjreparing the funeral of Pompey the Great?' Philip answered, 'I am his freedman.' — 'But you shall not,' said the old Pvoman, 'have this honour entirely to yourself. As a "work of piety offers itself, let me have a share in it, that I may not absol'ately repent msy having passed so many years in a foreign country; hut, to compensate many misfortunes, may have the consolation of doing some of the last honours to the greatest general E-ome ever produced.'" — Plutakch's Lives EOME. IQ'J find a refuge with Ptolemy. By order of tlie perfidious advisers of this prince he was assassinated, and his head embalmed and sent to Csesar ; who, however, turned in horror from the spectacle, and burst into tears. Having arrived in Egj'-pt with forty thousand men, and finding his rival no more, he undertook, as Eoman consul, to settle the succession to the throne, which was disputed between Ptolemy and his sister, the famous Cleopatra (U. C. 706). Meeting with a vigor- ous resistance from the supporters of Ptolemy, he espoused the cause of Cleopatra; who, by her charms and address, gained him entirely over to her wishes. He soon found his undertaking a difl&cult one ; was besieged in Alexandria, and nearly lost his life ; but was at length relieved by a faithful adherent, Mithridates Pergamenus, who marched to his assistance with a numerous army. Having effected a junction, the allies defeated the Egyptians with great loss; Ptolemy lost his Hfe, and Cassar found himself in undis- puted possession of Egypt. After appointing Cleopatra (by whom he had a son, Cesarion,) queen of the country, and after revelling in her company for a long time, he was aroused by the necessity of opposing Pharnaces, son of the great Mithridates, who had seized Armenia and Colchis, and defeated the Roman legate. He was defeated in his turn by Caesar, with such ease and expedition, that the victor, in giving an account of the affair at Rome, simply wrote, " Vem, vidi^ vicir — "I came, I saw, I conquered," In his absence he had been chosen consul, dictator, and tribune at Rome, whither he repaired in time to allay the disorders excited by his deputy, Antony, who had filled the place with riot and debauchery. Order being restored, he set out for Africa^ where the remains of Pompey's party had rallied under Scipio and Cato, assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. He gained a complete victory, and all the opposing generals were slain, with the exception of Cato. This great man and true patriot, perceiving the liberties of his country at an end, destroyed his own life by falling on his sword. The victor returned to Rome, and astonished the people by the splendour of his triumphs. He next provided for the veterans who had served him so faithfully, and conciliated the citizens with shows and donations. Fresh honours and dignities were showered upon him by the subservient senate ; and his administration was so moder- ate and judicious, that he seemed in some degree to deserve them. 258 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Cneius and Sextus, the sons of Pompey, and Labienus, his general, again raised the standard of civil war in Spain, and the dictator was compelled to leave Eome in person to oppose them. After the war had been protracted for some time by sieges and other fruitless operations, the two armies encountered in the field. After a most desperate contest, in which Caesar declared that he had often before fought for victory, but never for life till then, his opponents were defeated, with a loss of thirty thousand men, and the death of Cneius Pompey and Labienus. Sextus escaped, and afterwards became highly distinguished in naval warfare. The remainder of Csesar's life was passed in improving the city and the vast empire, which might now be considered almost entirely his own. He rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, commenced other works of public utility, and was revolving great plans of conquest and ex|)loration, when conspiracy put an end to his days. He had been created perpetual dictator, and was supposed to have an intention of assuming the title of king, a name always odious to the Eoman people. A scheme for his assassination was formed by no less than sixty senators and men of noble birth — ambition instigating some, and patriotism the rest. At the head of this design were Brutus, a descendant of the ancient patriot of that name, and Cassius, the praetors of Eome. Both had been pardoned by Caesar after the battle of Pharsalia, and he had distinguished Brutus by his friend- ship and many marks of favour. The terrible deed was consummated in the senate-house on the ides of March. The dictator, attacked on all sides by gleaming daggers, defended himself with great courage until he received a wound from Brutus, when he exclaimed, "Thou too, my son!" and covering his face with his mantle, yielded to his fate. He fell covered with wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and after fourteen years of almost uninterrupted conquest (U. C. 710. B. C. 44). HOME. 159 u tl dX iJ jj Ja dPi tAj THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. After this terrible act, tlie conspirators retired to the capitol, which they fortified; Antony, the consul, and Lepidus, with their soldiers, occupied the forum, seized the papers and effects of the late dictator, and assembled the senate. This body, placed in an embar- rassing position, pursued a middle course, granting pardon to the conspirators, and yet confirming all the acts and decrees of Caesar. Antony took advantage of this, by falsifying accounts, to dispose of the immense wealth of the deceased to further his own views; and at the funeral highly inflamed the sympathy and indignation of the people. He read to them the will, in which it was provided that Octavius Csesar, his grand-nephew, should be his heir, and in which large bequests were made to the Koman people. Further showing them the bloody robe of Ctesar, covered with stabs, he excited such fury in the popular mind, that the conspirators thought it most pradent to retire from Rome. Two fresh competitors for power appeared ; young Octavius, and Lepidus, a man of ambition and great wealth. Antony thought it wise to enter into a league with these, and thus was formed the Second Triumvirate, an unprincipled dujue, holding in their hands the destiny of Rome and her numerous provinces. At their first meeting, it was determined that the government should be shared among them ; that all power should be lodged in their hands, under the title of the Triumvirate, for five years; that Lepidus should take Spain; Antony, Gaul; and Octavius, Africa and the islands. Italy and the eastern provinces were to remain undivided until all their enemies were suppressed. Lists of proscription were presented, and each surrendered his friends to the common cause: Lepidus, his brother Paulus; Antony, his uncle Lucius; and Octavius, the great Cicero. The principal conspirators, who had fled, raised each a powerful army, Brutus in Macedonia, and Cassius in Syria, where he com- pletely defeated Dolabella, Antony's lieutenant. Antony and IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Octavius, with forty legions, set out to meet them. After subduing the Lycians and Ehodians, Brutus and Cassius, whose forces were now united, approached the city of Philippi, in Macedon, where the triumvirs lay encamped. The forces on each side were great; those of the conspirators amounting to eighty thousand foot and twenty thousand of cavalry, and those of their opponents to an hundred thousand foot and thirteen thousand horse. The position of the former was the most advantageous, and in an endeavour to cut oS" their communication with the sea, a general engagement was brought on. The forces of the Triumvirate, Octavius being ill, were commanded by Antony, who made a fierce attack on the ranks of Cassius. Brutus, on his side, charging the enemy with great impetuosity, routed them, and penetrated to their very camp. While, however, they were engaged in plunder, the division of Cassius, in spite of his bravery and exertions, was defeated, and, supposing the battle lost, he put an end to his life. Brutus, now left in sole command, reassembled his army, and reanimated their courage. For twenty days he remained encamped, and then, at the urgent solicitation of his troops, hazarded another engagement. After gaining great advantages where he commanded in person, the battle was lost by the flight of the soldiers who had belonged to Cassius ; and after performing the most desperate feats of valour, he was compelled to retreat, and ended his life by falling on his sword. Their enemies subdued, the triumvirs divided the dominions of Eome, and pursued a career of irresponsible authority — ^Lepidus, however, having rather the semblance than the reality of power. Executions went on among the proscribed, and many of the first men in the empire were sacrificed to their vengeance. Antony now gave free vent to that lawless spirit of revelry and licentiousness for which he had always been notorious. Passing in a magnificent manner through the East, he distributed crowns, exacted tribute, and divided nations with his usual caprice. His most inti- mate friend was Herod, whom he made king of Judea, and his favourite mistress Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. Entirely capti- vated by her talents and beauty, he abandoned himself to pleasure, and committed a thousand extravagances. Meanwhile, Octavius, more prudently, led back the army into Italy, and conciliated the afiections of his soldiers by providing KOME. 161 them with lands. To effect this, he expelled from their homes a great number of unfortunate farmers and shepherds; among them the poet Virgil, who, however, had sufficient interest to regain his patrimony. Italy was now in great distress; the licentious soldiery plundered at their will, and Sextus Pompey, who was master of the seas, cut oi3f the usual supplies of corn, and added the terror of famine to the former calamities. A fresh civil war soon ensued. Fulvia, the wife, and Lucius, the brother of Antony, took up arms, under pretext that he had been overlooked in the distribution of lands. They were soon vanquished by Octavius, and Antony in person sailed with a large fleet to sustain his interests in Italy. Assisted by Sextus Pompey, he landed at Brundusium ; but, by the intervention of friends, peace was brought about, and was further confirmed by the marriage of Antony (his wife having died) to Octavia, the sister of his rival. A new division of the world was now agreed upon. Octavius took the Western portion of the empire, Antony the East, and Lepidus the provinces in Africa. The Peloponnesus, and many of the Mediterranean islands, were assigned to Pompey. This peace continued for some time; Antony carrying on war against the Parthians, Octavius being engaged in quieting the province of Gaul, and Pompey securing his new possessions. The latter, however, considering himself aggrieved by Antony, renewed hostilities, again cutting off supplies from Italy. Octavius, who encountered him at sea, was defeated, and his fleet, reinforced by Antony, was twice disabled by tempests. A second attempt, under Agrippa, was more successful, and Pompey, after resolutely contend- ing with ill fortune for some time, was taken and slain. Lepidus, who, on the death of Pompey, with a strong force had taken possession of Sicily, was next overthrown. Octavius, repair- ing boldly to his camp, deposed him by the aid of his own soldiers, and banished him to Circaeum. There now remained but one rival to his ambitious designs upon the empire of the world. Fortune seemed to second his wishes, for Antony returned in disgrace from his expedition against Parthia; and now, utterly neglectful of his interest, and that of the state, was spending his time in revelry and dissipation with Cleopatra. He granted her most of the adjoining countries, and Octavius, taking advantage of the dissatisfaction which these proceedings occasioned at Eome, sent out his wife Octavia, as if for the purpose of reclaim- 11 162 THE PEOPLE'S- BOOK OF IIISTOKY. ing him, but in reality, to gain a pretext for hostilities. The event answered his expectation ; Antony, without seeing his wife, ordered her to return, and completed his career of folly by repudiating her, and openly espousing Cleopatra. On this occasion, dressed in the character of Bacchus, (Cleopatra representing that of Isis,) he made a grand theatrical display in public, confirming all his previous grants, and associating her son Csesarion in the government; and concluded by sending a full account of his ridiculous pageant to the consuls at Eome. Octavius now prepared for war, but was detained for more than a year by his preparations, and by an insurrection of the lUyrians, which he found himself obliged to qiiell. At length, with immense and nearly equal forces, drawn from the east and west, the rivals met near Actium, a city of Epirus, on the gulf of Ambracia. The army of each amounted to about an hundred thousand men, but Antony's fleet, five hundred in number, was more numerous than that of his antagonist. The battle was fought by sea, their armies, from opposite sides of the gulf, surveying the scene, and encouraging the combatants. After the contest had continued with great fury for some time, it was decided against Antony by the flight of Cleopatra, who, with sixty sail, deserted the scene of action. She was soon followed by her lover, whose infatuated passion thus cost him the empire of the world. His army followed the example of their leader, and finally joined the ranks of the victor. He fled to Egypt with the queen, and each made proposals to Octavius of peace and submission. No answer was returned to Antony, and, imitating Timon the misanthropist, he shut himself up in a small house surrounded by the sea, and refused to hold intercourse with any one. The war was now transferred to Egypt, and Octavius marched on Alexandria. Antony, however, recallhig his accustomed courage, sallied out against him, and at first com- pletely repulsed the attack. Shortly afterwards, sending his fleet to engage the enemy, he had the mortification to see it join that of his rival, and return with it to the harbour. His cavalry also deserted in a body, a fresh assault which he made with his remaining forces was readily repulsed, and he was compelled to reenter the city. Cleopatra, whose treachery had connived at this desertion, for the sake of ingratiating herself with the victor, now retired to a strong citadel, where she had deposited all her treasures, in hopes to make KOME. ;[g3 terms witli Octavius. Here she caused a report to be given out tliat she had destroyed herself, and Antony, deserted by all the world, and unwilling to survive his mistress, put an end to his own life — an example which was soon followed by the queen, that she might avoid gracing the triumph of the conqueror by her presence. Cesa- rion, and Antyllus the son of Antony, were also put to death by order of the victor. THE EMPERORS AUGUSTUS, TIBERIUS CALIGULA, AND CLAUDIUS. Octavius now found himself in undisputed possession of the Eoman empire, the most extensive and powerful which had ever existed. The genius of the nation and its ancient characteristics had become completely changed by the long and terrible commotions which had prevailed, and by the great influx of foreigners which resulted from its extended intercourse and conquests. The spirit of nationality no longer retained its ancient hold on the affections of the people, and, their armies being recruited from all parts of the world, courage and conquest were no longer the exclusive attributes of the Roman citizen. Great wealth and luxury, and the helplessness which accompanies them, began to characterize the capital, as well as a great part of Italy. In the midst of desolating civil wars, and of great corruption, both public and private, the Roman rule had, how- ever, continued to extend itself, and she was now in a position to dictate terms to any nation in the known world. The new dictator made a prudent and moderate use of the power acquired in such a sanguinary manner He reestablished the senate in almost its former authority, and apparently reserved nothing for himself but the prerogative of enforcing obedience to the laws. In reality, however, his will, as commander of the legions and provinces, was supreme, and the legislative body was, under him, what it sub- sequently became more openly under his successors, a mere instru- ment in the imperial hands. By the wise and gentle counsels of Maecenas, his prime adviser, his measures were usually tempered 164 THE PEOPLE'S •BOOK OF HISTOKY. with humanity and liberality ; and the nation existed under, perhaps, as free a government as it was fitted to enjoy. Judicious patronage was also bestowed on learning and talent ; and the Augustan age, in which Horace, Virgil, and Ovid flourished, has always been regarded as a most brilliant period in letters. Whether from inclination, or from deep policy, he offered to resign all authority, and retire from public life. Entreated by the senate to retain his power, he consented to assume the government for ten years; a period which was subsequently protracted during his life. Fresh honours were heaped upon him. He received the name of Augustus (the august) and other titles of honour,* On the occasion of his receiving the consulship for the tenth time, all his acts, and even all which he should perform in future, were confirmed by the senate — absolute power being thus openly conferred upon him. These new honours and authorities, however, proved no temptation to a man who had already been possessed of unlimited control over the empire. His laws and edicts were, in general, judicious and moderate. His affability increased ; he allowed the greatest liberties to be taken in opposing and contradicting him ; and at times displayed high magnanimity toward his enemies. Meanwhile, his lieutenants, in various parts of the world, were busily employed in protecting and extending the empire. The Can- tabrians were subdued in Spain by his son-in-law, Tiberius, and the Germans by Lollius. The Scythians, Dacians, and Armenians, having taken up arms, were defeated and subdued. Equal success attended the Eoman arms in Africa, where the Getuli were reduced to submission by the consul Cossus. A more formidable contest was commenced by the Dalmatians and Pannonians, who, with more than two hundred thousand men, invaded the Roman territories. This war, which lasted for three years, was conducted by Tiberius and Germanicus, the latter of whom gained great renown by his exploits against these fierce and savage tribes. They were finally reduced; but a most fatal disaster shortly after befell the Eoman arms (IT. C. 752). Quintilius Varus, with a numerous army, composed of the choicest legions in the empire, was entangled among forests and marshes in Germany, and there, with all his forces, cut off by the barbarians. * The appellation of Csesar, to which Augustus had an hereditary claim, was afterwards assumed, in turn, by all the succeeding emperors. KOME. 165 The grief of Augustus was extreme, and he was often heard to exclaim in sorrow, "Varus, restore me my legions!" Great domestic troubles also combined to afflict him : his wife, the empress Livia, was of an imperious temper, and insisted on controlling his measures ; his step-son Tiberius, of an unquiet disposition, was banished, and Drusus, another, whom he tenderly loved, died in an expedition against the Germans. The vicious and dissolute conduct of his daughter Julia also gave him great uneasiness. At length, in his seventy -fourth year, oppressed with age and the fatigues of public employment, he associated Tiberius with himself in the empire, and appointed him his successor. Feeling his end approaching, he made his will ; and shortly after took a census of the inhabitants of Rome, who amounted to upwards of four millions — a number twice that of London, the largest and most populous of modern cities. Shortly afterwards he died, having lived seventy-six years, and reigned forty-one. The display of grief at Rome, whether real or affected, was great, and divine honours were decreed by the senate to his memory (U. C. 765, A. D. 15.) Tiberius, at the age of fifty-six, succeeded him, and, for a time, gave a fair promise of emulating the prudence of his predecessor, and shunning his faults. The eyes of the people were soon opened, however, by the death of Germanicus, his nephew, of whose increas- ing fame he had become jealous, and whom he was supposed to have taken off by poison. His natural tendency to tyranny was enhanced by the evil counsels of Sejanus, his crafty and unscrupulous adviser. Always suspicious of conspiracy, and inclined to the most depraved vices, in the twelfth year of his reign the emperor left Rome for ever, and took up his residence in Capre^ (now Capri), a small and beau- tiful island in the bay of Naples, There, for ten years, immersed in the vilest sensualities, and exercising the most atrocious cruelties, he struck terror throughout the Roman empire. The children of Germanicus and many other persons of distinc- tion were put to death ; spies and informers were scattered through the cities, and the whole empire lived in perpetual distrust and alarm. Sejanus himself, falling under suspicion, was executed, to the great ioy of all, and numbers of his ftiends perished with him. At length, tormented by disease, and worn out by his vices, the tyrant himself expired in the twenty-third year of his reign, being murdered by the agents of Caius Caligula, the son of Germanicus, whom he had appointed his successor in the empire. 1(36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. The odious qualities of the new emperor were at first concealed; but, as in the case of Tiberius, soon displayed themselves. His vanity, avarice, cruelty, and vice were unequalled. He took the greatest pleasure in presiding at executions, and in witnessing and | protracting the agonies of the tortured. His wild animals were usually fed with the bodies of the numerous wretches whom he con- i demned ; and he is even said to have wished that the Eoman people \ had but a single neck, that he might destroy them at a single blow. Discontented with the highest of human stations, he assumed to I himself divine honours, and caused his statue to be erected in the \ temples throughout the empire With the caprice of unlimited power, he bestowed the highest honours upon a favourite horse; built him a palace, and even thought of appointing him to the consulship. He wished to suppress the works of Homer, and enacted so many other extravagances that it is but reasonable to suppose him partially insane. In the third year of his reign, (A. D. 41,) he undertook an expe- dition in person against the Germans and Britons, which, however, resulted in nothing ; and not long afterwards he was killed by Cherea, a tribune of the Prastorian bands, at the age of twenty -nine. His uncle, Claudius, a man of moderate abilities, was next pro- claimed emperor at the age of fift}^, by the army, whose choice was confirmed by the senate. He took possession of the royal palaces, and caused a great chest of poisons belonging to his late predecessor to be thrown into the Tiber — an injudicious act, if we may trust Suetonius, who says that they were of so deadly a nature as to destroy all the fish in the river. The first measure of the new emperor was to pass an act of amnesty for past offences, and to annul the savage edicts of Caligula. His administration was at first conducted with prudence, justice, and moderation. Having settled the affairs of several disputed provinces, he resolved to send an expedition into Britain, where his interference had been solicited by some of the natives. Under Plautius the praetor, the Britons, with their king, Cynobelinus, were several times defeated, and Claudius finally deter- mined to go over in person. He only remained sixteen days, yet the senate decreed him a splendid triumph on his return. Plautius and Vespasian, however, carried on the war with great diligence, and after thirty battles, succeeded in reducing a part of the island to a Eoman province. Under Ostorius, who succeeded Plautius, they again revolted, but EOME. IQJ were subdued, with the exception of the Silures or Welsh, who, in their inaccessible mountains, led by their brave king, Caractacus, made a most valiant and obstinate resistance for nine years. At length, being forced to hazard a decisive engagement, he was defeated, and, with his wife and daughter, taken prisoner. Being carried to Eome, the people evinced the greatest curiosity to behold the man who had so long withstood their arms ; while the captive prince, surveying the magnificence around him, wondered how such a peo- ple could covet his humble possessions in Britain. "With a somewhat unusual magnanimity in the Eomans, he was pardoned. Claudius, whose reign had for the most part been marked by laudable conduct, was now induced by his wife, Messalina, to adopt measures more severe and cruel. Her dissolute conduct, which was almost past belief, being discovered, she was condemned to death, and executed. The emperor was not more fortunate in his second wife, Agrippina, the daughter of Germanicus; who rendered his life ex- ceedingly miserable, and finally destroyed him by poison (A. D. 55). \j Jjd> cuOj (L iL J-t duo tO&j Ji Ji a THE EMPERORS NERO, GALEA, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS, DOMITIAN, AND NERVA. Neeo, her son by a former marriage, succeeded to the throne at the age of seventeen; and, as usual, commenced his reign with the appearance (and perhaps, in some degree, the reality) of virtue, humanity, and justice. When a warrant of execution was presented for his signature, he cried out, "Oh, that I had never learned to write!" As he advanced in years, and felt the corrupting influence of irresponsible power, the viler part of his nature began to develop itself, and the people were soon shocked at the murder of his mother, Agrippina, who had become troublesome to him. His career now displayed a singular compound of pleasure and cruelty. He was fond of the fine arts, and was somewhat skilled in music and other humanizing accomplishments. These formed the occupation of his IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. graver hours: his amusements were the invention and exercise of tortures and executions. His private vices were as enormous and unnatural as those of Tiberius and Caligula, and were displayed in public with the most shameless ostentation. During his reign, a great part of the city was consumed by fire, and this conflagration has been attributed to him; he certainly enjoyed the spectacle, surveying it from a high tower, and chanting some verses on the destruction of Troy. The Christians were now becoming a numerous sect in Eome, and upon them he endeavoured to fix the odium of the deed. The most horrible punishments were inflicted on them, and the indignation of the Eomans themselves (sufficiently hardened in general) was excited by the tortures which he devised to gratify his cruelty. Two of his most distinguished victims, whom he sacrificed on suspicion of conspiracy, were Seneca the philosopher, and Lucan the poet, whom he commanded to take their own lives. Many of the most eminent persons in Eome shared a similar fate. At length, Sergius Galba, the governor of Spain, entreated by the Eomans to deliver them from their oppressor, declared against him, and prepared to march toward the capital. The Preetorian guards also revolted, and the senate, perceiving his power at an end, decreed that he should be executed by scourging, after the rigorous manner of the ancient laws. To avoid this fate, he ended his life by stabbing himself in the throat (A. D. 69), in the fourteenth year of his reign and the thirty-second of his age. Galba, at the age of seventy-two, was proclaimed emperor, but after a reign of seven months, was killed in an insurrection of the soldiers, and Otho, their instigator, was chosen in his stead. The throne was now entirely at the disposition of the army, though the Praetorian bands at Eome arrogated to themselves a kind of special claim upon its disposal. Vitellius, who commanded in Germany, was proclaimed emperor by his legions, and a civil war ensued, which, however, was soon closed by the complete defeat of Otho and his forces. Ere long, he killed himself, after a reign of three months, and Vitellius was con- firmed in his office by the senate, now accustomed always to declare in favour of the strongest. The new emperor soon became abandoned to all the vices and cruelties of his predecessors. Gluttony, however, was his favourite pursuit, and he ruined his friends by inviting himself to the most EOME. 169 expensive entertainments at tlieir houses. The legions of the East, perceiving their power, revolted, and determined to make Vespasian, their commander, emperor. An army, sent to oppose them, was defeated bj Antonius, his lieutenant, near Cremona, with a loss of thirty thousand men. Domestic quarrels soon occurred at Eome, in which the capitol was laid in ashes. Antonius, arriving before the walls, commenced an assault, and the city was defended with great obstinacy by the imperial forces. Being finally taken by storm, a terrible slaughter ensued, and Vitellius, discovered in an obscure retreat, was killed by the soldiers, and his body cast into the Tiber (A. D. 70). Vespasian, by the unanimous consent of both army and senate, was now declared emperor, and set out for Eome, leaving his son Titus in command of the army destined for the reduction of Judea. The terrible siege and destruction of Jerusalem which ensued, have been elsewhere described. The triumph, which was shared by Ves- pasian and his son, was one of the most magnificent which Eome had ever witnessed ; and a triumphal arch, erected in commemoration of the victory, yet remains, bearing the effigies of the sacred instru- ments and writings of the Jewish nation. Vespasian reigned eight years, generally with justice, though the imputation of avarice and sensuality is attached to his memory. He was succeeded by Titus, (A. D. 79,) the stain left by whose former cruelty and vices, was to some extent effaced by the pru- dence and justice of his reign, which in some degree resembled that of Augustus, During his time, occurred the terrible eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pom- peii, and in which Pliny the Elder, the eminent naturalist, lost his life. A'terrible fire also occurred at Eome, succeeded by a dreadful plague, in which ten thousand were buried in a single day. Meanwhile, the Eomans had met with great success in Britain. Agricola, their commander, had subdued nearly the whole island, and converted it effectually into a Eoman province. The language and refinements of the victors were introduced. Fortresses, tem- ples, and theatres were erected, and the people, formerly a race of barbarians, became almost as polished and luxurious as their conquerors. Titus, after a reign of only two years, expired, in the forty-first year of his age, and was succeeded by his brother Domitian (A. D. 81). 170 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. At first, the reign of the new emperor seemed distinguished by decency, justice, and other virtues suited to his high station; but the mask was soon thrown off, and he emulated the vices and cruel- ties which had disgraced most of his predecessors. The splendid successes of Agricola excited his envy. That distinguished of&cer had lately subdued the Caledonians or Scotch; and sending out a fleet to circumnavigate the coast, had discovered Britain to be an island. He also discovered and reduced the Orkneys, forming the whole country into a civilized Roman dependency. Deprived of his command, under pretext of his assuming that of the army in Syria, he returned to Rome, and soon after died, not without suspicion of unfair means used by the emperor. Symptoms of that decline in courage and discipline which eventu- ally caused the destruction of the empire, were beginning at this time to show themselves. The Sarmatians and Dacians had already become formidable by their incursions, and in several engagements had defeated the Romans. They were, however, finally repelled, and further pacified by subsidies of money; a precedent which afterwards produced the most evil effects. The cruelty and arrogance of the tyrant increased. Executions on the most frivolous pretexts became as common as in the worst days of Tiberius and Caligula, and divine honours were assumed in the most impudent manner ; no statues of the emperor, except of gold and silver, being permitted. Lucius Antonius, governor of Grermany, seeing the general discontent, was encouraged to aspire to the throne, and accordingly assumed the imperial ensigns. Being supported by a powerful army, he maintained the contest for some time, but was finally routed by Normandus, the imperial legate. Fresh atrocities followed this unsuccessful attempt at revolt. The senate and all men of distinction were kept in a state of continual alarm for their lives. At last, after an exhibition of human nature in its worst and most degraded form, for fifteen years, Domitian fell the victim of a conspiracy, conducted by his wife and a number of his officers, who had accidentally discovered their names upon a list for execution (A. D. 96). His statues were immediately taken down by order of the senate, and his memory was loaded with every species of contempt. The senate, resolving to anticipate the decision of the army, appointed a successor on the very day which beheld the tyrant's death. Cocceius Nerva, the new emperor, a Spaniard by birth, was EOME. i71 about sixtj-five years of age, and owed his exaltation to a life of virtue, justice, and clemency. His reign, which lasted one year and four months, was distinguished for honesty and magnanimity. Troubled by the mutinous spirit of the Praetorian bands, he appointed for his successor Ulpius Trajanus, the governor of Germany, and soon after expired, being the first foreign emperor who had sat upon the Eoman throne (A. D. 96). Li iLub Jjoi iL Jb cU UJU tOOo dj Jj Jj o TRAJAN, ADRIAN, ANTONINUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, COMMODUS, PERTINAX, DIDIUS, SEVERUS, CARACALLA, MACRINUS, HELIOGABALUS, ALEXANDER, MAXAMIN, GORDIAN, PHILIP, AND DECIUS. Trajan, also a Spaniard by birth, and a pupil of the celebrated Plutarch, was a man of great talents, both for peace and war, and possessed the qualities of a wise and successful monarch in no ordi- nary degree. His first exploit was to subdue the Dacians, who had greatly infested the empire under the reign of Domitian. After an obstinate contest, Decabalus, their king, was routed, and compelled to acknowledge himself tributary to Rome, A second war, commenced by that king, and the capture of Longinus the Roman general, com- pelled the emperor again to take the field. To invade their country the more easily, he constructed a stupendous bridge across the Danube, and finally subdued their whole territory, and converted it into a Roman province. The empire now seemed at the height of its splendour ; the most magnificent triumphs were celebrated, and ambassadors from all parts, even from the remote regions of India, came to solicit his favour. His internal administration was equally successful and admirable, though stained by a bigotry not peculiar to his time alone. A gTeat persecution of the Christians occurred, and was only stayed by the proceedings of Pliny, whose statement of his researches seemed to prove their innocence. During the emperor's absence on an expedi- tion in the East, the Jews, throughout many provinces, revolted, and ][72 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. commenced an indiscriminate massacre of tlie Greeks and Eomans. In retaliation, they were every where put to death without mercy, Trajan, learning of these disorders, started on his return; but over- powered by illness, died at Seleucia, in the sixty-third year of his age, and the twentieth of his reign (A, D. 107). Adrian, his nephew, who succeeded to the throne, was of a pacific disposition, and his accomplishments in art and learning were great. His private virtues, his magnanimity and benevolence, were no less conspicuous, though somewhat obscured by vices and sensu- alities peculiar to the age. The northern barbarians again becoming troublesome, he broke down the immense bridge which his prede-, cessor had constructed over the Danube, and thus for a time checked their incursions. He next prepared to make the tour of his extensive dominions, that he might personally regulate and oversee the administration of each province. Passing through Gaul, Germany, and Holland, he sailed to Britain, and there, for the protection of the province against the Picts, and other barbarous Scottish tribes, built a wall across the island. He thence passed into Spain, his native country, and returned to Eome. Called to the East by an insurrection of the Parthians, he passed the winter in Athens, and at the intercession of Granianus, put a stop to the persecutions exercised against the Chris- tians. He passed into Africa, reformed the government of the province, and, among other public works, rebuilt the city of Carthage, which he called, after his own name, Adrianople. After visiting- many provinces of the East, and among them Judea, he determined to rebuild the city of Jerusalem; and the Jews flocked in great numbers to the pious undertaking. Their bigotry, however, incensed at the privileges granted to foreigners, inducing them again to attack and massacre the Greeks and Eomans throughout their country, Severus, an able commander, was sent against them, and in a war of two years, demolished most of their cities, and put an immense number of them to the sword. A decree was also issiied, banishing the whole race from Judea. This insurrection was soon followed by an invasion of the bar- barous nations from the north, who, entering Media and Armenia, committed great devastations. Following the unwise precedent of Domitian, Adrian, by large sums of money, induced them to retire, and thus, as it were, offered a premium to repeated incursions. After thirteen years passed in survejnng his extensive dominions, ROME. 173 the emperor returned to Rome, where he was received with the greatest demonstrations of joj and popular attachment. His time was passed chiefly in literary pursuits, and in improving and human- izing the laws. Feeling the infirmities of age, he selected as his successor Marcus Antoninus, afterwards called the Pious, and soon after expired, in the sixty-second year of his age, having enjoyed a prosperous and popular reign of about twenty -four years (A. D. 138). Antoninus, the new emperor, was a native of the town in France now called Nismes, and succeeded to the throne at the age of fifty. His private and public career had been so unimpeachable that he was compared to Numa, and he was equally a lover and patron of learning with his predecessor. His reign for twenty -two years was peaceful and prosperous, and at the age of seventy-five he expired, having adopted as his successor Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161). Aurelius, in compliance with a provision made by Adrian, asso- ciated with himself in the empire Lucius Verus, whose vice and indolence formed a strong contrast with the virtue and energy of his partner on the throne. Scarcely had they commenced their reign, when the empire was invaded on all sides by the barbarous nations which surrounded it. Those who attacked Germany were repelled, and the Britons, who had revolted, were subdued by Califurnius. But the Parthians, led by their king, Yolegesus, committed the great- est ravages, destroying the Eoman forces in Armenia, seizing Syria, and alarming the whole East for its safety. To repress this formida- ble invasion, Yerus set out in person ; but remaining at Antioch, left all the conduct of the war to his lieutenants, Priscus and Marius. These, however, carried on the contest with great skill and energy, and in the course of four years entirely subdued the invaders, though with a loss of half their own army. Aurelius, meanwhile, had been engaged in the careful and judi- cious administration of affairs at Rome ; and had so largely increased the authority of the senate, that the commonwealth seemed almost restored. The return of Verus brought fresh distresses on the empire, both by his dissolute conduct, and by a destructive plague which his army disseminated throughout the provinces. Various natural calamities, earthquakes, inundations, and famine succeeded; the barbarous nations of the north renewed their hostilities on all sides, and even carried their invasions into Italy. A terrible perse- cution of the Christians also raged throughout the empire, these calamities being ascribed to their impious innovations. 174 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The emperor, marching against the Marcomanni, defeated them in a great engagement, and pursued them across the Alps. His colleague, Yerus, dying about this time, he was left in entire posses- sion of the empire, and returned to Rome, but was recalled by a fresh irruption, which he also successfully resisted. Peace being restored, he devoted himself to learning and philosophy, in which he acquired great eminence. At length, having gone to Vienna to repress a new invasion of the Scythians, he was seized with the plague, of which he died, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having reigned with virtue and j ustice for nineteen years (A. D, 180). His son, Commodus, who, on account of his father's virtues, was promoted to the throne, emulated the worst of his predecessors, in folly, cruelty, and crime. His vices, if it were possible, exceeded those of Tiberius and Caligula, and his ferocity was equal to that of Domitian. His death, like that of the latter, was accidentally brought about by the discovery of a roll on which the names of -some of his intimate associates were inscribed for execution. Anticipating the blow, they secretly assassinated him, in the thirty-first year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign (A. D. 191). Helvius Pertinax, who, amid the general joy of the nation, was chosen to succeed him, reigned for three months in the most exem- plary manner, and was then murdered in a mutiny of the Pr^torian bands, enraged at the order and discipline which he enforced. Having committed this outrage, they put up the empire (which their violence completely controlled) for sale to the highest bidder; and Didius, a person of some note, by the production of large sums of ready money, obtained their votes. Their choice Avas confirmed by the senate, who were unable to resist, and Didius, in the fifty- seventh 3^ear of his age, was proclaimed emperor. His conduct on the throne was of a neutral character, neither effecting any great designs, nor yet making himself odious by tyranny. The people, however, despised him, and as he passed through the streets, would cry out, that he Avas a thief, who had stolen the empire. The soldiers, also, by whose support he had been elevated, soon became tired of one who possessed neither courage nor liberality. Severus, an African, was now proclaimed emperor by his army, and, rejecting a proposal of Didius to share the throne, advanced upon Rome. The senate, as usual, deferring to the strongest, decreed that the unhappy emperor should be deposed and slain. EOME. 175 Severus, the new ruler, was distinguislied for his ability, and for a certain cunning and astuteness which were supposed peculiarly to characterize the natives of his country. By rewards and privileges, he so far conciliated the army as to have exclusive control of all things. Feeling his power secure at Eome, he marched against the Parthians, over whom he obtained signal successes, and returned in triumph. Plautian, a favourite officer, whom he had left in com- mand, conspired against his life. The plot being discovered, the emperor was inclined to pardon him, but the prince Caracalla, naturally of a ferocious disposition, drew his sword, and ran him through the body. The administration of Severus was marked by justice and impar- tiality. After regulating the affairs of Italy, he made an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were on the point of succumbing to the native population. Having left Caracalla in command of the southern province, he marched against the Caledonians, and after a long and desperate contest, in which he lost fifty thousand men, compelled them to purchase peace by the surrender of a consider- able part of their territories. For better security against their irruptions, he built the celebrated wall, extending from the Solway to the German Ocean, portions of which still remain in good preser- vation. He died at the city of York, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, having reigned in an able, though sometimes a cruel manner, for eighteen years (A. D. 211). His sons, Caracalla and Geta, whom he had appointed his success- ors, were acknowledged by the army ; and on their arrival at Eome, the latter was slain by his brother, whose cruelties soon became intolerable. During six years, he ruled after the manner of Nero and Domitian, and the empire lay entirely at the mercy of the soldiery. He was then assassinated by order of Macrinus, com- mander in Mesopotamia, who was proclaimed in his stead by the army, and confirmed as emperor by the senate (A. D. 217). After a reign of little more than a year, he was deposed and put to death by a seditious portion of his legions, and Bassianus, a youth of fourteen, supposed by them to be a son of Caracalla, was chosen in his place. On his elevation, he assumed the title of Heliogabalus (the sun) to whose priesthood he had been consecrated. During the four years in which he reigned, his licentiousness, gluttony, effeminacy, and prodi- gality, surpassed those of all his predecessors in empire and in vice. He was slain in a mutiny and his body thrown into the Tiber. I^JQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Alexander, liis cousin, was next proclaimed emperor, at sixteen. His virtues and abilities liave been liigblj celebrated. His admin- istration of public affairs was conscientious and judicious, and lie also excelled highly in various arts, sciences, and accomplishments. In the thirteenth year of his reign, the country was subjected to an invasion by immense tribes from upper Germany, and other northern barbarians. The emperor, proceeding to the field in person, was cut off in the midst of his successes by a mutiny — the usual fate of the latter Eoman emperors, whether good or bad. He was twenty-nine years old, and had reigned thirteen (A. D. 235). Maxamin, the ringleader of this sedition, a Thracian peasant by birth, and a man of gigantic stature, courage, and ferocity, was pro- claimed in his stead, and carried on the war with great skill and energy, laying waste the enemies' country for four hundred miles, and defeating them in repeated battles. - He had determined to con- quer all the north, and, to conciliate the soldiery, increased their pay, and fought hand to hand at their head. Wearied, however, by his cruelties, and fatigued with warfare, they killed him while sleeping in his tent, in the sixty -fifth year of his age, after a reign of three years. Papienus and Balbanus, who had been named as emperors, were both in a brief time slaughtered by the Prsetorian bands, and the mutinous soldiery placed Gordian, a youth of sixteen, upon the throne. After a sufiiciently prosperous reign of five years, he was ungratefully slain by Philip, the Prcetorian prsetor, whom the army immediately acknowledged (A. D. 243). After reigning about as long as his victim, he perished, as usual, by a mutiny, and the commander, Decius, was declared emperor by the army, (A. D. 248, U. C. 1001). His energy and wisdom seemed in some degree to revive the better days of the common- wealth; and the senate, whose authority he had increased, voted him equal to Trajan. The empire was now deeply distracted by continual contests between the Christians and heathens thror 2rhoiit its limits, and by perpetual irruptions of the barbarous nations upon its borders. The emperor was killed in an ambuscade of the enemy after a reign of two years and a half. EOME. I'j^ uiUAiixiliii Aiv GALLUS, YALERIAN, GALIENUS, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS, AUUELIAN, TACITUS, PROBUS, CARUS, DIOCLESIAN, CONSTANTIUS AND GALERIUS, AND CONSTANTINE. REMOVAL OF THE SEAT OF EMPIRE TO BYZANTIUM. Gallus, wIlo succeeded to Decius, bouglit a disgraceful peace by paying an annual tribute to tbe Goths, tbus laying tbe foundation of future exaction and invasion. Under bis reign, a general license was given of persecuting tbe Christians throughout the empire. A tremendous pestilence also raged over a great part of the earth, ^milianus, his lieutenant, having gained a victory over the Goths, was proclaimed emperor by the army, and in the civil war which ensued, Gallus, with his son, was slain in battle near Mesia, after a reign of little more than two years (A. J). 253). The claims of ^milianus not being acknowledged by the senate, Yalerian, who commanded near the Alps, was elevated to the throne by his army, and endeavoured to effect some reformation in the corrupted state. He was soon taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, who had invaded Syria ; and it is said that the Persian, with unmanly insult toward his captive, was in the habit of using him as a footstool to mount his horse. After suffering every outrage and indignity for seven years, he was put to death with atrocious cruelty. On his imprisonment, Galienus, his son, was chosen emperor, and while enjoying the pleasures, without the fatigues of empire, a great number of competitors for power started up. These numerous rivals, usually called the Thirty Tyrants, filled the whole country with violence and civil war. Galienus, having taken the field to assert his authority, was slain by his own soldiers while laying siege to Milan (A. D. 268). Flavins Claudius, who had distinguished himself by services against the Goths, succeeded to the throne; which, however, he enjoyed but two years, dying of a fever in Pannonia. He was the first emperor who, for a long time, had met with a natural death. Aurelian, a Dacian, renowned i'or his generalship and personal 12 178 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY valour, was next elevated to the imperial rank, and conducted the government with great. energy and ability. Among other exploits, he took Palmyra, the celebrated "Tadmor" of Solomon, and brought the queen, Zenobia, to grace his triumph at Eome. He was slain in a conspiracy, in the sixty-third year of his age, after a reign of five years (A. D. 275). The senate, which had now regained much of its former authority, to supply his place, made choice of Tacitus, a man of worth and ability, but seventy-five years of age. In six months he died, and the army, by common consent, proclaimed Probus emperor. He had been distinguished for personal valour and integrity, and during a reign of six years, did much to repel the incursions of the barba- rians, now becoming more fierce and frequent on all sides. He was slain in a mutiny, the common fate of the latter emperors (A. D. 282). Carus, his Praetorian prefect, who succeeded him, was killed by lightning; and his son Numerian, was assassinated by Aper, his father-in-law. The murderer, in his turn, was slain by Dioclesian, who ascended the throne (A; D. 284). He was of low parentage, but of great ability, and had served in various ofiices with much, distinction. A vast swarm of northern barbarians now infested the empire. Ketiring to their cold and inaccessible retreats at the approach of a Roman army, as soon as it was withdrawn they would sally forth, and commit fresh ravages. Among these savage tribes were the Scythians, Goths, Sarmatians, Alani, Catti, &c., who inhabited a region extending from Denmark to the eastern confines of Russia. They were repeatedly defeated by the emperor, who, after a reign of twenty years, retired from the government, and with him his partner Maximian, whom he had associated in the empire (A. D. 304, .U. C. 1057). The successors whom they appointed, Constantius and Galerius, were readily acknowledged. Both were men of courage, but the former was distinguished by his virtues, the latter by his vices. They shared the government of the empire, Constantius taking the west, and his colleague the East. Both died, and Constantine, son of the former, and afterwards called the Great, was appointed as successor to his father. Maxentius, a steady supporter of the ancient idolatrous faith, had possession of Rome, and Constantine marched against him. On this journey he is said to have seen a miraculous cross in the heavens, which caused his conversion to Christianit}^ The cause assigned is EOME. ■^'jy an exceedingly improbable one, but it is certain that lie professed tlie new religion, perhaps in deference to tbe wislies of liis soldiers, wlio were mostly Christians. With an army of about an hundred thousand, he advanced towards the gates of Eome; and his rival, with forces nearly twice as numerous, sallied forth to meet him. The engagement was fierce and destructive, but Maxentius was routed, and in the retreat lost his life. Being now in almost entire possession of the empire, Constantine abolished death by the cross, and issued edicts in favour of the Christians. Maximin, who held command in the east, ambitious of higher authority, marched upon Licinius, the partner of Constantine, with a numerous army, but was defeated, and soon after died. Mutual jealousy soon caused a fresh rupture between the col- leagaes themselves, and with powerful forces on each side, they met ; Licinius relying on the protection of the ancient divinities, and his adversary on the prayers of the Christian clergy. After several engagements, the former was defeated, and surrendered himself into the hands of Constantine, on condition that his life should be spared. The emperor, however, violating his agreement, put him to death. Finding himself now confirmed in supreme authority, he made Christianity the national religion, and invested the bishops with extensive powers. He was diligent in the suppression of heresy, and banished, among others, Arius, the celebrated promulgator of new doctrines, into a remote part of the empire. His domestic life was a tragic one ; and he put to death his wife Fausta, and his son Crispus, though for what provocation is not clearly understood. The most important measure of his reign, and one which may be said to have ended the history of the Roman empire, was his removal of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, called after him, Constantinople. The nation had long been in an unset- tled and dangerous condition, from internal corruption and foreign invasion ; and this removal, by withdrawing from Italy the wealth and the forces necessary to protect her against the savage nations which surrounded her, was ultimately the cause of the destruction and dismemberment of the empire. The situation of the new capital was, and still remains, one of the most beautiful on earth. It lies on that magnificent strait, connect- ing the Euxine with the Mediterranean, the shores of which, even now, are for many leagues lined with palaces and temples. Here IQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the emperor built a splendid city, adorned with a capitol, an amphi- theatre, and many churches; and about two years afterwards, to the great mortification of the Eomans, removed thither, with all his court (A. D. 332, U. C. 1084). Ere long, the Goths took advantage of the withdrawal of the garrisons from the Danube, and ravaged the frontiers with great ferocity. They were, however, repulsed by Constantine, and lost nearly an hundred thousand of their number by famine and exposure. At the age of sixty-two, the emperor expired, after a long, active, and eventful reign of thirty-two years (A. D. 343). Before his death, he had divided the empire among his three sons ; Constantine, the eldest, having command of Gaul and the western provinces; Constantius, the second, of Africa and Illyricum ; and Constans, the youngest, of Italy. Uitiiiirxjiidil, JLV DECLINE AND DISSOLUTION OP THE EMPIRE. Feom this time the vast and unwieldy empire, which had so long given laws to the world, fell gradually into decay. Few of the princes who succeeded Constantine inherited his abilities ; and the history of Rome henceforth presents the painful spectacle of a degenerate nation, enervated by luxury and effeminacy, gradually becoming the prey of barbarous tribes, which possessed the rude courage and fierceness that had been the foundation of her own greatness. The northern races now commenced to pour down upon the fer- tile valleys and plains of Italy, in such vast numbers, that it seemed as if "the store-house of nations," the immense and unknown region whence they came, must at last be exhausted. Yet fresh hordes still poured forth to fill the places of those who perished in battle, or settled down on their newly-conquered possessions. The eastern emperors, degenerating into luxurious oriental potentates, offered in general but a feeble resistance. The reign of EOME. IQl Constantius, wlucli lasted thirty-eight years, was weak and ineffi- cient. Julian, who succeeded him, (called the Apostate, from his having returned to the ancient religion,) was indeed a wise and valiant monarch ; he expelled the barbarians from their new settle- ments on the Ehine, and during his reign, which lasted but two years, did much for the preservation of the empire. Among his successors, Jovian and Valentinian emulated his example, and the latter fortified the frontiers with castles, garrisons, and permanent stations of soldiery. A new and unexpected enemy was added to the former foes of the empire. The Huns and Alans, a fierce and numerous people from the south-east of Russia, leaving their unexplored regions, poured, in immense bodies, into the country of the Goths. The latter, driven into the Roman territories, in a fierce engagement, destroyed the emperor Valens and the greater part of his army. From this time, their own forces being lessened, and difficult to levy, it became customary among the emperors to engage one tribe of barbarians, by hire, to defend them against others; a pernicious practice, which brought the empire more and more under the power of its enemies. By a series of attacks, its limits became gradually diminished. The northern tribes seized on Thrace, Mysia, and Pannonia, and afterwards on Macedonia, Thessaly, and Greece itself. Italy was now defended only by its own frontier, and though Theodosius, by his valour and ability, kept the enemy at bay for a time, after his death they proceeded almost without opposition. Alaric, king of the Goths, with a large body of his troops, had been engaged to assist in the defence of the empire ; but perceiving the weak and inefficient rule of Arcadius and Honorius, the suc- cessors of Theodosius, thought he might turn his forces to better account by attacking his employers. For some years his success was doubtful; but at last receiving fresh reinforcements from the populous forests of the north, he passed the Alps, and overran the fertile plains of Italy. The inhabitants, enfeebled by long luxury, offered but little resistance, and the emperor Honorius, who was at Ravenna, did nothing to avert the storm. Rome itself, which for eight hundred years had not seen a foreign enemy at its gates, was besieged, and suffered the greatest extremities from famine and pestilence. The senate entreating terms of peace, the invader demanded all their ][32 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. riclies and slaves. Being asked what lie would leave tliem, lie sternly answered "their lives;" and to these hard conditions they were compelled to submit. By surrendering all their valuables, and even stripping their temples, the invader was bought off for a time ; but, whether from avarice or vengeance, he returned, and gave the city up to plunder. During this terrible devastation, which con- tinued for three days, innumerable works of art and precious records were devoted to destruction (A. D. 410, U. C. 1163). Ere long the city was again ravaged by Genseric, king of the Yandals, and for fourteen days the inhabitants, the temples, habit- ations, and all it contained, were delivered up to the fury of his licentioiis soldiery. From this time the western portion of the empire was in effect at an end. The Yandals and other tribes had possession of Spain, and the Goths and Burgundians of Gaul. The Huns had seized Pannonia, and Italy was again and again overrun b}^ various barbarous nations. Britain and Armorica were deserted, and left to their own guidance ; and at last, with the abdication of Augustulus, the very name of Emperor of the West (which had long been only a name) expired; and Odoacer, the leader of the Heruli, assumed the title of King of Italy. Thus ended the Eoman empire, after a continuance of more than twelve hundred years, during which it had conquered and governed the greater part of the known world. Its decline and fall are to be attributed to the luxurious habits engendered by wealth, and to the vast extension of its dominions, which at length extinguished all national sentiment, and rendered the government of such various and widely-extended regions impossible to any except men of the highest order of talent. Its final dissolution occurred one hundred and forty-six years after the removal of the capitol to Constantinople (A. D. 476, U. C. 1229). PERSIA. uiwciltLriiuili i HISTOEY OF PERSIA BEFOEE THE CHRISTIAN ERA. . The records of tlie early national existence of Persia, like- those of most oriental countries, were nearly all swept away by the first flood of Mahometan barbarism. It appears to have been a matter of conscience with these fanatical conquerors, to devote all written records to destruction ; and thus the most valuable and noble monu- ments of history, science, and literature, have perished for ever. The little information which we possess, relating to ancient Persian history, is derived principally from the sacred writings, and from the accounts of early Greek historians. That singular work, the "Shah Nameh, or History of Kings," written mostly by the cele- brated poet Ferdusi, embodies a few authentic traditions, with some imperfect information derived from the Greeks, and a vast mass of impossible fable and imagination. It would be vain to attempt a discrimination between the true and fabulous portions of the native Persian chronicles anterior to the year B. C. 747. The tales of the Paishdadian kings, to one of whom, as to the "three emperors" of China, was attributed the invention and introduction of divers useful arts ; of Tahmuras bat- tling with the Deeves, or magicians; or of "E Furrookh, the Fortunate, " reigning gloriously for a period of five hundred years, can scarcely claim a place in a compend of sober history. Occa- , sionally, among these wild legends we may notice an incident, the quaintness and originality of which commend it to our minds as being founded upon a truthful origin. Such is the story of the courageous Kawah, who, although but a poor blacksmith, headed an 184 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. insurrection against the tyrant Zoliauk; overcame him, and delivered the regal authority to Feridoon, afterwards surnamed "the Fortu- nate," a descendant of the former kings. Zohauk was a Syrian prince, who had invaded Persia, and possessed himself of the sov- ereignty. Points of identity have been suggested by some writers between this monarch and the Nimrod of the Hebrew scriptures. Kawah's leathern apron, which he hoisted as a standard in this warfare, was afterwards emblazoned with precious stones, and used as the banner of many successive kings. It was taken as a trophy by the Mahometans in the time of the Caliph Omar. The prowess and valorous deeds of Eustum, form a prominent theme for the fabulous tales of Persian poets and story-tellers. That such a person existed, and that he flourished during the reign of Manucheher, grandson of Feridoon, there canbe little doubt; but what part he actually took in the politics and warfare of his age, is at best but a subject of uncertain conjecture. His exploits,' as related by Ferdusi, rival those of Hercules. It can hardly be affirmed, with certainty, that Persia existed as an independent kingdom before the time of Sardanapalus, the last of the Assyrian monarchs. In the year B. C. 747, which we have mentioned as the earliest reliable date in Persian history, this unfor- tunate king, sunk in luxury and effeminacy, was overpowered and slain by Arbaces and Belesis, governors of Media and Babjdon, assisted by the forces of various other nobles who had joined in their conspiracy. Before the time of the celebrated Cyrus, Persia is said to have been chiefly inhabited by a pastoral and wandering people, divided into ten principal tribes, and owning a patriarchal government. This great conqueror, whose name occurs so frequently in the prophe- cies of Holy Writ, having, upon the union of these hitherto distinct hordes, obtained the chief authority, overcame the declining king- doms of Media and Babylon, and extended his conquests to the shores of the Mediterranean. These events took place between five and six centuries before the Christian era. Cyrus was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who overcame Egypt, and possessed himself of extensive dominions in other portions of northern Africa. It has been conjectured by some, that this mon- arch was the Ahasuerus mentioned in the Jewish scriptures. The impostor and usurper Pseudo Smerdis, having been dethroned and slain in a conspiracy headed by Otanes and six other* noblemen, PERSIA. 135 Darius Hystaspes, one of tlie number, obtained tlie throne. The conspirators had left it, as they supposed, to chance to decide which of them should be invested with the supreme authority ; but the ingeniiity of a groom of Darius secured him the advantage. He was the first Persian king who attempted an invasion of either of the European nations, and although in some measure successful, he thereby entailed disaster and destruction upon his successors. He crossed the Bosphorus with a large army, and took possession of Macedon, extending his power into Thrace. The Scythians had previously checked his advance upon their dominions northward of the Danube. Darius regulated and organized the civil government and the mihtary force of his dominions in a much more efficient manner than had been before accomplished. He instituted a regular com- munication with the various satrapies, in order to exercise over their rulers a wholesome restraint and supervision. He increased the power and discipline of his army by the introduction of hired soldiers from the Grecian states; and, upon pressing occasions, resorted to a system of conscription for the purpose of adding to the number of his troops. By the command of this monarch, Scylax, a Greek navigator, undertook his celebrated voyage from the eastern border of Persia to Egypt. This was a more extensive and adventurous undertaking than might at first be supposed ; no similar attempt having been previously made, so far as we have any information. Of the diffi- culties and delays which were encountered in its accomplishment, we may judge from the fact, that the voyage occupied between two and three years. The expedition was fitted out at Caspatyra, a town five or six hundred miles from the mouth of the Indus. A successful invasion of several Indian provinces was the result of the information obtained by Darius from those to whom he had entrusted this adventure. Towards the end of this reign, the prevailing success of the Persian arms met with several checks and reverses. Insurrections broke out in Egypt, and among the Grecian inhabitants of Asia Minor. His success in suppressing the revolt in the latter, encour- aged Darius to undertake the subjection of the allies of his rebellious subjects across the Hellespont. With a great force, his son-in-law Mardonius entered Macedonia, and obtained complete possession of that province and of several others upon its border; but disaster at 156 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. sea, and a destructive attack by the Thracians detracted from the renown and advantage of the expedition. A second attempt upon Athens, resulted in a total defeat of the Persian forces by the Athe- nians under the command of the famous Miltiades, upon the plains of Marathon. This engagement, than which none in the annals of warfare has been more universally celebrated, occurred on the 29th day of September (B. C. 490). In the midst of immense preparation to repair the losses and dis- honour thus incurred, the crown devolved upon Xerxes I. by the death of his father, in the year B. C. 485. Upon a comparison of the writings of Josephus with the records of the Old Testament, it would seem that Darius was the king by whose protection and favour Jerusalem was rebuilt, and the implements of sacred cere- monies restored to the temple. During his reign, flourished ZOroas. ter, the great philosopher and theologian of Persia, who inculcated the worship of fire. Some have maintained that Zoroaster was but a title assumed by successive legislators, and others that there were two of that name. Whether these suppositions are true or false, no accurate record enables us to decide. It is singular that none of the Greek historians mention the name of Zoroaster, nor do they describe any other individual, whose acts or reputation would seem to identify the same historical character. In the native Persian histories, we notice equally surprising omissions of heroes and conquerors, with whose names, from other records, we are exceedingly familiar. Of Xerxes I., whose memorable expedition and disgraceful defeat, have been so minutely described by Herodotus, no mention is made in any of the chronicles of Persia; the dominion of his father, by them styled Gushtasp, being represented as occupying about the space of time included in the reigns of both. The first military operation of Xerxes was to quell the revolt in his Egyptian dominions. In this he was completely successful, his forces under his brother Achaemenes overrunning the country, and completely subjugating the native inhabitants. After this, followed a three years' preparation for a campaign in Greece, which should atone for former injuries, and wipe away the disgrace of the Persian arms in the preceding reign. The whole body finally set in motion for the subjugation of that little state, including women, sutlers, and servants of the camp, was estimated by the most reliable Greek authors at more than two PEESIA. 187 millions of souls. Eiglity thousand of tliese were mounted troops: an immense train of camels and chariots accompanied them, and the flotilla provided for their transportation across the Hellespont and to cooperate at sea with the manoeuvres of the land forces, is said to have been composed of three thousand vessels. The conflicting emotions which agitated the mind of the haughty monarch, on reviewing the whole of his vast armament from a height by the sea- shore, have formed a subject for remark by historians of all ages. The entire force passed into Thrace, crossing the Hellespont by means of a bridge of boats, and met with little resistance from the inhabitants of that country. Several years are said to have been spent in further fruitless preparations; but when, at last, the invading army, in numbers apparently sufficient to bear down all opposition, poured into Grreece, it was only to meet with the most determined resistance, and to sustain the most disgraceful overthrow and defeat. The glorious self-devotion of Leonidas and his little band of Spartan warriors, at the pass of Thermopylae, opposed the first check to the advance of the Persians; and, crushed as they were by the overwhelming force of the enemy, their dauntless courage and patriotism aroused a flame in the hearts of their coutrymen, which resulted in the complete destruction of the invaders at Salamis, Platsea, and Mycale. The Persian monarch made his escape, slenderly attended, in a solitary fishing boat. Of the events of his reign consequent upon his return to his own dominions, we have but little and uncertain information. He was assassinated by Artabanes, a captain of the guards, in the twelfth, or, according to some chronologers, the twenty- first year of his reign. Ardeshir Dirazdusht, known by historians as Artaxerxes Longi- manus, (the long-handed,) succeeded his father Xerxes on the Persian throne. He reigned for forty years, and was considered a wise and virtuous prince; but his reign was troubled by various insurrections and disturbances, which resulted in the loss of the Greek provinces in Asia Minor. In the south and east his aiithority appears to have been maintained and extended. The accounts given of several succeeding monarchs are in the highest degree imperfect and uncertain. The Persian historians cover the space of time intervening between the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus and that of Darab H., who corresponds to Darius 188 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Codomanus, by lengthening that of the former sovereign to an incredible period, and by adding an account of a certain queen and her son, Darab the First. Of various occurrences in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, who is considered to have been the third monarch after Longimanus, we have the most minute and highly interesting description from the pen of the renowned soldier and historian Xenophon. This monarch came to the throme in the year B. C. 405.' The peace of his reign was disturbed by the opposition of his brother, the celebrated Younger Cyrus, who aspired to the crown. The party of Cyrus was favoured by his mother, the former queen ; and, having prepared an army of more than an hundred thousand men, consisting in part of hired Grecian soldiers, he marched upon Susa to enforce his claims. Being immensely outnumbered by his opponents, he sustained a total defeat: he was slain by the hand of his brother, and his army was destroyed or dispersed. The Greek mercenaries maintained their ground with the utmost valour and determination, refusing to lay down their arms even after the destruction of their leader and their allies. Their own chiefs were induced by a pretended truce to put themselves into the enemies' power, and were basely and perfidi- ously assassinated. In this emergency, they appointed Xenophon to the chief command, and took council as to the course which they should adopt. It was finally determined to attempt a retreat through the enemies' country. The number of Greeks who survived the battle, was about ten thousand, all foot soldiers. Their only route to a place of safety was across a country whose natural obstacles seemed insurmount- able : they must force their way, pressed on every side by the enemy, over rough mountains, across dangerous rivers, and through inhos- pitable deserts. The distance to be thus traversed was nearly two thousand miles ; and as they were unprovided with provisions, it was impossible that the journey should be other than a continual warfare to obtain sustenance, even should their march be uninterrupted by the regular forces of the Persians. With such prospects before them, the terrors of which were more than realized, the Grecians com- menced their retreat. It was nearly a year before they reached Byzantium, now Constan- tinople, and the record of their sufferings, dangers, and exposure, supported with unequalled courage and fortitude, has been fully handed down to us by Xenophon, their leader and historian. They PEESIA. IQQ \ were blinded and impeded by deep snows, especially among tbe moun- | tainous regions of Armenia ; numbers perished from cold and hunger ; \ hordes of barbarous troops pressed upon their rear or lay in wait ; to intercept their progress ; and their baggage and stores, if delayed j by the impracticable roads, were sure to be seized and plundered. j The preservation of the whole corps from destruction appears to i have been due, in no small measure, to the skill, bravery, and i craftiness of their leader. The variety and interest of the narrative j enchain our attention throughout the whole of this unparalleled ! expedition. It presents striking pictures of manners and habits among the various nations through which they forced their way ; the subterraneous abodes of the Armenian peasantry, and the despe- rately defended strongholds of the Taochians, are brought vividly before our minds. When the foremost of the Grecian band first obtained a sight of the sea, from the summit of a mountain, their shouts brought forward the whole army, in a state of tumultuous joy and exultation. Although on the extreme eastern shore of the Pontus Euxinus, or Black Sea, and at a vast distance from their homes, they felt that the way was now plain before them. The number who perished on the route, considering the difficulties encountered, and the protracted warfare and exposure, was astonishingly small, being less than fifteen hundred. The remaining years of Artaxerxes Mnemon were disturbed by court conspiracies, and by invasions of the Greeks of Asia Minor and their Spartan allies. - His youngest son Ochus assumed the regal authority in the year 360 B. C. under the title of Artaxerxes III. To obtain and secure this position, he put to death his brother and a great number of other relatives, whose rivalry he feared. The arms of this monarch were successful in quelling a revolt in Phoenicia, and in recovering the Egyptian provinces. This last achievement was not accom- plished without great loss, owing to the dangerous and unknown character of the country through which the army was obliged to pass. An Egyptian eunuch named Bagoas, who had been invested with high authority by Ochus, in revenge for the injuries inflicted upon his country, laid a plot against the life of his master, who perished by poison. Darius Codomanus, styled Darab II. by Persian chroniclers, next succeeded to the throne, being aided in establishing his authority by 190 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the same eunuch who had murdered his predecessor, and who hoped thereby to retain his own influence and authority. Finding the new monarch httle inclined to submit to his dictation, Bagoas endeav- oured to remove him in a similar manner; biit, being discovered, was himself compelled to swallow the deadly draught which he had prepared for his master. Two years from the time when Darius Codomanus ascended the throne, his kingdom was invaded by Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon. Philip had been previously worsted in a contest with Persia, and a desire to avenge this disaster, combined with hopes of plunder and a thirst for military renown, induced Alexander to resolve on an expedition into the heart of Asia. In the year 334 B. C, with an army of only thirty -five thousand men, five thousand of whom were cavalry from his northern provinces, he crossed the Hellespont. After visiting the plains of ancient Troy, and making offerings to the shade of his pretended ancestor, Achilles, he marched to the banks of the Granicus, on the opposite side of which the Persian army was encamped in great force. Darius had not been remiss in preparations to resist the invader : he had sent an immense army into Asia Minor, and with a further force awaited the enemies' approach in Syria. At the Granicus, the Greeks, encouraged by the presence and" personal valour of their general, forced a passage against over- whelming odds, and routed the Persians with great slaughter. Their own loss was trifling. Alexander pushed on to meet Darius and his reserved forces, whom he encountered near the borders of Syria, by the gulf of Issus. A terrible battle ensued, which resulted in the complete overthrow of the Persian army, one hundred thou- sand of whom were slain ; and the wife and daughter of the defeated prince, with much rich and valuable booty, fell into the hands of the victors. The Macedonians are said to have lost in this engagement only three hundred men, a disproportion so incredible, when com- pared with the destruction of the Persians, as only to be explained on the supposition that the army of Darius, being sp dily disorgan- ized and put to rout, were slain as unresisting fugitives by their fierce and disciplined assailants. The royal captives were treated by Alexander with the greatest consideration and respect. Phoenicia and the sea-ports of Tyre and Sidon fell successively into the power of the conqueror, the resistance of the Tyrians being- punished by the sale of thirty thousand captives as slaves. Proceed- PEESIA. 191 ing against Jerusalem, it is said that Alexander spared tlie city on account of the veneration excited in his mind by the insignia and solemnity of the Jewish religious rites. It is added, by some writer, that he sacrificed in the temple, and that the high-priest called his attention to the prophecy that the "king of Grecia should overcome the king of Persia." Egypt, which was the next scene of his warlike operations, offered little resistance to the successfid Greeks. From this easy conquest, Alexander proceeded, with renewed vigour, to carry out the pur- poses for which he had commenced the Asiatic campaign. The Persian army, to the number of about a million of men, awaited the invader near the Assyrian town of Arbela. The discipline and valour of the Greeks again prevailed, and by this final and decisive conflict the power of Alexander was established and confirmed through the greater part of eastern Asia. Darius fled from the field of battle, and sought an asylum in Ecbatana. Before, however, he had opportunity to reassemble his remaining forces, or to arrange any further plans for defence, he was seized by Bessus, the treacherous governor of Bactriana, and basely murdered. The native historians of Persia give a different account of the circumstances attending the death of Darius, and mingle much of fanciful invention in their detail of the Grecian invasion. They endeavour to prove that Alexander wa,s a son of Darab the First, whom they represent to have married a daughter of Philip of Macedon ; a story, the absurdity of which carries its own refutation. The subsequent career of Alexander forms rather a portion of Greek than of Persian history. He died at Babylon, in consequence of a protracted debauch, eleven years from the time of his entry into Asia; leaving the country a prey to the fierce and rapacious military chieftains whom he had set over the various provinces. About sixteen years firom the time of his death, which took place B. C. 323, Seleucus, a general of great wisdom, courage, and activity, obtained secure possession of most of the country now known as Persia. His dominions were aft;erwards greatly extended, including the larger pai if Alexander's conquests west of the Indus. The long line of his successors, twenty-one in number, entitled the Seleucidge, retained regal authority in Persia until the establishment of the Parthian dynasty ; and in Syria until the Eoman conquest under Pompey, B. C. 65. In the year 250 B. C, Arsaces, a nobleman of Parthia, in revenge X92 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. for some domestic injuries received from tlie provincial governor, headed a successful insurrection, and laid tlie foundation of the Parthian power in Persia. The Parthians were a brave and warlike people, who had origin- ally emigrated from Scythia and the adjacent regions, and had greatly increased in power and number. The bounds of the country where they had settled, do not appear to be very distinctly defined ; and after they had obtained control of Persia, they became so mingled with the native inhabitants, that no distinction could be drawn between the two races. Parthian and Persian are convertible terms with the Eoman writers of this period. The Arsacidise, or descendants of Arsaces, reigned with great power and splendour more than four hundred years ; but for the history of their achievements, we are obliged to depend entirely upon the writers of other and distant nations. The native chronicles contain scarcely any thing reliable concerning the events which transpired in this long and important interval — the most brilliant period in Persian history. The classical reader will readily call to mind the exultation of the Latin poets at any advantages gained by Eoman arms over these formidable enemies. The memorable defeat of Crassus in Mesopo- tamia, which took place B. C. 53, during the reign of Orodes, the eleventh of the Arsacidae; the check received from Antony's gen- eral, Ventidius ; and Antony's own discomfiture and forced retreat, are matters familiar to those acquainted with the history of the two great Eoman triumvirates. Thirty-six years before the Christian era, Augustus so far extended his power and influence in the East, that Phraates, then king of Persia, or Parthia, restored the trophies of victory previously obtained upon the occasion of the memorable defeat of Crassus. PEKSIA. ]^93 FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE CONQUEST BY ZINGHIS KHAN. A STRONG contrast appears between tlie effeminate and inefficient population whose countless forces, in a former reign, a handful of resolute men could disperse and destroy, and tlie warlike tribes who now held undisturbed sway in Persia. The government was essen- tially military, resembling, in no small degree, that of Western Europe during the middle ages. The native inhabitants, completely degraded and enslaved, no longer retained even the semblance of influence or authority, while their Parthian masters, organized as a powerful military confederacy, spread the terror of their arms far and v,dde. Their mode of war- fare was similar to that of the knights of Europe; the force upon which they chiefly depended consisting of mounted men, clad in defensive armour. The strength and speed of their horses, and their skill in the use of the bow, were matters of world-wide celebrity. The period at which the Parthian power appears to have attained its greatest height, was during the reign of Mithridates I., the sixth monarch of the Arsacidse. He subdued Syria, and placed rulers, from his own family, over Armenia, the semi-barbarous districts of Scythia, and some portions of India. - The fall of the long and glorious dynasty founded by Arsaces, resulted from a rebellion excited by Ardeshir Babegan ; alleged to have been a descendant of the ancient royal line of Xerxes, or Isfundear, as he is called by Persian historians. Supported by the nobles of Ears, a province on the Persian Gulf, he made war against Artabanes IV., then monarch of Persia, and, after a suc- cession of engagements, defeated and slew him. Thus terminated the line of the Arsacidse. It is true that several princes, deriving their authority or descent from the same source, retained their power for a considerable period after this event. The kings of Armenia maintained an independent government until the year A. D. 428 ; and, as we shall see hereafter, their descendants finally obtained the throne of Persia. They are remarkable as having been the first monarchs who embraced Christianity. 13 194 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. Ardeshir reigned fourteen years, during whicli time, by policy and conquest, lie greatly strengthened and enlarged the empire. Under the last of the Arsacidse, the power of the monarchy had become enfeebled, and the various provinces no longer felt the con- trolling influence of a powerful central authority ; but the founder of the new dynasty conciliated or overcame their opposition, and, by a wise and firm administration, left the empire entire to his successors. He exhibited great zeal in the restoration of the religion which had been established in Persia before the Parthian conquest — a piece of policy which gained him the good-will of the native inhabitants. According to the Persian genealogy, Ardeshir Babegan was ■ descended from Sassan, a grandson of Isfundear; and his descend- ants, who occiipied the throne until near the middle of the seventh century, are termed Sassanians. Upon the death of Ardeshir, his son Shapoor, or Sapores, succeeded to the throne. Concerning the character of this prince, we have the most contradictory accounts : the native historians represent him as a sagaciouS; just, and virtuous ruler, Avhile those of Europe condemn him for cruelty, barbarity, and insolence. His reign is celebrated for successful military operations against the Eoman Asiatic provinces. The aged Emperor Valerian, attempting to make head against the Persian invasion, was taken prisoner at Edessa, and held in captivity till his death. It is reported, though with doubtful authenticity, that the victor heaped every species of contumely and disgrace upon his royal and venerable captive, and that he finally pxit him to death with the most refined cruelty This tradition comes to us, however, from historians whose country had felt the force of the Persian arms, and who can hardly be considered as candid reporters of the character and acts of a hostile and suc- cessful monarch. Hoormuz or Hormisdas, a son of Sapores, was the next in suc- cession. Of this prince, Persian historians relate that, to allay certain suspicions as to his good faith, which had been excited in the mind of his father, he cut off his right hand, and sent it as a pledge of fidelity. During the reigns of the Sassanides, the nation was involved in almost perpetual hostilities with the Eomans, in which the Persian arms in many instances met with brilliant success. The seventh monarch of this line, Narsi, defeated Galerius on the PEESIA. 195 same spot where the army of Crassus had been routed in a former reign. Shapoor Zoolactaf was contemporary with Constantine. He reigned seventy years, and maintained his ground with great ability against the force of the Roman arms. Baharam Gour, styled by Greek authorities Varanes Y., is cele- brated in Persian chronicles for his private virtues, simple tastes, and fatherly care of his people. He perished in a marsh, while hunting, A. D. 438. In the time of the Emperor Justinian, Persia was ruled by a monarch whom the historians of his country have ever delighted to honour. Khosru Nushirwan obtained the sceptre in the year 531, and reigned nearly fifty years in great splendour. He is alike cele- brated for the success of his military schemes, and for the justice and vigilance of his government. He suppressed the dissolute sect founded by Mazdac, gave great attention to public works, and founded institutions for learning. By his own efforts, and by the assistance of his noted minister Abuzoor- gamihr, the various departments of government were so regulated and systematized, that every abuse or unfaithfulness on the part of inferior and provincial officers could be discovered and corrected. He took possession of all Syria, and compelled the Emperor Jus- tinian to a disgraceful treaty of peace, extorting from him the payment of a heavy tribute. At no period was the Sassanian power so great, or the nation which it ruled so prosperous, as under this celebrated sovereign. His son, Hoormuz III., succeeded him on the throne; a prince incapacitated by his vices and weakness to perpetuate the glory of the preceding reign. Pie was slain, after a short period of revolt and mismanagement, by his own general, Baharam Choubeen, whose distinguished services he had repaid by injury and ingratitude. Baharam endeavoured to take possession of the vacant throne, but on account of the intervention of the Eoman emperor Maurice, was unable to compass his ends, and Khosru Parviz, a son of Hoormuz, was made king. His reign was marked by a long course of almost unprecedented success, and by a final downfall, as complete and unexpected. Per- sonally, he was no warrior, but abandoned himself to the most extravagant luxury and magnificence. The splendour of his palaces, his horses, his elephants, and the beauty of his mistresses, are 196 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. fruitful subjects for the tales of Persian poets. His first military campaign was against Syria, whicli he invaded under the pretence of a desire to punish the assassins of his patron Maurice. The whole country was devastated; Jerusalem was taken, and its splendid shrines and churches demolished; what had been reli- giously preserved as the true cross was carried away; most of the cities were plundered, and nearly one hundred thousand Christians were put to death. From Syria, the armies of Khosru forced their way into Egypt, and overran the whole country, from the mouth of the Nile to the borders of Ethiopia. Alexandria was taken, and the Persian forces extended their march through Libya, even as far as Tripoli. A like success attended an expedition into the western part of Asia Minor. It is said that an encampment was maintained for a period of ten years, in the immediate vicinity of Constantinople. The island of Ehodes, and various cities on the coast, fell into the power of the Persians. After thirty years of success and conquest, the dominions of Khosru were invaded by a Eoman army under the Emperor Hera- clius, and a continued succession of reverses and defeats left the Persian monarch in a helpless and hopeless condition. Influenced by his natural obstinacy, he persisted, to the last, in refusing all terms of capitulation. He was at length seized and imprisoned by his eldest son, Siroes, who, assisted by a portion of the people, had rebelled against the paternal authority. This unnatural son consummated his barbarity hj the murder of his father and brothers. From this time to the accession of the last king of the dynasty of Sassan, few important events fall under our notice. Yezdegird, or Isdigertes III., at whose death terminated the long line of the Sassanides, commenced his reign A. D, 632. At this time the followers of the Arabian prophet Mahomet, had fully entered upon that system of invasion and forcible conversion to their faith which, in so brief a period, overthrew the religion and modified the gov- ernment of most of the Eastern nations. A particular history of the rise and progress of Mahometanism will be found in another por- tion of this volume; the present remarks will be confined to its introduction into the empire of Persia. Mahomet was born in the year 569, during the reign of Nushirwan. His first communication with Persia was in the time of Khosrn PEKSIA, 197 Parvis, to whom lie sent a letter, announcing himself as a prophet, and enjoining the reception of his doctrines. The proposition was received with the utmost contempt, the letter being torn in pieces by the emperor, and the fragments thrown into the river Karasu. The Mahometans declare that, from the time of this impious act, the stream has never, as before, been serviceable in fertilizing the country, but has been confined in a deep channel within its banks. The result of the first attempt made in Persia by the Arabs, for the promulgation of the new religion, was unpromising. The fol- lowers of the prophet gained no substantial advantage, nor any permanent establishment in the country, until the sixth year of the reign of Yezdegird. Then occurred the terrible battle of Kadesia, in which the Arabian forces gained an entire victory, and obtained possession of the sacred apron of the blacksmith Kawah, covered with jewels, and long used as the royal standard. One hundred thousand Persians were slain, and the plunder obtained by this victory surpassed the wildest dreams of the rude and ignorant con- querors. We can hardly conceive of the astonishment and exultation of these roving tribes, whose lives had been passed without super- fluity, nourished by the simplest food, and unacquainted with the refinements of civilization, on seeing at their disposal the treasures of a luxurious and magnificent camp and court. The booty obtained from the wealthy capital Madayn, which was afterwards taken and pillaged, completed their acquisitions. At the battle of Nehavend, the Persian power was finally over- thrown, and the unhappy monarch only escaped with life. For a number of years, he wandered from place to place in search of an asjdum, and was finally murdered by a miller Avhom he had hired to conceal him. With the fall of the Sassanides, ended the ancient system of religion. The doctrines of Zoroaster and the Magi were compelled to give place to those of the invaders, and the sacred writings and historical records of the country were unsparingly destroyed. For two hundred years, Persia remained but a province under the caliphs, who, by their emissaries and governors, colonized, controlled, and tyrannized according to their pleasure. At the end of this period, the fiery zeal for the new religion having somewhat abated, discontent and a spirit of rebellion began to pervade the countrv. Jacob Ibn Leith, a robber chieftain of the province of Seistan, having been first employed in the service of the Mahometan com- J^98 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. mander, attempted to gain for himself the siipreme anthority, and actually became ruler over most of the Eastern provinces of Persia. He Avas of low origin, but possessed of a daring, gallant, and enter- prising spirit, which secured to him the admiration and attachment of his followers. On his death, in the year A. D. 877, his possessions devolved upon his brother Amer, a man of luxurious habits, and ill-calculated to maintain authority in times of disturbance and anarchy. His policy was to conciliate the good-will of the caliph by an agreement to govern in his name. For this purpose he despatched a letter to Bagdad, which was favourably received, and" a friendly relation was, in this manner, maintained between the two powers for several years. A rupture finally occurred, and Motahmed, then caliph, obtained the assistance of Ishmael Samani, a Tartar chieftain, in the reduction of his refractory subject. On the northern side of the Oxus or Jihon, Amer was entirely defeated by the Tartar troops, and was sent a prisoner to the caliph. In this engagement, the Persians outnumbered their adversaries in the proportion of more than three to one, but they were unable to sustain the impetuous attack of the hardy and fierce barbarians. Only two other princes of the family of Jacob Ibn Leith maintained even the semblance of authority in Persia. From this period until the rise of the celebrated Mahmoud of Ghizni, in the early part of the eleventh century, the northern and eastern portions of Persia, including the possessions across the Oxus, were under the dominion of the dynasty of Samani ; and the southern and western provinces were governed by the Dilemee. Ishmael Samani, who overthrew Amer, and was the first of his name who reigned in Persia, is said to have been a descendant of Baha- ram Choubeen, celebrated in the reign of the immediate descendants of Nushirwan. He was the most famous monarch of his line, being no less remarkable for his military talents, than for his encouragement of literature, and for his private virtues. The monarchy of the Dilemee originated with the family of an obscure fisherman of the village of Dilem. They claimed an uncer- tain descent from the ancient Persian kings, but the secret of their success lay in their own enterprising ambition, stimulated by the predictions of an astrologer. PEKSIA. 199 While Persia, thus divided, was under the control of these two houses, a power had arisen in the East, which was destined to over- whelm them both. A small principality in Afghanistan, founded by a rebellious subject of the Saman dynasty, had increased, by conquests in Northern India, until it became a formidable power. Ghizni, or Gazna, was the capital of this province, from which city the dynasty of the Ghiznivide princes derive their title. Subuktagi, prince of this district, after having repeatedly defeated Jypaul, king of JSTorthern India, reducing him to the situation of a tributary, and immensely extending his own dominions, died in the year A. D. 977, leaving the crown to his son Mahmoud. Of the numberless victories and vast undertakings of this latter monarch we can here give but a very brief synopsis. By treaties, alliances, and the terror of his arms, he acquired supreme power over the terri- tories of the Saman and Dilem kingdoms; but his more celebrated campaigns were in Hindostan. Some account of the expeditions into this country will be found in another part of this volume, under the title of India. Filled with the most extravagant zeal for his religion, Mahmoud was continually engaged in crusades against the temples and' cities especially consecrated to Hindoo idolatry. His great object seemed to be the seizure and destruction of the most venerated idols; and to accomplish this, he undertook the most distant and dangerous expeditions. Doubtless a desire to extend the religion of the prophet was used in some measure as a cloak for his personal ambition; and the incredible amount of treasure possessed by the Indian kings and priesthood aroused to its fullest extent the eagerness and rapacity of the monarch and his troops. The royal palace at Ghizni was resplendent with gold and jewels, collected in the Indian campaigns, and with broken frag- ments of idols, brought home as the most glorious trophies of success. The weight of precious metals, and the number and quality of valuable gems in Mahmoud's possession, as recorded by historians, surpass any thing in the annals of regal magnificence. The grand mosque, no less than the imperial palace, was the admi- ration of the world, for the imposing style of its architecture and the richness of its decorations. The description given by Persian historians of Mahmoud's expe- dition into Guzerat, for the purpose of destroying the great idol of Sumnaut, seems like a legend of romance. The huge image was filled with jewels and treasure, and by its destruction Mahmoud 200 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. obtained a far greater amount of booty than the ransom offered by the priests as an inducement to spare it. The conqueror appears to have had no suspicion of the real cause of their eagerness to save the idol, and his rejection of their proposals is considered by the faithful as a glorious manifestation of religious zeal and pious self- denial, appropriately rewarded. Mahmoud was succeeded by his son Musaood, whose reign was spent in vain struggles to maintain the integrity of the vast empire bequeathed to him by his father. While engaged in subduing revolts in the East, his western provinces Avere attacked by the Seljuk Turks, who in the next reign extended their power through- out Persia. This tribe, which had formed a settlement in Bokhara, across the Oxus, and afterwards in the central Persian province of Khorasan, was now rapidly increasing in power. The chief, Togrul Beg, took upon himself a royal title in the year 1042, and so rapidly extended his conquests and acquisitions, that, after overrunning all Persia, he took the city of Bagdad, and made the caliph a prisoner. The august captive was treated with reverence and respect, and the victor, by treaty, agreed to hold his acquisitions as the nominal viceroy of the unfortunate monarch. Alp Arslan, a son of Togrul Beg, who reigned next in succession, was noted as a brave leader and a generous enemy. He left the crown to his son Malek Shah, a monarch equally celebrated for his extensive conquests, and for the wisdom with which he administered the affairs of government. In the height of his prosperity, his power extended from the borders of China to the uninhabitable deserts of Africa. He subdued Syria and Egypt; the wilds of Tartary formed a portion of his vast dominions; Georgia and Bokhara submitted to his authority; yet his unceasing vigilance proved adequate to the government and control of this vast assem- blage of nations, differing so widely in language, character, and habits. He traversed this extensive empire many times in person, for the purpose of correcting abuses and ascertaining the true con- dition of his subjects. He gave great encouragement to learning and science, and expended large sums in public improvements. After the death of Malek, the empire was distracted for many years by the contests of his sons for the sovereignty. The sceptre was finally obtained by Sanjar, who had maintained separate con- trol over Khorasan and Transoxiana from the time of his father's PERSIA. 201 death. His reign was disturbed by a war with the Turkomans of Guz, by whom he was at one time taken prisoner, and held in long captivity. Little of interest attaches to the history of the few succeeding Seljuk kings, or to the detail of civil commotions under the sway of the minor princes, styled Attabegs, who ruled over the country for about a century after their fall. During this interval of misrule and confusion, a sect sprung up whose name was, for more than a century, a terror to western Asia. It was founded by Hussun Subah, or Sheik ul Gebel, called by Europeans the Old Man of the Mountain, and King of the Assassins. He was an Arabian of obscure origin, but, by intrigue, and a remarkable faculty for arousing the blind and superstitious zeal of his followers, finally secured the services of such a band of des- perate ruffians, that none, even in the highest stations, were safe when he had once marked them for destruction. Many strange and romantic tales are told of the secret manoeuvres of this dangerous confederacy, and of the bloody tragedies enacted in furtherance of their designs. The sect was finally annihilated upon the conquest of Persia by the Mongols under Zinghis Khan and his successors. uXiiiiirioiiil, itiio FROM THE INVASION OF PERSIA BY ZINGHIS KHAN TO THE PRESENT TIME. Such a system of wholesale destruction as was pursued by this celebrated Tartar conqueror, and such scenes of devastation as were presented in the countries which had been ravaged by his arms, can find no counterpart in the history of the world. Persia, torn by civil dissensions and anarchy, offered itself an easy prey to the terrible invader. He overran and laid waste its fairest provinces; but it was reserved for his grandson and successor, Hulagou, to complete its subjection, and reduce it under an estabhshed authority. 202 THE PEOrLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. This latter monarch, having overcome all resistance to his power in Persia, made some amends for the ruin and devastation caused by himself and his predecessor, by the encouragement of learning and philosophy. Few of the descendants of Zinghis, who success- ively filled the Persian throne, have been celebrated either for military distinction or skill in government, and the latter years of the dynasty were marked by sanguinary domestic contests. The next important event in Persian history is the rise of the great conqueror Timur, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Karachar Nevian, an officer in the court of Zagatai, son of Zinghis Khan. In a more remote degree, he laid claim to a descent from the same ancestry with Zinghis himself. Having succeeded to the princi- pality of Kesh, he commenced a career of conquest and invasion as brilliant and as destructive as that of any of his predecessors. His first remarkable camj^aign, which secured him the favour and affec- tion of his people, resulted in the expulsion of Tuglick . Timour, king of Cashgar, who had successfully invaded the country, and reduced many of the less powerful princes to subjection. Tamerlane appears to have possessed every quality calculated to inspire admiration loyalty, and personal attachment in the minds of the barbarous and warlike hordes who thronged under his banners. Condescending and affable to his companions in arms, utterlj^ ruthless and unsparing towards his enemies, and possessed of a perseverance and energy which no danger or difficulty could appal, he pressed on fi^om conquest to conquest. All Tartary submitted to his arms; Persia, Asia Minor, and Georgia, were reduced and plun- dered. Apparently for the mere sake of victory and booty, he poured the torrent of his armies into India, and, after laying waste an immense tract of country, retired, careless of securing any further advantages from the campaign. The immense resources and power- ful military organization of the Ottoman empire in the East, proved insufficient to resist the impetiious attack and untiring perseverance of the Tartar invader. Bajazet, the reigning monarch, was taken prisoner, and, according to some authorities, personally subjected to cruel indignities. In Persia, province after province fell into the hands of the con- queror. Such as opposed any resistance to his arms, were laid waste and plundered; and any symptoms of disafiection or revolt, in those over which he had extended his power, served but as a pretext for delivering up the country to slaughter and devastation. The towns PEKSIA. 203 and strong places of the devoted districts were plundered and razed, and the inhabitants butchered or sold into slaverj^ The mind turns with disgust and weariness from the contemplation of the succession of horrors which accompanied the campaigns of the Tartar khans. A battle is fought; the opposing army is annihilated or dispersed, and an innumerable horde of wild and fierce barbarians is turned loose upon the defenceless inhabitants to slay or pillage at their will. A fertile and highly cultivated country, enriched with all the pro- ducts of industry and art, is left a waste of smoking ruins. Let the scene be enacted and repeated an hundred times, and we may form some idea of the progress and consequences of the wars waged by Zinghis and Timur. The bodily strength and endurance of their followers was beyond aught that we can conceive. They were ready for a desperate engagement after a forced march of double the distance that could be accomplished by any modern army without refreshment. A remarkable instance of this hardi- hood was displayed by the troops of Timur at the taking of Bagdad. On this occasion they forded the Tigris immediately upon their arrival at its banks, after an uninterrupted march of nearly eighty miles ; nor did this exposure and fatigue appear to diminish the ardour or ferocity of their attack. The city was taken by storm, and the fugitive sultan and his troops were p^^rsued beyond the Euphrates. After the death of Timur, in the year A. D. 1405, a contest for the sovereignty arose between two of his grandsons, and terminated in the death of both the contending parties. The sceptre then devolved upon his youngest son. Shah Mirzah, who had been viceroy over Khorasan during the life of his father. This prince wisely employed his power and resources in restoring the prosperity and rebuilding the cities of the countries ravaged by his ancestors. The successors of Timur gradually lost possession of various portions of the vast domains obtained by such reckless expenditure of life ; and the kingdom finally became divided into three separate principalities. Little of interest or celebrity appears in Persian history, from this time to the rise of Ismael Sufifee, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. He was the first native monarch established upon the Persian throne since their power was effectually broken by foreign invasion. Of comparatively humble origin — being a descendant of Sheik Suffee u Dien, an anchorite of great sanctity, who lived at 204 TH^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Ardebil — lie rose step by step, until his autliority became supreme in Persia. It is said that Ismael owed his success in no small degree to the veneration and gratitude inspired by one of his pious ances- tors, who had used his influence with Timur in behalf of certain Turkish captives. The descendants of the prisoners freed by the intercession of the holy man were not forgetful of their obligations, and lent their assistance and support to his posterity. The Sultan Selim attacked and defeated Ismael in a pitched battle at the border of Azerbijan, but was prevented by death from following up his advantages. Ismael Shah has always been esteemed by Persian historians as a monarch worthy of admiration and reverence. Something of the barbarian occasionally, however, appears in his deeds ; for example, his using as a drinking-cup the skull of the brave prince of the Usbecks, after the expulsion of that tribe from Khorasan. Tamasp, his son, came to the throne at an early age, and during a long reign, maintained the integrity of his empire against the attacks of the Usbecks and the Ottomans. He flourished in the time of Queen Elizabeth, of England, who sent an ambassador to his court. The greatest monarch of the line of Ismael, and the most celebrated of modern Persian kings, was Shah Abbas. He com- menced his career as governor of Khorasan, to which office he had been appointed while yet a mere child. He was prevailed upon by the nobility of this province to engage in hostilities against his father, and to lay claim to the crown. After a few years spent in desultory warfare between chiefs of different factions, the country being meanwhile exposed to the attacks of Tartar and Ottoman invaders. Shah Abbas succeeded in establishing himself firmly upon the Persian throne. The character of this powerful sovereign, whose reign was splendid and prosperous beyond that of any modern Persian prince, presented a strange compound of public spirit, and private vice and cruelt}^. A devotee in his religious faith, he aspired to reputation for great sanctity. Pilgrimages and self-humiliations were performed rather for the public eye than from the promptings of genuine faith, his sensual inclinations not permitting him to obey the precepts of the prophet in his private life. In foreign wars, and in the sup- pression of domestic revolt, he was bloody and remorseless. Huge piles of gory heads, after a victory, attested the success of his arms. In the improvement of the general condition of his empire, Shah PEESIA. 205 Abbas spared neitlier laboiir nor expense. Magnificent institutions for learning, mosques, bridges, and otber works of public utility and ornament, are still shown to tbe traveller as monuments of his munificence and policy. The efficiency and discipline of his native forces were immeasurably increased by a wise encouragement of Eng- lish military adventurers, from whom he learned much of the modern art of war. Sir Anthony Shirley, accompanied by his brother and a few attendants, proceeded, at the instance of the Earl of Essex, to the court of the Shah, and was received with all the magnificence of Eastern royalty. They enjoyed familiar intercourse with the king, were promoted to the command of his armies, and were maintained in the most profuse and sumptuous manner. A friendly intercourse thus commenced between Great Britain and Persia; and, moved by equal jealousy towards the Portuguese, who had formed flourishing settlements at Ormuz, the forces of the Shah and those of the English East India Company united in an attack upon that island. They succeeded in capturing the place, and in destroying its prosperity, btit with little eventual benefit to their own interests. The different religious sects met with greater toleration in this reign than at any previous time since the country fell into the power of the Mahometans. The most unnatural and revolting portion of the history of Abbas remains to be told. Excited by jealousy towards his own sons, of whom, during their infancy, he had been passionately fond, he caused them to be successively put to death, or deprived of sight. His fury was in turn expended upon the instruments of his atro- cious resolves; and his declining years were deeply embittered by suspicion and remorse. The fourth in succession from Shah Abbas the Great, was the weak and bigoted Hussein Mirza, whose reign, for the first twenty years, was spent in slothful indulgence and superstitious observances. The close of his reign was disastrous to himself and his people. While the country was in a most unsettled condition, harassed by plundering hordes of wild Tartars, and under the sway of an imbe- cile monarch, a rebellion broke out among the Afghan tribes. Under Meer Vais, the leader of the revolt, they had deposed the provincial governor, and made successful incursions into Khorasan. When, by the death of his father, Meer Yais, and the murder of his uncle Abdoola, the authority devolved upon Mahmoud Ghiljee, a systematic invasion of Persia was planned and accomplished. 206 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Instead of opposing a firm and vigorous resistance to the approach- ing enemy, the miserable Hussein listened only to the suggestions of flinatics and the predictions of astrologers. The Afghan forces, although greatly outnumbered, were every where victorious. Ispa- han yielded to the conqueror, after sustaining a seven months' siege, in which every extremity of famine and suffering was endured by the unfortunate inhabitants. Hussein Avas himself taken prisoner, compelled to do homage to the invader, and closely confined in prison, where he remained until his assassination in the succeeding reign. After Mahmoud had established himself upon the throne of Persia, symptoms of disaffection among his newly-acquired subjects aroused all the worst passions of his savage and cruel mind. He seems to have resolved upon confirming his authority by a universal massacre of all from whom he dreaded resistance. We have no record of the precise extent of this tragedy, but it was commenced by the slaughter of three hundred of the nobility, with their families, and of three thousand sol- diers who had been in the employ of the former monarch. Suspicion, apprehension, and the indulgence of his savage inclinations, finally brought on paroxysms of insanity; Avhich were aggravated by a system of seclusion and penance undertaken to pro- pitiate the Deity in his behalf It is said that he was put to death by order of his mother, in order to release him from his miser}^ He was succeeded by his cousin Ashruff, a son of Abdoolah, in whose reign an alliance was formed against Persia, between Russia and the Ottomans. In the mean time, Tamasp, son of Shah Hussein, who, since the capture of Ispahan and the imprisonment of his father, had kept up a semblance of regal authority at Mazunderan, began to increase in power. He was joined by Nadir Kouli, an Affshar chief of low origin, but of great military skill and enterprise. Their combined forces effected the overthrow of the Afghan mon- archy in Persia. Ispahan was retaken, and the Afghan population destroyed or dispersed. Few of them reached their native province in safety. Ashruff fled, but being some time afterwards recognised by his enemies, was slain, and his head was sent to Tamasp. Nadir, by whose enterprise and prowess this revolution was accom- plished, soon brought about the deposition of Tamasp, and took possessij:5n of the throne. He became Shah of Persia in the year 1736. Under the sway of this monarch, the former military glory of the empire revived. The Turks were expelled from the country; PEESIA. 207 Bokhara and Afghanistan, Candahar and Balkh, were subdued, and an expedition into India terminated in the entire reduction of the Mogul empire. Some account of this campaign, and of the immense treasures obtained by the invaders, may be found in the description of India. Notwithstanding these brilliant successes, the life of Nadir Shah, by the unrestrained indulgence of his own evil passions, was made wretched in the extreme. Like his predecessors, Abbas and Mah- moud, his mind was continually racked by feelings of jealousy towards his own household, and fears of revolt among the subjects of his tyranny. Like them, he resorted to the most bloody and cruel expedients to allay these apprehensions ; which, perhaps, as in the case of Mahmoud, amounted to insanity. He ordered the eyes of his son Eeza to be put out, upon suspicion of a conspiracy ; and pursued a course of wholesale slaughter in the disaffected cities and provinces. This unscrupulous cruelty, however, only served to hasten the event he so much dreaded. He was assassinated by his own officers, anxious to secure their lives, which were in constant jeopardy from his caprice. Within a few j^ears after Nadir's death, the empire was separated into various distinct governments, until the rise of Kureem Khan about the middle of the eighteenth century. The blind Shah Rokh, a grandson of Nadir, wore the crown in Khorasan, by sufferance rather than by ability to cope with his more powerful neighbours. Over every other province Kureem obtained the ascendancy, and maintained it until his death in 1779. He was an upright and virtuous monarch, and governed his people with patriarchal simplicity. Although of humble birth, and totally uneducated, his natural good sense and courage obtained him the sceptre, which his love of justice, moderation, and benevolence proved him worthy to wield. A character like this stands forth in strong contrast among the selfish and cruel tyrants whose deeds, in this connection, we are so frequently forced to commemorate. The first king of the Kujur dynasty, which still retains supreme authority in Persia, was Aga Mohammed, who obtained possession of the throne in 1795, after a long contest with Lootf Khan Zund, grand-nephew of Kureem. The four sons of this last-mentioned monarch had previously perished in attempts to establish their hereditary claims. Aga Mohammed is represented to have been a man of the most forbidding appearance, his face being described as resembling that 208 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of a " sliri veiled old woman," and of manners and habits equally- repulsive. His character was a compound of ambition, avarice, vindictiveness, and brutal ferocity, counterbalanced by few redeem- ing traits. Instances of almost incredible meanness in pecuniary matters are related concerning liim. His cruelty and barbarity towards those who excited his anger or revenge, will sufficiently appear from the manner in which he treated the inhabitants of the city of Kerman, who had lent their support to his rival. The women and children were given as slaves to his soldiers, and all the men who escaped massacre were blinded, and driven, in this help- less condition, into the country. The tortures and indignities which he inflicted on the person of his unfortunate rival, and, for purposes of extortion, on the venerable Shah Epkh, stamp him as one of the worst wretches who ever held a throne. The tyrant was assassinated in 1797, by two of his attendants, whom, after sentencing them to death for some trifling cause, he had still, with the most infatuated confidence, allowed to remain near his person. His reign was chiefly remarkable for the inroads of the Eussian power upon the domains of Persia. Although at times checked by English interposition, and occasionally repulsed by the native forces, the Czar acquired and still maintains possession of extensive districts in the Avest, which formerly were included in the Persian empire. Aga Mohammed was succeeded by his nephew, Futeh Ali, in whose reign the struggle with the Hussians still continued. Despite some instances of success attending the Persian arms, this monarch was constrained, in the year 1828, to conclude a peace upon terms very advantageoiis to his opponent. Upon his decease in 1834, his grandson. Shah Mohammed, was by foreign interference established on the throne. This king reigned for fourteen years, during which time few events of interest occurred in connection with the empire : he was succeeded by his son Nessur ud Hoon, the present incumbent of the throne. From the extreme unpopularity of the Kujur family, and the general tokens of discontent which appear throughout the kingdom, the overthrow of the present dynasty is, by some, confidently pre- dicted; while the encroachment and diplomatic influence of the more powerfal and rapacious European nations seem to prohibit the probability that Persia will ever hereafter recover any portion of its former political power or prosperity. IID I A. ij i^ iLL Sf 1> 3a si io THE ANCIENT AND CLASSIC HISTORY OE INDIA To tlie more civilized nations of antiquity, India always appeared a land of mystery, romance, and mythology. We first learn of its existence in tlie half-fabulous expedition of Bacchus, who, in the remotest ages, was said to have extended his jovial conquests over these distant regions. Traversing the country in a car drawn by panthers, he subjugated the people, less by the terror of his arms, than by the genial ascendancy of the grape. At a later and more historical period, Sesostris, the famed Egyptian conqueror, is reported to have invaded India, but no particular record of his exploits has reached us. Next came the famous expedition of Semiramis, queen of Assyria; but all accounts of this are so stamped with exaggera- tion as to be only partially credible. According to Diodorus, having extended her empire over Bactria and all Western Asia, she resolved to attempt the conquest of India, which, even then, was considered the most powerful and wealthy region on the continent. Many vessels were prepared for crossing the Indus, and transported overland to that river; and a great number of artificial elephants, moved by concealed camels, were constructed for the purpose of terrifying the enemy. After three years spent in these singular preparations, she is said to have gained the shores of the river with a force of nearly a million of men. Stabrobates, a powerful Indian monarch, awaited her on the bank. An engagement first took place upon the river, in which the natives were defeated ; and the invader, bridging the stream, crossed with her entire army. In a great battle, however, which soon 14 210 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ensued, the sliam elephants proved no match for their real and highly-trained opponents. The Assyrian army, in spite of the suc- cess of its cavalry, was completely routed, and Semiramis returned with scarcely a third of her immense forces. Darius, the Persian monarch, afterwards subdued some of the western provinces of India, and exacted from them an ample tribute in gold. In the meagre account of Herodotus, Indian customs, almost exactly similar to those now prevailing, are described. Scylax, a distinguished naval commander, was despatched by Darius on a voyage of discovery, and in two years and a half sailed down the Indus, and thence followed the coast to Egypt. The expedition of Alexander the Great, who about the ^^ear 826 B, C. commenced his celebrated campaign, furnishes the first authentic and detailed account of this interesting region. He had conquered Persia and Bactria, and imagined that India was the only country yet worthy of his arms. As master of Persia, he founded his title upon the conquests and authority of Darius, though these had long been forfeited by his successors. India was indeed an almost undiscovered region, when the Macedonian invader crossed the Indus. Here he encountered no resistance, and was even rein- forced by a native prince, named Taxiles. Arriving at the river Hydaspes, he found its opposite bank occupied by a formidable army, composed of the more warlike tribes of India, and commanded by the brave and magnanimous Porus. By a feigned attempt in another quarter, the invading prince succeeded in transporting his chosen troops, over a wooded island, to the opposite shore. The king instantly attacked him, but after a fiercely-disputed battle, was defeated and taken prisoner. Being questioned as to the manner in which he wished to be treated, he replied simply, "Like a king." Alexander, struck with his fortitude, accorded him his friendship, increased his dominions, and ever after found him a faithful ally. The conqueror then pressed onward into the heart of India, taking many cities, and putting to death the philosophers (probably Brah- mins) who excited the native princes against him. He arrived at last on the banks of the Hyphasis, the modern Sutledge; and here his soldiers, even the veterans, mutinied, and refused to march any farther. Immense numbers of elephants, horsemen, and war- chariots were said to be waiting them on the banks of the Ganges ; and Alexander, in spite of his grief and despair, could not induce them to proceed. That his expedition might not be fruitless of INDIA. 211 geographical discovery, lie resolved to return to Babylon, his eastern capitol, by an entirely new route. By the aid of the Phoenicians in his army, he speedily constructed a flotilla of two thousand vessels, with which he commenced his voyage down the river, and soon entered the Indus, of which it is a branch. During his voyage down these great rivers, (which was protracted to nine months,) he attacked and took many of the native cities. In storming a fortress of the Mali, a warlike nation, he received a dangerous wound, and nearly lost his life. The fleet at length arrived at the Indian Ocean, and the crews, accustomed to the tideless Mediterranean, were astonished at finding their vessels alternately grounded and then floated by the tides. Nearchus, the best naval commander in the army, was now despatched, with a small fleet, to circumnavigate the coast and effect discoveries, while the king, with the main body of his troops, marched home- ward by land. Both encountered the greatest privations and distress. Alexander, at last entering the rich and friendly countries of Gedrosia and Caramania, abandoned all discipline, and gave loose to revelry and frantic enjoyment. The whole army was converted into a sort of Bacchanalian procession, in the midst of which the king, emulating his predecessor Bacchus, rode, surrounded by his favour- ites, feasting, revelling, and crowned with flowers. All the soldiers followed their example, and nothing was to be seen but flagons, cups, and instruments of music. This triumph had been dearly obtained by the successful invader. Of the splendid army which he had led into India, amounting to an hundred and thirty-five thousand men, hardly a fourth remained. From the very interesting accounts which the historians of that time have transmitted to us, it would appear that very little change has occurred in the manners, customs, and religious rites of the singular people who inhabit the plains of India. The institution of strongly separated castes, the hereditary transmission of employment, the unnatural self-tortures of religious fanatics, and the immolation of widows upon the pyres of their deceased husbands, were all then, as now, distinguishing characteristicsi of the Hindoo race. The Granges is still worshipped, and the unhappy devotees of super- stition still expose themselves, in constrained and unnatural attitudes, naked to the burning rays of a tropical sun. Alexander took much interest in inquiring into the strange stoicism and self- denial of their philosophers, which certainly surpassed that of 212 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. Diogenes and tlie whole scliool of Cynics. Calanus, one of tlie most distinguislied of their number, accompanied the conqueror to Babylon, and afterwards, in extreme old age, astonished the Greeks by terminating his existence, according to the custom of his sect, by voluntarily mounting a funeral-pile, and suffering himself to be consumed to ashes. The country then, as now, was highly cultivated, and swarming with life. The natives, judging from the success of the invader, were, with some exceptions, nearly as peaceful and unwarlike as at the present day. Agriculture was held in high honour, and the labouring husbandmen were respected even in the midst of hostile armies. On the death of Alexander, and the partition of his vast empire among his generals, India fell to the share of Seleucus. He is said to have made a successful expedition for the reduction of the country, although opposed by Sandracottus (Chadragupta), who had. already founded a great empire in the east of India. An ambassador, whom he despatched to Palibothra, (supposed to be Boglipoor,) the capital of this powerful native monarch, reported that the city was ten miles in length and two in breadth, and was defended by five hun- dred and seventy -four towers ; that the army of Sandracottus was composed of four hundred thousand men, with twenty thousand cavalry and two thousand chariots. Peace was concluded between the rivals, and cemented by intermarriage; Seleucus resigning his claim to all the provinces east of the Indus. After Bactria had become a powerful and independent Grecian state, few and meagre accounts have reached us of the connection which it doubtless maintained with its Eastern colonies or rivals. "No portion of ancient history equally interesting is involved in darkness so deep and hopeless. The kings of Bactria certainly invaded and reduced to obedience a portion of India, perhaps more extensive than was subjected by the arms of Darius or Alexander. Colonel Tod collected in the western provinces numerous coins and medals of the Bactrian monarchs. Menander, from the account given by Strabo, appears to have reigned over a very powerful empire. In conjunction with Demetrius, he had possessed himself of Patta- lene at the mouth of the Indus, and at the same time pushed his conquests considerably beyond the Hyphasis; while in the north, he had subdued all Tartary, as far as the Jaxartes. There appears even to have been for some time a Greek kingdom in India, inde- INDIA, 213 pendent of Bactria ; nay, it has been supposed by some eminent writers, that many features of the Hmdoo philosophy, which cer- tainly bear a striking resemblance to that of Pythagoras and Plato, were derived from a Grecian source; that even the Sanscrit, the learned language of India, whose construction has a wonderful affinity to the Greek, may have been an artificial dialect derived from that noble tongue; but much doubt still encumbers this hypothesis. Suffice it then to remark, that after a duration of more than a hundred years, the irruption of barbarous conquerors from the north, and the rise of the Parthian empire, put an end to the kingdom of Bactria."* A maritime communication with India opened by Eudoxus, who, about the year 130 B. C, under the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, sailed round the peninsula of Arabia into the Persian Gulf Suc- ceeding voyagers established an important commerce with the coasts of Malabar, and the luxury of Eome was supplied with jewels, spices, and with the beautiful fabrics of silk and cotton in which the natives still excel. Several of the ports frequented by these early traders have been identified. The navigation of such an exposed and extended line of coast, was necessarily tedious and dangerous in the extreme, until one Hippalus, observing the course of the monsoons, steered from the Red Sea directly across the ocean, and reduced the voyage to a comparatively safe and brief undertaking. Ceylon, with its celebrated pearl fisheries, was already known, and the Ganges, with a great city at its mouth, is described by ancient geographers. As the Roman empire became weakened and diminished, its communication with the East was lessened, and finally became unimportant. The irruption of the Mahometan hordes, in a few centuries, cut off Europe from all communication by the ancient channels of commerce. The Venetians and Genoese, the most intel- ligent and enterprising nations of the middle ages, made no attempts to open a direct commerce with these distant regions ; but contented themselves with trading to the shores of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, whither the precious commodities of the East were trans- ported overland by caravans, or brought by the Arabian navigators. * History of British India. 214 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. tiiLiiiJidrAiiiiU iio THE EARLY MAHOMETAN INVADERS AND CONQUERORS OF INDIA. THE AFGHAN DYNASTY. TIMTJR THE TARTAR. The Saracens, in their miglity career of conquest, had overrun all Western Asia, and founded the most splendid, warlike, and civilized kingdoms of their time. India, by its remoteness and its peculiar position, had (except in a few partial and temporary forays) hitherto escaped invasion ; but in the year 997, Mahmoud, the son of Subuktagi, ascended the throne of Cabul and Khorasan, and soon proved one of the most successful conquerors of the day. His dominions, ere long, extended from the Caspian to the Indus; and reports of the boundless wealth of Hindostan inflamed his desire for further conquests. After he had made several suc- cessful expeditions across the Indus, a powerful coalition of the native sovereigns was formed against him, headed by Annindpal, prince of Lahore. Crossing the Indus in their turn, with one of the greatest armies ever assembled in India, they attacked the Mos- lems, who were intrenched on the plains of Peshawer. But this great and unwarlike multitude coiild make little impression on the forces of Mahmoud, trained to battle and conquest. Seized with a sudden panic, they broke into confusion and fled, twenty thousand perishing in the flight. The Mahometans, assuming the offensive, invaded their country, and returned laden with valuable spoils. This campaign taught the Moslems the weakness of their ene- mies; and their religious zeal, always alert for the destruction of idolatry, was inflamed by the thirst of rapine, when they discovered that the heathen temples, like those of Greece, were the depositories of immense treasures, the offerings of devotees. Having conquered the vale of Cashmere, the way lay open to the interior of India ; and in 1017, with a Tartar army of an hundred and thirty thousand, mostly cavalry, Mahmoud marched in quest of fresh victories and richer spoils. Kanonge, the most powerful city in India, tendered its sub- mission, and his pious crusade was soon rewarded by the plunder of the shrine of Muthra, sacred to Krishna. All was carried off — INDIA. 9 15 specie of an immense amount, pearls and jewels without number, and gigantic idols of pure gold, with eyes of ruby and of sapphire. In the year 1024, the conqueror, who liad already invaded the hapless country eleven times, undertook his last and greatest expe- dition. With twenty thousand camels loaded with supplies, he marched across the desert, and advanced to Sumnaut, the most sacred and the wealthiest shrine on the Indian Ocean. It was strongly situated on a peninsula, and was defended by a multitude of natives, inflamed with religious enthusiasm and the courage of despair. For two days, Mahmoud vainly endeavoured to storm the sacred precincts of the temple ; on the third, an immense army was seen advancing to its relief. A doubtful and terrible battle ensued, and the invaders, for the first time, saw themselves almost vanquished by the fury of the native enthusiasts. Victory at last declared in favour of Mahmoud; the garrison, disheartened by the defeat of their allies, abandoned their stronghold in a panic ; and the victors, entering the temple, were amazed at the grandeur and wealth dis- played on all sides. The priests vainly attempted, by offering immense sums, to save Sumnaut, the chief idol of the place, from the pious indignation of the conqueror. With a sturdy blow, he dashed it open, and disclosed an immense treasure of pearls, rubies, and diamonds, which had been carefully concealed in the image. The plunder collected on this occasion greatl}^ surpassed that of any former expedition. These invasions, however productive in a pecuniary view, led to no permanent conquest during the life of Mahmoud, who in 1030 died, at the age of sixty-three. This celebrated man, the first Mahome- tan invader of India, appears to have joined a certain natural justice and legislative talent to his avarice and fanaticism. His chief fault vfas his rapacity, from which even his own subjects were not always secure. Two days before his death, he commanded his immense spoils, collected from so many distant regions, to be once more displayed before his eyes, and his army, with its long array of cavalry and war-elephants, to defile past him; in a last procession. After his death, his descendants, though greatly reduced by the attacks of the Turks, under the dynasty of Seljuk, maintained for an hundred and fifty years their native dominions, without attempt- ing any further exploits in India. Mohammed Ghori, who in 1174 seized the government, revived the ancient schemes of conquest, and assembling all his forces, advanced into the Indian country. The 216 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. king of Delhi, supported by other native princes, encountered him with an army of two hundred thousand men, and three thousand elephants. The two leaders encountered hand to hand in the thick- est of the fight ; but the native forces for once prevailed ; Mohammed was wounded, and compelled to fly with his defeated army. Undismayed by this overwhelming reverse, he collected a fresh army, and in the following year renewed the war with a fresh inva- sion. He was opposed by forces more formidable than before, and all sworn by the sacred waters of the Ganges to conquer or to die. Disarming their vigilance by a pretence of negotiation, he fell upon their camp by night, and so disordered their embarrassed multitude, that he gained a complete victory, and carried off an immense amount of spoil. The king of Delhi fell, and Cuttub, an officer of Moham- med, soon after seized upon his city and throne, and established, for the first time, an independent Moslem sovereignty in India. Ere long, the new monarch, with his ally Mohammed, made an expedition against the sacred city of Benares, destroyed its idols, and loaded four thousand camels with the plunder of its shrines. Mohammed, after having made nine invasions of India, and accu- mulated treasures equal to those of his predecessor, Mahmoud, was assassinated by twenty -two dagger- wounds received from a band of conspirators, whose relatives had perished in his wars. Cuttub, the nominal viceroy of the late emperor, was, at his death, acknowledged as the independent sovereign of Delhi. After a reign distinguished by bravery, justice, and humanit}^, he expired in 1210. Altumsh, his slave, and afterwards his son-in-law and chief general, succeeded to the throne. He extended the new empire Avidely over India, reduced Bengal and Bahar to subject provinces, and made other important acquisitions. By refusing to shelter the defeated prince of the Afghans, he escaped the resistless arms of Zinghis Khan, who was then ravaging Asia, from the Caspian to the Pacific. He died in 1236, and the throne was occupied by his daughter Kizia Begum, whose talents caused her to be preferred to either of the princes. She was, however, overthrown, imprisoned, and finally put to death by her brother Byram. To him succeeded his younger brother, Mahmoud II., whose virtues and simplicity of life gained him universal popularity. At his death, the grand vizier, Balin, formerly a slave, ascended the throne, putting to death the chiefs who had been instrumental in his elevation, and Avho were unwilling to see him engross the entire power. This oriental crime INDIA. 217 excepted, his reign appears one of tlie most admirable in tlie annals of Hindostan. His justice and generosity were proverbial, and bis court was, perhaps, the most refined and splendid in the world. Men of letters and science repaired thither from all quarters, and found ample encouragement. Various unfortunate princes, dethroned and exiled by the conquests of Zinghis and his successors, found a royal support and protection in his palace. He died in 1236. Kei Kobad, his grandson, who succeeded him, was murdered by Ferose, an Afghan usurper, who, in 1295, shared a similar fate at the hands of his own nephew, the able and ferocious Allah. The latter, a man of great military talent, subdued Aurungabad and the Carnatic, and despoiled the conquered nations of greater treasures than any of his predecessors. The Mongols (or Moguls), the successors of Zinghis, now com- menced their invasion of India, but were at first completely defeated in Lahore. Two years afterwards, they again invaded the country with two hundred thousand men, and Delhi was crowded with fugi- tives driven before their successful march. Allah, however, with his forces, sallied out, and so severely repulsed them, that they retreated westward, and the danger was for a^ time averted. After a reign marked by caprice, cruelty, and licentiousness, he died, probably poisoned by one of his profligate favourites. His son, Mubarick I., was placed upon the throne in 1316, and after three years, rendered infamous by his vices, was assassinated. Tuglick, a slave, took his place, and after a just and moderate reign of four years, was succeeded by his son Mohammed III., a monster of crime and cruelty. It is related that, with his army, he was accustomed to hunt the inhabitants of any obnoxious province, for his amusement, as beasts of chase. He resolved to conquer the world, in emulation of Alexander; but of an hundred thousand men, whom he despatched against China, the greater part were des- troyed in the passes of the Himmaleh, and a mere handful returned to Delhi. He also made great preparations for conquest in the west; but all his talents and resources were required to suppress the rebel- lions which his severities had excited. The Deccan, an important province of his dominions, was erected into a separate kingdom by a Mogul chieftain, who assumed the title of Allah I. Mohammed died in 1331, and was succeeded by his cousin, Ferose III., who, in a reign of thirty-eight years, conferred great benefits on the empire by his justice, clemency, and public spirit. 218 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. To him the country was indebted for numerous bridges, reservoirs, and other works of public utility. During the short and precarious reigns which succeeded, the provinces began to declare their inde- pendence; but in 1397, the invasion of Timur the Tartar decided the destinies of India. This extraordinary man, who had already become formidable, perceiving the distracted condition of the country, resolved to found a new empire in the East. He left his capital of Samarcand, and crossing the Indian Caucasus, with his Scythian cavalry, attacked Moultan. He took Batneir, and massacred all the inhabitants. He then advanced toward Delhi, and on his way, encumbered with captives, ordered a hundred thousand of them to be butchered. Mahmoud, the emperor, was in his capital with a strong force of elephants, cavalry, and infantry, and might, perhaps, have made an effectual resistance; but by an artful manoeuvre, was enticed to take the field, and instantly defeated by the more hardy and ferocious troops of the invader. The city submitted, and was given up to unrestrained pillage, and the natives, vainly resisting, were indis- criminately massacred. Timur, after a campaign in the neighbourhood of the Himmaleh, recrossed the Indus, and proceeded on the memorable expedition which resulted in the capture of Bajazet, and the prostration, for a time, of the Ottoman empire. After his departure, the Indian provinces, though acknowledging his nominal sovereignty, were each, in effect, independent; though in 1413, at the death of Mahmoud, Chizier, a viceroy of Timur, administered the government of Delhi, Agra, and other provinces, with vigour and prudence. Various reigns, of little interest, suc- ceeded. After the death of Timur, and that of his able son. Shah Eokh, his vast dominions fell to pieces. His great-grandson, a youth of twelve, named Baber, inherited the Valley of Ferghana, and afterwards pursued a most singular career of conquest and adventure, "He was the knight-errant of Asia, and spent his whole life winning and losing kingdoms. The adventures which the romances of the middle ages ascribe to their fabulous heroes, were realized in him. At one moment he was ruler of a great kingdom ; in the next, had scarcely a hut to shelter him ; now he was at the head of a numerous army, and now he was hardly able to muster a hundred adherents." After having won and lost Samarcand, this enterprising prince gained possession of Cabul, a,nd began to make INDIA. 219 incursions into Hindostan. Eesolving to win another kingdom, witli only thirteen thousand horse, he marched upon Delhi. Ibra- him II., the emperor, with a thousand elephants and a hundred thousand cavalry, sallied out to meet him. These forces, being distributed in a line, were easily broken by the active charge of the Moguls ; Ibrahim fell, and his army was put to flight. Baber, after this decisive blow, ascended at once the throne of Delhi (1526). Thus ended the dynasty of the Afghan emperors, who for three hundred years had ruled a great part of Hindostan. Several of them had been originally slaves, and no family had held the throne, in regular succession, for any considerable time. It is said that, not- withstanding some tyrannical reigns, and some merciless invasions, the condition of the people was generally, during this interval, prosperous and happy. Kj ujui J/ii iL iL Jj iLfi iL Ji Jj THE MOGUL DYNASTY, BABEE, AKBAE, JEHANGIRE, ATIRENGZEBE. DECLINE OF THE IMPERIAL POWER. The throne of Baber was yet far from" secu.re. The chiefs of the late monarch and the warlike Eajpoot princes were leagued against him. An army of one hundred thousand men, commanded by Mahmoud, a brother of the late emperor, was assembled in the west; and even the bravest captains of the invader counselled a retreat toward the Indus. Baber, however, refused to relinquish his brilliant conquest, and animated his army by reawakening the old Moslem enthusiasm. He had moreover a train of artillery and a force of musketeers, novel and formidable assistants in Indian warfare. Battle being joined, his soldiers, arranged in a close square, maintained their ground, and repulsed the enemy with continued discharges. Watching a favourable moment, he charged with the choicest of his troops, and won a complete victory. This event secured his reign, which, however, only lasted till 1530, when he died. The character of this singular man appears to have been more open 220 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY and jovial than that of other Mahometan conquerors. He displayed great personal bravery, as well as military skill, and had a passion for adventure and conviviality that seems rather to belong to the gay knight-errantry of Europe than to the gravity of Moslem despotism. His son, Humaioon, who succeeded him, was defeated by Shere Khan, a chief of the former dynasty, was compelled to fly for his life across the desert, and took refuge at the court of Persia. Being furnished with assistance by the Shah, he obtained the sovereignty of Cabul, where he reigned for nine years. Meanwhile, Shere had gained complete possession of the empire, and greatly enlarged its boundaries. After an admirable reign of five years, he died, leaving a son of only nine years of age. Humaioon, taking advantage of the opportunity, marched to recover his throne, and was encountered by Secunder, a nephew of the late emperor, who had succeeded him. After an obstinate battle, Humaioon defeated his rival, and regained possession of Delhi, from which he had been an exile for thirteen years. He died, however, in the following year, (1556,) and his son Akbar, a youth of thirteen, ascended the throne. He had already distinguished himself by his heroism in the late contest, and now, with equal courage and policy, defended his throne from its numer- ous enemies. Crossing the Ganges with only a hundred horse, he attacked by night the camp of the rebellious chiefs of Bengal, completely dispersed them, and killed their leader with his own hand. On another occasion he marched with a select troop of cavalry seven hundred miles in nine days, and suppressed a formidable insurrection in Guzerat. By a succession of these daring feats, more fitted apparently for a guerilla chieftain than the sovereign of fifty millions of men, he struck terror into the hearts of his ene- mies, and established his sway over nearly all the provinces of India which had ever been held by Mahometan conquerors. Like Will- iam the Conqueror, he caused statistics of every province and every production of his empire to be carefully compiled. During his reign certain Portuguese missionaries, the first whom he had seen, were invited to court, and entertained strong hopes of converting the emperor ; but after a dispute with the Mahometan mollahs, wisely refused an insane trial of faith to which the latter invited them. The proposal was made that one of their antagonists should leap into a flaming furnace with the Koran, if either of the INDIA. 221 Portuguese would follow him with the Bible 5 in order that the emperor might judge which of the two volumes would confer the greatest protection on its devotee. Eefusing to comply with this fanatical test, they returned, after receiving courteous treatment, to the settlement of Goa. Akbar died in 1605, after a brilliant and successful reign of fifty-one years. His son Selim, who succeeded him, assumed the vain-glorious title of Jehangire, or "conqueror of the world" — an epithet to which his achievements hardly entitled him. This prince is chiefly known by his passion for the beautiful Noor-mahal, whose husband, Shere Afkun, he treacherously devoted to death — a striking parallel to the history of David and the wife of Uriah. The brave chief came off" victorious in a conflict with an elephant and a tiger, to which he had been meanly exposed; but afterwards was slain by a multitude of assassins, numbers of whom he killed before receiving his death- blow. The emperor gained his prize; but, struck with remorse, refused to see her, and for four years she lived neglected in a corner of his palace. At length, his passion reawakening, she became his favourite queen, and held complete control over his mind. In the year 1607, an English mission, under Captain Hawkins, and in 1615, another, under Sir Thomas Eoe, were despatched to attempt the opening of commercial intercourse; both were dazzled by the splendour of the court, and were treated with tolerable civility ; but were unable to obtain any advantageous terms from the monarch. The latter part of his life was rendered miserable by domestic troubles. His son Shah Jehan, after assassinating his own brother Chusero, who stood between him and the throne, raised a rebellion. This being suppressed by the valour and generalship of Mohabet, an able officer of the court, the emperor's jealousy, stimulated by Noor-mahal, alighted on the latter, who soon found himself treated with ungrateful indignity. Enraged, he seized, by a sudden move- ment, upon the person of his sovereign. Noor-mahal and her brother Asiph, the prime minister, made a desperate attempt to restore his liberty. In the battle which ensued, the queen, fighting fiercely with her own hands, sought the midst of the enemy; but Mohabet gained the victory, and retained his captive. Having released him, and restored him to his position, the rebellious chief was for a time compelled to fly. Jehangire died on the 9th of November, 1627, bequeathing the throne to Shariar, his son by Noor-mahal. 222 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. By tlie support of Asiph and Mohabet, Sliali Jelian, the rival heir, gained possession of the kingdom, and instantly fortified his title by the murder of his brother and all his nephews — leaving none of the blood of Timur, except in the veins of himself and his children. Lodi, a distinguished chief, for some time, maintained a successful opposition, but was .finally defeated and slain. Assisted by the wise counsels of his two supporters, the monarch reigned with some justice and moderation. He at one time commenced a persecution of the Hindoo faith, but soon resumed the toleration so honourable to his predecessors. He made few acquisitions of territory, but devoted himself passionately to the royal amusement of building. The noblest palaces, mosques, and mausoleums in India were erected by him, and several yet exist, attesting the magnificence of the court of Delhi. For twenty years, his reign was prosperous and fortunate. At the end of that time, his peace was continually disturbed, and finally his throne itself undermined by the ambition of his sons. Dara, Sujah, and Morad, were openly brave, ambitious, and warlike. Aurengzebe, the youngest, a rigid Mahometan, was of a reserved and grave depoitment, but exceeded them all in political craft and foresight. Taking advantage of the emperor's illness, he formed an alliance with Sujah and Morad against Dara, the heir to the throne. The latter was despatched by his father to endeavour to crush the formidable confederacy. With an hundred thousand cavalry, he awaited near Agra the attack of his rebellious brothers, Morad and Aurengzebe. He was completely defeated, chiefly by the skill and courage of the latter, who, Morad being wounded, assumed the entire control of the forces, and marched to gain possession of the emperor's person. This undutiful purpose he effected by a m.ost treacherous stratagem, and the unfortunate monarch was over- whelmed with rage and despair. The artful usurper seized his brother Morad at a banquet, to which he had invited him ; but could not feel his power secure while Dara and Sujah were yet at liberty. He first engaged the latter, and routed him, after a desperate battle, near Allahabad. Dara, who was posted in a position of extraordinary strength, in Rajpootana, deceived by an artful stratagem, admitted the enemy, was defeated, and compelled to fly. Being treacherously delivered to the usurper, he was led in rags through the streets of Delhi, and soon after assassinated by order of the emperor. Sujah, after another unsuc- INDIA. 223 cessful attempt, in whicli he was assisted by Moliammed, tlie son of Aurengzebe, was betrayed, and perished among his enemies. Shah Jehan, the dethroned monarch, survived the loss of his empire for eight years, and was treated with every appearance of respect and deference by his usurping son. Aurengzebe, for many years, ruled in prosperity over the vast empire of the Moguls, and included nearly all India and several neighbouring states within its limits. His revenues amounted to nearly an hundred and fifty millions of dollars — an income, at that period, unexampled. Despite the violence, craft, and injustice which had secured his accession, he reigned, considering the age and the country, with much justice, moderation and virtue. The lower classes of Hindoos, however, then, as ever since, appear to have been held in a state^ of servitude and degradation. A formidable invasion, menaced by the powerful sovereign of Persia, Shah Abbas, was averted by his sudden death; and a dangerous fanatical insurrection, headed by an old woman, was suppressed, after a formidable demonstration, by an appeal to the Mahometan enthusiasm and superstition. In the year 1686, a power- ful force was sent into the Deccan, and after meeting a vigorous resistance, took possession of Golconda and Bejapore. About this time arose the formidable Mahratta power, so long the terror of the East. Sevajee, a youth of great courage and enter- prise, had commenced a kind of predatory warfare, with a company of the fierce natives inhabiting the Maharashta, a mountainous region in the north-west of India. His increasing power having drawn upon him the enmity of the king of Bejapore, he sought and gained the protection of Aurengzebe, by declaring himself his vassal, and thus retained possession of all his conquests. During the early contests, however, he seized plunder and territory from both the conflicting powers, and was thus enabled to extend his possessions until he commanded an army of fifty-seven thousand men. The Mogul emperor, resolved to remain the entire master of India, sent a powerful force against him; which, however, accom- plished little against the active and resolute chief He soon captured Surat, the richest city in India, and plundered it of a million sterling. A more powerful expedition at last reduced him to extremity, and he surrendered himself, on pledge of honourable treatment, to the Mogul. He was nevertheless kept close prisoner, but at last escaping, once more raised his standard on his inaccessible hills. Hence 224 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. he again pounced upon the low countries, collected great plunder, and increased his possessions. He assumed the title of sovereign, and had coin struck in his name. He even took Golconda, and pushed his conquests boldly into the Carnatic. His adventurous career was terminated by death in 1680. His successor, Sambajee, at first successfully resisted the Mogul armies; but on the occasion of the conquest of Golconda and Beja- pore, by the forces of Aurengzebe, was taken and cruelly put to death before the eyes of the emperor. His brother Eama, however, long defended himself in an almost impregnable fortress of the Carnatic, and at length the indomitable Mahrattas, mustering in great force, poured down into the plains of India, and made fresh and repeated conquests. The heavy armed cavalry of the Moguls, resistless in a pitched battle, could make little impression upon these light and dexterous horsemen, especially in the dificult passes of their own country. Allured by booty, their ranks continually increased, and they gained possession, ere long, of a large portion of Central India. The bigotry of Aurengzebe, in his latter years, impelled him to resolve on extirpating the ancient Hindoo religion. The splendid temples of Benares and Muthra were levelled to the ground, and Mahometan mosques were erected in their places. These violent measures excited the detestation of the native population, and greatly aided the spread of the Mahratta power. The emperor's children, following his own example, had already given him much trouble by their rebellious spirit. Mohammed, the eldest, had died in prison ; Akbar, another, was in open rebellion with the Mahrattas ; and the others evidently waited with an anxious eye for the event which should allow a fresh struggle for the empire. The latter part of his reign was passed in gloom and despondency. He expired on the 21st of February, 1707, in the ninety-fourth year of his age, and the forty-ninth of his reign. His last hours were deeply embittered by the remembrance of his crimes and his career of usurpation. He appears to have possessed, in an eminent degree, the vices and virtues of the Moslem race. Though ambitious, fanatical, and imrelenting, he was nevertheless temperate, impartial, and highly charitable. At his death. Shah Allum, the eldest son, and heir to the throne, made the most liberal offers to his brothers. They, however, pre- ferred to try the fortune of war, in which they both perished. The INDIA. 225 new emperor further secured his peaceful accession by a treaty with the Mahrattas, who were allowed to receive a share of the revenues of those districts which they had been in the habit of plundering. The Sikhs, a religious sect, whose belief was compounded of the Hindoo and Mahometan faiths, had been cruelly persecuted by Aurengzebe, and converted into determined enemies of the crown. Headed by Gooroo Govind, whose father he had executed, they commenced a formidable predatory warfare. Though in some measure suppressed by the late emperor, at his death they again took the field, headed by a chief named Banda. Sallying from their fastnesses on the borders of the Himmaleh, they committed terrible devastations ; and the emperor, taking the field in person, was enabled, with difficulty, to check their incursions. Shah Allum, instead of imitating the murderous policy of his predecessors, delighted to be surrounded by his relations and descendants. He appears to have been a virtuous and accomplished prince, and to have done much for the peace and prosperity of his empire. He died at Lahore, in 1712, after a reign of only five years. His son Moiz-ud-dien (called Jehander Shah) succeeded him, being supported by a powerful omrah named Zulfeccar, who defeated and put to death his three brothers, rival claimants of the crown. He proved, however, so dissolute and feeble, that ere long, with his adviser, he was defeated and put to death by Hussein and Abdoola, two powerful brothers, who elevated to the throne Feroksere, a grandson of Shah Allum. Administering the government with much vigour, they defeated Banda, and put- him to death with the most cruel tortures. At the end of seven years, they had put to death the emperor whom they had elevated, and replaced him^ within a year, with three others of the royal family — the two first dying almost immediately after their accession to the throne. Mohammed Shah, the last, was desirous, like Feroksere, of throw- ing off" the yoke which left him but a nominal sovereignty ; and at length, by a sudden conspiracy, slew Hussein, seized Abdoola, and entered Delhi in triumph. He soon exhibited, however, the same incapacity which had already marked the descendants of Aureng- zebe; and his two most powerful supporters, Nizam-ul-Mulk and Saadut Khan, withdrawing in displeasure, formed independent sovereignties — the first in the Deccan, and the latter in Oude. The Mahrattas now began openly to contend for the empire, and advanced to Agra, overrunning the country on their way. They 15 226 THE PEOPLE' SBOOK OF HISTOEY. were repulsed by Saadut; but under the weak rule of Mohammed, renewed their incursion, and plundered the environs of Delhi itself. A far more formidable foe, however, was at hand. Nadir Shah, the powerful usurper of the throne of Persia, having gained pos- session of Cabul and Candahar, began to cast a covetous eye upon the boundless wealth of Hindostan. A pretext for war was easily found in Mohammed's refusal to deliver certain fugitives ; and push- ing rapidly into India, he arrived within four days' march of Delhi before the emperor was aware of his approach. Hastily collecting forces, Saadut Khan engaged him, but was easily defeated and taken prisoner. A treaty was then made, and Mohammed, with Nizam- ul-Mulk, entered the camp of the enemy in confidence. They were, however, treacherously seized by the invader, who at once marched on Delhi. A popular resistance was punished by a general massacre, and the imperial treasury was plundered of an immense quantity of jewels and other treasures, the accumulation of ages. The spoil carried off by the Persian monarch and his oihcers was estimated at one hundred and fifty millions of dollars. Satisfied with the richness of his plunder, and the cession of all provinces west of the Indus, Nadir Shah replaced Mohammed on the throne, gave him some salutary advice, and departed. Eight years afterwards he was assassinated, and Ahmed Abdalla, one of his officers, took possession of Afghanistan. Incited by the success of Nadir, he, in 1747, passed the Indus, defeated the imperial forces, and plundered the city of Sirhind. Soon after this event, the emperor died, and was succeeded by his son Ahmed Shah, who, after a brief reign, was deposed by an able officer, GrhaZee-ud-Dien, who raised to the throne a son of Jehander Shah, under the title of Aulumgere 11. The condition of the empire was as weak and distracted as possible when Ahmed Abdalla, enraged at an act of hostility, again invaded it, marched to Delhi, and renewed the sanguinary scenes of the time of Nadir. After his departure, a contest between Gha- zee and the emperor ensued, in which the latter was assassinated and his body thrown into the Jumna. By this time, however, the Mogul dynasty, as an effective power, had ceased to exist, and the contest for empire lay between the Afghans and the Mahrattas, which latter, assisted by the Sikhs, now made a grand effort for the entire mastery of India. With an immense body of cavalry, they overran, not only Agra and Delhi, but the western provinces of Moultan and ijahore, and drove the Afghans beyond the Indus. INDIA. 227 Ahmed Abdalla, with a formidable army, in turn marched into the countrjr, and occupied Delhi. In a battle, which soon ensued, the Mahratta army, of eighty thousand men, was almost entirely destroyed. Undismayed by this disaster, they assembled in the fol- lowing year, to the number of an hundred and forty thousand, and, commanded by the vizier and nephew of their supreme prince, marched upon Delhi. The Jumna, swelled by rains, separated them from the enemy ; but Abdalla, plunging in with his whole force, swam across, and so alarmed the enemy that they retreated to a strong intrenchment. At length, risking a battle in the open plain, they were again entirely defeated, and twenty-two thousand of them were taken prisoners. Nothing would have been easier than for the victor to have seated himself on the throne of India ; but he replaced the son of Aulum- gere, with the still- venerated title of "Great Mogul," upon the nominal throne, and retired to his own country. From this time the more interesting incidents in the fate of the Indian empire are connected with that wonderful power, which from the ends of the earth, sent its colonists and conquerors to these inviting regions. C'H APTEE I?. EARLY EUROPEAN BISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. EXPEDI- TIONS OF THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH The enterprising genius of the Portuguese once placed them in the first rank of maritime adventure and discovery. The venturous expeditions fitted out by John I. and Prince Henry, and afterwards by John II., had already, in 1486, acquainted Europe with much of the western coast of Africa. In that year, the last mentioned monarch resolved on a grand scheme of discovery and commercial enterprise. Bartholomew Diaz, a skilful officer, was placed in com- mand of three vessels, with orders, if possible, to double the southern extremity of the African continent. After being driven far to the southward, and encountering storms and severe cold, the daring 228 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. navigator steered to the north, and found himself, to his siirprise, on the eastern shore of Africa. Eeturning by the coast, he dis- covered that famous promontory, which he named "The Cape of Storms," but on which his patron, more sanguine, bestowed the title of " The Cape of Good Hope." A mission, despatched to India at the same time, by way of the Eed Sea, reported favourably of the probable advantages of a direct traffic. The wonderful discoveries of Columbus, made at this time, greatly stimulated the spirit of emulation and adventure among the Portu- guese. In 1495 Emmanuel, who succeeded John, fitted out another expedition in three vessels, under the renowned Vasco de Gama, who sailed on the 8th of July, 1497. After encountering the storms so terrible to early navigators, he arrived at Melinda, a town on the eastern coast of Africa, and procured a pilot. Stretching across the Indian Ocean with favourable breezes, he beheld in twenty-three days the long-desired coast of India. Landing at Calicut, he commenced negotiations with the Zamorin, or native prince, for a commercial intercourse; but owing to the jealousy of the Moorish traders, who represented his expedition as piratical, made no great progress. Some of his officers having been arrested, he captured a number of native dignitaries, and held them as hostages, until his men were released. He still detained several to be conveyed to Por- tugal as witnesses of the wealth and power of his nation. Finding that great preparations for hostilities were made, he thought it advisable to return, and, after encountering much difficulty from storms and the ravages of the scurvy, reentered the Tagus with only half of his crews. The nation lost not a moment in taking advantage of the import- ant channel of commerce which he had discovered, A fleet of twelve ships, strongly armed, and manned with thirteen hundred men, was immediately fitted out ; and Alvarez Cabral, an able navi- gator, was appointed to the command. He embarked on the 8th of March, 1500, and stretching westward to avoid Africa, made the new and brilliant discovery of Brazil. At the Cape of Good Hope, he encountered, for two months, a series of frightful tempests, in one of which perished the renowned Bartholomew Diaz. Having lost four ships, the Portuguese fleet, pursuing nearly the same course as its predecessor, arrived at Cali- cut. The captives whom Gama had carried off, were restored, handsomely dressed, and read}'" to declare to the natives their good INDIA. 229 treatment. Cabral was admitted to an audience witli tlie zamorin, wlio received him in barbaric splendour, his person being covered with the most precious jewels. The Moorish influence, however, was still such, that the Portuguese vessels, after waiting for months, could obtain no cargoes. Irritated at this, the adventurers seized, by permission of the prince, a Moorish ship, which was about to depart, richly laden with spices. The Moors and natives, enraged at this act of violence, proceeded to the Portuguese factory, and after meeting a desperate resistance, slew fifty of its defenders. A few escaped to the boats which Cabral had despatched to their relief In retaliation, the latter instantly plundered and burnt ten Moorish vessels, and then bombarded the city. After this revenge, he proceeded southward to Cochin, with which he opened a friendly intercourse. A cargo of pepper, his chief object, was readily obtained, and steering homewards, he reached Lisbon in July, 1501. The king, relying on the papal grant which he had obtained, as a title to all eastern discoveries, now assumed the pompous title of "Lord of the IsTavigation, Conquest, and Com- merce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." To enforce this sublime pretension, he despatched a fresh fleet of twenty sail, under Gama, who again set sail to carry out his former undertakings. After murdering many of the natives whom he had captured at sea, and exercising the utmost cruelty, he was attacked in his single ship by thirty-four proas, and only escaped by cutting his cable and running to sea. He afterwards took several valuable prizes, and returned to Portugal. Three expeditions, under the Albuquerques and Saldanha, soon followed; but after some hostilities with the zamorin, they returned, leaving a few hundred men to assist their ally, the prince of Cochin, who was hard pressed by the former. Fifty thousand men were on their march against the little settle- ment of Europeans, yet Pacheco, their commander, assured his ally of undoubted protection. By the strong position of the city, the aid of artillery, and the undaunted bravery of his troops, he was enabled to defy all the assaults of the enemy, who, after losing great numbers of his men, was compelled to retreat to Calicut, The foundation of the Portuguese power in India was thus laid. Soarez, who succeeded Pacheco, cannonaded with his fleet the cities of Calicut and Cranganor, and reduced great part of them to ashes. In 1505, Francisco Almeyda was sent out with a large fleet, and with the pompous title of Viceroy of India. To revenge the murder 230 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of certain Portuguese, lie destroyed the fleet of Coiilan, a port, ■vvhitlier tliey had been in the habit of trading. The Portuguese power was next exposed to a most formidable danger. The sultan of Cairo, inflamed by religious fanaticism and by revenge for real injuries, resolved to extirpate the infidel invaders, and accordingly sent a powerful fleet against them, under Mir Hocem. This admi- ral, reinforced by Melique Az, the viceroy of Diu, with a vastly superior force, engaged Lorenzo, the viceroy's son, who had been sent to intercept him. The Portuguese commander fought for two days with the most determined valour, but was at last defeated and slain. Almeyda, hastening to avenge the death of his son, sailed, with nineteen ships, in pursuit of the enemy. On his way, he stormed the hostile city of Dabul, which, after a terrible massacre of its inhabitants, was reduced to ashes. He then attacked the combined fleets of the enemy in the Gulf of Cambay, completely defeated them, and obtained great spoil. This victory was disgraced by a general massacre of his prisoners. Meanwhile, Alphonso Albuquerque, who had gained splendid suc- cesses in Arabia and at Ormuz, had arrived, and already presented his commission as governor of India. The disappointed Almeyda, though at first resisting, was persuaded to yield to the royal author- ity, and set sail for Portugal. He never reached his native country, being slain in a fight with certain Hottentots on the southern coast of Africa. Albuquerque, strongly reinforced, now cherished vast plans of conquest and empire in the East. In January, 1610, he arrived, with a powerful fleet, before the hated city of Calicut. After a most daring assault, in which the city was for a time taken, he was compelled to retreat, with the loss of his associate, Coutinho, and many other nobles of high rank. Undismayed at this disaster, the viceroy entertained fresh pla,ns of invasion and settlement. The zebaim or prince of the strong city of Goa was at war in the inte- rior, and his capital lay unprotected. Albuquerque arrived there with his fleet on the 25th of February, and the city, fearing to lose its commerce, at once capitulated. He immediately institiited a government of his own, and carefully stvidied the protection and prosperity of his subjects. The zebaim, naturally enraged and alarmed at the loss of his chief city, immediately took measures to regain it; and concluding INDIA. 231 a peace witli his adversaries, several of wliom joined him, marched to Goa, with upwards of forty thousand men. His first attack was baffled, the city being, from its insular position, difficult of access. Nevertheless he contrived, during a stormy night, to transport over his whole force, and the Portuguese commander was compelled, after hard fighting, to take refuge in the fort, and afterwards in his fleet, which was near at hand. He then waged an active and preda- tory warfare, cutting off the enemy's vessels, and sometimes landing and carrying off much spoil. Having thus discouraged and intimidated the natives, he resolved to make a fresh attempt on Goa; and with only fifteen hundred Portuguese, and a small force of native allies, appeared before the city. He commenced with a long and severe cannonade, and then landing, was enabled, after a desperate contest of six hours, to regain possession. He immediately resumed his efforts to establish a colony and a stable government, and entered into friendly communication with the neighbouring powers. The natives were further conciliated by many intermarriages of the Portuguese with the ladies of the country. Pursuing his conquests, the viceroy next made an exj)edition to Malacca, the capital of which was taken by storm, and converted into a Portuguese settlement. During this time, and after his return, fresh contests ensued with the zebaim, who, though gaining at first considerable success, was finally and effectually repulsed. The next exploit of Albuquerque was to gain possession of Ormuz, the wealthy emporium of the Persian Gulf. His brilliant career was interrupted by the ingratitude of his sovereign, who, probably dreading his increasing greatness, suddenly deprived him of his post. He survived this blow but a short time, dying of a broken heart, in December, 1515. His death was deeply deplored, not only by his own countrymen, but by the native inhabitants, to whom he had endeared himself by many acts of justice and conciliation. After the death of this great commander, the Portuguese gained few accessions to their Eastern territories, though they maintained their empire already established, and their exclusive commerce, for more than a century longer. They were, however, in general, hated by the natives, whom their persecution and rapacity kept in continued hostility. The Inquisition was, at an early day, estab- lished in Goa, and rivalled the worst horrors of that iniquitous institution in Europe. 232 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. In 1536, tlie colonies became involved in a formidable contest with the natives of Guzerat, assisted bj a powerful force despatched by the pasha of Cairo. The Portuguese, besieged in the fortress of Diu, defended themselves with the most desperate courage ; and finally, when only forty-three were fit for duty, the Turkish com- mander, wearied by their obstinate resistance, retired. A few years afterwards the siege was renewed ; but after a war, protracted for some years, Alvaro de Castro, the governor, succeeded in entirely defeating and dispersing the enemy. He reentered Goa with such pomp that Queen Catherine remarked that he had indeed conquered like a Christian, but had triumphed like a pagan. In 1570, a far more critical contest awaited the colonies. Adel- Khan and Nizam-ul-Mulk, two great officers of the Mogul, united with the zamorin in a strong effort to expel the intruders. The first, with an army of an hundred thousand men, defiled through the Ghauts, and laid siege to Goa. The viceroy, Ataide, though com- manding a feeble garrison, defended the place with great bravery and resolution. His troops fought with their usual courage and ferocity, sending cart-loads of heads into the city to animate and encourage the inhabitants. With fresh reinforcements, the governor gained fresh advantages, and Adel-Khan, after several months^ withdrew, with a loss of twelve thousand men. Nizam-ul-Mulk, with an equally formidable army, had advanced against Chaul, an important settlement near Bombay. Andrada, the commander, with a force of two thousand men, defended the town for a month, at the end of which, a general assault took place. The Portuguese, defending house by house, maintained their posi- tion ; and after a siege of six months, during which many thousands of the besiegers had perished, sustained another attack with such bravery and determination as to compel the enemy to withdraw, and soon after to enter into a treaty. The Zamorin, who had also been engaged in hostilities at another settlement, was baffled, and compelled to retreat. By such achievements the Portuguese maintained their supremacy on the coasts of India during all the sixteenth century. But the maritime power of Holland was daily increasing; and in 1599, that state, which had vainly sought a passage to the East by the north of Asia, despatched eight ships to open a new commerce in these distant regions. Their success in trading on the coasts of Java and Sumatra, inspired the Dutch adventurers with fresh enterprise. INDIA. 233 They soon completely supplanted the Portuguese in the spice trade, and ere long, by their mutual jealousy, became engaged in hostilities. Philip II., who had seized the crown of Portugal, in vain endeav- oured to suppress their maritime superiority, and as vainly attempted by proclamations to deter them from trading in the East. In 1605, they sent out a powerful expedition, and gained possession of the most important stations in the Indian Archipelago. While, how- ever, their admiral, Matalief, was absent on an expedition against Malacca, the Spaniards, from the Philippines, seized their new con- quests, and saluted the admiral with a warm cannonade on his return. He succeeded, however, in overpowering them, and massa- cred great numbers. In the same year, a Dutch expedition was sent to the beautiful island of Ceylon, but without much effect. The intruders, although supported by the native prince, did not succeed in expelling the Portuguese until 1656. Having gained the complete control of the Indian seas and islands, they founded the city of Batavia, in Java, and made it their Eastern capital. After repeated attempts, in 1640 they gained possession of Malacca, and thus secured still farther their numerous possessions in the Eastern Archipelago. They never, however, gained any extensive possessions on the continent of India; much of which the Portu- guese still retained until their contests with the English, when, as will be seen, they succumbed to the superior tact and energy of their rivals. Groa, formerly their capital, is now the only possession they retain of that powerful empire which they once maintained in a great part of India. CHAPTER Y. THE EARLY ENGLISH EXPEDITIONS AND SETTLEMENTS. THE EAST INDIA COIIPANY. CONTESTS WITH THE FRENCH. In the« reign of Elizabeth, the maritime ascendancy which Eng- land was destined to acquire, began first to develope its gigantic proportions. Eecognising at first the barbarous policy which 234 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. assigned to tlie first discoverers exclusive possession and commerce in new regions, her enterprising mercliants, not to interfere witli tlie Portuguese and Spaniards, made unsuccessful attempts to reach the East by circumnavigating Asia to the northward. An overland traffic was also vainly undertaken ; and a succession of daring navi- gators made the attempt, still continued in our own day, to force the North-west passage around the continent of America. Drake, on his celebrated voyage around the world in 1579, had touched at the Spice islands, and met a friendly reception from the king of Ternate. Cavendish, following a similar course, brought home accounts of the wealth and beauty of these remote countries, and the friendliness of their inhabitants. A small expedition was first despatched to Goa, but the jealousy of the Portuguese pre- vented any successful traffic. A great part of India was, however, carefully explored by the enterprising Fitch, who gave more minute and interesting accounts of the interior than any European who had preceded him. After one or two more private expeditions, a company was formed, in 1600, under the title of the " Governor and Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies." Their charter granted them a monopoly of Eastern traffic, with other exclusive privileges. Captain Lancas- ter, who had already commanded an expedition to those parts, sailed, in April, 1601, with five vessels of tolerable size, with the intention of obtaining a cargo of spices, which were principally supplied by the islands of Sumatra, Java, and the Moluccas. Hav- ing opened the way for future commerce with the natives, he returned home, enriched by the plunder of a large Portuguese ship. A succession of small expeditions followed, which were in general successful, sometimes by obtaining cargoes of pepper, and some- times by the most audacious piracy. In 1611, Sir Henry Middleton, an eminent commander, proceeded with his vessels to Surat, and sought to effect an opening for commerce. The Portuguese fleet immediately commenced hostilities, but were steadfastly repulsed in every attempt, and met with great loss. The native authorities, seeing the superiority of the strangers, no longer hesitated to treat with them. Some commercial interchanges were effected, but the violence and unreasonable conduct of the English commander, who seized the person of the governor, was so offensive, that he was compelled to depart without establishing a factory. On his way home, he stopped all the Indian vessels which he met, and compelled INDIA. 235 them to a forcible interchange of goods, on Ms own conditions — a species of piracy wliicli, however, does not appear to have shocked the commercial etiquette of the day. By subsequent expeditions, however, a slight footing was obtained at Bantam and elsewhere, and the first adventures produced a large per-centage on the invest- ment, the mingled profits of trade and piracy. In 1614, James I., to further the national commerce with the East, sent out Sir Thomas Roe, as ambassador to the Great Mogul ; but, as has been related, little advantage was obtained. Neverthe- less, a regular annual intercourse was now established with the East ; and the Portuguese, although threatening loudly at first, were com- pelled to succumb to the maritime superiority of their rivals. The Dutch proved far more formidable adversaries. Provoked by the settlement of the English in islands contiguous to their own, they commenced a naval warfare with the rival company, in which the latter suffered most severely. The dispute was at last adjusted by a mutual compromise, in which it was agreed that the two com- panies should share in the trade and commerce of the Indian seas, and should be directed by a joint council of members from each. The Dutch, however, being far the more powerful in these regions, exer- cised much oppression towards their partners, and finally broke up the entire system by the cruel "massacre of Amboyna," in which, under real or pretended suspicion of a conspiracy, they first tortured and then put to death a number of English, resident in that place. Some repara- tion for this outrage was tardily enforced by the British government. The principal British factory in Continental India was for a time located at Surat, and considerable trade was carried on. Exposed, however, to the arbitrary exactions of the Mogul and to the incursions of the Mahrattas, they removed, in 1687, to the island of Bombay, which had been ceded by the Portuguese, and which has ever since remained the capital of their possessions in Western India. On the eastern coast, Masulipatan and Madraspatan became important settle- ments, and Fort St. Greorge, erected at the latter, became the capital of the British- possessions on the coast of Coromandel. In 1651, a physician named Boughton, having cured the daughter of Shah Jehan of a dangerous illness, was enabled, through the emperor's gratitude, to« secure to his countrymen important com- mercial privileges. A similar service, rendered to the nabob of Bengal, was rewarded in a similar manner, and a factory was erected at Hoogle}^, on the principal commercial channel of the Ganges. 236 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Here was made a first and unsuccessful attempt to establisli bj arms the foundation of that mighty empire, wliich now controls all India. In 1686, a force of ten armed vessels and six companies of soldiers was despatched to redress certain wrongs sustained by the residents at the factory, and, in effect, commenced a war with the nabob and the Great Mogul himself The English, however, after performing some brilliant feats, were compelled for the present to evacuate Bengal entirely. Aurengzebe, the Mogul emperor, irritated at these and other hostilities, issued orders for a general attack on all the Company's factories. Surat, Masulipatan, and Vizigapatan, were taken, and Bombay itself was closely pressed. Only the most humble submission procured peace from their powerful foe, who, in consideration of the benefit of their commerce, allowed them gradually to resume their former intercourse. JSTevertheless, the Company, undismayed by these reverses, began to contemplate greater plans of conquest and pernlanent settlement. In 1689, instructions were issued to their agents to extend their acquisitions of territory, as much as possible ; and they soon acquired, by purchase of the native princes, several small districts, among which was Calcutta, afterwards destined to become the Avealthj'' capital of British India, Here was erected Fort William, and a flourishing settlement soon sprang up. The establishment proceeded peaceably for some time, increasing its operations until its annual sales amounted to two millions sterling. The French had in early times made a few unsuccessful attempts to establish an Indian colony; but it was not until the reign of Louis XIV., and the enlightened administration of Colbert, that any really effectual steps were taken for this purpose. In 1664, a French East India Company was formed, with many exclusive privileges, and after signal failures at Surat and elsewhere, succeeded in estab- lishing a prosperous settlement at Pondicherry. They also gained a footing at Chandernagore in Bengal, and some other unimportant places. When the war of 1744 broke out, Labourdonnais, the gov- ernor of Mauritius, with a small squadron, sailed for India, and captured the important English city of Madras. Dupleix, the able and ambitious governor of Pondicherry, now formed the most magnificent schemes for the aggrandizement* of his nation. He con- templated nothing less than a complete expulsion of the English, and finally, a French empire extending over all India. The nabob of Arcot, who with ten thousand men attempted to INDIA. 237 retake Madras for his allies, the English, was completely defeated by the small force of Frenchmen in that city ; and_ soon after was induced to form an alliance with Duj)leix. An exj^edition of the latter against Fort St, David was nnsuccessful, the English garrison being strongly reinforced. A powerful squadron soon arriving, the English besieged Pondicherry, but were in their turn repulsed. The peace, which shortly afterwards ensued between the two nations, left their Indian possessions in the same condition as before the war. Both parties, however, began to regard the native territories with covetous and ambitious eyes; and the English, by interfering in a native quarrel, gained the fortress of Devicottah. The French were playing for a far higher stake. Dupleix had espoused the cause of two powerful pretenders, one to the throne of the Deccan, and the other to that of the Carnatic. He despatched his officer, D'Antieul, to their assistance, with a small body of troops, who by their des- perate valour broke the lines of the enemy, and secured to the confederate army a complete victory. The rightful inheritor of the Carnatic fell, and Arcot was seized by the pretender. Nazir Jung, the legitimate claimant of the throne of the Deccan, soon after advanced against the allies with an immense army, which has been estimated at three hundred thousand men. He was sup- ported by a small force of British, who had espoused the cause of Mohammed Ali, son of the fallen nabob of Arcot. A mutiny occurred among the French officers ; their native allies were over- thrown, and the French troops retired to Pondicherry. D'Antieul, however, soon revived the war in the most daring manner, and gained important successes. Finally leaguing with certain discon- tented chiefs, the French succeeded in completely defeating Nazir Jung, (who perished in a mutiny of his own officers,) and in reestab- lishing his rival, Mirzapha Jung, on the throne of the Deccan. The French influence thus became paramount in all Southern India. One or two feeble attempts of the English in behalf of their ally Mohammed ended disgracefully ; and their fortunes were at a low ebb, when the talents and courage of the celebrated Ciive gave an entirely new turn to the course of events. Trichinipoly, the last possession of Mohammed, was closely besieged by the French and their native allies, when this able commander, by a bold and sudden movement, seized on Arcot itself. Having garrisoned the fort, he defended it with great bravery against an overwhelming 238 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. force of tlie enemy, wliicli was despatclied against liim, and compelled tliem to raise the siege. By further assistance from the English, and by judicious native alliances, Mohammed soon found himself supported by a force of twenty thousand men ; and the French, vastly outnumbered in their turn, took refuge in the great pagoda or temple of Seringham. They were finally obliged to capitulate, and were made prisoners of war. Dupleix, undisheartened, used every effort to restore the French ascendancy. He sent a fresh expedition against Fort St. David, which, however, was completely defeated by Clive. The English themselves, in attempting to seize the strong fortress of Gingee, were repulsed by the French, and the latter, with their native allies, again laid siege to Trichinopoly, where the brave Major Lawrence was still in command. This siege was protracted, after much hard fighting, for a year and a half without any decided advantage to either party. Meanwhile, the subahdar of Deccan, who owed his exaltation entirely to the French, began to be tired of their control, and dis- banded the foreign troops; but Bussy, their commander, reassembling them, was enabled to dictate his own terms. Much territory on the coast of Coromandel was ceded to the French, making them, including former acquisitions, masters of a country six hundred miles in extent, and producing about four millions dollars of revenue. Dupleix, however, in the midst of his artful and ambitious career, was superseded in his station, and compelled to return to France. Commissioners were now sent out by the two governments to arrange an amicable settlement of the disputes between the rival companies. It was stipulated that each party should restore all its native conquests — an arrangement highly unfavourable to the French, who had made far greater acquisitions than their rivals. The Eng- lish, moreover, still continued to interfere forcibly in the quarrels of the native powers; and the French, nnable to resist their exam- ple, were soon again involved in a predatory warfare with their ancient antagonists. When the war of 1756 broke out between the two nations, the French government resolved to make a vigorous effort for supremacy in Indian affairs. An extensive armament was fitted out, and intrusted to the command of the brave and headstrong Count Lally, a devoted adherent to the Jacobite cause, and an invet- erate enemy of the English government. Landing at Pondicherry, THE FORTRESS OF GINGEE jL'his strong aud a'.most inaccessible citadel, renowned in Indian Avarfare, was taken from its native possessors, about the year 1750, by Bussy, the bril liant and intrepid commander of the French, forces, under the administration of Dupleix. The English soon a.fter attacking it were repulsed with much loss , but in a i'evr years, on occasion of the revei'ses sustained by their rivals, sue oeeded in gaining possession of the contested fortress INDIA. 239 in April, 1758, lie marclied without an lionr's delay against Fort St. David, the capital of the English settlements, took it, and razed it to the ground. Bussy, who retained his complete ascendancy over the Deccan, attacked and reduced Vizanipatan; and the two command- ers, joining their forces, laid siege for two months to the city of Madras, which was ably defended by Governor Pigot and the veteran Lawrence. The appearance of an English fleet, with rein- forcements, compelled them to retreat to Pondicherry. After three months of desultory warfare, Lally found himself besieged in the French capital, and, after a gallant defence, was compelled, in Janu- ary, 1761, to capitulate. The city was surrendered to Colonel Coote, and Lally, sailing for France, was made a victim, under an absurd charge of treason, to the anger and disappointment of his employers. CHAPTER 71, THE BEITISH CONQUESTS IN BENGAL. THE WARS WITH HYDER ALI AND WITH THE FRENCH. The British establishment at Bengal, though subordinate to others on the coast of Coromandel, was destined, from the advantages of its position, to become eventually the seat of general government. It already excited the jealousy of the native princes ; and when Surajah Dowlah, a fierce and capricious youth, became nabob of Bengal, both avarice and alarm incited him to hostility. Marching toward Calcutta, he plundered an English factory on the way, and imprisoned the occupants. He thence proceeded with furious haste to the capital, inflamed by exaggerated reports of the immense riches of the English. The feeble garrison offered an ineffectual resistance. Part of the residents made their escape in vessels doAvn the river, and the small force which remained, surrendered. The officers and men, an hundred and forty-six in niimber, were thrust forcibly into a low dungeon, only eighteen feet square, called the "Black Hole" — a name memorable for ail that is most terrible of suffering and despair. Crowded together and almost deprived of 2-iO THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. air, in this burning climate, their struggles and anguish were fearful until death came to their rehef The nabob was asleep, and no one dared to awaken him, or to remove them without his permission. At about eleven in the evening thej began to die fast, and when their dungeon was opened in the morning, only twenty -three persons were alive, and these delirious or insensible. The dead bodies were thrown indiscriminately into a ditch. The tyrant evinced the utmost unconcern at the fate of his victims, and seemed only troubled at the small amount of his plunder. The government at Madras hastened to avenge these outrages, and at once despatched to Calcutta a naval and military force, under the command of Admiral Watson and Colonel Clive. The place was easily retaken, the garrison left there by the nabob surrendering almost without a blow. Surajah Dowlah, with a large force, soon arrived, and intrenched himself in front of Calcutta. Clive sallied out with a force of two thousand men, and engaged the enemy without much success. A treaty was then concluded, by which the English resumed their former stations and privileges, and relin- quished their revenge upon the murderer of their countrymen. Clive next undertook an expedition against the French, and in March, 1757, laid siege to their fortress at Chandernagore. The garrison made a brave resistance, but being exposed to a cannonade from the squadron of Admiral Watson, were finally compelled to surrender. The English commander, being advised of the secret hostility of the nabob, now resolved on the audacious project of dethroning him, and substituting some native more compliant with the schemes of the British. Intrigues were immediately commenced with the discontented chiefs in his service, and it was finally con- cluded to place upon the throne Meer Jaffier, his principal military ofl&cer, the latter promising large subsidies (it is said three millions of pounds) as the price of his advancement. In June, 1757, Clive, with only three thousand men, of whom not a third were Europeans, quitted Chandernagore to attempt the subversion of a powerful empire. The nabob, with an army nearly seventy thousand strong, was encamped at Plassey. At this place, on the 23d of June, the British attacked him, relying on the defection of Meer Jaffier, with the forces under his immediate command. A protracted action occurred before the latter cooperated with the assailants; but on learning his desertion, the nabob, as cowardly as cruel, mounted his swiftest elephant, and fled, escorted by a large body of his choicest INDIA. 241 cavalry. This victory, won so easily and witli such inconsiderable forces, transferred, in etlect, the sovereignty of India to the British. Meer Jaffier was forthwith saluted nabob of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa; and the defeated tyrant, being shortly after captured, was put to death by the equally savage Meeran, the son of Jafiier, a youth of seventeen, who, like another Caracalla, refused the mercy which his father was inclined to grant. The English received from the plunder of his treasury eight hundred thousand pounds, besides jewels to an immense amount. A claim was now advanced to the government of Bengal by the son of the Mogul, supported by two powerful native chiefs, the nabob of Oude, and the subahdar of Allahabad. The new sovereign, however, supported by the British, maintained his position, and Clive, after some further conquests, resigned his command, and returned to England with an immense fortune. Hostilities were soon renewed by the prince, who, on the death of his father, had succeeded to the title of Grreat Mogul, and who was assisted by a French force, under the celebrated M. Law; and considerable fighting, without important results, took place in the neighbourhood of Patna, the chief point of conflict. The rule of Meer Jaffier proving unsatisfactory to the British council, they deposed him without difficulty, and appointed his son-in-law, Meer Cossim, in his place. The latter, by extracting money from the natives, was soon enabled to pay his allies a million and a half sterling, the arrears due, according to agreement, for their services. The Mogul army, which still continued hostilities, was completely defeated by Major Carnac, and the brave Law, the chief reliance of the enemy, was taken prisoner. Peace soon followed. The English, feeling themselves the true masters of Bengal, were soon involved in a contest with their viceroy, Meer Cossim, who wished to govern the kingdom independently. He levied and disciplined troops, and soon commenced open hostilities. The council immediately again proclaimed Meer Jaffier as nabob, and Major Adams, commanding the British troops, marched against the refractory chief After defeating his forces at Moorshedabad, the British attacked Meer Cossim, who, with nearly thirty thousand men, was awaiting them in the plain of Geriah. The battle was continued for four hours, the assailants being little more than a tenth of the number of their adversaries. European courage and disci- pline finally prevailed, and Cossim, compelled to retreat from fortress 16 242 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. to fortress, finally cut off all hope of negotiation by tlie massacre of an hundred and fifty of the English stationed at Patna. This place, though garrisoned by a strong force, was also, after having SListained a cannonade for eight days, taken by storm, and the defeated chief took refuge with the sovereign of Oude, Sujah Dow- lah, who had already received the Mogul. These three princes, with their united forces, now marched against the English at Patna, and after a protracted contest, were repulsed by Major Carnac; but owing to the insubordination of the sepoys, or native troops, in his own camp, he was unable to follow up his advantages. In May, 1764, Major Hector Munro, who succeeded to the command, adopted the most fierce and vigorous measures to suppress the spirit of insubordination. A body of sepoj^s having left the camp, and been captured, he commanded twenty-four of them to be blown from the mouth of a cannon — a merciless proceeding, which completely answered his purpose. Soon after, he attacked Sujah Dowlah, and thoroughly defeated him, gaining possession of a great quantity of stores, and an hundred and thirty cannon. The confederation was soon entirely broken up. By this succession of brilliant victories, the English gained com- plete control over the great central plain of Hindostan. Their creature, Meer Jafiier, dying, they appointed his son Nujeem, a youth of twenty, to the nominal throne; reserving, indeed, the entire military force, and much of the domestic government, under their own control. In England, however, these continued wars, and the unbridled rapacity of all the Indian officials, excited the alarm of the com- pany ; and in 1765, they sent over Lord Clive, as governor, to reform the numerous abuses of their agents. The Mogul and Sujah Dowlah, who had both been defeated, repaired to the British camp, and learned their fate from the lips of the new governor. The latter, making a favourable impression on the arbiter of his destinies, was restored to his dominions ; the former, receiving a certain amount of territory, ceded, in effect, to the British, the splendid provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa — the young sovereign, whom they had recently created, being compelled to retire on a pension. By this treaty the company gained the title to a great extent of terri- tory, and largely increased its revenue. During the late disturbances, a young adventurer, named Hyder Ali, had been gradually acquiring a power that was destined to be INDIA. 243 most formidable to tlie Englisli. After a youtli spent in riot and dissipation, lie suddenly evinced high military talent, and attracted to himself a numerous swarm of those depredators with whom India has always abounded. The pillage of this gang was so con- siderable, that he was soon enabled to enlist an army of six or seven thousand men. By the patronage of Nunjeraj, the minister and real master of Mysore, he was enabled to enlarge his forces still flirther, and soon aimed at the possession of the throne itself His patron was embarrassed by the discontentment of his troops; and Hyder, taking advantage of the opportunity, hastened to Seringapa- tam, seized the public property, and acquired universal popularity by satisfying their demands. He gained further influence by defending the country against a formidable invasion of the Mahrat- tas, and ere long was enabled, by his influence with the Mysorean army, to wrest the sovereign power from the hands of Nunjeraj. The youthful rajah of Mysore, vexed at seeing the control of his kingdom thus disputed and engrossed by others, now formed a plan for his destruction; and Hyder, taken by surprise, was compelled to fly, leaving all his treasures in the hands of his enemies. Having been defeated in an attempt to regain his position by arms, he artfully persuaded Nunjeraj to join him in a scheme for the recovery of their former power. Assembling an army, he again and again defeated the forces of the rajah; who, unable to withstand him, was again compelled to relinquish the reins of government, and to sur- render nearly all his revenues to the usurper. Nunjeraj, again deceived, obtained nothing of importance. Once firmly secured in the government of Mysore, Hyder com- menced a series of successful hostilities with the surrounding nations. In plundering the accumulated treasures of the capital of Bednore, he was said to have gained the immense sum of twelve millions pounds — a great assistance in his future ambitious career. He was, however, unable to defend his country from an immense swarm of the Mahratta cavalry, who, under Madoo Eao, invaded Mysore; and after experiencing several defeats, was compelled to purchase peace by cessions of territory and by the payment of thirty-two lacs of rupees (nearly two millions dollars). Eecovering from this disaster, he, in his turn, made a ferocious and successful expedition against Calicut. The other Indian states now became seriously alarmed at his increasing power; and a hostile alliance against him was formed 244 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. between Madoo Eao, the English, and jSTizam Ali, snbahdar of the Deccan. Hostilities were commenced by all, but the first-named prince was detached from the confederacy by payment of a snm even greater than the former; and Hyder, taking advantage of the Nizam's jealousy of Mohammed Ali, the ally of the English, per- suaded him to enter into an alliance against the latter. Colonel Smith, the English commander, thus deserted by his allies, was compelled, after repelling an attack of the enemy, to retreat to Trinomalee; while Tippoo ("the tiger"), the son of Hyder, a youth of seventeen, made a rapid incursion with five thousand horse into the English territory, and alarmed Madras itself. Smith, having been reinforced, was soon engaged with a greatly superior force by the allies, whose attack, however, by able generalship, he soon con- verted into a flight. Disheartened by this and other misfortunes, the Nizam was easily detached from the interests of Hyder, and in 1768 agreed to a treaty, by which the British acquired much pecu- niary advantage, and full liberty to appropriate the dominions of their enemy. Of this, they took immediate advantage, b}^ prompt movements in several directions ; and Hyder, in a few months, was deprived of half his territory. He succeeded, however, in expelling the British forces, which, being despatched from Bombay, had taken possession of his western provinces; and then, finding the demands of his enemies too extortionate to be complied with, kept up a protracted warfare with the troops from Madras, and finally gained a signal advantage over them. Soon after, by his superior knowledge of the country, he surprised the British in several of their newly-con- quered districts, and in a few weeks, regained nearly all that he had lost. One detachment of the British troops was made prisoners, and another cut to pieces. Negotiation still failing, he made a daring excursion within five miles of Madras itself, and the council, in alarm, instantly agreed upon an armistice. Treaty was immediately entered into, and in April, 1769, it was agreed that both parties should be placed upon the same footing as before the war, and enter into a defensive alliance against any invaders of the territory of either. These brilliant successes of Hyder, however, were more than compensated by a fresh incursion of the Mahrattas, who, with an army twice as large as his own, commenced a career of alarming conquest and inordinate cruelty. Hyder himself, incapacitated for action by a fit of intoxication, saw his army completely routed and INDIA. 245 dispersed, and witli difficulty, on a fleet korse, and almost alone, reached his capital of Seringapatam. A harassing warfare was pro- tracted for a year and a half longer, when the invaders, on the payment of large sums and the cession of extensive territories, withdrew. Hyder, freed from these enemies, resolved to repair his losses, in some measure, by the plunder of his neighbours, and accordingly attacked the district of Coorg, which fell an easy prey. The bar- barous victor sat in state, paying a sum of money for every head which his soldiers brought before him, until the pile exceeded seven hundred. The conquest of Calicut immediately followed. On the death of Madoo Kao, in 1772, the monarch of Mysore was enabled to regain much of the territory which he had ceded to the Mahrattas. He met, however, with a most obstinate resistance, in attempting to take the citadel of Chittledroog, the fanatical defend- ers of which placed implicit confidence in the goddess Doorga, whose shrine was in their walls. Sallying out every Monday with incredible fury, they returned laden with the heads of the besiegers, as offerings to their deity; and when Hyder, by the aid of treason, gained possession, two thousand of these ghastly trophies were found piled in a pyramid before her gate. He had been deeply offended by the conduct of the English, who, contrary to treaty, had left him unsupported in his terrible contest with the Mahrattas. Fortune favoured his enmity in the war which, occasioned by the American struggle, broke out between England and France. The latter nation, ever eager to undermine the East- ern superiority of her rival, immediately formed an alliance with Hyder, to which he and his house, fatally for themselves in the end, always faithfully adhered. The British soon reduced the French settlements of Pondicherry and Mah6 ; but their grand enemy, while artfully maintaining a pacific attitude, was making great prepara- tions for a sudden and overwhelming blow. Early in June, 1780, quitting Seringapatam, Hyder Ali placed himself at the head of an army of eighty thousand men, and commenced a career of merci- less devastation in the Carnatic. The smoke of burning villages ascended all around Madras, which strong position he did not ven- ture openly to attack. A number of strongholds were taken, and Colonel Baillie, who, with nearly four thousand men, encountered the Mysore army, was utterly defeated, and saw the greater part of his corps massacred on the field. The lives of two hundred Euro- peans were saved by the French, of whom a small force was in the 246 T^^E PEOrLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. rajah's service. Arcot was immediately reduced, and other strong phices were besieged. Upon the receipt of this disastrous intelligence at Calcutta, the governor-general* despatched Sir Ejre Coote, an officer of high reputation, Avith a few hundred European troops, to the scene of action. This general found at his disposal only seven thousand men, of whom scarce a fourth were Europeans; yet he at once advanced in pursuit of the enemy through a country which they had converted into a perfect desert. Though swarms of the light Indian cavalry hovered about them, the English Avere unable, for some time, to effect a general engagement. At last, encouraged by some successes, and by the appearance of a French fleet on the coast, Hyder resolved to give them battle. He had vastly the advantage, both in numbers and position; but the skill of the English com- mander, and the courage of his troops, carried all before them; and the defeated prince, foaming Avith rage, Avas again compelled to trust for safety to the fleetness of his horse. A second engagement, bloody but indecisive, took place at Polil- loor, the scene of Bailie's misfortune. Soon after, Sir Eyre Coote, taking the rajah by surprise, defeated him at Sholinghur, Avith a loss of five thousand men, and Avas thus enabled to relieve the important fortress of Yellore. During the continuance of this Avar, hostilities broke out between Britain and the Dutch, and Sir Hector Munro, with four thousand men, was despatched from Madras against Negapatam, the Indian cajDital of the enemy. Though strongly garrisoned, it fell before the impetuosity of the invaders. All the Dutch settlements on the same coast shared a similar fate, and even their important station of Trincomalee, in the island of Ceylon, was taken by their rivals. As an offset to these advantages, Colonel BraitliAvaite and his force of tAVO thousand men Avere surrounded, and after a most gallant defence, defeated and made prisoners by the army of Tippoo. * Warren Hastings, celebrated for his talents, his crimes, and his memorable trial (in 1786) before the House of Lords, at the impeachment of the Commons. The heaviest charges of cruelty, corruption, and mal-administration were urged against him by all the eloquence of Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and othei- distinguished orators ; the proof was remarkably clear; yet such was the influence of the royal favour and the exertions of his partisans, that, after the affiiir had been protracted for many years, the culprit was finally acquitted, and suffered to pnss the remainder of his days in comfortable obscurity. INDIA. 247 The loss of the alliance of the Mahrattas, who, by the efforts of Hastings, had been lately detached from the interest of liyder, was in some degree counterbalanced by the arrival of a French force of three thousand men ; yet even thus reinforced, he was defeated by Coote, with considerable loss, at Arnee. Very considerable advan- tages were also gained by his enemies on the coast of Malabar. Tippoo, with the French officer Lally, was advancing thither with a large force, when the former was unexpectedly recalled by the death of his father, and the necessity of immediately asserting his claims to the throne. Hyder Ali expired on the 7th of December, 1782, at the age of about eighty. This singular man, without even the ability to read or write, with a disreputable early career, and gross personal failings, nevertheless had become, by his talents, perseverance, and dissimu- lation, one of the greatest sovereigns in India. He transmitted his crown, his treasure, and an army of nearly ninety thousand men, to his son Tippoo, an enemy of the English, even more inveterate than himself Various disagreements among the British civil and military authorities prevented them from taking advantage of the death of their ancient foe. Moreover, Sir Eyre Coote, their best commander, only survived his old opponent for four months. Nevertheless, seizing the opportunity of Tippoo's movement to the west, a strong force, under General Stuart, was despatched against Cuddalore, at which place the French were principally stationed, Bussy, their commander, however, made an able defence, and the English lost upwards of a thousand men in their attack. Moreover, the French admiral, Suffrein, commanded the sea, and soon reinforced the garrison with two thousand four hundred men. The situation of the British had become exceedingly critical, when peace was declared between the two nations — an event by which the Sultan Tippoo lost most of his French auxiliaries. Meanwhile, General Mathews, who had taken the city of Bednore, in the west, and gained possession of great treasure, was in his turn compelled to surrender to Tippoo, and, with his men, subjected to a rigorous imprisonment. In the south, however. Colonels Lang and Fullerton gained most decided advantages ; and were even preparing to march on the capital of Seringapatam, when a treaty was again made, by which it was agreed that prisoners should be released, and each party resume its former possessions. 248 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. CHAPTER ?n THE WARS WITH TIPPOO SAIB, AND THE CONQUEST OF MYSORE. Tippoo Saib, now tlie most powerful sovereign in India, assumed tlie title of padisliah or sultan, and occupied a position similar to that of the Great Mogul in former times. His reign was first signal- ized by a furious crusade in behalf of the Mahometan faith. Vast numbers of the Christian natives of Canara, and others cherishing a belief different from his own, were seized, and forcibly subjected to the most abhorred rite of the Moslem religion. The Mahrattas, now the masters of Delhi and a great part of India, soon began to give him as much trouble as they had his father. Having formed an alliance with the nizam, they resolved upon nothing less than a complete subversion of his empire, and a division of his extensive territories. With a strong force, they again invaded the country ; but Tippoo, who possessed a military genius even greater than his father's, manoeuvred so skilfully as to compel them to suspend operations. He took the chief fortress of the nizam near his boundaries, and, finally, with his whole force, crossed the river Toombuddra, swollen with rain, (which had hith- erto separated the two armies,) took the enemy by surprise, and gave them a serious repulse. He thus secured peace upon favourable terms, acquired a high military reputation, and was acknowledged sovereign of nearly all India south of the Toombuddra. Freed from this danger, he immediately recommenced the propa- gation of his faith by the most cruel and bigoted means. In Malabar, he razed to the ground a vast number of Hindoo temples, and compelled the unfortunate devotees to submit to the detested rite of circumcision. In 1789, he attacked the small kingdom of Travancore, at the southern extremity of India. While attempt- ing, however, to storm the capital, his troops, seized with a singular and unreasonable panic, turned and fled. Great numbers were trampled to death, and Tippoo barely escaped to his camp, after losing two thousand of his men. In the following year, however, he subdued and devastated the country, but soon returned to INDIA. 249 Seringapatam, alarmed by the attitude of the English, who were in. alliance with the injured nation. Lord Cornwallis, the British governor, jealous of the increasing power, and irritated by the aggressions of the sultan, had, indeed, resolved on war, and now took advantage of the attack upon his ally to commence hostilities. The Mahrattas and the nizam, eager for conquest, joined in the undertaking. In June, 1790, an attack upon Tippoo's dominions was commenced in several quarters by General Medows, and Colonels Stuart and Floyd, at first with con- siderable success. The latter of&cer, however, with a small force, was attacked by Tippoo, and sustained much loss in a disastrous retreat. The sultan, moving with great rapidity, again devastated the Carnatic, and, approaching Pondicherry, vainly sought a fresh alliance with the French. In January, 1791, Lord Cornwallis, in person, took command of the forces, and instantly commenced a march into the heart of the sultan's dominions. After a stubborn resistance, the strong fortress of Bangalore was taken by storm; and immediately after, the English governor was reinforced by a large body of the nizam's cavalr}^, utterly useless, indeed, for want of equipment and discipline. Tippoo had now gained his capital of Seringapatam, on which his enemies, using the greatest exertions, were advancing rapidly; Stimulated by the urgency of the occasion, and the exhortations of his harem, he resolved to give them battle on their approach ; but, after a long and obstinate contest, was compelled to retreat within the walls. The English, however, from their destitution of supplies and their enfeebled condition, were compelled to retreat, leaving behind all their artillery and other heavy equipments. Meantime, the forces of Tippoo had been every where defeated in Malabar; and General Abercrombie, after overcoming the most formidable obstacles, was in full march to join Lord Cornwallis, when he received orders to retreat, which he fulfilled with the loss of his artillery. The governor, with his army, was still retreating in a most miserable condition, when he encountered a large detach- ment of his Mahratta allies, under the famous chiefs Purseram Bhow and Hurry Punt. Thus relieved, he succeeded in reducing a num- ber of Tippoo's strongest fortresses, which throughout the country were perched on the most inaccessible cliffs. At length, in February, 1792, Cornwallis, with a force of about twenty-two thousand men, again marched on Seringapatam. On 250 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. approacliing tlie city, tlie sultan, with, a force of about fifty t"hou.sand, was seen encamped in front of liis capital. In a bright moonlight, the British, in three divisions, moved forward to the attack. The sultan, after fighting bravely, was driven from his position, and sus- tained a loss of many thousand men, chiefly from desertion. He made vigorous efforts to regain the ground he had lost, but to no purpose. Abercrombie, with eight thousand men, was about to rein- force the besieging army ; the Mahrattas were in full march ; and it soon became evident to Tippoo that nothing but a peace, on terms dictated by the victors, could save his capital and his crown. Nego- tiations were at once commenced; and the haughty sultan was compelled to submit to the severest conditions. Half his territory was to be surrendered, a sum of four millions pounds was exacted from him, and his two sons were to be delivered up as bostages. The latter, children of eight and ten, were delivered to Lord Corn- wallis, and excited the admiration of the English by the propriety and dignity of their demeanour. The allies forthwith commenced sharing the territories of their enemy, and the English gained large and most valuable accessions, especially on the western coast. In 1794, the conditions having all been fulfilled by Tippoo, his children were restored to him. In May, 1798, the Earl of Mornington, afterwards Marquis Welles- ley, arrived as governor-general. The sultan of Mysore had lately, with inconceivable imprudence, entertained certain French adven- turers from the Isle of France, who, in the fury of republicanism, planted a tree of liberty in his capital, founded a Jacobin club, and hailed their patron as Citizen Tippoo. Though ignorant of the meaning of these mystic novelties, he was induced, by the artful representations of his guests, to enter into a scheme for the conquest and division of all India. The goveror-general, aware of these intrigues, and dreading the French influence, even at this distance, counselled immediate hostilities; and, as a precautionary measure, compelled his ally, the nizam, to disband a corps of fourteen thou- sand men, well officered and disciplined by French adventurers. No satisfaction being offered by Tippoo, a force of twenty thousand men, one-fourth of them Europeans, was prepared for the invasion of Mysore. The nizam also contributed sixteen thousand, and General Stuart, a veteran in the wars of the East, advanced from Malabar with six thousand. Tippoo, marching with great address and activity, surprised a INDIA. 251 division under command of the latter, who was only saved from defeat by the superior courage and discipline of his troops. The sultan then hastened to oppose the main army, which was advancing against him from the eastern coast. His troops, however, were unable to resist the English in a pitched battle, and were compelled to retreat at Malavilly, about thirty miles from the capital, though without any serious loss. He then threw himself, with all his forces, into Seringapatam, resolved to defend it to the last extremity. By the 14th of April, both the eastern and western divisions of the British army met under its walls. Two strongly-intrenched out- posts were soon carried, one by Colonel Sherbrooke and the other by Colonel Wellesley, brother of the marquis, and afterwards known as the celebrated "Wellington. Tippoo now endeavoured once more to treat, and was informed that he could only obtain peace by the cession of half his remaining dominions, the payment of two crores of rupees (about ten millions dollars), and the delivery of four of his sons and as many of his principal chiefs, as hostages. He was in despair at these extravagant demands, and determined rather to die with arms in his hands than to become a miserable dependant on the infidel foreigners. In his despair, he resorted to the wildest measures which superstition could dictate, and, like Saul, summoned the abhorred and persecuted Brahmins, who, by their incantations, might furnish a ray of hope that fortune would yet return. All their prognostics were unfavour- able ; a practicable breach was soon made in the walls ; and on the 4:th of Ma}'", 1799, a storming party of four thousand men, divided into two columns, was despatched to attack the fortress. They met with an easy victory in one quarter; in the other, where Tippoo commanded in person, the resistance was gallant and determined. The sultan, after killing a number of the enemy with his own hands, was slain by repeated wounds. His body was discovered among a heap of slain, the countenance evincing such a stern and expressive composure, that it was difficult to believe him dead. He was buried with royal honours in the splendid mausoleum of Lall Bang, erected by his father. This able and eccentric prince, so long the chief enemy of the English, possessed many of the virtues, as well as the bigotry and cruelty, which distinguished the Moslem race. His kingdom was found by the victors to be flourishing, highly cultivated, and appa- rently well governed. He was fond of literature, and left behind a 252 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. record of the warlike transactions of his reign. His fall was occa- sioned hj the hostility which his persecutions had excited among the natives, and b}'^ the superior skill and discipline of the English, jealous of his power, and covetous of his dominions. The victors again seized a large territory, making their acquisi- tions extend from coast to coast. The remaining portion of the king- dom of Mysore was settled upon the infant heir of its ancient rajahs, who was drawn from obscurity, and placed upon a nominal throne. CHAPTEE 7HI THE MAHRATTA WAR. CONQUEST OF CENTRAL INDIA. The Mahrattas, after the humiliation of the Mogul empire, would have been arbiters of the destinies of India, but for the severe and repeated defeats which they sustained from the yet more warlike and enterprising Afghans. At a later period, under their celebrated sovereign, the peishwa Madoo Kao, they had gained great advantages over Hyder, and in a great degree maintained their preponderance on the peninsula. Serious hostilities with the English had already occurred, though they afterwards joined in the confederacy of Corn- wallis, for suppressing the dangerous power of the sultan of Mysore. The most brilliant exploit of the English, in these early campaigns with the Mahrattas, was the storming of the celebrated hill-fortress of Grwalior, which had been regarded as one of the most impregnable strongholds in Hindostan. Under the administration of Hastings, in 1782, a peace had been concluded. For a number of years, amity and alliance had prevailed; and after the fall of the unfortunate house of Tippoo, (which, however, the Mahratta chiefs viewed with alarm and jealousy,) the Marquis of Wellesley had offered them a share in the partitioned territory. The reigning peishwa, embar- rassed by the ambitious conduct of two powerful rival chiefs, Holkar and Sindia, had finally embraced the cause of the latter, and with his confederate had been defeated by the former in a terrible and obstinate battle, fought near his city of Poonah. He then threw INDIA. 253 himself into tlie arms of the English, who undertook to reestablish his supremacy, on condition of occupying a portion of his territory with their forces. By this treaty, which was concluded in 1802, the company became involved in the most severe and successful war which it had yet encountered. The governor-general took advantage of this opportunity to prosecute liis long-cherished schemes of conquest and aggrandize- ment. Powerful forces, under Generals Wellesley and Lake, were despatched from Mysore and Bengal, with directions to reinstate the peishwa, and secure a permanent footing for the British. A similar expedition was to be sent from Bombay, the first object being to secure the entire coast of India, and thus cut off all communication between the French and the natives. The peishwa was replaced in his capital without opposition, Holkar retreating before the forces of General Wellesley. Sindia, however, and the rajah of Berar, still maintaining a hostile attitude, war was immediately commenced, and the English commander seized on the important city of Ahmed- nugger. Soon after, he encountered the confederate chiefs with a force of fifty thousand men, on the plain of Assaye. His own command was less than a tenth of their number; yet, confident in the superior courage and discipline of his men, he attacked them without hesita- tion. The result justified his expectation. The native forces were put to flight, after a tolerably stubborn resistance, leaving twelve hundred men and all their artillery on the field. This event estab- lished the military reputation of Wellesley, afterwards destined to acquire renown in a far-more-celebrated scene of action. The chief effect of this victory was upon the minds of the natives, who from that hour began to deem the British arms invincible, and India a country already vanquished. The great city of Burhan- poor, and the fort of Asseerghur, considered almost impregnable, were soon after taken ; and a fresh defeat on the plain of Argaom still further dispirited the confederates and encouraged the British. The rajah of Berar was compelled to purchase peace by the cession of extensive territories to the company. In the central regions of Hindostan, events of still greater import- ance were enacted. General Lake, in August, 1803, had attacked and easily dispersed the large but inferior forces of Sindia, near Coel. The strong fortress of Alighur soon fell into his hands, and he thence marched at once upon Delhi, the imperial capital, where the Great Mogul, Shah Allum, aged and destitute, was yet permitted 254 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. by tlie Maliratta chiefs to liold the shadow of power, A Mahratta army, officered by the French, was drawn up to oppose the invaders ; but although Lake's force of four thousand five hundred men was scarcely a fourth the number of the enemy, he did not hesitate to attack them. Enticing them from their position by a feigned retreat, he turned and charged them while in confusion, and speedily drove them from the field with a loss of three thousand in killed and wounded. Entering the city without further resistance, the British relieved the Great Mogul from his state of scandalous indigence and disre- spect, and obtained in return the sanction of a name still venerated throughout Hindostan. In October, the city of Agra was taken, and treasure to the amount of more than a million of dollars was divided among the troops as prize-money. A body of fourteen thousand men, well supplied with artillery, which still kept the field, was attacked by Lake, and after a brave resistance, destroyed or taken prisoners. Detached expeditions, which had been sent into Cuttack, Guzerat, and Bundelcund, were also eminently successful. By December, Sindia was compelled to purchase peace upon the most humiliating terms. A large and valuable territory on both sides of the Ganges, including the imperial cities of Delhi and Agra, was ceded to the victors. Holkar, who, meantime, had been cautiously watching the turn of events, now most imprudently resolved on war, and endeavoured to form a confederacy against the common enemy. Governor Wellesley, on the other hand, determined completely to overthrow the power of this formidable and hostile chief, and to divide his territory among the native allies. The army of Holkar, increased from every quarter, now amounted to sixty thousand cavalry and fifteen thousand infantry. He was also provided with nearly two hundred pieces of artillery. General Wellesley, on account of a famine in the Deccan, was unable to advance against him ; and Colo- nel Monson, who, with a few thousand men, had been left to watch the movements of the enemy, was compelled, in a disastrous retreat to Agra, before the Mahratta chief, to leave on the way his sick and wounded, with all the artillery and baggage. Holkar, eluding the advance of the British general, suddenly invested Delhi, which was garrisoned onlv with a small force of sepoys, under British officers. These, however, made such a gal- lant defence, that he raised the siege, and commenced a career of INDIA. 255 devastation in the newly-acquired territories of the English. A detachment of infantry, under General Frazer, defeated that of the enemy at Deeg, but with the loss of their brave commander. Lake, after a most rapid march, at length overtook the Mahratta cavalry, under Holkar, and put them to flight, with a loss of three thousand men. By invasion from various quarters, the Mahratta chief soon found himself shut out from the most of his dominions. Bhurtpore, the rajah of which still adhered to his cause, was resolutely attacked by Lake ; but after a most daring resistance, in which the forces of the company were repeatedly repulsed, and lost upwards of three thousand men, he was compelled to forego operations, and treat with the rajah, who ransomed his capital by the payment of twenty lacs of rupees (more than a million of dollars). Holkar, who had vainly attempted to relieve his ally, was reduced to an almost des- perate condition, when, by a sudden alliance, he gained the support and assistance of Sindia. This powerful chief had viewed the exploits of his former rival with admiration, and was determined, at whatever risk, to emulate them. This fresh confederacy would have produced a renewal of the war, but for an entire change in the policy of the British government, and of the company, alarmed at this continual warfare and the enormous expense which it entailed. The Marquis of Wellesley was recalled, and Marquis Cornwallis, in 1805, was sent to occupy his place. The latter, however, died soon after his arrival, and the council, acting on the pacific instructions which they had received from London, in November, 1805, concluded a treaty with Sindia, by which he gained the strong fortress of Gwalior, and secured other important advantages. Holkar also obtained peace upon terms so favourable as to leave him nearly in the same position as at the commencement of the late contest. 256 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. uMttliXJaii XcAj THE PINDAEEE WAR, AND THE PINAL OYEBTHEOW OF THE MAHEATTAS. A GREAT part of India was at this time overrun by troops of marauders, called tlie Pindarees. Unlike tlie Mahrattas, to whose predatory habits their own bore a strong resemblance, they had no national existence or particular place of abode — being simply rob- bers, whose numbers gave them the formidable appearance of armies. Finding their temporary homes in the numerous native kingdoms, they were ever ready to join their leaders in any nefarious expedi- tion. Their aim was not the conquest, but simply the complete plunder of every province through which they passed, and they inflicted the most merciless tortures to extort treasure from their unhappy victims. They were the quickest and most expert riders, and had an almost incredible adroitness in horse-stealing. Their chiefs used annually to summon their forces, composed of disbanded soldiers and other desperate characters, on the northern bank of the Nerbudda; and as soon as the rivers became fordable, commenced a career of indiscriminate plunder and devastation. Another formidable gang was headed by Ameer Khan, a Mahom- etan chief, who had fought for Holkar, and now aimed at establishing an independent power. An expedition which he made in 1809, to gain possession of Berar, was, however, rendered ineffectual by the interference of Lord Minto, the English governor. The peishwa, who had been reinstated in his authority at Poonah, soon incurred, by his disaffection, the distrust of the English government. The latter took advantage of the violation of a safe conduct, to insist on his receiving eight thousand additional troops into his territories, assigning large revenues for their support, and yielding up the strong city of Ahmednugger. To these and other severe conditions, rendering him a mere instrument of the company, he was compelled to submit (June, 1817). In 1813, the Marquis of Hastings, an able and active commander, had been appointed the head of affairs in India. His talents were INDIA. 257 soon called into requisition. The Gorkhas, a warlike people from the region of the Himmaleh, had conquered the beautiful valleys of Nepaul, and had extended their dominion until it comprised nearly all the mountainous regions of Northern India. The British, by their conquests, had come in contact with this formidable race, and, negotiation having failed to settle the title to certain disputed terri- tories, hostilities were speedily commenced by both parties. The governor-general in 1814 despatched thirty thousand men to the scene of action. General Gillespie, who commanded a division of this army, was detained on his march by the strong fortress of Kalunga, perched on a hill, and exceedingly difficult of access, In attempting to carry it by storm, he fell at the head of his column, which was repulsed with loss. The officer who succeeded him, with the aid of heavy artillery, made a similar attempt, but in vain ; and the natives did not evacuate their stronghold until its walls were battered to ruins. At the fort of Jytuk, the British, under General Martindale, were also repulsed; and the division marching through Sarun lost two detachments, which were surrounded and cut off. These disasters, though mortifying to the English, produced only increased exertions to repair them. General Ochterlony and Colonel Nichols soon gained decided advantages. Several important for- tresses and towns were taken, and Ameer Sing, the Nepaulese general, was compelled to quit his principal stronghold. Negotia- tions were then commenced, but having been broken off, the British again took the field in 1816, and after twice defeating the enemy, extorted a treaty, by which they gained all the points in dispute. The next object of the English governor was to repress the preda- tory tribes before alluded to, and to gain such a foothold in the native states as to secure a predominance over these marauders. Berar consented to receive a force despatched by the governor, who was thus enabled, as he supposed, to check the incursions of the Pindarees. Nevertheless, eluding the British forces, they crossed the Nerbudda wth ten thousand horsemen, and commenced plunder- ing actively in the company's territories. They were, however, repulsed in various quarters, and compelled to retreat with consid- erable loss. It was now resolved thoroughly to suppress or extirpate these pests of society, and in 1817 Lord Hastings put in motion by far the largest and most efficient army which had yet taken the field in India. It consisted, in all, of nearly an hundred thousand men, 17 258 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. wlio, commanded by tlie marquis in person, and by other eminent officers, marcbed from various directions to enclose and capture tbe wbole body of tbe Pindarees. Botb Sindia and Ameer Kban were compelled, however reluctantly, to assent to the project, and the latter was forced to disband his irregular forces. The opening of the campaign was retarded by the ravages of the cholera, which about this time extended over a great part of India. Nearly nine thousand of the troops and camp-followers (principally the latter) of the division under the immediate command of Lord Hastings died of this new and terrible disorder. In the course of 1818 it spread through all parts of India, and the army, in common with others exposed to its attacks, suffered severely. The Pindarees, seeing hostile forces approaching from all sides, thought only of escape, and Cheetoo, their principal leader, with eight thousand men, took refuge, evading the vigilance of his enemies, in the territory of Mewar. Kurreem, another chief, attempting to fly, was defeated, and his followers were completely dispersed. A fresh enemy now sprung up in the dominions of Holkar. After the death of that chief, his officers, attached to predatory warfare, and dreading the permanent occupation of their country by a British force, prepared for war. General Hislop, who was despatched against them, attacked their army at a great disad- vantage, yet, by the superiority of his troops, gained the day. The Mahratta army retreated, leaving their artillery and three thousand of their number on the field. The refractory chiefs were soon com- pelled to submit to terms dictated by the English. The Pindarees, after sustaining severe defeats in their flight from district to district, were finally dispersed, and most of their chiefs surrendered to the British. Cheetoo, the most valiant and resolute of their leaders, was devoured by a tiger while lurking in the forests of Asseerghur. The peishwa, Bajee Rao, who had been for some time uneasy under the control of his patrons, secretly resolved to throw off their yoke. Having disarmed suspicion by the most profound dis- simulation, he suddenly attacked, with a large force, the small body of the company's troops which had been stationed at Poonah, his capital. These, however, defended themselves with the most undaunted courage until reinforced, when the peishwa, unable to stand a pitched battle, was forced to retreat. For six months, eluding by superior swiftness the pursuit of his enemies, he ravaged INDIA. 259 the Deccan ; but was finally compelled to surrender his person and relinquish his title, receiving in return a pension of eight lacs of rupees (about half a million of dollars). All his territories were seized by the victors. Similar events transpired at Nagpore, where the rajah, with an overwhelming force, attacked the small body of English stationed there, who, however, most courageously maintained their ground with a loss of a fourth of their number. This attempt, like that of the peishwa, resulted in the entire subjugation of his territory. After the triumphant termination of this contest with the native powers, no further struggle of importance occurred until 1826, when Bhurtpore, a strong and celebrated fortress, was attacked and taken by storm by Lord Combermere, with a force of twenty-five thousand men. This expedition, , undertaken for the purpose of reinstating an excluded prince on the throne, had the effect of more thoroughly awing the native potentates, and of confirming the supremacy which Britain had already acquired over all Hindostan. The administration of Lord William Bentinck, who shortly after succeeded to the head of the Indian government, was distinguished by his attempts to ameliorate the condition of the vast masses of Hindoos who were directly under the British authority. The hor- rible suttees^ or burning of widows, were suppressed, and various flagrant abuses were corrected. Since the year 1835, the English government in India has been engaged in repeated and sometimes disastrous conflicts, especially with the warlike nations of the west. The wars with Afghanistan and Sinde, resulting in the evacuation of the former, and the annexation of the latter, have been the principal events of military importance. 260 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. THE RELIGION, CUSTOMS, INDUSTRY, AND CHARACTER OE THE HINDOOS. Brama, YiSHJsru, and Siva, are tlie three most venerated divinities of the native inhabitants of India. The attributes of creation and preservation are ascribed to them, and their origin and adventures are described in the wildest flights of mythological fancy. Doorga, their chief female deity, the goddess of battle and destruction, is one of the most popular and idolized divinities of India. Her image is represented as adorned with a necklace of skulls, and two dead bodies hang as pendants from her ears. Besides the usual simple offerings of the vegetable kingdom, her altars flow with the blood of animals, as anciently with that of human beings. A great num- ber of minor deities are held in veneration — Indra, the king of heaven ; Surya, the deified sun ; Agnee, the god of fire ; Pavana, of the winds ; and Yaruna, of the waters. Their rivers have been held sacred from the remotest times, and to die on the banks of the holy Granges, is considered the surest passport to the joys of Paradise. Long pilgrimages are performed for the purpose of bathing in its waters, and infants are consigned to them for the purpose of sectiring their future felicity. In the courts of Bengal, witnesses are sworn upon a portion of its waters as the surest incentive to truthful evidence. The brute creation, especially the cow and the monkey, have their ardent and constant worshippers. The belief in the transmigration of souls is extensively enter- tained, and is supposed to be the instrument of retribution in another life ; the virtuous attaining higher rank and caste in their next existence, while the vicious suifer lower degradation, and even inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus the pillager of grain becomes a rat, and he who steals fruit is metamorphosed into ^.n ape. The Hindoo continually supposes that he beholds in some suffering ani- mal a degraded human soul, expiating its sins, and receiving their appropriate punishment. The idea of a heaven and a hell are also prevalent; the one INDIA. 261 resembling in its voluptuous and sensual enjoyments tlie Mahometan paradise, and tlie other rendered terrible by the most imaginative retributory tortures. The cruel are tormented hj serpents ; the drunk- ard is immersed in liquid fire ; and the licentious embraced by an image of red hot iron. Their temples, especially those erected or excavated in ancient times, present the grandest ideas of barbarous magnificence. At Elephanta and Kenneri, whole hills have been formed into subter- ranean temples and dwellings, adorned with colossal emblematic images. Their pagodas are generally of a pyramidal form, composed of numerous stories, and strikingly reminding the beholder of the popular idea of the Tower of Babel. Those of Tanjore, Patun, and Kotah, are among the most remarkable. The edifices erected in modern times are generally far inferior, being adapted to the diminished means of their worshippers, and barely affording accom- modation to the gaudy and hideous idols which they protect. The rites and praises offered before them are as absurd and meaningless as the divinities themselves. The penances and self-torture of the Hindoo devotees, sustained by a strange fanaticism, and the hope of fature felicity, are almost incredible. No race of men seems gifted with such fortitude and passive endurance. Like their forefathers, in the time of Alexander, they will remain exposed to a burning sun, and to every vicissitude of weather, in such constrained and unnatural positions that their limbs grow into helpless distortion. A traveller was astonished, on his return to India, after an absence of sixteen years, to find one of these unhappy beings retaining the same posture in which he had left him. At the grand festival of Juggernaut, in Orissa, vast num- bers flock from all directions to the scene, and many perish from want and fatigue. The gigantic idol, on a monstrous car, is drag- ged from his temple by the assembled multitude, and it has been a common scene for his blinded devotees to fling themselves beneath the ponderous wheels, and seal their faith with their destruction. The suttees^ or immolation of widows on the funeral-piles of their husbands, were practised to a fearful extent, until suppressed by the British government. At one place thirty-seven women, the wives of a deceased Brahmin, voluntarily underwent this terrible fate* and in Marwar, on the death of the prince Ajit, fifty-eight of his favourite wives threw themselves into a mighty pile, and were con- sumed together. Sometimes the unfortunate victim, at the latest 262 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. moment, would gladly have witiidrawn from the dreadful fate ; in which, case, force was not unfrequently resorted to, to secure a reluctant martyrdom. Infanticides were also deplorably common, the unfortunate children being left to their fate afloat on some sacred river, or suspended in baskets to perish by birds of prey. The division into castes, or distinct classes, has been, from the remotest ages, peculiar to the people of India. The highest and most sacred race is that of the Brahmins, who are supposed to be entitled to peculiar veneration, both in this world and the next. Their per- sons are considered eminently sacred and inviolable. The Cshay- tryas, or military class, rank next, and the Yaisyas, or men of business, are the third in respect. Last come the Sudras, or labourers, whose condition is that of unremitting servitude and obedience. Their employments are invariably transmitted from father to son. In the southern part of India, is found a yet more miserable and degraded class, called the Pariahs, or outcasts, who are held in the most utter contempt, and employed only in the meanest services. They are compelled to herd together without the walls of the cities, lest the purer castes should become contaminated by their touch. The character of the Hindoo race, in such an extended region, naturally varies widely ; but the people are in general distinguished by their temperance and abstemiousness in living, and by the gen- tleness and docility of their dispositions. The national tendency to craft and deceit, of which they have been accused, seems but a natural consequence of the long-continued servitude to which they have been subjected by their Mahometan conquerors, and latterly, to some extent, by their British masters. Such, it is said, is their disregard of the obligations of an oath, that native testimony is almost entirely unreliable where there is any temptation to pervert the truth. The literature of the Hindoos, so long locked up in their Sanscrit, or sacred language, and known only to the priests, was first intro- duced to the knowledge of Europe by the exertions of Sir William Jones and other eminent oriental scholars. The Vedas, the most sacred and ancient books in the language, consist of voluminous writings in verse, principally of a religious and philosophical nature. A very pure and enlightened idea of the Supreme Being is conveyed in some portions of these remarkable works. The following passage is deeply revered by the religious natives: INDIA. 263 "Let us adore the supremacy of that divine sun, the god-head, who illuminates all, who recreates all, from whom all proceed, to whom all must return, whom we invoke to direct our understandings aright in our progress towards his holy seat. "What the light and sun are to this visible world, that are the Supreme Good and Truth to the intellectual and invisible universe; and as our corporeal eyes have a distinct perception of objects enlightened by the sun, thus our souls acquire certain knowledge by meditating on the light of truth which emanates from the Being of beings; that is the light by which alone our minds can be directed in the path to beatitude. "Without hand or foot, he runs rapidly, and grasps firmly; without eyes, he sees; without ears, he hears all; he knows whatever can be known; but there is none who knows him. Him the wise call the great Supreme Pervading Spirit." Witli such, sublime and elevated views of the divine nature, the Indian mythology mixes all that is wild, absurd, and degrading. The other celebrated works of the ancient Hindoos are the Puranas, the Mahabarat, and the Ramayana — a species of confused epics, in which (doubtless with some original foundation of authenticity) the adventures of celestial beings, heroes and demi-gods are detailed at great and sometimes wearisome length. The poetry of these singu- lar productions is often of a high and deeply-imaginative character. Dramas and love poems of considerable merit, likewise abound. Since the intercourse with Europeans has become peacefully estab- lished, considerable attention has been paid by the educated Hindoos to British literature. Many of the best works of the English language have been translated into the native tongues, and works of merit have been composed in the English by native authors. A newspaper, advocating liberal and enlightened sentiments, has also been established. Although great and persevering efforts have been made for the conversion to Christianity of the numerous native races in India, the results have been less encouraging to missionary zeal than in many other fields of operation. The Baptist missionaries, who at the close of the last century commenced their pious labours, displayed the greatest ardour and perseverance in their self-allotted undertaking. In 1801, they published the New Testament in Bengalee, and have since circulated the Scripture, translated into twenty-four native dialects, which are vernacular to more than a hundred millions of the native population. The London, and the Church Missionary Societies have also been extremely active and industrious in estab- lishing schools and churches, and especially in preparing for the conversion of the generation which is to succeed the present. 264 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. This latter project appears to offer the most rational prospect of an J extensive change in the belief of the inhabitants; the aaults being so wedded to their system of caMes and their ancient usages, that the instances of conversion have been extremely rare. The more fanatical among them have even organized societies (modelled on those of the European missionaries) for the restoration of their venerated suttees, and other revolting rites of Hindoo superstition. Great blame, and perhaps justly, has been laid upon the East India Company for sanctioning, by its authority, the pagan ceremonies of their superstitious subjects. It has been customary with the of&cials of government to levy taxes upon the pilgrims to the various shrines, to pay the salaries of the officiating priests and Brahmins, to keep the temples in repair, and to put the balance into their own treastiry. It has been charged, that in this way, in seventeen years, they drew a sum of one million pounds from the four principal temples of Juggernaut, Allahabad, Gaj^a, and Tripetty. Whatever may be alleged in regard to preservation of order and the suppression of worse excesses effected by such a system, it seems evident enoiigh that this large revenue, so disgracefully obtained, has been the prin- cipal motive with a Christian government in thus extending its countenance and patronage to a system of puerile idolatry. Although, for many ages, the idea of boundless wealth has been connected with the fertile regions of India, yet the great body of the inhabitants, owing to their immense number and their condition of subjection, are in a state of much depression and poverty. So little are they in advance of a state of necessity, that a failure of the periodical rains, on which the crops are dependant, at times occa- sions the most terrible results. By such an event, which occurred in Bengal in 1770, several millions of the unfortunate inhabitants are supposed to have perished of actual famine. The principal production and almost the exclusive food of the labouring classes is rice, of which two crops can be raised in a single year. Cotton, which is largely raised, and which forms the entire clothing of the great mass of the people, is very inferior in quality to that of America, and is worth little for exportation. Strenuous attempts have been made by the British government to naturalize the superior species, and improve its cultivation, but with question- able success ; and it seems probable that the vast manufactures of this article in England will for ever remain dependant on the supply from the southern states of America. INDIA. 265 Opium, the most seductive and baneful production of the whole East, is extensively prepared, and as extensively consumed, both in India and the adjoining regions, to the immeasurable detriment of its unfortunate devotees. Silk, though of inferior quality, is pro- duced largely, especially in Bengal. Sugar, which, probably from deficient culture, is unable to compete with the products of the West Indies, is raised to a considerable extent, and might, it is sup- posed, by the employment of proper means, easily supply the whole British empire. Tobacco, from the time of its introduction, has always been largely produced and consumed — the fragrant and soothing influence of the pipe being particularly adapted to the indolence and apathy of the inhabitants of this tropical clime. The most important article of culture, indigo, is of comparatively recent introduction, and owes its present importance entirely to the enterprise and capital of Europeans. Immense quantities are exported, and all Europe is largely supplied from this source. Pep- per and other spices are extensively produced. Manufactures and the mechanic arts, though conducted with much pains-taking industry, are in general, almost entirely destitute of those advantages' which capital and machinery so immensely confer. The artisan, with rude and indifferent instruments, labours singly and unassisted, with patient perseverance. In this way are produced the most delicate Indian muslins, the finest silks and calicoes, and the splendid and high-priced shawls of Cashmere. In consequence, however, of the increased skill of European manufacturers and the cheapness of their wares, the demands for these beautiful fabrics has not increased like that for other luxuries, though extensive importations are still made. The monopoly of traffic, which the East India Company so long maintained, has been finally suppressed; and the enterprise and competition of private merchants have proved far more efficacious for advancing the interests of commerce than the cumbrous and unwieldy system of the company. The British residents in India, though holding complete control of the government, and transacting all business of importance, whether military, judicial, or commercial, regard their sojourn generally as a species of exile, and devote themselves eagerly to acquiring the means of independence, to be enjoyed on their return to their own country. Their manner of life, indeed, usually becomes strongly tinctured with oriental feelings and habits. Troops of native servants, high-spiced Indian dishes, and the continual use of 266 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the hooJcah, or water-pipe, become, witli many of them, almost neces- saries of life. At tlie principal capitals, and especially at Calcutta, tlie ofdcials and other wealthy residents maintain a state of extreme splendour and luxury. In the latter city, the quarter called Chou- ringhee is described as a village of palaces — contrasting strongly with the low and squalid habitations of the "Black Town," or district allotted to the native population. The most exciting and manly amusement of the Europeans is the chase, in which many, especially the military of&cers, engage with the most adventurous ardour. The elephant, the royal tiger, and other magnificent denizens of the forest and jungle, offer the most attractive and dangerous sport to the courageous hunter. These sports are attended with much risk, not only from the ferocious nature of the game, but from the burning and tropical sun to which the huntsman is necessarily exposed. The population of India, over nearly all of which the British influence is now paramount, amounts to the enormous number of an hundred and forty millions. "Man in those regions is a weed," says a well-known philosophical writer; and, indeed, if over- whelming number, combined with ignorance, political weakness, and individual unimportance, is meant, the simile is true enough. That this gentle, kindl}^, and somewhat intellectual race may be redeemed from their present degraded condition, and advance in true religion, civilization, and freedom, must be the wish of every philanthropic mind. CHINA. uxicniiriiuil, i NATIYE HISTORY OF THE CHINESE. In considering the geograpliy, the history, and the national charac- teristics of this immense empire, we are alike struck by the childish credulity with which the European nations, for many ages, enter- tained the most absurd and fabulous accounts concerning them, and the utter disbelief which accompanied the publication of their first authentic description by Marco Paolo, and other early travellers. Although these writers were, without doubt, guilty of numerous exaggerations — the more pardonable when we reflect upon the con- tinual surprise and astonishment with which their own minds must have been impressed at the new and strange scenes constantly unfold- ing before them — and although their strange misapprehensions will occasionally excite a smile, yet, in the more essential particulars, the China which they describe is the China of the present day. Throughout all the mighty revolutions of the West; during all the vast changes in the physical and moral condition of the people of Europe; the perfection of the higher arts; the lapse to barbarism, with the rule of brute force, and the almost total destruction of learning and refinement; and during the revival of forgotten sci- ences, and their wonderful modern extension, the inhabitants of China have remained the same. As far in advance of the rest of the world a thousand years since, as they now are behind it, in knowledge and policy, they still pursue the customs of their fore- fathers, and manifest the same untiring industry, the same deficiency of invention, and the same puerile fancies which distinguished them in the earliest period of their history, of which we have any authen- tic account. 268 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. In a country of sucli extent there must, of necessity, be a great variety of climate and productions. At the southern extremity, lying within the tropics, and near twenty degrees north latitude, a degree of heat is experienced in the summer months, correspond- ing to that of the western hemisphere in the same latitude. The country, from its position on the eastern shore of a large continent, is necessarily subjected to great extremes of heat and cold, at the different seasons of the year. In the northern parts, the winters must be nearly equal in severity to those of New England. The surface of the country, although hilly and varied, is, for the most part, within the reach of cultivation, which is carried to an extent unknown in any other portion of the globe, except, perhaps, in some of the most populous districts of Europe. It is only by the most assiduous improvement of every available spot of land, for the purpose of agriculture, that the teeming population of this vast region could, by possibility, be supported. The manners and customs of the Chinese, so strongly contrasted with those of other nations, offer an extensive and interesting field for observation and inquiry, but our limits compel us to pass from these to the drier details of their political history. Anterior to the time of Confucius, the greatest of their philosophers and writers, who flourished about five hundred years before the Christian era, the legends of the historians of China are, in the highest degree, wild and extravagant. They extend through a period of several thousand years; from the time of Puon-koo, with his covering of leaves; of Eohy, Shin-Noong, and Hoang-ty, the "three emperors," to whom were ascribed the invention of most of the arts and orna- mental sciences; and through the long reigns of their numberless successors, graced with fantastic titles and varied attributes. During the reign of Shun, the last of "the five sovereigns" who immedi- ately succeeded Hoang-ty, a great flood is recorded to have occurred, which is supposed by many to have been the same with the univer- sal deluge described by Moses. Yery few of the tales concerning these early monarchs bear any marks of having a foundation in truth, and must be classed by the modern historian with the stories of Theseus and Hercules, or the wild traditions of savage nations. In many instances, doubtless, the name of some renowned chief, with his most famous exploits, may have come down to us little altered beyond a slight exaggeration from the poet or story-teller ; but M^e have no criterion whereby to distinguish the true from the fictitious. ll I ill CHINA. 269 Confucius lived in the same age with Pythagoras, and, consider- ing the inferiority of his opportunities for literary acquirements, is, doubtless, deserving of equal celebrity with that great philosopher. The effect of his political disquisitions and theological essays is still to be seen throughout the empire, and his historical compilations contain nearly all that is now known of Chinese government and progress before his day. After his death, the country, divided as it was into numerous principalities or petty kingdoms, was convulsed by civil wars, until their final union in one empire, and the estab- lishment of a common government, Chy-hoang-ty appears to have been the first emperor, and in his reign was erected that stupendous monument of enterprise and perseverance, the great wall of China. The design of this undertaking was to afford some protection to the peaceable subjects of the emperor, against the frequent attacks of the wild and roving hordes of Tartary. The whole extent of the wall is not far from fifteen hundred miles, traversing high mountains and rivers of considerable size. Its height, though not perfectly uniform through its whole length, is, on an average, from twenty to thirty feet, and it is of sufficient breadth upon the top for several horsemen to ride abreast. Strong towers occur at short intervals, and on the summit of the wall the roadway is flanked by a low para- pet. The work appears externally to be a mass of solid masonry, but in reality it consists of an embankment of earth, enclosed between firm walls of stone, slightly inclining inward, to afford greater strength and durability. It is said that this fortification is carried, unbroken, over almost inaccessible cliffs and precipices, where the efforts of cavalry to efiect a passage would be of no avail, even without this precaution. It has been, like the pyramids of Ghizeh, the wonder and admira- tion of all ages, and in like manner appears to have totally failed in effectuating the purpose of its founder. None can tell, with certainty, even the names of the vain-glorious potentates whose mausoleums, erected at such inconceivable expense and toil, are scattered over the Egyptian desert; and the mighty work, which we have here described, proved, in equal measure, a monument of useless labour. The reign of its constructor was rendered infamous by his futile attempt to destroy the writings of Confucius and other learned authors, who had flourished under the patronage of his predecessors. What were his motives for this piece of barbarism, does not dis- tinctly appear ; perhaps, as has been asserted, he was simply actuated by jealousy of the fame of others; but that his orders were enforced 270 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. witli rigour and ferocity is plain from tlie fact, that hundreds were put to death for concealing the proscribed volumes. About two hundred years before Christ, under the dynasty of Han, the predatory incursions of the Tartars, unrestrained by the wall of protection, built by Chy-hoang-ty, had become such a con- stant source of terror and disquiet, that, to propitiate them, the emperors of China were in the habit of giving their daughters in marriage to the chiefs of the invaders. By this means, and by the paji^ment of heavy tribute, a separate existence was maintained for a great length of time. For several centuries after the Han race had ceased to fill the throne, little of interest presents itself in the political history of the country. A long series of wars and intestine disturbances dis- tracted the empire, until the accession of Tae-tsoong, the second emperor of the house of Tang. It was during his reign that Chris- tians appear, for the first time, to have penetrated into China. They are described as "foreigners, having fair hair and blue eyes." This was in the year A. D. 640, or about that period; and the truth of the narrative seems to have been corroborated by the discovery, at a time long subsequent, of a monument, marked with a cross, and inscribed with Christian doctrines and the names of certain preach- ers. The date of this inscription corresponded with the period at which these foreigners are said to have arrived. The peace of the court, under this dynasty, was disturbed in the most singular manner by the intrigues and plots of the eunuch attendants and courtiers, who had been first introduced by Ho-ty, the seventeenth emperor of the Han race, as early as the year 95. They retained their power and influence until the time of the last of the Tang emperors, who was himself murdered by the agent whom he had employed for their destruction. For more than fifty years thereafter, and until the final establish- ment of a despotic and even feudal government, the conflicts among various claimants of the throne created anarchy and confusion throughout the empire. The Tartars, no longer efiiciently repelled, renewed their devastations, and harassed and laid waste the country upon its western border. At this disturbed and unsettled period, and among a people thus distracted by the tumult of civil wars and the continual attacks of a barbarous enemy, an art had its origin, which was destined to effect a greater change in the condition of the world, than any which CHINA. 271 ever before or since has emanated from tlie mind of man. In the tenth century, while the inhabitants of the now enlightened states of Europe were in the lowest state of ignorance and vassalage, the patient and laborious Chinese had brought into general use the art of printing from engraved blocks. Five hundred years later, it was introduced into Europe — a. length of time which sufficiently marks an almost entire non-intercourse between China and other nations. In the year A. D. 950, Tae-tsoo, the first of the Soong family, obtained the imperial power by the support of a number of military chiefs. Under his rule, and that of his successors, books were greatly multiplied; and from this period, the annals of the country become fuller and more worthy of belief. The Eastern Tartars, known as "the Kin," although long pro- pitiated by an annual payment of silk and money, finally took advantage of the effeminacy of Wei-tsoong, the then reigning empe- ror, to overrun and take possession of a large part of Northern China, or Kathai, It seems probable that they would, at this time, have conquered the whole country, had not the Chinese called in the assistance of the Mongols, who were inhabitants of Southern and Western Tartary, The armies of this powerful nation, which, before this period, had made extensive conquests in the south of Asia, now poured into the northern provinces, expelling the first invaders, and easily making themselves masters both of the Chinese and such of the Kin as remained within their limits. This event occurred in the year 1234. Kublai Khan, the great leader of the Mongols, established his court at Pekin. After the discomfiture of the Chinese army, and the destruction of the royal family, he employed himself in over- turning the religion of the country, and substituting that of Budd- hism. This system, with its worship of the Grand Lama, was far from acceptable to the native inhabitants, but exterior compliance with it was strictly enforced ; the books of the old religion being ordered, as usual, to be burned. Partly for the purpose of enriching the dry and parched plains in the vicinity of his capital, and partly to ensure a convenient method of transportation to the sea, Kublai Khan ordered the con- struction of the Grand Canal, which extends for a great distance through the most fertile and populous portions of China. In consequence of the degeneracy and weakness of his suc- cessors, the power of the Mongols came to an end in less than a 272 THE PEOPLE'SBOOK OF HISTOEY. hundred years from tlie time of his accession. A successful revolt, headed by the servant of an association of Buddhist priests, ended in the entire overthrow of the Tartar government, and in the estabhsh- ment upon the throne of the victorious leader. He organized his court at ISTanking, taking the title of Tae-tsoo, "great ancestor." Tae-tsoo was the founder of the Ming dynasty, and it was during his reign, and that of his successors, that a regular communication was first opened between the coast of China and the maritime nations of Europe. The Portuguese then formed a settle- ment at Macao ; and the zealous Jesuits, with their usual intelligence, courage, and artful policy, gained no small ascendancy among the natives. They also obtained a vast amount of information concerning the national customs and history. In the reign of one of the Ming princes, the celebrated Timiir or Tamerlane projected an expedition against China, and actually took up his march for the purpose of effecting its conquest; but died on his way thither, in the year A. D. 1405. The Mongol successors of Kublai Khan, on their expulsion from China, took up their abode with the Kin, or Eastern Tartars, and, intermarrying with the nobility of that country, retained much of their power and influence. The descendants of this mixed race afterwards obtained and still hold possession of the throne of China. The name of the region inhabited by the Kin had been changed to Manchow, which title was applied to the princes who derive their origin from this amalgamation. The Manchows, under Tien-Ming, having attacked China, succeeded (after a war of many years) in dethroning the last of the Ming emperors. This unfortunate monarch, when he saw himself finally overpowered, put an end to his own life, that he might not fall into the hands of his enemies. The immediate cause of his downfall was an extensive revolt within his own dominions ; but the success- ful leader of the rebels was prevented, by the intervention of the Manchow king, from enjoying the fruits of his treason. The new invader, by force and artful management, secured to himself the imperial throne, and, dying shortly after, left it to his son Shunchy, in 1644. At this period the degradation and subjection of the unhappy natives was completed: the customs of tonsure and the braided queue, which are associated with all our ideas of a Chinese, were now, for the first time, introduced and strictly enforced. The ancient attire CHINA. 273 and tlie thick flowing locks, upon whick tkey formerly prided tkem- selves, are now to be seen only in their theatrical representations. The authority of the Tartar emperors was long resisted by the inhabitants of the south of China, and by a large naval force, under the command of Ching-she-loong, father of the celebrated Kos- hiuga. The emperor Shunchy succeeded, by heavy bribes and the proffer of titles, in enticing Ching-she-loong to espouse his cause, and to remove to Pekin ; but the son was incorruptible, and long continued to harass and plunder the cities on the sea-coast, which had succumbed to the Tartar power. The only method by which Shunchy was finally enabled to terminate his successful career, and to reduce him to terms, was an edict that all the inhabitants of the coast should retire so far into the interior as to be beyond reach of the incursions of his maritime foe. This order was forcibly carried out, and the country being thus laid waste, and offering neither booty nor support to his armament, the naval commander was induced to give up his possessions already acquired, and to take ofiice under the established dynasty. The Manchow emperors strove to maintain an active and military spirit in their nobility and soldiery, by a yearly expedition beyond the wall, with a great force, well-armed and equipped. This "hunt- ing excursion," for so it was termed, has of late years fallen much into disuse, the descendants of those who introduced it having contracted the effeminate habits of the country of their adoption. During the sixty years' reign of Kang-hy, the Catholic missiona- ries had met with much tolerance and favour, and a knowledge of Chinese history and manners had, by their means, been extensively diffused in Europe ; but their own imprudence drew upon them the violent animosity of his successor, Yoong-ching. The priests had, in the most impolitic manner, resisted the constituted authorities, and disgraced their cause by continual bickering among themselves, and Yoong-ching finally determined to expel them from his dominions. A few were suffered to remain in Pekin, but the greater part were collected at Macao, and ordered to depart by the first opportunity. The good policy and intelligence of the Jesuits caused an exception in their favour, but the Catholic mission, in general, has never recovered from the blow. Kien-loong, the next emperor, commenced his reign in 1736, and occupied the throne for sixty years of almost uninterrupted peace and prosperity. He was himself a poet, and a great patron of learn- 18 274 I'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ing and the sciences. It was at his court that Lord Macartney, the first ambassador from England to China, made his appearance, and was received with much respect and consideration. This monarch committed the active administration of affairs, in his latter days, to his son Kea-king, who, at his father's death, suc- ceeded to the supreme authority. His intemperance and profligacy drew upon him a merited rebuke from the wise and upright Soong- tajin, a friend and guide of the British ambassador. Taou-kuang, or Tau-kwang ("lustre of reason"), the late emperor, who died, or, as the Chinese reporter expresses it, "departed upon the great journey, and mounted upward on the dragon, to be a guest on high," on the 25th of February, 1850, was second son of Kea-king, and was selected by his father, in preference to the elder, on account of his having taken an active part in protecting him against certain assassins. The reign of Tau-kwang was marked by many domestic disturbances and outbreaks, and his conduct, in the suppression of these rebellions, has been justly condemned as displaying extreme duplicity and bad faith. We may cite, as an instance of this, the murder of Prince Jehangir, a Tartar of the Mahometan faith, not- withstanding the assurances of protection, in consequence of which he had imprudently delivered himself up to the Chinese authority. The inhabitants of the mountain districts of South-western China, who have always maintained a certain independence, gave much trouble during this reign by their revolts and insubordination, and have never been effectually reduced to submission. Societies and associations also exist in other parts of the empire whose purposes are hostile to the continuance of the Manchow dynasty. Nothing connected with the Chinese empire, under the govern- ment of Tau-Kwang, excited so great an interest throughout the world as the war with Great Britain; a war, whether we consider its object on the part of the English, or the terms upon which it was finally concluded, hardly worthy of an enlightened and magnani- mous nation. Among the various grievances alleged by the British government as the grounds of their declaration of hostilities, none appear to be of any great importance, except a restriction imposed by the Chinese authorities upon the importation of opium. No national right is more universally conceded or practised than that of regulating importations, either by onerous duties or by direct and entire pro- CHINA. 275 Hbitory enactments; but for no other cause tlian tlie use of this right, and the employment of the means necessary to enforce it, war was declared against China; her sea-ports blockaded; her fortresses dismantled, her naval armament destroyed ; and peace in the end only accorded upon the payment of an enormous sum in money, and the sur- render of her rightful claims concerning the question in controversy. Upon the death of Tau-kwang, which is reported to have been the result of over-fatigue at the obsequies of a member of the royal family, his only son, Sze-hing, a youth of nineteen, took the throne, and is the present reigning emperor. He was regularly nominated or appointed by his father, according to the prescriptive custom of the Chinese sovereigns. He had three elder brothers, who all died before the decease of their father. From the known character of Keying, the chief guardian of the young monarch, who has heretofore held high office at Canton, and whose occupation has brought him contin- ually in contact with foreigners from all nations, it is anticipated that the jealous and restrictive policy of China, respecting her inter- course with the rest of the world, will be materially relaxed. CHARACTERISTICS OP THE INHABITANTS OP CHINA. Little is accurately known concerning this singular people prior to the expedition of Matthew and Nicholas Paolo to the court of Kublai Khan, about the middle of the thirteenth century. These cele- brated adventurers, father and uncle of the yet more famous Marco Paolo, or, as it is more commonly written Polo, had made a journey to the court of the Mongol emperor, who received and entertained them with distinguished courtesy. Marco accompanied them on their second expedition to China, and entered into the service of the khan, in whose employ he remained nearly twenty years. His integrity and active disposition secured to him great favour' from the emperor, and he filled various offices of honour and responsibility. The accounts given by Marco Polo, on his return to Venice, of the 276 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. extent, wealtb, and advancement of China, were generally disbe- lieved, or condemned as gross exaggerations ; but subsequent inquiry lias almost fully confirmed his report, and his description of the appearance, customs, and characteristics of the inhabitants apply, in most essentials, as well to the Chinese of our own age as to those in whose time his journal made its appearance. His style is rather enthusiastic than exaggerated: his narrative of facts is plain, sim- ple, and truthful. The Portuguese at an early period made voyages to the coast of China and the adjacent islands, but their lawless and piratical con- duct, and their quarrels with the merchants of other nations whom they encountered, contributed greatly to nourish that spirit of exclu- sion which has shut out so large a part of this country from our examination. Before the outrages thus committed by early European voy- agers, a free trade and intercourse with China were carried on by the natives of Southern Asia. Junks from Chinese ports doubled the Malay peninsula, and pursued a profitable traffic with various towns in India. We may therefore well suppose that, had the con- duct of their first visiters been marked by justice and a politic spirit of conciliation, the natives of China would readily have facilitated a communication, for purposes of mutual improvement and profit, with those whom they now designate by no better title than "out- side barbarians." Even the desperate adventurer, Ferdinand Mendez Pinto, bore witness to the moderation and justice of the Chinese authorities, and the industrious habits of the populace, which, during his detention among them, fell under his observation. It would be doing great injustice to the Chinese character to judge it by the exhibition of depravity, duplicity, and absurd self-import- ance which strikes the observer at Canton. This being the only city where foreign trade is generally admitted, and foreigners being constantly held up by the native authorities as objects of supreme contempt and distrust, it is not unnatural that those who are brought habitually into contact with them, should feel at liberty to meet supposed fraud with fraud ; and, always expecting deceit from those with whom they deal, that they should, in their turn, overreach to the extent of their ability. Neither the rabble nor the sagacious merchants of Canton offer fair specimens of the national character; to understand this thoroughly, a residence in the interior is neces- CHINA. 277 saiy, and an observation of the sobriety, industry and decorum of the agricultural and manufacturing classes. Gravity, love of country, family affection to a clannish extent, reverence to old age, an imperturbable coolness, frugality and con- tent, are prominent features in their disposition and deportment. The patriarchal system of family government is here carried to a great extent; the oldest head of a family retaining authority over children and grand-children during his life. The respect paid to age, in general, is such, that the term "old, or venerable father," is applied indiscriminately to persons of any age, as a complimentary expression of respect. The more unamiable features of character noticeable in the nation at large, are pride and self-conceit. The charge of infanticide, which has brought such opprobrium on the national character, appears to have been grossly exaggerated, and the intentional destruction of their offspring is apparently confined to the most degraded and miserable of the population in the larger cities. Bodies of infants are, indeed, frequently seen floating in the river at Canton, but when we consider the immense number of families who spend the principal part of their time upon the water in slight skiffs, we can readily account for a large majority of these deaths on the score of accident. Of the physical conformation of the Chinese, very erroneous con- ceptions are apt to be formed: the figures, represented upon their tea-caddies and porcelain, approach no nearer to the true appearance of the people than the caricatures of a print-shop do to those of whom they are the exaggerated effigies. Such of the working population as are engaged in active and healthful employment, are said to present fine specimens of manly development ; and the angu- lar projection of the cheek-bones, and the wrinkled rigidity of countenance which distinguish the old, is little observable in the young of either sex. Obesity is deemed a desirable and becoming condition in a man, but a female figure is admired only when extremely slender and delicate. The strange customs of allowing the finger-nails to grow to an inordinate length, and of compressing the feet of female infants so as entirely to check their growth, had a common origin — ^being marks of freedom from the necessity of labour. One would suppose that this latter practice would be entirely confined to the wealthy and independent, but, having been once considered the token of birth and gentility, like all other 278 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. absurd fashions of the upper classes, it is, to a certain extent, aped by tlieir inferiors. A foot subjected to this process of bandaging in childhood, never increases in length, but is hideously distorted and deformed, resembling in shape rather a hoof or a club-foot, than the graceful outlines of its natural form. The women who have suffered this mutilation, are almost entirely disabled from walking, but their unsteady gait and crippled movements are admired as graces. As in nearly all half-civilized countries, women in China are considered as an inferior order, but are by no means degraded to the slavish lot which is their portion among savage and barbarous nations, or in the Mahometan states, A man can legally take but one wife, to whom he is espoused with much ceremony ; but this does not exclude him from the privilege of maintaining a discre- tionary number of tsie or handmaids, whose children are considered legitimate, although not entitled to the same privileges and advan- tages as those of the wife. It seems that the principal object in allowing this species of quasi polygamy is to ensure a male succes- sion; for if a man has sons by his true wife, it is considered disreputable to have a handmaid. The general analogy of this custom to that of the old Jewish patriarchs is sufficiently obvious. The supposed subjection of the wife to her husband, and her consequent exemption from punishment for certain crimes commit- ted in his company, which are features in the English common-law, are carried to a much greater and more unqualified extent by the Chinese. The grounds for divorce are singular, including, together with those adopted by most enlightened governments, ill-temper, thieving, and talkativeness. The restrictions upon marriage among relations are much more rigid than in any other country, extending to all of the same surname. A second marriage on the part of a widow is in no case favoured, and in persons of a certain rank is positively forbidden. Weddings are conducted with abundance of ceremony and merry- making, and season of the year preferred for these occasions being the early part of Spring, The authority of a father over his family is supreme : he may, if he choose, sell his children for slaves. The true wife, moreover, has absolute control over the offspring of her husband's "handmaids," Grreat attention has been paid by the Chinese, from the earliest ages, to the education of children. We are apt to look upon the present system of universal instruction as an improvement of mod- CHINA. 279 ern times, but a Chinese writer, who lived two thousand years since, makes mention of "the ancient system," by which common schools were established in every district of every village, the country being minutely sub-divided for this purpose. Many valuable hints might be drawn from their maxims of education, which would not be thrown away upon teachers of our own age and country . By one of these rules, the scholar is especially cautioned against "repeating with the mouth, while the heart is thinking of something else." National advancement in science and education would seem to be considered a matter of no moment in China; indeed, it would be diametrically opposed to their permanent and unchangeable system children master, of government and instruction. Generation after generation, their in succession, the alphabet, a rhyming catechism, of childish information, and the four books containing the Confucian doctrines. These last are committed to memory entire. To be qualified for the degree of doctor, a station of high rank and importance, the candidate must undergo three several examina- tions. The first of these takes place yearly in every educational district ; the second, every three years at the capital of each province, and the third, at Pekin, also triennial. From the body of doctors, which must never exceed thirty, certain members are chosen for the imperial college, after a fourth examination ; and other high ofiicers of government generally undergo this probationary course previous to their selection. Great attention is paid to the performance of funeral rites and ceremonies. These are not confined to the' time of burial, as else- where, but are periodically renewed. The whole population at certain appointed days repair to the places set apart for interment, to cleanse and refit the tombs of their friends, particularly of their ancestors, and to decorate them with fanciful ornaments of tinsel and coloured paper. A bigoted interference with these innocent expressions of affection and remembrance was one of the chief reasons for the expulsion of the monks, to which allusion has heretofore been made. On that occasion, the emperor, in one of his edicts, review s the superstitious legends and doctrines which had been translated into Chinese, with considerable acumen. After reciting one of their tales, he proceeds: "Now this is absurd and extravagant in the highest degree ; where did the Europeans become acquainted with the appellatives Pei-tse and Fo-tsin, except by their intercourse and conversation with our Tartar brethren, from whom they have doubt- 280 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. less adopted tliem in order to fabricate this idle tale. We do not mean rigorously to investigate wliat has been done heretofore, but it is obvious that this account of a Pei-tse carried to hell by devils is given without any kind of evidence, and does not possess the least shadow of truth or credibility. It would appear, in short, to be a tale which their ingenuity has contrived; and, upon this principle, what is there that we may not readily expect them to say or write ! For the ftiture, we earnestly exhort our Tartar subjects to pay atten- tion to the language and admonitions of their own country and government ; to practice riding and archery, to study the works of the learned and virtuous, and to observe the social duties." In the same imperial mandate a paragraph occurs which marks, in a striking manner, the exceeding reverence considered as due to parental authority — this duty being, by implication, placed above that of obedience to a Supreme Being. The emperor remarks, after various quotations — "The foregoing passages are sufficiently absurd and extravagant ; but this is not all ; there are other observations still more false and irrational, making light of the obedience due to parents, and declaring that the greatest degree of impiety consists in disobeying the will of the Tien-Chu (master of heaven)." The principal festivals and holy-days of the Chinese are at the periods of the new year, and of the first full moon. For several days, on the coming in of the new year, which, according to our calendar, corresponds to the seventh of March, labour is suspended, and the whole populace deliver themselves up to gayety and amuse- ment. As the old year goes out, at midnight, commences a scene of indescribable tumult and confusion, and the explosion of fire- crackers is incessant until daybreak. Then succeed ceremonious visits and entertainments among friends and acquaintances ; an inter- change of presents, of value corresponding with the rank and wealth of the parties, and a general demonstration of extravagant courtesy and deference. The first full moon is celebrated by the construction and display of lanterns, of every conceivable size, form, and material, orna- mented with figures made to move by means of the draught of hot air passing from the top. Most of these amusements, like the kite- flying, skating, and sliding upon sledges, in which all indulge, from the gray-bearded mandarin to the ragged urchin, are of the most simple and childish description. Besides these festivities, there are other celebrations, in honour of CHINA. 281 agriculture and manufactures, to whicTi great importance is attaclied. The emperor himself lays his august hands to the plough, and the empress does reverence at the altar of him to whom is ascribed the invention of manufacturing silk. A buffalo of clay, after being paraded with much ceremony and with numerous decorations to the house of the governor of the capital, is broken to pieces, and the images with which his body is filled are scrambled for and carried off by the populace. In the month of June, a boat-race is the subject of much excite- ment and interest. Boats of great length, called "dragon-boats," and propelled by nearly a hundred men, are used for this purpose, and the contest is carried on with great eagerness and rivalry. It would be a pleasing task, did space permit, to enter into the detail of domestic habits and quaint customs which prevail among this primitive people. The strange contrarieties which appear upon a comparison of their manners with our own are amusing, and at times startling; but we must leave this more entertaining portion of our subject, to give a general outline of their system of govern- ment, and their progress in the arts and sciences. The form of government is purely patriarchal: every father exercises the most absolute authority over his household; every mandarin over the city or town under his control ; the viceroy in his province, and the emperor, as pater patrioi^ over the whole nation. Ill usage of parents is punished in the severest manner, being con- sidered a species of treason, equal in atrocity with resistance to the supreme authority of government. By an edict of a late emperor, a man who had ill-treated and beaten his mother, was put to death, together with his wife, the participator in his crime. By way of marking still farther the enormity of the offence, his house was razed to the ground; the place was pronounced accursed; the unfortunate inhabitants of the district placed under disabilities, and the wife's mother was beaten, branded, and exiled. As a general rule, parents are liable to punishment for the mis- conduct of their children, and are entitled to honour and reward upon their advancement. Hereditary rank is considered of little importance^ the officers of civil authority being generally chosen from the body of the people, as persons distinguished for merit and acquirements. The real aris- tocracy is one of learning and wisdom, wealth being, less than in any other country, a means of attaining influence and respect. The 282 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. descendants of the royal family have indeed an honorary title, and the privilege of wearing yellow girdles as a distinctive badge ; but their great number, and want of accompanying authority, render them objects of little esteem or reverence. • The emperor, as supreme sovereign, possessed of all temporal power, and as chief priest and "Son of Heaven," is regarded with the greatest awe and veneration. His own dress and regalia are generally plain, though the crowds of officers attendant on his court are decked out in all the extravagant and gaudy robes and orna- ments that ingenuity can contrive. His numerous strange titles and attributes, and the endless ceremonies with which his public appearance, birth-day honours, and solemn sacrifices are attended, are beyond the scope of our present inquiry. He is worshipped with the reverence due to a deity. The codes of Chinese law, particularly the penal code, are drawn up with great care and perspicuity, and have elicited the most favourable expressions of commendation from learned and intelli- gent jurists; but the will of the emperor is superior to all, and he can vary or enlarge the prescribed punishments for crime at his pleasure. One very useful provision, however, prevents many of the injurious consequences which might result from hasty action on his part; namely, that these special edicts are confined, in their effect, to the particular case in which they are issued, and never have the force of precedent. To carry on the general affairs of government, there are three distinct councils; the highest consisting of two Tartars and two Chinese ; the second, a larger body, chosen mostly from the learned doctors of the imperial college, and a privy council for matters requiring secret or summary procedure. The separate departments of the appointment of officers, the management of the revenue, the regulation of ceremonials, the superintendance of the military system, the supreme jurisdiction of criminal affairs, and the control of public works, are each adminis- tered by a regularly constituted board or committee. There is, besides, an officer for the administration of foreign affairs. To secure prompt information at the capital, of disorders or mal- administration in the provinces, emissaries are sent to different parts of the country to examine and report. These spies are chosen from the bod}^ of censors, who, to the number of nearly fifty, are consti- tuted to correct abuses, and who are privileged to remonstrate with CHINA. 283 tlie emperor himself, if his proceedings meet with tlieir disapproba- tion. They have two presidents, one chosen from among the Chinese, and the other from the Tartars. Each province has a governor, except in a few instances, where two provinces are united, and each city and district its appropriate mandarin or magistrate. It is a fixed principle, that the magis- trate shall not belong to the place where he exercises authority, and at regular periods the various offices change their incumbents. All civil officers and magistrates are held strictly to account, and punished or degraded for any rebellion or outbreak within their jurisdiction, and this, however innocent they may have been, either of participation, connivance, or neglect. The military organization of the Chinese is exceedingly weak and inefficient, the standing army being ill-disciplined and worse armed, and the militia a mere rabble, utterly incompetent to resist the attack of regular troops. Their clumsy and unserviceable matchlocks and artillery have furnished abundant theme for ridicule to the Europe- ans who have been engaged in hostilities against them. Of the arts, sciences, and inventions of the ancient inhabitants of the country, our notice must necessarily be very brief That they were, at an early date, in possession of much knowledge not diffiised through Europe until within the last few centuries, appears suffi- ciently evident. The fact that the magnet would communicate polarity to the needle is mentioned in a Chinese dictionary, of the date of A. D, 121, and the use of the compass by mariners, before the fifth cen- tury, appears from other ancient records. No mention is made of this property of the magnet by any European writer before the year 1190. Long previous to this, even the precise variation of the needle was known and recorded in China. We have mentioned, in a former chapter, the early discovery of the art of printing. This is practised at the present day, in much the same manner as upon its first introduction, simply by means of engraved wooden blocks. Moveable types are used for some pur- poses, but not extensively, the immense number and variety of letters in the Chinese alphabet, rendering this improvement less available, as a matter of economy, than in languages, the elements of which are siifficiently simple to allow all their letters to be kept within reach of the compositor. In taking impressions, the printer holds in one hand two brushes, connected by a single handle. 284 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. WitL. one of these lie lays tlie ink upon tlie block, and passes the Other over the paper, which is so thin and light as to require no greater pressure. A species of cerography is in use at Canton for the publication of a daily journal. Another art, which has effected the greatest revolution in military operations throughout the world, had its origin, if not its adaptation to warlike purposes, in China — the manufacture of gunpowder. It seems probable that the composition of nitre, sulphur, and "willow" charcoal was known, and was the material employed for fireworks and other purposes, hundreds of years before the use of artillery was introduced into that country. The valuable and important arts of manufacturing porcelain and silk had also a Chinese origin, and still give employment to an immense number of native artisans. Many of their fabrics are of peculiar beauty and excellence, never having been successfully imitated elsewhere. India ink, so highly valued by artists for the delicacy and smoothness of its shades, is made only in that country, and is indeed the ink commonly used there for writing purposes. The material from which it is manufactured has been till very recently a question of much curiosity and dispute, and it has been the commonly received opinion, that it was prepared from the dark secretions of a species of cuttle-fish. It is now ascertained to be composed of lamp- black, combined with certain gums. The artisans in metals; the lapidaries; the manufacturers of lackered ware, of ivory, and of the infinite variety of ornamental and fancy work for which we are indebted to this distant country, exhibit the greatest skill and ingenuity. The custom of drinking tea, so universally adopted in all parts of the world, was introduced by the Chinese, and for its indulgence we are still dependant upon them. The use of this beverage^ which is very ancient in China, was unknown in England, except as a foreign and curious custom, until within the last two centuries. In 1734, the whole quantity brought into Great Britain amounted to but six hundred and thirty-two thousand pounds ; but so rapidly did the consumption increase, that one hundred years later the importa- tion exceeded thirty millions. Many of the peculiarities of this singular people, the details of which are both interesting and amusing, are necessarily omitted, from the limited extent of these pages. TIE lAHOlETAIS. udjitiliirijliiiri jio THE INHABITANTS OF ARABIA. THEIR ANCIENT GOTERN- MENT AND RELIGION For many ages, tlie great peninsula of Arabia, from its isolated position, and from the peculiar political institutions of its inhabit- ants, afforded little deserving of the name of history. Protected by their deserts, and unenvied in their poverty, the wandering tribes remained unchanged amid all those convulsions which effaced the mightiest dynasties of the East, and overwhelmed the most ancient and populous nations. The native inhabitants of Arabia were divided into two classes, one of which pursued a prosperous and settled system of agriculture, or carried on an enterprising com- merce along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf; the other, by far more numerous and distinctively national, inherited the free and roving habits of their progenitor, Ishmael, "the wild man, whose hand is against every man, and every man's hand against him." These "dwellers in tents," so often mentioned in the Sacred Writings, led an unsettled life, roaming from place to place with their flocks and camels, and finding water and pasturage at the springs and oases, the resorts of their forefathers from the earliest ages. Each of these numerous and independent tribes, as at the present day, was gov- erned by a chief or sheik, the patriarch and ruler of his people. Like most nations leading a clannish life, they were frequently engaged in deadly and hereditary feuds, revenge being handed down as a sacred legacy from father to son. They were skilful and * For the principal particulars in the history of the Mahometan empire, during the first century of its duration, the author has chiefly relied upon the late admirable and interesting work of Mr. Irving, " Mahomet and his Successors." 286 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. hardy warriors, superior to all others on their native sands, and acted as alternate protectors and plunderers of the caravans of their more civilized brethren. The greater part of the ancient Arabians adhered to the religion called the Sabean, a term variously explained by different authori- ties. It was originally a pure and simple belief, deriyed, it was said, from Abraham and the patriarchs. It inculcated the worship of one God, a system of future retribution, and the necessity of a pure and virtuous life in order to obtain future happiness. With these simple and sublime truths was associated a wild and erroneous reverence for the stars, which were regarded as the habitations of angels, intercessors with the Most High ; to whom the veneration of his worshippers was so great, that they dared to approach him only through the medium of these heavenly influences. To this error were finally superadded others of a nature far grosser and more unspiritual. The stars themselves were worshipped, and their images set up in forests and in temples. Each tribe paid devotion to some particular luminary, or to the idol by which it was repre- sented. Female infants were sacrificed at their shrines or were buried alive. The belief of the Magians or fire-worshippers, derived from Per- sia, also prevailed to some extent. This system, of which the prime apostle was the celebrated Zoroaster, inculcated a belief in two opposite agencies or spirits, Ormuzd and Ahorman, the Good and the Evil, which were ever at warfare. The first was typified by light or the sun, and the latter by darkness ; and by degrees the gross and open worship of the mysterious element of fire was substituted for that of the spiritual principle, of which it was an emblem. To dispel the abhorred condition of darkness, fires were kindled on the mountain-tops to supply the absence of the sun- a perpetual flame was maintained in the temples ; and human victims were consumed to propitiate the fiery deity. The Jewish faith, especially after the dispersion of its followers by the destruction of Jerusalem, was also extensively disseminated and its proselytes attained to considerable power. Christianity had also made its way into these desolate regions. St. Paul went into Arabia, and probably preached to the inhabitants. A few centuries afterwards, in the age of fanatical asceticism, the caves and deserts of Arabia were thickly sown with anchorites, who, by solitude and penance, sought a painful passage to future felicity. The Christian THE MAHOMETANS. 287 belief, tliougli taintea with, error, gained also a considerable footing among the native tribes. To those who held the ancient Sabean faith, the most sacred region in all Arabia was that of the city of Mecca. Within its walls was the holy well of Zem Zem, which had quenched the thirst of their forefather Ishmael when sent forth with his mother into the desert ; and the Caaba, a temple which, it was said, he had built, assisted by his father Abraham, on the site of a cloudy taber- nacle, worshipped in by Adam himself. A sacred stone, brought, says tradition, by the angel Gabriel from Paradise, and inserted in tbe wall by its builders, receives the kisses of the Faithful, even to the present day. From the remotest antiquity, these relics had been the object of enthusiastic pilgrimages. For four months in every year, the hostile tribes laid aside their arms; the desert was trav- ersed in security ; and thousands of pilgrims flocked through, the gates of Mecca, to walk seven times around the Caaba ; to kiss the sacred stone of Paradise ; and to drink from the well of Zem Zem. kJ Jjcu wOj (L (L fXJ (Lu Jj lib o THE EARLY LIFE OF MAHOMET. HIS RELIGIOUS PRETENSIONS. Mahomet, the founder of that wonderful and far-spread system of belief which bears his name, was born at Mecca, in April, in the year A. D. 569. He was a descendant of the celebrated tribe of Koreish, and his immediate ancestors had been distinguished for some generations by their patriotism and the influence which they swayed in the sacred city. When only two months old, his father Abdallah died, leaving bim only a few camels and sheep, and a female slave, as his inherit- ance. The native chroniclers of Mahomet's career have given the most marvellous and incredible accounts of prodigies and phenom- ena which attended his birth and his earliest years. It was said that, at an age when other children were still in the nurse's arms, 288 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. lie displayed a precocity and wisdom which astonished all who knew him. This is not in itself incredible, for recent times have wit- nessed a very similar phenomenon. It is not quite as easy to believe the authors who relate that, when at the age of three, while playing in the fields, the angel Gabriel laid him on the ground, opened his breast, extracted the heart, and, having cleansed it of that black and sinful drop peculiar to all mankind, gently restored it uninjured to its place. It seems certain, however, that from his early years, he evinced a reflecting, imaginative, and probably a highly preco- cious mind. When he was in his sixth year, his mother died, and the child was adopted by his grandfather, Abd al Motalleb. On the death of the latter, two years afterwards, his eldest son, Abu Taleb, suc- ceeded him in the guardianship of the sacred Caaba, and the care of his little nephew, Mahomet. Educated in this priestly house- hold, the mind of the youth naturally acquired a strong tendency to theological speculation, while his faculties and demeanour were improved by the opportunities which this city, so greatly frequented by pilgrims and strangers, afforded. At the age of twelve, he was permitted to accompany his guard- ian with a caravan to Syria. On this journey, the solitude of the desert, with the wild and supernatural tales to which he listened at the nightly halts of the caravan, excited his imagination, and deeply impressed his memory. Having arrived at Bosra, east of the Jor- dan, a city inhabited by Nestorian Christians, the youthful traveller made acquaintance with a monk named Sergius, who was strongly interested by the intelligence of the youth, and his eager desire for religious information. Here, probably, was laid the foundation of that zealous abhorrence toward idolatry which afterwards distinguished the founder of the new religion ; and having learned the wonderful events of which Syria had been the scene, and the holy beings who had dwelt in its borders, he always spoke with deep reverence of that ancient and mysterious land. From this time, Mahomet accompanied his uncle on many expe- ditions, and though very youthf al, acted as his quiver-bearer in an action between the Koreishites and the tribe of Hawazan. He afterwards was employed by various persons as a commercial agent, and often travelled with caravans to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. By this continual intercourse with different classes of mankind, his faculties and his knowledge of human nature became yet farther THE MAHOMETANS. 289 enlarged and strengthened. He was already distinguislied for his personal beauty and his agreeable manners. At the age of twenty- five, he was married to Cadijah, a wealthy widow of Mecca, whose commercial factor he had been for some time; and was at once enrolled among the important persons of his native place. His high character for truth and honesty procured him still greater influence; and he was commonly known by the name of Al Amin, or the Faithful. He was still employed in commerce, and frequently accompanied the caravans on distant expeditions. Five children were added to his household. But his mind dwelt less and less on the matters of the world. Eeligious musings, to which he had been prone from his earliest youth, thickened upon him, and he learned much concerning other forms of faith from Waraka, his wife's cousin, who had been a Jew and a Christian, and had translated portions of both Scriptures into the Arabic. He became more keenly sensible to the evils of idolatry. The Caaba, filled with its multitude of images, was strongly contrasted with that pure and spiritual faith which, perhaps, had first occasioned its erection. His mind continually dwelt upon a project of restoring what he considered the most ancient and true religion — the religion of Adam and the Patriarchs — the worship of the one and only God. Engrossed with these subjects, he often retired to a cavern on Mount Hara, a few miles from Mecca, and there remained for long intervals, engaged in prayer and meditation. From exclusively dwelling on such thoughts, he continually dreamed on the object of his wishes; and was at length subject to frequent trances, in, which he became, to all appearance, insensible to surrounding objects. Whatever he beheld or imagined, however, he kept a profound secret until his fortieth year. At that time, while passing the holy month of Eamadhan, according to his wont, in fasting and prayer, on his favourite mountain, he heard, it is said, a voice calling him, and beheld a light of such intolerable brightness, that he fainted away. On recovering, he beheld the angel Gabriel, who exhibited to him the decrees of God, written on silk, and saluted him as the prophet of the Most High. Trembling, and but half-assured of the sacred authenticity of his vision, he sought Cadijah, who con- firmed his wavering faith, and expressed the fullest confidence in his sacred mission. His friend Waraka zealously concurred in this conviction, and Mahomet, thus supported, became a fall and earnest convert to the reality of his divine calling. 19 290 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. His third proselyte was Zeid, an Arab slave, "whom lie had adopted, and who was devotedly attached to him. The prophet, however confident of his ultimate success, was compelled, by dread of the prevailing superstition, to proceed with some secresy and caution ; and during the first three years, made only forty converts. Their meetings were held privately, sometimes in a cave near the city. At one of these assemblies, a rabble discovering their pro- ceedings, broke into the retreat, and a fight ensued, in which one of the assailants was wounded. The uncle of Mahomet, Abu Lahab, a proud and wealthy man, was one of his fiercest opponents. The pretender was taunted with insanity — a supposition which his worn and abstracted appearance certainly countenanced. In the fourth year, however, in pursuance of a fresh command, he summoned his tribe to a hill near Mecca, and publicly unfolded his claims and his mission. Abu Lahab was enraged yet farther, and the meeting broke up in disorder. At a second assembly, which he summoned in his own house, he again announced, at full length, his supposed revelations, and inquired who would be the chief or vizier under him in his new undertaking. His cousin, the youthful and enthusiastic Ali, amid the sneers of his family, joyfully accepted the offer; and afterwards, when advanced in years, inherited the power attained by the despised pretender. Mahomet now openly and earnestly proclaimed himself the prophet of God, sent to extir- pate idolatry, restore the true religion, and soften the rigour of the Jewish and the Christian faiths. While reverencing the patriarchs, Moses, and Christ, and fully admitting their divine mission, he claimed for himself a still fuller and a final authority, destined to supersede all that had gone before. The Koran, which he delivered in chapters from time to time, purports to be the very words of God, communicated through his instrument, Mahomet. The name of Islam, an Arabian word, implying "submission to God," was applied to the new religion, and forms the keystone of its tenets. The leading article of his faith was contained in the celebrated words, reverenced to this day by hundreds of millions of Moslem believers — "There is no god but God, and Mahomet is the prophet of God. " A belief in predestination, in the resurrection of the body, in the last judgment, and in a faturity of reward or punishment, was also inculcated. M uch of this extraordinary and imaginative work was derived from the Jewish writings and from the Bible, although with many strange perversions. THE MAHOMETANS. 291 So strongly did the new law-giver oppose idolatry, that he con- demned all images and representations of the human form, affirming that the makers would be compelled in the next world to furnish them with souls, or to undergo punishment. Charity and the eternal laws of justice were strongly inculcated' — all the finer passages, enforcing the mutual duties of mankind, being drawn from the inspired lan- guage of the Saviour. The importance of prayer was particularly enforced ; and amid the ceremonies prescribed by the new religion, a number of those pertaining to the old were, in a politic manner, retained — among them the pilgrimage to Mecca, and such rites at the Caaba and the well of Zem Zem, as were untainted by idolatry. THE LIFE OF MAHOMET, FEOM THE PROMULGATION OF HIS DOCTRINES UNTIL HIS "HEGIRA," OR FLIGHT TO MEDINA. Like nearly all who, whether truly or falsely, first claim the dangerous honours of an inspired reformation, Mahomet was speedily exposed, in exercising his new vocation, to ridicule and personal violence. Some thought him a sorcerer. Others said he was pos- sessed by a devil. Taunts and insult followed him in the streets. Dirt was thrown on him while praying in the Caaba, Worse than all, Amru, one of the wittiest satirical poets of the day, made the new doctrine the object of his pleasantries, which proved more for- midable to its spread than the weapons of the most bigoted idolaters. The prophet was continually importuned to enforce his claims by miracle, like the divine ambassadors of old. He replied that the Koran, proceeding from an unlettered man, was the greatest miracle that could be produced. The pretended tokens of his divinity, recorded by some Mahometan authors, and the gross artifices to which some Christian commentators have attributed them, appear, says Mr. Irving, equally without foundation. The truth appears to have been that at this time he was supported by a real religious enthusiasm, founded on the strange visions, and epileptic trances to which he was subject. 292 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The Koreisliites, alarmed at the earnestness of his attacks on their favourite idolatries, now proceeded to fresh insults and violence. He was attacked and nearly strangled in the Caaba; and his daughter Eokaia, with a fevr other of his more defenceless disciples, were compelled to cross the Eed Sea, and take refuge in the Christian kingdom of Abyssinia. A law was passed, banishing all believers in the new heresy, and Mahomet himself was compelled to leave the city, and take refuge in the house of a convert named Orkham, on the hill of Safa, sacred in Arabian tradition. Even here he was sought out and maltreated by Abu Jhal, an enthusiastic Koreishite. The nephew of the latter, Omar, a youth of gigantic strength and fierceness, was next despatched to kill him. On his way, he dis- covered that his own sister was a secret convert to Islam, and, being persuaded by her, publicly embraced the new religion, and protected the prophet and his followers while they worshipped in the Caaba. Mahomet, still endangered by the violence of his enemies, next lived for three years in a castle belonging to his uncle Abu Taleb, who still afforded him all the protection in his power. At the insti- gation of Abu Sofian, the head of another branch of the tribe, a decree was passed, written on parchment, and hung up in the Caaba, forbidding all intercourse with the contumacious family until Mahomet should be delivered up. By this, he and his adherents were reduced to great extremities, and at times were half-famished in their beleaguered stronghold. At the annual season of the pil- grimage, however, when the Arabs were accustomed to lay aside all hostilities, he ventiired into the city, and by his earnest exhortations, made many converts among the crowds resorting to the Caaba. At length, after three years passed in this species of excommuni- cation, he was permitted to return to Mecca. Fresh conversions, both of citizens and strangers, speedily ensued. The prophet was now deprived by death of his uncle and protector, Abu Taleb, and his faithful wife Cadijah, the two persons to whom he had been principally indebted for his exaltation and protection. He had always been faithful to the latter, but, after her death, indulged in the Arabian custom of taking a plurality of wives. He allowed, by decree, four to each of his followers ; but placed no restraint on the number of his own, shrewdly remarking that a prophet was not to be confined within the same limits as ordinary mortals. The death of his uncle left him unprotected against the rage of the hostile branch of the Koreishites, headed by Abu Jahl and Abu THE MAHOMETANS. 293 Sofian. He sought refuge at Tayef, but endeavouring there to pro- pagate his doctrines, met with much outrage and violence, and was finally ignominiously driven from the city. He was compelled to remain awhile in the desert, and there, while reading the Koran in the lonely valley of Naklah, was overheard, as he says, by a com- pany of spirits or genii, who confessed and applauded the truth of his doctrines. Arabian mythology abounds in tales of these Avonder- ful beings, many of whom are considered to have embraced the true religion. Others still continue perverse and heretical; and the angels drive them away with flaming darts, as they attempt to penetrate the abodes of the blessed. When the Arab beholds a meteor or shooting-star, he imagines it to be a bolt hurled at one of these rebellious and misbelieving spirits, and piously exclaims, "May the enemy of God be transfixed!" They were also supposed to inhabit the bodies of certain reptiles ; and Mahomet warned his followers not to kill too hastily any serpent whom they might find in a house. "Warn him to depart," he says; "if he do not obey, then kill him, for it is a sign that he is a mere reptile, or an infidel genius." He at length returned to Mecca, and lived concealed in the house of one of his disciples. It was now ten years from the memorable day on which he had first announced his prophetic claim; ever since that day he had been continually exposed to misfortune, enmity, and persecution; yet, impelled by his natural firmness, and perhaps some real conviction of the sanctity of his mission, he still persevered unweariedly in spreading his doctrines. At the annual season of immunity from violence, he once more ventured forth, and mingled with the crowds whom devotion had gathered in the city. His preaching attracted the attention of certain pilgrims from the city of Yathreb, since so honoured, under the name of Medina, by all true Mussulmans. These strangers had heard much from the Jews concerning their expected Messiah, and were readily won to acknowledge him in the person of Mahomet. On their return, he sent with them some of his disciples to propagate the new faith and to prepare for his friendly reception. Numbers of the persecuted sect soon followed them from Mecca, and the faith spread with rapid- ity throughout the city of refuge. More than seventy of the new converts repaired to Mecca, distant two hundred and seventy miles, and at a midnight meeting on the hill without the town, invited the prophet to take up his abode in their city. He consented, exacting 294 ^'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. in return the abjuration of idolatry, and implicit obedience to bis commands. It was indeed evident tliat be could no longer remain in Mecca. Abu Sofian, bis inveterate foe, was governor of tbe city, and tbe cbiefs of tbe Koreisbites bad resolved on bis assassination. Tbe murderers were actually despatcbed to bis bouse ; but by tbe fidelity of Ali, wbo took bis place on tbe coucb wbere be usually reclined, be escaped by stealtb from tbe city, and witb bis devoted adberent, Abu Beker, remained for tbree days concealed in a cave on Mount Tbor. On tbe fourtb day, tbey fled on camels toward Medina ; and a cbieftain named Soraka, wbo witb bis troop overtook tbem, was so affected by tbe eloquence of Mabomet, as to relinquisb bis intended attack, and depart. Tbe persecuted aspirant to divine bonours reached Medina without further trouble, and made a triumphal entry into tbe Faithful City. He was soon joined by bis family and his remaining adherents. This celebrated "Hegira," or "Flight of the Prophet," occurred in the year 622 A. D. ; and is the era from which all Moslem nations date their chronology. CHAPTER I? FROM THE HEGIRA TO THE CAPTURE OP MECCA. Feom this period, with the change of circumstances, an entire corresponding change seems to have taken place in the feelings and conduct of Mabomet. If hitherto, powerless and persecuted, he had displayed patience, and a sincere confidence in tbe divinity of bis calling, his character was unfitted to withstand the temptations of power and tbe opportunity of vengeance. He was now at the bead of a formidable sect, composed of converts in Medina and refugees from Mecca. Thirteen years of persecution bad, doubtless, left their natural effects upon his mind; and tbe hatred of idolatry came very opportunely to aid the ancient spirit of revenge. As yet, the religion be inculcated was one of much purity and /^^^ r ^^ ^ -9 . THK HECtIRA, or I'LIQ-HT OF THE FALSE FEOfHET MAHOMET Afti-.r btting compHil^d, "by tbe violence oC his enemiH,^, to quit l\[edina, tli-' prophet for three ti;iys remained hid in a sohtary cave -z^ Mount Thor. At tr. end of th'it tirr.e,, he secretly dep:)i'ted with a single oompianion, the faitniul Ah'. Beker Urging their c:i.raels hastily over the desert, they arrived in safety at thf strong and irit^ndiy city of Medina This memorable Flight, from which all Mosjen nations date their chronology, occurred in the 022d year of the Christin.n era, THE MAHOMETANS, 295 humanity. Charity, which included, in his definition, all the kind- ness and courtesy which mortals can display to each other, was especially enforced — a beautifu.1 theory, which was but indifferently illustrated by his subsequent proceedings. The inference can hardly be avoided, that from this time, mixed perhaps with some real trances and visionary delusion, his mind lapsed farther and farther into a system of imposture, which he perceived to be efficacious in carrying out his ends. His first act was to erect a mosque, of simple and primitive construction — a work in which he assisted with his own hands, and which, beautified and enlarged, remains to this day an object of the deepest veneration to the Faithful. It contains the ashes of the prophet, and of others memorable in the history of Islam. Soon after his arrival at Medina, he married the beautiful child Ayesha, the daughter of Abu Beker, to whom he had been betrothed for some years. During his subsequent career, he availed himself of the license which he had assumed to take to himself a number of wives truly oriental — his natural susceptibility or sensuality inciting him to add to his household every beautiful woman who crossed his path. The attachment of Ali, his devoted follower, was yet further strengthened by a marriage with Fatima, the youngest daughter of the prophet. On finding his strength so much greater than he had anticipated, his preaching assumed a different tone, and he announced that the peaceful mission of former saints and prophets having proved insuf- ficient to convert the refractory nations, he had been intrusted, as the last of the prophets, with the terrible argument of the sword. All who refused conformity to the new religion were to be openly despoiled or slain ; the eternal society of houris was to be the reward of those who fell in fighting for the true fiiith ; and the doctrine of predestination, proclaiming that none could die before their allotted time, was adduced to strengthen the courage of the faithful. These doctrines were peculiarly acceptable to a warlike and pre- datory people ; and little time was lost in carrying them into profitable execution. Some unimportant expeditions, despatched to plunder the caravans of the Koreishites, were first undertaken, though with little result. In the second year of the Hegira, Mahomet, with a little more than three hundred men, sallied forth to attack a large and wealthy caravan, which his old enemy, Abu Sofian, was con- ducting from Syria to Mecca. He lay in ambush, awaiting the 296 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. expected plunder, by a brook called Beder ; but the enemy having intelligence of bis designs, changed their route, and evaded the danger. A large force which had been despatched to their assistance from Mecca, under Abn Jahl, pressed forward, and, weakened by thirst and fatigiie, engaged the Moslems. The latter, refreshed by rest, and enjoying the advantage of position, gained a complete victory. The Koreishites fled, leaving seventy of their number prisoners, and as many dead on the field. Among the latter was Abn Jahl, the inveterate enemj^ of the faith of Islam. His head was brought to Mahomet, who exulted over the fate of the "Pha- raoh of his nation." Such was the commencement of that wonderful series of victories and invasions which has so materially changed the destinies of the Eastern world. Eeturning to Medina in triumph, with the plunder of his enemies, Mahomet assumed a yet more decided tone, and ruled with a more arbitrary sway. The Jews of that city had incurred his enmity, by their poetical satire and the ridicule which they had thrown upon his doctrines. Several of them were, in revenge, assassinated by the Moslems ; and the prophet, taking advantage of a general fray, confiscated all their wealth, which was considerable, and banished them, to the number of seven hundred men, to Syria. Moreover, irritated at their opposition, he substituted Mecca for Jerusalem, which he had at first made the Kebla or point of prayer to which all true Moslems must turn when at their devotions. In the third year of the Hegira, Abu Sofian took the field, with three thousand men, burning to avenge the disgrace of their arms and the slaughter of their friends. Mahomet, urged b}^ the zeal of his followers, went out to meet them, with scarce a third of their number, and this scanty force was soon diminished, by defection, to seven hundred men. While posted on the hill of Ohod, about six miles from Medina, his forces were attacked by those of the enemy. His warriors' fought with the greatest desperation, and performed prodigies of valour. The prophet, though not given to fight in person, slew with his own hand an idolater, who had attacked him, and received a number of wounds on his own person. He was dragged from among the wounded by his remaining adherents, and carried to the summit of a rock, whither the Koreishites, busied with plunder and the mutilation of the dead, did not pursue them. Abu Sofian, content with his victory, and not venturing to attack the city, soon after made a truce for a year, and withdrew to Mecca. THE MAHOMETANS. 297 To revenge the defection of a certain Jewish tribe, the leader of Islam now proceeded to banish them from the country, and seize on their property. A singular instance of the devotion of his follow- ers occurred about this time. The prophet had been smitten by the charms of Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, his adopted son. The latter, with a pious zeal which seems a little ludicrous, made all haste to obtain a divorce; and his patron presently added the lady to the already tolerably extensive list of his consorts. This proceeding gave considerable scandal to the Faithful, which, however, was quieted by an opportune revelation, drawing a nice distinction between the wife of a natural son and of a son by adoption. By an expedition against the hostile tribe of the Beni Mostalek, Mahomet gained a great booty in camels, sheep, and prisoners. This success was somewhat alloyed by a suspicious occurrence, on the return, which threw a doubt upon the fidelity of his favourite wife, Ayesha. Medina rang with fresh scandal ; but a revelation, equally convenient with the former, announced her innocence, and prescribed a handsome castigation for her calumniators. This was duly inflicted, especially upon an unfortunate poet, named Hasan, who had cele- brated the obnoxious circumstance in a copy of satirical verses. The truce with Mecca being ended, Abu Sofian, reinforced by con- federate tribes, and by many of the banished Hebrews, marched against Medina with a force of ten thousand men. By advice of Salman, an able Persian convert, a deep moat was dug for some distance in front of the city, and Mahomet, with three thousand men, stood prepared to defend it. After a partial skirmish, of no great importance, he despatched an artful emissary, who succeeded in instilling distrust and mutual suspicion among the chiefs of the con- federate camp. At this moment, a cold and furious storm of rain set in ; the tents were blown down ; and the besiegers retreated in confusion, supposing that the very elements, by the enchantment of the prophet, had been invoked against them. The Beni Koraida, a tribe of Jews, who had been engaged in the late assault, were in their turn besieged in their stronghold, and compelled by famine to surrender. The men, seven hundred in number, were butchered and thrown into a common grave, and the women and children were devoted to slavery. After six years had elapsed since his flight from Mecca, Mahomet became desirous of once more revisiting that sacred, though hostile city, and, in the holy month devoted to peace, set forth on his 298 ^'HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. pilgrimage, attended by fourteen hundred of Lis followers. He was unable, however, to obtain admission — the dread and jealousy of the Koreisli proving stronger than all bis claims and promises. Their envoys were astonished at the reverence paid to him by his fanatical subjects. "I have seen," said one, "the king of Persia and the emperor of Constantinople, surrounded by their courts; but never did I behold a sovereign so revered by his subjects, as is Mahomet by his followers." A hair from his head, the paring of a nail, was held a sacred relic. A treaty was made, providing for the future admission of Mahomet and his people, under certain limitations, and they returned for the present to Medina, without having tasted the well of Zem Zem, or made their seven circuits round the Caaba. To gratify the predatory inclinations of his followers, he next led a powerful expedition against Khaibar, a wealthy and powerful city of the Jews. After a siege of some time, a breach was made in the walls by battering rams; and Omar, Abu Beker, and other champions headed assaults with great bravery, but without success. It was finally taken by the impetuous valour of Ali, "The Lion of God," concerning whose exploits the Moslem writers narrate the most incredible stories. Kenana, the defeated prince, was tortured and put to death. In the midst of his triumph, the prophet nearly met his death, having commenced to dine upon a poisoned shoulder of mutton ; which unwholesome dish, indeed, according to the Mahome- tan writers, spoke aloud, and warned him of his danger, though too late to secure him entirely from injury. While, by various hostile expeditions, the adventurer was rapidly extending his sway among the Arabian tribes, he did not neglect to inform the neighbouring political powers of his divine preten- sions. Khosru II., the great and victorious monarch of Persia, received his overtures with contempt, tore his letter in pieces, and sent orders to his viceroy at Yemen to restore Mahomet's reason, or to send his head. Heraclius, the Eoman emperor of the East, somewhat depressed at this time by the successes of Khosru, with whom he was at war, received the envoy sent to him more civilly, but probably attached little importance to the circumstance. The governor of Egypt, a nominal viceroy of the emperor, also considered his message respectfully; and, among other delicate attentions, sent the prophet two beautiful Coptic slaves. The latter was exceedingly desirous to have taken one of them as his concubine ; but this his own Koran forbade, on penalty of stripes. A convenient revelation THE MAHOMETANS, 299 again smootlied over the difficulty; and the beautiful Mariyaii long remained his favourite. At the allotted time, Mahomet, numerously attended, made his pilgrimage to Mecca, He reverently performed the usual rites, and gained many converts; among them, Khaled, a fierce and intrepid warrior, and Amru, his former satirist, afterwards so celebrated in the history of Saracen conquest. A Mahometan envoy had been slain at Muta, a town in Syria, subject to the emperor. To avenge his death, an army of three thousand men was despatched, under Zeid, against the obnoxious city. When near it, they encountered a greatly superior force of Greeks and hostile Arabs. A furious conflict ensued, in which Zeid was mortally wounded, and Khaled broke nine cimeters fight- ing desperately hand to hand with the enemy. Succeeding to the command, the latter, by dexterous manoeuvres, defeated them on the following day, with great slaughter, and returned to Medina, laden with spoil. He received, in consequence of the valour displayed in this action, the honourable title of the "Sword of God,"' — a dis- tinction which incited him to exploits of fresh energy and daring. The sway of Mahomet now extended over a great number of the Arabian tribes. A most formidable force was ever at his command. With increased power, came enlarged views of conquest and uni- versal conversion to the faith of Islam. To gain possession of his native place, the holy city of Mecca, to purify it of idolatry, and convert the Caaba into a shrine for the Faithful, was now his most cherished desire. Some trouble having occurred with the Koreish- ites, the latter, in alarm, despatched Abu Sofian to avert the dreaded wrath of the prophet; but he could obtain no satisfactory reply. Preparations for invasion had been made with the greatest secresy and promptitude; and, only seven years afl;er his memorable flight, Mahomet, with ten thousand men, took the road to Mecca. Abu Sofian was captured on the way, and was made a reluctant convert by the threat of instant decapitation. Being released, and returning to the city, he assured the inhabitants of the vanity of resistance. The victor approached his ancient home, advancing slowly, by reason of the vast multitudes who thronged around him. He repressed hostilities, which had been commenced by the fiery Kha- led, and entering the city, proceeded at once to the Caaba. Here he made the seven circuits of adoration, touching at each the sacred black stone inserted in the wall. He then threw down and des- 300 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. troyed the three hundred and sixty-five idols which defiled its walls, not sparing even the images of Abraham and Ishmael. He drank from the well of Zem Zem, and appointed his uncle Al Abbas, who had presented him with the cup, as guardian to the sacred fount- ain — an office which his descendants retain to the present day. He treated his former enemies with much clemency and magnanimity, and proclaimed Mecca as an inviolable sanctuary, while the earth should endure. The fears of his friends from Medina, lest their city should be deserted for the new acquisition, were quieted by the assurance that he would never abandon those who had first espoused his forlorn and persecuted cause. The work of forcibly converting the neighbouring tribes was immediately commenced by his fierce lieutenants, Khaled and others. CHAPTER ? FROM THE CAPTURE OF MECCA TILL THE DEATH OF MAHOMET. While thus in the full tide of success, a formidable confederacy was formed against the power of Islam, by the powerful and warlike tribes of the mountains. The people of Tayef, who had formerly driven him ignominiously from their city, were at the head of this league ; and the various hostile tribes assembled in a valley between that city and Honein. Mahomet, with about twelve thousand men, marched against them. While passing through a deep and gloomy gorge in the mountains, his army was suddenly assailed by the enemy, who were posted on the heights above. A general panic took place. The Moslems turned and fled, amid the ill-suppressed exultation of the late unwilling converts, who accompanied them. They were finally rallied by Al Abbas, and returned to the scene of action. "The enemy had descended from the heights, and noAv a bloody conflict ensued in the defile. 'The furnace is kindling!' cried Mahomet, exultingly, as he saw the glitter of arms and flash of weapons. Stooping from his saddle, and grasping a handful of THE MAHOMETANS. 301 dust, he scattered it in the air toward tlie enemy. ' Confusion on their faces!' cried he; 'may this dust blind them.'"* The idolators were defeated, and took refuge in their camp and in the city of Tayef. The former was soon taken and plundered, but the city made such a determined resistance, as to defy all the engines of the assailant and the fanatical fury of his followers. He was compelled to raise the siege, and departed with an immense booty in camels, sheep, silver, and slaves. Malec, the chief of the enemy, was, however, soon after converted by liberal presents and restitution of spoils. Mahomet, having conciliated his lukewarm adherents by a politic distribution of plunder, returned to Mecca; and thence, having appointed a religious instructer and a governor, took the way to Medina. The birth of a son, named Ibrahim, at this time height- ened the joy of his successes; for he had long desired an heir to his name, his fame, and his spirit of prophecy. His influence and authority continued to spread in a wonderful manner. Tribe after tribe sent in its adhesion to his faith or authority. His talents for government were found equal to the emergency ; and he strengthened his power by taking liberal tithes, under the name of alms, from all true believers, and forced contri- butions, under the same title, from the subject tribes of infidels. Tayef, which longest withstood his arms, was finally compelled to yield, and the inhabitants were forced to witness the destruction of their idols, and, by the threat of instant massacre, relucantly to become unconditional converts to Islam. This formidable increase of power, with the hostilities near Muta, had, it is said, awakened the attention of Heraclius. who assembled a force on the borders of Arabia. Mahomet, on his part, resolved to carry the war into Syria, and, despite the torrid heat of the season, began to assemble his forces. To those who alleged the weather as an excuse for not serving, a pertinent revelation remarked that "the fire of hell was hotter than the desert." An army of thirty thousand men was mustered ; and, with the prophet in their midst, took the road to Syria. Although overcome with heat and thirst, he would not allow the army to encamp or rest in the cool region of Hedjar, on account of a marvellous story concerning the destruction of the inhabitants, to which he had listened in his youth. They arrived at last at Tabuc, a small town on the borders of the empire, and about half-way between Medina and Damascus. Several *Iiiving's "Life of Mahomet." 302 'i'JtJE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of the neighbouring princes submitted, and others were forcibly made tributary. Despite the zeal of Mahomet, who was bent on the invasion of Syria, his troops, disheartened by accounts of immense forces assembled against them, became unwilling to proceed further. No revelation announced the necessity of advancing ; and, with some reluctance, the prophet consented to a retreat, deferring the completion of his enterprise to a future period. The army returned laden with spoil, and those who had impeded the setting forth of the expedition were punished by excommunication. At this time died Abdalla Ibn Obba, the chief of the lukewarm party in Medina, called the "Hypocrites," and long a political opponent of Mahomet, The prophet was prevailed on to put up prayers for the deceased, but privately consoled himself and the orthodox with the assurance that it would be unavailing. The reverend law-giver found much greater difficulty in regulating the affairs of his household than of the nation. At one time, irri- tated by their clamorous jealousy, he abstained from the society of his wives for a whole month, and then, by special revelation, took as his companion the Coptic slave, who was the particular object of their suspicion. When the yearly resort to Mecca again occurred, he caused Ali to proclaim publicly to the pilgrims that, by an especial revealment, at the expiration of four months, no time or place, however sacred, should protect the idolaters. At the end of that time, no alterna- tive except submission to tribute, conversion, or extermination, was to be left to the unbelievers. This stringent regulation was soon enforced by various expeditions against the refractory tribes. Sub- missions came pouring in; and even the lieutenant of Heraclius, in Amon, gave in his submission. In the midst of these successes, Mahomet's exultation was deeply alloyed by the death of his only son Ibrahim, an infant of fifteen months, and the only hope of his house. His health was already greatly impaired; and feeling that he had little strength remaining, he resolved to expend it in a solemn pilgrimage to Mecca. On learn- ing this intention, devotees thronged from all parts of Arabia, to join in the pious undertaking. Accompanied by his nine wives, and escorted by more than an hundred thousand of his faithful followers, the prophet set out on his last pilgrimage. No enemies beset the way as formerly, for all Arabia was now submissive to the faith of Islam. Arrived at the Sacred City, he rigidly performed all the THE MAHOMETANS, 303 accustomed rites, and slaughtered a great number of camels, accord- ing to custom, as a sacrifice. He preached and prayed long and fervently, and his words were recorded and treasured u.p as a guide to all true believers. After his return, his health became more and more impaired ; yet he prepared largely for his favourite project, the invasion of Syria and Palestine. In the eleventh year of the Hegira, a powerful army was assembled, and the command entrusted to Osama, a youth of twenty, the son of Zeid, whose devotion and death in the cause of the prophet procured this high honour for his offspring. The youthful general, after receiving the sacred banner from the hands of Mahomet, had marched only a few miles, when tidings came which arrested his advance. Mahomet had been taken violently ill. His disorder commenced with delirium. Starting from his couch at midnight, he called upon a slave to accompany him, say- ing that he was summoned by the dead in the public burying-place to come and pra}^ for them. Arrived in the great and lonely ceme- tery, he addressed its sleeping dwellers in words of wild, pathetic eloquence, and declared that he should soon be with them. His disorder increased, and became a burning fever, in which he exclaimed that he felt tormented by the poison of Khaibar. He recovered sufficiently to appear once more in public, prayed fer- vently, and exhorted all to whom he might have acted unjustly, to speak, and give him the opportunity for reparation. His last exhortations were eloquent with the language of piety, and remind us of the pure and simple doctrines which he preached, while yet untainted with sensuality and ambition. He died, apparently, in the full assurance of Paradise, and his deluded followers, frantic with grief, could hardly be persuaded that the object of their vener- ation had gone on the common path of mortality. They were consoled, and reassured in their faith by Abu Beker, whose friend- ship and long intimacy with their chief seemed to mark him as his fit successor. Mahomet died in the eleventh year of the Hegira, A. D. 632, having just completed his sixty-third year. His body, according to words which he had spoken, was buried on the very spot where he died, a grave being dug beneath the bed on which he breathed his last. The house adjoined the mosque, which, by enlargement in sub- sequent times, encloses the spot where his remains were deposited, and which is an object of pious veneration to all true Mussulmans. 304 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. In estimating tlie true character of this extraordinary man, great difficulties are experienced. The records which we possess, espe- cially of his sayings, are of a somewhat unreliable character; and the Koran itself has, in the opinion of the best judges, been subjected to grievous interpolation and mutilation. His early career was certainly that of an unselfish and sincere enthusiast ; and the pre- cepts and theological maxims which he then promulgated, were mostly of a pure and elevated nature. The growing corruption of power seems to have dimmed, though it never entirely quenched the fire of his prophetical delusion. In the language of Mr. Irving, from whose interesting work many of these particulars are drawn, "If we are far from considering Mahomet the gross and impious impostor which some have represented him, so also are we indis- posed to give him credit for vast forecast, and for that deeply concerted scheme of universal conquest which has been ascribed to him. He was, undoubtedly, a man of great genius and a sugges- tive imagination, but it appears to us that he was in a great degree the creature of impulse and excitement, and very much at the mercy of circumstances. His schemes grew out of his fortunes, and not his fortunes out of his schemes. He was forty years old before he first broached his doctrines. He suffered year after year to steal away, before he promulgated them out of his own family. When he fled from Mecca,, thirteen years had elapsed from the announce- ment of his mission, and, firom being a wealthy merchant, he had sunk to be a ruined fugitive. When he reached Medina, he had no idea of the worldly power that awaited him ; his only thoiight was to build a humble mosque where he might preach ; and his only hope that he might be suffered to preach with impunity. When power suddenly broke upon him, he used it for a time in petty forays and local feuds. His military plans expanded with his resources." He appears to have been distinguished in the exercise of many private virtues. He was sober, abstemious, and so destitute of the vice of avarice, that, though able to command all the treasures of Arabia, he hardly left a coin at his death. With the exception of a too great susceptibility to female charms, he seems to have been singularly superior to all the allurements of sensuality. He did not disdain labour with his hands, performing cheerfully the meanest duties of his household. His justice, affability, and kindness of heart, endeared him to all his followers ; and he was remarkable for THE MAHOMETANS. gQg liis charity, even among the generous natives of his own land. To his last breath he exhibited an appearance of devotion, submission, and religious abstraction which cannot have been entirely feigned. In the language of his biographer, "It is difficult to reconcile such ardent, persevering piety, with an incessant system of blasphemous imposture; nor such pure and elevated and benignant precepts as are contained in the Koran, with a mind haunted by ignoble pas- sions, and devoted to the grovelling interests of mere mortality; and we find no other satisfactory mode of solving the enigma of his character and conduct, than by supposing that the ray of mental hallucination which flashed upon his enthusiastic spirit during his religious ecstasies in the midnight cavern of Mount Hara, continued more or less to bewilder him with a species of monomania to the end of his career, and that he died in the delusive belief of his mission as a prophet." CHAPTEH ?I THE CALIPHAT OF ABIT BEKER. THE WARS IN SYRIA. THE CAPTURE OP DAMASCUS, AND THE DEFEAT OF THE IMPERIAL FORCES: The prophet, though dead, had left his mantle of genius and fanaticism to several distinguished followers. His death was suc- ceeded by a career of invasion and conquest, the most rapid and wonderful which the world has ever witnessed. In less than ninety years from the time when their founder fled from Mecca, a ruined and persecuted man, his faith and his successors held sway over nearly all Southern Asia and Northern Africa; and alarmed the nations of Europe with a dread of the extinction of all Christian government. Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Mahomet, who had first openly espoused his cause, and had been declared his lieutenant, appeared, by natural right, his successor in government; but Abu Beker, the father of Ayesha, by his superior influence, obtained the oflice from 20 306 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the powerful cliiefs who held it in their hands. He assumed the modest title of caliph, or successor, a name which has distinguished some of the most brilliant dynasties of the East. The new sovereign was sixty-two years of age, and had been a companion of Mahomet in all his dangers and successes. He was sagacious, enterprising, and, like his master, wholly superior to the enticements of personal aggrandizement. On his accession, the empire of Islamism, freed from the terror inspired by the name of his predecessor, shrank suddenly into very narrow limits — Mecca, Medina, and Tayef alone remaining faithful to the Mahometan dominion. Not content with throwing off the yoke, and refusing to pay tribute, a large body of Arabs from the revolted tribes marched against Medina itself The renowned Khaled, ''the Sword of God," was despatched against them, at the head of four thousand five hundred men ; and soon defeated them, and beheaded Malec, their chief leader. His next expedition was against Moseilma, a rival prophet, who had acquired great power, and whose pretensions Mahomet himself had been unable to suppress. The Moslems were at first defeated, with a loss of twelve hundred men ; but being rallied by the indomit- able Khaled, finally gained the victory. Moseilma fell, fighting desperately, and ten thousand of his followers strewed the field. By the military skill and daring of the victor, all Arabia, within a year, was again brought under the rule of Islam. Abu Beker, firmly established in the caliphat, now commenced a compilation of the Koran, which heretofore had only possessed a scattered and partially traditionary existence. The caliph next resolved, in compliance with the dying wishes of his predecessor, to propagate the Mahometan faith in new regions by the sword. The opportunity was favourable, the Greek and Per- sian empires being exhausted by long and desolating wars. In the twelfth year of the Hegira, he summoned all the chiefs of Arabia to unite in the long-cherished conquest of Syria — that fertile land, which offered the richest inducements of plunder and enjoyment to the dwellers in the desert. An immense host of his followers thronged from all parts to obey the summons. The army was dis- missed from Medina, under Yezed, with injunctions not to commit any wilful waste or destruction, but, at all events, to enforce tribute or conversion. The Saracen chief set forth, and on his way defeated an advanced force of the Emperor Heraclius, killing twelve hund- red men, and despatching great booty to the caliph. THE MAHOMETANS. 3O7 Other armies were speedily enlisted and sent in the same direction, one of them commanded b}^ Amru, formerly the witty satirist, and now one of the most distinguished supporters of Islam. The com- mand of the entire forces was at first entrusted to Abu Obeidah, and afterwards to Khaled, The latter, after a most brilliant cam- paign, in which he had conquered Irak, a Persian province, and defeated one Persian army after another, carried his standard, "the Black Eagle," to the banks of the Euphrates, and summoned the haughty monarch himself to pay tribute or embrace the faith. Train after train, laden with almost every description of spoil, had entered the gates of Medina. With fifteen hundred horse, the victorious commander hurried to the scene of action in Syria. The Moslems, with insufiicient force, were besieging the strong city of Bosra, and by a resolute sally of the imperial garrison, were suffering a bloody defeat. At this critical moment, the standard of Khaled was seen; and, charging desperately with his small force of cavalry, amid shouts of "Allah Achbar !"* he drove the enemy back into the city. After another furious and indecisive encounter, the place was taken through the treachery of Romanus, the governor, who at once embraced Islamism. The Moslems, elated with victory, now resolved to lay siege to the strong and ancient city of Damascus. Charmed with the fertility and beauty of the country, which seemed to them a foretaste of Paradise, these children of the., desert, nearly forty thousand in number, encamped before its walls. The garrison sallied forth to oppose them under two rival governors, Caloiis and Azrail, the former of whom had vowed to bring back the head of Khaled on the point of his spear. The Mahometan leader, however, engaged them successively in single combat, took them prisoners, and, on their refusal to embrace the faith of Mahomet, cut off their heads, and threw them over the walls into the city. The citizens, in alarm, would fain have bought off the invaders ; but were sternly refused any alternative except Islamism, tribute, or death. The Emperor Heraclius, who was at Antioch, on learning the condition of the city, instantly despatched to its relief a force of an hundred thousand men, commanded by Werdan, prefect of Emessa. A small force of a thousand men, which, under the champion Derar, was sent to harass their movements, was defeated, after desperate fighting; but Khaled, with most of his forces, sallied forth against *«God is Great." 308 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the advancing enemy, and relieved his companions. Complete success attended the series of furious attacks which the Moslem hero made upon the divisions of the enemy, as one after another arrived on the field. "In this manner a hundred thousand troops were defeated, in detail, by less than a third of their number, inspired by fanatic valour, and led on by a skilful and intrepid chief. Thou- sands of the fugitives were killed in the pursuit : an immense booty, in treasure, arms, baggage, and horses, fell to the victors, and Khaled led back his army flushed with conquest, but fatigued with fighting and burthened with spoil, to resume the siege of Damascus." — Irvingh Mahomet and his Successes. Another army of seventy thousand men was forthwith levied to oppose the invaders, and was placed under command of Werdan, at Aiznadin. Khaled, on his part, summoning all the Moslem generals within call to meet him on the field, took up his march at once for the enemy's c^mp. Taking advantage of this diversion, ten thousand men, under command of a leader named Peter, and six thousand cavalry, under Paul, his brother, sallied from Damascus, and fell upon the rear of the retreating enemy, capturing much booty, and taking most of their women. Both, however, were finally routed by Khaled, and their heads struck off, as usual. The reinforcements of the Moslem commander arrived at the place of rendezvous with wonderful punctuality. The Christian host, disheartened by their previous defeat, vainly endeavoured to treat with the enemy — the haughty Arabian cutting short all nego- tiation with his three customary alternatives. He accepted, indeed, the proffer of a single combat with "Werdan. The latter, however, it is said, laid a scheme for the assassination of his opponent, which, being detected, he was by a counter-plot drawn into the power of his adversary, and instantly beheaded by a blow from the cimeter of Derar. His gory head, displayed on the point of a lance, dispirited his forces ; and Khaled, taking advantage of their discomfiture, charged with his accustomed impetuosity, and carried all before him. The imperial ranks were easily broken, and a general massacre ensued. The fugitives hurried off in all directions ; and an immense spoil rewarded the victors. Abda'lrahman, the son of the caliph, was at once despatched with the tidings to Medina. On learning the profitable nature of the warfare, crowds of Arabs flocked in to offer their services; but by the advice of Omar, these were rejected, except in the case of THE MAHOMETANS. gQg the tribe of Koreish, who, under Abu Sofian, were permitted to raise a force, and to share in the glory and profit of the war. The garrison of Damascus, though dismayed at the defeat of their friends and the return of the victorious besiegers, still held out stubbornly ; and under Thomas, their brave and able leader, repulsed the assailants from the wall with much vigour. This active and resolute commander, the son-in-law of the emperor, headed a des- perate sally from the gate ; but after fierce fighting, was driven back, with his men, into the city. At the dead of night, when the Mos- lems were sleeping, weary with combat, a fresh and furious sally was again made from each of the gates. Taken by surprise, the besiegers were at first slaughtered in all directions, but being at length rallied by the indefatigable Khaled, repulsed the Christians, who retreated within the walls, leaving several thousand of their number dead upon the field. Twelve months had now elapsed since the Saracens first sat down before the walls of Damascus, and the inhabitants vainly endeav- oured to treat with Khaled, who was bent on taking their city by storm. They had better fortune with the humane Abu Obeidah, the former general-in-chief, who gave them a written agreement, protecting their property and their religion. His forces were peace- ably admitted at one gate while those of Khaled, who had gained admission through the treachery of a priest, were entering at another, and making a general massacre. The influence of Obeidah was hardly suf&cient to induce his fierce colleague to stay the work of destruction, and abide by the agreement. The greater part of the inhabitants became tributary to the caliph ; but many, headed by Thomas, resolved to take refuge, with their families and all their portable wealth in Antioch. Khaled, who watched the departure of this melancholy multitude with evil eyes, had promised them three days of grace before receiving any molestation ; and at the expiration of that time, with four thousand horsemen, started in pursuit. After a tedious and terrible march over the rugged mountains of Lebanon, he finally overtook the exiles, who were resting in a flowery meadow, on their way to Constantinople. The Christians fought bravely, but Thomas, their admirable leader, being slain, were defeated, and all except one were killed or taken prisoners. Among the latter, was the beautiful wife of Thomas, the daughter of the Emperor Heraclius. As the Moslems returned with their booty and captives to Damascus, an 310 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. aged bishop besought her release from Khaled. It was granted, but with an uncivil message to the emperor, that he would soon be him- self a captive in her place. The immense plunder which had been secured bj these various victories was now divided — four parts being shared among the officers and soldiers, and the fifth being despatched to the caliph at Medina. Abu Beker, however, was not destined to hear of the last signal triumph of the faith of Islam in his reign. He expired on the day that Damascus surrendered, having directed Omar, as Mahomet had done to himself, to perform the religious functions of his office in his stead. Omar, a stern, devout, and unambitious man, would have declined the honour and the responsibility; but the entreaties of the dying caliph prevailed with him. Abu Beker, the ancient companion of Mahomet, and the first of his successors, expired in the sixty-fourth year of his age, having reigned a little more than two years. He was universally lamented by his subjects, to whom his equity, moderation, and private virtues had justly endeared him. CHAPTEH ?n. THE CALIPHAT OP OMAR. THE CAPTURE OF EM ESS A, BAALBEC, JERUSALEM, ANTIOCH, AND CESAREA. FINAL CONQUEST OF SYRIA. The new caliph, who, in compliance with the wishes of his pre- decessor, had been readily elected to his office, was the father of Hafsa, a wife of the prophet. He was at this time fifty -three years of age, and was unsvirpassed for strength, valour, and fanaticism in the Mahometan faith. Bigotry apart, his justice was exemplary; and his sincerity was fully proved by his abstinence from sensuality, and by the rigid self-denial which characterized his entire career. He assumed the title of "Commander of the Faithful," a name inherited by his successors, and since ado23ted by other distinguished Eastern potentates. THE MAHOMETANS. ^-^^ Klialed, whose rash and unscrupulous character was displeasing to him, was forthwith deprived of the command of the Syrian army, and Abu Obeidah, a man of greater virtue and less military talent, was substituted in his place. The change was highly unpopular among the soldiers; but Khaled, with great magnanimity, enlisted zealously under the command of his new chief, who in turn, aware of his courage and abilit}^, treated him with the highest deference. The new commander, after gaining considerable plunder by a vic- tory which Khaled obtained over the Christians at Abyla, sat down before the wealthy city of Emessa (the modern Hems). The citi- zens, by a heavy ransom, purchased a truce for one year, and the inhabitants of the neighbouring region, submitting to the mild terms of Abu Obeidah, enrolled themselves in great numbers as tributaries of the caliph, Omar, however, displeased at this want of activity in conquest, sent a reproachful missive to his general, who, in consequence, leaving Khaled with a part of the forces near Emessa, marched with the remainder upon Baalbeo. This strong and beautiful city, built, it is said, by Solomon, and containing some of the most splendid remains of antiquity, was situated in the great valley which lies between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. It was a place of much wealth and commerce, and promised a valuable spoil. Herbis the governor, on learning of the approach of the Moslem forces, sallied out to meet them, but was repulsed, and driven back into the city with considerable loss. The place was summoned to surrender, but the governor, smarting with wounds and -defeat, tore the letter in pieces, and deigned no reply. A brave and successful repulse of the assailants inspirited the garrison to make a fresh sally, in which they made great slaughter among their opponents, who were taken by surprise. Herbis, however, in a second similar attempt, was cut off from the city, and compelled to surrender it upon very severe conditions. The Saracens took possession, in the year A. D. 636. The victorious general returned at once to Emessa, where the year of truce had expired, and, "In the name of the most Merciful God," (the customary Moslexxi formula,) summoned the garrison to surrender. A bold and successful sally was the reply; and Obei- dah, seeing the difficulty of reducing the place by force, had resort to stratagem. Promising to carry his arms elsewhere, he purchased of the Greeks so many provisions, that their supplies were nearly exhausted. He then left the city, and seized upon the towns of 312 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. Arrestan and Shaizar; but soon returned, and again invested Emessa. The defenders, unprepared for a siege, were compelled to try an engagement. The governor, a man of great courage and of gigantic size, took the sacrament in public, caroused all night, and sallied furiously against the Moslems in the morning. The fight lasted desperately all day, without any decisive result; but on the following day, by a feigned retreat, the Greeks were thrown into confusion, and utterly routed, with the loss of their commander and a great number of fighting men. Emessa surrendered ; but the Moslems were unable to reap the fruits of their victory. An immense army of the Greeks was approaching, and by advice even of the intrepid Khaled, the invaders retreated to Yermouk, on the borders of Arabia. The Emperor Heraclius, justly alarmed for the safety of Syria, had again levied a great force, consisting of eighty thousand of his subjects and sixty thousand friendly Arabs, and had despatched them against the enemy, under a distinguished general, named Manuel. As this formidable force marched against the retreating Moslems, it inflicted every injury on the provinces which had submitted to the latter, and had become tributary. A negotiation which Manuel had offered, as he approached, was rejected by Abu Obeidah, and a messenger was despatched to the caliph Omar, at Medina, entreating speedy reinforcement. Eight thousand fresh troops were, accordingly, at once despatched to his assistance, and these on their way defeated a prefect of the emperor with much slaughter, and arrived at Yermouk with the heads of their enemies displayed in great numbers on the points of their lances. A personal interview between Manuel and Khaled, the real commander of the Moslem host, led to no result; and both par- ties engaged in a fierce battle. From the valour and number of the combatants, this important struggle was prolonged in a desperate manner for several successive days— the discipline and steadiness of the Grecian phalanx proving almost insurmountable, even by the furious fanaticism of the Moslems. The Christians were finally defeated, with the loss of their general, and with a terrible slaughter (A. D. 636). After this signal success, the caliph determined, by the advice of Ali, to gain possession of Jerusalem. This celebrated . city (at that time called J51ia, from the Emperor ^lius Adrian, who had rebuilt it) was then, as now, an object of deep veneration, not only to the THE MAHOMETANS. 3]^3 Jews and Ctiristians, but to tlie Moslems, on account of its sacred associations. The latter, indeed, considered that they had an espe- cial claim upon it, as being the place to which their prophet (as he averred) had made his famous nocturnal journey, and whence, in company with the angel Gabriel, he had explored the Seven Heav- ens. It was strongly fortified, and the defenders, relying on the sanctity of their city, and emboldened by the advantage of their position, withstood for four months the attack of Abu Obeidah and his whole army. The Patriarch Sempronius finally consented to a capitulation, if the caliph would come from Medina, and receive it in person. Omar, viewing the religious, as well as the political importance of the place, consented, and having appointed Ali as his temporary vicar, set out in the simplest manner on his important mission. This mighty potentate travelled on a red camel, with a pair of saddle bags con- taining a few dried dates and sodden grain for provision, with a wooden dish, and a leathern bottle filled with water. In this unpre- tending style he approached the Holy City, dictating on his way the most absolute and peremptory commands. On his arrival, Jerusalem instantly surrendered, upon such severe conditions as the Mahometan conquerors were wont to impose upon the van- quished. The Christian rites and places of worship were only suffered to exist under the most degrading terms, and the most slavish deference to the followers of Islam was sternly enforced. The lives and property of the citizens, however, were spared. The conqueror was politely conducted by Sempronius through the vari- ous places of interest in the sacred city ; but when the Arab, in his patched and dirty garments of sheepskin, seated himself in the Church of the Resurrection, the worthy patriarch (probably in a tongue unknown to his guest) groaned forth, in the bitterness of his spirit, that the "abomination of desolation," foretold by the prophet Daniel, had come at last, and was fairly "set up in the holy place" (A. D. 637). Omar, after having founded a mosque on the site of Solomon's temple, and given instructions to his generals for the complete con- quest of all Syria and Egypt, returned to Medina in the same quiet and unpretending manner in which he had left it. Abvi Obeidah marched for Aleppo, levying rich contributions on the terrors of the intervening country. Youkenna, who commanded the citadel of that wealthy place, was a man of most crafty, warlike, and furious 314 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. disposition. He marched forth with twelve thousand men, and surprised an advanced guard of the Moslems, which he cut to pieces or dispersed. On learning, however, that the more peaceful and wealthy citizens of Aleppo had made a private treaty with the assailants, he turned back in a rage, put three hundred of them to the sword, and with a sweep of his cimeter cut off the head of his own brother, Johannas, who was vainly endeavouring to mitigate his fury. A desperate battle with the approaching Moslems, under Khaled, forthwith ensued. Three thousand of Youkenna's troops were slain, and he was compelled to retreat within the castle, which was strongly fortified. An assault upon this was unsuccessful, and iifty prisoners, whom the ferocious governor took in a sally, were beheaded on the walls, and their heads thrown down among the besiegers. Three hundred of the garrison, who were soon after captured by the Mos- lems, shared a similar fate, by way of retaliation. The craft and valour of Youkenna enabled him to defend this almost impregnable fortress for more than half a year ; but it was finally taken by sur- prise, and the cruel and unprincipled chief, with several of his officers, embraced the Moslem religion, and thus secured their wives and property from the greediness of the victors. Like most of the numerous renegades to Mahometanism, his zeal, when once fairly embarked, outstripped that of its legitimate supporters. By the most outrageous treachery toward his former Christian associates, he gained important advantages for the enemy ; and even so far won the confidence of the Emperor Heraclius, at Antioch, as to obtain the command of that important city, and of the army stationed there. A gang of renegades, by whom he was accompanied, furthered his plots. Abu Obeidah advanced against this city, the capital of Syria, with a formidable force, subduing all the country on his way. The "Iron Bridge," a strong post, com- manding the passage of the Orontes, was treacherously surrendered by the garrison, and Antioch was thus left unprotected against the advance of the enemy. The Moslem troops approached the walls, and the emperor, completely disheartened by learning the treason of Youkenna, fled privately to the sea-shore, and set sail for Con- stantinople. His generals made a brave defence, which, however, the treachery of Youkenna and the valour of their adversaries ren- dered of no avail, and the city, paying an enormous ransom for safety from pillage, submitted to the enemy (A. D. 638). THE MAHOMETANS. §15 Abu Obeidah, who, for a Maliometan, was a strict moralist and disciplinarian, prohibited his followers from any intercourse with the Grecian females, whose beauty was so attractive to these rude sons of the desert. The worthy caliph, however, says Mr. Irving, wept on hearing of this piece of severity to his faithful adherents, and seating himself on the ground, forthwith wrote a letter, (doubt- less much to the satisfaction of the army,) allowing the fullest liberty in those regards which the most zealous polygamist could desire. Fresh successes soon repaid the enterprise of the invaders. Khaled had been carrying his victorious arms far to the eastward ; and Amru, with the forces under his command, advanced against Ceesarea, where Constantine, the emperor's son, was stationed with a large army. The prince held a personal conference with the Mahometan leader, but to no purpose — the latter insisting that the ancestors of the Arabs had been expelled from the pleasant land of Syria to the desert, and that they were only regaining their rightful possessions. Islamism, tribute, or the sword, were sternly presented as the only alternatives. Constantine, fearing to encounter the enemy with his dispirited forces, shut himself up in the walls of Csesarea. Youkenna, by almost inconceivable craft and treachery, had again managed to deceive his former friends, the Christians, and had thus gained possession of the ports of Tripoli and Tyre, together with the imperial fleet, and many munitions of war. The prince taking alarm, fled, with all his treasure, to Constantinople, and the city speedily surrendered, paying a heavy ransom to the victor. Other important places followed the example, and thus, after a contest of six years, all Syria, in the seventeenth year of the Hegira (A. D. 639), fell into the hands of its Moslem invaders. Abu Obei- dah, and other distinguished ofiicers, did not long survive this event, being carried off by a pestilence, which soon desolated the country. Khaled, "the Sword of God," so long renowned as the bravest, fiercest, and most fanatical chief of the new religion, died in poverty and disgrace, under the displeasure of the caliph. He was deeply lamented by the soldiery, whom he had so often led to victory. glQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. CHAPTEH 7111. THE CALIPHAT OF OMAR CONTINUED. CONQUEST OF EGYPT AND OF PERSIA. DEATH OF OMAR. In pursuance of the orders of the caliph, Amru, with only five thousand men, next marched against the once powerful kingdom of Eg3rpt, now a province of the Greek empire. He took Farwak (the ancient Pelusium) after a month's siege, and thence moved against Memphis, a strong city, then situated near the site of the modern Cairo, but of which hardly a vestige now remains. The Arabs, unprovided with military engines, and bravely resisted by the Greek garrison, spent seven months fruitlessly in endeavouring to reduce the city. A reinforcement of four thousand men was then despatched by Omar to their assistance; and the place was soon after taken by the treachery of Mokawkas, the governor, an Egyp- tian Copt, who secretly detested the Grecian rule. Tribute was forthwith levied on the province, and Amru, with his army, took the road to the renowned city of Alexandria. It was only an hun- dred and twenty-five miles distant, yet the Moslems met such a determined resistance from the imperial forces on their way, that it was twenty-two days before they arrived at the walls. This popu- lous and wealthy city was strongly fortified, garrisoned by Greeks, and open to assistance from the sea. The slender force of Amru seemed entirely inadequate to his undertaking ; yet he summoned the garrison, in the usual haughty terms, to surrender. They, in return, made a furious sally, and much desperate fighting ensued. The Arab chief took a strong citadel by storm ; the whole contest became concentrated on this spot, and he was taken prisoner, and carried before the governor. The latter, unaware of his rank, was induced, by the artful repre- sentations of one of his fellow-captives, to release him, and the rejoicing shouts of the besiegers notified the garrison of their cre- dulity and loss. The siege was still obstinately contested for fourteen months, during which time the Moslem army, repeatedly reinforced, lost twenty-three thousand men. Nothing, however, could resist the fanatical valour and perse- THE MAHOMETANS. 33^7 verance of the besiegers. Alexandria was at length taken, and its Grecian defenders dispersed by sea and land. Leaving a small garrison to guard the new acquisition, Amru hastened with most of his forces after the fugitives. Those in the fleet taking advan- tage of this circumstance, recaptured the city, and put most of its Moslem defenders to the sword. The invader, sufficiently vexed at his negligence, instantly returned; and after a fierce assault, again gained possession of the place, and drove the Greeks to their ships (A. D. 640). This new and splendid acquisition of the Mahometan arms greatly increased the wealth and resources of the caliph. The city, as the victor stated in his letter to Omar, contained four hundred theatres, four thousand palaces, and five thousand baths, and was filled with wealth and magnificence. Plunder was strictly forbidden, and an account of all valuable articles was taken, for the benefit of the cause of Islam. The wonderfnl collection of manuscripts, known as the Alexandrian library, was brought to the notice of the victor by a learned man, named John the Grammarian, who solicited that they might be bestowed upon him. Amru referred the matter to the caliph, who, with the sternness and bigotry charac- teristic of an illiterate Mahometan, ordered their destruction, alleging that if they were in conformity with the Koran, they were useless ; if opposed to it, pernicious. Literature has doubtless experienced an irreparable loss in the destruction of this noble collection, which has been estimated at half a million of books, and which served for six months as fuel for the numerous baths in the city. After the fall of its capital, all Egypt submitted, and was made tributary to its conquerors. Heraclius, already in a decline, was so afiected by the loss of his province, that he underwent a paroxysm, which speedily proved fatal. His son Constantine succeeded him in the remains of the empire. Amru, now in full possession of the newly-acquired territory, governed it with much justice and wisdom. In a severe famine which afflicted Arabia, he despatched great quantities of grain to the assistance of his countrymen ; and, to further the means of com- munication, caused a canal, which had been commenced by the Emperor Trajan, to be dug from the Nile to the Eed Sea. (This splendid work of public utility, however, fell into disuse, and was suffered to go to ruin, after the removal of the caliphat from Medina to Damascus.) 318 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The Persian empire, on the frontiers of which Khaled, in the reign of Abu Beker, had gained some signal successes, had been for some time in a state of great distraction, and numerous pre- tenders had successively gained the crown for brief periods. In the year A. D. 632, Arzemia, the daughter of Khosru II., a woman of great beauty and talent, had been called to the throne. Mosenna, who had succeeded Khaled in the command of the Eastern forces, was appointed emir or governor of Sewad, the Persian province already conquered; but for some time no fresh acquisition was made. Omar, to stir up the spirit of enterprise, had finally sent a new commander, named Abu Obeidah Sakfi, with reinforcements, to carry on the war. The latter, after defeating the forces of Narsi, a Persian prince, was called on to encounter a formidable army despatched by Arzemia and headed by an able general named Rustam. This force was strengthened by thirty elephants, and encouraged by the presence of the "sacred banner," which was regarded with the deepest veneration, and on which the fate of Persia was supposed to depend. The Moslems, only nine thousand in number, threw a bridge across the Euphrates, and boldly attacked the vastly superior force of the enemy. Sakfi, while fighting bravely, was crushed to death by an elephant, which he had wounded; his army was entirely defeated, and four thousand were slain or drowned in the Euphrates. Mosenna rallied a small number, and sent to Medina, entreating immediate assistance. Dissensions in the Persian camp alone saved the Moslems from further discomfiture (A. D. 634). The Arab chief, being reinforced, for some time confined himself to predatory excursions ; but was finally brought to an engagement by Mahran, a general of the queen, who, with twelve thousand cavalry, had been sent against him. The battle commenced unfavour- ably for the Moslems, and Mosenna, tearing his beard with vexation, with dif&culty rallied his discomfited troops. He finally put the Persians to flight, killing their general with his own hand. He soon after gained an immense booty by plundering the fair at Bagdad, then a mere village, but since the renowned capital of the Abassides. Arzemia being put to death by her discontented nobles, Yezde- gird, a youth of fifteen, was placed upon the Persian throne. Rustam, her principal murderer, was placed at the head of a power- ful army, and despatched against the encroaching Arabs. To oppose him, Saad, a distinguished leader, and an ancient friend of the THE MAHOMETANS. gig prophet, was sent with a choice body of troops from Medina, Being joined b\^ many recruits, he found himself, on his arrival at the Moslem camp, in command of thirty thousand men. Mosenna, three days after, expired. The new commander, before entering upon hostilities, despatched certain discreet and ancient messengers to the Persian court, making the customary summons, and propound- in o- the usual alternatives. These envoys were received with some moderation; but were dismissed loaded with sacks of earth, as the only portion of Persian soil that would be accorded to the invaders. These they quietly transferred to the backs of their camels, and presented them to Saad as an earnest and omen of their future con- quest and possession. The hostile armies encountered on the plains of Kadesia, not far from the Euphrates. The Persian host far outnumbered their oppo- nents; but were greatly inferior in activity, personal skill, and fanatical courage. Their elephants were driven back, and the Moslems received a reinforcement in the first day of the battle — called, from this circumstance, the Day of Succour. On the third day the Moslems were again inspirited and their enemies disheart- ened by the arrival of a pretended reinforcement, which was in reality a detachment which the craftj?- Saad had instructed to make its appearance on the road from Damascus. The combat, amid clouds of dust, was continued furiously all that day, and was even, by the desperate exertions of Rustam, protracted through the night. On the fourth, exhausted and wounded, he was killed; his head, elevated on a lance, struck terror into his soldiers, who dispersed and fled. Thirty-seven thousand of the Persians had fallen in this fatal contest. The Moslems had lost less than a fifth of that number. The plunder was immense, and the Sacred Standard, covered with the richest jewels, was taken by the victors (A. D. 686). Tribute was instantly levied on the conquered region, and mosques • were erected in all directions. By order of Omar, the city of Bas- sora, ever since a celebrated mart of commerce, was founded at the junction of the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Persians were com- pletely disheartened, and Saad pursued his conquests almost without resistance. With sixty thousand men, he marched upon Madayn, their capital, formerly the famous and classic Ctesiphon, which had once repulsed the arms of the victorious Eomans themselves. Yezdegird and his court fled in a shameful panic, and the wonder- ing Arabs entered the splendid city, which they sacked and pillaged 320 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of immense treasures. The spoil was so great, that each of this numerous host received twelve hundred dirheras of silver; and nine hundred camels were required to convey to Medina the fifth part allotted to the caliph. A silken carpet, covered with gems, was among his portion, which, by advice of Ali, was cut into equal pieces, and divided among the chiefs (A. D. 637). Hashem, the brother of Saad, with twelve thousand men, was next despatched in pursuit of the fugitive Yezdegird. After a siege of six months, distinguished by desperate fighting, he succeeded in taking Jalula, in which the remains of the Persian army had taken refuge. The unfortunate monarch retreated through the mountains into Eei, an ancient city, the Eages of Scripture. The zeal of the Mahometan chief for further conquest was, however, for the present, repressed by the prudence of Omar. By order of the caliph, the city of Cufa was founded on the western bank of the Euphrates, Madayn being totally dismantled for the sake of its materials, and almost bodily carried away. The luxury of Saad's residence, how- ever, coming to the ears of the caliph, he despatched a messenger to burn it, who punctually fulfilled his orders — the general, with that unswerving obedience which as yet marked the Mahometan charac- ter, removing to a more modest abode. Hormuzan, the satrap of Ahwaz or Susiana, who lived in almost royal state and authority, next attempted to check the increasing power of the Arabs, but was repeatedly defeated, and was forced to surrender great portion of his territories. Again commencing hostilities, he was again defeated, and took refuge in his fortress of Susa, where, after a brave defence of six months, he was compelled by treachery to surrender. He was despatched to Medina, when Omar, with characteristic sternness and simplicity, gave him an instant choice between Islamism and decapitation. He embraced the former, and was received into the confidence and favour of the caliph. Saad being suspended from his command, the youthful monarch of Persia took fresh courage; and summoned his available forces from every part of the empire to make one grand and final effort for the expulsion of the intruders. The chiefs of the yet uncon- quered provinces called out their forces, which, to the number of an hundred and fifty thousand, were assembled at Nehavend, not far from the ancient Ecbatana. Omar would now fain have taken the field in person, but was dissuaded by his counsellors, and by their advice the command was THE MAHOMETANS. 321 bestowed upon Nu'man Ibn Mukry. Firuzan, the Persian com- mander, though greatly superior to the Arabs in the number of his troops, intrenched himself at Nehavend in a strong position, resolved to tire out his enemies by delay. The latter for two months vainly endeavoured to effect an engagement with their adversaries; but finally, by a feigned retreat, drew them a considerable distance jfrom their intrenchments. The Moslem chief having prayed, like some classic hero of old, for the crown of martyrdom, as well as that of victory, turned, and furiously attacked the pursuing enemy. Both his wishes were granted ; he fell, after seeing the Persians completely routed. An immense slaughter was made, and one hundred thousand of the defeated army are said to have perished in the battle and the flight. This contest, which decided the fate of Persia, and which is called in Arabian chronicles, the "Victory of Victories, " occurred A. D. 641, only twenty-one years after the flight of the prophet to Medina. Further victories ensued, and Hamadan, the ancient Ecbatana, and the second city in Persia, was taken^ after a desperate battle, which lasted for three days. Eei, bravely defended by a Persian noble left by the emperor, was also, after an unavailing resistance, taken by treachery. Fresh conquests were made. Tabaristan and Azerbijan, the land of the Fire- worshippers, were speedily over- come and made tributary. The temples and altars of the latter were overthrown. . A campaign was also made in the mountains of the Caucasus, where, however, a brave and warlike people, the ancestors of the present Turks, made a stubborn and successfal resistance. The Moslems were defeated and compelled to retreat, with the loss of Abda'lrahman, their leader. After witnessing these brilliant successes, and having reigned triumphantly for more than ten years, the Caliph Omar was assas- sinated in the mosque by one Firuz, a fire-worshipper, and a slave at Medina. Though mortally wounded, he summoned strength to finish the prayer in which he was engaged ; and was then borne to his house, thanking God that he had not fallen by the hand of a Moslem. He refased to nominate a successor, but appointed a council of six;, by whom the matter should be determined. His friends comforted him with the remembrance of his justice and impartiality. He entreated them to testify as much at the day of judgment, and, for greater security, exacted firom them a written testimonial, to be buried with him in the grave. He expired in the sixty -third year of his age. 21 322 ' THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. During tlie reign of this extraordinary man, who combined the most simple and almost barbarous manners with the most far-sighted views and the most wonderful control over the minds of men, the empire of Islam laid strong and deep the foundation of its greatness. Syria, Egypt, and Persia had been successively and effectively sub- dued; and the treasure and tribute from the conquered provinces afforded means and incentives for yet wider schemes of empire and dominion. No event in history is half so singular as that a few illiterate and semi-barbarous Arabs should, in the course of a few years, gain and successively rule such distant and extensive regions. No doubt there was something in the creed which impelled them singularly adapted to the genius and the capability of the race ; but that the talent for government and the personal influence which is indispensable in new empires should be possessed by each of these fellow-fugitives of the prophet, shows, indeed a most remarkable coincidence of men and circumstances. THE CALIPHAT OF OTHMAN. THE INVASION OP NOETHEEN AFEICA. NAYAL SUCCESSES OE THE MOSLEMS. The six councillors selected by Omar had all been intimate asso- ciates of the prophet, and appointed one of their number, Othman, his former secretary, to the caliphat. He had been the companion of Mahomet in the Hegira, and had successively married two of his daughters. He was now seventy years of age, generous and charit- able, but inclined to nepotism and favouritism. In the commencement of his reign, the conquest of Persia was completed. Assyria and Mesopotamia were speedily subdued, and the proud cities of Ispahan and Istakar were brought under the sway of Islam. The unfortunate Yezdegird, flying from his enemies, led a wandering life, with his shadow of a court, for many years, but was finally put to death, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. His kingdom became the undisputed territory of the caliphs. The weakness and favouritism of Othman were soon manifest. THE MAHOMETANS. 323 He displaced from the government of Egypt the brave and politic- Amru, who had conquered it, and who was universally popular, and appointed in his place Abdallah Ibn Saad, his own foster-brother. Taking advantage of the public discontent, Constantine despatched a fleet and army, and succeeded in retaking Alexandria. Here- upon, Amru Avas again reinstated in his command, and, after an obstinate resistance of the Greeks, again took the city, and threw down its walls. Having accomplished this, he was again displaced, and Abdallah once more appointed in his stead. The latter, emulous of his renown, determined to exalt his own fame by some new and brilliant expedition. The northern part of Africa, after experiencing strange vicissitudes of government, and being successively under the control of the Carthagenians, the Romans, and the Vandals, was now a province of the Eastern Empire.*^ Abdallah, with forty thousand Arabs, supplied with camels, crossed the sandy deserts of Lybia, and after a fatiguing march arrived before the strong city of Tripoli. A Greek force, which was sent to reinforce it, was surprised on the shore, and defeated with great slaughter. Gregorius, the Roman praetor, with an immense body of troops, hastily levied, encountered the invaders under the walls of the city. The battle, desperately fought, was continued for several days, but was finally decided by the valour of Zobeir, a noble Arab, of the tribe of Koreish, who arrived at a critical moment, with a small reinforcement. Gregorius was slain, and his army was pur- sued to the city of Safetula, which was taken by the victors. The forces of Abdallah, were, however, too much reduced to enable him to maintain his conquests ; and he returned to Egypt, having acquired great booty. Hitherto, the Moslems, restrained by Omar, had obtained no naval advantages. Moawyah Abu Sofian, a son of the ancient enemy of the prophet, had been appointed by Omar as emir or governor of Syria, and by permission of Othman, in the twenty-seventh year of the Hegira, launched a fleet upon the Mediterranean. He soon gained possession of the island of Cyprus, belonging to the emperor, and made it tributary. After further successes, he encountered Constantine him- self, while cruising with a large fleet in the Phoenician Sea, defeated him, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. Among other exploits, he took the island of Rhodes, and barbarously threw down the cele- brated colossal statue, which stood at the entrance of the harbour. * Sometimes called the Greek, and sometimes the Roman Empire. 324 "^HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. In the midst of these successes, Othman, from his favouritism, and the prodigality with which he lavished the public spoil upon his attendants, had become exceedingly odious to great numbers of the Faithful. Other causes augmented this ill-feeling, and a certain converted Jew, named Ibn Caba, made a seditious journey through the various provinces, fomenting the discontent, and inciting the disaffected to appear in force at Medina, under pretence of a pil- grimage to Mecca. At the appointed time great numbers, from all the provinces, made their appearance, and summoned the aged caliph to redress their wrongs or to quit the high office which he occupied. At first he endeavoured by submission to allay the storm, and from the pulpit of the mosque made a public profession of peni- tence. He also made many liberal promises and donations, and, to gratify the malcontents, consented to recall Abdallah, and put in his place Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha, who had been the favourite wife of the prophet. The new governor, however, on his way, intercepted a slave, bearing a letter to Abdallah, purporting to be from the caliph, and ordering the execution of the new emir, and the imprisonment of the Egyptian deputies. Mahomet turned back furiously to Medina. Othman averred that the letter was a forgery of some enemy, and refused to give up his secretary, Merwan, the object of popular fury. In spite of the efforts of Ali, Zobeir, and Telha, an old companion of the prophet, the aged caliph was besieged in his house, and soon after murdered by a ferocious mob, among whom was Mahomet himself His body lay exposed for three days, and was finally buried without funeral ceremonies. This unfortunate sovereign had reigned twelve years, and was eighty two years old at the time of his death, which occurred in the year A. D. 655. THE MAHOMETANS. 325 ij jJ3j dX if Jj ^ dJi lA) THE CALIPHAT OF ALL THE REBELLION OP 3I0AWYAH. DEATH OF ALL CALIPHAT OF HIS SON HASSAN. Ali, who had. married Fatima, the daughter of the prophet, had been bj many considered, from the first, as the rightful inheritor of his honours. He had been the only one who, at the first public announcement at Mecca of the divine pretensions of Mahomet, had publicly espoused his cause. He had been at that time nominated by the prophet as his vizier and vicegerent, and by his undaunted courage in the cause, had gained the title of " the Lion of God." His eloquence and generosity had endeared him to the people. Zobeir, Telha, and Moawyah were all ambitious of the distinction; but the deputies, fearful of a disruption of the Moslem power, demanded the instant election of a new caliph. All opposition succumbed to the urgency of the moment, and Ali, with the apparent consent of all, was publicly inaugurated in his high office. At the very outset of his reign he was surrounded with difficulty and opposition. Ayesha, his ancient enemy, with Telha and Zobeir, set out for Mecca under pretence of pilgrimage, but in reality to excite an insurrection. The bloody garment of Othman had been sent to Syria, where the Moslems were frantic with rage at his mur- der, and laid the blame upon his successor. The disappointed Moaw- yah openly fomented their anger, and the new governor, whom Ali despatched to supersede him, found the province in open rebellion, and was compelled to return. Those whom he had sent to Persia and to Egypt, met a similar reception. Moawyah, in token of con- tempt, returned a blank answer to the letter of the caliph requiring his allegiance. An army of sixty thousand men stood ready to enforce his pretensions to the chief authority. Ayesha and her allies having gathered a force of six thousand men at Mecca, took the road to Bassora, avowing their determina- tion to revenge the death of Othman. On their arrival before the walls of that city, the inhabitants, who were divided into two fac- tions, held a furious dispute in the mosque, and ended by throwing dust in each others' faces — a common oriental mode of exhibiting 326 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. displeasure. They repaired without the walls, where Ajesha (the "Mother of the Faithful'') harangued them from her camel in the shrillest tones. More dust was thrown, and a fight ensued, which lasted until the hour of prayer separated the combatants. The place, however, was taken by surprise, on a stormy night, and the unfortunate governor, with his beard and eyebrows plucked out, was dismissed to make his complaints before the perplexed and embarrassed caliph. To suppress this insurrection, the latter sallied from Medina with a small force, which by the time he reached Bassora, amounted to thirty thousand men. The rebellious chiefs, softened by his mild- ness and eloquence, would have drawn back, but the malignant spirit of Ayesha precipitated a contest. On her gTeat camel Alascar, she mingled in the thickest of the fight, encouraging her troops. Telha was slain, expressing his repentance, and renewing his alle- giance with his dying breath. Zobeir, in sorrow of heart, left the battle, and on his way to Mecca, was put to death by an overzealous adherent of Ali. The latter, on beholding his head, wept bitterly, and cursed his executioner, who, frantic with rage and mortification, plunged his sword into his own bosom. After an obstinate and sanguinary conflict, the rebels were defeated, and Ayesha, the soul of the conspiracy, was captured. The caliph, with his accustomed i magnanimity, sent her in honourable state to Medina, where, how- i ever, she was restricted from further intermeddling with politics. The victor, in gratitude to the inhabitants of Cufa, from whom he had received enthusiastic assistance, made that city the seat of his government (A. D. 655). ; The authority of Ali was thus completely established in all his provinces, except that of Syria, where Moawyah openly laid claim j to the caliphat, and was supported by Amru, who hoped by this alliance to regain his government of Egypt. Having vainly attempted conciliation, the caliph, with ninety thousand men, marched toward the refractoiy province. The allies, with nearly that number, encountered him on the plain of Seff Seffein, on the banks of the Euphrates. For several months, actuated by a desire to spare the effusion of blood, Ali studiously avoided an engagement ; yet so desperate was the skirmishing, that seventy thousand are said to have fallen; among them a great part of the few remaining com- panions of the prophet. On one occasion, the caliph, with twelve thousand horse, made a furious charge against the enemy, and broke THE MAHOMETANS. 327 their ranks ; but his generous heart revolting from the slaughter of his countrymen, he sought out Moawyah, and entreated him to stake their rival pretensions on the result of a single combat. The rebel- lious emir, however, shrank from a contest with this renowned champion — "The Lion of God;" and the Syrian army, when on the point of defeat, disarmed the courage of their adversaries by placing the Koran on the points of their lances, and crying out for an arbi- tration to be decided by its contents. Each claimant of the caliphat appointed an umpire, but the shrewdness and trickery of Amru, who represented Moawyah, proved too much for the honest inefii- ciency of the representative appointed by the caliph; and the parties separated with mutual hatred and discontent (A. D. 657). The declining power of Ali was next menaced by the Karigites or Seceders, a fanatical and formidable sect, which assembled in arms to the number of twenty-five thousand. The mildness and clemency of the caliph, however, reduced the number to four thou- sand, and these, making a desperate attack upon his camp, were cut off almost to a man. By the treachery of Moawyah, Egypt was speedily embroiled in civil war, and by his contrivance Malec, whom Ali had despatched as governor to allay the discontent, was poisoned on his way. Amru, with a considerable force, hastened to the scene of his for- mer exploits, and, uniting with the insurgents, gained possession of the country, which he ruled as the viceroy of Moawyah, Mahomet, the brother of Ayesha, who had been governor, was put to death by the adherents of Othman, in revenge for his share in the mur- der of that sovereign. A great part of Arabia was soon conquered by the ambitious rival of the rightful caliph. The latter, though disheartened at these reverses, was preparing to invade Syria with sixty thousand men, when a strange conspiracy ended for a time these civil dissensions. Three Karigites, fanatic- ally discussing the misfortunes of Islam, agreed to restore unity to the great Moslem family, by simultaneously despatching, on a given day, the three most prominent aspirants to sovereignty. Their plot was partially successful. Moawyah, while officiating in the mosque at Damascus, was desperately wounded, but finally recovered. Amru was only saved by the mistake of the assassin, who killed the iman who at the time chanced to occupy his place. The gener- ous Ali, mortally wounded in the mosque at Cufa, ordered that his murderer should be mildly treated, and that, if he should die, no 328 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. torture should be employed in the execution of the criminal. This kindly and magnanimous sovereign, the noblest, if not the wisest, of the Arabian caliphs, three days afterwards expired, at the age of sixty-three, and after a stormy and embarrassed reign of only five years (A. D. 660). His memory has ever been held in the deepest veneration by the Persian Mahometans. His son Hassan, a peaceful, honest, and unenergetic man, was forthwith elected in his place, and, stimulated by the zeal of Hosein, his brother, and other valiant chiefs, put himself at the head of the army, which the late caliph had prepared for the invasion of Syria. Feeling himself, however, inadequate to the command of his fiery and contentious followers, he soon made overtures to Moawyah, offering to resign the caliphat, on condition of receiving a princely revenue, and the succession after the death of the latter. These terms were acceded to by his rival, who thug, in the forty-first year of the Hegira, assumed that sway over the entire Moslem empire which he had coveted so long. LJ Jbuj wiJb cL uj (ij (JuO iZ\) Jj THE SYEIAN C ALIPH AT.— REIGN OF MOAWYAH I. THE SIEGE OE CONSTANTINOPLE. WARS IN APRICA. THE REIGN OF YEZID. Moawyah, the chief of the illustrious house of Ommiah, and the founder of a splendid line of oriental sovereigns, assumed full dominion over the various Mahometan nations in the forty -first year of the Hegira (A. D. 662). The ability and rigour of his rule soon stifled all opposition, and his taste for letters and the sciences, furthered by influences from his Grecian provinces, began to throw some refinement over the rude and successful arms of Islam. The new caliph was ably supported by Ziyad, his illegitimate brother, whom he conciliated by a public acknowledgment of their relation, and who, in various difficult and important posts, strongly upheld his interest and the tranquillity of the empire. At the death of the THE MAHOMETANS. 329 latter, his son Obeid'allah, wlio inherited his talents and severity, succeeded to his authority. Amru had been confirmed in his government of Egypt, to which he had a natural claim, both by his conquest of that country and his subsequent able administration. He did not long survive the res- toration of his power and honours, dying at an advanced age, in the forty-third year of the Hegira (A. D. 663). The conquest of Constantinople had always been a favourite project of the Mahometan sovereigns ; and the prophet himself had promised a fall remission of sins to the army which should achieve it. The present extent and security of the Moslem empire seemed to afford a fitting opportunity for the exploit; and the weakness and incapacity of the Emperor Constantine (the grandson of Heraclius) menaced no prospect of a formidable resistance. The caliph accord- ingly prepared powerful armaments, both by land and sea. The com- mand was intrusted to an ancient general, named Sophian, who was accompanied by a few of the yet surviving veterans who had fought in the early wars of the prophet. The emperor's son Yezid, and Hosein, the noble son of Ali, also took a prominent part in the expedition. Few particulars of this long and important contest have reached us. The Moslem forces, disembarking near Constantinople, besieged in vain for some time the strong and well-defended capital of the empire. At the approach of winter, they retired to an island about eighty miles distant, which they made their head-quarters, and whence, for six years, they made desperate and futile attempts to gain the disputed city. After losing great numbers, they were com- pelled to return, having ravaged the coasts of either continent. The Christians, taking courage from their successful defence, became assailants in their turn, and made demonstrations so formidable that Moawyah, aged and desirous of rest, was fain to purchase, by a considerable tribute, a truce for thirty years. During this contest, Northern Africa, so suddenly conquered, was retained with difficulty, and seemed gradually slipping from the hands of the Faithful. To restore their ascendancy, the caliph des- patched from Damascus the valiant and enthusiastic Acbah, who, with ten thousand horse, sped hastily thither, his forces augmenting on the way. He retook Cyreue, and, pressing still westward, founded the city of Caerwan, about a hundred miles from Carthage. By the intrigues of Muhegir, governor of Egypt, the victorious 330 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. general was recalled; but bis merits being made known to the caliph, was reappointed to the command, and during the succeeding caliphat, performed many exploits. He put Muhegir, who, through jealousy, was destroying the new colonies, into irons, and, pursuing his victorious career through Mauritania, was only stopped by the waters of the Atlantic. Spurring his horse into the waves, he declared that, unless thus prohibited, he would have carried the sword of Islam farther yet. He was subsequently surrounded, with a small army, by an immense host of Greeks and Moors, who, though often at war with each other, were now united against the common enemy. He released Muhegir from his chains that he might strike a last blow in behalf of Islam, and gain the abodes of Paradise. The whole band, fighting most desperately, were cut off almost to a man. Moawyah, conscious of his approaching end, had named his son Yezid as his successor — a step upon which none of the caliphs had hitherto ventured. Such, however, was his entire control over the Moslems, that fealty was sworn to his heir without opposition; and the house of the Ommiades thus became the first hereditary Mahometan dynasty. He died A. D. 679, at the age of seventy years, after a generally successful reign of nearly twenty. Though his accession to the throne was stained by violence, craft, and cruelty, his reign seems for the most part to have been marked by justice, clemency, and generosity, and his personal influence to have been equal to that of any of his predecessors. The luxuries of Syria and other conquered nations were, in his reign, introduced into the hitherto simple and primitive court of the caliphs; and his capital, Damascus, presented a strong contrast to the ascetic and religious state which had been maintained at Medina. Yezid, who, at the age of thirty-four, came to the throne, was of a selfish and sensual nature ; and his reputation was stained by the imputation of the murder of Hassan, who, according to agreement, was to have succeeded Moawyah in the caliphat. His authority was, however, generally acknowledged, and he sent immediate orders to Medina to exact allegiance from Hosein, and from Abdal- lah, the son of Zobeir. Ambitious and dissatisfied, they fled to Mecca, and declared openly against the caliph. Hosein, as the son of Ali, and the grandson of the prophet, was regarded by many as the rightful heir to the sovereignty ; and on receiving an invitation from the people of Cufa to repair to their city, he set out from Mecca with his family and a slender escort. THE MAHOMETANS. 33;!^ His expectations, however, were deceived. Obeid'allaTi, tlie fierce and saguinary son of Ziyad, had suppressed the premature revolt which had been commenced in his favour, and had sent the head of Muslim, his most faithful and active adherent, to the Caliph Yezid. Hosein himself, being surrounded by a large force near the Eu- phrates, was refused any alternative except the oath of fealty or immediate death. He preferred the latter, and all his little train, in spite of his remonstrances, joined in the resolution. Selling their lives as dearly as possible, this heroic band was cut to pieces, after slaying eighty-eight of the enemy, The gory head of Hosein was brought before Obeid'allah, who brutally smote it on the mouth with his staff — an outrage which caused an aged Arab to exclaim pathetically that he had seen those lips pressed by the prophet of God. The caliph, however, on receiving the ghastly trophy, shed tears, and cursed the unsparing emir who had sent it. He treated the unfortunate children of his rival with kindness and magnanimity. From the religious feeling and the animosity excited by these events, sprang up the celebrated and rival Persian sects of the Shy- ites and the Sonnites ; the former of whom hold the house of Ali in the deepest veneration, and canonize Hosein as a martyr and a saint. The day on which he perished is held as a solemn religious festival, sacred to his memory throughout the Eastern world. "The history of Islam," says Mr. Macaulay, "contains nothing more touch- ing than that mournful legend : how the chief of the Fatimites, when all his brave followers had perished around him, drank his latest draught of water and uttered his latest prayer — how the assassins carried his head in triumph — how the tyrant smote the lifeless lips with his staff — and how a few old men recollected with tears that they had seen those lips pressed to the lips of the prophet of God. After the lapse of nearly twelve centuries, the recurrence of this solemn season excites the fiercest and saddest emotions in the bosoms of the devout Moslems of India. They work themselves up to such agonies of rage and lamentation, that some, it is said, have given up the ghost from the mere effect of mental excitement. They believe that whoever during this festival falls in arms against the infidels, atones by his death for all the sins of his life, and passes at once to the gardens of the Houris." Abdallah, the son of Zobeir, already hostile to the house of Ommiah, now commenced to inflame the resentment of the Arabs by elot[uent denunciations of the late murder. At a public meeting 332 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. in tlie mosque at Medina, the calipli's authority was universally dis owned, and the adherents of his house were besieged in the palace of the governor. Meslem, an aged but ferocious general, was des- patched, with seventeen thousand men, to their relief. He took the city by storm, after a brave defence, and delivered it up to massacre and pillage for three days (A. D. 682). Proceeding to inflict the same vengeance on Mecca, he died on the way, and Hozein, the commander who succeeded him, laid siege to the rebellious city. For forty days it was stoutly defended by Abdallah and his adhe- rents, and at the end of that time was saved from further violence by tidings of the death of Yezid. He died A. D. 683, after a reign of three years and a half. THE RIVAL CALIPHS OF DAMASCUS AND MECCA. TRIUMPH OF ABD'ALMALEC. The son of Yezid, Moawyah II., a youth of twenty-one, resigned the authority, after holding it only six months, and soon after died. The principal men of Damascus appointed in his place Merwan, an artful man, who had been secretary to the Caliph Othman; stipu- lating, however, that he should be succeeded by Khaled, the son of Yezid. His sovereignty, for the present, extended only over a part of the great Mahometan empire — Arabia, Egypt, and several of the Persian provinces adhering to the rival caliph, Abdallah, who held his court at Mecca. Obeid'allah, who had prematurely attempted the assumption of independent power, was expelled from Bassora, and, flying ignominiously to Damascus, gave in his adhesion to Mer- wan. Dehac, the governor of Cufa, who with a large force declared for Abdallah, was defeated in a murderous engagement, and his head was presented to the Syrian caliph. Amru Ibn Saad, the active general of the latter, recovered Egjrpt, and signally defeated Musab, the brother of Abdallah, who was advancing with an army to its assistance. Abd'alaziz, the son of the caliph, was appointed governor of the reconquered province. THE MAHOMETANS. 333 By a singular species of contrition, the people of Cufa, to wliose desertion and insincerity Hosein owed his death, were suddenly smitten by the united passions of grief and revenge. Four thou- sand of them, assuming the title of "Penitents," fanatically set forth, resolved to avenge his death, and reinstate the descendants of Ali in the sovereignty ; but were encountered in Syria by the fierce Obeid'- ailah, with an army of twenty thousand horse, and were cut to pieces. After the disastrous fate of the gallant Acbah, the Mahometan arms had lost ground in Northern Africa ; and the native inhabit- ants, powerfully reinforced from Constantinople, had taken the city of Caerwan, and compelled the invaders to retreat to the eastward. Abd'almalec, the son of the caliph, was sent with an army to retrieve these misfortunes ; and, joining his forces to those of the Mahometan commander, defeated the enemy, and retook the city. After a brilliant campaign, which reassured the ascendancy of the Moslems, he returned to Damascus; and, in violation of the pledge of Merwan, was appointed his successor in place of Khaled, The aged caliph^ however, presently met his end, after a reign of less than a year, being murdered, it is said, by the mother of Khaled, whom he had married. Abd'almalec, at the age of forty, came to the throne with a high reputation for valour, wisdom, and learning — qualities which, how- ever, were soon obscured by a sordid covetousness. To attract the true Moslems from Mecca, the seat of his rival Abdallah, he con- secrated Jerusalem as a place of pilgrimage, and enlarged the mosque of Omar, on the site of the temple of Solomon, A singular and truly Arabian character began at this time to play a conspicuous part in the shifting scenes of oriental policy. He was the son of Abu Obeidah, and became, from his extraordi- nary career, generally known by the title of Al Moktar, or The Avenger. He had been a zealous adherent of the house of Ali, and while a prisoner had lost an eye from a blow of the ferocious Emir Obeid'allah, After fighting in the defence of Mecca, he returned to Cufa, and, burning to revenge the death of Hosein, became leader of a numerous sect, which still adhered to the house of Ali, Supported by this powerful faction, he proceeded to punish unrelentingly all who had been concerned in the martyrdom of the grandson of the prophet; and after causing a great number of executions, found himself completely established in the sovereignty of Babylonia. 334 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Mahomet, the brotlier of Hosein, witli his family, was imprisoned in Mecca by the suspicious Abdallah ; but was rescued and carried off in triumph by a few hundred hardy and resolute warriors, whom Al Moktar sent to his assistance, and who took the caliph by sur- prise. Abd'almalec had despatched a powerful army against the new pretender, under Obeid'allah, his ancient enemy and oppressor. They were encountered at some distance from Cufa by Ibrahim, the -valiant general of Al Moktar, and were routed with great slaughter. The head of their sanguinary leader was brought before the Avenger, who smote it with a savage satisfaction, as the dead man had smitten the face of his victim Hosein, and that of his former prisoner. The usurper did not long enjoy his triumph. He was attacked by Musab, the brother of Abdallah, was routed, and compelled to retreat into the citadel of Cufa. Here he was slain, after a valiant defence, and his garrison, seven thousand in number, were put to the sword by the enraged victor. He had well earned his name of the Avenger, having put to death, before his fall, nearly fifty thousand of his enemies, besides those who perished in battle. Musab was now in full possession of the conquered province; and Abd'almalec resolved, in person, to wrest it from his hands. On his march, he learned that his cousin, Amru, to whom he had intrusted the government in his absence, was aiming at the sove- reignty. He returned rapidlj^, and a bloody combat ensued in the streets of Damascus. An apparent reconciliation was effected ; but the caliph, getting possession of the person of his rival, struck off his head, aud again marched for Babylonia. Musab encountered him with his army, not far from Palmyra; but being deserted by a part of his forces, was offered his life by the victorious sovereign. He. refused the offer, determined to conquer or die; and with his valiant son Isa, was slain, fighting bravely to the last. The con- quest of Babylonia and Irak was thus fully secured, and the victor entered the citadel of Cufa in triumph. The head of Musab was brought to him ; and an aged resident in the castle could not forbear remarking that in that very fortress he had seen the head of Hosein presented to Obeid'allah; that of Obeid'allah to Al Moktar ; his in turn to Musab ; and now that of Musab to Abd'almalec. The caliph, whose whole nature was imbued with superstition, imagined a fresh seqence to this series of events; and, lest his own name should figure in a similar recital, THE MAHOMETANS. 335 caused tlie ill-omened edifice to be levelled with the ground. He then returned to Damascus, having appointed his youthful brother,' Besher, as governor of the province— the real power, however, being confided in an able and experienced vizier named Musa. By these, and further dissensions in the Moslem empire, the strength of the Syrian caliphat was much diminished. The Greeks began to make successful incursions; and Abd'almalec, to purchase peace of the emperor, was compelled to pay additional tribute. Having by this humiliating condition secured the forbearance of his Christian neighbours, the Syrian caliph resolved upon a grand effort to overthrow Abdallah, his Meccan rival, and once again unite the children of Islam under a single Commander of the Faith- ful. Al Hejagi, a fierce and able commander, was despatched against the Sacred City, where Abdallah, with his few devoted adherents, defended themselves, for a long time, with unavailing courage. Finding his ranks so thinned by desertion that a further defence would be ineffectual, the Arabian caliph, now aged and infirm, sallied forth with a few brave men, and, after making great havoc among the enemy, fell, covered with wounds (Hegira 73). Arabia, after the loss of its sovereign, submitted to the rival power. The arms of Al Hejagi were next turned against the emir of Khorasan, an officer of the late caliph, to whom the head of Abdal- lah had been sent as a warning against contumacious resistance, The spirited emir, however, carefully embalmed the sacred object, made the caliph's messenger eat the letter he had brought, and sent him back with a defiance. He was, however,- overcome by Al Hejagi, and finally slain. Besher having died, Al Hejagi was appointed as governor of the province of Babylonia; and Musa, falling into disgrace, was com- pelled to seek the protection of Abd'alaziz, the caliph's brother, and governor of Egypt. The new emir, by his severity and military skill, soon reduced the refractory cities to subjection ; and suppresed, in succession, several formidable rebellions, which had menaced the caliphat itself His tyranny, and the terrible frequency of his executions, however, caused his memory to be deeply detested in all the countries which had owned his sway. 336 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. \j (Lui lOoj cL Jj cLi Oju l60o (I; Jj Jj o REVIVAL OE THE SPIRIT OF CONQrEST. THE REIGN OP WALEB. PINAL SUBJUGATION OF NORTHERN AFRICA. The Moslem dominions were now, indeed, reunited under a sin- gle commander of the Faithful ; but the Mahometans, by their own dissensions, had lost that first flush of success which threatened their entire ascendancy over the civilized world. That ascendancy was now in a great degree to be restored. Abd'almalec, secure upon his throne, at once renounced the onerous and humiliating tribute of gold, women, and Arabian coursers, which had been for some time enforced by the Greek emperors. Taking advantage also of the unpopularity of Leontius, the new emperor, he even despatched an expedition against the Christians, and acquired some spoil and territory. Africa, however, was at this time destined to be the scene of more famous exploits than the arms of Islam had for some time achieved. The Moslems had successively lost many of their acquisi- tions in that country; and the fleets and armies of the empire had regained various important stations, especially on the sea-coast. In the seventy-seventh year of the Hegira (A. D. 698) the caliph, anx- ious to recover his lost ground, despatched Hossan, an able general, with forty thousand men, into the north of Africa. His first blow was aimed at the important city of Carthage, which had been rebuilt by the Roman emperors, and which was now strongly garrisoned by the imperial forces. After a long siege, he took it by storm ; many of the inhabitants were slain, and others escaped by sea. The Moslem army, in the midst of its triumph, was, however, compelled to retreat to Caerwan, by a large force of imperialists, which, reinforced by the Goths from Spain, and commanded by the Prefect John, made its appearance before the place. Having in his turn received reinforcement, Hossan again marched to the scene of action, defeated the prefect, and compelled him, with the remnant of his forces, to embark for Constantinople. Carthage was again taken and delivered to the flames. THE MAHOMETANS. 837 Having tlius expelled the forces of the empire from the contested shore, the Moslem commander was enabled to turn his arms against the hostile natives. These, headed by an heroic and patriotic queen, called Cahina, or the Sorceress, united so zealously in opposing their invaders, that Hossan, after repeated battles, was compelled to retire to the frontiers of Egypt. To prevent his return, Cahina caused all the country to be laid waste. The desired effect was not produced. The Moslems returned in increased numbers, and the heroic queen was defeated and captured. Refusing either to pay tribute or embrace Islamism, she was forthwith beheaded in presence of the Mahometan general. The victor, however, receiving an appointment to the government of Barca, incurred the jealous displeasure of Abd'alaziz, who stripped him of his offices, and reduced him to ruin — appointing in his place Musa, the former vizier of Babylonia, who was destined to perform greater achievements in the west than any of his predecessors. This celebrated conqueror, when he received the command of the Mos- lem forces in Northern Africa, although sixty years of age, was filled with ardour and the spirit of enterprise. His courage, gener- osity, and affability soon endeared him to the army ; and he resolved on the difficult attempt of subduing the warlike tribes who inhabited the range of Mount Atlas, and ravaged the plains beneath. He defeated them in battle, and his sons Merwan and Abd'alaziz pene- trated into their strongholds, and brought back immense booty and almost innumerable captives. These exploits soon restored him to the favour of the caliph ; and his ranks were recruited by volunteers, who came from all quarters to fight under so liberal and courteous a leader. His army no longer consisted of Mahometans alone. Great numbers of Jews, idolaters, and others, allured by the love of plunder and victory, hastened to enlist under his banner; and thus reinforced, he was enabled to overthrow the powerful Berber tribes of the Zenetes, the Gomeres, and the Mazamudas, who had joined in a formidable confederacy against the encroaching power. The naval exploits of Moawyah I. had opened the way for more extended enterprises ; and fleets from Syria and Egypt had already engaged their Christian enemies on the seas. By order of the caliph, Musa founded and completed an extensive dock-yard and arsenal at Tunis, whence his fleets, under the command of his son Abdolola, plundered the hostile coasts of Sicily. 22 338 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Abd'almalec, however, did not long survive this renewal of the Moslem successes. He expired at Damascus at the age of sixty, in the eighty-sixth year of the Hegira, leaving a reputation for talent and valour, as well as cruelty, superstition, and treachery. His son Waled succeeded without opposition to the power and splendour which already distinguished the court of Damascus. The great pas- sion of the new sovereign was for building, and many of the noblest edifices of the Mahometan faith, in various cities of the East, owe their erection to him. He constantly employed twelve thousand Avorkmen on the grand mosque at Damascus, which, to his deep regret, he did not live to see completed. While he thus devoted himself to works of art and refinement, or enjoyed the luxurious indolence of his seraglio, his lieutenants were widely extending his empire in various directions. His brother Moslema invaded Asia Minor, gained important successes in the province of Cappadocia, and subdued a great part of Pontus, Arme- nia, and Galatia. Khatiba, the son of the latter, the emir of Khorasan, equally enterprising, invaded Turkistan, defeated a great army of Turks and Tartars, and took their capital Bochara. He gained a yet more brilliant triumph in the reduction of the great city of Samarcand, which he made tributary, and where he erected a mosque, and made many converts to the faith of Islam. Mohammed Ibn Casem, another commander, gained great successes in Central India, and planted his standard on the banks of the Ganges. The fleets of Musa, commanded by Abdolola, continued to scour the Mediterranean, ravaging the coasts of Sicily and Sardinia, and carrying off immense booty and many beautiful captives. Aided by Abd'alaziz, another of his valiant sons, the governor subdued the kingdoms of Fez, Duquella, Morocco, and Sus, and brought nearly all Northern Africa fully xmder the sway of the caliph. His mod- erate and paternal government improved and conciliated the nations thus brought under subjection. As yet, the strong cities of Ceuta and Tangiers, at the Straits of Hercules, defied his arms. These important posts were now in the hands of the Gothic inhabitants of Spain ; and Musa resolved to complete his conquests by their reduc- tion. Tangiers, after an obstinate defence, fell into his hands; but Ceuta being ably defended by Count Julian, a distinguished Gothic noble, held out successfully. The Moslems, in repeated attempts to storm the fortress, were repulsed with great loss, and, after a siege of several months, began to despair of effecting their object, when THE MAHOMETANS. 339 a memorable occurrence not only completed their African acliieve- ments, but opened to them a new and surprising career of European conquest. CHAPTER II Y. THE CONUTJEST OF SPAIN, AND THE INVASION OP PRANCE. EoDERic, the last of the Gothic sovereigns of Spain, was at this time upon the throne of that country. He was addicted to pleasure and licentiousness ; and it is related by Spanish chroniclers that he had committed a disgraceful outrage upon the beautiful Cava, daughter of Count Julian, the governor of Spanish Andalusia and African Mauritania. Burning to avenge this injury, the haughty nobleman sought his Moslem adversary, and, depicting the feebleness and Tinpopularity of the Gothic monarch, invited an invasion of his country, Musa, fired with fresh ambition, obtained the consent of the caliph; and in the spring of the year 709, Tarik, an intrepid Saracen chief, was despatched with seven thousand men to com- mence the work of conquest. Landing at Mount Calpe, and con- ducted by the traitor Julian, the Moslem arms met with signal and immediate success. The king, hitherto immersed in luxury at his court of Toledo, was alarmed into action, and, with an hundred thousand men, took the field. His enemies, only a fifth of that number, were, however, emboldened by victory, and by the stern exhortation of their leader, who reminded them that no refuge but the sea was behind them. After seven days of skirmishing, a general engagement took place, on the banks of the river Guadelete, in Medina-Sidonia. Eoderic, by the fresh treachery of a powerful chief, was signally defeated, and, flying from the field, perished in the waters of the Gaudalquiver. The victorious general, pursuing his conquest, marched to the Bay of Biscay, the Moslems being eagerly assisted by the numerous Jews, who gladly took part in throwing off the yoke of the Gothic Christians, their ancient persecutors. Musa, emulating these exploits, speedily followed with his army, made fresh conquests, and even carried his standard beyond the Pyrenees. Tarik, of whose renown 340 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. he was jealous, was deprived of his command, and even insulted by a blow. The aged conqueror was meditating a march through all Southern Europe, when he was recalled by the caliph to give an account of his arrogance and mal-administration. His disgrace saved Europe from a formidable and perhaps fatal invasion. The conquest of Spain was fully completed in about five years, and the native inhabitants were permitted, on payment of a moder- ate tribute, to enjoy their laws and religion. Ere long the Saracen or Moorish governor again crossed the Pyrenees, seized on the French province of Languedoc, and overawed all the country between the mouth of the Ehone and that of the Garonne. In the year 731, the daring and ambitious Abd'alrahman, who then com- manded the Spanish province, made an expedition into France with a great army, defeated Eudes. the French commander, and overran all Aquitain and Burgundy. The conquest of France, and perhaps of all Christian Europe, was averted by the valour and skill of Charles Martel, then "mayor of the palace" to the feeble sovereign, Thierry II., and in fact the real ruler of France. He assembled a great force of French and Germans, and encountered the invaders, in the centre of the kingdom, between the cities of Tours and Poictiers. After a battle, which, from the number and obstinacy of the com- batants, lasted seven days, the Mahometan ranks, overpowered by the superior strength and stature of their adversaiies, met with a most disastrous defeat, and were compelled to retreat, leaving the bones of many thousands of their number upon the field. This battle, per- haps the most important in the history of the world, stayed for ever the tide of Mahometan invasion, at that time threatening to overflow even the imperfect Christianity, and the germ of civilization, which then existed in Western Europe. For although undoubtedly the Saracens afterwards attained a degree of learning and refinement as yet unknown among other people, the peculiar nature of their faith, and perhaps of their national character, has hitherto prevented any Mahometan nation from making advances which will sustain a com- parison with those of the Saxon and Norman races, impelled by the genius of Christianity. During the domestic dissensions which soon after agitated and divided the caliphat, the Saracens lost ground, and in the year 759, Pepin the Short, the son of Charles, and the inheritor of his genius and authority, succeeded in completely expelling them from their acquisitions in the south of France. THE MAHOMETANS. g^l THE DITISION OF THE CALIPHAT. THE DYNASTIES OF SPAIN, AFRICA, AND BAGDAD. FURTHER CONaiJESTS, DECLINE OF THE SARACENIC POWER. The Ommiades, or Syrian Caliphs, wlio for ninety years had held their dominion, founded on the ruin of the house of Ali and the descendants of the prophet, were, in the year 750, compelled to give place to a new power. Abu Moslem, the governor of Khor- asan, a devoted Fatimite, espoused the cause of Ildrahim, a descend- ant in the fourth degree of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet — an Arabian chief, whose name thenceforth distinguished the Abassides, one of the most illustrious of Mahometan dynasties. A bloody civil war ensued throughout the Moslem dominions ; but Marvan, the reigning caliph, was finally defeated, and lost his life, while con- tending for his throne in Egypt. Saffah, the brother of Ildrahim, gained possession of the sovereignty, and sought to cement his power by the extermination of the entire family of the rival dynasty ; a savage expedient, in attempting which, thousands of innocent per- sons were remorselessly assassinated. The new sovereign fixed his court at Cufa, but his successors transferred it to the magnificent city of Bagdad, erected by Almanzor, the second of the dynasty; and were thenceforward known by the celebrated title of "the Caliphs of Bagdad." During the reign of Sblyman, the successor of Waled, Constanti- nople, the capital of the Emperor Anastatius, had again sustained successfully a siege of thirteen months, during which many thou- sands of the fanatical Moslems had fallen under its walls (A. D. 718). In the reign of Mohadi, the third sovereign of the Abassidan line, the war with the empire was renewed, and tribute was once more exacted from the defeated Greeks. (During many succeeding centuries, the Moslems, from their various provinces, carried on an active warfare with the nations of Southern Europe, and gained permanent or temporary possession of almost every island in the Mediterranean. A body of the Saracens, in the middle of the ninth century, cruising from Sicily, even sailed up the Tiber, and laid 342 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. siege to Rome itself. They defeated the forces of the Emperor Lothaire, and the city was only saved by the courageous conduct of the Pope, Leo lY.; and by a tempest, which scattered and enfeebled the Moslem armament.) The new line of caliphs, though destined to enjoy a long and memorable sway over extensive dominions, were unable, in the universal confusion, to retain their empire entire. The young Abd'alrahman, a member of the house of Ommiah, escaping from the assassins of Saflfah, had taken refuge in Africa. The Saracen or Moorish colonists of Spain had always been deeply attached to the fallen dynasty, and now offered, their support and allegiance to the exiled adventurer. He landed amid general rejoicing, suc- ceeded in gaining the absolute sovereignty of the nation, and bequeathed his power to a succession of Ommiad princes. Refinement succeeded power, and at a time when nearly all Europe was sunk in barbarism, a brilliant and intellectual race of Mahometans occupied the fairest regions of the south-western peninsula. Nothing in Europe could compare with the splendour and luxury of the capital cities of Cordova and Granada. The most magnificent mosques and palaces attested the wealth of the sovereigns and their zeal for religion ; while the high advancement of learning and the sciences, made the court of the caliphs the frequent resort of men of intellect and attainments. In the eleventh century, the power of the Spanish caliphs, by that time tyrannical and luxurious, was overthrown, and the various districts, seized upon by powerful nobles, became divided into a great number of petty principalities. Thus the nation lost much of its power ; and the Gothic nobles, who still in a mountainous district maintained their indejDendence, commenced the work of restoring their country to the Christian rule. After many centuries of almost uninterrupted warfare, the Moors, continually losing ground, were reduced to the small but beautiful kingdom of Granada, one of the most enchanting regions on earth. From this last refuge, after a gallant and protracted defence, they were finally expelled, at the close of the fifteenth century, by the forces of Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Arragon. By the treaty of surrender, toleration and protection were solemnly guarantied to all the Moslems who should remain in Spain ; yet the most disgrace- ful persecution soon ensued, and great numbers were compelled to suffer martyrdom, or to embrace the faith of their conquerors. THE MAHOMETANS. 343 Finally, in tlie reign of Philip tlie Third, that weak prince was induced, by the influence of the clergy, to issue an edict, banishing the whole race from Spain, and confiscating the greater part of their property. They were transported by the royal fleet to Africa, where from want, exposure, and the attack of the Bedouins, an immense number of them perished in the desert. The few who offered resist- ance to the act of expulsion were, after a brave and patriotic defence in the mountains, overpowered and put to death. Thus ended the Moorish empire — ^the most enlightened, tolerant, and chivalrous, Avhich has ever occupied the Spanish peninsula. The loss of Spain to the Abassidan caliphs was, ere long, suc- ceeded by that of Egypt and Northern Africa. In the year 812, Ali Ildrahim, the viceroy of the latter country, set up an independent power in the north-western provinces. The Fatimite dynasty, which, about a century afterwards, succeeded to the sovereignty, by degrees gained possession of the whole field of Mahometan conquest. Moez, the last of this line, subjugated Egypt, and founded the city of Cairo. After his death, the country, for five centuries, remained in a dis- tracted and turbulent condition; numerous kingdoms acquiring a separate existence, among which were those of Morocco, Tunis, and Algiers. From these active maritime states, for many centuries, swarms of piratical cruisers issued forth, sweeping the seas, making descents upon the coasts of Europe, and carrying off great booty and innumerable captives. Though most of the Northern African states have been claimed as fiefs by the sultan of Turkey, and though they have generally admitted his nominal sovereignty, the throne of each has been the prey of a succession of adventurers, and its capital a scene of repeated treachery and bloodshed. Egypt, whose history has already been given, was held by various dynasties of powerful Mahometans. The most illustrious sovereign of this country was the famous Saladin, whose refinement, chivalry, and magnanimity illumine the dark and violent age in which he wore the crown. The house of the Abassides, after losing all their territories in the west, held in their capital of Bagdad a powerful and enlightened sway, for nearly two hundred years, over the yet extensive dominions which remained faithful to their interests. Their power, however, gradually succumbed before the various schisms which at this time distracted the Mahometan faith and divided the empire. Eadhi, the twentieth of the line, was the last who retained any political 844 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. importance: "the last," says the Arabian historian Abulfeda, "who harangued the people from the ptilpit, who passed the cheerful hours of leisure with men of learning and taste ; whose expenses, resources, and treasures, whose table or magnificence, had any resemblance to those of the ancient caliphs" (A. D. 940). For three centuries longer, however, the descendants of the prophet's family maintained a precarious semblance of state and authority, though usually completely in the power of others. The Turkish and Tartarian guards, which these sovereigns had intro- duced for their protectors, soon became their masters; and Bagdad was, for long periods, the prey of a licentious soldiery, more fierce and uncontrollable than the Mamalukes of Egypt or the Janissaries of Turkey. The governors of their various provinces were mostly enabled, by successful rebellion, to establish separate principalities ; and finally, in the year A. D. 1258, the hordes of Tartars, who, under Houlagou, the grandson of Zinghis Khan, were then overrunning western Asia, laid siege to Bagdad. After a siege of two months it was taken by storm, and the Caliph Motassem, the last sovereign of the Abassides, was murdered, with peculiar barbarity by the victor. u ti fl I i iLi Sa Avi, THE TARTAR CONQUESTS AND INVASIONS. The splendid and powerful dynasties founded in India by the Eastern Mahometans have already been described in the account of that country. A new and more terrible power than theirs was destined to whelm Asia in fresh calamities. Tartary, the Scythia of the ancients, and the "store-house" of innumerable warlike hordes, has always been inhabited by a fierce, nomadic, and preda- tory race. Gross in their habits, and puerile in their superstitions, these tribes have perhaps never been surpassed for personal valour and endurance, or for fixed unity and tenacity of purpose. " They are more obedient," says an ancient traveller, "unto their lords and masters, than any other, either clergy or lay people, in the whole THE MAHOMETANS. 345 world." Zingliis Khan, tlie most remarkable of tlie conquerors and devastators of Asia, was born A. D. 1154, of an imperial family in Central Tartary. Disinherited at the age of thirteen, by orphanage, he was educated and preferred to honour, by the khan of the Kareits, a friend of his father. Expelled in turn from this court, and suffer- ing great hardships, he finally acquired an independent power, and so aroused the superstitious deference of the natives, that his standard, when hoisted, attracted them in countless numbers. His jSrst exploit was the conquest of Northern China, from which five important provinces were soon dismembered. At this time (A. D. 1218) the vast territory extending from India to Turkestan and the Persian gulf was ruled in effect by a powerful. Moslem prince of the name of Muhammed. With equal folly and cruelty he had rejected a fr-iendly intercourse proposed by Zinghis, and had murdered his ambassadors. The Tartar sovereign, with an immense army, marched to avenge this outrage, and in a great battle, north of the Jaxartes, the fate of Western Asia was decided. The victorious barbarians at once overran the country, committing the most hideous murder and devastation. After having seized Persia and maiiy other provinces, the victorious ravager expired (A. D. 1227), while urging his sons to complete the conquest of the Chinese empire. His eldest son, Oktai, succeeded to the throne, and, for a century, during which the Zinghishanidan dynasty pursued its career of conquest and devastation, Asia presented a spectacle of war and massacre on a scale of unprecedented magnitude. The celebrated battles of the west are insignificant, compared with those in which hundreds of thousands of the ferocious Mongols engaged equal numbers of their less active and almost invariably defeated resistants. China, on which further encroachments had been made, and in which millions of the native inhabitants had been slaughtered, was finally, in the middle of the thirteenth century, completely con- quered by Kublai Khan, the fifth successor of Zinghis. The victor, in fruitlessly attempting the conquest of Japan, lost vast numbers of his people ; but nearly all the circumjacent king- doms of Asia fell under his sway. With a thousand ships he set sail for fresh conquests, and took possession of Borneo, in the Indian Archipelago. Bagdad had already been taken, and the last of the caliphs ignominiously put to death. Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine soon fell under the power of the Mongols. Their attack on Egypt was indeed repelled by the skill and bravery of 346 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the Mamalukes; and the Greek empire, from some unknown cause, escaped the fury of their attack. But Turkestan, Russia, and Hungary speedily fell before the number and ferocity of the invaders. In vain did the Pope remonstrate with the formidable potentate, whose armies threatened to overwhelm alike the Mahometan and Christian world. The khan himself claimed a spiritual supremacy, and would accept no terms but those of unconditional homage and submission. The domestic quarrels of the conquerors alone saved Europe from further devastation. About the year A. D. 1295, the dynasty of Zinghis fell to pieces, and the great Asian empire-acquired by his successors became divided into a number of kingdoms, under separate and rival chiefs of the Mongols. The tempest of Tartar invasion, after having been lulled for nearly a century, again commenced with additional fury. Timur, or Tamerlane,* a descendant of the relatives of Zinghis, and the most fortunate of Eastern conquerors, was born in April, A. D. 1336. He inherited the principality of Kesh in Transoxiana, and by his courage and patriotism, after a long and bloody contest, had succeeded in delivering his country from the tyranny of the Calmucs of Cashgar, and in acquiring extensive authority. By general con- sent, in the year 1370, he assumed the imperial title, and made the beautiful city of Samarcand his capital. He now resolved on fresh conquests, and the Mongol natives flocked eagerly round his standard. After desperate warfare, he became master of all Tartary, and as has been related in the description of India, made a careless and flying conquest of that wealthy region. Persia, in turn, was brought, by easy conquest, entirely under his sway. From this period, the history of the Tartarian sovereigns is prop- erly Mahometan. Zinghis was simply a deist, and his followers mostly idolaters, though toleration to all religions was extended by his successors. But the invaders had now, in a great measure, adopted the faith of the nations they had conquered. Timur was a zealous Mussulman of the sect of Ali, and had built a splendid mosque at Samarcand. His great rival and enemy, Bajazet, the sultan of Asiatic Turkey, and the terrible leader of the Ottoman forces, was also a devoted Moslem and a dreaded enemy of the Christians. A jealousy between these haughty sovereigns was readily excited by the protection afforded by each to the princes dethroned and exiled by the other. * literally, " Timur lenk;" i. e. Timur the lame. THE MAHOMETANS. 347 The contest between them was, however, deferred for two years, Timur being engaged in the conquest of Syria, and Bajazet in over- awing the Greek emperor at Constantinople. At length, in July, A. D. 1402, Timur, by a rapid march, penetrated the Ottoman king- dom, and the rivals, with immense forces, encountered on the plains around Angora. An overwhelming victory secured to Timur the kingdom of Anatolia and the person of his rival. The unfortunate Bajazet, during the brief remainder of his life, was exposed to igno- minious treatment, and is even said to have been confined in an iron cage by his barbarous conqueror. The victor did not long survive him. He perished of a fever, A. D. 1405, while marching with an immense army of cavalry to effect the reconquest of China. This extraordinary man presented a singular mixture of refine- ment and barbarity. He was a zealous patron of art and learning, and delighted in the society of men of genius and intellect ; yet his course was marked by the most ruthless massacre and unsparing destruction. Four pyramids, each composed of nearly an hundred thousand heads, marked the line of his Persian and Indian devastations. uciiAiriiljii AVi.Ao THE TURKS. THE SELJUKIAN DYNASTY, The Turks or Turkomans, a warlike race dwelling north-east of the Caspian Sea, had often been embroiled with the powerful sover- eignties, which, one by one, held their sway over Southern Asia. They had already made considerable encroachment, when, in the early part of the eleventh century, Seljuk, the chief of&cer of their sovereign, fled in disgrace with his family and adherents, into the territories adjacent to Samarcand; and, embracing the Moslem reli- gion, founded a fresh and formidable dynasty. The powerful Mahmoud of Ghizni, jealous of his increasing authority, had impris- oned his son Israel. This injury w^as avenged, in the reign of Musaood, son of Mahmoud, by an overwhelming invasion, headed by Togrul Beg, the grandson of Seljuk. The hostile armies met on the field of Zendecan, A. D. 1038. Masaood, after displaying the 348 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. utmost heroism, was defeated, and soon after perished. Persia fell into the hands of the victor, whO; with a mixture of policy and magnanimity, restored the caliph of Bagdad as his spiritual lord, and in return was invested with the control, as viceroy, of the whole world of Islamism (A. D. 1055). The alliance was cemented by a marriage of Togrul's sister with the caliph, and of the caliph's daughter with the victor. Alp Arslan (the Great Lion) succeeded his uncle Togrul on the throne of the conquered dominions, now extending from the Tigris to the Jihon (A. D. 1063). He made war upon the Greek empire, and gained possession, by conquest, of the important kingdom of Armenia. The Emperor Diogenes, by his valour and militar}^ skill, recovered some of his losses; but finally, in a great battle, was defeated and captured, by the Turkish sovereign (A. D. 1071). The victor behaved with the highest magnanimity, and when his captive, smarting under defeat, declared the fate which would have awaited him, if defeated. Alp smiled, and simply remarked that the sentiment was not that of a Christian. The emperor was set at liberty on reasonable conditions, which, however, he was not enabled to fulfil, being deposed by his rebellious subjects. The power and prosperity of the sultan continued to increase. The fairest portion of Asia was under his dominion, twelve hun- dred princes or chiefs waited his movements, and two hundred thousand troops followed him to battle. While engaged in the sub- jugation of Turkestan, the original seat of his family, he was mortally wounded by a prisoner of rank, whom, contrary to his usual clem- ency, he had ordered to a cruel execution (A. D. 1072). He was distinguished, like many other oriental conquerors, by a love of science and learning. His son, Malek Shah, was immediately placed on the throne, and was saluted as "Commander of the Faithful"' — a title now applied, for the first time, to any except the caliphs, who had been the pon- tiffs as well as the temporal lords of Islam. This sovereign, destined to carry the power and glory of his house to the highest point, secured his accession with some difficulty. In a most sanguinary battle, he defeated and captured his uncle Kadered, who had laid claim to the sovereignty, and who soon shared the usual fate of political captives in the East. His successes thenceforward were numerous and brilliant in the extreme, and by conquest and policy he gained vast accessions of dominion. THE MAHOMETANS. 349 " Persia was his, the emirs of Syria paid their submission of tribute and respect, and the appearance of the governor of Transoxiana, as a prisoner, at Ispahan, the capital of the Seljuk provinces, and the sultan's name on the coins of Cashgar, showed the extent of the power of Malek Shah in Tartary. Daily prayers were offered for his health in Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Bagdad, Rhei, Ispahan, Samarcand, Bokhara, and Cashgar. * * * In twelve journies, he encompassed twelve times the whole of his vast territories, dispensed the benefits of justice, and showed himself the father of his people. The pious Mussulman, in his pilgrimage to Mecca, blessed the sultan's name for the places for relief and refreshment which cheered the Arabian desert; and the afflictions of human nature were soothed and mitigated by the hos- pitals and asylums which he built. Under his patronage, the astronomers of the East engaged in the- reformation of the calendar. * * * A new era was now introduced into Muhammedan chronology, and the GelalcEan style is scarcely inferior in accuracy to the Gregorian calendar. Since the brilliant days of the Caliphat of Bagdad, letters had not been encouraged by a more enlightened patron than Malek, and a hundred poets sounded his praises in the halls of Ispahan. Mosques and col- leges displayed his love for religion and literature, and his useful magnificence was seen in his spacious high roads and bridges, and in the number of his artificial canals and irrigations."* Mucli of the credit due to this magnificence, hberalitj, and policy, belongs justly to his vizier, the celebrated Nedham, a man of extra- ordinary fidelity and shrewdness. On one occasion, when the sultan in a skirmish had fallen into the hands of the Greek emperor, with whom he was at war, the admirable management of his minister restored his liberty, and kept his authority unharmed. Notwith- standing these high services, the vizier, by a domestic intrigue, was deprived of his power, and was compelled to return to his master the turban and inkstand, the tokens of his rank. He complied, adding, however, the haughty message, that the prosperity of the empire was surrendered with these honoured insignia; and soon after, in the ninety-fourth year of his age, perished by the hand of an assassin despatched by his jealous successor in office. The remainder of his master's reign was short and inglorious. He fell a victim to his passion for the chase (A. D. 1092). The great empire which had been so rapidly formed, fell almost as rapidly in pieces ; and the successors of Malek, after a long suc- cession of civil wars, formed four contemporary dynasties, consisting of Persia, of the province of Kerman, of Syria, and of Anatolia or Asia Minor. The latter kingdom, wrested from the emperors, had been governed by Sulyman, a prince of the family of Malek, who fixed his capital at Nice, once famous in the history of Christian * Mills' "History of Muhammedanism." 350 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. theology. Another power was yet to arise amid the fragments of these kingdoms, and to maintain in different regions, and with varied success, a struggle, which has lasted even to the present day. LiiAirijiii oL i i i i THE TURKS, THE DYNASTY OF OTHMAN. THE OTTOMAN, OR PRESENT TURKISH POWER. A RACE of Turks, dwelling originally on the north of the Cas- pian, descended, in the middle of the twelfth century, into the province of Khorasan, and finally became the subjects and soldiers of the sultans of that province. Dispersed and routed by Zinghis, they subsequently rallied under the brave Gelaleddin, the son of the dethroned Muhammed ; and after the final defeat of that chivalrous prince, by Oktai, were again disbanded and dispersed. They entered the service of various chiefs, and in the commencement of the fourteenth century a portion of them, with Solyman Schah, passed into Asia Minor. Under his son Ortogrul, they served the Seljukian sul- tans of Iconium, and afterwards became united and mingled with that people, among whom they dwelt. At the death of Ortogrul, in 1289, his power devolved upon his son Othman, whose name has ever since distinguished the most powerful of the remaining Mahometan dynasties. This celebrated chieftain, the founder of the present Turkish power, from a predatory and comparatively humble career, emerged as a formidable invader and conqueror. Crossing the mountains, he entered Bithynia, then a province of the empire ; and during a con- test which lasted twenty-seven years, gained important acquisitions ; among them the celebrated cities of Nice, Nicomedia, and Prusa; the latter of which became, for a time, the Ottoman capital. He died in 1326, and was succeeded by his son Orchan. The latter completed the subjugation of the province, and his marriage with the daughter of the Greek emperor evinces the extent of his influence and the terror of his arms. His son, the THE MAHOMETANS. ^^^ celebrated Amurath, who came to tlie throne in 1360, subdued nearly all Thrace, surrounded the imperial capital by his conquests, and made Adrianople the seat of his European government. He refrained from the easy conquest of Constantinople, satisfied with the frequent attendance at his court and camp of the Emperor John Palasologus and his four sons. He turned his arms, however, against the fierce and warlike Slavonic nations dwelling between the Danube and the Adriatic; and in a series of successful campaigns reduced their insolence, and strengthened his own forces by great numbers of recruits selected from the strongest and most beautiful of the captive youth. This formidable corps, entitled the Janissaries, ("Yengi Cheri," or new soldiers,) for centuries after struck terror into the inhabitants of Christian Europe, and finally, at times, overawed their own masters, the sultans. At the battle of Cassova, the independence of the refractory tribes was finally crushed ; But Amurath, while walking over the field of battle, was mortally wounded by a Servian warrior, who started from a heap of bodies, and suddenly stabbed him in a mortal part (A. D. 1389). His son and successor, the famous Bajazet, during a reign of fourteen years, extended his conquests still more widely. After a career of successful invasion against both his Christian and Mahom- etan neighbours, he took the field with a large arni}^, and marched toward Central Europe. Sigismond, with the Hungarian army, reinforced by great numbers firom France and Grermany, encountered the infidel invader on the banks of the Danube. The Christians were completely defeated, and the greater part of them were slain or driven into the river. The victor, in the pride of his heart, now threatened the conquest of all Ital}^ and Grermany, and boasted that he would feed his horse with a bushel of oats upon the altar of St. Peter's itself A severe attack of the gout deferred the execution of this infidel design ; and the grand conflict with Timur the Tartar, in which he lost his kingdom and his liberty on the plains of Angora, averted the storm so dreaded by all Catholic Europe. After his death in captivity, (A. D. 1403,) his empire was dis- tracted by dissensions among his children until the year 1413, when Mahomet, the youngest, restored the unity of the empire ; and at his death in 1421, bequeathed it to his son Amurath II. Mahomet II., the son and. successor of the latter, a prince of great ambition and military genius, completed the destruction of the Eastern empire, 352 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. long since tottering to its fall. In 1453, lie besieged and took Con- stantinople, where the valiant and patriotic emperor, the last of the Constantines, died fighting sword in hand, while vainly withstand- ing the assault of the Moslems. - This beautiful and classic spot has ever since been the capital of the Turkish power, Prusa and Adri- anople sinking into provincial towns. Yet at no time have the intruders felt secure of a continued footing in Europe ; and it has always been common for many of them to enjoin the sepulture of their bodies on the opposite side of the Bosphorus, believing that their descendants will yet be eompelled to retreat into Asia. Under the successors of Mahomet, the Turkish power and ter- ritory continued to increase. Up to the time of Solyman the Magnificent (A. D. 1566), an active and valiant race of princes held the throne, and extended its dominions. Syria, Egypt, and all Greece, both insular and continental, were successively brought under their sway. Under Mahomet IV., the Janissaries, the most formidable body in their armies, were increased to the number of forty thousand. In the long and desolating wars, which for many years the sultans of Turkey waged against ,the European powers, their superior discipline and enthusiasm enabled them to cope against formidable odds, and to maintain possession of most of their conquests. The Mediterranean was for centuries the scene of fierce and obstinate contention between the Mussulmans and the maritime states of Southern Europe; and the scale of victory was almost equally balanced, each party, in turn, obtaining the ascendant. At the great naval battle fought in the Gulf of Lepanto, 1571, the Mos- lems sustained an overwhelming defeat from the allied Christians, under the command of the celebrated Don John of Austria. So important to the salvation of Christendom was this victory considered, that, on hearing of it, the Pope, in the joy of his heart, exclaimed, with a species of profane piety, "There was a man sent from God, and his name was John!" Hungary and Austria were the scene of long and destructive wars, in which, however, the invading Moslems were finally com- pelled to retreat. The decline of their power, indeed, commenced soon after the death of Solyman, and owing to a succession of weak and inactive sovereigns, and to the increase and jealousy of the gigantic power of Eussia, their influence and territories gradually diminished. Under the reign of Catharine II., their forces were again and again defeated, and their frontier pushed farther and THE MAHOMETANS. 353 farther backwards, while her haughty inscription on the southern highway* indicated her ambition, and foreshadowed the policy of her successors. That the Turkish-European empire has not been, ere the present time, crushed and absorbed by its ambitious rival, is due only to the jealousy of the other great European powers, which, for their own security, have in general protected the rights of the sultan, and insisted on preserving the integrity of his dominions. A refusal to sanction the Russian system of aggrandizement, was one of the leading causes which severed the alhance of Napoleon and Alexan- der, and embroiled Europe in the most destructive war which it has ever experienced. Undoubtedly, the dismemberment of the Greek provinces is the most disastrous event which Turkey has experienced in modern times. The revolution which commenced in 1821, and which, eight years afterwards, resulted in the independence of Greece, is perhaps the most striking instance of a revival of national spirit, after cen- turies of degradation, which modern times have witnessed. Few struggles for liberty have been more arduous and patriotic than that of the brave inhabitants of this classic land. The exploits of their most famoas ancestors were emulated by the devotion of Botzaris, Miaulis, and other distinguished chiefs in the late contest for freedom. The glorious defence of Missilonghi, and the "new Thermopylae" which their oppressors found in the narrow defiles of the Pelopon- nesus, proved sufficiently that much of the old heroic spirit yet existed in the bosoms of the Greeks. This long and disproportioned struggle would, however, probably, in the end, have proved unavailing, but for the intervention of the European powers, whose protection, for once, was extended over the cause of a patriotic and suffering people. On the 20th of October, 1827, the combined English, French, and Russian squadrons, under the command of Admiral Codrington, entered the Bay of Navarino, where the Turkish fleet, strongly reinforced from that of Egypt, lay at anchor. The allied armament had received strict orders not to engage in hostilities unless absolutely compelled ; but the rashness of a Turkish commander, who fired upon the advancing squadron, precipitated a general engagement. In this second Lepanto, the Mahometan fleet was almost entirely destroyed, and great numbers perished in their vessels or in the waves. A detachment of the * " This is the road to Byzantium." 23 354 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Frencli army was also landed, and the Turkish forces were com- pelled to retire. The Sublime Porte perceived the necessity of submission, and a new Grecian kingdom, comprising nearly all the celebrated classic states, was soon after erected, under the protection of the allied powers. Time, of late, seems doing its appropriate work among the Turk- ish Moslems, more rapidly than at any former period. Mahmoud, the late sultan, though exceedingly desirous of effecting reform, was impeded by a thousand prejudices and obstacles. In carrying out his measures, he was compelled to destroy, at one terrible massacre, in the streets of Constantinople, the greater part of his Janissaries, whose mutinous spirit had endangered his very throne. This renowned body, which had degenerated into a lawless and licentious soldiery, like the Praetorian bands of Eome and the Mamalukes of Egypt, was thus, perhaps of necessity, suddenly and fatally brought to an end. Abdul Meshid, the present sultan, was born in April, 1823, and on the death of his father Mahmoud, in 1839, succeeded to the throne. He is a young man of generous feelings, and though, like most oriental princes, somewhat addicted to sensuality, is believed to be deeply devoted to the welfare of his people. Eeform and the diffusion of civilization have always been his favourite objects; and the generous protection which he has extended to Kossuth and other illustrious Hungarian exiles, evinces a high spirit of independence and magnanimity. SPAIN. u iLj) il i i Ji iri i ANCIENT HISTORY OF SPAIN THE C AETH AGENI ANS, ROMANS, AND GOTHS. THE SARACEN CONQUEST. At a very early period, tlie mineral and agricultural wealth of the Spanish peninsula appears to have attracted the Phoenicians, the most commercial and enterprising people of antiquity. The city of Cadiz, it is supposed, was founded by them about one thou- sand years before the Christian era; and with their colonists, the Carthagenians, they became in time possessed of many settlements on the sea coast. The latter nation, having thus secured a footing, made strenuous efforts to effect the entire conquest of the country. The resistance of the natives was fierce and prolonged; but, though in alliance with the Komans, they were, for the most part, subdued, and brought under the yoke of their invaders. The successes of Asdrubal and Hamilcar were carried yet farther by the famous Hannibal, the hereditary and implacable foe of the Eoman people. A triumphal arch, erected by the latter to commemorate his victories, is still to be seen at Martorel ; being one of the few monu- ments which still exist of that extraordinary people. The siege and capture of the city of Saguntum, their faithful ally, aroused the Eomans to a more vigorous opposition. Large armies, headed by their ablest leaders, were despatched against the invaders, who had gained possession of all the southern portion of the peninsula. The contest was long and obstinate; but Scipio Africanus, the most renowned and able general of his day, finally succeeded in expelling the Carthagenians from the disputed terri- tory (B. C. 210). To convert the whole country into a Eoman province was, as 356 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. usual, the policy of the victors. The natives courageously withstood this oppressive project, and their resistance, protracted in various districts for nearly two hundred years, evinced the same stubborn and unyielding patriotism which has distinguished them in similar contests at a later day. During the civil wars, which for so many years distracted the commonwealth, Spain was the theatre of fierce contention, and frequently played an important part in the grand contest for empire, which finally resulted in the complete ascendancy of Caesar. Under Augustus, it was fully pacified and subdued ; and was, for some centuries, one of the most refined and wealthy of the Eoman provinces. It was the native country of the emperors Adrian and Trajan, of the philosopher Seneca, and the poets Lucan and Martial, as well as of many others highly distinguished in Eoman history. In the early part of the fifth century, despite the resistance of the native inhabitants, and the inefficient succours despatched by the Emperor Honorius, the barbarous tribes which had already over- whelmed France, poured across the Pyrenees, and soon overran the country. These invaders (the Alans, Yandals, and Suevi,) were soon after followed by a host of Yisigoths, under their king Altauf, who established himself in Catalonia, and founded the Gothic mon- archy of Spain. His successors speedily subdued or expelled the rival invaders, and greatly extended the limits of the new kingdom. A nominal sovereignty was still, for the most part, conceded to the Eoman emperor. The history of these early Grothic reigns aifords, in general, little matter of interest. The throne was frequently deluged with blood, and the government disturbed by conspiracy and rebellion. Eeli- gious persecutions, caused by conflicting opinions among the Christian inhabitants, raged with great fury. Euric, in the latter part of the fifth century, gained possession of Eastern Spain and Southern France, and shook off the allegiance which had hitherto been claimed by the emperors. Leovigild, a century later, succeeded in extending his control over nearly the whole peninsula. His war- like and legislative qualities strengthened and improved his kingdom ; but his character was tarnished by cruelty and avarice. The mon- archy was at times hereditary, and at others elective, and was the subject of such sanguinary contests as usually distinguish a rude and unsettled form of government. Early in the eighth century, Eoderic, the last of these Grothic SPAIN. 357 sovereigns came to tlie throne. He had been distinguislied by bis ambition and his opposition to the authority of Witiza, his prede- cessor; but on his accession, abandoned himself to ease and luxury in his capital of Toledo. A licentious outrage which he committed on a beautiful attendant of his queen, named La Cava, proved the source of his ruin. The injured damsel fled to her father, the powerful Count Julian, governor of Andalusia in Spain and of Mauritania in Africa. He was at this time making a gallant defence against the Saracens, who, under the celebrated Musa, had conquered all Northern Africa, except the province under his command. Enraged at the injury inflicted on his honour, he made peace with the enemy, and, painting in glowing colours the wealthy and unpro- tected condition of Spain, invited an invasion of his country. Waled, the caliph of Damascus, readily consented to a scheme so promising, and Tarik, an active and resolute Saracen chief, was des- patched with seven thousand men on a new career of conquest. On arriving at the hostile coast, to show his followers the futility of a retreat, he burned his galleys, and soon gained great successes. In the year 711, being reinforced, he encountered the Gothic king, whose force was vastly superior, on a plain near Xeres de la Fron- tera, on the banks of the Guadalete. The fiery enthusiasm of the Moslems could not be withstood by the Christian host, which vras greatly weakened by the treachery of Opas, a powerful chief, the bishop of Seville, and brother of the late monarch. The army of Eoderic was defeated with prodigious slaughter, and the unfortu- nate monarch lost his crown and his life. Seville and Cordova were speedily taken, and Musa, emulous of these successes, hastened over with his whole army, and pursued a fresh career of victory and conquest. A great part of the peninsula was speedily subdued; many of the inhabitants took refuge in France; great numbers submitted to the payment of tribute; and the shattered remains of the Gothic Christians, who still resisted, were forced to take refuge among the inaccessible mountains of Burgos, Biscay, and Asturias, in the north-west of Spain. 358 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. uJbXtilJTXdijil, ii THE FORMATION OF NEW CHRISTIAN STATES: ASTURIAS, NAVARRE, LEON, CASTILE, AND ARRAGON. CON TINUED CONTESTS WITH THE MOORS. UNION OF LEON AND CASTILE. On the disgrace and recall of Musa, the government of Spain was committed to his son Abd'alaziz, whose clemency, activity, and public spirit did much to repair the inevitable calamities of war. Alahor, his successor, emulated these excellent qualities in his administration, and resolved to carry the Moslem arms yet farther. Crossing the Pyrenees, he reduced a great part of the south of France, and returned in triumph. The Gothic nobles, though defeated and expelled, still retained their courage and their hopes, Don Pelagio, a prince of the royal family, was, in 718, again invested with the royal title; and from the mountainous province of Liebana, Avhich he held, defied the invaders, and defeated with much slaughter the armies which they sent against him. He soon gained possession of the Asturias, and multitudes of the Christians hastened to j)lace themselves under his protection. After holding the government of his little kingdom for nineteen years, he died, leaving a high reputation in the annals of Spain, as the founder of a new Christian monarchy. Don Alphonso, his son-in-law and second successor, (A. D. 742,) regained a great part of Galicia from the Moors, and further secured his mountainous kingdom by converting the level country at its base into a frontier of desert. By his great zeal for building churches, he acquired the appellation of the "Catholic" — a name which the Spanish sovereigns have ever delighted to assume. He died in 757. After the establishment of an independent Moslem sovereignty, under Abd'alrahman, the invaders made a fresh attempt to subvert the little Christian monarchy, but were defeated with great slaughter by Froila, the son of Alphonso. About the same time they received a fresh blow in the formation of the independent kingdom of Navarre, under Don Garcia Ximenes, a man of great and successful SPAIN. 559 abilities. These hostilities with the Moslems were occasionally interrupted by intervals of peace and alliance; and Mauregato, who gained possession of the Gothic crown in 783, fortified his power by conciliating the "Commander of the Faithful" at Cor- dova, and even by introducing a body of Saracens into his own dominions. Under Alphonso, styled "El Casto" or the Chaste, who ascended the throne in 791, the Spanish court was removed to Oviedo. Three years afterwards, a hostile expedition, despatched by Isseem, the Moorish sovereign at Cordova, was repulsed with much loss; and further successes again inspirited the Christians, Two fresh attempts, in the middle of the ninth century, under Abd al'rahman II,, shared a similar fate; but eight thousand troops, who were in turn despatched from Oviedo against the Moslems, met with fatal defeat and slaughter. Alphonso III., who in 866 came to the throne, strengthened his own and the Christian cause by a marriage with a princess of Navarre, and an alliance with that state against the Moslems ; and was thus enabled to pass the Douro, and gain some accessions of territory. The kingdom of Leon, from which the Spanish monarchs now took their title, was, in 884, still further strengthened by the rise of its renowned neighbour, the Christian principality of Castile. For a long series of reigns, the contests between the Christians and their rivals continued ; the former frequently sallying from their fastnesses in the mountains, and carrying off much booty from the inhabitants of the lower countries. Great numbers of slaves were also taken in these expeditions, and many small acquisitions of terri- tory were gradually made. Don Ordogno, who in 914 ascended the throne, reduced several of the Moorish towns, and signally defeated an army of eighty thousand men, which had been brought from Africa to oppose him. In 923 he made a fresh marital alliance with Navarre, and another successful campaign against the Moors. Eamiro II., in 932, carried his incursions yet farther to the southward; took the city of Madrid by assault, insulted the Moorish garrison at Tole- do, and returned with prodigious booty and a multitude of captives. Aben Ahaya, the Moslem prince of Arragon, was compelled to become his feudatory vassal. The latter entreated assistance from the sovereign of Cordova, who, with an army of an hundred and fifty thousand men, drawn principally from Africa, in his turn made a successful irruption into the Christian kingdom ; but was finally defeated by Eamiro, with 360 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. immense loss, on the plains of Simancas. Fresh and profitable expeditions of the Christians soon ensued. The Normans, who had already made troublesome descents on the coast of Galicia, about the year 970 made a formidable invasion of the Spanish territory, and marked their course with rapine and mas- sacre, until they were attacked and cut to pieces among the mountains of Castile. In the reign of Eamiro III., a few years afterward, a civil war broke out among the Spaniards themselves, and in a bloody though indecisive engagement, more are said to have fallen than in any battle with the Saracens. This disaster was succeeded, in 982, by a fresh irruption of the Moors, who, after gaining possession of the cities of Simancas and Zamora, marched into the Spanish kingdom, under Almancor the chief vizier of the king of Cordova. The Christians, under Bermiido II., despite a gallant resistance, were outnumbered and completely routed near the banks of the Ezla. Their sovereign, with all his court, retreated to Asturias, carrying the royal treasure and the bodies of his august predecessors. Leon, his capital city, was taken, and completely demolished by the victor, who, however, after meet- ing a vigorous repulse in Asturias, returned to his own country. In the following year, nevertheless, he gained signal advantages in Galicia and northern Portugal. Bermudo, with the assistance of Navarre and Castile, prepared for further resistance; and Almancor, powerfully reinforced from Africa, encountered the confederates on the plain of Osma. The Infidels were utterly defeated, losing, it is said, an hundred thousand men, besides their camp and baggage. The Moslem general, in despair, put an end to his life by starvation. Among the various Christian kingdoms which were now rapidly increasing in strength and number, we find an almost uninterrupted succession of alliances, inter-marriages, quarrels, and reconciliations. Despite, however, these domestic intrigues and hostilities, a continual warfare was carried on against the Saracens — sometimes in petty predatory excursions, and sometimes, by union of the Christian forces, in expeditions on a larger scale. Ferdinand, prince of Castile, who had also gained possession of Leon, was enabled, about 1140, to reduce many of their important strongholds, and even to compel the Moorish princes of Toledo and Saragossa to become his tributaries. Leon had been raised from its ruins, and on rebuilding the Church of St. John the Baptist, he compelled SPAIN. 361 the Moorish sovereign of Seville to send him the body of St. Isidore to be deposited in the sacred edifice. Alphonso yi., who in 1074 inherited the united kingdoms of Leon, Galicia, and Castile, made further acquisitions of territory, both from his Christian and Mahometan neighbours. He gained possession of Toledo, after four campaigns ; and, resolved to make it his metropolis, took much pains to people it with Christians. In Portugal he became possessed of several important places; but in defending his tributary, the Moorish prince of Huesca, sustained a severe defeat from his encroaching rival, Don Pedro of Arragon. He married Zaide, daughter of the king of Seville, a Moslem lady, who readily exchanged her religion for a Christian diadem. This Infidel alliance proved unpropitious. Having, with his ally of Seville, invited Joseph, the powerful sovereign of Barbary, to assist them in reducing the numerous Moorish principalities, that monarch, preferring to further his own interests, made himself master of Seville and other important cities ; conquered the greater part of Andalusia ; invested Toledo itself; and compelled the Spanish mon- arch to retire to his hereditary dominions. The reign of Alphonso is rendered illustrious by the exploits of the famous Gid^ Ruy Diaz de Yivar, the favourite hero of all Spanish ballads and legendary history. After a most brilliant career in arms, and having held the destinies of kingdoms in his hands, he was disgraced and banished by the king. His exile was attended by a body of faithful friends and followers, by whose aid he waged a par- tisan warfare against all his enemies, and became the especial terror of the Mahometans. He finally conquered Valencia, and established a kind of principality, which his chivalrous renown caused to be respected by all the surrounding powers. Toward the close of Alphonso's reign, his army experienced a terrible defeat from the African monarch, at Uclea, and his son, the young Prince Sancho, fell in the engagement. On the death of this sovereign, Alphonso, the king of Navarre and Arragon, took violent possession of his dominions, and for some time excluded the legiti- mate heir, Alphonso VII., who, however, by prudence and courage, finally regained possession of his crown. The latter also repelled a formidable invasion of Don Alphonso, king of Portugal; and, defeating the Moors with prodigious slaughter, drove them to the very gates of Cordova. So predominant were his power and author- ity, that he received the title of "emperor" from the surrounding 362 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. states. Strongly reinforced from Arragon and Montpelier, and from the Italian cities of Pisa and Genoa, he besieged and took the Moor- ish stronghold of Almeria, long a terror to the Christians, and the port whence had issued the most formidable piratical expeditions. At his death, in 1157, his dominions extended from the mountains of Biscay to those of the Sierra Morena ; and his imperial title, confirmed by the homage of Navarre and Arragon, commanded the respect of all his contemporaries. Under the inefl&cient rule of his sons, Sancho and Ferdinand, the Saracens speedily recovered many of their possessions which had been lost during the late reign; and the knights templars, who had hitherto defended the important town of Calatrava, were compelled to relinquish their undertaking. The king of Castile then offered it to any one who would undertake its defence. Raymond, the Abbot of Yitero, and Diego Velasquez, a Cistercian monk, undertook the honourable and dangerous office : twenty thousand followers enlisted under their banners; and the victorious result of their attempt caused the institution of the famous order of religious chivalry, celebrated under the name of the city which they kept so bravely. The Castilian successes, thus revived, continued to increase, and the division of the Christian states alone secured the Saracens from farther encroachments. At the close of the twelfth century a Castilian army, under the archbishop of Toledo, was despatched against the Moors of Andalu- sia. This prelate conducted with such severity, that Jacob Aben Joseph, the king of Morocco, set on foot a kind of religious crusade in behalf of his persecuted fellow-Moslems, and with a great force disembarked on the shore of Spain. Without waiting for the assist- ance of the neighbouring states, the king of Castile sallied out against the enemy, and encountered them in the vicinity of Alarcos. His army was cut to pieces, and he retreated to Toledo with the loss of twenty thousand men (A. D. 1195). Alarcos, Calatrava, and the surrounding country were immediately laid waste, and the clergy, wherever found, were put to death without mercy. The domestic quarrels of the princes of Leon, Castile, and Arragon, which now threatened their total destruction, yielded to the emergency; and, by a species of guerilla warfare common in Spain, the Moors were finally weakened, and compelled to retire into Andalusia. Peace was soon after concluded with the African monarch. Mohammed, his successor, in the beginning of the next century, SPAIN. 363 with, a great army again landed in Spain; and as it was evident that his object was the complete subjugation of Castile, Alphonso IX,, the sovereign of that state, invoked the religious feelings of his neighbours for assistance in preserving a Christian principality. By the sanction of the Pope, great numbers from France, Germany, and Italy hastened to his aid ; a grand rendezvous was held at Toledo; and in a decisive battle fought near Tolose, the Christian confederates gained a complete and overwhelming victory. The quantity of spears, javelins, and arrows found on the field was so great, that it is said to have served the victors with fuel for two days after the battle. In commemoration of this event, which determined the fate of the Spanish Moslems, an annual festival was instituted, entitled the "Triumph of the Holy Cross." The history of the Christian principalities, for a considerable time, presents nothing but domestic intrigues, quarrels, and jealousy. Though generally related or connected by marriage, these petty sovereigns appear to have omitted no opportunity of despoiling each other, when a favourable chance was presented. In 1219 the archbishop of Toledo assembled a numerous army for a fresh cam- paign against the Infidels, but lost ten thousand of his men in a fruitless attempt to take the fortress of Requena. Domestic dissen- sions, however, and division into numerous small principalities, greatly weakened the Moors, and prepared the way for their final overthrow and expulsion. They now sustained losses in Estrama- dura, which had hitherto defied its Christian assailants. In 1231, the states of Leon and Castile, bj the voluntary resigna- tion of the heiresses to the former, were solemnly united under Ferdinand, king of Castile — an event which made that state the most powerful on the Spanish peninsula, and opened the way for further union and consolidation. The Spanish Christians had, of late, made considerable advances in learning, and the arts and sciences. The celebrated University of Salamanca was founded, in 1222, by the king of Leon, and for many centuries maintained almost the highest reputation in Europe. About the same time Ferdinand of Castile founded the magnificent cathedral of Toledo, which is still the admiration of architects and travellers. 364 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. U M, dX i i 2ll dii i i i e FROM THE UNION OF LEON AND CASTILE TO THAT OF CASTILE AND ARRAGON, UNDER FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. The dominions of tlie chief Spanish monarcliy had become so extensive, that Ferdinand, anxious to secure their protection, offered many and successful inducements to those who should settle on his boundaries. The Mahometan king of Murcia sought his protection ; and even the powerful sovereign of Granada rendered homage and valuable tribute, for assurance of peace, and undisturbed possession of his domains. The Castilian sovereign also besieged Seville by sea and land, took it, after a siege of several months, and repeopled it with Christian inhabitants (A. D. 1248). His son Alphonso X., surnamed the Wise, made strenuous efforts to secure his nomination as emperor of the Grerman empire; but while engaged in foreign intrigues, his crown was repeatedly endan- gered by domestic conspiracy. On the election of his rival, Eodolph of Hapsburg, to the imperial dignity, he hastened to gain the influ- ence of the Pope, then the chief arbiter of European affairs ; but ere he effected any thing, was recalled by a formidable invasion of the Moors and Africans, and the death of his son Ferdinand. His second son, Don Sancho, soon afterwards, taking advantage of his father's age and unpopularity, procured his own elevation to the regency. The dethroned monarch sought and obtained the assist- ance of his hereditary foe, the king of Morocco ; but did not long survive these domestic injuries. He died A. D. 1284. The jealousy of Portugal and Arragon, and continual contentions for the crown, involved Castile in fresh war and domestic dissension. Some advantages were gained over the Moors, who, however, now stoutly maintained their ground, and even regained possession of the important fortress of Gribraltar. An invasion of Castile, under Henry de Solis, viceroy of Navarre, in 1335, was repulsed with great slaughter. Four years afterwards, Abul Hassan, the king of Morocco, enraged at the death of his son, who had fallen in fighting the Castilians, commenced hostilities, with a powerful fleet and army, in the most implacable manner. The Castilian fleet was SPAIN. 865 destroyed, and the city of Tarifa closely beset. By tlie assistance of Portugal and Arragon, however, he was repulsed and signally defeated. Algesiras, one of the strongest Moorish stations, was soon compelled to surrender. Gibraltar was besieged for twelve months, but was saved from surrender by a plague which broke out in the Christian camp, and carried off, among others, the king of Castile (A. D. 1349). Don Pedro, on whom, by this event, at the age of sixteen, the crown devolved, was a wretch of such brutal and unrelenting dispo- sition as to be distinguished by the title of "The Cruel." His severities produced revolt, which was suppressed and punished by executions, excessive in number and atrocity. His own brother, Don Frederic, and his cousin, Don Juan of Arragon, were inhumanly butchered in the royal palace. Others of his relations were barbar- ously put to death. Abu Said, king of Granada, with whom he was at war, submitted, and was received at court with apparent cor- diality ; but, to gain possession of his wealth, was suddenly exposed to insult and contumely, and was massacred, with all his attendants. The king's brother, Henry of Transtamare, who had escaped from his fury, raised a powerful force in France, under the renowned Bertrand de Guesclin, and asserted his pretensions to the throne of Castile. The tyrant, assisted by Edward the Black Prince, of England, was at first successful in this civil warfare ; but being finally defeated in battle, was slain by the hand of his enraged brother (A. D. 1369). The victor seized the crown, and wore it securely until his death, which occurred ten years afterwards. His son Juan, who succeeded him, instituted the renowned order of knighthood, styled that of "The Holy Ghost." Early in the fifteenth century, the Saracens, assisted by fleets from the piratical states of Africa, again resumed hostilities; but were defeated both by land and sea. A sanguinary war with Arragon, and a great victory over the Moors of Granada, securing a complete predominance over the latter, shortly afterwards ensued. During the reign of Henry IV., who came to the throne in 1453, Castile was the scene of a singular piece of rebellious pageantry. The marquis of Yillena, with other powerful revolted chiefs, caused a platform to be erected on the great plain near Avila, and on this, exposed to the view of the surrounding multitude, was placed an efiigy of the king, royally attired and seated on a throne, with crown and sceptre. His deposition was read aloud, and Villena, with the 366 TEE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. archbishop of Toledo and other chiefs of the conspiracy, stripped the image successively of all its regal habiliments, and finally kicked it from the throne, with much abusive language. His brother, the youthful Don Alphonso, was proclaimed in his stead. This piece of acting, however, proved easier than an actual de- thronement; their young protege died suddenly and mysteriously, and the king secured his crown by acknowledging his sister, the infanta Isabella, as his rightful successor. This princess, so celebrated in historj'-, had refused to accept the crown at the expense of her brother's interest. Her high prospects of dominion induced many of the surrounding princes to seek her hand. Ferdinand, heir to the crown of Arragon, was the favoured suitor ; and the death of Henry, in 1474, and that of the king of Arragon in 1478, at length united these powerful and often hostile kingdoms, as it were, under a single sovereignty. CHAPTEH I? FERDINAND AND ISABELLA. SUBJUGATION OF THE MOORS. CHARLES I. (THE EMPEROR CHARLES V.) The celebrated sovereigns v/ho now respectively held the thrones of Castile and Arragon, though firmly united, rather by policy than affection, were not devoid of a certain jealousy of each other's share in the administration. Nevertheless, by their wise and harmonious regulations, they speedily restored prosperity to the nations so long- disturbed and laid waste by civil war. The establishment of that horrible tribunal, the Inquisition, caused by the fanaticism of Tor- quemada, the queen's confessor, and by the bigoted compliance of the sovereigns, soon followed' — an event which, for centuries, entailed the severest evils on the country, and produced the worst possible effect upon the national character. The first consequence of its severities was to drive into exile a great number of Jews and Mahometans, who had heretofore enjoyed toleration. It soon became evident, indeed, to the unfortunate Moors that the day had arrived when the beautiful land, won by the valour of their SPAIN. 367 ancestors, must be finally abandoned to its original possessors. The delighful kingdom of Granada was now the only independent prin- cipality remaining; and the sovereigns, incited by bigotry and ambition, had fully resolved upon its subjection. The domestic quarrels of the Mahometans facilitated their views. The latter lost town after town, and were finally cut off from communicating with Africa, and beleaguered in the valley of Granada, and soon in the city itself For eight months, with an army of seventy thousand men, the king and queen besieged this unfortunate capital, the last stronghold of the Moors ; and many romantic and chivalrous deeds were per- formed, both by the Saracens and their besiegers. The city was finally compelled to surrender, and its splendid palaces, fountains, and gardens, for nearly eight centuries the delight of the Moorish sovereigns, fell into the hands of the victors (A. D. 1492). The unfortunate king, Abu Abdallah, departed for Africa. With his train, he paused upon the summit of a mountain which commanded the last view of his kingdom, and wept at the loss of this beautiful inheritance. The place is still called "El ultimo suspiro del Moro;" "the Moor's last sigh." The subjected Mahometans, though at first assured of toleration, were all, as will be seen, eventually driven from the country. At the same time with these signal successes, a glory far more real and permanent was acquired hj Isabella in her patronage of Columbus, the greatest name in the annals of navigation or discovery. This illustrious man, after half a life-time spent in vainly endeav- ouring to secure the means for his noble undertaking, was enabled, by the assistance of the queen, to fit out three small vessels, in which, on the 3d of August, 1492, he set sail in quest of u.ndiscovered worlds. The brilliant and wonderful success which awaited him, and the important and interesting part which the Spaniards after- wards played in the newly-discovered hemisphere, are matters rather of American than of European history. Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was about this time married to Philip, archduke of Austria, sovereign of the Netherlands, and son of the Emperor Maximilian. This imion resulted in the birth of a son, destined to inherit vast dominions, and to acquire by far the most conspicuous place in European war and policy. To this grandson, named Charles, Isabella at her death bequeathed her kingdom, leaving the regency with Ferdinand until the 368 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY prince should come of age. The latter, assisted by his able adviser, the Cardinal Ximenez, continued to hold a firm and succesful sway over the greater part of Spain, and even enlarged his territo- ries by forcible acquisitions from France. His distinguished general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, entitled the "Great Captain," had already gained for the Spanish crown the important principality of Naples. At the death of Ferdinand, which occurred in 1516, all his dominions, with those of Isabella, devolved upon his grandson, who was immediately acknowledged, under the title of Charles I. The talent and policy of the new monarch soon gained him a fresh extension of territory ; and at the death of Maximilian, in spite of the opposition of his rival, Francis I., king of France, he was in 1519 elected emperor of Germany. Leaving Cardinal Adrian as regent of Spain, he betook himself to his new dominions ; and was soon engaged in that sanguinary war with the French monarch which so long ravaged the plains of Italy. The battle of Pavia, in 1524, placed at his disposal the person of his rival, and Francis only regained his liberty by a promise of the cession of much territorj^, and the surrender of his two sons as hostages. Secure in his own kingdom, however, he immediately violated his agreement, receiving absolution from the Pope; and soon effected a league hostile to the emperor, with the Pope, the king of England, the Swiss, and several of the Italian states. This formidable alliance, which assumed the title of the "Holy League," met at first with defeat and disaster. The imperial forces took Milan and Eome, and committed the greatest devastations throughout Italy. Neither age nor sex was spared, and the ferocious Spaniards, their cruelty for once overcoming their superstition, tortured and mur- dered the Catholic prelates indiscriminately with the rest. The Pope himself, Clement YIL, was imprisoned until he should con- sent to pay an enormous ransom. Perceiving the general odium which these deeds occasioned in the Catholic world, Charles, in the most hypocritical manner, professed his regret, and even ordered prayers to be put up in all the churches for the Pope's liberation — a pious wish, which a word to his ofiicers in Italy would have gratified. French arms, supported by an English subsidy, however, soon altered the aspect of Italian affairs ; Clement was released ; and in 1529 a peace was definitely concluded, on very expensive terms to the king of France. The important events in German history which succeeded these transactions, hardly belong to the present subject. Spanish Costume, OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, Spanish. Costume, Oi^ TUS; SIXTEENTH CfiNTUHY Spanish Ccrtume, THE FIFTEENTH CEN'i-URT. Spanish Costum'=^, OF THE S EVENTEF, NI'H CiLNTDRY SPAIN. 369 A maritime war witk the Infidels was still actively carried on, and large sums were voted by the Castilian states for the prosecu- tion of this ancient quarrel. Barbarossa, the piratical monarch of Algiers and Tunis, had long ravaged the southern shores and the islands of the Mediterranean ; and the emperor was finally induced to take up arms in person for the suppression of his power. With a powerful armament, he set sail for Africa; and after reducing the strong fortress of Goletta, defended by six thousand Turks, proceeded to Tunis. A vast number of the inhabitants were massacred by his enraged soldiery ; and having established Muley Hassan, the deposed monarch, as a mere viceroy of his own, the emperor returned. The war with France was soon renewed by the pretensions of that power to the duchy of Milan. Both parties again took up arms, and Charles, with fifty thousand men, marched to invade the southern provinces of France, while his generals made a similar attempt in Champagne and Picardy. Both expeditions were unsuc- cessful, and after experiencing great losses from famine and disease, the invaders were compelled to retreat. Elated at this good fortune, the French in their turn commenced hostilities in Flanders and Italy; and soon shocked the proprieties of Christian Europe by entering into an alliance with the Turkish emperor, Solyman the Great, the determined foe of their enemy. By the intervention of the Pope, peace was again restored. ; In the Spanish Cortes^ or assembly, the nobles and prelates had opposed the levying of a certain tax. The emperor hereupon dis- missed the convention, and from that time ceased to summon either of the privileged orders on a similar occasion. While irritated by this opposition, he received news of the revolt of Ghent, one of his principal Flemish cities. He hastened thither, and, unmollified by the immediate submission of the citizens, punished their defection with numerous executions and banishments, and with the imposition of onerous burdens (A. D. 1540). The difficulties in his own kingdom, a new war with France, and the alarming successes of the Turks in Hungary, brought the empe- ror, hitherto haughty and persecuting, to make some concessions to his Protestant subjects in Germany. Having by this act of concilia- tion obtained supplies, he made an expedition against Algiers. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was compelled to retire with much loss. After further indecisive hostilities with France, peace was once more concluded by the mutual restoration of certain conquests. 24 370 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. Concluding a disadvantageous peace with, tlie Turks, he entered into a solemn league with the Pope for the extirpation of heresy; but various misfortunes awaited him, especially in Italy, where his forces were defeated with great slaughter. Sienna threw itself into the hands of France, and the Turks gained possession of Transylva- nia. The marriage of his son Philip with Mary, queen of England, seemed in some degree to compensate these losses by a prospect of annexing that important island to his dominions. At length, in the year 1555, wearied by public business and the cares of empire, he resolved to resign his crown to his son Philip, and retire to seclusion and rest for the remainder of his days. At a public assembly at Brussels, he renounced the government of the Netherlands to his son, and soon afterwards that of Spain and the vast acquisitions in America. Of all his immense possessions, he reserved for himself only a pension of an hundred thousand crowns ; and, with a few attendants, retired to a small dwelling near the monastery of St. Just. Here, for a little more than two years, he occupied himself in devotion or quiet amusement, and in 1558 died, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Daring the forty years in which he had controlled the destinies of Spain and of great part of Europe, the most important events had transpired. The Reformation, in spite of fierce and cruel opposition, had continued to proceed with giant strides. The most extensive and wonderful conquests had been made in the western world ; and Spain, which had so suddenly risen into importance, perhaps reached under Charles the acme of her greatness. The numerous and deso- lating wars which his pride, ambition, and bigotry had caused, though inflicting great injuries on his subjects in Italy and the Netherlands, had only increased the reputation of Spain, and the dread of her power among the surrounding nations. CHAELES I. OF SPAIN (THE EMPEROR CHARLES Y OE GERMANY), RESKJNl NR 'I HE rR(>-SVM TO HIS RON PHIT.IP In n great n.ssenil.lj, the eiaj)eror recounted his various civil n.ud uilitary services to the State, and declared his intention, heing ■worn out "with the cares of public life, to I'esign the hurden of royalty to his son. Having addressed a fe-w impressive -words to the latter, -who knelt, and kissed his hand, Charles solemnly divested himself of his numerous dominions, and hesfowed them on the prince. He then retired tc a secluded abode, where the bviei' I'emainder of his life "WHS paosed in t rmiqu illity and devotion SPAIN. 871 CHAPTER ?, FROM THE ABDICATION OF CHARLES I. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES II. THE LAST MONARCH OF THE AUSTRIAN LINE. Philip II., wlio thus in 1555 ascended the Spanish throne, inherited the feuds which his father, overwearied with contention, had laid down. A truce for five years, which he had concluded with France, was broken up by the intrigues of the Pope. To overawe the latter, a force of ten thousand men, under the duke of Alva, was despatched into his dominions, where a French army supported his authority. A force of fifty thousand, reinforced from England, was assembled in the Netherlands, and placed under command of the duke of Savoy, one of-the ablest generals of his time. He defeated the French with great loss before the contested town of St. Quentin, and made pris- oner of their leader, the gallant Montmorency. Other advantages followed ; and nothing but the indecision of Philip prevented his forces from marching in triumph to Paris itself Henry II., king of France, immediately recalled the duke of Guise from Italy, and that brilliant commander, by the capture of Calais and Thionville, revived the spirits of the nation. The hostile armies, in great force, were encamped near each other on the frontiers of Picardy; but negotiation prevented further hostilities; and in 1559 a peace was concluded by the marriage of Philip with the daughter of Henry — ^his first wife, Mary of England, having lately expired. An expedition despatched for the recovery of Tripoli, under the duke of Medina Cseli, met with signal disaster, being surprised by Piali, the Turkish commander, with the whole naval force of the Ottoman empire. Forty gallies were sunk or captured by the Infi- dels. A great armament, fitted out in turn by the sultan and the dey of Algiers, however, received a sharp and decisive repulse from the Christian garrisons of Oran and Mazal quiver (A. D. 1563). These hostilities induced fresh severities toward the unfortunate Morescoes, or Moorish inhabitants of Spain, and prepared the way for their ultimate expulsion. About this time Philip transferred his court from Toledo to 372 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Madrid, and issued a formal manifesto, annexing all the Spanish- American discoveries to the crown of Castile. His son, Don Carlos, who had formed an intention of retiring from the kingdom, was placed in confinement, and soon afterwards died. A tyrannical edict, enforcing an entire change of the language, customs, and national habits of the Morescoes, was met in Granada by a spirited revolt, and the Mahometan inhabitants, proclaiming a king of their own, maintained a determined resistance for several years, during which some of the finest provinces in Spain were depopulated by civil war. The rebellion was finally suppressed, with the death of the Mahometan leader. At this time (A. D. 1571) Don John of Austria, brother of the king, with a large force of Christian confederates, gained a most splendid naval victory over the Turks in the gulf of Lepanto. Fifty-five of the Infidel galleys were destroyed, and one hundred and thirty were taken. On the death of Henry of Portugal, the Spanish monarch laid claim to the vacant throne ; and after two victories, gained by his general, the duke of Alva, succeeded in obtaining a reluctant sub- mission to his pretensions. Appointing a regent, he returned to Spain, where his attention was soon engaged by preparations for the most formidable expedition which Spain had ever despatched to a hostile coast. This mighty armament, called the "invincible arma- da," was destined for the subjugation of England, and its forcible conversion to the Catholic faith. With thirty thousand men, in an hundred and thirty vessels, it sailed from Lisbon on the 27th of May, 1581. Tempests and the active annoyance of the English fleet, however, effected the complete destruction or dispersion of this vaunted expedition ; and the English, in their turn, assuming the offensive, made successful descents upon the Portuguese coast, took the city of Cadiz, and did immense damage to the Spanish marine. A powerful fleet, which was again fitted out to avenge these injuries, shared a similar fate with the armada, being almost entirely destroyed by storms, or driven back to the port of Ferrol. The king expired in 1597, in the seventy-first year of his age, and in the forty-second of a reign distinguished by selfishness, bigotry, and disappointed ambition. His son Philip IH., upon the death of Elizabeth of England, con- cluded peace with her successor, the mean and pedantic James I., at whose court Spanish influence was thenceforth predominant. A destructive war with the United Provinces of the Netherlands, was SPAIN. 373 also terminated ; and these patriotic states, which had suffered the most cruel persecution under the late monarch and his general, the remorseless duke of Alva, subsequently, after a noble and protracted struggle, obtained their independence. The intolerance of the eccle- siastics, in 1609, occasioned a fresh edict for the expulsion of the Moors ; and these unhappy people were, on several occasions, trans- ported or banished to Africa — a piece of barbarous severity which cost the Spanish crown the loss of several hundred thousand of its most useful and industrious subjects. In 1619 the king made a tour through Portugal, and was received with magnificent demonstrations. In a full assembly of the states, his son was acknowledged heir- apparent to the Portuguese crown. Hostile demonstrations in Switzerland and Italy were suppressed by prompt and decided movements, and Philip, after a reign of twenty- three years, distinguished by no very brilliant national achievements, expired, and left the crown to his son Philip IV. (A. D. 1621). Under the rule of this prince and his indiscreet minister Olivarez, Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke, and proclaimed as her king, under the title of John IV., the duke of Braganca, the founder of a new royal dynasty. The province of Catalonia revolted, and the Spanish arms were completely unsuccessful in attempting to suppress this rebellion or to recover the forfeited crown of Portugal. The unfortunate and unpopular minister was disgraced and banished. Fresh reverses and signal defeats by the Dutch and the French soon ensued (A. D. 1645). The war with Portugal was for many years obstinately continued ; but in 1661, the Marquis de Carracena, commanding the Spanish forces, was defeated with immense loss on the plain of Montes Claros. Four thousand veteran soldiers of his army were slain, and a greater number taken prisoners. The Portuguese immediately invaded Andalusia. The king did not long survive these successive misfortunes. He expired in 1666, in the forty-fifth year of a reign continually troubled by insurrection and warfare, mostly disastrous. His son Charles II., at the age of four, succeeded him, under the regency of the queen- mother, who acknowledged the independence of Portugal, and con- cluded a dishonourable peace with Louis XIV., king of France. After the young monarch attained his majority, the queen, who, much to the detriment of the nation, had long controlled its interests, was removed from court, and the chief power became vested in Don 374 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY.. Juan, tlie governor of Arragon, an illegitimate brother of the late king, and a man of high talent and sagacity. His death restored her to her former position, and the country, from mal-administration, suffered exceedingly. France and Portugal made serious encroach- ments on the Spanish territory, and peace could only be obtained on the most humiliating and disadvantageous conditions (A. D. 1684). The insolence of Louis XIV., five years afterwards, occasioned a renewal of hostilities, in which Spain succeeded in coping with her adversary with a more favourable result. The arrival of great quantities of silver from her wealthy colonies in America enabled her to protract the contest upon more advantageous terms. At the peace of Eyswick, in 1697, most of the recent conquests were mutu- ally restored. The king was without offspring, and the intrigues and clamours respecting the succession deprived him of peace. His disappoint- ment in regard to heirs was supposed to be the result of witchcraft or the malignity of some evil spirit; and accordingly, he was sol- emnly exorcised, but, as may be supposed, without any satisfactory effect. A partition of the Spanish empire, at his death, had already been resolved on by the principal powers of Europe ; but by the influence of the Pope and his confessor, he was prevailed on to make a will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of his eldest sister and of Louis XIV. He soon after expired, in the thirty -fifth year of his reign, and with him ended the branch of the house of Austria, which had given five sovereigns to the Spanish nation (A. D. 1701). CHAPTER ?L THE HOUSE OF BOUEBON, UNTIL THE PRENCH REYaiUTION. The new sovereign was received with much loyalty and enthu- siasm ; and, by his kindness of heart, aiFability, and clemency, con- ciliated the hearts of all. The foreign relations of Spain were now for a considerable time managed by Louis, whose intrigues had SPAIN. 375 placed Ms grandson on the throne; and whose exultation at the success of his schemes had broken forth in the significant remark that "the Pyrenees were no more." An insurrection in Naples ere lono- compelled the youthful monarch to embark in person for that valuable dependency of the Spanish crown ; and by his clemency and generosity, he soon revived a spirit of loyalty and content. Not long afterwards, he highly distinguished himself at the battle of Lazara, in the war which the imperial and allied forces were then waging against France. On returning to his kingdom, the most formidable difficulties beset his throne. The "war of the succession," occasioned by the ambition of the house of Austria and the anti-Gallican enmities of William III. of England, immediately broke out. The Germanic empire, with England, Holland, and other continental powers, had resolved to check the increasing power and ambition of the French monarch. In accordance with this scheme, the Archduke Charles of Austria, great-grandson of Philip III., supported by these allies and by Portugal, laid claim to the crown of Spain, and was pro- claimed at Yienna, under the title of Charles III. The important fortress of Gibraltar was taken by an English squadron, under Sir George Eooke. An attempt to regain it was unsuccessful, and was attended with prodigious loss. The Portuguese soon gained pos- session of several important towns ; and the national embarrassment, caused by these losses, and by the entire destruction of the Spanish commerce, was yet further augmented by the popular prejudice against French customs and influence. An English fleet, under the earl of Peterborough and Admiral Shovel, landed two thousand men at Barcelona. The city was taken, and shortly after all Catalonia and Valencia acknowledged the claim of the archduke. The king hastened to the scene of action, assisted by the French; but was compelled to make a disastrous retreat. The chief nobles being convoked, announced their determination steadfastly to support the new dynasty; and Madrid, which had been taken by the allied forces under the archduke and Peterbo- rough, was soon reconquered by the rightful monarch. In 1707, the confederates, under the Marquis de las Minas and the earl of Gal way, again took the field with sixteen thousand men. They sustained, however, a most overwhelming defeat at the battle of Almanza, and their standards, baggage, and artillery fell into the 376 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. hands of the royal forces. Arragon and Valencia were severely punished for their late defection. In a subsequent campaign, the. pretender, by a victory of his general, Count Staremberg again gained possession of the capital; but was soon compelled to retire, and experienced such further dis- asters as induced him to relinquish his attempts, and to return to his hereditary dominions. In 1713, a peace was concluded, by which the title of the Spanish house of Bourbon to the crown of Spain, America, and the Indies, was formally recognised by Austria. The kingdom, in an interval of peace which succeeded these civil dissensions, sloAvly recovered its prosperity; and by the talented administration of Cardinal Alberoni was once more placed in a respectable and somewhat formidable European position, Philip V. expired in 1746, after a reign of nearly forty-six years, a great part of which had been disturbed by faction, rebellion, and foreign interference. The reign of his son and successor, Ferdinand YL, was marked by no events of much national importance. At his death, in 1759, his brother, Charles III,, who had held the crown of Naples, suc- ceeded to the throne. His attachment to the interests of his family in France speedily involved him in war with Great Britian and Por- tugal ; which, however, after some disasters to Spain, was ended by treaty in 1763, In attempting to introduce the French dress and customs into his kingdom, the king strongly provoked the national prejudices and antipathies of the Spaniards, An edict, suppressing flapped hats and long cloaks, their apparel from time immemorial, excited the most violent insurrections. In Madrid eighty of his sol- diers were killed, and the fury of the popvilace was only appeased by the dismissal of his minister and the annulment of the obnoxious requirement. The Jesuits, whom the king suspected of fomenting these disturbances, were, not long afterwards, to the surprise of all Europe, expelled from the kingdom in a body. In 1775, the most extensive preparations were made for an inva- sion of Algiers, which by its piracies still continued a pest to all the Christian nations on the Mediterranean. An immense armament, commanded by Don Pedro Castejon and Count O'Eeilly, proceeded to the Infidel sea-port, and effected a landing ; but after an obstinate engagement of thirteen hours, was compelled to reembark, and leave the enterprise unaccomplished. Four years afterwards, Spain took the part of France in her SPAIN. 377 hostilities with Great Britain, and made strenuous efforts, tliougli without success, to regain the fortress of Gibraltar. The British settlements on the Mississippi were indeed reduced ; but the Spanish marine suffered several severe reverses from the superiority of that of the enemy. The siege of Gibraltar, which had been for a long time fruitlessly protracted, was in 1782 renewed with great vigour. An hundred and seventy pieces of the heaviest artillery played without intermis- sion upon the devoted town, which was soon laid in ruins, with the most terrible carnage among its unfortunate inhabitants. The gar- rison, protected by their natural and almost impregnable defences, suffered comparatively little, and even made a daring and successful sally, by which a great part of the enemies' works were destroyed. Fort St. Philip, however, after a long and gallant resistance, was compelled to capitulate to the united French and Spanish forces ; its few remaining defenders, as they laid down their arms, exclaiming with energy, that they surrendered them to God, and not to the enemy. A grand attempt for the reduction of the chief citadel was now made. The army, increased by French auxiliaries to forty thousand men, pressed the attack vigorously from the land, while a number of floating batteries, of the most powerful construction, played upon the fortress from the water. The allied fleet, overwhelming in force and number, cruised off the entrance of the straits to prevent any succour despatched to the garrison by sea. So certain was the fall of this long-disputed stronghold considered, that the Spanish nobility thronged to the scene, and the French princes repaired thither from Versailles, in full expectation of witnessing the humiliation of the British. The latter, only seven thousand in number, under their brave commander, General Elliot, determined to resist to the last. For many hours the fortress sustained a tremendous fire, the heavi- est and most incessant which had yet been known in warfare; but finally the destruction of the floating batteries by fire, and the panic which this occasioned among the besiegers, saved the garrison from their immediate danger. The attempt to gain possession by storm was relinquished, though a close siege by a powerful military and naval force was still continued. Nevertheless, Lord Howe, the British admiral, in spite of the greatly superior force of the enemy, sailed through the straits in a tempest which dispersed their vessels, and fully relieved the garrison. 378 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. A treaty of peace was signed in 1783, and the immense military preparations, provided for the reduction of Gibraltar, were directed against Algiers. That piratical city was accordingly bombarded for two successive years, with no other result than the infliction of considerable damage; and in 1786, by the intervention of the Sub- lime Porte, a treaty of ]3eace was concluded, by which the war between Spain and the African Mahometans, waged for so many centuries, was brought to a close. Florida Blanca, the prudent and moderate minister of Charles, made several internal improvements, and succeeded in materially checking the power of the Inquisition. This horrible tribunal, which, in the reign of Philip V., had consigned three thousand persons to the flames, the galleys, or perpetual imprisonment, exercised its oppression during this reign upon only sixty victims — an improve- ment in some degree due to the more enlightened spirit of the age, and partly to the horror which its atrocities had excited in other European nations. The brief remainder of the king's reign was harassed by domestic intrigue, and saddened by domestic misfortunes. He expired in 1789, in the seventy-third year of his age, and the twenty -ninth of his reign. His son Charles lY., at the age of forty, succeeded to the crown. He was a prince of very moderate abilities, and became the object of general ridicule from his wilful blindness to the utter profligacy of his wife, the infamous Louisa Maria. Her influence soon raised her chief lover, Manuel de Godoy, to the highest rank of the nobility, and placed him at the head of political affairs. CHAPTEH TIL CHARLES IV. ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE. ABDICATION OF THE KING. Spain, like most of the other European nations, was speedily involved in the great struggle arising from the French Eevolution. The king, anxious to save the life of his relative, the unfortunate Louis XVI., had addressed a letter in his behalf to the sanguinary SPAIN. oyg National Convention. His application was sullenly rejected, and on the 4tli of March, 1798, the rash and irritable faction which then controlled the destinies of France declared war against the Spanish government— alleging as the principal cause this very justifiable interference. A powerful Spanish army, reinforced by Portuguese auxiliaries, hereupon crossed the Pyrenees, under Picardos, the gov- ernor of Catalonia, took the important frontier fortress of Bellegarde, and wintered in the enemies' country. In the following spring, however, they were twice defeated by Dugommier, with a loss of their equipage, artillery, and nine thousand prisoners. They were compelled to retreat, and Bellegarde, which they had garrisoned, after a siege of five months, surrendered. The victor, in his turn, immediately invaded Catalonia, and, at his death in a fresh victory, his forces, commanded by Perignon, again and again defeated the Spaniards, and drove them from their strongest intrenchments. The latter also sustained similar misfortunes in the warfare at the western end of the Pyrenees. The complete defeat of their forces at Sistella in 1795, and the threatened advance of the French upon their capital itself, reduced the king and his minister to sue for peace; a treaty was presently concluded, by which France relinquished her late conquests, receiv- ing in return the full possession of St. Domingo, and the political support of the Spanish government. The king, in his joy at these favourable conditions, bestowed on Godoy the title of "Prince of the Peace," by which he has been most generally known. From this time until her memorable struggle for independence, the policy of Spain became entirely subservient to that of her victorious enemy and ally. In 1796, an alliance, offensive and defensive, was signed between the two nations, and war was speedily declared against England by the court of Madrid. In the following year, Cordova, the Spanish admiral, with twenty-seven sail of the line, encountered Sir John Jervis, who commanded only fifteen of the British, off Cape St. Vincent. Notwithstanding this disparity of force, the English gained the victory, taking four ships of the hostile squadron, and compelling the remainder to retreat into the port of Cadiz. The island of Trin- idad was soon after taken by an English expedition, and Minorca, one of the most important stations in the Mediterranean, met a sim- ilar fate. Eussia, displeased at the alliance with the French republic, in 1798 declared war against Spain. 380 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ISTapoleon, at this time first consul, extorted from his Spanish allies the cession of Louisiana, and even compelled the unfortunate king to join in a hostile alliance against Portugal, (the royal family of which were his immediate connections,) and to occupy the terri- tory with an armed force. That feeble and unprotected nation was forced to pay a large sum to her oppressor, and to cede a portion of Brazil for the enlargement of the French colonies. Godoy, to whose influence were ascribed this utter subservience to France and the other national misfortunes, was universally detested ; and a powerful party soon rallied around Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, the eldest son of Charles, and consequently heir to the throne. The brief and hollow peace which, at the beginning of the nine- teenth century, had been concluded between France and England, was speedily broken (March, 1803) by the perfidious conduct of the latter, and a war recommenced, destined to involve all Europe in fresh calamities. Large subsidies were drawn from Spain to aid the French government, and England, though by especial agreement at peace with that country, despatched, in 1804, a piratical expedition, which captured several of her treasure-ships, under circumstances calculated strongly to arouse the national pride and desire of ven- geance. War against England was accordingly again declared in the following month, by the Spanish government, and naval hostili- ties were immediately recommenced. On the 21st of October, 1805, the combined French and Spanish fleets, with forty vessels, under Admirals Villeneuve and Gravina, were encountered by the renowned Nelson, with thirty sail, off Cape Trafalgar. This action, perhaps the most memorable in naval warfare, resulted in the almost complete capture or destruction of the superior force ; and left the supremacy of Britain on the seas almost without the shadow of an opposition. The alarm which the grasping policy of Napoleon had so gener- ally excited, finally extended even to the court of Spain; and a secret treaty was made with Russia, Portugal, and England, for a joint movement against their common enemy on a favourable oppor- tunity. Li October, 1806, the Prince of the Peace had the impru- dence to issue a proclamation, calling the people to arms in a manner which sufficiently indicated an intention to commence hostilities with France. In the same month occurred the wonderful campaign of Prussia, and the complete subjugation of that hostile country. The Spanish government, in alarm, humiliated itself before the victor. The obnoxious order was instantly recalled and countermanded, the SPAIN. 381 most humble entreaty was used to deprecate the imperial resentment, and money was lavishly employed among the most influential of the French diplomatists. Napoleon, though doubtless determined from this moment to overthrow a government upon which he could place no reliance, appeared satisfied for the present with the most abject submission to all his commands, and the contribution of a large body of Spanish troops to assist in his northern campaigns. A treaty was forthwith made for the partition of Portugal, and its occupation by the French and Spanish forces. It was announced in the Momteur, the imperial organ at Paris, that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign;" and General Junot, with a large army, advanced rapidly to Lisbon. The royal family fled on his approach, and took shipping in haste for their colony of Brazil. . The emperor, once in possession of the kingdom, paid small heed to the agreement for sharing the spoil with his Spanish dependants. The domestic quarrels of the latter came opportunely in aid of his ambitious designs. Ferdinand privately sought his protection against his parents and the Prince of the Peace ; and the latter, in turn accusing the heir-apparent of a conspiracy, held him for a time in arrest. The northern provinces of Spain, at the commencement of the year 1808, were filled vv'ith French troops, professedly on their march to Portugal. Godoy vainly endeavoured to recall from that country a counterbalancing force. Secret orders were despatched to the French generals to possess themselves dexterously of all the Spanish fortresses within their reach. By various stratagems, this scheme was accomplished with the most perfect success; and Barce- lona, Figueras, Pamplona, and St. Sebastian, were soon strongly garrisoned by the intruders. Murat took command of the French forces, and his master, though still maintaining an appearance of friendliness toward the royal family, assumed more openly the tone of a. dictator. The king and queen, with their favourite, now thought of seeking a refuge, like the family of Braganza, in their American colonies. This scheme was opposed by Ferdinand; and the inhabitants of Madrid, enraged at Godoy, to whom they ascribed these misfortunes, destroyed his palaces, and forced him to seek safety in concealment. The king, yielding to the storm, publicly dismissed from office the obnoxious minister, who was with difficulty saved from the fury of the popu- lace, and committed to prison. Two days afterwards, Charles, weak- 382 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. minded, and terrified by these disorders, resigned his crown in favour of Ferdinand — a step which filled the whole nation with enthusiastic rejoicing (March 20th, 1808). CHAPTER Ylll. DETHRONEMENT OF THE BOURBONS, AND ACCESSION OF JOSEPH BONAPARTE. RESISTANCE OF THE SPANIARDS. Ferdinand VII., aware of the insecure tenure of his authority, omitted nothing which could conciliate the French emperor; but, to his mortification, Murat, who marched instantly to Madrid, care- fully avoided any recognition of his royalty ; and his father, anxious to save the life of his imprisoned favourite, wrote to Napoleon, pro- testing against his abdication, as extorted by force. , To all Ferdi- nand's overtures, the arbiter of his destinies preserved an attitude of mysterious non-committal ; and finally, by the intrigues of the French officers, the prince was induced to repair to Baj^onne, across the frontier, and urge his claims in person before the emperor. He was received with courtesy; but was soon informed of Napo- leon's intentions that the Bourbons should cease to sit upon the throne of Spain. In exchange for the required cession of his title, he was promised the kingdom of Etruria. On perceiving his obsti- nate reluctance to this arrangement. Napoleon ordered Murat to^ forward to Bayonne the old king and qneen, with their imprisoned favourite, the Prince of the Peace. On their arrival, the latter was forthwith released, and reinstated in his former office. The weak and vacillating Charles was immediately persuaded to nominate Murat lieutenant-general of the kingdom ; and on the following day to make a formal cession to Napoleon of Spain and the Indies, receiving in return the means of a luxurious residence in France. At the meeting of Ferdinand and his parents before the emperor, a most revolting scene of mutual abuse and recrimination ensued, which, however, resulted in the most entire renunciation of all his rights in favour of his father, who had already transferred them to SPAIN. 383 Napoleon. With his brother and his uncle, he was then conducted as a state prisoner to Valencaj. The Spanish population, especially in Madrid, disappointed in regard to the execution of Godoy, which they had eagerly expected, and resenting the French interference, was now ready for revolt. The transmission of the remainder of the royal family to Bayonne excited a furious insurrection in the capital, and many of the French, taken by surprise, were cruelly massacred. Murat, indeed, sup- pressed this outbreak with much slaughter, and executed a great number of the insurgents ; but the flame of revolution speedily broke out in the provinces, and all Spain ere long was involved in hostili- ties. Juntq^^ or councils of the most prominent persons, were formed at once in all the provincial districts and most of the larger towns ; troops were levied, and desperate efforts were resolved on to rid the peninsula of its invaders. Great cruelty and atrocity accompanied this outbreak, and many persons were massacred by the infuriated insurgents; among them, several of the local governors, who vainly attempted to suppress the movement. The junta of Seville, which was acknowledged as the chief of these councils, under its president, Saavedra, on the 6th of June, 1808, proclaimed Ferdinand YII,, and in his name declared war against France and ISTapoleon. Orders were issued for the immediate enrolment of the entire male population, and despatches w^ere forwarded to England, proposing alliance and entreating armed assistance. In Portugal, these tidings were received with enthusiasm, and a general insurrection of that kingdom, which Junot was unable to suppress, soon ensued. Napoleon had resolved to place his brother Joseph, then king of Naples, upon the Spanish throne; and accordingly summoned a species of Cortes^ composed of many prominent representatives of the church, the nobility, and the citizens. Ninety-one in number, they assembled at Bayonne on the 15th of June ; and, whether from views of policy, necessity, or private interest, subscribed to the con- stitution which Bonaparte had prepared, and recognised his brother as king of Spain and the Indies. (Murat, to reward his late services, received the throne of Naples, thus left vacant.) On the 9th of July, the new sovereign entered his kingdom, and issued a most concili- ating proclamation ; but was compelled to wait at Yittoria until his generals should clear a path to his capital. England, suflEiciently anxious for an opportunity to embarrass her ancient enemy, had eagerly responded to the call of the insurgent 384 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. juntas; prisoners had been released, supplies despatched, and mili- tary assistance promised. Murat, on his part, before leaving the kingdom, had taken active measures to suppress the popular move- ment, and had ordered powerful forces into the most disaffected provinces — in some cases with success, and in others with failure. The Spanish forces, indeed, at an early day, experienced a signal defeat. Tlie Castihan and Galician armies, thirty thousand strong, under Cuesta and Blake, lay encamped at Rio Seco. On the 14th of July, Bessieres, the French commander, with only half that number, attacked and drove them from their position, with a loss of seven thousand men; and Joseph, six days afterwards, made a triumphal entry into Madrid. The public discontent, however, was sufficiently manifest. Tapestry, according to order and to the ancient custom, was indeed hung from the windows, but it was ragged and soiled; and the bells, put in motion by command of the authorities, tolled as for a funeral. The late success of the French was soon after counterbalanced by the misfortune of Dupont, who, with nearly twenty thousand men, was surrounded at Baylen by a greatly superior force of Spaniards, under Castanos, and compelled to surrender. The agreement to transport the prisoners . to France was violated ; numbers were put to death ; and the remainder were confined in hulks at Cadiz, where the greater portion of them miserably perished. The spirits and confidence of the insurgents were thus highly elevated, and those of the new sovereignty proportionately depressed; and Joseph, after a residence at his capital of only ten days, once more withdrew to Vittoria. Saragossa, the capital of Arragon, was besieged by the French fc7 two months with great energy; but the garrison and citizens. ' under Palafox, made such a brave and determined resist- ance, that the city, though almost laid in ruins, still held out. This siege was distinguished by the bravery of a young woman, ''the Maid of Saragossa," who tended a piece of artillery which the garri- son had deserted, and vowed never to quit it while a Frenchman remained before the city. The besiegers, wearied out, were finally compelled to retreat, " Foiled by a woman's hand, before a battered wall." SPAIN. 335 \J Jidi JX JJ di oli a XtA) THE PENINSULAE WAR. Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards tlie duke of Wellington) landed in Portugal in August, with thirteen thousand men. After some indecisive hostilities, the French forces, under Junot, evacuated that country on favourable conditions ; and an opportunity was pre- sented for the British arms to cooperate with those of the insurgent Spaniards. But the latter, attached only to their own principalities, and never fairly impelled by a universal national sentiment, could agree upon no system of united operations. The numerous juntas, delighted with their new power, were unwilling to relinquish any portion of it to a central authority; and the opportunity afforded by the victory of Baylen was thus permitted to fall to the ground. A central junta of thirty -five members, under the presidency of the aged Florida Blanca, was at length appointed. But the time for effective action appeared to have passed. An hundred thousand men were now pouring into Spain, under command of the celebrated Ney, and Napoleon was expected speedily to arrive, and take the chief direction in person. Before his arri- \ however, the Spanish armies, composed of an hundred and thirty i lousand men, in differ- ent divisions, under Blake, Belvedere, Castafios, and Palafbx, were formed in a crescent around the invaders. The people and the jwita were eager to hear of a pitched battle ; but their generals, better knowing the disparity of the two forces in courage and discipline, waited for fresh reinforcements. The English, embarrassed by the bad conduct of their allies, were unable to make any effectual advance ; and Blake, who first engaged the enemy, was defeated by Lefebvre. Napoleon himself entered Spain in November, and his genius was soon apparent in the suc- cessive defeat and dispersion of each of the hostile armies. The junta fled in dismay, and on the 5th of December the victorious emperor entered Madrid. The haughty tone which he assumed, and the salutary reforms which he immediately effected in ecclesiastical abuses, kept up the national exasperation ; which, however, he little heeded, being espe- 25 386 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ciallj bent upon reducing the soutli of Spain and Portugal, and expelling the English, who had now been considerably reinforced. General Moore, who, with twenty-five thousand men, had attempted to create a diversion in favour of the Spanish forces, was compelled to retreat to the sea-coast, with his army reduced, by suffering and want of discipline, to a disorderly rabble. Napoleon, recalled to the north by news of the menacing attitude of Austria, relinquished the pursuit to Marshal Soult, who, with a greatly superior force, pressed hard upon the retiring ranks of the English. The latter reached Oorunna; but before they could embark, were obliged to fight a severe battle, in which the honour of their arms was fully redeemed, though at the expense of the life of their brave and devoted leader (January 17th, 1809). The Spanish arms, meanwhile, had met with fresh reverses, and Saragossa, into which Palafox, after his defeat, had thrown himself, was again closely besieged. "War to the knife" was the only answer which he returned to an attempt at negotiation. Neverthe- less, after a siege of several months, distinguished by all the horrors of war and pestilence, the city was compelled to capitulate. It is calculated that, at this time, there were two hundred and seventy thousand French troops distributed at different places in the peninsula. Joseph, on the 22d of January, had reentered Madrid, where he was received with much apparent loyalty and affection; and plans were laid for the immediate reconquest of Portugal. Soult, who was now appointed to the chief command, took Oporto by storm, but was unable to subdue the refractory kingdom, strongly aided by reinforcements from England, and directed by the genius of Wellesley, who in April arrived as commander-in-chief He was compelled to retreat in a disastrous manner, and the English com- mander marched into Spain for the purpose of assisting Cuesta, who was engaged with the French General Victor. The impracticability of the Spanish commander, who had scruples about fighting on a Sunday, prevented any advantage which their junction might have effected ; and Joseph, with Marshal Jourdan and a large force, arrived on the scene of action. These met, however, a severe repulse in attacking the allied forces at Talavera, and were compelled to retreat. The fruits of this advantage were lost by the incapacity of the Spanish officers ; Blake and Vanegas experienced fi'esh defeats, and Wellesley himself was forced to retreat towards the frontier. SPAIN. 387 Areizao-a, who succeeded to the command of the principal Spanish armv, of fifty thousand men, was in his turn totally defeated at Ocana, and the subjugation of Spain seemed inevitable. The natural spirit and obstinacy of the national character, however, displayed itself in a manner far more formidable than in the open field. Numerous bands of guerrillas^ or irregular and undisciplined com- batants, took up arms. From their general dispersion and knowledge of the country, it was almost impossible to capture or defeat them, while they were enabled greatly to harass the enemy, and often treated with barbarous cruelty such of the Frenchmen as fell into their hands. On Joseph's announcement of his intention of assembling the Cortes, the Junta, to anticipate him, convoked them in its own name to meet at Cadiz, and presently retreated to the security which that city still afforded. Andalusia and Granada immediately submitted to the victors. The greater part of Spain was now in possession of the French ; but from the activity and ferocity of the guerrilla bands, they were only secure in such places as they occupied with a consid- erable force. Cadiz, strongly reinforced from England and Portugal, was closely besieged. Wellesley (now Lord Wellington), in the latter country, was busily engaged in strengthening the celebrated and almost impregnable "lines of Torres Vedras," which protected the capital of that kingdom and its immediate vicinity. Massena, early in the summer of 1810, advanced with a large force to effect the reconquest of Portugal, and to "drive the English into the sea." After taking Ciudad Eodrigo and the strong Portuguese fortress of Almeida, he marched toward Lisbon. The British commander, retreating before him, was com- pelled to give him battle on the ridge of Busaco — an action in which, from his superiority of position, he gained a decided advan- tage. He then retreated within his lines, the natural and artificial defences of which were so strong, that his pursuer was unable to force them. The British and Portuguese troops within these lines amounted to an hundred and thirty thousand men ; and Massena, in jSTovember, finding it impossible to effect a passage, withdrew to Santarem, on the Tagus. In the desultory warfare, which meanwhile was carried on in Spain, the French had been generally successful. The exertions of Soult, Victor, St. Cj^r, and especially Suchet, had brought much of the country into apparent subjection. Cadiz still held out, and thither 388 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. the deputies to tlie Cortes^ elected in spite of tlie French, made their way in September, They decreed levies of an hundred and fifty thousand men, and immediately proceeded to frame a national con- stitution, based upon the most liberal and enlightened principles. Spain, however, was then, as now, in too deplorably ignorant and bigoted a condition to appreciate or receive benefit from these salutary reforms. The nobility, as usual, beheld with jealousy the popular nature of the new government; and the clergy, enraged at the suppression of the Inquisition and of other ecclesiastical abuses, threw their powerful interest into the scale against the innovating assembly. The injudicious attitude of the Cortes toward the Amer- ican colonies produced effects still more disastrous. These wealthy dependancies had continued firmly loyal to the dethroned family, and had despatched their revenues, in British ships of war, regularly and liberally to the support of the contest against France. Finding their rights overlooked, and the oppressive colonial restrictions unremo ved by the new government, they disowned. the authority of the late assemblies; and the northern provinces of South America, under the title of the Venezuelan Confederacy, pro- claimed themselves independent of the mother-country, though still acknowledging Ferdinand as their rightful sovereign. A useless attempt to suppress this movement deprived Spain of the forces necessary for the assertion of her own nationality. In March, 1811, Massena having lost great numbers of his troops, and perceiving his attempt on Portugal to be hopeless, from the increased strength of the enemy, retreated into Spain, closely pur- sued by the British. This retreat, in which he lost six thousand men, has been considered a masterpiece of military tactics, though disgraced by much cruelty and devastation of the country through which he passed. Almeida was blown up and evacuated by the French, and their fortress of Badajoz, on the Spanish frontier, was invested by a large force under Marshal Beresford. Soult advanced to its relief, and the English commander was compelled to raise the siege. In the sanguinary contest which ensued at Albuera, he suc- ceeded in repulsing the attack of the French marshal, but with a loss of seven thousand of his troops, principally English. Welling- ton then joined him, and the siege was renewed; but after two dis- astrous attempts to take the place by storm, they were compelled to retreat into Portugal before a superior force of the enemy. At the same time the French armies in other parts of the Spanish peninsula, p a, f. 05^ a 1 -^ . IQ - - B --o /I u^l CQ B '^ H Ifl " ^ B ^ Ct) t 1| '-5 2.'^ t?: S- ^''^ *TJ A iUES >_, CD tt -T p a J » N c (3 ?Ti i*fr D' - i- Cl fe; 'pit a c ^^i^^ Tii "^ ^ hr ■, ■ J -^ H.^3 •^ N , li CT S-l s \ 'm 1-^ 73 'i CQ Q M '/iWljrlfl "" J) 1— { l-H -3 S •2; ' lllli cl- "^ »■ P'^ c t M™ffl CD C -'( '' W! B CD 11^ 1) ;1 a S-"2 U3 CO I— 1 <'' C3 S' f :? - P'CR ;*- \ liiiMi CD p- C 1-^ I IB K ^ ■ 'TO -- ^ > C '/M p-3 ^' C Ui j: = 2 "r- B " „ - b '11 7 ; ^ c Mi SPAIN. 389 gained great advantages over the native troops; and met with more general success than at any time since the departure of the emperor. The Cortes, at Cadiz, were still engaged about their constitution, and the mutual jealousy of the various parties prevented the appoint- ment of , a commander-in-chief — now absolutely essential to any prospect of independence. All the American provinces were in full insurrection. Venezuela, Chili, Peru, and Buenos Ayres, were waging a successful revolt, Mexico, overawed by the arrival of some of the best Spanish regiments, was indeed reduced to a tem- porary submission. In this disastrous condition of affairs, a brilliant exploit of Lord Welling-ton inspired the Spaniards with fresh confidence. In Jan- uary, 1812, he appeared suddenly before the strong and important fortress of Ciudad Eodrigo ; and before Marmont, the chief French commander, could advance to its relief, succeeded in taking it by storm. This was the commencement of a spirited and successful campaign. Badajoz fell in a similar manner, and the French were compelled entirely to evacuate Estramadura and Portugal. In July, Marmont was completely defeated by Wellington, at Salamanca, with a loss of fourteen thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The victorious general marched to Madrid, which he entered on the 12th of August, Joseph, with a greatly inferior force, retreating before him. The new constitution was sworn to with universal zeal, and the English general, under the title of Duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, was appointed commander-in-chief during the continuance of the war. The junction of the French forces compelled him, in the autumn, to quit the capital, and to move northward. After passing a month in unsuccessful attempts to storm the strong citadel of Burgos, he was compelled by the advance of the French to make a disorderly and undisciplined retreat, and take up his winter-quarters on the Portuguese frontier. 390 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. EXPULSION OP THE FRENCH, AND RESTORATION OF THE ; BOURBONS. i i i The disasters which Napoleon experienced soon after these events, \ from his rash expedition into Eussia, seemed to present the fairest ; opportunity which Spain had yet seen of asserting her freedom. He was no longer able to supply his peninsular armies by pouring fresh | torrents of soldiers over the Pyrenees, but was rather in need of his | old companions in arms to withstand the advancing tide of the north- I ern confederacy. Soult, with thirty thousand veterans, was recalled, early in the year 1813, while fresh reinforcements enabled Welling- \ ton to take the field in May with seventy thousand English and Portuguese, in addition to the Spanish armies under Castanos and Espaiia. About an hundred and sixty thousand French troops were j still distributed in Spain. j After various indecisive manoeuvres, Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, | with the principal body of the French forces, took their stand at i Vittoria, resolved to make a final struggle for the Spanish crown. i They were posted on the very ground where, five centuries before, i Edward the Black Prince had defeated the renowned Constable du j Guesclin, and for a time preserved the crown of Spain to Peter the j Cruel. On the 21st of June, AVellington, with the combined British, Spanish, and Portuguese armies, attacked their position. In this { battle, decisive of the fate of Spain, the French were utterly defeated, | w^ith the loss of all their baggage, artillery, and equipments; and Joseph himself narrowly escaped being taken prisoner. ; The victory was actively followed up ; and ere long all the French I forces had retreated across the Pyrenees, except the army of Suchet and the garrisons of Pamplona and St. Sebastian. Soult was now i placed at the head of the French forces, and, by the aid of reinforce- | ment and reorganization, with an army of an hundred thousand men, resumed hostilities in the neighbourhood of the Pyrenees. He was, however, after some hard fighting, compelled to retreat into France ; and the fortress of St. Sebastian, after a defence which cost the lives of four thousand of the besiegers, was taken by storm, and great STAIN. 391 numbers of the garrison and the citizens were massacred. By Octo- ber, the English commander was enabled to cross the frontier; and the fall of Pamjjlona, soon after, left him at liberty to make a cam- paign of invasion in the French territories. The misfortunes which Napoleon at this time experienced in his tremendous struggle against the allied powers, deprived him of the means of repelling the invaders. The royal family of Spain, which had so long vanished from the public view, now began once more to attract attention. The old king and queen, with their favourite Godoy, were living quietly at Eome, the common refuge of deposed or abdicating princes. Fer- dinand, who was still detained at Yalencay, had done nothing to entitle himself to any other sentiment than the contempt of his countrymen. He had, in the most abject manner, written to con- gratulate Joseph on his accession to the Spanish throne, and to Napoleon to felicitate him on his victories. A scheme devised by the British for his escape he denounced to the latter, and continually importuned him for the hand of some princess of the Bonaparte family. His time, it is said, was principally occupied in embroider- ing a robe for some image of the Virgin Mary. The Spanish nation, however, ignorant of these degrading facts, or disbelieving them as reported by the French, preserved its loyalty and veneration unchanged. Napoleon, after his calamitous defeat at Leipsic, perceived the impossibility of retaining a footing on the Peninsula, and agreed to release his captive, and recognise him as king of Spain and the Indies, on condition of the renewal of former alliances and the evacuation of Spain by the English. By an act of the Cortes, however, any act of the king during his captivity had been declared nugatory; and the regency, through its president, the Cardinal de Bourbon, returned a loyal answer, but refused to comply with the stipulations. The prince was therefore still for the present detained in imprisonment. Early in the year 1814:, Lord Wellington, with the allied forces, resumed operations, which had been delayed by the severity of the weather, and pushed his invasion yet farther into the French prov- inces of the south. As a last resort, the emperor now commanded the release of Ferdinand, stipulating, however, for the safe return of his garrisons on surrendering the Spanish fortresses which they occupied. Most of these, however, were already lost through the treachery of Yan Halen, a renegade to both parties. The almost 392 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF.HISTOEY. immediate overthrow of the imperial power, and the consequent abdication of Napoleon, which succeeded, made this loss, indeed, a matter of little moment to his fallen fortunes. The weak and bigoted Ferdinand was received with such enthu- siastic rejoicing and loyalty as would have been appropriate to the welcome of the highest patriotism and ability. The ignorant popu- lace, every where influenced by their priests, cried out as he passed, "Down with the Cortes!" "Long live the absolute king!" To a people who thus clamorously demanded slavery, their wishes were speedily granted. The king, disowning his former acts, at once assumed an arbitrary tone. He dissolved the Cortes, declaring that body, from the absence of the nobility and clergy, an illegal assem- bly, and abrogated the constitution which they had been at such pains to prepare. On the 13th of May he entered Madrid, where, on account of these measures, he was received with additional enthusiasm by the ignorant and priest-ridden populace. The chiefs of the liberal party were forthwith punished by ban- ishment, imprisonment, and enrolment as common soldiers. Their lives were spared only by the interference of the English, to whom the king had been so recently indebted for his crown. The Inqui- sition, though with limited power, was immediately reestablished. Thus terminated a struggle which had caused incalculable suffering and loss of life, and in which the sympathies of unprejudiced observers were perplexed between a fierce, bigoted, and slavish patriotism, and an enlightened foreign usurpation. The contest with the American colonies was still maintained, and Ferdinand lavished the resources of the kingdom in a vain attempt to reduce them to subjection. All the vast continental American possessions of Spain, acquired by such valour, craft, and cruelty, succeeded in maintaining their independence, and Cuba and Porto llico alone remained of her once numerous western colonies. These unsuccessful attempts to force an absolute government on distant and extensive provinces were attended with circumstances of the most odious and revolting cruelty. The king, after a bigoted and disastrous reign of nineteen years, died in 1833, bequeathing to his country a legacy of civil war. He had formally excluded his brother Don Carlos, the legitimate heir, from the succession, leaving his infant daughter, Isabella, heiress to the throne, under the regency of the Queen Maria Christina. The desolating civil contests which this arrangement occasioned, and which SPAIN. 393 were aggravated by tlie interposition of tlie Frencli and Britisb, governments, are generally known. Spain for many years was the theatre of a fierce partisan and guerrilla warfare, between the adhe- rents of Don Carlos and of the queen, in which her soil was repeat- edly deluged by the blood shed in private combat and massacre. The triumph of the latter party was assured by the protection of the French and British governments, and comparative tranquillity has been restored to Spain. That country, however, enslaved by superstition, and long the scene of unrelenting domestic hostilities, is at present in a miserable and deplorably unadvanced condition. No nation in Europe is so far behind the age in all that relates to the welfare and political economy of a great people. The national character, inherited from the days of the Inquisition, is in general revengeful, cruel, and unre- lenting. The savage nature of their national amusementS; and especially that of bull-fighting, may have some tendency to foster this unamiable disposition. The delight which the tortures and mutilation of animals bestow, in this barbarous sport, may naturally increase the indifference to human life and suffering, which forms the principal stigma of the Spanish character. In justice to this unfortunate people, whose opportunities for development, of late years, have been comparatively few, the better features of their character should not be overlooked. They are distinguished by honest}^ hospitalitj^, and a certain pride, which, if sometimes ludi- crous, is yet a great incentive to magnanimous actions, and a pre- servative against the lower and more degrading propensities. & E R 1 A ii; THE ANCIENT GERMANS. THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. THE ELECTIVE EMPIRE. The "Germania" of the Eomans comprised a vast region of coun- try, extending over all the north-western portion of Europe. The wars and conquests of that wonderful people, who made permanent settlements and military stations in various parts of this territory, have afforded us full descriptions of its ancient inhabitants. Thoiigh divided into almost innumerable tribes and nations, these rude deni- zens of the forest all possessed a certain similarity in their national characteristics. The light hair and the blue eye, the huge stature and the rugged manners, with the fierce love of independence, were common to them all. Unacquainted with the arts of civilized life, their subsistence was dependant upon their herds and the precarious chances of hunting. Like most northern nations, they were addicted to drinking, and regarded the vague plans and reveries of intoxica- tion as the result of divine inspiration. It would seem, indeed, that unlimited confidence was not reposed in the certainty of these sug- gestions; for the tribes were accustomed to debate all important matters twice over — once in the evening, when drunk, and once on the following morning, when sober. * In a country so extensive as that great tract which bears the common name of Germany, and composed of such numerous principalities, each with separate and voluminous annals, every thing like a detailed historical account, in a work of the present plan, is obviously impossible. Some of the more remarkable and important phases of its history will be briefly stated, and the affairs of Austria and Prussia, which, from their relations with German states and the Germanic empii'e, are con- nected with the subject, will also be casually mentioned. GEKMANY. 395 Their government, in general, was strictly democratic, the leader of one tribe or of several being elected by a species of universal suffrage, and the military and civil authorities being kept carefully distinct. Their rude virtues were such as contain the germ of a high civilization — bravery in men and chastity in women being the first requisites of their moral code. Their theology was crude and barbarous, consisting in the worship of the heavenly luminaries, the fire, and the earth, and in reliance on their priests for the inter- pretation of the will of the gods. They believed in a future world, where the brave should meet together and carouse, drinking beer from immense horns or from the skulls of their enemies. A portion of these barbarous tribes (then called the Cimbri) waged an active aggressive war with the Romans from B. C. 114 to B. C. 101, when they were completely defeated by Marius. Csesar, after his conquest of Gaul, repulsed their king, Ariovistus, (who wished to seize that inviting province,) and made two expeditions across the Rhine. Tiberius, acting as general to Augustus, also made a success- ful invasion of their country as far as the Elbe ; but soon afterwards (nine years before the Christian era) the defeat of Quintilius Yarns, and the destruction of all his forces, surrounded in a marshy forest, cut short this career of conquest, and caused the emperor frequently to exclaim, in anguish, "Varus, restore me my legions!" Despite the skill and courage of the renowned Germanicus, the Romans never fully recovered their lost ground ; and on the decline of the empire, those warlike nations, the Visigoths, the Heruli, the Alemanni, and the Franks, year by year pushed their encroachments farther on the imperial provinces. The latter people completely conquered Gaul, and founded a new kingdom, the modern France, of which Clovis was the first sovereign, and which afterwards held sway over a great part of Germany. During both the "Merovingian" and " Carlo vingi an" dynasties {see France), sanguinary wars were carried on with the Saxons and other Germanic nations. When, in 771, Charlemagne ascended the throne of the Frankish kingdom, the influence of the clergy was sufficient to induce him to wage an uncompromising war against the heathenish nations of Saxony. These were finally subdued, and their leaders, Wittekind and Albion, embraced Christianity. The arms of the nevv^ monarch were almost uniformly successful. Bavaria, Pomera- nia, and many other provinces, were brought under his sway, and in the year A. D. 800, he was solemnly crowned as "Emperor of the 396 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. West" at Eome, by the Pope Leo II. He died in 814, and whs buried at Aix-la-Chapelle. Here, tAvo centuries after, the Emperor Otho III. foimd his mouldering remains, seated on a throne in his imperial robes, and royally arrayed with crown and sword. His dominions, at the time of his death, included France, Germany the Low Countries, and portions of Italy, Hungary and Spain. His son Louis le Debonnaire (the Good-natured), in dividing his territories among his rebellious sons, assigned to Louis, the third, (thence called Louis the German,) the extensive states of Germany. This sovereign, by alienating his domains to various powerful sub- iects, developed still further the feudal constitution of that countr3^ He gained by arms several accessions of territory, caused the Bible to be translated into the German language, and expired in 876. His son Charles (the Fat), who, by the death of his relations, held sway over nearly all the territories of Charlemagne, evinced such weakness and incapacity, that in 887, by the common consent of all his subjects, he was deposed from the government of these extensive dominions. On this second breaking up of the Empire of the West, the states of Germany, composed of powerful nobles, assumed to themselves the power of appointing the sovereigns of that country ; the various duchies and ecclesiastical principalities having by this time gained a complete control over the national affairs. In 912, Conrad, count of Franconia, was thus elected to the throne, and at his death, seven years afterwards, Henry, duke of Saxony. The Huns, a warlike and predatory people, had for some time ravaged the country with repeated incursions ; and the new sover- eign, to repel their attacks, introduced many important changes among the states of Germany. He walled many cities and built others, and compelled a ninth part of the population to take up their abode in these fortified places. He levied powerful forces, gained extensive territories from the Sclavonians, and, at the great battle of Merseburg, entirely routed and cut to pieces the army of the Huns. His son, Otho the Great, who in 936 succeeded him by election, married a daughter of Edward, king of England. His ascendancy in Italy was such, that in 962, he was crowned ernperor by Pope John XII., and soon afterwards deposed the pontiff himself In 964, the council of Rome decreed to him the power of electing the Pope, as well as of appointing all ecclesiastical dignitaries in his own dominions. He died in 973. Under his immediate successors, no very memorable events occurred. GERMANY. 397 At this period, the emperors Lad no permanent residence, but lield their court in various provinces of the extensive empire, their state and magnificence being maintained in each bj domains espe- cially appropriated to their temporary support. Their relations to the numerous principalities of wliich they were the head was in general well defined and settled. "The emperor had the right of conferring all the great benefices; of confirming or annulling the election of the Popes; of convoking councils, and causing them to decide on ecclesiastical affairs ; of conferring the title of king on his vassals ; of granting vacant fiefs ; of receiving the revenues of the empire accruing from the domains, tolls, gold and silver mines, trib- utes of the Jews, and fines ; of disposing of Italy as its sovereigTi ; of establishing fairs and cities, and conferring civic rights ; of con- voking diets, and fixing their duration ; of coining, and of granting that privilege to the states, and of causing justice to be administered in the territories of the states. "The states, in their collective capacity as the Diet, elected the kings of Germany, appointed their guardians, passed laws, declared war, and concluded peace ; decided the disputes of other states, and judged and condemned other states accused of crime and rebellion. In their own territories, the states could form alliances among themselves, declare war, and build fortresses ; send ambassadors to foreign princes; transmit their fiefs to their sons; assemble their provincial states, and cause their vassals to be tried by them. The states were also privileged by the emperor to coin money, to estab- lish fairs, to exact tolls, to receive Jews, administer justice, and possess gold mines."* THE PRANCONIAN EMPERORS. CONTESTS WITH THE PAPACY. CoNEADE II. duke of Franconia, the first of a new line of mon- archs, was elected to the sovereignty in 1024, and soon afterwards was crowned king of Italy at Milan. His grandson, Henry lY., * Hawkins's Germany. 398 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. wlio in 1056 received the crown of Germany, found the imperial power seriously menaced by the ambition of his great nobles and the increasing power of the charch. Eudolf and Bertold, the dukes of Suabia and Carinthia, while he was engaged in a war with the Saxons, united their arms against him. Having also quarrelled with the Pope (the famous Hildebrand), he resolved on deposing him from the papacy, and accordingly, in a diet, summoned at Worms, effected his purpose. But the pontiff, assembling more than a hundred bishops, launched an excommunication at his enemy and all con- cerned in the process ; and so universal was the influence of this spiritual weapon, that Henry thought it prudent to cross the Alps, and sue for absolution in person. For three days, in penitential garments and with naked feet, kneeling in winter weather without the walls of Canasso, he besought the forgiveness of the pontiff; who finally accorded him absolution, on condition that he should be reconciled with his feudal enemies. The latter were afterwards crushed, and the Pope himself was expelled from Pome ; but public sentiment proved too strong for the skill and valour of the emperor. His own children revolted against him, and in 1106, the fiftieth year of his reign, he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son Henry Y. He soon after died of grief and vexation, and his body, still excommunicated, was permitted to remain five years above ground before released from the curse which interdicted burial or any rite of religion. The new monarch renewed the contest with the popedom; and in 1111, seized the Pontiff, Paschalis II., in a solemn ecclesiastical assembly at the spiritual capital. Eleven years afterwards, the dis- putes in question, under Pope Callixtus TI., were adjusted by a compromise. By this time, the increasing wealth of the artificers and other citizens had raised them into political importance ; and many of the cities, by mutual alliance, gained protection from violence, and a species of independence. The power of the emperor, assailed both by the church and nobility, had dwindled almost to a shadow, when, in 1152, the celebrated Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa, and already famous for his military achievements, was elected to the throne. He was soon involved in a fresh and obstinate conflict with the papal power. The conclave of cardinals, in 1159, had elected as Pope the brave and talented Alexander III. Displeased and jealous, the emperor GEEMANY. 399 summoned a rival synod at Pavia, whicTi elected an anti-pope or opposition pontiff, under the title of Victor IV. Alexander at once betook himself to excommunication, and endeavoured to enlist tlie sympathies of the Christian courts in his favour. But the imperial army, headed by the archbishops of Mainz and Cologne, advanced toward Eome, and he was compelled to fly to Montpelier. His cause was embraced by the cities of Lombardy and many others ; and two great factions were formed — the Guelphs, who favoured the Papacy, and the Grhibellines, who opposed it. The emperor, with his army, entered Italy, and burned several of the refractory cities — among them Milan, commanding that salt should be strewn on the place where it had stood. The fortresses were placed in the hands of the Ghibellines. Alexander and the Lombards still struggled with great courage and resolution; but were finally defeated, and the victor entered Rome in triumph. Nevertheless, ten years afterwards Milan was rebuilt, and garrisoned by fifteen thousand men. The emperor, in a second campaign, was completely defeated, and after this dispute had continued eighteen years, the parties, weary of war, became reconciled, and Frederic acknowledged Alexander his spiritual lord. In a grand public assembly, in the great square at Venice, he prostrated himself, and kissed the foot of the haughty pontiff, who, not content with this act of humiliation, placed his foot, in token of superiority, on the imperial neck. The ancient portico of St. Mark's, the theatre of innumerable great and fantastic scenes of history, perhaps never witnessed an exhibition more strange and memorable. * * " In that temple-porch Did Barbarossa fling his mantle off, And, kneeling, on his neck receive the foot Of the proud pontiff, thus at last consoled For flight, disguise, and many an aguish shake On his stone pillow. "* The Italian republics, founded by the talents and courage of Alex- ander, still retained their independence. In 1188, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, and there, with a great number of his nobility, assumed the cross, and started on a crusade. * The Pope, on one occasion, was compelled to fly in disguise to Venice, and is said to have passed the first night upon the steps of San Salvatore, near the Rialto. The circumstance is still recorded by a tablet at the door. 400 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. He penetrated to Syria, defeating the Seljuk Turks on his way; but perished in 1190, from the effect of bathing in the cold stream of Saleph. His son Henry YI. attained greater power than any German sov- ereign since the days of Charlemagne. His reputation is stained by the mean imprisonment of the famous Eichard Coeur de Lion, king of England, whom he took from the duke of Austria, and detained for some time, extorting the payment of a heavy ransom. He had nearly succeeded in rendering the imperial throne hereditary, when death cut short his ambitious plans, before he had completed his thirty-second year. His brother Philip, who succeeded him, was murdered in 1208, and Otho IV., the duke of Brunswick, was elected to the throne, which he had already sought to gain by arms. He soon became embroiled with the Pope, Innocent III., who, after the customary fashion, launched at him an excommunication. This, and the oppo- sition of the German princes, compelled him to succumb before the pretensions of the son of Henry YL, who in 1212 entered Germany, and was crowned at Mainz. This prince (Frederick II.) was a man of high talent, energy, and courage. He was much attached to literatiire, and was himself an author of no small repute. In the heroic verses composed by the emperor and his associates, a high tone of religion and chivalry pre- vailed. The corruptions of the age were attacked; the famous exploits of Eichard and Saladin were celebrated; and devotion and romance were cultivated with equal zeal. The moral condition of the country at this period may be conjectured from the fact that, in 1215, the emperor exacted from his nobility a solemn oath not to coin bad money, levy oppressive tolls, or steal on the highway. Frederick had been induced by the papal authority to undertake a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre. His delay in fulfilling this engagement procured him an excommunication from the Pope, Gregory IX. In 1229, he accomplished his vow, but without bloodshed — Meledin, the sultan of Egypt, ceding t.o him, without hostilities, the sovereignty of Jerusalem and other sacred cities of Palestine. During most of his reign the emjDeror was con- tinually involved in contests, spiritual or temporal, with the Popes ; and in 1240 was again excommunicated, on a pretended charge of blasphemy. The success which had attended the early part of his reign, finally deserted him; public prejudice, stimulated by the Military Costume, OF TITE TWTTT.FTH OENTTt^Y Military Costume, OF TH3Z THIHTKENTH CKNTURY GEKMANY. 401 enmity of the church, was against him ; various successful pretenders to the sovereignty started up ; and after many misfortunes, and wit- nessing the complete overthrow of his dignity, he died in 1252. "During the troubles of this period, the imperial power diminished, while that of the states increased ; the latter now arrogated to them- selves the right of deposing as well as electing the emperor, and claimed a voice in the creation of princes and in the distribution of fiefs ; in their own territories, now hereditary, the chiefs ruled with unbounded sway, and though much harassed by their own nobles, would admit of no interference from the emperor, "Neither Conrad, the son of Frederick, who fell in the defence of his hereditary possessions; nor William, who perished prema- turely by a different fate; nor the duke of Cornwall, brother of the English king, who was elected by some of the princes, and only knew how to sell privileges in order to reimbvirse himself for the sums they had cost him ; nor Alphonso of Castile, to whom others confided the crown ; nor any prince in Christendom, found himself possessed of the power requisite for restoring the royal authority in Germany, and the imperial dignity in Europe, to that degree of eminence which had been maintained during the three preceding centuries. The supreme magistracy of the European commonwealth fell into such a state of weakness, that the three-and-twenty years which followed the death of Frederick are termed by many an inter- regnum, or a period of vacation of the throne; and so we may consider them, without doing injustice to the character of the age."* u (LtL lijj iL iL Ju Jjo X i Jj o THE EMPIRE UNTIL THE REPORMATION. During this suspension of the "Holy Eoman Empire,"f great changes occurred, both in the political and moral aspect of the country. The royal domains were seized by the numerous petty * Hawkins's Germany. f So termed from the coronation of Charlemagne at Rome. 26 4-02 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. princes who controlled tlie different states: diets for justice were discontinued; private revenge and rapacity were unrestrained; and the nobility, from their innumerable fortresses, held complete con- trol over the lives and property of all within their immediate neighbourhood. Several attempts had been made to institute an effectual govern- ment. In 1255, the states had united for mutual defence in a grand league, called the "Rhenish Confederacy," and various lesser associa- tions had been formed for the same object. The " Hanseatic League," composed of eighty of the first cities in Germany, was established — Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic being at the head. This celebrated confederacy took the interests of commerce especially under its protection, and maintained extensive establishments for that purpose at London, Bruges, Bergen, and Novogorod in Russia. An electoral college, composed of the chief temporal and spiritual princes of Germany, and excluding the lesser nobility, was next form,ed; and this body, in 1273, alarmed by a menace of the Pope that he would appoint an emperor himself, proceeded to an election. Rudolf, count of Hapsburg, a man of great ability and political virtue, was their choice. He ruled with paternal benevolence, securing, indeed, the ascendancy of his house by providing powerful principalities for his children. At his death, in 1291, Adolf, count of Nassau, Avas elected emperor ; but the opposition and violence of Albert duke of A^is- tria, the son of Rudolf, were too powerful to be overcome. The latter procured the deposition of his rival, and his own election ; and finally, at the battle of Gelheim, in 1298, slew the unfortunate monarch with his own hand. The valour and policy of the new sovereign enabled him to overawe both the states and the people, and to carry out his arbitrary and ambitious designs; but his measures excited such enmity, that in 1308 he was murdered in Switzerland by his own nephew, John. Henry YII. (count of Luxemberg), who was elected in his stead, died in 1313, and for four years the country was distracted by war, on account of the rival pretensions of Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria. The defeat of the latter at Muhldorf placed his rival on the throne. The imperial domains had become too limited for the support of a transitory court, and accordingly Louis V. resided in his hereditary domains until his death, which occured in 1347. The crown was then offered to Edward III. of England, and on GEEMANY. 40^ Lis refusal to accept it, was conferred on Charles of Luxemburg (Charles IV.) king of Bohemia, who, by a large sum of money, pur- chased the concurrence of his rivals. During an administration of thirty years, he applied himself diligently, both in Italy and Grer- many, to the aggrandizement of his house and the accumulation of treasure. For sums of money he sold municipal freedom to various towns and nobles of the former country. The commencement of his reign was disturbed by a most atrocious persecution of the Jews, who were accused as the authors of a pestilence then ravaging Europe. Great numbers were put to death in the most barbarous manner, two thousand being burned at Strasburg alone. The nobilit}!^, who were mostly indebted to the persecuted race, abetted these atrocities in spite of the imperial efforts to check them. About this time a taste for penance and self-discipline became so general, that men devoted themselves to the most grievous self- inflicted tortures. Flagellation was greatly in vogue, and two hundred of these unhappy fanatics entered S]3ire on one day, and, having stripped, beat themselves with scourges pointed with iron. A papal edict was found necessary to abate this insane species of fanaticism, which was spreading through Europe with alarming rapidity. At the death of Charles, in 1378, his son Winceslaf was chosen in his place. The latter, however, gave much offence to the states by remaining in his kingdom of Bohemia, and indulging, it is said, in every species of licentiousness and cruelty. Two attempts were made to take him off by poison ; but these (says a grave author) only added to the misfortunes of the empire ; for the noxious potion, instead of killing him, left him affected with an unquenchable thirst, which resulted in habitual drunkenness and an aggravation of his natural eccentricity. He was deposed, after a brief reign, by the electors, and several high princes rapidly succeeded each other on the throne. In 1411, Sigismund, king of Hungary, brother of Winceslaf, was chosen to the throne, and at once proceeded to attempt the pacifica- tion of the empire and the suppression of the religious schisms which had distracted the church. In 1414, he summoned a grand ecclesi- astical council at Constance ; and hither, it is said, repaired eighteen thousand prelates and priests, sixteen thousand princes and noble- men, besides a great number of courtesans — the latter, by especial provision of the civil authorities. 404 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The celebrated John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who were among the earliest to broach reformed doctrines, had been cited before this tribunal; and on the 6th of July the former, after undergoing the mockery of a trial, was, in despite of a safe-conduct granted by the emperor, cruelly put to death at the stake. Jerome soon shared the same fate. The council then proceeded to settle the spiritual supremacy by deposing three rival Popes, and electing Martin V. as the true head of the church. This pontiff, aware that many of the deputies were anxious for reform in the scandalous abuses which had crept into the papacy, immediately dissolved the assembly. The martyrdom of Huss and Jerome awakened a spirit of deep resentment; and for eighteen years the emperor was compelled to maintain an obstinate warfare with Zisca, Procopius, and other enthusiastic leaders of the persecuted and now formidable sect. He was also engaged in disastrous hostilities with the Turks, and nar- rowly escaped falling into their hands at Nicopolis. At the death of Sigismund, in 1437, Albert and Frederick, dukes of Austria; filled the imperial throne. During the long reign of the latter, great confusion and continual civil wars prevailed in the empire. He died in 1493, and his son Maximilian I., a man of greater ability and energy, came to the throne. He endeavoured strenuously to enforce the municipal administration of justice; and to check, in some measure, the feuds among the more powerful chiefs, instituted a supreme court, composed of a judge, four presi- dents, and fifty assessors — the latter chosen by the states. He also maintained a body of regular troops, the famous or notorious lanz- hnecJits. The states, however, were too powerful and too numerous to be overawed by a superior of such limited means, and the emperor held only the position of a president of an assembly of sovereigns. GEKMANY. 4()5 CHAPTEB I?, THE REFORMATION. MARTIN LUTHER. THE INDULGENCES, ETC. At tlie commencement of tke sixteenth century, the power of the papacy appeared at its height. Tainted with the deepest corruption, and often wielded by those who disowned its doctrines and despised its ceremonies, this wonderful machine of spiritual government had triumphed over all its foes, and now exacted reverence and tribute throughout the Christian world. The imperial power and ambition, so often opposed to it, had always, in the long run, been compelled to succumb to the fulminations of Rome ; and the few dauntless men who had dared to withstand its doctrines or usages, had mostly perished at the stake or on the field of battle. The mind of the European world had long, however, been gradu- ally ripening. The invention of printing had allowed men to compare more generally the thoughts of others with their own; and many were in secret awaiting an opportunity to lift their voices in protestation against the abuses with which all professed religion was so shamefully defiled. As early as May, 1510, the imperial diet, assembled at Augsburg, had handed to the emperor a statement of ten crying grievances against the Pope and clergy. A strong pop- ular movement of the same nature appeared two years after, in the Ehenish provinces. The circumstances were auspicious. Maximilian, a prince attached to learning and refinement, was not particularly devoted to the papacy. He had even entertained the project of seizing it into his own hands — a scheme which Henry YIII. of England, so far as his own realms were concerned, not long after realized. The learning and genius of Reuchlin and Erasmus, though not aiming at open reform- ation, had done much to prepare the vray for a purer religion and a system of worship less encumbered by dogmatical puerilities. It was in the midst of a general sense of spiritual degradation and oppression, and of an anxious longing for something better, that one of those famous men arose, who are fated to change the entire desti- nies of nations. 406 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Martin Luther was born on the 10th of November, 1483, at the town of Eisleben, in Saxony. His parents were exceedingly poor, but industrious, and his father, a man of stern, ascetic disposition, was deeply attached to literature and religion. The resolute and independent temper of the young reformer caused him to be treated with great and needless severity, both at home and at school, and he has himself recorded that he was flogged fifteen times in a single day. Few children perhaps ever passed through a youth more unfavourable to the development of the finer feelings and the ame- nities of life — yet Luther was always remarkable for his kindness of heart and his universal tenderness toward all, either of the human or brute creation. His natural disposition was, doubtless, most excellent and admirable. At the age of fourteen, he was sent to the school of the Franciscan monks, at Magdeburg, and was forced to depend on public charity for a subsistence — often, with his companions, begging from door to door. In this trying situation, and afterwards in similar circum- stances, at Eisenach, his sweetness of disposition and desire for learning never forsook him. He studied ardently, and at length was so fortunate as to find, at the latter place, a kind-hearted family named Cotta, who relieved his wants, and made him a welcome inmate of their house. This kindness had the happiest efifect both on his temper and his acquirements. After a studious and bril- liant career as a scholar, during which he acquired the respect and affection of all who knew him, he went in 1501 to the university of Brfurth. Here his genius and acquirements soon made him the admiration of the whole institution. He had been here two years, and was twenty years old, when he one day discovered a Bible in the public library. With all his learning, he had never before encountered it, so rare a book was it at this time. Some small portions, incorporated into the church service, were all which he had supposed to exist. He read it with the deepest interest, and the effect on his enthusiastic mind, seeking for truth, was naturally strong in the extreme. As yet, however, he was a zealous believer in all the tenets and usages of the church. At the age of twenty-one, alarmed in his con- science by the terrors of a thunder-storm, he determined to enter a monastery, and devote himself entirel}^ to the service of God. Accordingly, amid the lamentations and dissuasions of his friends, "in 1505, he entered the convent of St. Augustine, at the town of GEEMANY. 407 Erfurth. Here the monks, thougli proud of so eminent a convert, employed liim in the meanest offices. If he tried to study or med- itate, he was sent through the town with a sack to beg provisions for the brotherhood. Nevertheless, with characteristic patience and gentleness, he bore his hardships cheerfully, and still sought to improve himself in theological study. In hopes to attain heaven by self-discipline, he practised the most rigid fasting, maceration, and watching. Nothing but a frame of iron and an indomitable spirit could have withstood these self-inflicted sufferings. All was in vain; peace of heart and assurance of salvation never came near him ; and his mental anguish and solitary musings were ascribed by the fraternity to a secret intercourse with the devil. He was reduced almost to a condition of utter despair, when the kind and soothing exhortations of Staupitz, the able and benevolent vicar-general, awoke him to a truer sense of real religion than could be found in vows or self-inflicted penance. After mental conflicts of so severe a nature as almost to amount to insanity, his mind struggled forward into something more of light and hope. He was made a priest in 1507, and in the following year was appointed as professor in the university of Wittemburg by Frederic, the elector of Saxony. Still a monk, he changed his abode only from the convent of Erfurth to that of Wittemburg. He preached, and a fervour and eloquence never known before carried away his hearers. The active and useful life which he led at this place, while it highly added to his reputation, disciplined his mind to a more healthy and hopeful condition. In 1510; he was despatched on a mission to Rome, whence he returned deeply scandalized by the corruption and hypocrisy of the Italian clergy. Soon after, he was made a Doctor of Divinity, For seven years longer, he led a life of great activity and useful- ness, performing manifold functions as a professor, a clergyman, and a philosophical author, Yarious innovations against the false theol- ogy and philosophy of the day had, indeed, already proceeded from his powerful pen. At the end of that time an event occurred, which was destined to eliminate all his capabilities of energy and firmness, and to change the destinies of Christian Europe. John Tetzel, a Dominican prior, had been, for fifteen years, a principal agent in Germany for the sale of indulgences. Gifted with a tremendous voice, some eloquence, and a deal of coarse humour, he had been unusuallv successful in extracting money from the pockets 408 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of all devout and liberal Catholics. His talents, just at this time, found an extraordinary field for their exercise ; for the Pope, Leo X., was engaged in the enterprise of rebuilding St. Peter's Church on a scale of unprecedented magnificence, and the papal treasury was like a maelstrom that swallowed all within the sphere of its attractions. Few grosser or more profitable impositions have been practised on the credulity of mankind than that which declared, without repent- ance or reformation, the complete remission of sins for a pecuniary compensation. In this shameless spii^itual trafiic, besides general contributions, every particular sin was regulated by a fixed tariif. Polygamy cost six ducats, and murder eight; while perjury and sacrilege came as high as nine. One Samson, however, in Switzerland, was more reasonable in his scale of prices — charging only one ducat for a parri- cide and four livres for an infanticide. Tet2el, in his public descrip- tion of the torments of purgatory, and the necessities of the church, generally concluded by thrice calling to the people, "Bring your money! bring money! bring money!" According to Luther, "he uttered this cry with such a dreadful bellowing, that one might have thought some wild bull was rushing among the people, and goring them with his horns." To do the Pope justice, his bull respecting indulgences enforced repentance and confession ; but these requisites were declared needless by his over-zealous commissaries. It would be impossible to recount half the knavish tricks and impositions by which money was extracted from the terror and credulity of the people. On one occasion, indeed, Tetzel met with a shrewder practiser than himself. A Saxon gen- tleman, having bargained for thirty crowns for permission to commit an act of violence, took his money's worth upon that functionary himself, for whom he lay in wait, and, having beaten him grievously, carried off the rich chest of indulgence-money which he had helped to fill. On his trial for this audacious act, the indulgence, which he exhibited, secured his acquittal. Indeed, the whole German public was fast awaking to a sense of the imposture ; and even the common people cried out against the Pope, who, having the keys of heaven and hell, exercised his power of releasing the wretched souls in purgatory so charily and expen- sively. The strong sense and ardent piety of Luther were deeply moved by the account of Tetzel's successful impudence, and he cried with an energy characteristically forcible, "God willing, I will make DOCTOR MARTIN LUTHER. This wonderful man, who effected such a complete change in the theologicM.''. Mffairs of Europe, -was "born at Eisleben, in Sasonj^^ on the 10th of Novembei', 1-183. His p:irentage was one of obscurity and poverty. Erom a fanatical monlc ol' ta-^ zVugustine order, he became one of the most original thinkers and most cl'iring mnov.ators whom the world has ever witnessed. He expired at the pjluce of his liirth on the 18th of Eebruary, 1546, after along and turbulent life, passed, for the mo.'?t part, in continued contests "with the Pope, the Priests, and, accord- ing to his own belief with the Enemy of Mankind. GEEMANY. 409 a hole in liis drum !" The opportunity was soon presented. Several of the citizens of AYittemburg, in confessing their sins to him, justi- fied the continuance of these, on the ground that they had purchased indulgences, which they exhibited. He assured them of the ineffi- cacy of such instruments, enjoined repentance and reform, and refused absolution on any other conditions. He immediately preached the same doctrine forcibly from the pulpit. CHAPTER ?. THE REFORMATION CONTINUED. THE "THESES" OE LTJTHER. CONTESTS WITH ROME. THE DIET AT WORMS. Events of the highest theological interest succeeded with startling rapidity. On the 31st of October, 1517, on a great public occasion, the reformer, whose heart was now fully enlisted in the work, affixed to the door of the church at Wittemburg ninety -five theses or propo- sitions, boldly attacking the efficacy of indulgences, and enforcing many strong and natural truths in regard to morality and religion. These sound, and at that time novel, theological assertions, spread with unexampled rapidity throughout Germany and all Christendom, and elicited high compliments from the most learned, pious, and eminent persons of the daj^ Even the Pope, Leo X., whose name and office were respectfully treated, appears to have felt admiration rather than displeasure at the assailant of his emissaries. The rage of the priestly and monkish fraternity in general was, however, unbounded ; and clamours for the burning of this audacious heretic arose on all sides. Tetzel especially raved against him in the fiercest manner, and publicly burned the obnoxious theses^ bitterly invoking the same fate for their author. His own, however, which he had written in opposition, were seized, and publicly destroyed in the same way by the enthusiastic students of Wittemburg. Luther, with contemptuous coarseness, compared the invectives of his adver- sary to the braying of an ass. His friends, however, became alarmed, and his chief protector, the duke Frederick of Saxony, was filled 410 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. with, uneasiness at tlie prospect of provoking tiie papacy. The reformer, nevertheless, in the most public manner, maintained with great eloquence and learning the truth of his propositions. The Emperor Maximilian, perceiving the resolute genius of the enthusi- ast, and the weight which he would carry in a contest with the papal power, wrote to the elector to "take care of the Monk Luther, for a time may come when we shall have need of him." The Pope, when urged by those around him to interfere in the matter, had coolly answered that it was only a squabble among the monks, and that the best way was to take no notice of it. The more zealous of his supporters, however, both in Italy and Germany, entered the lists with alacrity, and attacked the new doctrines and their author with great acerbity. He, on his part, by the publication of popular tracts, greatly increased the diffusion of his sentiments. Nevertheless, he still continued to hold the papal authority in high veneration; and in a touching and eloquent lettter to Leo X., while averring the impossibility of retracting his views, placed his life and fortunes at the disposal of his spiritual chief. But the latter now considered that the spirit of reform which had set half Germany in a flame, was too formidable to be passed over in silence. An ecclesiastical court was appointed, and the reformer was sum- moned to appear before it, at Eonae, in sixty days. At the inter- cession of his friends, however, this was not insisted on; and the papal legate De Yio, then in Germany, was commissioned to dispose of the case. The Pope,: indeed, commanded, in case of obstinacy and refusal to retract his errors, that the audacious innovator should be seized and despatched to Pome. Strong efforts were also made to deprive him of the protection of the elector. Maximilian, from political considerations, was already strongly in the papal interest. Luther, on his part, was encouraged by the friendship of a new and admirable companion, the celebrated Melancthon, who, though very young, was already highly distinguished by his talents, learn- ing, and piety. The great work of translating the Bible in German, which the former had already commenced, was exceedingly furthered and encouraged by the classic zeal of his new associate. The order for his appearance at Augsburg before the cardinal legate soon arrived, and his friends, knowing his bold and uncom- promising spirit, looked on him as a man devoted to certain destruction. He nevertheless set out immediately, travelling, with honourable poverty, on foot. He arrived, after a weary journey, GEEMANY. ^n and on the llth of October, 1518, presented liimself before the car- dinal. The conference commenced with civility, but after several interviews, degenerated into a scene of fierce polemical wrangling — the cardinal insisting on a full retractation, and Lnther, with eq^ial stubbornness and zeal, contending for the truth of his doctrines. Feeling, indeed, that he had shown in his style too little deference, as a monk, to the head of his church, he did not hesitate to make a humble acknowledgment of his supposed error, and begged that the questions in issue might be referred to his Holiness in person. Soon after, having reason to dread that the emperor would deliver him up a prisoner, he secretly quitted Augsburg, and returned to Wittemburg. The cardinal forthwith demanded of the elector his banishment or transmission to Eome ; but the latter, moved by the eloquence and magnanimity of his protege, refused compliance. He was neverthe- less anxious to be rid of him; and Luther, too proud to accept a reluctant protection, was on the eve of departing for France, when his patron, trusting yet to bring about an accommodation, desired him to remain. The prospect of this, however, seemed hopeless ; and on the 28th of November, the Great Eeformer, taking the offensive, boldly demanded that the matters in question should be referred to a Greneral Council of the church. Since learning the Pope's enmity, his respect for that high dignitary had undergone a wonderful dimi- nution ; and in his new publication, though still acknowledging the papal authority, he boldly averred — "Seeing that the Pope, who is Grod's vicar on earth, may, like any oth-er man, fall into error, commit sin, and utter falsehood, and that the appeal to a Greneral Council is the only safeguard against acts of injustice which it is impossible to resist — on these grounds I find myself obliged to have recourse to it." In a nation naturally enthusiastic, and prone to theological specula- tion, this succession of events had awakened the deepest interest and excitement; and Germany was fast getting ripe for religious reformation. Miltitz, the new legate, who in December, 1518, was despatched with conciliatory overtures to the elector, was surprised to find the people, in a great majority, throughout his route in Ger- many, firm adherents to the Eeformer, and highly distrustful of the Papal See. The death of Maximilian in 1519, and the Pope's desire for the powerful cooperation of Frederick in the imperial elec- tion, induced him to allow some respite to the intractable reformer ; 412 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. and during the ensuing year, in tlie midst of great discussion and excitement, and the active warfare of universities, he desseminated his doctrines still more widely. On the 28th of June, 1520, Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), an inveterate enemy of religious reform, was elected emperor, and the zealous supporters of the papacy clamoured loudly for the death of Luther, some averring that it was proper to kill him wherever he should be found. On the other hand, many powerful nobles of Ger- many, welcoming his doctrines and admiring his spirit, voluntarily interposed their protection. He soon made a fierce and able attack on the papacy itself, and exposed the corruptions of the Eomish system with the highest force and energy. He boldly advocated the marriage of priests, the disuse of monasteries, with many other reasonable reforms, and called boldly upon the empire to oppose its resistance to the time-honoured papal encroachments. This power- ful and eloquent appeal, addressed to the German nobility, spread with unprecedented rapidity through the country. The Pope and cardinals, on their part, declared Luther and all his adherents excommunicated at the end of sixty days, except on condition of previous submission and recantation. The reformer, no longer preserving even the appearance of veneration to the hie- rarchy, replied by a bold and warning letter, addressed to the Pope on terms of equality; and with it, for his spiritual benefit, despatched him a small work upon Christian liberty. He also publicly appealed to the states, and, accompanied by the professors and students of his university, made a solemn bonfire of the Pope's late bull, as well as of the decretals and other documents revered by the Eomish church. Melancthon, with great learning, eloquence, and spirit, supported these bold and uncompromising measures. The Emperor Charles, who was then in full council at Cologne, readily conceded to the papal nuncio the privilege of publicly burn- ing the heretical works of Luther and his associates throughout the empire; but shrank from the responsibility of consigning their authors to a similar fate. He referred the matter to the elector of Saxony, to whom he in reality owed his crown, and who still extended his protection over the proscribed believers. Continually urged, however, by the papacy, to take some action, he wrote to the elector that he must despatch Luther to answer before a grand imperial Diet, which had been summoned to meet at Worms in Jan- uary, 1521. The duke was in great perplexity, but Luther avowed GERMANY. 4^3 his firm intention of obeying the citation, and appearing before the Diet at whatever personal risk. The excommunication of Eome had now been launched, and the nuncio Alexander, before that august body, was already calling, with great vehemence and eloquence, for the unconditional punishment of the obstinate recasant. He declared the errors and heresies of Luther were sufficiently gross and numerous to warrant the burning of an hundred thousand heretics. So great was the effect of his impetuous eloquence, that a majority of the Diet would willingly have sacrificed Luther; but several of the most powerful magnates, while not defending him, complained bitterly of the corruptions and extortions of the church. A list of grievances, to the number of an hundred and one, was drawn up, and laid before the emperor. So great had the excitement become, that Charles perceived that nothing short of the appearance of Luther could bring matters to any settlement ; and accordingly sent him a summons to appear before the Diet, with a safe-conduct, ensuring his protection. The alleged culprit, who was almost adored throughout Germany, made a kind of triumphal procession to the place of his trial. In vain did the people call on him to remember the fate of John Huss, who, despite the safe-conduct of the Emperor Sigismund, had been burned by the Council of Constance. The portrait of the martyred Savona- rola, which was significantly exhibited to him by a monk, had no greater effect. As he approached the city, a messenger was des- patched by a confidant of the elector to dissuade him from entering its dangerous precincts. The undaunted reformer, whose mind was now fully made up for triumph or martyrdom, only answered, "Tell your master, that though there should be as many devils at Worms as there are tiles on the roofs, I would enter it!" His appearance, on the 16th of April, produced the highest excitement and curiosity. The Eomish advisers of Charles (who was in great perplexity, and who had even tried to deter him from entering) proposed to cut the Gordian knot by following the example of Sigismund, and consigning the audacious heretic to the flames. The emperor, however, resolved to adhere to his safe-conduct, and Luther on the following day made his appearance before the Diet, composed of many of the most renowned princes, nobles, and eccle- siastics of Germany and Europe. The emperor presided, and the Augustine monk who had created such an unparalleled disturbance amid these powers and dignitaries, was asked if he acknowledged 4-14 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. tlie voluminous writings before tlae assembly as bis own. He did ; and to tbe question wbether he intended to retract, desired a day's delay. It was granted, and on tbe following day be delivered a most eloquent, modest, and toucbing reply, urging tbe trutb of bis doctrines, and refusing to recant; yet admitting tbat be migbt bave been too barsb and zealous in bis personal strictures. To an omin- ous tbreat from tbe cbancellor, be only replied, "May God be my belper! for I can retract notbing." Tbe emperor and all present were moved to admiration by bis undaunted bearing. Frederick, proud of bis protege, now resolved to protect him more openly ; and for several days tbe most learned and influential persons attendant on the Diet strove to induce him to retract or to make some submission to tbe papal authority. All was in vain; and tbe emperor, eager to annul tbe effect of bis safe-conduct, com- manded him to quit the city. An imperial edict, denouncing tbe severest punishment against him, was presently issued. . This instru- ment averred, among other charges, " The Augustine monk, Martin Luther, regardless of our exhortations, has madly attacked the Holy Church, and attempted to destroy it by writings full of blasphemy. * * * * This being, who is no man, but Satan himself, under the semblance of a man in a monk's hood, has collected, in one offensive mass, all the worst heresies of former ages, adding his own to tbe number. — We bave therefore dismissed from our presence this Luther, whom all reasonable men count a madman, or possessed by the devil ; and it is our intention that so soon as the term of bis safe-conduct is expired, effectual measures be forth- with taken to put a stop to his fury." His immediate arrest was enjoined, at the expiration of this pro- tection, and it is said that Charles always regretted that be had not violated it while he bad tbe opportunity, and consigned Liitber to the stake at tbe assembly of Worms. The object of all this fury was quietly journeying back to Wit- temburg, when, in a narrow defile, he was seized by five horsemen, and carried forcibly away to the solitary castle of Wartburg. A strong and friendly hand had been interposed to save him from destruction. Tbe elector Frederick had taken this singular means of preserving him from tbe imperial power, as well as from his own perilous enthusiasm. But throughout Grermany, the popular grief was at first extreme; for it was supposed tbat he had been spirited away by his enemies. GEEMANY. 415 CHAPTER ?I SPEEAD OE THE REEORM ATIO N, THE BIBLE. THE PEASANT-WAR. PERSECUTIONS. In tliis lonely and secure retreat, the too daring reformer was compelled to pass a considererable time. "Happy and safe in his dungeon, he could return to his flute, sing his German psalms, trans- late his Bible, and thunder away at the Pope and the devil quite at his ease." He busied himself in study and in theological writing and correspondence. He was, however, as he averred, often griev- ously disturbed in this avocation by the personal presence of his old adversarj^ the devil, who carried his annoyance so far as to provoke the reformer on one occasion to fling his inkstand at the head of his infernal persecutor. The mark which it made upon the wall is still reverentially shown at the castle of Wartburg. He was, however, greatly annoyed by the excesses and impru- dences which characterized the early dissemination of the reformed opinions; and especially at the extrava.gant doctrines which were now starting up like mushrooms in Grermany and elsewhere. Early in 1522, without permission of the elector, he quitted his retreat, and returned to Wittemburg — assigning to his patron, among other weighty reasons, the following: "Satan has entered my sheep-fold, and committed ravages which I can only repair by my own presence and lively word." He was engaged in publishing his famous translation of the Bible, when its circulation was prohibited by a great number of princes and bishops. Every effort was made to suppress it; yet, despite of their exertions, this vigorous and admirable translation met with the most encouraging success, gave a fresh impetus to the Reformation, and produced the most favourable effect on the moral and social condition of all parts of Germany in which it was allowed to circu- late. Luther readily took up the gauntlet, and, without respect to persons, attacked in vehement language the suppressors of the scrip- tures. Reading accurately the signs of the times, he warned them of impending danger, and declared that he saw the sword of civil war suspended over Germany. In the following year, he answered 416 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the famous joamplilet of Henry VIII. of England, with a force and scurrility which threw that of his royal antagonist quite in the shade. The abusive epithets of Henry were retorted by rejoinders in a sim- ilar strain, aptly describing the English monarch as "a hog of hell," and using many other choice specimens of vituperation. In the midst of all the labours of theological disputation, and the numerous cares of his own congregation, the reformer, with the aid of his associates, laid the foundations of a new church — that wide- spread system called after the name of its founder — the Lutheran. Its doctrines and ecclesiastical government began to assume a settled form. The mass was performed in German instead of Latin, as here- tofore — and the common people were thus enabled to accompany the forms of worship with feeling and understanding. Though occupying no fixed rank in the new religious establishment, he maintained, by the authority of his name and character, a kind of supremacy over the whole body of the reformed believers, and even employed the terrors of excommunication upon its refractory mem- bers. The most onerous and perplexing charge which fell into his hands Avas the care and support of numerous nuns, who, escaping from their convents, took refuge with the leader of the reformation ; and his simplicity and good-nature were occasionally imposed upon by guests of a more questionable character. His predictions of a civil struggle were soon awfully verified by the "war of the peasants," which broke out in 1524, in many parts of Grermany, and was characterized by frightful excesses. The til- lers of the soil, complaining justly both of their temporal and eccle- siastical bondage and oppression, rose in great numbers, against their feudal superiors. Luther, by a most admirable appeal, addressed both to the peasants and their lords, in vain endeavoured to allay the conflagration. A civil war, almost of extermination, ensued. In Franconia alone, nearly three hundred castles and monasteries were laid in niins. In Alsace, the duke Antony of Lorraine put to death more than thirty thousand of the insurgents. The nobles finally succeeded in suppressing the revolt — a triumph which was stained by atrocious cruelties. Great dissensions now occurred among the reformers themselves ; and a fierce theological controversy was waged between Wittemburg and the Swiss and Ehenish ecclesiastics, headed by Zwingle, Bucer, and other distinguished seceders from the church. The grief and perplexity of Luther were extreme ; but he found some consolation Austrian Peasar. t. German Peasant,, OF THE SEVENTEEN!' H CE"NT"CTRY Isabel, of Jjavariu, ■^•IFK OF OHA.ULES VI. OF FliANCJi Austrian Lady of Rank GEEMAN Y. 417 ill a liappy and well-assorted marriage. In August, 1526, he espoused Catharine Von Bora, an escaped nun, of beautiful person and excel- lent disposition. This act elicited a fresh outcry from the Catholic world, which insisted that the " Anti-christ " (who, it had long been prophecied, should be born of a monk and a nun) would be the legitimate offspring of this sacrilegious union ; but Erasmus, though now a formidable opponent of Luther, sneeringly reminded them that, if such was the fact, there were many thousands of Anti-christs already in the world. The fierce and excitable champion of the Eeformation proved, indeed, a most affectionate and exemplary husband and father. The emperor, though still exceedingly anxious to punish the audacious heretic, and to suppress his doctrines, saw plainly the impossibility of effecting his purpose, on account of the protection afforded by the elector, and the strong popular feeling in favour of the new religion. His contests with Francis I., and the necessity of repelling the Turkish invasions from Hungary and the eastern bounds of the empire, also greatly engrossed his attention, and perhaps employed the means which might otherwise have been used to crush the reformers of Wittemburg. Nevertheless, in the Low Countries, which were under his immediate control, persecution had already commenced; and on the 1st of July, 1523, Esch and Voes, two young Augustines of the reformed opinions, suffered at the stake in Brussels — being the first of that vast "army of martyrs" who were destined to lay down their lives in furtherance of the Great Reformation. Luther commemorated the fate and the influence of these youthful sufferers in one of his noblest hymns, which, from the lips of thou- sands, long echoed through the heart of Germany. "Flung to the heedless winds, Or on the waters cast, Their ashes shall be watched, And gathered at the last; And from that scattered dust Around us and abroad Shall spring a plenteous seed Of witnesses for God." A most fierce and violent persecution, under the auspices of the Catholic League, soon ensued throughout a great portion of Europe, In many parts of Germany, however, under the protection of pow- erful princes and nobles, the advocates of the new faith continued 27 418 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. boldly to preacli and propagate their doctrines; and tlie emperor, though at mortal enmity with the whole system, was yet compelled by motives of policy to admit a toleration which it would have been out of his power to abrogate entirely. Luther, amid a thousand scenes of embarrassment, peril, and mental distress, continued during his whole life to labour diligently both for the improvement and prop- asration of the belief which owned him for its founder. In his latter days, from infirmity and care, he became weary of life, and regretted deeply that, being no longer able to serve the church in his life, his death was not destined to afford an example of useful and famous martyrdom. He died on the 18th ot February, 1546, at Eisleben, where he was born, expressing, in his last words, a firm reliance on the faith ' which he had so long and earnestly professed. In estimating the character of this extraordinary man, great allowance must be made for the ignorance and uncertainty of the age, for the infinite obstacles with which he was forced to contend, and especially for the physical ardency of his nature, excited and shattered by the most severe mental conflicts and unavailing self- inflicted severities. His morality, piety, self-sacrifice, and conscien- tious industry, were almost beyond any thing recorded in history. His heart was in general overflowing with love for all created things. Yet the vehemence of his temper and his combative propensity, aroused by furious opposition, lent a fierceness and personality to his polemical writings, which sometimes he had occasion to regret. Aware of this constitutional impetuosity, he writes to a friend, "My style, rude and unskilful, vomits forth a deluge, a chaos of words, boisterous and impetuous as a wrestler contending with a thousand successive monsters. * * * I feel, however, some comfort from the consideration that our common Father hath need, in this immense family, of each servant; of the hard against the hard, the rough against the rough, to be used as a sharp wedge against hard knots. To clear the air and fertilize the soil, the rain which falls and the dew which sinks is not enough — the thunder-storm is still required." Sometimes, like the prophet Jonah, he deems that he '^does well to be angry."' — "Thou canst not think," he writes to a third," how I love to see my adversaries daily rising up more against me. I am never haughtier or bolder than when I hear that I have ofiended them. Doctors, bishops, princes — what are they to me ? * * I have such a contempt for these Satans, that if I were not retained G E E M A N Y . 419 here, I would straight to Eome in mj hate of the devil and all these furies. But I must have patience with the Pope, with my disciples, with Catharine Von Bora, with every one." His imaginative and enthusiastic mind was thoroughly imbued with superstition; and he traced the direct agency of the Lord, or the intrusive presence of Satan, in almost every striking event of life. He repeatedly described the personal annoyance and temptation which he had experienced from this infernal adversary; and was supplied with a vast stock of anecdotes, frequently drawn from his own observation, founded on the malicious interference of evil spirits. On one occasion, he even urged upon the prince of Anhalt the pro- priety of throwing into the river Moldau an unfortunate child, whose fantastic habits and demeanour had shocked the inhabitants of Des- sau. It did nothing but eat, and would consume as much food as any four labouring men ; it laughed at any misfortune in the house, but went weeping and moping when all was well; proof positive, he considered, that it was a mere lump of flesh animated by the devil for malicious purposes. CHAPTER YII. RELIGIOUS DISPUTES. THE THIRTY TEARS' WAR. Under the Emperor Charles V. (more especially mentioned in the account of Spain) the imperial power certainly had attained its height. The Germanic empire, Austria, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Bur- gundy, and immense possessions in the new world, had all become united under the house of Hapsburg. Bohemia and Hungary were almost added to the list. Nothing prevented yet further accessions to this vast accumulation of power and territory except the power- ful opposition of Francis I., and the domestic resistance among the states, excited by Luther and the Eeformation. In 1530, the Protestant party, now formidable in power and num- bers, had delivered to the emperor, in the diet at Augsburg, the celebrated Confession of Faith which takes its name from that city. The princes of the reformed party, by a solemn league at Smalkalde, 420 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. gained sufficient political importance to ensure for some time tolera- tion in their respective dominions. At the death of Lnther and that of Francis I. (which occurred nearly at the same time) the emperor entered into a solemn league with the Pope, Paul III., for the extir- pation of heresy ; and immediately took up arms against the reformed states of Germany. This war, conducted on the part of the states by the elector of Saxony, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel, and other eminent Protestants, opened very unfavourably for the reformers. Their forces were defeated, the elector was captured and threatened with instant execution, and the fiery landgrave was compelled to demand pardon of the emperor on his knees. Nevertheless, the resistance of the combined districts was so stubborn and prolonged, that Charles, in 1555, was compelled to liberate the imprisoned princes, and to conclude a formal treaty of peace, ensuring toleration to the reformed religion. In the same year, wearied out with contests and the cares of empire, he made that memorable resignation of his dominions which has furnished such a fruitful theme for moralists and philosophers. (See Spain, page 370.) In the reign of his brother, Ferdinand I., who succeeded him in the empire, a general assembly of the Protest- ants was held at Naumburg, and all the changes which had been made in the "Confession of Augsburg," in order to approximate it to the systeni of Calvin, were corrected. This emperor, after a prudent and judicious reign, expired in 1564. His son, Maximilian, evinced equal judgment and moderation. Toleration was maintained, and in 1568 the emperor accorded to the Austrian Protestants the full exercise of their religion. At his death, in 1576, the succession devolved upon his son Rudolf II., who is described as having been "a great distiller, a good astronomer, a very tolerable esquire, but a very bad emperor." His reign was troubled by fierce contests between the rival Pro- testant sects of Augsburg and Geneva, and by the ambition of his brother Matthias, who compelled him to abdicate the crowns of Bohe- mia and Hungary. He died in 1612, and Matthias, who succeeded him, in 1619. Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand I., who (on the refusal of the duke of Bavaria) was next selected to fill the throne, had been educated in Spain, and was embued with sentiments of the most absolute despotism and the most intolerant bigotry. That great contest between the Catholics and Protestants, called from its duration the Thirty Years' War, broke out immediately on his accession. GEEMANY. 421 In this long and disastrous contest, the German, Danish, Swedish, and French nations were successively involved. Bohemia, which first set the example of resistance to the imperial authority, was quickly subdued; and Christian of Brunswick and Count Mansfield, the Protestant leaders in the north of Grermany, were completely defeated by the celebrated Tilly. The successes of the latter were disgraced by the most atrocious outrages and oppression in the unfortunate states which had resisted. Christian IV., king of Den- mark, who next was placed at the head of the confederacy, though distinguished by many characteristics of the ancient northern heroes, was unable to withstand the greatly superior forces of the empire. Being defeated by Tilly, in 1626, at the battle of Lutter, he was compelled to make peace, with a loss of a portion of his dominions. Germany was again ravaged by the cruel and victorious imperialists. The cause of the Protestants appeared desperate, when, in 1630, the famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed at Usedom, and by his skill and the valour of his forces, completely turned the tide of warfare. Aided by several powerful German princes, and encouraged by foreign alliances, he commenced a series of brilliant and successful campaigns. At Leipsic, with forty thousand men, he defeated an equal number under Tilly, with a loss of twelve thousand in killed, wounded, and prisoners. He was soon master of the whole country, from the Elbe to the Ehine, and erected a pyramid on the banks of the latter, that posterity might know how far his victorious arms had been carried. The imperial general soon sustained another overwhelming defeat, and lost his own life in the action. Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, who was now in command of the Austrian forces, met with better success ; and succeeded in repulsing a furious attack which the king of Sweden, with sixty thousand men, made upon his intrenchments. The latter, soon afterwards, fell in the sanguinary battle of Lutzen, where, however, his troops again defeated the imperial army, with a loss of six thousand men. The emperor still persisted in carrying on the war, and Germany for a long time continued to be ravaged by hostile armies. The renowned Wallenstein, whose ambition had occasioned deep jealousy to the court of Vienna, perished by the hand of an assassin despatched for his arrest. Soon after, the emperor himself expired, after a reign of eighteen years, mostly disastrous to his subjects and to the power of the 422 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, empire. His son Ferdinand III., who received the crown, succeeded in tranquillizing the interior of Germany, but for many years was compelled to wage destructive wars with the foreign confederates. The victories of the French, under Conde and Turenne, and those of the Swedes, under Banier, Wrangel, and Torstenston, finally com- pelled the emperor to negotiate for peace. By the treaty of West- phalia, in 1648, Sweden and France, especially the latter, gained possession of districts of Germany; the successful German princes also obtained advantages ; and freedom in the exercise of their reli- gion was fully guarantied to the Protestants. A. bull of the Pope and a remonstrance of the king of Spain, called forth by this settlement, were alike disregarded. For nearly a century longer, the princes of the Austrian house of Hapsburg continued to hold the throne of the empire and of their hereditary dominions — the contests concerning the Spanish succes- sion, and the rise of the independent kingdom of Prussia, being among the most prominent events in the imperial history. The latter country, now composed of more than fifty provinces of ancient Germany,, was founded upon the duchy of that name, and its first sovereign was the duke Frederick III., who having largely increased his hereditary possessions, assumed the crown in 1701, as Frederick I., of the new kingdom of Prussia. At his death, in 1713, his son, Frederick William I., a severe, prejudiced, and disagreeable person, succeeded him. The amusements of this refined sovereign consisted in kicking, cuffing, and otherwise maltreating all who fell under his displeasure, and in exercising the most odious oppression toward the members of his own family. By such harsh and brutal treat- ment, the character of his son Frederick was, no doubt, materially injured. The kingdom, however, enjoyed considerable prosperity during his reign, and at his death in 1740 he bequeathed to his son, Frederick II., (the Great) a considerable treasure and a tolerably effective army. In the same year, by the death of the emperor, Charles VI., the last male descendant of the house of Hapsburg, his daughter Maria Theresa succeeded to his hereditary dominions. After some contests with the elector of Bavaria, who, under the title of the emperor Charles YII., disputed her pretensions, she gained the advantage; and on his death her husband, Francis I., duke of Lorraine, was in 1745 elected to the imperial dignity. The ambition of Frederick, seconded by his almost unrivalled FREDERICK THE GREAT, KINO OF PRUSSIA Taib celebrated and eccectric soveTeigr. avhs Voi'l on tae 24th d;iy ol' January, 1712. His youth was rendered un'imi'Y'y, and uis diti:'Osition deeply injured by the harshness and cruelty of his father, Frederick Wilnam I., an odious and vulgar tyrant. After his accession to the tin-one, vn 1740, his an-;bition involved Prussia in a series of devastating wars, in vrhich, at the expense of the lives and happiness of his people, he displayed the highest talents as a military com- mander. He died on the 17th of Augu.^t, 1786 ; his death being hastened by thn greatest ■^ill'ulness and indiscretion m hi,^ diet GEEMANY. 423 talents for warfare, soon involved the greater part of Europe in fierce and protracted hostilities. Taking advantage of the unpro- tected situation of the empress-queen, he gained possession of the important province of Silesia. Strengthened by the devoted attach- ment of her Hungarian subjects, and by the powerful alliance of France and Eussia, Maria Theresa made a determined effort to hold the contested district. Frederick, encouraged by the promise of assistance from England, resolved on a stubborn resistance; and in 1756 commenced a brilliant and successful campaign against the imperial forces in Saxony. The foreign confederates, in overwhelm- ing force, marched to the assistance of their Austrian ally; but the Prussian monarch, by Tinparalleled exertions, raised fresh armies, marched into Bohemia, and defeated an hundred thousand Austrians in a pitched battle near the city of Prague. Each of the hostile forces sustained a loss of nearly twenty thousand men. The fugi- tive army took refuge in Prague, which was immediately besieged by the victor. Marshal Daun, the Austrian commander, with sixty thousand men, hastened to its relief In the battle of Kolin, June 18th, 1757, the Prussian army lost eight thousand men, and was compelled to retreat. The arrival of the Eussian forces seemed to render the condition of Frederick almost desperate ; yet by a series of rapid and brilliant manoeuvres, he was victorious on all sides. The French, who had also entered Germany, sustained a memorable defeat at Eosbach. At Leuthen, in December, the Austrian army, under Daun, met with another startling defeat from the Prussians, under Frederick, whose numbers were but little more than half those of the enemy. The Swedes, who had joined the hostile alliance, were likewise repelled. This memorable contest, called from its duration "The Seven Years' "War," was protracted, in a most obstinate manner, until the commencement of the year 1763. The death of the empress of Eussia, and the entirely different policy of her successor, Peter TIL, had rid Frederick of one of his most formidable enemies, and secured him a powerful auxiliary. By the treaty of Hubertsburg, peace was restored to the numerous conflicting parties, complete restitution being made of all prisoners and conquests. The Prussian monarch retained Silesia, for which half a million of lives had been sacrificed in vain. This disastrous Septennial Warfare, which from necessity has been very briefly described, was doubtless, excepting the wars of Napo- 424 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Icon, the most sanguinary which Europe has ever witnessed. "In this long and unequal conflict," says an able writer, "Prussia had resisted the three great military powers of Europe — France, Austria and Eussia — reinforced by the troops of the Circles, of Saxony, and of Sweden. The success of this seemingly impracticable undertaking, in which, had Frederick failed, his name would have been numbered with the wildest names in Romance, was facilitated by the following circumstances: the timid and interested caution of the Austrian generals, who, while they spared their own troops, disgusted their allies by continually exposing them to enterprises of difl&culty and posts of danger; the seasonable demise of the Empress Elizabeth, which converted Russia from an implacable enemy into a useful auxiliary; the patriotic zeal of the Prussian subjects, and the disci- plined bravery of the Prussian troops ; above all, the king's incom- parable conduct and invincible courage, his cool combination and ardent execution,"* Joseph II., in 1765, succeeded his father, Francis I., in the impe- rial dignity. His reign was distinguished by bold attempts at reform and improvement. Unfortunately his ardour outstripped the intel- ligence and the wishes of his subjects. Religious toleration and political reform were unpopular with a priest-ridden and prejudiced people; the work of his life perished with him; and Austria has since been under the sway of princes sufficiently bigoted and far enough behind the spirit of the age to satisfy the most obstinate opponent of liberty and progress. The wonderful events which succeeded the French Revolution, and which for so many years, convulsed all Central Europe, have been elsewhere alluded to. Germany, whose political constitution has been so repeatedly altered, and which at times has seemed upon the eve of great political reform, appears at present nearly as far from real freedom and unity of sentiment as ever. Though doubt- less the great mass of the population in nearly all the German states are sincerely desirous of liberty and self-government, it may be doubted whether the predominant influence of her powerful neigh- bours, inclined to despotism, will not for a long time suppress any progressive movement which may emanate from the people, whether in the shape of reform or revolution. * Gillies's Frederick 11. RUSSIA. EARLY HISTORY OF RUSSIA. — THE TARTARS. — ASCENDANCY OF THE MUSCOVITE DYNASTY. ITAN THE GREAT The early history of those numerous tribes and nations of wliic]i the vast Eussian empire is composed, is almost entirely lost in the mists of antiquity and barbarism. A great portion of its immense domains, especially in the neighbourhood of Asia, is still inhabited by a rude and primitive people, not much advanced beyond their ancestors, the ancient Scythians and Sarmatians. The Slavi, the most prominent of these migratory and warlike races, came originally from the East, and by degrees overran a great part of Asia and Eastern Europe. Their descendants constitute at this time a consid- erable portion of the population of the globe, being widely distrib- uted over a space of nearly half its longitude. The Finns, the Tartars, and the Mongols also form a considerable part of the component elements of Russian population. The chief capital of the Slavic race, in European Russia, was Novgorod — a city, it is said, of such power and resources as to give rise to the popular Russian proverb — "Who shall dare to oppose God and Novgorod the Great!" Its commerce is said to have extended to Constantinople, Persia, and even India. Little authentic is known of its history until the latter part of the ninth century. This pow- erful state and that of Kief, founded by the same people, were much disturbed by civil contentions; and certain parties solicited the interference of the warlike nations of the Scandinavian peninsula. Accordingly, in the year 862, Rurik, a powerful chief of the Russ family, entered the country with a large force, gained possession of Novgorod, and founded an absolute principality' — 'the grand duchy of Great Russia (so called from the name of his family). 426 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Under Oleg, wlio succeeded liira, the city of Kief became a capital of importance, and large territories, witli great numbers of subjects, were added to tlie new empire. With eighty thousand of his barbaric followers, he made a successful expedition to Byzantium (Constantinople), and extorted severe terms from the Emperor Leo, By his military and political talents, he continued to extend his dominions, and laid the foundation of the Russian empire. An immense horde of those warlike depredators, which in 941, under Igor, his successor, again invaded the Greek empire, was, however, completely repulsed, and two-thirds of the number perished in the expedition. Vladimir, a descendant of Rurik, in the year 988 married the Princess Anne, a daughter of the Grecian emperor, and embraced the Christian faith. His influence and his absolute authority enabled him to extend the new religion widely among his subjects — whole districts, at his command, undergoing the rite of baptism by a simul- taneous movement. The Greek church thus became, what it has ever since remained, the national religious establishment of Russia; and soon gained strength to compete with its powerful rival, the Romish Catholicism, which might otherwise have held a monopoly of European Christianity. Successive; civil wars, and divisions and reunions of the empire, for more than two centuries, present no details of particular interest. In the early part of the thirteenth century, the ferocious Mongols, under Zinghis Khan and his descendants, had ravaged the greater part of Asia, and overthrown the most ancient and powerful king- doms of that continent. Southern Russia had already been exposed to some alarming invasions, and the weakness and dissensions of her numerous princes prevented any united movement to resist this ferocious enemy. In the year 1237, Baty, the grandson of Zinghis, appeared with an immense force on the frontiers. After ravaging Bulgaria, he penetrated at once into the heart of Russia, which soon underwent all the terrible evils which these barbarous hordes were accustomed to inflict. Wherever they marched, an unpeopled desert was left behind them. Nearly all the country, except Novgorod, was soon reduced to subjection. The conquerors, indeed, left to the native grand-dukes a show of authority, though enforcing vassalage and tribute. They, nevertheless, took entire possession of the king- doms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time comprised under the name of Kaptshak. EUSSIA. 427 Ivan I., prince of Moscow, who, early in the fourteenth century, came to the throne of that principahty, succeeding in becoming the lieutenant and chief representative of the Tartar sovereign, Usbek Khan, and, in collecting the customary taxes in the name of the latter, was enabled greatly to extend his own empire. By the authority of the khan he exacted tribute and submission of the Russians, and by the gold of the Russians secured the countenance of the khan. In the latter part of the same century, a general and united effort was made to free the country from its Tartar oppress- ors. The heroic Dmitry of Moscow, the chief prince of the Rus- sians, with an army of two hundred thousand men, encountered the invading enemy, of far greater force, on the banks of the river Don, and defeated them with immense slaughter. The victors were, however, soon defeated in their turn. Moscow was laid in ashes, and Dmitry was again forced to submit implicitly to the will of the khan. In 1398 the ferocious Tamerlane, with an army of four hundred thousand men, entered Russia, laying the country waste wherever he went. The more inviting conquest of India, however, ere long, turned his arms in another direction. The Muscovite dynasty, founded by Ivan, had gradually acquired the highest ascendancy in Russia. Ivan III. (the Great), his descendant, who in 1462, at the age of twenty-two, came to the throne, pushed his ambitious plans farther than any of his predecessors. By his subtle policy, he dis- armed the jealousy of his feudal superiors, the Tartar sovereigns, and at the same time evaded payment of the customary tribute. As soon as he felt strong enough, he seized upon Kasan, in spite of the opposition of the khan; and was soon able to effect the subjugation of Novgorod and other refractory provinces. He boldly assumed absolute authority over the conquered districts. A fresh and formidable invasion of the Tartars was disconcerted by the conduct and valour of his chiefs, who redeemed the errors of their pusillanimous sovereign. The complete expulsion of these foreign intruders, and future freedom from their exactions, was the result. Ivan was thus enabled completely to overawe a number of the remaining Russian principalities, and to reduce them to implicit submission. All Russia was ere long brought under his sway, and he assumed the title of Gzar or emperor — a term signifying, in the Persian language, supreme authority. A marriage with the Greek Princess Sophia, and a close alliance, both social and political, with Byzantium, strengthened his power 428 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. yet farther. In the midst of these wonderful successes, he paid con- stant attention to the improvement of the empire and the introduc- tion of southern art and refinement into his vast but uncivilized domains. Moscow began to assume a respectable rank among the European capitals. "The palace of the Kremlin, with its fortresses and church, arose in all the grandeur of Eastern luxury and barbaric strength: miners and engineers, architects, founders, and minters, were invited from Germany and Italy into those icy regions which they hitherto trembled to penetrate, but where their skill and their labours were now liberally rewarded: the mines of Petchora were pierced ; and the Russians, for the first time, received a coinage in silver and copper, designed and executed in their own capital. These dazzling events, to which were added pageants, and proces- sions, and public entertainments on the 'most gorgeous and lavish scale, gave a new direction to the passions of the people. The arts and sciences had taken root among them, and Russia was no longer content to enjoy the unsocial advantages of her ancient habits."* The dangerous power of the boyars or nobles, who had heretofore exercised a subordinate despotism, was suppressed by the czar in the severest manner, and their privileges were limited and defined. The laws, still rude and imperfect, were much improved, both in their tenour and administration. The military resources of the country were developed and exercised ; and Russia began to figure as a prominent nation in the European world. Her power had been concentrated, and four millions of subjects had been added to her sway by the policy of the emperor and the valour of his generals. He died in 1505, after a reign of forty-three years, marked by energy, craft, and astonishing political success. * Bell's History of Russia. RUSSIA, 429 IVAN THE TERRIBLE. FOREIGN WARS. ACCESSION OP THE HOUSE OP ROMANOFP. Yassali Ivanovitch, the son of Ivan, succeeded, during a reign of twenty-eight years, in enlarging yet farther the bounds and con- sohdating the strength of the Russian empire. After his death, and during the minority of his infant son, Ivan IV., the regency was contested between several powerful families, to the great injury of the country. The prince, from his naturally vindictive disposition, and the evil counsel of those around him, displayed the most preco- cious cruelty and depravity. Torturing animals and insulting his inferiors were his principal amusements; and at the age of only thirteen, he gave proof of his ferocious disposition by causing Schu- isky, one of the most powerful nobles of his court, to be worried and devoured by dogs. His evil counsellors applauded every fresh atrocity, and whoever fell under his vengeance or suspicion was sacrificed on the spot. "This terrible system continued for three years. The pupilage of the prince was an uninterrupted scene of horror ; and he was crowned czar of all the Russias in his eighteenth year, after a minority of blood." The influence of better advisers and of his beautiful wife Anasta- tia wrought for a time a favourable change ; and for thirteen years during which the latter lived, the demoniac ferocity of his disposi- tion seemed partially subdued, and he exhibited the qualities of a wise and able sovereign. He quelled the refractory Tartar province of Kasan, and added Astrachan to the imperial dominions. Siberia, a region cold and desolate, but abounding in the richest furs and minerals, was explored and added to the empire under his auspices. The improvement of laws and the introduction of useful arts also eno-ao;ed his strict attention. The death of the empress, in 1560, removed the check which had hitherto restrained the natural vindictiveness of his disposition. His reign, from this time, surpasses in madness and atrocity that of any tyrant recorded in history. The cruelties which he exercised in suppressing the opposition which his . severity excited, are too 430 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. numerous and too horrible to be detailed. The ignorant populace, accustomed to regard their czar as the representative of God upon earth, mostly submitted, with a pious awe to the shocking enormi- ties which he committed; and even, with a horrid interest and curiosity, flocked eagerly to witness the unheard-of tortures which he inflicted on his victims. The Strelitz or select body-guard, first enrolled by him, were the principal instruments of his atrocities. His daily occupation consisted chiefly in acts of devotion, and in witnessing the tortures of the accused. Whole towns were at times depopulated by his fury. Suspecting the loyalty of Novgorod, he marched to that celebrated city, and delivered it to plunder and massacre. Day after day, he witnessed the execution of five hundred to a thousand of the citizens by torture or fire. He left sixty thousand of them dead in the streets of the cit}^, which for a long time presented the appearance of a vast cemetery. His unfortunate and superstitious subjects still reposed implicit confidence in his impious declaration of supremacy: "I am your Grod, as God is mine." Meanwhile, the empire, unprotected by arms or policy, suffered great misfortunes from the hostilities of the surrounding nations, especially of Poland. Fearing the worst, he sought the hand of Elizabeth of England, and entreated, at all events, an asylum in case he should be driven from his dominions. His crowning crime was the murder of his eldest son, whom in a fit of passion he struck to the ground with an iron rod, which he usually carried. His own death occurred soon after, in 1580. He died overwhelmed with the pangs of con- science, after a reign of thirty-four years, leaving behind the name, so fearfully earned, of "Ivan the Terrible." On the death of Feodor, his son, a weak-minded prince who held only nominal power, the line of Eurik came to an end ; and in 1598 Boris Gudunof, a bold and artful man, of Tartar descent, through the influence of the Patriarch of the Greek church, gained possession of the throne by election of the nobles. To conciliate the latter, he had already procured the enaction of that infamous law by which the last vestiges of freedom were taken from the peasants, and their serfdom was made inseparable from the soil they tilled. On his death by suicide, which soon occurred, the throne was successively held by two pretenders, and the Poles gained almost complete ascendancy over the affairs of Russia. They seized upon Moscow, and Sigismund, their king, confidently anticipated the annexation of EUSSIA. 431 the vast Eussian empire to his little kingdom. Througli the influ- ence of the clergy, however, the intruders, after a most sanguinary contest, were expelled from the country ; and the people, by com- mon consent, in 1613, placed on the throne Mikhail Komanoff, a youth of thirteen, allied to the royal house of Eurik. The great council of boyars and citizens, to which he owed his elevation, were fully aware of the necessity for some limitation to the imperial power; and the youthful czar, accordingly, was com- pelled on his accession to take a solemn oath, giving the laws an unqualified preference to his own authority. On his election, the feuds and contests for the crown were almost instantly quieted, and the nation experienced a calm which it had not enjoyed for many years. The extravagant loyalty of the Eussians welcomed with exultation even this indirect representative of their ancient rulers, and he was enabled to administer the government with moderation and success. The invasion of Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who sought to enforce the payment of a loan, soon afterwards ensued. The brilliant successes of the Swedish monarch, at first, almost seemed to threaten the conquest of Eussia; but in 1617 a treaty was con- cluded, by which' the invader compelled her to submit to the cession of considerable territory. A treaty on similar disadvantageous terms was made with the Poles, who had again invaded the empire. National intercourse and the exchange of embassies now began to assume a settled form, and the czar was in regular diplomatic connection with the courts of England, Denmark^ Holland, and the German empire. After a reign of thirty-two years, distinguished by the love of peace and moderation, he expired in 1645, leaving the throne to his son Alexis, a youth of fifteen. The Cossacks of the Ukraine had become involved in a fierce war with Poland, and solicited aid of ncAV the czar, offerings on condition of assistance, to become his vassals. The emperor, to ascertain the will of Providence, ordered a fight between two wild bulls, to one of which he gave the name of Eussia, and to the other that of Poland. On seeing the latter come off victor, he was desirous of relinquish- ing the scheme ; but the remonstrances of the Patriarch prevailed, and the Ukraine, by this movement, was finally annexed to the Eussian empire. Alexis died in the year 1676, after a reign of thirty years, much of which was passed in hostility with his neighbours. He had been, on the whole, successful in consolidating the empire, and had recov- 432 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ered many of tlie provinces wrung from his predecessors. He had been twice married, and Feodor, his eldest son, a prince somewhat feeble in mind and body, came to the throne. By the skill and military genius of the minister Galitzin, an advan- tageous truce for twenty years was concluded with the Turks, with whom for some time Eussia had been engaged in war. The C2a,r Feodor, after a reign of only six years, distinguished rather by hon- esty than ability, expired in the year 1682. PETER THE GEEAT. PERILS OP HIS YOUTH; HIS EPPORTS POR REFORM; HIS CRUELTIES; HIS TRAVELS IN EUROPE, WAR WITH CHARLES XII. OP SWEDEN. The Emperor Feodor, on his death-bed, had nominated as his suc- cessor his half-brother Peter, the son of Alexis by his second marriage (into the family of Narishkin) — Ivan, his own brother, being exceedingly deficient, both in mental and bodily endowments. The Princess Sophia, sister of the deceased emperor, a woman of great beauty, courage, and ambition, resolved, in the name of Ivan, to gain possession of the throne for herself. The strelitz or body- guard, fourteen thousand in number, were easily won over by her fascination and liberality. More than sixty of the family of Narish- kin were put to death by this licentious soldiery, which for three days committed the greatest excesses in the streets of Moscow The Czarina Natalia, the widow of Alexis, was compelled to fly for her life, carrying with her the youthful Peter, a child nine or ten years of age. They were overtaken; and a ruffian had seized the prince on the very altar, and was about to sever his head from his body, when a fortunate accident drew away the murderers, and Peter the Great was preserved to Eussia. The entreaties of Ivan, who felt his own incapacity, for the asso- ciation of Peter in the empire, could not be resisted; and Sophia was compelled to yield. By surrounding the youthful prince with sensual and debasing influences, however, she trusted to incapacitate him from playing any important part in the government. Fifty EUSSIA. 433 young Eussians, of the most dissolute tastes, were placed about his person ; and it was confidently anticipated that his health and intel- lect would soon succumb before the degrading habits into which it was their business to initiate him. The event did not answer these expectations. Instead of sinking to their level, the young prince, filled with spirit and ambition, elevated them to his own ; and amid all the profligacy into which these ^^amusers^^ led him, he cherished schemes of improvement and reform. His tastes were military, and by continual drilling he soon made these dissipated youths the nucleus of an alert and disciplined soldiery. By the aid of a talented Swiss, named Lefort, one of these com- panions, he persevered in acquiring, as far as possible, a liberal education. Sophia, who hitherto had actually held the government, and had even issued coins in her own name, began at length to be alarmed at the genius and activity of Peter, who had now attained the age of seventeen, and frequent quarrels ensued between them. Six hundred of the strelitz were despatched for his assassination; but the nobles and the army rallied around him ; the assassins shrunk back; and the affair ended in his complete establishment on the throne of Russia. Grreat numbers of the strelitz were barbarously executed ; the obnoxious ministers were banished ; and Sophia was compelled to shave her head, and retire for life to a nunnery. From this time, (December 11th, 1689,) Peter held the absolute control of the government; though Ivan, who lived till 1696, enjoyed a nom- inal association in the imperial title. Under the able and enterprising policy of the yo\ithful sovereign, the power and resources of Russia were rapidly developed. A stand- ing army was speedily organized: Azof, on the sea of that name, was taken from the Turks, and the foundation of a naval establish- ment on the Euxine was immediately laid. Internal improvements were also zealously encouraged. The czar, indeed, still retained much of the barbarous ferocity which had characterized his prede- cessors, and an insurrection of the strelitz, which occurred in 1697, was punished by wholesale executions, conducted in a spirit of the most revolting cruelty. In the same year he undertook his celebrated journey, traversing the more civilized nations of Europe with a view of introducing into his own country the arts and improvements which had rendered them so prosperous and powerful. He passed through several north- ern provinces, through Prussia and Germany, and finally, in a species 28 434 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of incognito^ settled himself in an obscure and miserable lodging at the Dutch port of Saardam, Here, under the name of Peter Tim- nierman, he devoted himself zealously to acquiring a knowledge of the art of ship-building. He hired himself as a common work- man, wrought diligently, and lived exclusively on the slender wages which he received for his labour. His suite, though compelled to a reluctant compliance with this caprice, took care to live, as far as possible, in a less diligent and more luxurious manner. In England, whither he soon after repaired, he pursued his favour- ite object with unabated ardour; and besides perfecting his marine acquirements in the public dock-yards, applied himself with great diligence to the study of many useful arts and sciences. Thence he proceeded to Austria, and was on the point of quitting that country for Italy, when a fresh insurrection of the strelitz, instigated by Sophia, caused his hasty return to Moscow. On his arrival, he found the insurgents already defeated and in prison ; and at once proceeded to take a savage vengeance which almost eclipsed the insane ferocities of Ivan the Terrible. Two thousand of these unfor- tunate wretches were subjected to every variety of torture, under the eye of the czar, who with his own hand eagerly assisted in the horrible task. All were put to death, and Peter, stimulating him- self with; wine, cut off head after head as long as he could wield the axe of the executioner. Even these horrors could not satisfy the infernal cruelty and vin- dictiveness of his disposition. "For five succeeding months, Eussia was destined to witness the axe, the gibbet, and the wheel in con- stant activity. The whole empire was shaken with apprehension, and the name of Peter at last became a word of terror to the popu- lation." On one occasion, with his own imperial hand, he struck off eighty heads in vicAv of the people. The insurrections produced by these outrages were suppressed with fresh energy and fury. The entire force of the strelitz was broken up by execution and disband- ment. His unfortunate wife Eudokhia was consigned to the cloisters for life. In strange contrast to these atrocities, followed an enlightened and persevering sj^stem of reform and national improvement. Eeli- gious freedom, despite the opposition of the priesthood, was estab- lished ; the tyrannical usages respecting females were abrogated ; and the amusements and refinements of more civilized nations were, though rather arbitrarily, introduced among the people. BRONZE STATUE OF PETER THE GKEAT AT HT. PETERiSBURGH, DF.SIRNED BY FALCONET, AND ERECTED BY CATHARINE IT Height of the figure, 11 ieet; of the horse, 17 feet; weight of the group, 30,G3 ; 11-; Mounted ou a solid hlock of granite, weighing upwards of 1,000 tons. EUSSIA. 435 The grand desire of Peter had long been to gain possession of some eligible sea-port on the Baltic, bj means of which the naval power of Russia (always his prime object) could be extended. In 1700, he formed an alliance with Denmark and Poland for the pur- pose of wresting from Sweden certain provinces, of which that kingdom, by warfare or policy, had become possessed. The cele- brated Charles XII., at this time only eighteen years of age, was on the throne of that country, and his youth and inexperience seemed to offer a fair opportunity to the aggressive designs of his rivals. His military genius, however, at the very opening of the campaign, broke forth with great splendour. He speedily compelled the Danish monarch to accede to his terms ; the Polish forces met a severe check at Riga; and Peter, thus left to his own resources, invaded Ingria with sixty thousand men. This force, taken by surprise at Narva in the absence of the czar, was also defeated by Charles with severe loss, and Peter could only console himself by remarking that the Swedes would finally teach him how to beat them. He employed the ensuing winter in reorganizing his army, and in providing munitions of war; and in 1701, again took the field with a respectable force. During that and the succeeding year, he gained several successes over the Swedish generals — Charles mean- while pursuing his victorious career in Poland. A considerable portion of the disputed territory was soon conquered by the Russian forces; and near the mouth of the Neva, at the junction of Lake Ladoga with the Grulf of Finland, the czar laid the foundations of the famous city of St. Petersburg. The neighbourhood of this locality was a vast morass, almost destitute of materials for building; yet Peter pushed forward the undertaking with his accustomed energy and disregard of human life or suffering. In less than a year, thirty thousand buildings, of various kinds, had been erected ; and during that time an hundred thousand of his unfortunate sub- jects, drawn from every part of the empire to labour in this inclem- ent region, had perished from toil, privation, and exposure. His successes continued. Ingria and Courland were soon con- quered ; and Peter was enabled to resume his attention to the domestic affairs of his empire. In 1707, Charles, whose arms had hitherto been employed in other quarters, took the field against Russia, with an army of forty-five thousand men, declaring that he would treat with Peter at Moscow alone. A succession of triumphs marked the commencement of his campaign. Peter, narrowly 436 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OP HISTOEY. escaping from his hands, retreated before him, laying waste the country to retard the progress of the victorious invader. On the 25th of June, 1708, a severe action, in which the Swedes sustained much loss, was fought on the banks of the Beresina. Charles, however, still pushed on for Moscow, though the country was laid waste through the entire route, and his troops were greatly exhausted by famine and fatigue. Suddenly, to the surprise of the czar, he turned off into the desert and inhospitable country of the Ukraine. This movement was caused by a secret negotiation with Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who had promised his own support and that of his people to the invader. This change in the campaign proved the ruin of the Swedish cause. Mazeppa was unable to fulfil his engagements ; and two miserable regiments were all that he could bring to the assistance of his ally. General Lewenhaupt, who, with the remainder of the Swedish army, attempted to effect a junction with his master, was intercepted and attacked by a force of nearly sixty thousand Eussians, commanded by the czar in person. The Swedes sustained a terrible defeat, leaving nearly half their number upon the field of battle. Charles, in the midst of a Russian winter, was now, with only twenty-five thousand men, worn out with privation and fatigue, traversing a frightful country, which afforded scarcely any suste- nance for his army. He lost his way, and, after marching and counter-marching for three months, was compelled to retrace his footsteps; and finally, in the month of May, 1709, sat down with the remnant of his army, now reduced to eighteen thousand men, before the fortified town of Pultowa, garrisoned by the Eussians. Peter, with nearly three times the number of his adversary hastened to attack him; and arrived before the walls on the 15th of June. By an artful manoeuvre, he succeeded in throAving reinforce- ments into the garrison; and his rival exclaimed, in chagrin, "I see well that we have taught the Muscovites the art of war!" After several skirmishes had occurred, Charles took the offensive, and made a furious attack on the Eussian intrenchments. His officers and men behaved with the greatest valour, and, sword in hand, car- ried the works in two places. Both sovereigns mingled in the thickest of the fight, and distinguished themselves equally by gen- eralship and personal bravery. After a desperate battle of two hours, the Swedish forces, outnumbered and fatigued, were utterly defeated, and were almost entirely slain or made prisoners. Charles, KUSSiA. 437 witli a few attendants, fled precipitately, and songlit a refuge in Turkey. LewenTiaupt, with, thirteen thousand men, the relics of his force, was about the same time compelled to capitulate, and his troops were sent as colonists into the almost uninhabited wilds of Siberia. Such was the sudden and unlooked-for downfall of the greatest European conqueror of his day ; who, at an almost boyish age, had humbled all the states in his vicinity, had dethroned and appointed sovereigns, and had successively dictated terms in three hostile cap- itals. Eussia, which for a time had appeared an easy prey, waiting only for his leisure, now saw her principal foe a fugitive and exile in a distant land. Winter and famine, her strongest allies, had done their work: " And Moscow's walls were safe again — Until a day more dark and drear, And a more memorable year, Should give to slaughter and to shame A mightier host and haughtier name." CHAPTER 17. PETER THEGREAT CONTINUED. DISASTROUS WAR WITH THE TURKS. FRESH CONQUESTS AND IMPROVEMENTS. DEATH OF HIS SON ALEXIS. EXPEDITION TO THE CASPIAN SEA. DEATH OF PETER. By the late war, Livonia, Ingria, and Finland had been secured, and the czar's grand project of making Eussia a maritime power seemed destined for accomplishment. Danger soon menaced him from another quarter. The influence of the fugitive Charles, and the jealousy of Eussian encroachments in the south, determined the sultan of Turkey to renew hostilities. Peter's ambassador was pub- licly arrested at Constantinople, and committed to the "Castle of the Seven Towers." Grreat military preparations were made; while the czar, on his part, by levying forces and equipping fleets, pre- pared with great assiduity to meet the enemy. At this time (March 6th, 1711) he publicly acknowledged his 438 '-THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. marriage with Catharine, to whom he had been piivately united four years before. She was originally a girl of humble condition, named Martha, who, in the early campaign in Livonia, had become the mis- tress of Menzikoff, the imperial favourite. Peter, attracted by her fascinations, took possession of her in 1704, and was ever afterwards devotedly attached to her. Without distinguished beauty, her manners and her mind were so superior as to inspire him with the strongest attachment and esteem. The only available force for the Turkish campaign consisted of less than forty thousand men; and with these the czar took up his march to meet the enemy. Disappointed in regard to reinforce- ments, he found himself, after a fatiguing march, in the midst of a desolate country near the river Pruth. The Turkish army, two hundred thousand in number, had passed the Danube, and on the 27th of June crossed the Pruth in sight of the Russians. The little army of Peter, completely surrounded, was formed into a hollow- square, on one side of which the Turks precipitated themselves with great fury. Por three successive days, these attacks were repelled with great bravery, though at an immense expense of life. The ammunition of the Eussians was finally exhausted, and Peter, over- come with despair, retired in solitary gloom to his tent. Sixteen thousand of his soldiers had fallen, and further resistance seemed utterly hopeless. At this juncture, the tact and energy of the Czarina Catharine proved hi^ salvation. In despite of his orders, she entered the tent, aroused his spirits, and suggested a scheme for obtaining terms from the enemy. All her jewels and those of the other women in the camp were despatched as a conciliatory offering to the grand vizier, who commanded the enemy; a truce was granted, and nego- tiations were commenced. Peter was compelled, however, to pur- chase peace upon severe terms : among them, by the cession of Azof and a complete withdrawal from the Baltic. These disasters were soon compensated by fresh successes in the north. The czar, in alliance with Denmark, Hanover, and Bran- denburg, commenced hostilities afresh against the Swedes. The latter, in the absence of their sovereign, were unable to offer an effectual resistance, and Pomerania, won by the valour and policy of Gustavus Adolphus, was speedily wrested from their hands, and partitioned among the victors. Peter likewise gained distinguished naval successes on the Baltic, and alarmed the capital of Stockholm for its safety. He certainly contemplated, at this time, a descent EUSSIA, 439 upon Sweden itself, and with that view built within a twelvemonth fifty ships of war, besides a variety of galleys and other vessels. His new capital grew with immense rapidity ; and refinements and luxuries, heretofore unknown, were introduced into these desolate regions. Manufactures and trade began to flourish, and the city rapidly acquired commercial importance. The court, the diplomatic corps, and the chief nobility, all transferred thither from Moscow, added to its attractions. The power of Peter, indeed, now seemed to have attained its height. "Livonia, Esthonia, Carelia, Ingria, and nearly the whole of Finland were now annexed to the Russian empire. He had established outlets to the sea, by which he could communicate in security with civilized Europe ; and within his own territories he had created new establishments adapted to the various departments of industry, to the army, the navy, and the laws. Prince Galitzin occupied Finland with a disciplined army ; Generals Bruce and Bauer had the command of thirty thousand Russians, who were scattered through Poland; Marshal Scherematof lay in Pomerania with a large force ; Weimar had surrendered by capitulation ; and all the sovereigns of the north were either his allies or his instruments." He now undertook a second journey through Europe, and, with the Czarina Catharine, set out for Copenhagen. He received the highest honours in Denmark, Holland, France, and Prussia, and returned to his empire with a fresh supply of knoAvledge, the fruit of diligent study and research. Soon after his return, his revengeful and irritable temper led him to the commission of an atrocious and unnatural crime. The Czar- evitch Alexis, his son by Eudokhia, was at this time twenty-nine years of age, and had in a variety of ways offended the stern and overbearing temper of the emperor. He was of a reckless and dis- sipated character, and viewed the favourite projects of the czar with indifference or dislike. In 1717, under pretext of joining his father, who had commanded his presence at Copenhagen, he quitted Russia, and took refuge from the anger of the czar with the Emperor Charles VI. His father, by a promise of clemency, induced him to return, and the unfortunate prince arrived at Moscow in February, 1718. Here, however, he was compelled in the most solemn form pub- licly to assent to the renunciation of his inheritance, and was then remanded to a dungeon. The most frivolous accusations, at the instance of the czar, were brought against him. He was examined with such pertinacity and severity as almost to destroy the feeble 440 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. portion of reason Avhicli nature had allotted him. His friends and companions, in great numbers, were tortured or executed. On the 24th of June, he was brought before a solemn tribunal, composed of the chief grandees of Eussia: his father stood forward as his accuser, demanding punishment. He was sentenced to death, as a matter of course, by a unanimous vote of this servile assembly, and was remanded to prison. A few days afterwards,rhe died in a mys- terious manner in his dungeon. A sudden attack of apoplexy was publicly assigned as the cause ; but there is little doubt that he died of poison, probably administered by the hands of his own father, who wished to avoid the odium of a public execution. During the continuance of this domestic tragedy, the zeal of the czar for the advancement and prosperity of his empire never flagged for a moment. Every improvement in commerce, manufactures, and police was Introduced, and zealously extended through the country, St, Petersburg became a port of great commercial import- ance; and the trade of Archangel and other northern ports was diverted to the new capital. The preliminaries of a peace with Sweden were arranged; but before it was concluded, Charles (who, after an exile of five years, had returned to his kingdom,) was killed by an accidental shot before the walls of Frederickstadt, a petty fortress in Norway. Peter, with a singular outbreak of emotion, burst into tears on hear- ing of the death of his ancient rival, and exclaimed, "My dear Charles, how much I lament you !" Some further hostilities occurred ; but in 1721, a treaty of peace was signed, by which Eussia made acquisitions of territory of the highest importance to her political and commercial prosperity. The emperor's son, Peter Petrovitz, the heir to the throne, had died two years before these events, and the czar, to secure the car- rying out of his plans, caused his nobles and subjects to take a solemn oath of allegiance to any person whom he should nominate as his successor. The Afghans and other warlike Persian tribes, revolting against the authority of the shah, had committed great outrages on the Eussians at Shamachia. Peter, to avenge this injury, and to make himself master of the shores of the Caspian Sea, in 1722 set out on an expedition to the East, He reached the Caspian, and took pos- session of the city of Derbent; but the difficulties of the climate and the country, with the loss of his vessels by tempests, compelled SUSSIA. 441 liirn to return. Bj treaty with the shah, however, he obtained pos- session of the coveted provinces. In 1724, Catharine was crowned as empress, with the greatest solemnity and magnificence, the imperial manifesto making a touch- ing allusion to her virtues and her services to the state, especially in the disastrous defeat of the Russians on the Pruth. This august ceremony was considered as an indirect manner of expressing the czar's intentions that his consort should be his successor on the throne. He did not long survive this testimony of affection and gratitude. A disorder, aggravated by his refusal of medical advice, had been for some time preying on his constitution, and his ardent tempera- ment led him to encounter an exposure which proved fatal. He expired on the 28th of January, 1725, after a fruitless attempt to express by writing his wishes as to the succession. While it is impossible to withhold respect and admiration for the wonderful talents and the indomitable perseverance of Peter, the mind, in contemplating his career, is continually shocked by instances of personal grossness, of frantic rage, and unrelenting cruelty. The union in a single person of the sagacious legislator and the remorse- less tyrant, seems peculiar to the sovereigns of Russia; and assuredly, in either character, the energetic deeds of Peter have never been surpassed by his predecessors or successors in empire. The better portion of his character has, however, been mostly preserved in the memories of mankind; and Russia, which from a vast semi-barbar- ous province, he raised into a civilized and mighty empire, has always regarded his name with the deepest veneration. Every relic of his career is treasured with religious respect — his tools, his work- shop, his little vessel, and the plain mechanical dress which he pre- ferred to any of the trappings of royalty. A magnificent equestrian statue, erected to his memory by Catharine II., still stands at St. Petersburg; the horse treads beneath his feet the serpent of Envy; and the rider proudly extends his hand over the vast capital which his genius and energy had raised from the surrounding forests and morasses. 442 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. CHAPTER ?. CATHARINE I., PETER II., ANNA, IVAN, ELIZABETH, AND PETER III. By the address of Menzikoff, her favourite and adviser, Catharine was proclaimed empress without opposition on the very day of her husband's death. The commencement of her reign was distinguished by acts of grace and conciliation to her subjects, and by a formidable increase of the military and naval power of the empire. Ere long, however, the discretion and virtue which had so long marked her career, yielded to the enticements of unlimited power; her favours were lavished on a succession of worthless minions, and her palace became a scene of gross excess and licentiousness. She expired, after a brief reign, on the 17th of May, 1727, leaving a will by which Peter, the son of the unhappy Alexis, was appointed her successor, under the guardianship, among others, of Anna and Elizabeth, daughters of Peter the Great. The marriage of the new emperor, at this time only eleven years of age, to the daughter of Menzikoff, was also provided for ; but the youthful prince, contemplating this union with disgust, was easily persuaded to consent to the disgrace and banishment of the late favourite ; who, after a life of extraordinary success and splendour, ended his days in a dismal exile at Siberia. The influence of the family of Dalgoruky (into which the young czar had married) was now complete; but his sudden death, in 1730, disconcerted their ambitious designs. With him expired the line of Eomanoff, of which he was the last male representative. Anna, duchess of Courland, a daughter of Ivan, (half-brother of Peter the Great, and for a time his associate on the throne,) was next elected empress by an assembly of the council, the senate, and the great officers of state; various conditions, restricting the impe- rial authority and increasing that of the council, being annexed. Secure upon the throne, however, she at once assumed unlimited sovereignty, and the country was governed by her favourite Biren, who conducted himself with great insolence and cruelty. The provinces acquired by Peter from the Shah of Persia, had EUSSIA. 443 proved a source of great loss and vexation; an hundred and thirty thousand Eussians, in a few years, had perished from war and the pestilential climate. They were accordingly receded to the shah, and, the empire being strengthened by his alliance and that of Aus- tria, a war with Turkey was recommenced. This contest was protracted for a number of years; but finally the defection of the latter ally compelled Eussia, in 1739, to make peace. Little advan- tage had been obtained, and the lives of an hundred thousand Eussians had been sacrificed in vain. After the death of the empress, in the following year, the govern- ment, for a brief period, was held by the German relations and favourites to whom had been committed the guardianship of her infant grandson Ivan, the heir to the throne ; but on the night of the 6th of January, 1742, the Princess Elizabeth, (daughter of Peter the Great,) by a bold and sudden movement, overthrew the regency, and gained possession of the throne. The intrigues of a surgeon, named Lestocq, her daring and artful adviser, and the devotion of only three hundred soldiers, had enabled her, by a coup de main, to seize upon the persons of all opposed to her ; and the general dislike of a German regency was such, that she kept peaceable possession of the throne thus suddenly and singularly acquired. The chiefs of the defeated faction, composed of men of the highest rank and influence, were mostly banished to Siberia. Hostilities with Sweden, which for some time had been discon- tinued, were now revived ; and that unfortunate nation, overmatched and defeated, was compelled, by the treaty of 1743, to relinquish fresh portions of her territory. Since that time, indeed, the influ- ence of Eussia, has been so predominant over the court of Stockholm, that Sweden can be considered as little more than an appanage to the empire of the czars. In the protracted wars waged between Prussia and Austria, the forces and the influence of Elizabeth were always opposed to Frederick the Great, against whom she had a violent personal antipathy. She had nominated, as her successor, her nephew, the youthful Peter, duke of Holstein; the degrading nature of whose tastes, and whose tendency to drunkenness and excess, would, she trusted, pre- vent him from becoming a formidable tool in the hands of ambitious adventurers. Catharine, a daughter of the prince of Anhalt, with "whom the empress caused him to be united, was a woman of unbounded licentiousness and infamy of life ; but Elizabeth, whose 444 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. habits were equally scandalous, exhorted hirn to patience and mod- eration ; and this unfortunate prince was enabled, only by threatening a public use of the cudgel, to remove from court Poniatowsky, the Polish ambassador, and the avowed paramour of his infamous consort. Elizabeth died on the 29th of December, 1761, and the hapless Peter ascended the throne without opposition. An immediate change in Russian policy occurred. Frederick, for whom he cherished the most enthusiastic esteem, was saved from destruction by the prompt action of his Russian admirer. The humanity and magnanimity of the czar, in spite of his errors and weakness, must command our sympathy. Clemency, liberality, and reform, were the order of the day ; and the wretched families exiled to Siberia by his predecessor were speedily restored to their country. Unfortunately, he neglected to conciliate the national tastes and prejudices of his people; and his habits of sensuality and drunken- ness prevented him from observing the active and untiring efforts of Catharine to form a separate faction for herself This abandoned woman, after a long career of almost unparalleled intrigue and dis- sipation, had resolved to depose her unsuspecting husband, and to place the crown upon her own head. Five brothers, named Orloff, and another favourite named Potemkin, were her principal advisers ; but she had numerous and powerful allies, especially among the priests, who were enraged at the schemes which Peter had devised for curtailing their power and their revenues. The plan of the conspirators was skilfully matured, and on the 9th of July, 1762, Catharine put herself at the head of a great number of the troops and citizens of St. Petersburg, and in the chief church of the city, amid a crowd of ecclesiastics, was solemnly pro- claimed sole sovereign of Russia. A report was spread that Peter had met with death from an accident; and with a suddenness com- mon enough in Russian history, she stepped at once into undisturbed possession of the throne. The unfortunate Peter, unwilling to fly, and unable to resist, was compelled to sign an act of abdication, and was then committed close prisoner to the fortress of Robscha. The usual fate of dethroned princes, especially in the East, speedily overtook him. The physi- cian of the empress, with others, was despatched to his dungeon; and, under pretext of drinking with him in a friendly manner, con- trived to put a deadly poison in his cup. The effect, however, was THE RETREAT FROM RUSSIA. ■'A. STORMY wind a.iso began to arise, and whirl the snow f i'O ni the t?a,rth, as well a,s that from the heavens, into dis!Zy eddies around the soidiers' heads There were many hurled to the earth in this nuanner, where the sa'me snows furnished them with .an instant grave; Under which they were concealed until che next summer came, and displayed their ghastly rem.ains in the open a,;r A great number of slight hillocks on each side of the road intim.ated, m tho naean while, the fate of these unfortunate men." — Scott's Life of Napoleon EcrssiA. 445 too slow for the impatience of tlie assassins : Orloff and otTaers of the conspirators rushed into the apartment; and the unfortunate czar, after a vain struggle, was strangled on the floor of his dungeon. CHAPTER ?L CATHARINE II. AND PAUL. The long and (as it is usually termed) successful reign of Catha- rine II., was marked by a degree of profligacy, such as even the Eussian court had never known before. Her lovers might almost be counted by hundreds ; and her whole career, as well of personal vice as of political and military success, has well entitled her to the appellation of "the Northern Semiramis." The unfortunate Ivan, who had long been kept in imprisonment, and for whose escape a plot had been undertaken, was killed in the attempt, and the empress was thus freed from one, another possible rival to the throne. The empire, especially the Cossack portion, was, however, long annoyed by a rebel chief, named Pugatschef, who assumed the title of Peter III., and imposed upon many the belief that he was really the czar, escaped from his dungeon. He was finally captured and executed. Under her reign occurred the infamous partition of Poland, at three successive periods, by which the nationality of that noble country was extinguished, and its territories divided among the imperial vultures of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. In 1769 a Russian army invaded the Crimea; and for many years a series of hostilities continued, by which Russia gained continual accessions of territory, and the Ottoman empire was reduced to so feeble a condition, that its independence and the security of the remainder of its possessions have since been mainly dependant upon the protection of the other European powers. Sweden also met with fresh reverses, and became farther and farther entangled in the web of Russian policy and dictation. Catharine II. died in 1796, after a reign of thirty-eight years, considered glorious or infamous, according to the view of her successes, or of her vices and her crimes. 4,4:6 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. The unhappy Paul, her son, born in 1754, although named as heir to the throne, had been, for many years, the victim of the grossest neglect and persecution. His mind, naturally eccentric, had thus perhaps become tinged with a degree of insanity; the result was, a singular species of capricious and meddling despotism. Besides great and real grievances, his officers and subjects were annoyed by the trivialties of a petty and whimsical interference. The print- ing-press was proscribed, and certain French words, to which he had an aversion, were not permitted to be used. The shape of a hat, the colour of a riband, must all be submitted to the dictation of the czar. A war with Persia had been commenced by Catharine, and vari- ous provinces were thus added to Eussia in the East; Georgia, in the year 1800, being incorporated by Paul with his own dominions. In the hostilities which at this time, in consequence of the French Eevolution, were raging in Europe, Paul, for a time, took the anti- Gallican part with his usual fierceness and impetuosity; and in the campaigns of Italy, his general, the famous Suwarrow, at a great expense of human life and suffering, waged an obstinate war with the generals of the French republic. Moreau was obliged to retreat before the Eussian commander, who, in 1799, entered Milan as a conqueror. The French were soon compelled to effect the total evacuation of Lombardy and Piedmont. At the sanguinary and hard-contested battle of the Trebbia, Macdonald, with inferior forces, fought the Austrian and Eussian armies for three days, during which twelve thousand of his men were killed and wounded, and the allies met with nearly an equal loss. He was, however, forced to retreat. The subseqent campaign of Suwarrow and Korsakow, much of which was conducted among the rugged and difficult passes about Switzerland, proved, however, disastrous in the extreme; and the former, compelled to retreat across the Alps, lost thousands of his soldiers in the terrible passage. Of eighty thousand men, of which his array had been originally composed, a miserable remnant alone returned to their country. Suwarrow, defeated and disgraced, soon after died of a broken heart. In the following year (1800) the czar, always irritable and impetu- ous, quarrelled with his allies, and, with his customary caprice, displayed a sudden and violent admiration of Napoleon, who had now returned from his Egj^ptian expedition, and was the : most prominent person in the French republic. The latter, by restoring NICHOLAS I., EMPEROR OE RUSSIA "I HA';f, r^s:(i>-d ju >r, P- t'-:i\sl n r>4 .';, r .'arentage, his father being a mechanic. By his sconderful daring and impetuosity, he gained the titles of the "P^oland" and the "Ajax" of the French arnay After a career of extraordinary brilliancy and glory, he "was mortally wounded in May, 1609, at the disastrous battle of Esslmg. Napoleon, upon whose nanae he called deliriously while he survived, was affected to tears by the loss of this faithful comrade and servant, whose military genius he had fostered with personal assiduity "I foui^d him a dwarl." said he "I lost him a giant FRANCE. 527 THE DECLINE AND FALL OP THE EMPIRE. The power and glory of Napoleon had now, apparently, reacted their point of culmination. His territories were greatly enlarged, and the firmness and perpetuation of his dynasty seemed to be secured by the new alliance. But various and apparently insuffi- cient causes were gradually undermining the vast structure which had been reared too hastily and wilfully to be permanent. His arbitrary measures, and, in particular, such as were depressing com- merce, had alienated the attachment of great masses of his subjects, particularly those whose interests especially suffered. His army, still by far the most formidable in the world, had lost the early and resistless enthusiasm of the republic, and found its devotion to the person of the emperor an unequal substitute. His generals, incom- parable for bravery and military science, were, with few exceptions, more attached to their own aggrandizement and to the spoils they had acquired, than to the views of their sovereign or his personal schemes of ambition. His brother Louis, unwilling to enforce, to the ruin of his subjects, the utmost severity of the continental system, was compelled, by ill- usage, to resign his kingdom of Holland, and to behold it formally incorporated with the French empire. Sweden, which, by the depo- sition of her monarch, was in search of a sovereign, made choice of Marshal Bernadotte, whom Napoleon, distrusting his friendship, allowed, with much reluctance, to accept the throne. In Spain, Joseph succeeded in 1810 in reducing the revolted provinces; the guerilla or partisan warfare being, however, still continued. Massena, with eighty thousand men, pursued Wellington with thirty thousand British, in Portugal, until the latter, stopping at the almost impreg- nable "lines of Torres Vedras," opposed an obstinate resistance. After losing a great part of his army by disease, famine, and fatigue, the French commander was compelled to retreat into Spain, leaving destruction wherever he passed. Marmont, who succeeded him, accomplished nothing; and Soult, who in turn took the command, sustained an important reverse at Albuera. 528 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. A far more formidable conflict was approacliing. Napoleon, who began to see the impolicy of allowing the Kussian emperor to annex Turkey to his dominions, had refused even at Erfurt to sanction a plan for the conquest of his ally; and a coldness on the part of Alexander resulted. The occupation of the duchy of Oldenburg, pertaining to a connection of the latter, was a further cause of ill- feeling. The British influence again prevailed at St. Petersburg, and the continental system was abrogated in Eussia. Both parties, while carrying on negotiations, made gigantic preparations for the event of war, and concentrated large armies on their frontiers. Bernadotte, who had impudently demanded Norway as the price of his adhesion to Napoleon, was provoked by an invasion of his territories into an alliance with Eussia. Turkey kept quiet, and England, of course, continued hostile. But all the remainder of Europe seemed at the disposal of Napoleon in the ensuing contest. France, Italy, Holland, Germany, Prussia, and Austria, were all prepared, some from fear and some from attachment, to place their forces at his command. Napoleon, it is probable, sincerely wished fOr peace, but not at the expense of his ambition or his interests. But negotiation, both public and private, proved ineffectual to reconcile the conflicting interests, and early in 1812 war seemed inevitable. The French emperor, m May, held a levee at Dresden, of the various powers whose services he had demanded. Probably so brilliant and aiigust a court was never assembled to do homage to any human being. Among the sovereigns, who "jostled each other in his ante-chamber, " might be seen the emperor of Austria, the king of Prussia, and a long array of lesser potentates. "The reunion of Dresden seemed a parting pageant, given to Napoleon by Fortune ere she abandoned him. The richest incense that could be burned to human pride was there offered to Bonaparte." It was evident, however, that he could no longer rely upon the enthusiastic support of those distinguished chiefs who had served him so long and faithfully, and on whose earnest devotion he had hitherto implicitly relied. Having acquired fortunes, and become the masters of families, they were less disposed than formerly to tempt fortune, and greatly preferred the enjoyment of what they had already acquired. At a private supper to which the emperor, then at Dantzic, invited Murat, Berthier, and Eapp, this feeling was plainly expressed. The three generals sat with grave reserve. " I see very clearly, gentlemen, " said Napoleon, "that you are no longer desirous of going to war. Murat would prefer NAtOLELiN oJr OWNING THE EMPKESb JOSEPHINE "But Dot even from the Head of the Catholic Church would Nnpoleon eoi3 sent to receive as a boon the golden symbol of sovereignty, which he was sensible he owed solely to his own unparalleled train of military and civil sue cesses The crown having been blessed by the Pope, Napoleon took it from the altar v/ith his own hands, and placed it on his brows He then put the diadem on the head of his Empress as if determined to show that his author- iry wi=: th ° rhild of hi?^ own actions ■' — ycorr's Life of Napoleon THE PRIVATE SUPPEK AT DANTZIC v.p^r^::::::iir Lv^rtietHrt:^ ^^^--^^^^ — - --- farther warfare ,See page 528.' ""'"^ *^^'" disinclination to FEANCE. 529 never again to leave the fine climate of liis kingdom; Bertliier wants to hunt over his estates at Grosbois ; and Kapp is impatient to return to his hotel in Paris." — It was very true. A silence fol- lowed, first broken by Eapp, who honestly confessed the fact. On learning the ineffectual result of his last private embassy, the emperor immediately betook himself to his immense army beyond the Vistula. This gigantic force, probably the most numerous that has ever been collected, was estimated at nearly eight hundred thousand men. The difl&culty of supporting such a mass was enor- mous, and compelled Napoleon to waste upon the comTnissariat that attention which he should have devoted entirely to the campaign. On the 24th of June, 1812, he crossed the Niemen, unchallenged save by a single Cossack, and marched in pursuit of the Eussian army. The latter, however, retreated without attempting any defence, and he entered the city of Wilna without opposition. A large force, under Macdonald, kept along the Baltic. The Eussians, who, in two large armies, were commanded by De Tolly and Bagration, were divided ; an opportunity of cutting off the latter was lost by the insubordination of Jerome, who was, in consequence, sent home in disgrace. For two weeks, the French army, encumbered by its own bulk, and the difficulty of support, remained at "Wilna. Napo- leon then marched upon Smolensko, and, after a stubborn resistance on the road, and a murderous assault, gained possession of its burning ruins. In despite the remonstrances of his generals, with one hun- dred and twenty thousand men he pushed on for Moscow, now eighty leagues distant. Kutusoff had by this time been appointed to the command of the Eussians, and, with a somewhat superior force, awaited him at Boro- dino, on the river Moskwa. On the 6th of September, the action commenced; the Eussians being strongly fortified and the French attacking. Several of the French leaders were disabled early in the action, and it was only after three severe battles, Bagration having fallen, that the Eussians were beaten from their intrenchments, and compelled to abandon the field. Eight of the French generals fell, and the only trophies of this severely-contested victory were a few broken cannon, and less than a thousand prisoners. Ney, for his heroic conduct, was immediately created "prince of the Moskwa." The fate of Moscow, however, was decided. On the lith of Septem- ber Napoleon entered it, and took up his residence in the Kremlin, the ancient palace of the czars. He did not long enjoy his new 34 530 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. possessions. Fires broke out in several quarters, and on the 17tli spread over the entire city. Napoleon with difficulty escaped, and beheld from a short distance this magnificent spectacle, which too truly foreboded the frustration of his schemes. It seems doubtful whether this destruction of the ancient capital of Russia was the work of private incendiaries or of Rostopchin, the governor. It was now evidently impossible for the French army to winter here, as the emperor had intended, and he instantly conceived the daring idea of marching upon St. Petersburg. But his generals, weary of war, would not concur in this audacious scheme : they counselled a retreat : while Napoleon, with apparent infatuation, lingered for a month in the Kremlin, amid the ruins of the city, vainly waiting an answer to his proposals for peace. On the 19th of October the army, heavily encumbered with spoils, commenced its retreat — that horrible retreat which exhausts all con- ceptions of human suffering and despair. On the road to Kalouga, a sanguinary engagement took place between a portion of the hostile armies ; but the main bodies, under KutusofP and Napoleon, as yet cautiously avoided each other. The French army, in three divisions, marched toward Smolensko, suffering terribly from cold and famine, and harassed by clouds of Cossacks, who hung upon their rear, and cut off every straggler from the ranks. The trophies and the plun- der were abandoned in the deep snow, through which the army could hardly force its way. Arriving at Smolensko, reduced, in effective numbers, to a third of the conquerors of Moscow, they found famine awaiting them, and hostile armies surrounding them on all sides. The conduct of Ney, who commanded the rear-guard, was, during the whole retreat, a miracle of courage, talent, and for- titude. With five thousand men, he kept Kutusoff, with eighty thousand, at bay, and brought his division to Napoleon. The '' Grand Army, " now reduced to fourteen thousand men, worn out with privation and fatigue, still retreated, seeking to escape the enemy by crossing the Beresina. Meeting by chance the army of Victor, they resolved, thus reinforced, to attempt the passage. Two frail bridges were thrown across the stream, and a portion of the army crossed in safety. During this terrible passage, the Russian army, in overwhelming force, was pressing on their rear. Great numbers were drowned by the breaking of one of the bridges, and by being forced into the water. Their bodies were almost immedi- ately frozen into the wintry stream, and when counted by the Rus- .lARSHAL NET LIirTiAJL Net, Marshal of France, acd Prince of the iloskwa, -wVas; boiu of obscure parentage, at Sarre Louis, in 1770. During the whole of Napoleon's career, l(e ^was distinguished hy such dauntless valour as to receive iroui hi.-i sovereign the most implicit confidence, and justly to earn the title of the "J3raveat pf the Brave." His conduct in the terrible retreat of Russia was, perhaps, the most hertjio of any Avnich is recorded in history His high mili- tary qualities -were equalled by his humanity and tindness of heart. He led the last ojiarge of the Guard at Waterloo, and on the second return of thi Bourbons, "was executed by the cov^ardly rulers who had been reinstated l>y foreign arms. ''Thus," says Col. Napiej-, a magnanimous English historian, "be Avho had fought five HUHDREn BATTiEs for France — not one against her — wis sliot a,s a ti'aitor FSANCE. 531 sians in the following spring, were found to amount to thirty or forty thousand. Tidings now came of disturbances in Paris ; and Napoleon, leaving the relics of his forces to struggle with fresh disasters, departed secretly on a sledge, and hastened, almost in disguise, to his own dominions. The vast army, of nearly five hundred thousand, which he had brought into action, was almost annihilated. It has been computed, by accurate judges, that of this immense force one hun- dred and twenty-five thousand were slain in battle, one hundred and thirty-two thousand perished from cold and famine, and one hundred and ninety-three thousand were made prisoners. Though many of the national trophies were destroyed, the Eussians took seventy-five eagles or colours and nine hundred cannon. All Europe, taking heart at the misfortunes of its late master, now seemed ready to rise against him. The Prussians, under Yorck, deserted Macdonald. Murat, forsaking the remains of the army intrusted to his charge, fled to his own kingdom of Naples, ere long to betray his master, and join the enemy. Austria and England entered into alliance with Russia, Prussia almost immediately joined them, and the French were compelled to adopt the Elbe, instead of the Oder, as a line of defence. Bernadotte and the Swedes, subsi- dized by England, joined the hostile alliance. Napoleon, on his part, made every effort of preparation and defence. To supply the loss of those who had perished in the snows of Russia, the conscription was drawn for years in antici- pation. In April, 1813, he joined the army of forty thousand men, which yet remained in Germany, with eighty thousand young con- scripts, entirely ignorant of war — "sucking pigs," as an old general termed them, in despair. The allies, in great force, advanced against him, but were defeated, under Blucher, by the courageous 3^outh, whom Napoleon had already inspired with his own hardi- hood and enthusiasm. He immediately occupied the disputed cities of Leipsic and Dresden. Encouraged by these successes, he refused to accede to the terms of Austria, who now demanded, as the price of her neutrality, a considerable augmentation of territory. At Bautzen, on the 21st of May, he again attacked the enemy, defeated them, in a position of great force, and drove them into Bohemia. The Russian and Prussian armies retreated into Austria, and Napo- leon, still refusing the demands of the latter, saw his father-in-law conclude a formal alliance with his enemies. Austria had an army 532 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of two hundred thousand men ready for action ; tlie Eussian and Prussian armies were reinforced; yet the emperor resolved to hold out at Dresden. General Moreau, long banished for conspiracy, had now entered the service of Alexander, and was directing the enemies of his country, while Bernadotte, with his kingdom, was also in arms against his former master. On the 2ist of August the Austrians, under Prince Schwartzen- burg, in overwhelming force, attacked Dresden, which was gallantly defended by twenty thousand French; when Napoleon, returning from the pursuit of Blucher, repulsed them. Two daj^s afterwards, he completely defeated them, with the loss of their cannon and twenty thousand prisoners. Moreau, his ancient rival, was mortally wounded in the action. This advantage was, in a great degree, counterbalanced by the misfortune of his general, Yandamme, who, with his division, was compelled to surrender to a superior force of Russians and Prussians. The allies now pursued a singular system of tactics, recommended it is said by Bernadotte. At the approach of the emperor, they invariably retreated ; but when engaged with his generals, put forth their utmost efforts, and frequently ventured to give battle. Thus, Oudinot was defeated at Buren by Berna- dotte, and Macdonald by Blucher, at the Katzbach, " The campaigns round Dresden resembled what Homer recounts of the siege of Troy. When Achilles rushed forth, all was rout, fight, and slaugh- ter; when he retired, his enemies showed courage, and never failed to gain the advantage." He was soon compelled, by the increasing forces of the enemy, to transfer his quarters to Leipsic. On the very day of his arrival (October 16th), the allies, in over- whelming force, began to close around it, but, after some desperate fighting, gained little advantage. On the 18th, the French, attacked by three times their number, made a most gallant defence, and suc- ceeded, amid great slaughter, in maintaining their position. It was, however, evidently necessary to retreat still farther; and on the following day, with nearly three hundred thousand of the enemy pressing upon them, the remains of the French army commenced to defile over a frail bridge that served as their only outlet from the city. "With a few troops, Macdonald and the gallant Prince Ponia- towsky defended this disastrous retreat. By the premature destruc- tion of the bridge, great numbers perished, and others remained captive in the city. The French army lost, on this terrible day, two hundred cannon and fifty thousand men. FEANCE. 633 Except the ancient limits of France, little was now left to liim who had so lately been dictator of Europe. Holland, Italy, and most of liis other dependencies espoused the cause of the enemy. In Spain, the English, under Wellington, had driven the remainder of his troops across the Pyrenees. The allies, in overwhelming numbers, were on the frontiers of France itself, yet Napoleon refused their proposition of making the Rhine his boundary. A movement, equally formidable to his power, was also com- mencing within his own kingdom. Both the royalists and republi- cans had now conceived hopes of his entire overthrow, and laid plans for the substitution of their own systems. Instead, however, of conciliating the opposition, he resolved to suppress it by force, and at once dissolved the feeble legislative assembly, which had ventured to offer a remonstrance. The garrisons which he had left in Germany were one by one reduced, and, under Bulow and Blucher, the allied forces crossed the Ehine, while Wellington advanced from the Pyrenees. On the 25th of January, 1814, Napoleon left his capital, to defend, with feeble and diminished forces, the empire that yet remained to him. Schwartzenburg and Blucher, with an hundred and fifty thousand men, were already on their way to Paris. The French army was less than half their number, consisting mostly of raw recruits. Nevertheless, the emperor, fighting hand to hand with the enemy, drove Blucher from Brienne, the scene of his own youthful studies and education. On the 1st of February, the latter, reinforced by Schwartzenburg, and aided by the presence of Alexander and Frederick of Prussia, attacked the French at La Pothiere with over- whelming force. After an heroic resistance, the latter were compelled to retreat, under cover of night. The allies now continually rose in their demands, and refused peace, except on condition that France should be reduced to its ancient limits. Napoleon, refusing their terms, hastened, with the wreck of his army, in pursuit of Blucher, who had made a hurried march towards Paris, defeated him at Champaubert and Montmirail, with the loss of two-thirds of his army, and drove him with the remainder in fiill retreat. On the 18th, he also defeated the Austrians at Montoreau. Schwartzenburg retreated, but Blucher, with a fresh force of an hundred thousand, resolved to effect a union with the Russians, and renew the march to Paris. To defeat this scheme, Napoleon, marching against the Russians, gained, at great loss, a victory at Craonne. At Laon, 534: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. however, by tlie unsldlfulness of Marmont, he experienced a severe reverse, and lost such a portion of his force as to render further resistance almost hopeless. The allies, elated by their success, now refused to treat at all, and from all directions pushed their forces toward the capital. The royalists, also, began to assume a bolder and more open attitude, and Bordeaux, supported by Wellington, declared for the Bourbons. Their partisans in Paris, directed by the astute and treacherous Tal- leyrand, opened a negotiation with the allied sovereigns in behalf of the exiled family, and gained the support of Alexander. Kapo- leon, still obstinately defending his country, was defeated, with the miserable remains of his army, at Arcis. Still undismayed, he marched to surprise the allied forces in their rear. Marmont and Mortier, however, who were to have joined him, were compelled by the advance of the enemy to retreat upon Paris, and on the 30th of March, with a scanty force, attempted to defend it from the over- whelming forces of the allies. A gallant attempt to withstand their attack was made, and many of the young pupils of the Polytechnic school died fighting bravely in defence of their country ; but resist- ance was in vain ; Paris capitulated, and on the 31st, Alexander and Frederick entered the city. Napoleon, scarcely able to credit the loss of his capital, again vainly attempted to treat with the victors. But the caiise of the Bourbons, supported by a powerful army of foreigners, and by the general weariness of war, prevailed; the senate, convoked by Tal- leyrand, voted the crown forfeited by various misdemeanours, and appointed a provisional government. The emperor, now almost deserted, made one more appeal for assistance to his marshals, and on their refusal, declared his willingness to abdicate in favour of his son. This offer was refused, and after beholding nearly all his friends and ofl&cers desert to the enemy, he signed an unconditional abdication at Fontainbleau on the 11th of April, 1814. He had utterly refused to stipulate for any terms of personal interest; but by the influence of his former friend, Alexander, the title of Emperor was still secured to him, and the little island of Elba was allotted as the scene of his sovereignty. Thither he repaired, for a few months to exercise his talents in petty schemes and difl&culties, until his destiny called him, for a brief period, to figure for the last time in that mightier and more tragical scene, which closed the great drama of the fortunes of Europe. TEANCE. 535 THE RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THE "HUNDRED DATS" OF NAPOLEON. Louis XVIII.,* who had thus been elevated by the arms of foreigners to the ancient throne of his ancestors, was a man of moderate intellect, and more adapted to the life of a retired scholar, than to the sovereignty of a great and impetuous nation. His first accession was, however, eagerly welcomed by a people suffering under the worst calamities of war, and desirous of some interval of rest. The army alone, by its dark and sullen demeanour, evinced dissatisfaction with the change. The manner of his first political act, that of granting a charter to the nation, was unpopular, as recog- nising its only source in the will of the new sovereign. Discontent was also strongly felt at the reduction of France within her former limits — a misfortune, whether real or supposed, only to be ascribed in reality to him who had enlarged them. Other and more real grievances soon supervened. By attempting to restore the more bigoted and odious attributes of the church, the court disgusted and alienated the liberal and intellectual. A serious insurrection was excited by the refusal to bury an actress in conse- crated ground, and the government was compelled to yield. Eestrictions on the press, and the constant dread of the emigrants' resuming their forfeited estates, produced farther discontent and uneasiness. The strange mixture of an ancient and absurd noblesse, and of blood-stained revolutionists, which composed the new court and ministry, inspired ridicule and distrust, rather than confidence or respect. The first reactionary movement was made by the old Jacobin party, which, after being so many years repressed by the strong hand of Napoleon, started into a new and formidable existence under the feebler and more obnoxious sway of the Bourbons. Carnot, the old revolutionary minister at war, now holding an important of&ce, * The unhappy son of Louis XVI., a mere child, who had perished from ill-treat- ment during the Revolution, was enrolled by the royalists as Louis XVII. 536 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY, was at the head of this conspiracj. Fouch^, the wily and -unprinci- pled ex-minister of police, was also deeply implicated. But all their projects seemed likely to fall to the ground for want of a leader who could influence the army. After vainly attempting to procure a chief elsewhere, they turned their thoughts to Elba, and com- menced negotiations for replacing Napoleon at the head of affairs. Important concessions to the republican spirit were, undoubtedly, to be the price of his reinstatement on the throne. Murat, who still held the kingdom of Naples by a precarious tenure, again opened com- munications with his brother-in-law, whom he had lately betrayed. The plot being ripe, Napoleon, on the 26th of February, 1815, embarked from his little island, with a force of about a thousand men, to undertake the reconquest of France. He landed at Cannes on the 1st of March, and at once commenced his march toward the capital. At Grenoble he encountered a force of three thousand troops, and throwing himself in their midst, was received with the greatest enthusiasm. The government, now thoroughly alarmed, began to take measures for self-defence, and the Comte d'Artois, the king's brother, vainly attempted to harangue into fidelity the troops at Lyons. "You deceive yourself," said an old veteran; "no man here will fight against his father: I will cry Vive NajpoleonP^ The soldiers welcomed and mingled with those of their ancient com- mander. Here he appointed the ministers of a new government, and on the 13th resumed his march, the troops declaring in his favour wherever he came. Ney, who had gone with a considerable force to intercept him, was won over by a letter addressed to "the bravest of the brave," and forthwith joined him, with all his troops. At Melun, the last army of the royalists, commanded by Macdonald, was posted to repel the invader. Almost unattended, he drove into their midst, and was received with a general shout of " Yive Napoleon P'' Louis, anticipating this result, on the 20th of March fled from Paris with a small escort, and succeeded in reaching Ghent in safety. His victorious rival, entering Paris on the evening of the same day, again took possession of the Tuileries, and was welcomed by the principal contrivers of this wonderful conspiracy. "Never, in his bloodiest and most triumphant field of battle, had the terrible ascendancy of Napoleon's genius appeared half so predominant as during his march, or rather his journey from Cannes to Paris. He who left the same coast, disguised like a slave, and weeping like a FKANCE. 537 woman, for fear of assassination, returned in grandeur like that of the returning wave, which, the farther it has retreated, is rolled back upon the shore with the more terrific and overwhelming violence. His look seemed to possess the pretended power of northern magi- cians, and blunted swords and spears." Reinstated on his throne, but holding it by an insecure tenure, he naturally desired peace, as well for the interest of his kingdom as of himself. But the allied powers returned no answer to his overtures; and the "Congress of Vienna," which was still sitting, (to disnfember and prey upon the weaker countries,) resolved on unrelenting hostilit3^ Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia agreed that each should furnish an hundred and fifty thousand troops for the approaching attempt to destroy their ancient conqueror. The actual number that was levied exceeded, however, a million. The position of Napoleon, indeed, appeared almost hopeless, from the commencement. France, exhausted by murderous wars in other countries, was absolutely destitute of the bone and sinew neces- sary to defend her. The failure of Murat, who, threatened with the loss of his throne, had prematurely taken up arms, and been utterly ruined, was a great blow to the cause of the restored sovereign. His assistance, if deferred a little longer, would have been invaluable. The constitution which the emperor now granted, was objectionable to the liberals, on the ground that (like that of Louis, which it much resembled) it professed simply to emanate from the imperial will, without recognising the authority of the nation. The Parisians, though fond of spectacles, viewed with coldness the splendid pageantry of the "Champ de Mai," which celebrated the organ- ization of the new government. The chamber of peers, mostly composed of his generals or personal friends, was tolerably devoted to the interest of Napoleon ; but the chamber of deputies or com- mons contained a strong infusion of the ancient Jacobinical feeling. The immense armies of the allies were now put in motion, and the whole eastern frontier was menaced with invasion. By desperate exertions, a force for the national defence was raised, and from this Napoleon selected about an hundred and thirty thousand soldiers for his last fatal campaign. The first enemies to be encountered were the English and Prussians, who, with greatly superior forces, seemed to await his attack. After some masterly manoeuvres, on the 16th of June he engaged the Prussian force of eighty thousand men, under Blucher, at Ligny. Though superior in number, they 538 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. were defeated, with a loss of ten thousand men, and compelled to retreat. On the same day Ney, with a portion of the army, engaged the British at Quatre Bras, but after obstinate fighting, no decisive result was attained. Wellington, however, retreated towards Brus- sels, and took up his position near the village of Waterloo, a few miles from the city. Napoleon followed him, and on the 18th of June, the two armies, each about seventy thousand in number, encamped opposite to each other. Both were distressed, but espe- cially the French, by the tempestuous weather to which, for some days previous, they had been exposed. The forces under the com- mand of Wellington were composed about equally of British and continental troops. Those of Napoleon were all that remained of that splendid army, so long the terror of Europe. The plan of each commander was exceedingly simple; Wellington being only intent on holding his position until reinforced by Blucher ; and Napoleon staking his last hopes on the desperate attempt to destroy the two armies in succession before they could effect a junction. A little before noon, the action commenced with a furious can- nonade, and a desperate attack, led by Jerome, upon the Chateau of Hougoumont, occupied by the British. The latter succeeded in holding this important post. An attack on the English centre was equally unfortunate. The charging columns had penetrated the forces of the enemy, but being attacked on all sides, lost many of their number in the fight, as well as two thousand prisoners, who were surrounded. The British cavalry were, in their turn, repulsed with much loss. They also lost the farm of La Haye Sainte, an important position. On the right, the French cavalry made repeated charges upon the squares of the British, which, however, they were unable to break. In repeating this desperate attempt again and again, the greater part of them were destroyed. The Prussians, under Bulow, had now reached the field, and attacked the French right; and Napoleon, at last aware of the approach of Blucher with an overwhelming force, resolved on a last and desperate effort to destroy the English before he could arrive. The imperial guard, who had been hitherto kept in reserve, were formed into two columns, and ordered to charge the English line. To the exhorta- tions of their sovereign, the}' answered, for the last time, with cries of Vive VEmpereur! and, led by the celebrated Ney, moved on to the attack. The fire which they encountered, however, was too heavy to admit of success, and in spite of the efforts of their heroic leader, AN OFFICER OF THE lilPERIAL GUARD OF NAPOLEON, tN FUr.r, ONIFOULI FEANCE. 539 tlie J were compelled to retreat in confusion. The rout now became o-eneral, and the flying ranks were fiercely pursued by the army of Blacher, which had just arrived. Great numbers of the defenceless fugitives were slaughtered by the Prussians, yet smarting under ancient and recent defeat. Many deserted or were dispersed, and probably not half of the army then engaged was ever again assem- bled under arms. The defeated emperor hastened to Paris, aware that the Jacobins in the assembly would take advantage of the crisis to attempt the overthrow of his government. This apprehension was better founded than his reliance on his own authority. Indeed, it was evident to all, that a second abdication alone could preserve France from the miserable condition of a conquered country. His brother Lucien vainly pleaded his cause before the assembly, and entreated their fidelity. "We have been faithful," answered La Fayette; "we have followed your brother to the sands of Egypt — to the snows of Eus- sia. The bones of Frenchmen, scattered in every region, attest our fidelity." In a general council held by the emperor, he reiterated his views, and delicately suggested abdication as the only remedy for the impending evils. The unfortunate sovereign, distracted by various counsels, and unwilling to quit the scene of his deepest inter- ests, could not effect a determination. "The best counsel," says his biographer, "was, perhaps, that of an American gentleman, who advised him instantly to retreat to the North American States, where he could not, indeed, enjoy the royal privileges and ceremonial, to which he was more attached than philosophy warrants, but where that general respect would have been paid to him, which his splendid talents and wonderfal career of adventure were so well calculated to enforce." On the 22d of June, only four days after the battle of Waterloo, in compliance with the eager desire of the assembly, he made an abdication in favour of his infant son, the " King of Rome." The deputies, though refusing formally to acknowledge the new sovereign, proclaimed him by general acclamation. Carnot still cherished the hope of resistance, and presented to the assembly an exaggerated statement of the available forces yet remaining. This was furiously contradicted by ISTey: "Not a man of the Guard," he cried, "will ever rally again. I myself commanded them — I myself witnessed their total extermination, ere I left the field of battle; they are annihilated. The enemy are at JSTovelles, with eighty thou- sand men. They may, if they please, be in Paris in six days. There 540 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. is no safety for France, but in instant propositions for peace," When this fiery and determined commander could speak thus, resistance might well be deemed hopeless ; yet Napoleon, with an honourable desire to serve his country in the worst emergency, still lingered in the vicinity of Paris, and offered his services once more to meet the enemy, or to defend the capital to the last extremity. These pro- posals were rejected by the provisional government, which feared to intrust him again with the means of acquiring power. He left Paris, and on the 3d of July arrived at Eochefort, where two frigates had been placed at his disposal to convey him to America. But the coast was lined with English cruisers ; the Bellerophon line-of-battle ship was blockading the port; it was impossible to force a passage ; and he would not consent to any plans for a secret escape. In answer to his negotiations for a passage to America, the captain of the English ship suggested to his officers the propriety of his seeking an asylum in England, though refusing to make any definite pledges concerning his reception. Kejecting, therefore, the warlike proposals of the relics of his army, which could only have brought further devastation on France and destruction to themselves, he embarked in the Bellerophon, and on the 24th arrived at Tor- bay, on the coast of Devonshire. He had already despatched the brief and well-known letter to the Prince Eegent, invoking the hos- pitality of England. It was, however, determined by that mean- spirited prince and his advisers to keep him close prisoner during the remainder of his life. He was transferred to the distant island of St. Helena, where, after a few miserable years, exposed to the annoyances of an impertinent keeper, he expired on the 5th of May, 1821. His remains were interred on the spot; but many years after, in compliance with his will, were transferred to Paris, and deposited, with magnificent and imposing ceremonies, beneath the great dome of the Invalides. THE DISINTERMENT OF THE REMAINS OE NAPOLEON "It whs iude'rd Niij'O.-^ou," shvs aijoiu^r eye-witnebs, M. Eiiia:LU^J ile L.-iS Cases; "NapoiTOn d'-roid of life, but aot destroyed! . One \rou":d aimost have said that he was stiji at that last day of his career of toils aud dangers , at that first day of eternity. — — — — G-eneral Bertrand gazed upon him. like one -who 'was ready to sint to the earth Ivlany sobbed convulsively Other.s rem.aine.d in silent sadness, their eyes filled v/ith moisture. The iace of tli--' voung Comte de Chabot was deluged with tears ' — HisToiaE nv. t 'V.upy.-Ri-yjK Napoi-eon FEANCE. 541 tjiiAjri.iliii AiV, THE SECOND EESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS, AND THEIR EXPULSION, LOUIS PHILIPPE, AND HIS EXPULSION. — THE REPUBLIC. The great actor having vanislied from tlie scene, succeeding events appear comparatively tame and unimportant. After tlie departure of Napoleon, the provisional government vainly attempted to excite an enthusiasm for the defence of the country. To their exhorta- tions, the soldiers answered sullenly, "Why should we fight any more? "VVe have no longer an emperor!" The royalists, encour- aged by the approach of the allies, also made demonstrations in some of the provinces, though not daring to move openly in Paris. Meanwhile, the remaining forces, under Soult and Grouchy, were compelled to retreat upon the capital, whither, on the 1st of July, they were followed by the allied armies. After some fighting, in which the French displayed all their accustomed bravery, an armis- tice was concluded, and on the 7th, after the city had been completely evacuated by its defenders, the hostile forces took military possession. The allied powers refused to acknowledge the provisional govern- ment or the Chambers, (which accordingly were forcibly dissolved ;) and sullenly announced that Louis XVIII. woilld reenter his capital. On the 8th he entered, accompanied by some of the most distin- guished marshals, and, protected by foreign arms, again took posses- sion of his crown and palaces. Severe conditions were exacted from the defeated nation. Several of her most important fortresses were taken from her, and others held for a time by foreign garrisons. Large contributions of money were exacted, and the splendid museum, the finest in the world, was stripped of its treasures, which were restored to the nations from which they had been originally taken. The course of the new government, thus again imposed iipon the nation, was even more unsatisfactory and irritating to the people. The brave Marshal Ney was privately executed. La Bedoyere, one of the prime supporters of the emperor, shared the same fate. Lava- lette was saved only by the devoted and heroic conduct of his wife, who remained in prison while he escaped in disguise. Toward 542 ''■■^HE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the close of the year, a general amnesty was proclaimed. The unpopularity of Louis continued. He substituted the white flag in place of the tri-colour, to which the nation was much attached; and, to gratify the ultra royalists, violated, in several particulars, the charter which he had granted. The legislative body became gradu- ally divided into two parties, which, however varying in principle, have ever since retained their appellations. The "extreme right," or ultra royalists, were continually opposed by the " extreme left," or ultra liberals. The moderate party occupied the "centre." The distracted condition of Spain, so long in a state of civil war- fare, determined the French government to interfere with an armed force; and in 1823 the duke d'Angouleme, with a large army, marched into that country, advanced from Madrid to Cadiz, and gratified the national vanity of the French by an appearance of con- trol and dictation in the political affairs of the Peninsula. On the 16th of September, 1824, the king died, and was succeeded by his brother, the Comte d'Artois, under the title of Charles X. The late king, though sometimes over-influenced by his royalist relatives, was in reality a man of moderate views, and probably sincerely desirous of the welfare of the people. His successor repre- sented the worst class of legitimatists and uncompromising royalists. His first measure was a judicious one. By granting annuities to those whose lands had been seized by government during the Eevo- lution, he assured the title of the possessors, and removed one for- midable source of opposition, and the temptation to effect revolutions. More obnoxious measures succeeded. Further restrictions were placed upon the liberty of the press. To secure a majority in the upper house, a large number of peers was created. The chamber of deputies was dissolved, in hopes that the court influence would be more predominant in the next. The result proved quite the reverse, and the royalist ministers were compelled to resign. The more liberal statesmen who succeeded them, retained office only for a short time; and in 1829 the king appointed a new ministry, at the head of which was the Prince de Polignac, a name odious to the whole nation from the former career of the family which he repre- sented. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies being found too republican, was dissolved immediately after its meeting, and a new election was ordered, which, however, resulted still more unfavourably to the court. On the 4th of July, 1830, the city of Algiers, so long a pest to all FRANCE. 543 civilized communities, was taken by a Frencli force, and the foundation of the important province of Algeria was laid. The success of this expedition, though very popular, could not allay the public irritation, stimulated by further acts of an arbitrary character. Great discon- tent had been caused by the mean and spiteful attempt of the Bour- bons, on their first restoration, to efface every vestige of the glories of ISTapoleon. His statue had been taken from its lofty column in the Place Yendome, and melted to form that of the horse of Henry IV. His name had been carefully erased from public buildings and monuments. This miserable persecution of a name and a memory was continued even now, so long after the death of its object, and the statues or portraits of the greatest sovereign who had ever ruled over France were proscribed by the petty legitimacy which had been foisted on the throne. Perceiving the unfavourable prospects of the session, Charles, on the 26th of July, 1830, issued an ordinance, abolishing the freedom of the press, and arbitrarily and against law dissolved the Chambers, which had not yet convened; and appointed, equally without authority, a new mode of election, better calculated to serve his views. The charter was thus entirely subverted, and great agitation ensued in Paris. On the 27th, in spite of the ordinance, numbers of the deputies met, and protested against it. On the 28th they pro- ceeded in a body to the Tuileries, and represented to Marmont, commander of the forces, that the people would forcibly oppose the government. The king ordered him to suppress the popular move- ment by military force. Meanwhile, tri-coloured flags and cockades began to be displayed, and the old uniform of the National Guard was assumed by many of the citizens. A contest commenced between the people and the king's guard, in which the latter were exposed to a harassing fire and discharge of missiles from the windows. At night barricades were thrown up in the principal streets, and on the following day, after a desperate contest between the troops and the people, the former, with the exception of the king's guard, declared for the popular cause. Several thousands of the citizens had been already killed and wounded. The guards quitted Paris; the obnoxious ministers resigned their of&ces ; and the king repealed his ordinances. It was too late. The people, now thoroughly aroused, were determined on a change of government. The deputies met, and the National Guard, with La Fayette at its head, was called out. His personal influence was such that the city was almost 544 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. instantly quieted, and tlie " Ee volution of Three Days " was disgraced by no excesses whatever. On the 30th the duke of Orleans (son of Egalit^, who had prompted and who perished in the first Revolution,) was appointed the tem- porary head of government. On the 2d of August, the king formally abdicated in favour of his grandson, and fled to England. After much collision of sentiment, the influence of La Fayette determined the Chambers to declare in favour of a limited monarchy, and to place the duke of Orleans on the throne. The career of this prince had been one of uncommon adventure and vicissitude. He had, while very yoimg, distinguished himself in defence of the republic, had seen his father perish on the scaffold, and had been compelled to fly for his own life. He had taught mathematics in Switzerland, and resided as a private citizen in the United States. From 1800 until the fall of Napoleon, he had quietly resided in England, and since the accession of the Bourbons, had been intrusted with military command on account of his relationship, and deprived of it on account of his too liberal principles. From a monarch trained in such a school of adversity the nation naturally expected prudence and regard to popular right. He was accordingly, on the 9th of August, publicly proclaimed "King of the French," a title constructed purposely to exclude the feudal principles of a monarchy, and to recognise the political existence of the people. The government of the "Citizen King" proved, in many respects, firm and sensible. The French footing in Africa was maintained and extended, though at a very considerable cost both of life and money; and, in the general pacification of Europe, this turbulent and half-conquered province was considered as affording an excellent school of warfare to the oflicers and soldiers of the French army. The foreign relations of France, during his reign, were generally managed in a spirit of prudence and conciliation ; and perhaps no government of that country ever succeeded in inspiring the other Europeon powers with greater confidence and friendliness. The king, whose private fortune was immense, was perhaps one of the most liberal and judicious patrons of art and science whom France has ever known. The taste and pride of the nation were gratified by the erection or completion of magnificent structures, and by the most lavish expenditure upon such exhibitions of native talent as exalted the glory of the French people. The restoration of the remains of Napoleon, which his influence with the British FKANCE. 545 government procured, occasioned a pageant, from its grandeur and associations perhaps the most interesting of modern times. Brought from their island-grave in St. Helena, and followed by the old sol- diers of the empire, the mortal relics of the emperor were borne on a gorgeous car, amid an innumerable multitude, to their final resting- place. The king "in the name of France" solemnly received them from his son, the Prince de Joinville, who had been honoured with conveying them across the seas ; and amid the most impressive cere- monies, the corpse of Napoleon was deposited beneath the great dome of the Invalides, hung round with trophies of his victorious career. Although possessing the throne only by tenure of a sudden revo- lution, Louis Philippe, whether from supposed necessity, from incli- nation, or from distrust of his subjects, lapsed farther and farther into arbitrary measures. Unquestionably, there has always been in France, and especially in Paris, a considerable class of ultra- republicans and lawless agitators, whom no government would satisfy, and whose only object is the seizure and division of the property of others. But in his efforts to suppress this Jacobinical spirit, measures were taken which also completely destroyed the liberties of the people. Suffrage was restricted to a comparatively small portion of the citizens, and the government, by its immense system of patronage, and the myriads of offices at its disposal, was usually enabled to control both the popular elections and the action of the assembly. Severe restrictions were placed upon the liberties of the press, and prosecutions against offending editors were urged with great and unrelenting rigour. These extremities naturally produced deep indignation among the more violent spirits of the popular party, and the life of the king was so frequently attempted by assassins, that without a strong escort he was unable to make his appearance in public. An "infernal machine," prepared by Fieschi and other conspirators, was almost successful in its purpose. A large number of muskets, arranged so as to command the passage of a street, were simultaneously fired as the royal procession defiled past. The king escaped, but many persons in attendance were killed or wounded. Among the former was the celebrated Marshal Mortier. Notwithstanding the fierce spirit of insurrection which these attempts evinced, the king for eighteen years continued to hold an uninterrupted and apparently a perfectly assured and settled sway over the excitable and capricious nation which had called him to the 35 546 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. throne. With, a standing army of some hundred ttonsand men, and a line of fortifications commanding the city of Paris, his power was considered as secure as that of any European sovereign. How fruitless such precautions may be against the united movement of an indignant people, our own times have witnessed with astonishment. The wonderful revolution of February, 1848, by which Louis Philippe was driven from his throne, and the startling events which with such rapidity have since succeeded one another, are matters at present rather of news than of history, and must be considered as the commencement of a new political cycle, whose destiny, of all the European future, it is perhaps most difficult to foretell. After the commencement of this singular revolution, at first so eminently peaceable and successful, a host of names attained temporary dis- tinction ; and after being borne aloft, for a brilliant moment, on the wave of popular impulse, were successively whelmed beneath its fury. The terrible insurrection of the barricades, at Paris, which soon ensued, sufficiently proved a condition of deep popular ignorance and distress, stimulated by the incendiary appeals of a few wrong- headed and bad-hearted demagogues. It is to be trusted that the thousands who perished in that mad and obstinate resistance to a government of the popular choice, have not died in vain ; and that the capacity of the French nation for self-government may be fully evinced in a long, successful, and peacefally-glorious career of the Eepublic, purchased by so many years of alternate tyranny, anarchy, and war. FRANCE. 547 THE RULERS OF FRANCE, The Romans, B.C. 60toa.d.420 Pharamond, Chief of the Franks, . . . , . . 420 " 428 Clodion, 428 " 448 THE MEROVINGIAN KINGS. Meroveus, 448 " 458 Childeric, 458 « 481 Clevis, 481 " 511 Descendants of Clovis, 511 " 628 Dagobert I., great-grandson of Clovis, 628 " 638 Clovis II., . . . 638 " 655 Les Rois Faineans (" the sluggish kings,") nominal sovereigns, . 655 " 737 Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace, 688 " 714 Charles Martel, son of Pepin, 714 " 741 Pepin the Short, son of Charles, 741 " 768 Charlemagne, son of Pepin, 768 " 816 The Carlovingian Kings, or Successors of Charlemagne, . . 816 " 987 HOUSE OF CAPET. Hugh Capet, 987 " 996 Robert (the Pious), son of Hugh, 996 '• 1031 Henry I., son of Robert, 1031 " 1060 Philip I., son of Henry, . . 1060 " 1108 Louis VI., son of Philip, . . . . . . :. . 1108 " 1137 Louis VII., son of Louis VI., 1137 " 1180 Philip IL (Augustus), son of Louis Vn., . . . . . 1180 " 1223 Louis VIIL, son of Philip IL, 1223 " 1226 Louis IX. (St. Louis), son of Louis VIIL, .... 1226 " 1270 Philip III. (the Bold), son of Louis IX., . . . . . 1270 " 1285 Philip IV. (the Fair), son of Philip III., . . . . . 1285 " 1314 Louis X. (the Peevish), son of Philip IV., . . . . . 1314 « 1316 Philip v., son of Philip IV., 1316 « 1321 Charles IV. (the Fair), son of Philip IV., 1321 " 1328 HOUSE OF VALOIS. Philip VT., grandson of Philip HI., 1328 " 1350 John (the Good), son of Philip VL, 1350 " 1364 Charles V., son of John, 1364 " 1380 Charles VL (the Well-beloved), son of Charles V 1380 " 1422 Charles VII., son of Charles VI., 1422 « 1461 548 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. Louis XL, son of Charles VII., from 1461 to 1483 Charles VIH., son of Louis XL, 1483 " 1498 Louis Xn., great-grandson of Charles V., 1498 " 1515 Francis L, great^great-grandson of Charles V., . . . . 1515 " 1547 Henry IL, son of Francis L, 1547 " 1559 Francis 11., son of Henry IL, 1559 " 1560 Charles IX., son of Henry 11. . 1560 « 1574 Henry IIL son of Henry IL, 1574 « 1589 HOUSE OF BOURBON. Henry IV. (the Great), eleventh descendant of Louis IX., . . 1589 " 1610 Louis XHL, son of Henry IV., 1610 " 1643 Louis XIV., son of Louis XIIL, 1643 " 1715 Louis XV., great-grandson of Louis XIV., .... 1715 " 1774 Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV., 1774 " 1793 Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI., (died from m-treatment during the Revolution.) The Republic, 1793 " 1799 The Consulate, 1799 " 1804 The Empire, 1804 " 1814 Louis XVIIL, brother of Louis XVI., 1814 " 1815 The Hundred Days of the Empire, 1815 Louis XVIIL (restored), ■ . . . 1815 " 1824 Charles X., brother of Louis XVIIL, 1824 " 1830 Louis Philippe, sixth descendant of Louis XIIL, . . . 1830 " 1848 The Republic, 1848 " E N GL AI D. uj^iiirxiiiiU i BRITAIN UNDER THE ROMANS. Less than two thousand years since, Britain, now one of the most powerful and civilized nations on earth, was mostly an uncultivated forest, inhabited by a rude and barbarous people, not much superior in their manners and mode of life to the Indians and other savages of our own day. They seldom tilled the earth, but lived principally on the milk and flesh of their cattle ; commerce was unknown, and the humanizing arts had not the slightest existence. These people were a branch of that great Celtic race which occupied the most of Western Europe, and which had been partially subdued and civil- ized by the Eomans. In Britain, they were divided into small independent tribes, often at warfare with each other. The whole nation was principally under control of the priests or Druids, who were the repository of all the national knowledge and learning, probably little. Their chief doctrine was that of the trans- migration of souls, and their religious rites were bloody and revolting. The nobility tyrannized without restraint over the common people, and each petty prince possessed despotic power. To the Eomans, those wonderful conquerors and civilizers of mankind, is due their first step in that march of improvement which has resulted so remarkably. B. C. 55, Julius Oassar, who had just effected the conquest of Gaul, resolved to gain fresh renown by the invasion of an island which was regarded as lying beyond the limits of the world; and with two legions effected a landing on the coast of Kent, defeating the undisciplined forces which opposed him. Circumstances compelled his return to Gaul, but in the following spring he again landed with 550 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. j&ve legions and two thousand horse, defeated Cassivelaunus, under whom the natives had united, received the submission of several states, imposed tribute, and departed. His remaining years were occupied in contesting the empire with his rivals, and no further conquests were made for a considerable time. Under Augustus and Tiberius, some intercourse with Eome was continued, and duties were levied by them on the commerce which had commenced between Britain and Gaul. A. D. 43, nearly an hundred years after the invasion of Caesar, Claudius, who was then emperor, issued orders to Plautius, the com- mander in Gaul, to recommence hostilities — the pretext being the complaint of a British prince, who had been exiled. The Eoman general subdued the southern portion of the island, and was soon joined by the emperor, who, however, only remained sixteen days. The war was still continued by Plautius, by Yespasian (afterwards emperor), and by Ostorius. The latter defeated Caractacus, the valiant prince of the Silurians or Welsh, who, in their inaccessible mountains, had long set the Eoman arms at defiance. The defeated chief was carried captive to Eome, where his courage and magnanim- ity gained him honourable treatment. The Silurians, however, for ten years, maintained a stubborn resistance, but were at last van- quished by Suetonius, who defeated them with great slaughter in the isle of Mona (Angiesea), which was the principal stronghold of the Druids and their followers. The Icenians, with other native tribes, provoked by the oppres- sion of their new rulers, revolted, and for a time were successful, committing great slaughter upon the foreigners and their adherents. In London (which even then was a place of some importance) and its vicinity, they put to death seventy thousand persons. Their queen, Boadicea, was finally defeated with great loss in a pitched battle, and the Eomans regained their superiority. After various reverses, about the year 80, Vespasian committed the government to Agricola, a man distinguished for his virtues and military talents. By the justice and mildness of his administration, he conciliated the natives, and reduced the hostile tribes to subjection. The Cale- donians, a powerful nation in the north of Scotland, in the year 85, made a formidable incursion. They were thirty thousand in num- ber, each clan being led by its chief, and the whole being under the command of an able leader, named Galgacus. The Eoman com- mander, engaging with them near the Grampians, gained a complete ENGLAND 55]^ victory. Ten thousand of the Highlanders were left dead upon the plain, and the hostile tribes were compelled to give hostages to the Eomans. From this time the latter held undisputed possession of all the country south of the Scottish friths. By degrees their language and customs were diffused among the people ; temples, theatres, and other public buildings were erected; and the province felt a com- plete dependance upon Kome. The Emperor Hadrian, during his visit, constructed a wall across the island, extending from the Sol- way to the Tyne, for the purpose of checking the Caledonians, who still continued their incursions. The Christian religion was introduced into Britain, as well as into the other Eoman provinces, and soon became the prevailing faith through the civilized part of the island. Under the later emperors, the prefects appointed by them, feeling secure in their distant island, often declared themselves independent, and assumed the imperial purple. As the empire became weaker by internal corruption, and by the success of her barbarian neighbours, the Eoman legions were gradually withdrawn for the defence of the mother-country. The Picts or Caledonians, the Scots from Ireland, and the Saxons from the main-land, all harassed the unhappy country with their incur- sions. London was taken and plundered by the Picts, who, though finally defeated, still kept up their attacks. At length (A. D. 420), the last Eoman legion, amid the lamentations of the weak and unfortunate Britons, quitted their shore for ever ; and they were left unprotected from the ravages of their numerous invaders. THE SAXON INTASIONS, AND THE HEPTAECHT. 9 In the year 449, after various domestic dissensions had further weakened the defenceless kingdom, Yortigern, a native prince, being hard pressed by a rival, and continually troubled by the Pict- ish invasions, took the fatal step of inviting to his assistance a body 552 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. of Saxon mercenaries. The tribes inhabiting the forests of Ger- many and the western shores of Central Europe, were a race far superior to the Britons in courage and enterprise. Already their strong and well-rigged vessels had penetrated to distant shores, on errands of piracy or commerce. Hengist and Horsa, two renowned chiefs, complied with the invitation of Yortigern, and landed in Britain with three ships and sixteen hundred men. Strengthened by further reinforcements, they successfully repelled the Picts and Scots ; but, unsatisfied with the Isle of Thanet, which had been bestowed upon them, they made further demands. These not being complied with, they turned their arms against their allies, and a series of hostilities commenced, which in the end resulted in the entire subjugation of the island by its new invaders. Horsa was slain; but Hengist, by a series of victories, gained possession of the whole of Kent, and thus founded the first kingdom of the Saxon Heptarchy. Fresh numbers of the foreigners flocked over. A chief named Ella, after a contest of several years, gained posses- sion of further territories, and constituted the kingdom of South Saxons, now Sussex. Another body, under Cerdic, formed the principality of West Saxons or "Wessex. Others, landing on the eastern coast, took the name of East Saxons, and their territory was called Essex. Norfolk and Suffolk were conquered and settled by the Angles, and named from them East Anglia. To this race England is indebted for its present name. Deira and Bernicia, two British principalities, were subdued by the same people, and formed the kingdom of Northumbria, the most powerful in Britain. Mercia was for the most part conquered and settled by the same people. Thus was formed the Heptarchy, or seven kingdoms of the German invaders. These changes occupied a period of nearly an hundred and fifty years, during which the Britons opposed an insuflicient resistance to their fierce and warlike foes, and were gradually reduced to com- plete subjection. Only the dwellers in the mountainous district of Wales, and the scattered tribes which took refuge thither, remained an independent and separate people. In other parts of the island, the nationality of the native race was so completely effaced, that their original language became entirely disused, and modern English con- tains very few traces of the language of the original inhabitants. All Britain was now divided between the new and victorious race of Anglo-Saxons, the original Britons, who had retreated into A DRUID AND DRUIDESS, OF THH RAH.I.T INHABITANTS OF BRITAIN A DKUIDICAL ALTAR OR MONUMENT CROSBY ,', A r3FlITISH WARRIOK OF THE SOUTHERN IN THE COSTUIJE OF HIS TIMB A KNId-HT TEMr-LAR, IK" EULL ARMOUR. The celelDrati^d ordev of the Knights of the Temple, Defenderrs of the Holy Sepulchre, '.eas founded lu 1118, liy the Pritriarch of Jerusalem; and was sup- pressed, under circum.stances of atrocious cruelty, in 1314, hy the Fope, and f'hliip the Fair, Kir.g of France ENGLAND. 553 Wales, and the Picts and Scots, in the nortliern part of the island. Petty wars continually prevailed, not only between tlie different races, but tlie separate tribes of eacb among themselves. The most important event of these times was the second introduc- tion of Christianity into the island. In the year 596, Gregory, a zealous pontiff, eager to effect the conversion of the heathen Sax- ons, depatched into Britain a monk named Augustine, with forty companions. Ethelbert, king of Kent, where they landed, was married to a Christian princess, sister of the king of Paris. Though somewhat apprehensive of their power, as magicians, he gave them permission to disseminate their doctrines among the people. This they did with such effect, that great numbers embraced the new religion, and among them the king and his court. Ten thousand are said to have been baptized on a single Christmas. The first church was erected in Canterbury, on the site of the present cathedral ; and shortly afterwards another, dedicated to St. Peter, was reared on the banks of the Thames, where Westminster Abbey now stands. The faith continued to spread, and ere long was firmly established in all the Anglo-Saxon states. After nearly two centuries further had elapsed, during which time Mereia had been at times the predominant power, and various unin- teresting wars had been waged among the different principalities, the royal line of Wessex rose into great eminence. Egbert, the king, who had been for some years an exile in France, and a guest of the great emperor Charlemagne, returned to Britain in the year 800, and assumed the crown. After devoting some time to the improvement of his realm, in 809 he attacked the Britons of Corn- wall, and in fourteen years reduced them to submission. He was next engaged in war with Mereia, the forces of which he completely defeated. Kent submitted to him, and the East Anglians revolted, and espoused his cause. The king of Mereia, still struggling for the supremacy, was slain in battle; and in 827 Egbert invaded and conquered his kingdom. He next seized Northumbria, and finally crowned his successes by the conquest of Wales. 554 TWE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. The whole island soutli of tlie fritlis was now united under Egbert. This prince, the first ruler of the British nation, was a man of great talents and ambition, both probably matured by a residence at the court of Charlemagne. He gave his kingdom the name of Angle- land (England), which, with little alteration, it bears to this day. Scarcely had he reduced his new dominions to order, when he was called upon to repel the most formidable enemy which the nation ever encountered. The Northmen or Danes, inhabitants of Denmark and Norway, and destined to be the scourge of all adjoining nations, first landed in England on the coast of Dorset, with a small force, in the year 787. Ere long they descended on Northumbria, and plundered the monasteries. In 833 they came, with thirty-five vessels, to Char- mouth, in Dorset, where Egbert gave them battle, but was unable to repulse them from the country. Two years afterwards a large body joined the Britons of Devon, and invaded Wessex, but were defeated by Egbert. That monarch died in the following year, leav- ing Wessex to one of his sons, Ethelwulf, and Sussex, Kent, and Essex to Athelstane, the other. The Danes continued to make yearly incursions upon the southern and eastern coasts ; but were, in general, bravely resisted. Encour- aged, however, by spoil, in the year 851 they sailed up the Thames, plundered London and Canterbury, and advanced into Stirrey. Here, however, they were encountered by Ethelwulf, and defeated with great slaughter. At the death of that prince, in 858, his sons Ethelbald and Ethelbert succeeded. The latter, surviving, found himself in possession of the whole kingdom in 860. The Danes continued their ravages. They burned the city of "Winchester, and after receiving a large sum from the people of Kent as the price of peace, devastated the country. Ethelbert dying in 866, his brother Ethered ascended the throne; and in the year of his accession, a large army of Danes, landing in East Anglia, procured horses, and marched into Northumbria, ENGLAND, 555 defeating the natives, and seizing on York and Nottingham. In 870 they spread into Lincolnshire, burning and plundering wherever they came. The king vainly endeavoured to oppose them, and in 871 was twice defeated in Wessex, and soon after died, leaving the crown to his brother Alfred, a youth of high promise, and already distinguished in the war. Coming to the throne at the age of twenty-two, he continued the conflict, and fought nine battles during the first year of his reign. A treaty was made, which, however, the Danes disregarded, and again overran the country in 873. Further contests ensued, and further treaties were made, all of which were faithlessly broken by the Danes, when opportunity served. In 878 they gained such advantages, that almost the whole nation submitted to them, and the king was forced to wander about the country in the disguise of a peasant. By degrees he collected a small force of faithful adherents, with whom he lived in the midst of a marsh in Somerset. The men of Devon having successfully resisted an attack of the foreigners, Alfred resolved to make another attempt to expel the invaders. He entered their camp disguised as a minstrel, and having learned all that he wished, summoned his subjects to renew the war. March- ing to Ethandune, he defeated the enemy in a fierce engagement, besieged them in their camp, and dictated terms of peace. Guth- rum, their leader, was baptized, and acknowledged himself a vassal of the English king. He was permitted to retain a portion of ter- ritory, and ever after remained faithful to his new sovereign. His people also laid aside their rude and predatory habits, devoting themselves to agriculture. During fifteen years, in which the nation was at peace, Alfred employed himself in fortifying the cities of his realm, organizing a militia, and improving his navy. In the year 893 a fresh body of invaders, with two hundred and fifty vessels, arriving in Kent, for- tified a camp. Others sailed up the Thames. The Danes, who had settled in Northumbria and East Anglia, revolting, invaded Devon. The king gained several victories, and after the war had been pro- tracted for four years, the enemy sought the shore, and sailed for France. Their piratical excursions on the coast were also repressed by the superior naval force of the king, who, in terrorem, hanged the crews of two of their vessels, driven ashore on the coast of Sussex. This great and admirable monarch died in 901, in the thirtieth 556 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. year of his reign, at the age of fifty- three. His name has since been proverbial as the model of a good sovereign. During his long and troubled reign, he devoted much time and attention to the encour- agement of literature and general education; he promoted com- merce, and enforced the impartial administration of justice. His memory has always been cherished with the greatest fondness by the English nation. His son Edward I. (surnamed the Elder), was chosen to succeed him, by the Witan or parliament. His reign was at first disturbed by the pretensions of Ethelwald, a son of Ethelbald, who, with the assistance of the Danes of Northumbria, maintained his claim to the throne for several years. He was finally slain in battle, and the Danes, continuing their hostilities, were defeated with immense slaughter. The supremacy of Edward gradually extended over the whole islands, even the princes of Wales and Scotland acknowledg- ing allegiance to him. He died in 925, after a successful reign of twenty-four years. Athelstane, his eldest son, by his father's will and the election of the Witan, succeeded. Shortly after his accession, the Britons of Cambria and Damnonia attempted to recover their independence, but were defeated and subdued. A formidable alliance between the northern Danes and Scots was no more successful. The Danish chiefs were compelled to fly beyond seas, and the Scottish king to renew his allegiance, and give his son as a hostage. Anlaf, one of the former, becoming master of Dublin, renewed the war, assisted by the Scots and several of the British tribes. Anlaf, in the guise of a minstrel, examined the king's camp, and a night attack was commenced by the confederates. A battle ensued, lasting all the following day, which resulted in their entire defeat, with the loss of many of their chiefs and vast numbers of their fol- lowers. After this decisive victory, the reign of Athelstane was undisturbed. He was in friendly alliance with the first princes on the continent, many of whom were connected with him by marriage or other private ties. He died in 941, and was succeeded by his brother Edmund, a youth of eighteen. After some years of contest with Anlaf, with whom he was compelled to share his sovereignty, the death of the latter enabled him to regain and extend his authority. He met his death in a manner curiously characteristic of the rudeness of the times. Seeing at his table one Leof, an out- law, the king sprang up, and attempted to eject him from the room. ENGLAND. 557 In tlie struggle, he received a mortal wound from the knife of the intruder, and died in 946, after a reign of five years. His brother Edred succeeded to the throne, and being acknowl- edged king, subdued a rebellion in ISTorthumbria, and converted it into an earldom for one of his adherents. On his death, in 955, Edwy, son of Edmund, was chosen king. His reign was brief and unhappy. Dunstan, the Abbot of Glasten- bury, a man of great talents, and enthusiastic in the cause of the church, had for some time possessed almost absolute authority with the court and nation. Perceiving his influence on the wane after the accession of Edwy, a youth of seventeen, and fond of pleasure, he sought the means of regaining his ascendancy, and in conjunc- tion with Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, compelled the king to separate from his wife Elgiva. Her face was scarred with a hot iron, and shortly afterwards she was brutally murdered by the sol- diers of Odo. Her unfortunate husband did not long survive her; and at his death, in 959, his brother Edgar, at the age of thirteen, was chosen king. Dunstan became his chief adviser, and was eleva- ted to the highest offices in the English church. Edgar, surnamed the peaceful, an unprincipled and sensual mon- arch, entered into strict league with the clergy, and reigned till 975, when he died, and was succeeded by his son Edward II. (the Mar- tyr). After a brief reign, this prince was assassinated in 978, by command of Elfrida, his step-mother, who thus procured the eleva- tion of her own son, Ethelred, to the throne. Early in his reign, the Danes renewed their ravages. The whole southern coast was devastated, and London itself was taken and plundered. The Witan, in 991, had recourse to the miserable expedient of buying them off, for which purpose a tax, called Dane- geld (Dane-money), was levied throughout the kingdom. Ten thousand pounds of silver, which they received, only served to incite them to further incursions ; and, in the following year, they renewed the war. In 993, Sweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, king of Norway, entered the Humber with a large fleet, ravaged the adjoining countries, and laid siege to London itself. Failing to take it, they laid waste the south, and only desisted on payment of a new bribe of sixteen thousand pounds. Year after year the incursions of the Northmen were renewed, and were but feebly opposed by the English. In the year 1002, twenty-four thousand pounds were paid them as the price of quiet. 558 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Soon afterwards the king and Ms assembly determined on a bold and treacherous project. On a given day, the Danes, scattered throughout the island, were every where attacked and slain without mercy by the native inhabitants. Among them was Gunhilda, the sister of Sweyn. In revenge, the Danish monarch recommenced hostilities, and for four years laid waste the southern and eastern parts of the kingdom. In 1006, a respite from plunder was pur- chased, as before, by payment of thirty thousand pounds. During two years of peace, which succeeded, great preparations for defence were made, and a large fleet was assembled at Sandwich ; but a quarrel among the leaders rendered these exertions of no effect. Soon afterwards a formidable Danish force, commanded by Thurldll, landed at Sandwich; ravaged the country far and near; and was only induced to depart, at the end of two years, by pay- ment of forty-eight thousand pounds. Their leader was also made Earl of East-Anglia, and, with a great number of his men, taken into the king's pay. All was unavailing. The next year, 1013, Sweyn appeared with a large armament, and sailed up the Humber. Joined by the Danes already in England, he overran the country. The greater part soon submitted, and Ethelred, after taking refuge in the isle of Wight, was compelled to seek an asylum, with his family, at the court of Normandy. CHAPTER I?. THE DANISH KINGS AND THE LAST OE THE SAXONS. The Danish monarch, having become master of all England, died in the following year, 1014, and the Danes chose his son Canute to fill the throne. The English resolved to recall Ethelred, who, with his son, Edmund Ironside, recommenced the war. After various indecisive movements, and the treacherous assassination of some of the Danish chiefs, Ethelred died in 1016 at London. Edmund was chosen as his successor by the Witan at London ; ENGLAND. 559 but that of "Wessex decided in favour of Canute. Hostilities were immediately commenced. The Dane took London, and after several obstinate conflicts, the kingdom, by mutual agreement, was divided between them, Edmund retaining a titular superiority. He died the same year, and the Witan, assembling at London, declared Canute king of all England. To strengthen his power, the new sovereign married Emma, the widow of Ethelred, and gave large possessions to his most dis- tinguished supporters. He was now the most powerful monarch of his age, being king of Denmark, Norway, and England, and having the homage of Sweden and Scotland. His time was principally spent in England, but he often visited his northern dominions, and successfally put down all attempts at revolt. As he grew old, his reign became mild and equitable, and he gained the affections of his new subjects. It is related that, to rebuke the flattery of his courtiers, he ordered his chair to be set upon the strand at Southampton, and commanded the advancing tide to respect the majesty of his person. As the waves reached and foamed around him, he reproved the senseless adula- tion of his flatterers, and from that time laid aside the crown, deposited it in the cathedral, and never resumed it. He died at Shaftesbury, 1G35, after a reign of eighteen years. Of his three sons, Sweyn inherited by will the kingdom of Nor- way, Harold that of England, and Hardacnute Denmark. Harold, securing the royal treasure, and supported by the Danish faction, was enabled to exclude Hardacnute, the son of Emma, on whom, by the original settlement of Canute, the crown devolved. He died in 1040, and Hardacnute was unanimously invited to ascend the throne. He reigned but two years, and died from excess at a drink- ing match in 1042. Edward (the Confessor), a son of Ethelred, was at this time in England, and Grodwin, the powerful earl of Wessex, and son-in-law of Canute, offered to secure him the crown on condition of his espousing Editha, the earl's daughter. A great council was held at London, and by the influence of Godwin, the prince was elected to the throne, and crowned at "Winchester in 1043. The odious tax of Dane-geld was abolished by him, and the valuable possessions granted to Danish favourites were resumed. The influence of God- win was paramount : his authority, and that of his sons, Sweyn and Harold, extended over all the south of Englaad and the greater part 560 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. of the kingdom. Edward, thougli compelled to acquiesce, disliked the family, and selected all his favourites from Normandy, the coun- try of his education. Numbers of these foreigners flocked over, and were advanced to high offices. Their language, the Norman French, was also adopted at court, and the people began to be jeal- ous of the ascendancy which this more polished race was acquiring. Open hostilities commenced with an affray in Dover, caused by the insolence of the foreigners ; and Godwin, with his sons, espoused the cause of the English. They were, however, obliged to flee into exile, and sentence of outlawry was passed against them. Their possessions were allotted to others, and the king's authority was completely established. At this time his cousin William, duke of Normandy, paid a visit to the English court, and perhaps first entertained his ambitious designs upon the kingdom. In 1052, the exiled family of Godwin made a vigorous movement to recover their power. Harold raised forces in Ireland, and his father, with a large fleet from Flanders, appeared on the south coast. The people declared in their favour, and, uniting their forces, they marched to London. The king was compelled to yield. The Witan-gemot was assembled ; all their honours and possessions were restored, and the foreigners were mostly compelled to quit the king- dom. The death of Godwin, which occurred not long after, increased the power and influence of his successor Harold. At this time, the interference of England was solicited by Mal- colm, the rightful heir to the Scottish throne. His father, Duncan, had been treacherously murdered by Macbeth, one of his officers, who usurped the crown. The prince claimed the protection of Edward, as his liege lord, and an army was despatched to his assist- ance, under Earl Siward, who defeated and slew the usurper, and in 1054 placed Malcolm on the throne. The king, who had intended to appoint his nephew Edward to the succession, was disappointed by his sudden death ; and it is said that he made a will, appointing William of Normandy heir to the kingdom. Harold having fallen into the hands of a lawless baron on the coast of Ponthieu, was, by order of William, released, and sent to the court of Normandy. On this occasion, the latter informed him of his aspirations to the crown, and Harold, seeing himself in the duke's power, took an oath to support his pretensions. Edward having rebuilt and consecrated Westminster Abbey, died, and was buried there in 1065, having reigned twenty-three years. ENGLAND. 561 His character was weak and feeble, better suited for a cloister than a throne. The comparative peacefulness and tranquillity of his reign, however, and the equitable laws which then prevailed, caused the people often to recall his memory with regret, in later and more tyrannical times. On the day of his funeral, Harold was crowned without opposi- tion, having, it is said, obtained from the king, on his death-bed, a nomination as successor. The news reached William while hunting at Eouen, and the bow dropped from his hand. By advice of his barons he summoned Harold to resign the crown. This being promptly refused, the duke convened a general parliament of his nobles and dependants at Lillebonne. Though not obliged by their tenures to accompany him beyond seas, they agreed to attempt the conquest of England, and many warlike leaders from the adjoining countries flocked to his standard. The Pope also espoused his cause, and sent him a consecrated banner and a hair of St. Peter. Meanwhile, Harold was engaged in conflict with his ferocious and gigantic namesake, Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, who had landed in England, and defeated the forces sent to oppose him. The English monarch, before joining battle, offered his brother Tosti, who was with the enemy, an earldom and other honours. It being demanded what he would give to the king of Norway, Har- old replied, "Seven feet of English earth, or, as he is a giant, per- haps a little more." Tosti and Hardrada were slain, and their army was completely defeated. Immediately afterwards, came tidings of the invasion of William, who landed with a force of sixty thousand men at Pevensey, on the 28th of September, 1066. The king hastened to London, in six days assembled a large force, and marched against the invaders. On the 15th of October the two armies engaged at a place called Senlac (now Battle), about eight miles inland of Hastings. The English stood on the defensive, the king fighting on foot beneath the royal banner, and all his nobles following his example. The Normans advanced to the attack, preceded by the papal flag, and led by William, who bore around his neck a number of the ghastly relics upon which Harold lately had sworn to support his claim. A Norman knight, named Taillefer, rode in front of the army, tossing his sword in the air, and singing the song of the hero Roland. He slew two of the English, but fell by the hand of a third. The Normans discharged their arrows, and then closed in 86 562 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. action. Their cavalry was twice driven back, and they were unable to break the compact masses of the English. By enticing a portion of the defenders into a pursuit, William was enabled to cut them oif. The archery still continued to pour a flight of arrows upon their crowded ranks ; and one of these entering the eye of Harold, decided the day. The king was slain, and his army utterly routed. The victors in this obstinate contest lost a fourth of their number ; the loss of the English, as well as their original number, is unknown. At the time of this important event, the Anglo-Saxons, politically speaking, were possessed of a tolerable share of freedom and liberal institutions, though strongly tinctured with the barbarism of the age. They were divided into several distinct classes. First, the nobility, called Eorls (earls), composed of the lords and gentry; second, the Ceorles (carles), who owned or cultivated the ground, and held it by payment of certain dues, or the performance of cer- tain services to the lords ; and thirdly, the Theowes, or slaves, who were the absolute property of their masters. Slavery and the slave- trade appear to have prevailed in England from an early period. The country was divided into Townships, Hundreds, and Shires, much as it is at present; and regular jurisdiction belonged to each of these divisions. The clergy constituted a portion of all the higher courts. The Witana-gemot was the great council or parlia- ment of the kingdom, and sat thrice a year. The king in person presided, and next to him sat the bishops, abbots, and other clergy ; beneath these the Welch and Scottish princes, and lower still the ealdorTuen, or chief men of the shires, and the landholders. In this grand council all laws were made, taxes imposed, and state offend- ers tried. It also had power to choose a successor to the crown from any of the royal line. In the several lower courts, were tried various crimes and misde- meanours. Treason, robbery, murder, and some other offences were punished with death. Homicide might be paid for at a given rate, according to the rank of the individual slain — that of a ceorl being two hundred shillings, and of a lord twelve hundred. The oath of the latter was also held equal to six of the former. The trial by ordeal of fire or water was common ; the defendant's innocence being presumed if he escaped unhurt, and vice versa. Something slightly resembling the trial by jury also prevailed. The feudal principle existed to a certain extent ; and the greater part of the royal revenues was derived from the dues and tributes ENGLAND. 553 of those holding lands and titles under the king. All real estate was also held liable for the repair of roads and bridges, the main- tenance of fortresses, and the furnishing men for the defence of the kingdom. The clergy enjoyed high consideration; having a place ex officio in the various courts and councils. A bishop ranked with an earl ; and the oath of a priest was held equal to that of an hundred and twenty ceorles. In her doctrines and ceremonies, the Anglo-Saxon church closely followed that of Eome. GHAPTEE 7. WILLIAM I., WILLIAM II., AND HENRY I. After ravaging the coast and burning Dover, the Duke of Normandy directed his march toward London. Kesistance seemed hopeless ; disunion prevailed in the various parties of the English ; and the chief persons among the clergy and laity entered his camp, and made their submission. He was crowned on the 25th of December, at Westminster Abbey, in the midst of a contest between his followers and the English, which left the church almost empty. William, hereafter called the Conqueror, displayed at first a strong desire to conciliate his new subjects; and commenced his reign with many liberal and judicious measures. He confiscated, however, the estates of those who had fought against him at Hastings, and his followers, who received them, erected castles, and secured them with Norman garrisons. Having settled affairs for a time, he returned to Normandy, astonishing his subjects by the splendour of his spoils, and richly endowing his favourite monasteries. The Pope, also, was liberally remembered. Meanwhile, his officers and followers in England, by their oppres- sion, were driving the people to a desperate resistance. In some parts the Normans were expelled fi.^om their possessions, and a general revolt was meditated. William returned in haste, concili- ated the principal persons of the realm, and reduced the revolted 564: THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. provinces hj arms. The conquered country was divided among his followers. A second and formidable scheme of insurrection was also sup- pressed; and the Conqueror burned, plundered, and massacred throughout many of the fairest portions of England. An attempt headed by the sons of Harold was in like manner defeated. A more troublesome enemy was found in Sweyn, king of Denmark, who sent his brother and two sons, with two hundred and forty ves- sels, to the assistance of the English. William, however, by bribery finally induced them to depart, and then took the most savage revenge upon the revolted provinces, leaving them a perfect desert. Famine ensued, and more than a hundred thousand persons perished. A few desperate men still continued their resistance for a while longer, but were finally defeated, and mostly slain. Having reduced the kingdom to entire subjection, William entered Scotland, and received the homage of King Malcolm; thence passing over to the continent, he plundered and subdued the province of Maine. While thus absent, in 1075, a new insurrec- tion, headed by Norman nobles, broke out in England. It was, how- ever, suppressed without much difficulty, and the king took occasion to behead the last earl of English blood who still retained the title. His own family now began to give the monarch great uneasiness. Eobert, his eldest son, discontented because Normandy was not granted him, set the king's authority at defiance, and intrenched himself in a castle of that province. The king besieged him, and one day, in a sally, was unhorsed and wounded by his own son, who, however, soon went into voluntary exile. The bishop of Durham, a foreigner, had oppressed the people intolerably ; and, refusing redress, was set upon by his flock, and slain, with many of his people. The insurrection extended; but Odo, bishop of Bayeux, the king's brother, marched with an army into the disaffected region, pillaging and slaughtering the malcon- tents. His own fall, however, was at hand. While endeavouring to secure the papacy, he was seized and imprisoned by William, who dreaded his ambitious projects. In 1085, the kings of Norway and Denmark prepared a great fleet and army to effect the liberation of England from the foreign yoke. The Conqueror also enlisted a vast force, principally foreign merce- naries; but from various causes (among them, liberal bribery by William) the northern armament never sailed for England. ENGLAND. 555 In 1087 tlie king quitted England, amid the curses of liis people. "While at Eouen, lie was greatly enraged at a joke made by the king of France upon his corpulency, and immediately commenced hostili- ties against that monarch, burning and destroying the country before him. While galloping through the embers of the town of Mantes, which he had burned, his horse started, and injured him danger- ously. Being conveyed to a neighbouring monastery, he languished six weeks, and then died ; his last acts showing deep remorse for the cruelty and violence which he had exercised. He left, by will, Normandy to his son Eobert, England to William, and five thousand pounds to his third son, Henry. At his death, all persons present hurried off to secure their own interests ; the house was plundered ; and the corpse lay for some time almost naked on the floor. When it was about to be interred in the church at Caen, which he had built, the owner of the land, whom he had despoiled of it, forbade the burial until he received the price of the grave. This monarch, who effected such an entire change in the affairs of England, was a man of consummate ability, but cruel, avaricious, and selfish in the extreme. His personal strength and courage were great ; and he especially delighted in hunting, for which amusement (in addition to sixty-eight royal parks) he laid waste a tract of thirty square miles in Hampshire, called the New Forest, burning all habitations, and expelling the people. With good policy, he conciliated the clergy, and secured their support by frequent and liberal grants and constant patronage. In the latter part of his reign, the celebrated survey was made, and recorded in the "Domesday Book," of all the landed property and its holders in the realm. The internal regulations for the pre- servation of peace and property (except where the king himself was concerned) were severe, and tolerably efficient. William 11. (Rufus, the Red), on arriving at England, hastened to secure the treasures and the strongholds. He was crowned at Westminster on the 26th of September. Odo, indeed, and others of the Anglo-Norman nobles, declared in favour of Robert, as the rightful heir ; but William, to conciliate the English in his favour, made many fair promises of reform, and thus raising an army, was enabled to put down the discontented faction. No amelioration of the people's condition, however, was granted. In 1091 he attempted the conquest of Normandy, then held by Robert; but having come to an agreement, the two brothers turned 566 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY, their arms against Henry, whom they compelled to surrender his fortress, and betake himself into exile. Meanwhile, Malcolm had made an incursion into England; but on the return of William was compelled to renew his homage, and in 1093, making a new irruption, was slain in a skirmish. A fresh attempt on Normandy, an invasion of the Welsh, and a revolt of some of his own barons, furnished further employment to the king for his arms and policy. At this time, Peter the Hermit had infected all Europe with the fanatical and enthusiastic design of recovering the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the Turks. Eobert, a brave soldier, and eager to distinguish himself in this new contest, assumed the cross ; and, to raise money for the expedition, agreed to yield his duchy to Wil- liam, for five years, for the sum of ten thousand marks. William almost stripped the kingdom to raise it, and in 1096 took posses- sion of the province. In the latter part of his reign, the king was engaged in disputes with the clergy, similar to those which proved so troublesome to his successors. In the year 1099, on the 2d of August, he went hunting in the New Forest, and in the evening was found lying dead, with an arrow through his breast. This deed has been attrib- uted to Walter Tyrrel, a French knight, but without sufficient proof. The perpetrator and the motive are alike unknown. The king died in the twelfth year of his reign, leaving a character for ability and unscrupulousness much resembling that of his father. His brother, Henry I., having hastened to secure the treasure, was crowned on the 5th, three days afterwards. He made conciliatory promises to the clergy, barons, and people ; and, to secure the English interest, married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and of Margaret, a kinswoman of King Edward's. Eobert, returning from the Holy Land, took possession of his duchy of Normandy, and with a large force landed at Portsmouth, to contest the possession of England. By mediation of some of the principal men, however, he resigned his claim for a pension of three thousand marks which, however, in 1103, he was obliged to relin- quish, having imprudently trusted his person into the hands of his brother. Henry, pursuing his ambitious and unnatural career, landed in Normandy, in 1105, with a great force, and, after an indecisive campaign, totally defeated Eobert and his army with great slaugh- ENGLAND. 567 ter. All Kormandy became his, and his unfortunate brother was kept close prisoner till his death — a period of thirty years. In 1120 the king sustained a severe shock in the loss of his eldest son "William, who was drowned in crossing the straits. After hear- ing the news, he is said never to have smiled again. For some time he had been disturbed by the hostile pretensions of William, son of Eobert, assisted by the king of France and other princes; but his death in a battle at last removed this cause of uneasiness. Having no male heir, the succession was settled upon his daughter Matilda, the widow of the Emperor Henry V., and now married to Geoffrey of Anjou. The latter part of his reign was spent in Normandy, where he died on the 1st of December, 1135, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. This prince (called Beauclerc, from his love of letters) possessed the abilities and faults of his two predecessors. Justice, however, was rigidly executed. The forest laws were even more severe than under the Williams — the killing of a stag being made equal to that of a man. CHAPTER ?I. STEPHEN, AND HENRY II. Stephen, a grandson of the Conqueror by his daughter Adela and the count of Blois, resolved, on the death of Henry, to make a bold attempt upon the crown. Passing into England, where he was very popular, he seized the treasure (as usual), and, by procuring a person to swear that he had been named heir to the throne by the king on his death-bed, gained over the primate to crown him at Westminster on the 22d of December. The barons, taking advantage of the weakness of the new gov- ernment, began to act the part of petty tyrants throughout the country. Fortified castles arose on every side, and the unhappy peasants and citizens were most cruelly plundered and oppressed. Few atrocities can exceed the tortures, murders, and outrages of every kind, which for many years rendered England one of the most miserable countries on earth. 568 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The king found his throne by no means an easy one. Eevolts and Scottish incursions followed each other in rapid succession. Hardly had he surmounted these difficulties, when in 1141 Matilda, with her natural brother, Kobert, landed in Sussex, and was joined by many barons and knights. After various battles and skirmishes, the king was defeated and made prisoner near Lincoln, and Matilda was proclaimed queen of England. Such was her haughty and ungracious temper, that the Londoners and others speedily revolted ; Eobert was seized ; and Stephen, by exchange for him, regained his liberty. After the war had been protracted for some years longer, the death of Eobert so discouraged the empress, that in 1147 she withdrew into Normandy. Hostili- ties ceased for two years, but in 1150 her son Henry, passing through the kingdom to Scotland, reanimated the hopes of her faction. Having come into possession of Normandy, he passed over into England, in 1152, to support his adherents. After some hostile manoeuvres, it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown dur- ing his life, and that Henry should succeed him. The king died in the following year, on the 25th of October, after an unquiet reign of nineteen years. Though a usurper, he possessed many admirable qualities, and would probably, under more fortunate circumstances, have made a good king. It may be remarked that the Norman conquest had made but little difference in the laws of England, or in the constitution of courts. The principal changes were the transfer of nearly all the landed estate to the new comers; the enlargement of the feudal system ; the change in the church government ; and the separation of the spiritual from the civil jurisdiction. The feudal system, the origin of which has been variously deduced from the Eoman and Celtic customs, was of a complicated and extended nature; but, in general, the effect was to render all land- holders dependent upon the higher classes, and make them liable to service in war, and various duties in time of peace. The great baron holding lands of the king, received the feudal homage of his knights, and they, in their turn, of the yeomen and others who held under them. The church of Eome had gradually been acquiring an ascendancy over all others, and in her various contests with the continental powers, had usually kept the advantage. In England, as well as elsewhere, she had gained a paramount influence, and interfered Scotch Costume, OF iHE SEVENU'EF.NTU CENTURY li'iaii Costume, IN THE REIRN OF JAMES 1 JiigQiand Ba.gpipei bL:on;ii Costuuje, OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY L'os"cunie of Ancient Britons, TIME OF WILLIAM THE CONQtTERO'R. ingiisJi Costume, OF THE FOHRTEEISTH CENTU'-iY iijngiisn Costume, IN THE TIME OF HKNRT Till Irisii Costume, OF THE TWELFTH CENTtlRY ENGLAND. 569 actively witli the royal authority. This power was greatly aug- mented by the privilege accorded to the clergy by William I., of being invariably tried before their brethren ; an arrangement which rendered them almost irresponsible for crime. The courts remained almost unchanged. The highest of these, called the King's Court, attended his person, and was composed of the chancellor, treasurer, justiciary, and other high officers. Ordeals still remained in use, and tlie equally absurd wager of battel, or a trial by arms, was introduced. The royal revenues were derived from every variety of sources. Tolls, permission to trade, fines, forfeitures, right of trial, plunder of Jews, &c., &c., were a few of the regular sources of the royal income. Henry II, (Plantagenet), at the age of twenty-one, ascended the throne without opposition. Besides England, he had inherited from his parents and gained by marriage nearly a third of France. He immediately commenced a reformation of the existing abuses; expelled the mercenaries from the kingdom; purified the coin; resumed the possession of the royal castles; and caused the demo- lition of those which had been erected by the nobles. In 1156 he compelled his brother Geoffrey to resign his pretensions to Anjou and Maine, which he had invaded. He afterwards gained further accessions to his territory in France, got possession of Brittany, and attempted to hold Toulouse. The king next turned his attention to repressing the excesses of the clergy, among whom murders and other crimes, being unpun- ished, had become horribly frequent. To effect this, it was neces- sary to appoint some one to the primacy on whose support he could depend. Thomas a Becket, the offspring (it is said) of a romantic union between a Londoner and the daughter of a Saracen emir, was one of the most able and ambitious men of his time. Though edu- cated for the church, he had filled many important civil offices. Appointed high-chancellor, he greatly distinguished himself by his policy, his valour and generalship, and by the magnificence of his household. Henry supposed that he could confidently rely on his support, and in 1162 appointed him archbishop of Canterbury, the head of the English church. But no sooner was he installed in his new office, than his conduct entirely changed. He relinquished all his splendour; lived as an ascetic; and became the most strenuous sup- porter of the claims of the church. The king found himself opposed 570 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. and baffled at every turn by the able and enthusiastic prelate. At a great council, however, held at Clarendon, in 1164, many amend- ments were made in the existing system, and provision was made for the trial of ecclesiastics in the civil courts. Conflicts between the crown and mitre still continued, and Becket, finding the king too powerful for him, left the kingdom in disguise, and passed over into Flanders. Protected by the Pope and Loiiis of France, he continued his haughty tone, and excommunicated all who had been concerned in the council of Clarendon. In 1170, by the mediation of Louis, an apparent reconciliation took place; and Becket returned to resume his former position. His obstinate and factious disposition, however, produced fresh troubles. The king, highly excited at his attacks, one day exclaimed: "Of the cowards who eat my bread, is there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest?" Four of his barons, hearing these words, secretly left the court, and hastened to Canterbury, where the primate was performing religious ceremonies and denouncing his enemies. They entered his room, attended by twelve knights, and required him to revoke the excommunication which he had lately pronounced on the king's partisans. This he obstinately refused to do; and soon after, following him into the church, the assassins despatched him wdth repeated blows before the altar. He died in his fifty-third year, a martj^r to the cause of fanati- cism, pride, and usurpation. He was canonized by the church, and his shrine at Canterbury was, for many centuries afterwards, the favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of the island. Meanwhile, some of Henry's adventurous subjects were laying the foundation of a new sovereignty in Ireland. The Irish, a Christian- ized but barbarous people, were, in the twelfth century, not much advanced beyond the Britons of the time of Caesar. The North- men, superior to these rude tribes, had founded some towns on the coast, and commenced a foreign intercourse. In the beginning of Henry's reign, the Pope, an Englishman, had authorized him, by a bull, to invade and take possession of the island. It was at this time divided into five kingdoms — Desmond, Thomond, Connaught, Ulster, and Leinster. Dermot MacMorrough, king of Leinster, having carried off the wife of a chieftain, was compelled by the others to fly from the island. He took refiige with Henry at Guienne, in 1167, and offered to hold his kingdom in vassalage, if the king would restore him. The English sovereign authorized him to enlist his THE HUKDKK (;F THOl/IAS A EECSET, A«fH Jil.-ji:10i' OF OA-NTrtiBD :tY "Thk four assassins proceeded iu great haste to tiae archiejiiscopai pala.cs They found tue primate, who trusted entirely to the sacrcdness of his char- acter, very slenderly attended; and though they threw^ out many menaces and reproaches against him, he was so incapable of fear, that, "without using any precautions against their violence, he inamcdiately went to St. Benedict's Church to hear vespers. They followed him thither, attacked him Leiore the altar, and having cloven his head with naany blows, retired without naeetin.g any opposition This was the tragical end of Thomas a Becket, a prela.te of the most lofty, intrepid, and inflexible spirit, who was able to cover to the world, and probably ■CO himself, the enterprises oi' pride and ambition, under the disguise of sanctity, and of zeal for the interests of i^eligion. "■ — Hdmf.'s History of Ent-lasd ENGLAND. 571 subjects in the cause, and in 1169, witli a small force of desperate adventurers, he landed in Ireland. Unable to resist the superior arms and skill of their Norman invaders, the Irish were defeated; and Dermot, unsatisfied with the recovery of his own kingdom, invited over the earl of Pembroke, called Strongbow, who married his daughter, and made further conquests. Dermot dying. Strong- bow succeeded to his throne, and aimed at the conquest of all Ireland. He defeated Eoderic, king of Connaught, the lord paramount of the island, with great slaughter ; and Henry, fearing the formation of an independent kingdom, resolved to pass over into Ireland in person. With a fleet of four hundred sail, he landed near Waterford in 1172, and received the submission of almost the entire nation. In a great council at Dublin, attended by the Irish princes, he settled the state, and the following year returned, leaving Hugh de Lucy chief justice, and permitting Strongbow to retain a great part of his possessions. Though the conquerors were spread throughout the island, the two races never coalesced, and for several centuries Ireland presented a miserable spectacle of oppression, anarchy, and civil war. After these successes, the king received absolution for the death of Becket from the Pope, who for some time had been holding an excommunication over his head. From this time, family dissensions rendered his life an unhappy one. His sons, Henry, Eichard, and Geoffrey, on whom England and the French provinces had been settled, demanded that they should be put in possession of their territories ; and, on his refusal, fled to the court of Louis, and organ- ized an extensive confederacy against him. The kings of France and Scotland, and the earls of Flanders, Blois, and Boulogne, moved by ambition and jealousy, all supported the impudent demands of these undutiful princes. The king prepared for resistance ; he induced the Pope to excom- municate his enemies, and hired twenty thousand mercenaries to augment his forces. Normandy was the scene of conflict, and after some indecisive actions, the unfortunate king offered to surrender to his sons half the revenues of the kingdoms they demanded. This negotiation being broken off, he returned to England, where Eichard de Lucy, guardian of the kingdom, was defending it bravely against revolt and Scottish invasion. The king, proceeding to the shrine of Becket, declared his innocence of the saint's death, and submitted to a flagellation by the monks. News immediately came that the king of Scots, who, with eighty thousand men, had again 572 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. invaded England, was defeated and taken prisoner on that very- day' — a proof, as it was supposed, of th.e king's reconciliation witli the heavenly powers. Eeturning to Normandy, he recommenced the contest, and finally the princes were compelled to accept terms far less advantageous than those which he had offered at first. The king of Scotland also was obliged to acknowledge Henry as his feudal lord, and to yield up the strong fortresses of Berwick and Eoxburgh (1175). In 1183, the princes renewed their contests with the king and with each other; but the death of Henry and Geofirey ended these dif&culties. In 1188, Richard, assisted by the king of France, again revolted, and the unhappy old monarch, defeated and disappointed every where, was compelled to yield to his unreasonable demands. His youngest and favourite son, John, for whom he had destined the kingdom of Ireland, had also joined the conspiracy against him. The king did not long survive these misfortunes, but died of a lingering fever on the 6th of July, 1189, refusing to revoke the malediction which he had pronounced against his undutiful children. With Henry, who possessed no ordinary legislative talents, origin- ated the present English system of common law and of circuit courts. Trial by jury was also partially developed, though the absurd ordeals and wagers of battel still continued to be used. CHAPTER 7IL EICHAED I., JOHN, AND HENRY III. Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), the eldest surviving son of the late monarch, was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on the 3d of Sep- tember, 1189, in the midst of an outrageous riot directed against the Jews, who were every where plundered and murdered through- out the city. A new crusade had been for some time in progress ; and Richard, burning for martial glory, assumed the cross. He raised money for ENGLAND. 573 the expedition by every possible expedient, even surrendering Ber- , wick and Koxburgb to the Scottish king ; and answered to those who remonstrated, that he would sell the city of London, if he could find a purchaser. Having appointed governors for the kingdom, and loaded his brother John with titles and possessions, he departed for Palestine. Just before this, however, the fierce Crusaders made a fresh attack upon the unfortunate Jews, great numbers of whom were massacred throughout the kingdom. During the sixteen months which he spent in the East, Richard acquired the highest renown by his valour and exploits against the Saracens. Unable, however, from the defection of his allies, to gain possession of Jerusalem, he made a treaty with Saladin, the chiv- alrous sultan of Egypt and Syria, and in 1192 embarked from Acre. Meanwhile, great disorders prevailed in England. The bishops of Durham and Ely, who had been left in charge of the kingdom, disagreed, and the former was imprisoned by the latter, who assumed the most regal state and authority. Philip of France invaded Nor- mandy, and subdued a portion of it; and John, giving out that his brother was dead, attempted to seize the throne for himself. The king, while travelling through Germany, had been treacher- ously seized and imprisoned by the archduke of Austria; and his place of confinement was for a long time unknown. At length his captors agreed to release him for a ransom of an hundred thousand marks ; and after more than a year's captivity, he regained his king- dom. On learning of his liberation, Philip wrote to John in these words: "Take heed to yourself, for the devil is unchained." After being recrowned, (to efface the stain of captivity,) Richard set out for the continent, to defend his dominions from the king of France. His brother John, with characteristic treachery, massacred the French officers and garrison of Evreux, where he was staying; and then seeking his brother, obtained pardon for his former treasons. The war was continued, with brief intermissions, until the death of Richard, which occurred in 1199. While besieging the castle of Chaluz, whose owner had refused to surrender an accidentally-dis- covered treasure, he was wounded by a bolt from a cross-bow. The injury proved mortal, and Richard, having expressed much peni- tence, and at his own desire undergone a severe flagellation from the clergy, expired in the forty-second year of his age ; leaving a lasting reputation for courage, rashness, and violence. 574 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. Thougli Arthur, duke of Brittany, and son of Geoffrey, was tlie next lieir to tlie throne, Eichard bequeathed it to his brother John; who secured the treasure, as usual, and, after some hesitation, Avas crowned at Westminster. Arthur, supported by Phihp, at first maintained his own pretensions; but being abandoned by him, was obliged to relinquish them, and do homage for Brittany to his uncle. In 1202, Arthur, supported by Philip, whose daughter he had married, again laid claim to the French provinces ; but was defeated, imprisoned, and finally assassinated in secret, probably by the hand of John himself Philip continued hostilities, and, aided by the uni- versal horror occasioned by this crime, succeeded in wresting from John all his continental domains, except Guienne. The weak and cruel monarch was next involved in a quarrel with Pope Innocent III., arising out of a private ecclesiastical dispute between certain monks. Refusing to submit, his kingdom was laid under an interdict, which he revenged by despoiling the clergy and imprisoning their concubines until large sums were paid for their ransom. He sought aid from the emperor of Morocco, and even offered to turn Mahometan, if he would assist him against the PojDe. The latter, in 1209, next tried an excommunication, and finally issued a sentence of deposition against him, the execution of which he intrusted to Philip, promising the crown of England and the forgiveness of his sins as the reward. Great preparations were made by both princes; but just as the war was about to commence, John, infinitely to the disappointment of Philip, made a mean submission to the Pope, surrendering all his possessions to him and to his successors, and agreeing to hold them by annual payment of a thousand marks. The clerg}^, more- over, brought in an immense bill for damages, which he was compelled to satisfy. Fresh troubles awaited him. The barons, headed by the primate Langton, after vainly demanding pledges for the future reform of abuses, assembled a force, and made war upon the king. John, finding the whole kingdom arrayed against him, was com- pelled to accede to their demands; and on the 19th of June, 1215, at Runnymead, signed what is called "The Great Charter," the most important instrument in English histor}^ By this celebrated writing, the rights of the church and nobility were defined and secured; the cities were assured their ancient privileges, and exemption from arbitrary taxation; foreign merchants were protected; and it was ENGLAND. 575 provided that no man should be imprisoned or outlawed, except "by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land." Other important matters were also settled. The benefits which have been derived from Magna Charta, the foundation of the British constitu- tion, are almost incalculable. It was the first and most prominent of a long series of patriotic measures, defining and securing the liberty of the subject against arbitrary power. John, whose rage at this compulsion had been indescribable, prepared for revenge. He enlisted great numbers of foreign merce- naries; the Pope absolved him from his oath, and excommunicated his enemies, declaring them to be worse than Saracens. He marched through the northern counties and part of Scotland, ravaging, burn- ing, and murdering all before him, while the earl of Salisbury did the same in the east. The barons applied for aid to France, and Prince Louis, with six hundred and eighty vessels, landed at Sand- wich. The afflicted nation was, however, spared further hostilities by the death of John, which occurred shortly after, in 1216, in the forty-ninth year of his age. He died of a surfeit, leaving a charac- ter unsurpassed for meanness, cruelty, and treachery. Henry HI., his' son, was but ten years of age when crowned, and the earl of Pembroke, a man of great worth, talent, and energy, was appointed "governor of the king and kingdom." The Great Charter was confirmed, and Louis, who still attempted to gain the throne, was defeated, and compelled to leave the kingdom. Pem- broke dying in 1219, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, contrived to engross all power into his own hands for several years ; but was finally deposed and imprisoned. Peter des Eoches, a Poitevin, bishop of Winchester, succeeded him in the royal favour; but, filling all offices with his own countrymen, was overthrown and banished by the archbishop of Canterbury. The king made two attempts, in 1230 and in 1242, to regain his French domains, but unsuccessfully, and at last formally renounced them. Henry, a feeble-minded prince, relied almost entirely on the Pope, who, in his turn, contrived, under various pretexts, to drain the kingdom yearly of immense sums of money. The barons, indignant at the large amounts sent out of the country, on one occasion, in 1243, made a demand for fresh security against misapplication of sup- plies; and, in 1248, absolutely refused to grant him any whatever. At length, Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and other great barons of the realm, formed a fresh confederacy to limit the royal 576 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. authority. The king was compelled to submit, and a grand council was held at Oxford on the 11th of June, 1258. This assembly took all power into its own hands, and enacted many resolutions limiting the royal prerogative. The barons, however, became so unpopular, that in 1261 the king resumed his full authority, and reappointed the principal officers of the kingdom, who had been displaced by the council. In 1263 Leicester, who had gone to France, returned, and reorgan- ized the confederacy. They took up arms, and once more compelled the king to resign his resumed authority. He, however, took the field again, and after farther engagements, the questions in dispute were submitted to the arbitration of the king of France (1264). This being in favour of the king, the barons refused to abide by it, and resumed their arms. The king, supported by many of the great families in Scotland and the north of England, assembled an army, and a bloody engagement took place at Lewes, in which. the king's party were entirely defeated. Five thousand are said to have fallen on either side. Leicester was now the actual ruler of the kingdom, and used his power with great tyranny and rapacity. He carried the king about with him, treating him with a semblance of respect, and using his name and authority to fortify his own acts. The year 1265 is memorable for the foundation of the British Parliament. The Grand Council had hitherto consisted only of the barons, prelates, and tenants of the crown; but Leicester, on this occasion, (probably to secure a majority of supporters,) directed the election of "two knights for each county, two citizens for each city, and two burgesses for each borough," thus for the first time establishing the principle of representation from the people. The king and Prince Edward were still kept in custody ; but the latter, while riding out with his attendants, escaped on a fleet horse, and, assisted by the earl of Gloucester and other barons, commenced hostilities against Leicester. In a great battle which ensued at Evesham, the old king, cased in armour, was placed by Leicester in the front rank; and being unhorsed and wounded, cried out, "I am Henry of Winchester." The prince, hearing his voice, ran to his assistance, and conveyed him to a place of safety. Leicester and his son were slain ; and their army was utterly defeated. The memory of Leicester was long cherished by the people, who showed their estimate of his character by the title of "Sir Simon the Eighteous." ENGLAND. 577 The power of the confederate barons was completely broken ; and the royalists, following up their advantage, under Prince Edward, reduced all disaffected parts of the kingdom to submission. The prince then sailed for Palestine to join the Crusaders; and during his absence the king died, November 20th, 1272, in the sixty-fourth year of his age and the fifty-sixth of his reign. His character was not marked by any distinguishing traits; and his long reign offers few incidents of personal interest. During his time, the trial by ordeal was abolished, and a stand was commenced against the encroachments of the Church. uitiiiiirxiiiiri viiio EDWARD I., EDWARD II., AND EDWARD III. Prince Edward, with a small force, had sustained the fame of Coeur de Lion in the East ; but, overpowered by numbers, was com- pelled to make a treaty of peace. On his way home, he learned of the death of his father, and after remaining a year in Gruienne, set- tling disturbances, he reached his kingdom, and was crowned, at the age of thirty-six. His first enterprise was against Llewellyn, prince of Wales, who had joined the barons in the late rebellion, and who now refused to appear and do homage to the crown. In 1277, the king entered his country with an army, while his fleet commanded the coast, and Llewellyn, imprisoned in the barren regions of Snowden, was com- pelled to submit, upon severe terms. These, however, the king remitted, and thinking the subjugation of Wales complete, retired. Soon after, the Welsh, impatient of the English laws, and encour- aged by a prophecy of the enchanter Merlin, again revolted throughout the country, and Edward hastened to the scene of action. After meeting some reverses, he again defeated them; Llewellyn was slain; and the other chiefs made their submission. The king remained more than a year in Wales, erecting fortresses, and establishing the English system of government. The queen, 37 578 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. at this time, gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Edward, to conciliate his new subjects, declared to be "Prince of "Wales," a title which has ever since been borne by the heir-apparent to the British throne. After some years, spent in domestic legislation and on the conti- nent, the affairs of Scotland attracted his attention, and employed the remainder of his reign. In 1286, Alexander III. had died; and the "Maid of Norway," his grand-daughter, was the next in succession. She was betrothed to the son of Edward, but dying in 1290, no less than thirteen pre- tenders to the throne started up. To avoid an appeal to arms, it was determined by the barons, in 1291, to refer the decision to the king of England. He readily accepted the office of arbitrator, and advanced with a large army to the frontier. Before making his award, however, he first required that they should acknowledge his right as feudal lord of Scotland. After some hesitation, the various parties interested signed an instrument to that effect, and all the royal castles and for- tresses were put into the hands of Edward. After examining the various claims, he pronounced judgment in favour of John Baliol, a descendant of the royal line, and, restoring the fortresses into his hands, gave him complete possession of the kingdom. The king of England soon found himself engaged in hostilities with France ; but ere he quitted the kingdom, difficulties in Wales and Scotland induced him to remain. The first he effectually sub- dued, and, Baliol refusing to acknowledge his sovereignty, he marched with a large army to the frontiers of the latter in 1296. The Scots, to draw him away, made an inroad into Cumberland; but, disre- garding this, he attacked Berwick, carried it by assault, and put its garrison of seven thousand men to the sword. Warrenne, earl of Surrey, also gained a great victory at Dunbar, leaving ten thousand of the Scots dead upon the field. The whole kingdom now submit- ted, and Baliol in person made a formal surrender of his kingdom. Edward marched through the country, held a parliament, received the homage of the nation, and returned to England; leaving War- renne guardian of the kingdom, and filling the principal offices with Englishmen. Baliol was taken in honourable captivity to London. The king then crossed the sea with a large army, and, without much hostility, a treaty was concluded, by which Guienne was restored, and he married a sister of the French monarch. ENGLAND. 579 Meanwliile, a fresli insvirrection broke out in Scotland, lieaded by William Wallace, a man of gigantic stature, and of great courage and patriotism. His successes increased his ranks ; and some of the most eminent persons in Scotland joined his standard. Bj Edward's orders, Warrenne, who had left the country, raised a large army, and advanced to Stirling. Nearly all the chiefs hastened to make sub- mission ; but Wallace and Moray, with a large force, engaged the English earl at Cambuskenneth, defeated him with great slaughter, and compelled him to withdraw into England. They followed up their advantage by ravaging the northern counties of the enemy. The brave Wallace was made guardian of the kingdom, and summoned a parliament. But his success, though brilliant, was transitory. Edward returned, and in 1298 invaded Scotland with a force of eighty seven thousand men. In a great battle at Falkirk, the Scots were entirely routed, with a loss, at the lowest computation, of fifteen thousand men. Wallace escaped, but found himself des- titute of means to make an effectual resistance. The country was again partially conquered, and in 1301, the Pope having interfered in behalf of Scotland, a truce was made for a time, while the questions in issue were debated. In 1303, Edward determined on the final reduction of the kingdom, and despatched an army of twenty thousand men, which, however, was defeated. The king then marched with a force too great to be resisted, and overran the country. Comyn, the guardian of the kingdom, and the nobles submitted, Wallace alone -still resisted, but being treacherously betrayed, was carried to London, tried, and executed, on a fictitious charge of treason. The memory of this champion has always been exceedingly dear to the Scottish nation, and many remarkable stories are related of his strength and courage. In the next year, 1305, the various places of trust were divided between the natives and the English ; the Scottish laws were allowed, and Edward supposed his conquest finally secured. But in four months, the Scots again rose in insurrection, having for their leader Eobert Bruce, a descendant of the royal line of Scotland. He was crowned at Scone, but was soon defeated, and compelled to take refage in the Isle of Eathlin, near Ireland. In 1307, he reappeared, and gained some advantages. Edward assembled a large army, but before he had proceeded far, died, worn out with age and infirmities, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign. He had previously engaged his son 580 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. and tlie Englisli nobles, by a solemn oatb, to prosecute tbe war to extremity. This monarcli possessed greater talents than any prince who bad yet worn the crown of England ; be bad a strong regard for justice; and mucb of bis oppressive conduct in Wales and Scot- land was, in tbat day, beld to be justified by tbe feudal law. In bis reign, by tbe influence of tbe barons, tbe charters were confirmed, and a clause added, securing tbe nation against taxation, except by consent of parliament. Tbe present constitution of tbe latter was also fiilly established. Many improvements, moreover, were made in the laws, and in tbe jurisdiction of courts. Edward II. succeeded bis father at the age of twenty-two. For some years he did but little in fulfilling bis father's wishes in regard to Scotland. The early part of bis reign was troubled by the jealousy and anger manifested by the great barons against his favourite. Piers Gaveston, a Gascon, to whom be was strongly attached, and whom be had loaded with of&ces and honours. After several times compelling tbe king to dismiss him, and as often seeing him recalled, in 1312 they seized tbe unfortunate favourite, and beheaded him near Warwick. Meanwhile, Bruce had gradually made himself master of all the English strongholds in Scotland. In 1314 Edward, with a large army, marched against him, and engaged the Scottish forces at Ban- nockburn, near Stirling Castle. Bruce, with forty thousand men, bad occupied an advantageous position, which he further strengthened by deep pits in front of his line, filled with sharp stakes, and covered with turf. Calthrojos, or sharp-pointed frames of iron, were also scattered over the ground on which the enemy's cavalry must charge. On tbe 24th of June, the English, with a much superior force, advanced to the attack, and seeing tbe Scottish ranks upon their knees, supposed at first that they were demanding mercy. They were speedily undeceived; the resistance was most obstinate, and the English suffered a ruinous defeat, to which the appearance of a great number of the Scottish camp-followers, mistaken by them for another army, somewhat contributed. A dreadful famine and pestilence in England succeeded this disaster, and Bruce continuing the warfare, recovered Berwick, and rendered his kingdom independent. Edward's attachment to a new favourite, Hugh le Despencer, again excited the jealousy of tbe barons, who rose in arms, but after a protracted contest, were defeated, and many of them executed. ENGLAND. 5g;l^ In 1325, Queen Isabella, sister to tlie king of France, went to tliat court, with the prince, her son, for the purpose of arranging certain difficulties respecting the French provinces. While there, she formed a criraiual connection with Eoger Mortimer, one of the revolted barons, who had escaped. She delayed her return under various pretexts, and finally, instigated by her paramour, with a force of some thousand men, sailed for England, with the intention of forcibly suppressing the power of the Despencers. On landing, she was joined by many of the barons, with numerous forces, and Edward was compelled to fly from London. The Despencers, father and son, were captured, and ignominiously executed, on the most frivolous charges. The unhappy king, closely pursued, surrendered himself, and the barons declared the young prince guardian of the kingdom. Soon after, his father was formally deposed, and nearly all the peers took an oath of allegiance to the youthful heir. The dethroned mon- arch, after being carried from castle to castle, and treated with great indignity, was barbarously murdered at Berkley, on the 21st of September, 1327. Mortimer was made earl of March, and the kingdom was entirely governed by him and the queen. Bruce, though a truce had been agreed upon, invaded the north of England with twenty-four thou- sand men, and committed grievous ravages. An army of forty thousand, which was sent against him, under the young king, was unable to come to an engagement ; and, in the following year, 1328, a peace was concluded, in which the independence of Scotland was fully acknowledged. Mortimer, having all power in his own hands, ruled with great insolence, and the young king, now eighteen, was impatient of his control. In 1330, assisted by Lord Montacute and others, he seized the traitor, assumed the throne, and summoned a parliament. By this body, Mortimer was found guilty of the late king's death, and of other offences, was condemned, and executed. The queen was confined to her private residence. In 1332, Bruce being dead, the English claimants of Scottish lands put Edward Baliol (the son of John) at their head, and made an inroad into Scotland. They completely defeated the Scottish army, under the earl of Mar, with immense slaughter. Baliol, however, was soon expelled from the kingdom by the earl of Moray, and in 1333 Edward marched to his assistance. In the battle of Halidon 582 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Hill, the Scots lost thirty tliousaiid men; Berwick surrendered; and David, tlie young king, was compelled to fly into France. Baliol was acknowledged sovereign, and the English supremacy was once more extended over Scotland. The Scots, however, rose again, and after a contest of some years, David returned^ and in 1341 resumed his throne. Edward's attention, however, was now engrossed by the crown of France, to which, in right of his mother, he had advanced an utterly unfounded claim. Having formed an alliance with several of the continental states, he invaded the French territory in 1339 with fifty thousand men, burning and plundering as he went. Philip, king of that country, also raised a large army, but no decisive engage- ment ensued, and Edward, disbanding his allies, returned to England, deeply in debt, having accomplished nothing. In 1340, he renewed the war; and a large fleet which Philip had stationed at Sluys to oppose him, was destroyed or taken by that of the English, and thirty thousand of the French perished. His allies now crowded to his standard; and with a force of two hundred thousand men, he recommenced hostilities. A great body of these, however, taking a sudden alarm, fled. Tournay, strongly garrisoned, resisted his arms, and Philip appeared with a large army, but, as before, avoided a decisive engagement. By the mediation of Jane of Hainault, a relative of both monarchs, hostilities w^ere suspended for nine months, and this period, by the intervention of the Pope, was afterwards extended. The king's debts, and his disputes with the nobility and clergy of his realm, occupied him till 1342, when he made a fresh and ineffectual attempt. In 1345, he induced the parliament to support him in another expedition, and despatched the earl of Derby with an army to Guienne. This general was exceedingly successful, and in 1346 Edward, with thirty thousand troops, went over in person. Forty thousand Flemings were to invade France at the same time. Land- ing in Normandy, he ravaged the country far and near. Thence marching up the left bank of the Seine, he burned many towns, and carried his incursions to the neighbourhood of Paris itself. Philip, with an army on the opposite shore, still protracted the war, avoiding a general engagement. At length, on the 26th of August, the two armies met at Creci, or Cressy, a small village near the coast, the French force being ENGLAND, 533 variously estimated at from sixty thousand to one hundred and twenty thousand men. In the midst of a violent storm the battle commenced. The result was for a long time doubtful, and the prince, a youth of fifteen, distinguished himself by his skill and valour. The English archery finally decided the day; thirty-six thousand of their enemies were left upon the field, including eleven princes, and a host of nobles and gentlemen. It has been said that cannon were, in this battle, for the first time employed in warfare, and that their use contributed greatly to the victory. A few days afterwards Edward laid siege to Calais, which was bravely defended by the governor, John de Yienne. At length, overcome by famine, the town surrendered in July, 1347, Edward having stipulated for the death of six of the principal burgesses. Eustache de St. Pierre, and five others of the leading citizens, gener- ously offered their lives as a ransom for their countrymen, and, according to usage, presented themselves before the victor, half- naked, with halters in their hands. He sternly commanded them to be led to execution, but at the entreaty of his queen, Philippa, was finally induced to spare their lives. The inhabitants were mostly expelled from Calais, and it was repeopled with English by the king, as a mart for his commerce. Meanwhile, David of Scotland, taking advantage of the king's absence, had ravaged the north of England ; but was defeated at Neville's Cross, in Durham, with a loss of fifteen thousand men ; and, being taken prisoner, was carried in triumph to London, with several of his nobility. Calais being captured, an armistice took place, which, by the influence of the Pope, was protracted for six years. In 1348 Eng- land, as well as the rest of Europe suffered from a dreadful plague, which carried off vast numbers of the inhabitants. Negotiations being fruitless, the war with France was resumed in 1355, John having succeeded his father Philip on the throne, Edward the Black Prince, (so called from his armour,) who had already distinguished himself at Cressy and elsewhere, marched eastward from Bourdeaux, with sixty thousand men, wasting and ravaging the country, as usual. He returned from this expedition in seven weeks, having in that time destroyed more than five hun- dred cities, towns, and villages. The king, who had also commenced an expedition from Calais, was recalled by hostilities which had broken out in Scotland, and 584 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. having purchased Baliol's claim to the throne, marched through the country, burning and devastating it in all directions. In the autumn, the prince, with twelve thousand troops, set forth upon another marauding expedition, and near the town of Poictiers fell in with a large army, commanded by King John in person. The English archery, as usual, proved triumphant ; the French were defeated, and King John himself, with his son Philip, after a dis- astrous battle was taken prisoner. The captive monarch was treated with the highest distinction, the prince waiting upon him in person, and, on their arrival in England, the castle of "Windsor was assigned him for a residence. The king of Scotland had now been eleven years a prisoner ; but was set at liberty on payment of a hundred thousand marks, and the surrender of important hostages. The French nobility rejecting the terms which had been offered for the liberation of their king, Edward, in 1359, with an hundred thousand men, again invaded France. After ravaging Picardy, and advancing to the gates of Paris, he was compelled to retire by the want of provisions; and a treaty was finally signed, by which it was agreed that he should resign all his pretensions, retaining only Poitou, Guienne, and Ponthieu, and the towns of Calais and Guisnes, and that three millions crowns of gold should be paid as a ransom for John. Edward the Black Prince was next engaged in an expedition for the purpose of restoring Peter lY., king of Castile, to his throne. He was afterwards involved in war with Charles, who had succeeded his father John upon the throne, and being compelled by ill-health to return to England, the few possessions of that nation in France were mostly lost to her. He died in 1376, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving the highest reputation for magnanimity and chival- rous courage, though tinctured with the ferocity of the times. His son Pichard was declared heir to the throne. The king soon followed his son. He died the following year, like the Conqueror, plundered and deserted by his attendants in his last moments. His death occurred on the 21st of June, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of fifty years. The military renown and general success of this long and brilliant reign, have rendered the names of Edward III. and his son among the most prominent in English history. The constitution and the power of parliament profited by the very ambition of the king; for his GARTER E:IN&-AT-ARMS, CHIEF HERALD OF ENGLAND, IN THE COSTUME OF Till? TIME OF HENRY Till ENGLAND. 585 anxiety to gain supplies induced him to reform grievances, and more distinctly to acknowledge tlie rights of those on whom he depended. It was thus fully established that money could not be raised with- out the votes of parliament; that the laws should not be altered, except by authority of both houses; and that the commons might impeach the high oflS.cers for misconduct. The laws of treason, which had heretofore been a potent instrument of royal oppression, were defined and limited nearly to their present form. The theory and practice of law were also wonderfully improved and polished. Manufactures were encouraged, and foreign artisans invited to settle in England. The avaricious demands of the Pope were some- what checked, and the project was even entertained of resisting his authority altogether. The castle of Windsor was built by Edward, and the renowned "Order of the Garter" was instituted by him. kj iLJj JjOi iJu Jj iL clj JiO t^ Ji Ji Ji I HENET VIII. The young king, at the age of eighteen, ascended the throne with every advantage. Universally acknowledged as the rightful heir, and inheriting large treasures accumulated by the avarice of his predecessor, his reign commenced most auspiciously. He married Catharine, retained his father's ministers, and for two years amused the court and people by scenes of martial splendour and gallantry. The execution of Empson and Dudley, which he ordered in com- pliance with the importunities of the people, was the only event of public importance until 1512, when England began to take a part in the affairs of the Continent. By an alliance with Ferdinand of Spain, a fleet and army were despatched to recover Guienne for England and Navarre for Spain. The latter object was accomplished, but the design of Henry failed, owing to the mutinous disposition of the troops. Various naval engagements with the French fleet followed, but resulted in nothing of importance. In 1513, the king, with twenty-five thousand men, sailed for France, having first ordered the execution of the earl of Suffolk, who lay in the tower, and who, being accused of conspir- acy, had surrendered himself to the late king, on a,n assurance that his life should be spared. Assisted by the Emperor Maximilian, the English took Tournay and Terouenne, and made prisoners the Chevalier Bayard and other persons of eminence. Henry then returned to the island, where the Scots were assuming a hostile attitude. James, his brother-in-law, having been dishonourably used by Henry in some matters of no great importance, was prevailed on by the French court to take up arms. He despatched a fleet to the aid of Louis, and with a numerous army marched into the north of England, taking many strongholds. The earl of Surrey, with twenty-five thousand men, proceeded against him, and the two armies encountered on Flodden, one of the Cheviot hills. The battle, which only lasted for an hour, was fought most fiercely, and resulted in the utter discomfiture of the Scots, with a loss of ten HENKY VIII ENGLAND. gQ9 thousand men. King James and his most valiant nobles died fight- ins: hand to hand in the front of the battle. The hostilities with France were ended by the defection of Henry's allies, and a peace was agreed on, ratified by the marriage of Louis to Mary, the king's sister, sixteen years of age. Louis, who was more than thrice her age, died on the 1st of June, 1515, and she became a widow after three months of marriage. The cele- brated Francis L succeeded to the throne. The most powerful and influential subject in the kingdom was Cardinal Wolsey, who, for fifteen years, controlled the king, and through him the nation, in an almost absolute manner. He was the son of a butcher, and had been the chaplain of Henry VIL, by whom he was made a dean. On the accession of the young king, he became the royal almoner, and by his gayety and companionship in the royal amusements, as well as by his talents for business, com- pletely won his affection and confidence. He became, in rapid succession, bishop, archbishop, cardinal, chancellor, and papal legate. He also aspired, not without reason, to the pontificate itself His revenue, arising from his many offices and preferments, was enormous ; he lived in the most princely magnificence, and bestowed a liberal and enlightened patronage on literature and men of learn- mg. Both in the administration and improvement of justice, he showed himself eminently upright and capable. On the death of the Emperor Maximilian, in 1519, the kings of France and Spain contended for the vacant dignity; and Charles having received the vote of the electors, Francis, desirous of gain- ing the powerful support of the English monarch, sought a personal interview with him. They met near Calais, on the English terri- tory, and, in the midst of tournaments and splendid displaj^s, entered into a treaty of mutual alliance. Such was the wealth and magnifi- cence displayed by the two courts on this occasion, that the place of their meeting was styled "The Field of the Cloth of Gold." Their attendants, vying with each other in display, incurred ruinous debts and expenses. The two kings lived upon the most intimate terms, even acting to each other as valets at the toilet. This memorable meeting, however, did not advance the interests of Francis; for Charles of Spain, his rival, was nephew to Queen Katharine, and had gained the influence of Wolsey by important gifts and an assurance of support in his designs on the papacy. In the following year, 1521, the duke of Buckingham, one of the 39 QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. first nobles in the kingdom, was arrested and executed upon a very doubtful charge of treason. The king's jealousy and Wolsey's ambition were probably the cause of this vindictive act. The war between Charles and Francis had been renewed ; but both parties accepted the mediation of England. Wolsey, to whom the affair was intrusted, effected (probably by previous arrangement with Henry) an alliance between the emperor, the Pope, and the king of England; and it was agreed to invade France simultane- ously. The earl of Surrey, with sixteen thousand troops, passed over in 1522, but effected nothing of importance. Albany, the Scottish regent, at the instigation of Francis, assembled a large army for the invasion of England; but after some hostilities, left the kingdom. The earl of Angus took the regency, under Henry's protection, and peace prevailed between the nations for eighteen years. By the intrigues of the emperor, Wolsey had now been twice dis- appointed of his election to the papacy ; and he concluded a fresh treaty of alliance with France. By this time, the various kingdoms of Europe, after passing through many transitions, had assumed something of their present limits and forms of government. Great events were in their commencement. The wonderful revolution in the church had begun on the Continent. The press, for more than half a century, had been gradually disseminating light and knowl- edge, and its first important effects were seen in the great contest which took place between the new and the ancient theolog3^ The building of St. Peter's had, in a great measure, drained the papal treasury ; and to repair the loss in some degree, the practice of selling indulgences was carried on by the agents of the church, in a very extensive manner. In Germany, the principal itinerant was Tetzel, a Dominican friar, who, with his assistants, disposed of great numbers, promising the purchasers that "the gates of hell should be closed, and those of Paradise open to them." At last he came in the neighbourhood of Wittemburg, where Dr. Martin Luther, the professor of theology, an Augustinian monk, had been for several years engaged in extricating himself from the trammels of the Eomish superstitions. His penitents exhibited Tetzel's indulgences, desiring absolution, which he refused, denouncing their authority. Tetzel, who was an inquisitor, then proclaimed him a heretic. Luther in return began to preach openly against the indulgences; and his celebrated warfare with the papal church commenced. In England, where Wickliffe's ENGLAND. QH opinions were still secretly cherished by many, his books were widely circulated. The church, by great severity and persecution, endeavoured to check the new doctrines; and Henry himself, with some assistance, produced in 1521 a respectable "Defence of the Seven Sacraments." The Pope, in gratitude, bestowed on him the title of "Defender of the Faith," a title which the British sovereigns arrogate to themselves to this day. Luther, who had been greatly vituperated in this performance, answered by another, applying terms equally coarse to Henry, whom he styled, among other choice epithets, "a hog of hell." The royal partisans responded with others, in which the lowest depths of scurrility and obscenity were reached. This situation of religious affairs was, however, entirely changed by the personal feelings and interests of the king. The queen had borne him five children, of whom only one, the Princess Mary, sur- vived. Her melancholy and peevishness alienated his affections, and he was anxiously desirous of a male heir. A sudden and very opportune scruple of conscience came to his aid. Katharine had been married to his brother, who died when a youth, and though a dispensation had been obtained from the Pope, he professed a con scientious doubt of its authority. Wolsey encouraged the new idea, and a divorce was resolved on. A French connection was planned; but the king had become smitten with the charms of Anne Boleyn, one of the queen's attendants — beautiful, witty, and amiable. She refused to surrender her virtue to the king, but consented to accept his hand, in the event of a divorce being obtained. The bishops all signed an instrument questioning the validity of the king's marriage, and he made application to the Pope for a divorce. After much delay, a commission was issued to Wolsey and Cardinal Campeggio, to try the case in England. The queen's resolute and noble demeanour before this tribunal affected every one; she finally refused to attend the court, and Henry expected a decision in accordance with his wishes. But the Pope, influenced by the Emperor Charles Y. (the queen's nephew), contrived, under various frivolous pretexts, to protract the matter for more than two years. Henry was wearied out, and Wolsey, to whom he attributed these delays, lost his favour altogether. In this strait, the king happened to hear (very likely by previous arrangement) that Dr. Thomas Cranmer, a theological lecturer at Cam- bridge, had expressed an opinion that the matter should be decided Q12 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. bjtLe universities and learned canonists. He eagerly swore "this man liath the sow by the right ear," and remarked upon the money and quiet which he had lost from not knowing the device sooner. Cranrner was instantly sent for, and the case put into his hands. The fall of Wolsey, who had been unable or unwilling to effect his master's purpose, ensued. The great seal was taken from him, and he was compelled to yield his immense personal property to the king. Parliament was summoned ; and on a long list of very vague charges, he was outlawed. Having thus humbled his former favour- ite, the king pardoned him, and allowed him to retain a portion of his property. Soon after, in November, 1530, while travelling, he was taken very ill, and came to the convent at Leicester, where the abbot received him with great respect. "Father Abbot," said the fallen man, "I am come to leave my bones among you." He soon died, saying, in his last moments, " Had 1 but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." The Pope still proving impracticable, application was made to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and, with great difficulty, Henry obtained an opinion that the marriage was illegal. Many agents were also employed to obtain the decisions of foreign univer- sities, and, in spite of the opposition of the Pope and emperor, these were generally favourable to the king. They were then transmitted to Eome, with a hint that the matter might yet be decided in Eng- land; but his Holiness, urged by Henry on one side, and Charles on the other, would not compromise himself by a decision. Cromwell, a talented and ambitious man, who had been in the service of Wolsey, and afterwards of the king, now advised Henry to take a bold step, and assume to himself the supremacy over the church and clergy of England. The king assented. Under pretext that the clergy had incurred outlawry by obeying ."Wolsey, they were compelled to present the king with a large sum of money, (one hun- dred thousand pounds,) and to acknowledge him their supreme head "as far as the laws of Christ would allow." This blow was followed in 1532 by an act of parliament, reducing the revenues of Eome, and providing for the consecration of bishops by the king, in case of refusal by the Pope. Meanwhile, persecution continued to rage, and several unfortunate persons were burned for having denied "the real presence " of the body of Christ in the consecrated wafer. Henry now lost all patience, and banished Katharine, who still ENGLAND. Ql^ maintained her pretensions, from Windsor. He tlien appointed Cranmer archbishop of Canterbury, and in 1533 privately married Anne Boleyn. She soon appeared in public as queen, and Cranmer and others, after trying the case over again, pronounced the king's first marriage null and void. Anne was shortly after crowned by the primate, and gave birth to the Princess Elizabeth, who was declared heiress to the throne. The parliament of 1534 completely fulfilled the wishes of Henry, checking the power of Eome, settling the succession on the children of Anne, and making it high treason to do any act in derogation of the marriage or succession. The bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, the late chancellor, declining to swear to the nullity of the former marriage, were committed to the tower. The king's supremacy was now generally acknowledged, and though the clergy were deeply dissatisfied, any resistance was over- awed by the fate of eleven monks, some of them priors, who were executed at Tyburn for denying it. Fourteen Dutch Anabaptists, who had taken refuge in England, also suffered at the stake. The execution of the bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More, both men of the highest character, soon followed ; both died with great magnanimity, and the latter uttered several modest pleasantries on the scaffold. These judicial murders raised a general outcry; and the tyrant's name was execrated throughout the Catholic world. He next resolved on the suppression of the convents, and the sequestration of their revenues ; a measure arbitrary and despotical, indeed, but productive of some good effects in releasing many vic- tims, who, by the avarice or superstition of their parents, had been immured in these secluded and unnatural abodes. The property confiscated at this time was very considerable. In 1536, Katharine died, and Anne, who had thought this event favourable to her security, soon discovered her mistake. Henry had become fascinated by the charms of Jane Seymour, one of her attendants, and being disappointed in his hopes of a son, sought an opportunity to get rid of his queen. Some slight tokens of levity being reported to him, he ordered her arrest, and preferred against her a charge of adultery. Four gentlemen, one of them her brother, were arrested as the participants of her crime. She wrote a most dignified and eloquent epistle to the king, avowing her inno- cence; the charges were excessively improbable, and the proof amounted to almost nothing : yet the accused parties were all con- Q14, THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. victed of treason, and siiifered accordingly, no one daring to dispute the tyrant's will. The queen was beheaded, evincing great courage and magnanimity to the last. Being informed that the pain would be trifling, she replied, "I have but a little neck," and put her hand about it, smiling. The day after this atrocious miirder, Henry married the object of his passion, as if willing to exhibit his motives without shame or compunction. The people of Lincolnshire, discontented at the sup- pression of the monasteries, assembled in arms, to the number of twenty thousand; but finally dispersed upon proclamation. A more formidable insurrection broke out in the North, where the malcontents marched through the country in great force, performing a sort of martial pilgrimage, and took the cities of York and Hull. Forty thousand in number, they advanced to Doncaster; but a heavy rain and an act of amnesty dispersed them. In 1537, they again took up arms; eight thousand, headed by two gentlemen of Cumberland, attempted to seize Carlisle, but were defeated with great slaughter, and several of their leaders, with seventy others, were hanged on the walls. Other similar under- takings were also su,ppressed, and a number of nobles, gentry, and clergy, implicated in them, were executed. An amnesty was after- wards issued. On the 12th of October, the queen gave birth to a son (Prince Edward), and died soon afterwards, thus probably escaping the fate which might, at no distant day, have been her's, by the king's caprice. An English translation of the Bible was this year introduced into the kingdom, by the royal sanction. The remaining monasteries were next suppressed, with little opposition, the loss of the monks being partially compensated; and a revenue of an hundred and thirty thousand pounds was thus added to the royal treasury. A vast number of pretended relics and juggling impostures were at the same time exposed to the popular examination ; and St. Thomas of Canterbury (Becket) was condemned as a traitor, and his bones were taken up and burned. Most of the lands sequestered were divided among the favourite nobles and gentry ; whose rapacity and greediness, w^ith the shameless prodigality of the king, absorbed the spoils of the clergy so far, that in 1510, the next year, he was obliged to require a large subsidy from parliament to meet the expenses of this most lucrative reformation. In spite of the errors and superstitions which clung around these ENGLAND. 615 strongliolds of the ancient religion, every one must lament the destruction of the noble edifices and the valuable libraries which fell into the hands of the unprincipled favourites. History and litera- ture in general sustained irreparable losses. The most unbounded indignation was excited at Konie, and a terrible bull was issued, laying the kingdom under an interdict, excommunicating Henry, declaring his later offspring illegitimate, and ordering the nobility to take up arms against the king. But the time had passed when a government could be overthrown by such means. Men's minds, if not more enlightened, had become more independent, and the only effect of this fulmination from the Yatican, was to exasperate the king to further violence. Reginald de la Pole, a second cousin of the king, had been one of the most active of the papal agents; and had endeavoured, in vain, to excite the neighbouring nations to avenge, by a warlike crusade, the injuries suffered by the church. Unable to get this formidable foe into his power, the king seized his brother. Lord Montague, and several other persons of distinction, who were exe- cuted on a charge of abetting his designs. Henry, though setting the church of Rome at defiance, suppported its most absurd doctrines by persecution. He argued with one Lambert in support of the "real presence;" and being unable to convince the unhappy man, burned him at Smithfield, in company with two Anabaptists. It was the good or evil fortune of the king to find the most slavish and subservient of parliaments always at his command. An act attainting Pole's relations, and other distin- guished persons without trial, was passed; and another, creating an absolute despotism, followed, giving to the king's proclamation all the authority of a statute of parliament. After a vehement debate upon matters of religion, each party prepared a bill of faith ; and that of the ancient belief, in six articles, called " the bloody statute, " received the king's approbation. By this, the doctrines of transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, confession, and other matters, were made authoritative; to oppose the first was punishable by death, and to violate the others was made felony. Numbers of the reforming clergy were immediately cast into prison. Cranmer, supported by the king's personal friend- ship, was untouched; but found it necessary to send his wife and children to Grermany. Henry had all this time been busily engaged in treaties for a fresh marriage; and being somewhat corpulent in person, QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. was anxious that his wife should be of correspondingly large dimen- sions. Among other propositions, one was rejected which he made to Francis I., that they should meet at Calais, and the Frenchman should bring the finest ladies of his court. He next saw a picture of Anne, daughter of the duke of Cleves, made proposals, and was readily accepted. On beholding the bride, however, he was griev- ously disappointed, and swore that "they had brought him a great Flanders mare." Unwilling to offend the continental prince, how- ever, he married her, but determined to repudiate her as soon as possible, and to ruin Cromwell, the high chamberlain, who had brought about the match. At a dinner he beheld Catharine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk, and was immediately captivated by her charms. Cromwell was forthwith attainted by the parliament, according to his own device, upon a frivolous charge of treason and heresy. The parlia- ment and clergy, subservient as usual, pronounced the king's marriage void, on the ground that Anne had been previously afS.- anced to another; and it was made high treason to question this decision. The execution of Cromwell followed immediately, and fresh victims were soon offered to the shrines of bigotry' — three for denying the supremacy, and three for preaching "justification by faith." In April, 1541, an insurrection had broken out in the north, but it was suppressed, and the leaders were executed. The revenge- ful monarch seized this occasion to execute the countess of Salisbury, Pole's mother, a lady of seventy -two, who had for some time been imprisoned. A few days after the death of Cromwell, the new queen had been publicly introduced at court, and, according to the lords of the coun- cil, had completely won the king's heart by "a notable appearance of honour, cleanness, and maidenly behaviour." The king, the following season, gave public thanks to Heaven, for the happiness of his married life ; and on the next day received a written state- ment of the queen's incontinence, both before and after marriage. Henry at first could not believe it, but upon receiving undeniable proof, burst into tears. The parliament met, and bills of attainder were passed against the queen and other persons implicated. She was beheaded on the 13th of February, 1542. On the 12th of July, m the following year, he married Catharine Parr, the widow of Lord Latimer, a lady secretly inclined to the reformed doctrines. The year before, some acts of hostility with Scotland had occurred, ENGLAND. 6^7 and tlie king of France having opposed tlie English interests, Henry was induced by the emperor to unite in a league against him. In July, 1544, he crossed the sea with his principal nobility and an army of'thirty thousand men. At an early period, however, his ally made peace with the enemy, and the king returned to England, hav- ing taken and garrisoned the town of Boulogne. The war with France and Scotland was still feebly protracted until it was terminated by a peace in 1546. Cranmer had succeeded in obtaining a mitigation of the provisions for the enforcement of the six articles, and in 1543, his enemies made a strong attempt to crush him, representing to the king that the primate and his adherents were filling the realm with heresy, and praying for his committal to the tower. Henry consented that he should be at the disposal of the council, but privately gave him a ring, assuring him of protection. The archbishop, finding himself severely and unjustly dealt with, produced the token, and, with his accusers, went before the king. The latter declared his confidence in Cranmer, and a hollow reconciliation was effected by his authority. The parliament of 1545 granted large subsidies to the king, and even empowered him to seize the revenues of the hospitals, univer- sities, and public institutions, on condition that "all shall be done to the glory of God and the common profit of the realm." In the following year, Anne Askew, a lady who had adopted the reformed opinions, was cruelly tortured, and, with three others, was burned for denying the "real presence." Gardiner, the persecuting bishop of Winchester, even attempted to make a victim of the queen. By Henry's consent, articles of accusation were drawn up against her, and received his approbation ; but Catharine, accidentally learning the scheme, so artfully flattered the tyrant's vanity and love of argument, that he became completely reconciled to her. The next day, when the chancellor, with forty men, appeared in the royal garden to arrest her, Henry called him a "knave, fool, and beast," and ordered him away. Gardiner was also disgraced. The king, afflicted with corpulence and disease, was near his end; but contrived to load his memory with one more weight by the execution of the accomplished earl of Surrey, on a most frivolous and unfounded charge of treason. On the 27th of January, 1547, he died very tranquilly, expressing his reliance on the Saviour, and affording another proof that a comfortable death-bed is not the QIQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. unfailing evidence either of a virtuous life, or of correct religious opinions. In despite of his u.tter selfishness, caprice, and tyranny, he was one of the most personally popular monarchs'who ever sat upon the English throne. His physical strength and martial appear- ance, with a certain bluff good-humour, captivated the hearts of the people. His abilities, though grievously misused, were unquestion- able. He excelled in literature, and had the faculty of discerning merit and ability in those whom he employed. uiiiAirJliliXiAivo EDWARD VI., AND MARY. The young king being only in his tenth year, a council, appointed by the will of Henry, assumed the government. Their first act was to create one of their number, the duke of Somerset, protector of the realm, and to bestow fresh titles and estates upon themselves. The duke first exerted his authority to crush the chancellor by a charge of malfeasance in his ofiice, and to gain from his successor a con- firmation to himself of full regal power. He appointed a council, though its authority was merely nominal. The Protestants now looked forward to more favourable times. Both the young king and the primate were in favoiir of their prin- ciples, and the council was under the reformed influence. Various superstitious usages were suppressed by law, and the New Testament was generally introduced. Gardiner, who resisted these innovations, was committed to prison. Early in the autumn, Somerset, with twenty thousand men, invaded Scotland; the principal object being to compel a union (proposed by Henry) between Edward and Mary, the youthful occu- pants of the respective thrones. Arran, the regent, assembling an army of double the English force, opposed him; and after vainly negotiating concerning the disputed matter, battle was joined at Pinkey, on the coast. The Scots, exposed to the English archery, and to a fire from the fleet which accompanied the army, were ENGLAND. gX9 defeated with a loss of ten thousand men ; but no advantage resuhed to the English from tlieir victory. The protector was recalled to London by domestic intrigues, and the young queen was sent to France, and betrothed to the dauphin. The parliament of 1548 repealed the odious statute making the royal proclamation the law of the land. The severe laws and arbi- trary definitions of treason were abolished, and the statutes against Lollardy and for the enforcement of the "Six Articles" were dis- continued. These improvements, however, do not indicate an advanced liberality in matters of opinion, but only that some of the more influential classes had begun to lean to the new doctrines. Heresy, it was still held, should be punishable by law, and the odious statute "cfe hceretico comhurendoj" for burning of heretics, was still retained. During the year, a new liturgy, the basis of that now used by the church of England, was compiled by Cranmer and others, and was ordered to be used in all the churches. An act, permitting marriage to the clergy, was also passed. The protector's brother. Lord Seymour, the_ high-admiral, an ambitious man, had married Henry's widow; and on her death, paid much attention to the yoimg Princess Eliza- beth. He, moreover, engaged the affections of the young king, by sup- plying him with money ; other suspicious manoeuvres were observed ; and the government, in alarm, had him condemned by attainder, without any opportunity for defence. He was executed three days after, Somerset and Cranmer signing the warrant with the others. Persecutions, under the reformed system, still continued. Cran- mer and others, by commission, tried a woman named Joan Boucher, and condemned her to the flames for maintaining that Christ was not incarnate of the virgin. The youthful king evinced the greatest reluctance to signing the horrible warrant; and all the authority of Cranmer was necessary to induce him. The next year, a man named Parr, suffered the same fate for being an Arian. The first effect of the suppression of the monasteries was, except to the receivers of the spoil, unsatisfactory. The people, oppressed by their new and absent landlords, thought with regret of the leni- ency and personal kindness of their old masters the friars. They were further distressed by the high prices caused by the influx of the precious metals from the New World; wages not having risen correspondingly. Viewing all these evils as originating with the Reformed doctrines, they rose in several of the counties, where they Q20 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. were at first quieted bj tlie efibrts of the resident gentry; but by degrees the insurrections became more formidable. In Devon, the insurgents, numbering ten thousand men, demanded the restoration in full of the ancient forms which had been suppressed ; that many disused customs should be enforced, and that heretics should be strictly punished. While laying siege to Exeter, they were routed and dispersed by Lord Eussell ; several of their leaders were exe- cuted; and the vicar of St. Thomas was hanged in his robes from his own steeple. In Norfolk, one Kett, a tanner, with twenty thou- sand peasants under his command, sat beneath an oak, called the Oak of Eeformation, summoned the gentry to appear before him, and made what decrees he pleased. After routing the marquis of Northampton, who had been sent against them, the rebels were defeated by Warwick, with a loss of two thousand of their num- ber. Kett was hanged at Norwich, and nine others were suspended from the boughs of their favourite tree. The protector had now become exceedingly unpopular; and he added to the public hatred by pulling down certain churches and bishops' houses in the city, to build himself a palace in their room. His principal enemy was Dudley, earl of Warwick, a son of the beheaded agent of Henry YII. In 1549, this nobleman, with eight others of the council, assumed the entire power, and appealed to all classes for assistance. Somerset, being generally deserted, was. com- pelled to yield to the storm, and was committed to the tower. He was accused of being the author of all the misfortunes which had happened to the realm, and confessed his guilt. Certain penalties were adjudged, but his opponents, not wishing to ruin him entirely, liberated and pardoned him. A marriage of his daughter to War- wick's eldest son united the rivals, and he was allowed a seat in the council. The successful faction, as usual, rewarded themselves with titles and estates. On the 24th of March, 1550, a peace was made with France and Scotland; Boulogne being restored to the former on payment of four hundred thousand crowns. The Eeformation was still pushed on. Bishop Bonner, a staunch supporter of Eome, was deprived of his see, and imprisoned. Gar- diner, who had been two years in the tower, was also degraded from his office. The Princess Mary, who still heard mass, was men- aced in her turn ; but declared herself ready to die in support of her faith, and assured the council that she never would read any of ENGLAND. 621 their books, as slie thanked God she never had. Through fear of the emperor, her cousin, who threatened war, she was no farther molested. The Book of Common Prayer was next revised ; and forty-two articles of religion were drawn up. Warwick pursued his career of ambition, and on the death of the earl of Northumberland, got possession of his title and a great part of his estates. Somerset, whom he still dreaded, was again arrested on the charge of having conspired his death, and that of other leading persons. He was tried before the peers, acquitted of trea- son, but found guilty, on tolerable evidence, of felony. He was executed on the 22d of January, 1552, amid the lamentations of the people, with whom he had formerly been popular, and his care for whose interests, on various occasions, formed the redeeming portion of his character. Several of his friends were executed, and others were fined and imprisoned. Bishop Tunstall, an ardent Eomanist, was also deprived of his see. The king's health, always delicate, had become more precarious of late, and Northumberland dreaded the succession of Mary, a zealous adherent of Eomanism. She and Elizabeth had been made dlegitimate by act of parliament during the late reign; the next in order, overlooking the heirs excluded by the king's will, was the duchess of Suffolk, who was desirous to transfer her claim to her daughter, the Lady Jane Grey, a confirmed Protestant. Northum- berland represented these matters to the young king, himself a strong Protestant, and pointed out the dangers which the reformed faith must encounter, if Mary succeeded him according to the will of her father. Edward readily entered into his views, and ordered the chief judges to draw up an instrument bequeathing the crown accordingly. With much reluctance, they complied, and the new devise, after great debate, was signed by all the judges and privy counseUors except one. The earl had no small stake in the artful and ambitious game which he was playing; for at this time, the Lady Jane Grey was married to his fourth son. Lord Guildford Dudley ; and the throne, as he supposed, was thus secured in his own family. The king survived this transaction only a short time. He died on the 6th of July, 1553, praying for the promotion of true religion, and that papistry might be averted from the realm. During his brief and youthful reign, he exhibited many amiable and estimable qualities, though his character was somewhat tinged with intolerance. Northumberland had designed to get possession of Mary's person; 522 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. but was disappointed by ber precipitate flight. The Lady Jane, whom her ambitious relatives were attempting to place in this high and perilous position, was only sixteen years of age, but was endowed with high talents, virtuous feelings, and an amiable dispo- sition. ' She was also unusually learned and accomplished. When (four days after the king's death) the news was communicated to her, and the principal persons of the council requested her to assume the crown, she fell senseless to the ground, and on recovering, wept bitterly. She was told that she was the rightful heir, and accepted the crown — without question most reluctantly — and from a sense of duty. The partisans of Northumberland, and the reformed clergy in general, exerted themselves strongly to secure the throne to its new occupant; but the disinterested subjects listened with apathy to the proclamation, and to the sermons preached in favour of the change. In JSTorfolk, the people, hating Northumberland for his severities, espoused the cause of Mary, and proclaimed her as queen. Several of the nobility joined her, and four thousand men, under Sir Edward Hastings, deserted the cause of Northumberland, and came to her assistance. A fleet sent to intercept her, if she should attempt an escape, took a similar course, Northumberland, with ten thousand men, advanced against her, but finding himself vastly outnumbered, retreated to Cambridge. Meanwhile, in London, the civil authorities and several of the high officers of government, perceiving how matters were tending, pro- claimed Mary, amid the acclamations of the populace. The Lady Jane, after a reign of ten days, made a formal resignation of her brief authority, declaring how much pleasanter it was than the acceptance. Northumberland was speedily arrested and committed to the tower ; and the accession of Mary to the throne was univer- sally acknowledged. Entering London in triumph, she released Bonner and Tunstall, and made Gardiner high-chancellor. North- umberland and a number of his associates were convicted of high treason, but the only executions at this time were those of himself and two others. Jane and her husband were kept in confinement, and the other prisoners were set at liberty. The queen had averred that she would not interfere with the religion of the people ; but the hope of toleration soon proved vain and futile. Bishops Ridley and Hooper were committed to prison, and the Princess Elizabeth found it necessary for her safety to attend ENGLAND. 623 mass. The primate, Cranmer, on the first indication of his disap- proval, was committed to the tower on a charge of treason, Latimer, on a similar charge, was already there. Most of the leading Protest- ants were soon in prison; the people of Suffolk, reminding the queen of her promises, met with insult, and one of their messengers, named Dobbe, was set in the pillory. Pole was at once appointed by the Pope as papal legate to England; and the queen despatched a private letter to the pontiff, promising to bring the kingdom again into obedience to the See of Eome. The parliament, which speedily met, was composed of a large majority of Romanists; a Latin mass, in open defiance of the exist- ing law, was performed, and Bishop Taylor, refusing to kneel, was forcibly put out of the house. Acts, fortifying the queen's legiti- macy, and annulling all statutes of the late reign concerning religion, were passed. Jane, her husband, his brother, and Cranmer, were attainted of treason, and all pleaded guilty, as the best way of appeas- ing the hatred of their prosecutors. The commons also prayed her majesty to select a husband from among the nobility of the realm, hoping to prevent her contemplated marriage with Philip of Spain, the emperor's son.; but she told them it was for her, not them, to choose in this matter. Her resolution being fixed, Gardiner, the chancellor, in settling the articles of marriage with the imperial commissioners, took every precaution for the honour and security of his country ; and Philip, as the queen's husband, was to be allowed only the shadow of authority. The match was, nevertheless, exceed- ingly odious to the people in general; and conspiracies were soon renewed against the government. The most serious was in Kent, where Sir Thomas Wyatt, a man of great ability and courage, headed a revolt, and increased his forces to fifteen thousand men. London, however, proved loyal, and the insurgent leader, attempt- ing, with a greatly diminished force, to surprise it, was defeated and taken prisoner. The next day the queen issued a warrant for the execution of her youthful and innocent prisoner, the Lady Jane, and for that of her husband. He was beheaded on tower-hill, in the presence of a vast multitude ; and Jane, after witnessing the return of his lifeless body, was led forth to execution, within the tower. She died with great courage and tranquillity, admitting that she had committed an unlawful act, but declaring her innocence of hav- ing desired the crown. Thus perished, at the mandate of an alarmed and jealous woman, one of the most admirable and amiable persons g24 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. to be met in English history. Her father and uncle, who had been engaged in a conspiracy, were shortly after executed. One of the accused being acquitted, the jury were fined large sums, and the conviction of others was thus insured. "Wyatt was beheaded, and a large number of his followers (by some accounts four hundred and fifty) were hanged. Elizabeth, who was naturally an object of jealous suspicion to her Catholic sister, was committed to the tower, being landed at Traitors' Stairs, where she exhibited some resolution, and a good deal of feminine petulance and weakness. Mary, urged by the emperor, would willingly have executed her ; but not daring openly to violate the law, kept her close prisoner in various fortresses. Great numbers of the gentry, foreseeing the impending persecutions, sold their property, and went over into France. In spite of all endeavours of the royal party, and an immense sum sent over by the emperor for purposes of bribery, parliament refused to sanction any measure giving Spain a foothold in the king- dom. They would not even make it treason to conspire against the life of the queen's husband; and refused to revive the statute of the six articles, and other strong Eomanist laws concerning heresy. The marriage took place, (July 25th, 1554,) but all the pomp and pageantry displayed on the occasion, could not reconcile the people to an alliance which reminded them of Spanish tyranny and of the Inquisition. The queen's most cherished project was to bring the kingdom again under obedience to the Pope ; and for this purpose, a pliable House of Commons was required. Orders were issued to the sheriffs accordingly, and so fully did they carry out her instructions, that not a single Protestant, it would appear, was elected to the new house. On meeting, the chancellor, in presence of the royal pair, announced to the house their intention of reuniting the realm to the Catholic church. The old attainder of Cardinal Pole was reversed, and he was received with the highest distinction as papal legate. A unanimous petition from the lords and commons prayed for readmission into the bosom of the church. In a great meeting the legate absolved the realm, and the ancient faith was restored with stately ceremonies. The various bills rejected by the former parliament were passed. Elizabeth, however, with some other pris- oners of distinction, was released by the intervention of Philip, who desired to inoratiate himself with the nation. ENGLAND. g25 The queen, determined to overawe or extirpate tlie opponents of Rome, had already intimated her intentions to the lords of the council ; desiring, however, that none might be burned without a good ser- mon as an accompaniment, for the benefit of the people. The car- dinal, a man of mild and amiable temper, sought, by gentle means, to win back the recusants to his church; and in furtherance of this plan, procured a solemn procession, thanksgiving, and rejoicing, celebrated by the ominous blaze of bonfires throughout the night. This ceremony, called the "Feast of the Reconciliation," was to be annually observed. On the third day after, the chancellor, Bonner, and other high lords, both lay and clerical, opened a court under authority of the legate, for the trial of heretics. Their first victim was the Rev. John Rogers, who denied the real presence, and was burned at Smithfield, on the 4:th of February. He died with great constancy, amid the sympathy and encourage ment of an immense crowd of spectators. Four days afterwards. Bishop Hooper sufiered the same fate in his own diocese, at Glouces- ter. More of these horrible executions followed, under the direction of Bonner, to whom the chancellor had relinquished this odious of&ce, and who, from his fanaticism and delight in scenes of cruelty, was the fittest instrument that persecution could have found. "The married clergy," says Mr. Southey, "were observed to suffer with the most alacrity. They were bearing testimony to the validity and sanctity of their marriage; the honour of their wives and children was at stake ; the desire of leaving them an unsullied name, and a virtuous example, combined with a sense of religious duty ; and the heart derived strength from the very ties which, in other circum- stances, would have weakened it." It is worthy of remark that Philip's confessor, a Franciscan, named De Castro, more humane or enlightened than his contemporaries, at this very time preached a sermon more strongly condemning these barbarities, as utterly opposed to Christianity. A splendid embassy carried the submission of the realm before the Pope, which he was pleased to receive, but also demanded the restitution of the confiscated church property. Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer, after being kept in prison for some time, were carried to Oxford, where for three days they maintained a dispute upon the Eucharist and mass with the dominant party, receiving much abuse from their opponents. The unfortunate Cranmer was cited to appear before the Pope in eighty days, and was then closely impris- 40 526 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvT. onecl. Bishop Eidley, and Latimer, still maintaining tlieir opinions witli constancy, were condemned, and suffered at Oxford, on the 16th of October. "Be of good comfort. Master Ridley," said Lati- mer at the stake, "and play the man. We shall this day, by God's grace, kindle in England such a flame as I trust shall never be put out." Gardiner, who had heretofore managed the parliament with great ability and address, having died, the queen met with no little diffi- culty in carrying out her projects. A bill for restoring tithes, first- fruits, &c., to the Pope, was rejected, and she obtained little for the purpose. In other ways the houses exhibited discontent with the sanguinary measures of the government. Philip, also, perceiving his unpopularity, and despairing of offspring by the queen, returned to Flanders, and shortly after inherited, by the resignation of his father, the immense possessions which he had acquired. The queen solaced herself, in his absence, by reestablishing monasteries, and persecuting heretics, sixty-seven of whom were this year condemned to the flames for opposing transubstantiation. The eighty days appointed for Cranmer's appearance having expired, the Pope degraded him, and appointed Pole as primate in his place. In February, 1556, Bishops Bonner and Thirlby sat at Oxford, as a commission for his trial. In vain he protested against the palpable evasion of justice which had been put upon him; he was clothed in mock insignia, and publicly scoffed at. After this, by the fear of death, and the temptations of his enemies, the unhappy man was induced to abjure his opinions, and to sign no less than six different recantations. The object of his persecutors was now attained, and, owing to the queen's personal hatred and that of others, it was determined, contrary to the usual custom, to sacrifice him with the rest. Suddenly, and without preparation, he was sum- moned forth to die, and, in presence of a large congregation, was desired to repeat his recantation. He arose, knelt and prayed, and then addressed the people, exhorting them to loyalty, virtue, and piety. Then, to the confusion of his enemies, he made the most open confession and repentance of his weakness and duplicity in falsely denying his true opinions ; and declared that the hand which had signed his recantation should be first burned in the flames. He was hurried to the stake, where he further lamented his yielding to temptation, and held his right hand in the flames until it was con- sumed. He then died with great fortitude, and thus, in the opinion ENGLAND. g27 of most, redeemed tlie errors of liis life ; for lie had been a persecutor himself, and had condemned others to the flames for doctrines similar to those which he sealed with his own blood. In March, 1557, Philip came over to obtain the aid of England in a war with France. He would not probably have succeeded, unless the rival nation had been discovered to have aided an insignificant movement against government; which was defeated, and its con- triver, Thomas Stafford, beheaded. The queen, by forced loans, and the seizure of corn, enlisted and provisioned a force of ten thousand men, which she sent, under the earl of Pembroke, to the assistance of Philip, in Holland. The fleet, meanwhile, harassed the coast of France. A severe reverse, however, awaited the Eng- lish. On the 1st of January, 1558, Calais, the only remnant of the conquests of Edward III. which, for two hundred years, had been in their possession, was taken by the duke of Cruise. This loss deeply mortified the people, and so affected the queen, that she declared that after her death, "Calais would be found lying in her heart." An attempt to retrieve this disaster, by seizing upon the port of Brest, failed; but, by assistance of the English, the Count Egmont was enabled to give a complete defeat to the French, who had invaded Flanders. This gloomy and inauspicious reign now drew to a close. Mary had been for some time labouring under disease, aggravated by the unpopularity which her cruelties had drawn upon her. She beheld vfith mortification that all her severities had been unable to check the secret spread of heretical opinions; and knew that Elizabeth, her successor, privately held the reformed doctrines, and would probably reestablish them. Being attacked by an epidemic fever, she expired on the 17th of November, 1558, in the forty-third year of her age. The cardinal died of the same disease, on the following day. This queen, though not devoid of good qualities, has left, by her fanaticism and cruelty, the most unenviable reputation ; and the popular epithet of "Bloody Mary " evinces how deeply the horrors of persecution had sunk into the minds of the people. With the death of Mary and Cardinal Pole, the papal supremacy ended by common consent. Persecution, as usual, had increased the zeal of the reformed believers; and many, surveying the con- stancy and cheerfulness of the martyrs, and detesting the cruelty of their persecutors, embraced the Protestant faith as soon as they could 628 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. do SO with, safety. During those four years of obstinate attempts at forcible conversion, nearly three hundred victims had perished in the flames, including bishops, clergy, women, and children. ELIZABETH. The new queen was immediately proclaimed amid the general rejoicings of the people. By the counsel of Sir "William Cecil, her chief adviser, she declared her intention of retaining most of the counsellors in office. An announcement of her accession was sent to foreign princes, and Philip immediately offered her his hand ; which, however, was civilly declined. The Pope, on receiving the intelligence, passionately declared that she was illegitimate, and could not inherit the crown ; but said that if she would renounce her claim, and submit entirely to the Holy See, she should be leni ently treated. This ridiculous assumption was, of course, entirely disregarded. Those in prison for opinion's sake were now released, and the queen commenced slowly and cautiously to change the established forms of worship. She was crowned on the 15th of January, 1559, the occasion being celebrated by the most quaint and gorgeous pageantry. Elizabeth was at this time twenty-five years of age, tolerably good-looking, and, considering the age, remarkably learned and accomplished. The new parliament, in which, from obvious reasons, there was a strong Protestant ascendancy, immediately con- firmed her title to the crown, and commenced the work of religious reformation. Tenths, first-fruits, and the supremacy, were restored to the crown; and to deny the latter obstinately, was made treason. Eight clerical champions, four from each party, were appointed to hold a disputation upon the mass, the English liturgy, and the power of the church to establish rites and ceremonies. It was curiously argued by the supporters of the Latin service, that "ignorance is the mother of devotion;" a piece of sophistry which was ably refuted ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLANi:. THE nAUGHTEH OF HEMKT triTl. ANT3 ANUE BOI.ETN, BORN, 1533 — BEOAME QUEEN, 15 5 8 — DIED, IGOt. She TTaa a -woman of masculine energy, self-will, and talent for government By the sagacity oi' her counsellors, and her own prudence, her reign was emi- nently tranquil and successful. The lustre which is attached to her name has. however, teen dee]:'ly obscured by her vanity, je.alousy, and revengeful spirit ENGLAND. g29 by the Protestant debaters. On the second meeting, the Romanists refusing to argue, because their opponents were to have the last word, thev were, after the arbitrary, fashion of the time, fined heavily for a contempt, and some of them were committed to the tower. The "Act of Uniformity" was then passed, enjoining a stated service, under grievous penalties, throughout the kingdom, and imposing a fine of a shilling on all who absented themselves from church. Of the fifiieen bishops, one only consented to take the oath of supremacy, and the others, though suffered at first to remain at liberty, were afterwards imprisoned or kept under surveillance for opposing the new regulations. Their places were filled with Protestants. The great body of the clergy, however, accepted the changes without hesitation, and the reformation was thus finally and effectually established. Peace with France and Scotland was made upon reasonable terms, although Elizabeth viewed with great jealousy the young queen of Scotland and her husband the dauphin, who had assumed the royal arms of England, to which Mary, according to the papal edicts, was next heir. The Romanists of England, it was feared, considering Elizabeth illegitimate, would look upon Mary as the lawful claimant of the throne; it was well known that France secretly cherished the scheme of placing her upon it ; and these considerations led the queen to seek a secret alliance with the Protestant faction of Scotland. Persecution had there produced its usual efiect in exciting the zeal and adding to the number of the innovators. The queen-regent, who held, according to her own statement, that the promises of princes should not be performed, "unless it suits their convenience," had by her treachery and severity driven the people into open rebellion. Excited by the famous John Knox, a rude and daring reformer, they pillaged monasteries, expelled their inmates, and destroyed the papistical instruments and ornaments of the churches. The "Con- gregation of the Lord," an association headed by influential nobles, gained great advantages, and compelled her to come to terms ; which, however, she violated at once on receiving forces from France. The king of that country dying in 1559, his son, Francis II., and Mary, openly assumed the titles of king and queen of France, Scot- land, and England. Further aid was prepared for Scotland, and the Congregation, seeing themselves overpowered, applied for aid to Elizabeth. A fleet and army were despatched to their assistance; but hostilities were, for a time, averted by the negotiation of a 530 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. treaty, in wliicli it was proposed (the queen-regent having died) that the French should evacuate the kingdom, and that it should be gov- erned bj twelve persons, appointed by the queen and parliament, and that the claim to the throne of England should be renounced. The young king of France, however, died soon afterwards, and Mary, his widow, finding her situation unpleasant, and urged by her Scottish subjects, concluded to return to her own kingdom. Application was made to Elizabeth for an unmolested passage to Scotland, which was peremptorily refused, unless the Scottish queen would ratify the treaty. This she refused to do, and there is little doubt that her rival, though pretending friendship, privately sent a fleet to intercept her passage. In 1561, Mary, weeping, quitted the land of her adoption. She watched the shores as long as they were in sight, exclaiming, tearfully, "Farewell, France! I shall never see thee more." The rough appearance and want of polish of her new subjects, did not tend to reconcile her to the change; and with her French suite, she was especially annoyed at a loud and discordant serenade which her loving subjects, in their joy at her return, kept up all night beneath the palace windows. She was at this time nineteen, tall, beautiful, talented, and accomplished; and though educated in a sphere so entirely different, reigned for some years happily and prosperously. Murray, her half-brother, a man of great ability, and the head of the Protestant party, aided her with his advice; and she listened with prudent patience to the rough admonitions of Knox. Nevertheless, instigated by her French advisers, she inwardly resolved to restore the ancient faith to its former supremacy ; and had already promised, if she succeeded to the throne of England, to bring that kingdom again under subjection, to the Holy See. The Eomanists were naturally pleased with this ; and those Protest- ants who, including Elizabeth herself, secretly regarded Mary as her rightful successor, were proportionately alarmed. Elizabeth still insisted on the ratification of the treaty, but refused to acknowl- edge Mary as her successor. Both sovereigns being young and personally accomplished, were sought in marriage by a number of ambitious suitors; but Eliza- beth, while by negotiation amusing the parliament, which was anxious to see the succession settled on her issue, secretly deter- mined never to subject herself to the power of a husband. Among foreigners, Philip, Charles of Austria, Eric of Sweden, the duke of ENGLAND. Q^l Holstein, and otlier princes souglit lier hand. At home, Arundel, Pickering, and Leicester, aspired to tlie elevated rank of consort. The latter was a son of the late Northumberland, and the intimacy and partiality of the queen are supposed to have tempted him to the commission of a horrible crime. His beautiful wife died at an obscure residence called Cumnor Hall, from an accident, it was said ; but a strong suspicion of murder was attached to the favourite. Charles sought also the hand of Mary; Philip offered her his son ; the king of Navarre and others of a high rank were desirous of a union with her. Her choice, however, was not free; and the interference of Elizabeth and that of the reformed faction was such, that she could not securely marry without their approbation. Lei- cester and others were proposed; but Elizabeth, although she had thrust her advice upon her cousin, continued, perhaps from female jealousy, to throw obstacles before every project, even such as she herself had suggested. Darnley, a youth of twenty, a subject of Elizabeth, and descended from the royal line of both kingdoms, at last won the favour of the Scottish queen, and in spite of the oppo- sition of England and many of her own nobility, she married him, and bestowed on , him the title of king. Murray, and other lords having taken up arms, she marched against them, riding armed at the head of her troops, and drove them from the kingdom. They took refuge in England, where Elizabeth, while openly denouncing them as traitors, secretly countenanced and assisted them. Mary soon discovered her husband to be brutal, intemperate, and foolish. He lost her favour, which was bestowed entirely upon David Eizzio, an Italian musician. Though it does not appear that any criminal connection existed, the jealousy of Darnley and other nobles was so great, that they resolved to assassinate the favourite. They further agreed to procure for Darnley the title of "crown- matrimonial," which the queen had hitherto withheld, an amnesty for the exiled lords, and the establishment of the Protestant reli- gion. The unhappy Eizzio, while supping with the queen, was dragged out by the conspirators, and despatched with fifty-six wounds. Mary, finding herself overpowered, fled with her hus- band, whom she had prevailed on to accompany her. Collecting a force of eight thousand men, she reentered Edinburgh, and com- pelled the confederates to take refuge in England. Soon after, she gave birth to a son, destined to sit upon the throne of both kingdoms. Darnley had never been forgiven for the murder of her favourite; 532 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. and Bothwell, a daring, ambitious man, witTi whom she was fascin- ated, engrossed all her favour. He received the most distinguished honours, and aspired to greater. Chance favoured his design. The king, who had been ill with the small-pox, was lodged in a lonely house without the walls, where the queen often visited him. With the connivance of some other men of rank, and probably with that of Mary herself, he resolved to destroy him ; and in the dead of night, blew up the house with a mine of gunpowder. Every one suspected him; but the queen continued to lavish favours upon him, and thus increased the public conviction of her own guilt. Attended by a great host of armed retainers, he underwent the mockery of a trial, and was acquitted. His great ascendancy over the queen's mind was next exhibited by her approval of a laAV, protecting the reformed opinions — a measure by which Both well hoped to ensure to himself the support of the Protestant party. Proceeding in his ambitious career, he invited all the nobles assembled in parliament to sup with him at a certain tavern ; where, the house being filled with his soldiers, they all signed an instrument recommending his marriage with the queen, and pledging themselves to maintain it. After a faint pretence of reluctance, she married him, and thus lent an additional weapon to those who accused her of the murder of Darnley. No question in history has been more ably or frequently debated, than that of Mary's criminality or innocence ; but the most reliable judgments have decided that her implication in the death of her husband is placed almost beyond a doubt. She had vowed to revenge the death of Rizzio, and perhaps persuaded herself that she was only permitting justice to be executed upon his principal assassin. Bothwell now exercised the complete authority ; but his rule was short. Several of the principal nobles entered into an association against him, and in less than a month he was compelled to part from the queen, and to fly the kingdom. Mary hei'self, being taken and conducted to Edinburgh, was overwhelmed with insult by the popu- lace, and was finally committed to the castle of Lochlevin, situated in the midst of a lake. She was also compelled, under a threat of instant death if she refused, to sign a resignation of the crown in favour of her infant son. Murray was appointed regent, and the prince was crowned on July 29th, 1567, by the title of James YI. These proceedings were ratified by parliament, and Mary was declared accessary to the death of her husband. Elizabeth, dreading this ENGLAND. 633 example of revolt, strongly expressed her disapprobation, and attempted to negotiate in favour of the captive princess. 'in 1568, Mary escaped from her confinement, and was joined by some of her attached adherents, with a force of eight thousand men. The regent gave them battle at Langside Hill, and utterly defeated them. The queen was compelled to fly precipitately into England. Having arrived, she addressed a letter to Elizabeth, requesting an interview, and desiring assistance in regaining her crown. Both these requests were refused, and, to the deep disgrace of the English sovereign and council, it was meanly determined to take advantage of her helpless situation, and detain her as a prisoner. A commis- sion was appointed to investigate the charges against her, her unnatural brother, Murray, being the chief prosecutor. No final decision was made, as Mary refused to proceed with her defence, except in presence of the queen and nobility of England. Murray, though not acknowledged as regent, was dismissed with a handsome gratuity. Liberty was offered to the captive, if she would resign her crown, or associate the prince with her, and yield the regency to Murray during the minority. This she refused, alleging that such an act would be a confession of guilt. Her demand to go into France was refused, and she was still detained prisoner. Meanwhile, a secret treaty, in which the first nobles of England were implicated, had been made for her marriage to the powerful duke of Norfolk, and her reestablishment upon the Scottish throne. Alliance with England, and an immunity for the reformed religion, were among the stipulated terms. Elizabeth, on hearing the particu- lars from Leicester, who betrayed his allies, committed the duke and other lords to prison ; a step which was soon followed by the celebrated "Rising in the North." The earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, who were deeply implicated in a plot for the deliverance of Mary, raised the standard of revolt, and mustered about seven thousand men. Though professing loyalty to the queen, they proclaimed an intention to restore the ancient religion, and to release the lords from prison. Finding, after some unimportant movements, that they were not supported by the Catholics in gen- eral, their forces dispersed, and the leaders fled into Scotland. Northumberland was afterwards taken and executed, and Westmore- land died in exile on the Continent. Dacres, who, with three thousand men, revolted in 1570, was defeated, after a severe contest, and took refuge in Flanders. 634 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OE HISTOEY. The Englisli queen and council now began to reap tte fruits of their injustice in detaining Mary, and would have delivered her to Murray, but for his assassination shortly after these events. There seems little doubt that at this time there existed an extensive con- federation between the Pope, the king of Spain, and others, aided by the Catholic nobility in England, to restore the ancient religion, and probably to dethrone Elizabeth, and place Mary in her stead. The captive queen was informed of the projects, and, almost as a matter of course, approved them ; and these circumstances filled the minds of Elizabeth and her ministers with that constant jealousy and. alarm, which finally resulted in the disgraceful execution of their prisoner. One Felton, about this time, was executed as a traitor for posting a bull of the Pope (excommunicating the queen, and denying her title). A farther proposal was now made to Mary, to release and restore her to her throne, on con ditions which would have made Scotland a mere dependancy on the neighbouring king- dom. The agreement, however, was not concluded. The reign of Elizabeth, for the first ten years, had been eminently successful and prosperous. She was aided by the advice of the ablest counsellors, of whom Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Yv^as the most distinguished. The Catholics had almost universally conformed to the changes in worship instituted by government, and the queen was generally popular. From the imprisonment of Mary, dates a new period; a period of domestic plots, foreign hostility, and that embarrassment which usually accompanies a persistance in injustice. Those who believed in Mary's guilt, pitied her unjust and unlawful confinement ; and those who were devoted to her person and religion, often resorted to the most desperate expedients. Religion, as in the two preceding reigns, was the principal element in politics; and the state was divided into three parties, each pro- fessing a different belief These were — the Churchmen, who held their faith as established by government — the Catholics, who remained faithful to the ancient Romish belief — and the Puritans, who, emu- lating the continental zeal, would have pushed the Reformation farther, and abolished nearly all the prescribed forms and ceremo- nies. A great historian has considered the reformation of the English Church as the most moderate and sensible of the various religious changes which occurred in Europe. "The fabric of the secular hierarchy was maintained entire ; the ancient liturgy was preserved, so far as was thought consistent with the new principles; ENGLAND. 535 many ceremonies, become venerable from age and preceding nse, were retained; the splendour of the Komish worship, though removed, had at least given place to order and decency ; the distinct- ive habits of the clergy, according to their different ranks, were continued ; no innovation was admitted merely from opposition to former usage. " The tranquillizing effect of these moderate and prudent measures was disturbed bj^ the zeal of the Puritans, who insisted on further changes and further severities toward the adherents of Eome. The discontent was greatly aggravated by Rome herself, who lost no opportunity, by open bulls and private emissaries, to arouse the Catholic subjects. The faction opposed to the latter was numerous and powerful, numbering in its ranks some of the first men in the state. The church party, though nominally in possession of power, was the weakest of the three ; and Elizabeth, though holding the supremacy as one of her most cherished attributes, was yet secretly inclined to transubstantiation, image-worship, and celibacy of the clergy. This last, however, may have arisen from a certain femi- nine jealousy, which led her to discountenance and break off, if possible, the marriages of all over whom she had any control. She had occasionally assisted the French Huguenots with money and men. In 1571, after an interval of five years, parliament met; and as the Puritan interest was predominant, further penalties were enacted against the Catholics. It was also made a high offence to name any person as Elizabeth's successor, except her natural issue. The fol- lowing year, Norfolk, who had been released, was again arrested for having conspired to release and marry the Scottish queen, and to abrogate the lavfs against Catholicism. He was found guilty by a commission of the lords, and finally executed. On the 23d of August, 1572, on the Eve of St. Bartholomew, a terrible massacre of the Protestants took place in France. At least thirty thousand perished; and the Catholics on the Continent were filled with unbounded exultation. England, however, was moved with strong indignation, and the French ambassador, on his presentation, was received by the court in deep mourning, and with profound silence. The queen nevertheless continued a negotiation for marriage with the French king's brother, and soon after stood godmother to his child. The court of London, alarmed at the aspect of foreign affairs, and dreading domestic plots, now began to entertain thoughts of executing g36 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. their prisoner, tlie Queen of Scots, for whose release the Catholic world was so dangerously anxious. Burleigh, Walsingham, and others, thought it advisable; and the bishop of London, writing to the former, suggested as the first step "furthwith to cutte off the Scottish queue's heade." It was first proposed to deliver her to the Scots, on condition that they would execute her ; but this scheme took no effect. The continental Protestants now received aid from England, and their cause began to prosper. A period of some tranquillity ensued. Mary, who had been acquainted with most of the plans for her release, seeing the hope- lessness of her condition, became resigned to her fate; and the Catholics, not being actively molested, remained quiet. Scotland, under the vile regent Morton, was entirely governed by English influence. The national genius for naval and commercial enterprise now broke forth in great splendour. Commerce with Eussia and the Levant was established. The slave-trade in its worst form was commenced by the celebrated Hawkins. Sir Martin Frobisher explored the northern shores of America as far as Hudson's Bay. The most celebrated navigator of the day was Francis Drake, who, after various adventures in commerce and piracy, took, with a pri- vate force, a Spanish town on the isthmus of Panama, and ascending the mountains, beheld the Pacific Ocean. Five years afterwards, in 1577, he set sail, with a very small equipment, for the Pacific, and having lost all his vessels except one, cruised along the western coast of South America, plundering all Spanish vessels which he encountered; then stretching boldly to the west, he weathered the Cape of Good Hope, and reached England, after a voyage of three years, during which he had circumnavigated the globe, and taken plunder to the amount of near four millions of dollars. The queen knighted him, and partook of a banquet in his vessel. She was now deeply engaged in a project for marrying the duke of Anjou, brother to the . French king, and a man very much younger than herself. The plan was generally unpopular; and a zealous Puritan, named Stubbs, wrote a book, entitled, "The Gulf in which England will be swallowed by the French Marriage." Both he and his printer suffered the penalty of losing their right hands. In 1682, while Anjou was at the English court, the queen publicly gave him a ring as a pledge of her acceptance of his suit. The matter was regarded as settled; but Elizabeth, overcome by the arguments and entreaties of her ministers, again dismissed him, ENGLAND. 637 and lie withdrew, flinging away tlie ring, and exclaiming against the fickleness of women, especially islanders. In 1581, new laws were enacted against the Catholics, and tlie former ones were more rigidly enforced; attendance on the pre- scribed services was compelled, under very heavy penalties; and persecution was glutted by the execution of those priests who privately exercised their function. The Jesuits and others were tortured and cruelly put to death as traitors, ten of them being executed on one accusation. In Scotland, the regent Morton, hav- ing been lately beheaded for his former implication in the murder of Darnley, the Catholic faction matured a plan for the joint gov- ernment of Mary and James, which they and other high personages approved ; but this scheme fell through, in consequence of the seizure of the young king by the Protestant leaders. The English influence still retained its ascendancy. Conspiracies were becoming rife again, and the council resorted to every method, even the most dishonourable, to gain information. Letters were written by them to leading Catholics in the name of Mary, and those who replied were arrested. Eminent lords were cited before the council, and the rack was freely used on those of lesser rank, to discover their secrets. There appears, however, to have been little ground for apprehension of a revolt, for the queen was exceedingly popular, and whenever she appeared in public, crowds fell upon their knees, invoking blessings on her head. It was resolved, however, to get some hold upon the life of Mary, and parliament accordingly enacted that if "any invasion or rebellion should be made by or for any person pretending to the crown after her majesty's decease, or any conspiracy against her person," a commission of peers should be appointed, with power to give judg- ment as they might see fit. Further and severer laws, if possible, were also passed against the Catholics. At this time, one Dr. Parry was executed for having designed to assassinate the queen, and, as he averred, by the approval of the Pope himself In 1585, the Dutch being almost overpowered by their enemies, were assisted by England with a force of six thousand men, com- manded by the earl of Leicester. His first campaign was not very fortunate, and that gallant knight Sir Philip Sidney, the model of a soldier and gentleman, lost his life during the siege of Zutphen. Wounded and dying, he gave the water, which had been brought him, to a wounded soldier, who was eying it wistfully, saying, "Thy 638 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. necessity is yet greater than mine." Meanwhile, Drake, who had been despatched to the West Indies, met with great success, took several towns, and returned with much spoil. In 1586, a Protestant alliance was concluded between Elizabeth and James of Scotland. In the same year, a dangerous conspiracy, comprising an insurrec- tion and the assassination of the queen, was detected by Walsingham. The authors of it were betrayed by one of their associates, and, the minister allowed them to entangle themselves fully, while he perused all their correspondence. Mary was apprised of the plan, and, it was said, consented, though this has never been proved to the satisfac- tion of impartial judges. When Ballard, Babington, and the other conspirators had fully committed themselves, they were arrested, tried, and condemned as traitors. Seven of them were executed according to the ancient barbarity of disembowelling alive; the others were previously hanged till they were dead. It was now considered by the court a favourable time to proceed against Mary, and thus rid themselves of one whose imprisonment menaced them with perpetual danger and alarm. Leicester, who had returned, proposed to poison her privately ; but the clergj^man whom he sent to Walsingham, was unable to persuade him of the propriety of this course. A commission of forty noblemen and oth- ers was then appointed under the late act. Mary denied the truth of the charges, as well as the authority of the commission ; but being told that she would do injustice to her reputation by refusing an investigation, finally agreed to plead, provided that her protest against the lawfulness of the proceedings should be received. This was assented to, and the protest was recorded. The testimony against her was of a very questionable character, and she af&rmed that a letter produced as her's, and proving her implication in the scheme, was a forgery. During several days, in which the trial pro- ceeded, she defended herself with the greatest firmness and ability. JSTevertheless, she was found guilty, an event which was almost equally certain before as after the trial. The sovereigns of France and Scotland interfered openly to save her, but it is said that their messengers secretly advised her execu- tion. Indeed, the whole affair indicates such a spirit of cruelty, treachery, and meanness among royal and noble characters, as plainly shows the depraving influence of power and jealousy. More strenu- ous exertions would probably have failed. Elizabeth had now in her power the rival, whose claims to the throne, whose personal ENGLAND. 639 accomplisTiinents, and tlie zeal of whose partisans had. so long rendered her suspicious, jealous, and insecure. On the Scottish ambassadors desiring a respite of her life for eight days, "Not for an hour!" she answered, and abruptly left them. She now most hypocritically pretended an aversion to blood, yet privately sent for the death-warrant, and signed it. Still she felt reluctant to incur the responsibility, and frequently attempted to engage Davison, the secretary, to undertake the private assassina- tion of Mary. Her keepers, however, men of character, and well aware that they would also be made the victims, if they complied, refused bluntly, "to shed blood without law or warrant." At length, finding that private assassins were not as freely at her command as at that of her predecessors, she gave legal orders for the execution of her victim, "swearing with a great oath," says Davison, "that it was a shame to us all that it was not already done," &c. Mary was executed on the 8th of February, 1787, in the forty- sixth year of her age. Although her last moments were disturbed by the fanatical interference of those who conducted the tragedy, she died with the greatest dignity and cheerfulness, asserting to the last her innocence of any intentions against the life of Elizabeth. Whatever may have been her former faults or crimes, it is gener- ally conceded that her execution at the instance of Elizabeth was a crime of the basest character, founded on personal jealousy, and on the alarm continually inspired by the attempts of the Catholics. Her end being attained, however, the queen exhibited the vilest hypocrisy, reproaching her counsellors, and putting her court into mourning. Davison was committed to the tower, and ruinously fined, on the pretext that he had executed the warrant ; but in reality to punish him for refasing the ofiice of an assassin, and to impose upon the public mind by a display of indignation. James, on hearing of the execution of his mother, at first pretended great resentment, but speedily allowed himself to be pacified, well knowing that any serious dispute with Elizabeth might, at some future day, cost him the throne of England. Philip of Spain now preparing for an invasion of the island, Drake was sent against him. This renowned commander destroyed a hundred of his vessels in the port of Cadiz, and gained other sig- nal successes. The English seamen were thus emboldened, and the attempt was deferred for a year. Leicester, who had returned to Holland, met with ill-success, and was recalled. In 1558, Philip 640 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. again made immense preparations, and the prince of Parma, his all J, raised a great force, ready for transportation to the shores of England. Vigorous preparations for defence were made by the English government, and all men between sixteen and sixty were required to exercise in arms. A large army was raised, and a fleet of an hundred and eighty-one vessels, manned by seventeen thou- sand seamen, was provided — chiefly by the zeal of the citizens of London and the nobility. It was commanded by Howard, the lord- high-admiral, and under him, by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher. The Catholics joined heartily in defence of their country. On the 29th of May, 1588, "The Invincible Armada," as the Spaniards haughtily styled it, set sail from the Tagus, imder com- mand of the duke of Medina Sidonia. It consisted of an hundred and thirty ships, two thousand six hundred and thirty cannon, twenty-nine thousand men, and an hundred and eighty priests for the conversion of the English heretics. On its passage up the chan- nel to Calais, (where it did not arrive till the 27th of July,) it was harassed by the lighter and swifter fleet of the English, and several vessels were taken. Here the duke ascertained that the prince of Parma, beset by enemies, was unable to perform his share of the undertaking. The English also sent eight fire-ships into the midst of the Spanish fleet. They weighed anchor, but were much shat- tered by a tempest, and finally concluded, rather than encounter the perils of the channel, to sail round Scotland and Ireland. The English pursued them until ammunition failed. Numbers of their ships were wrecked on the coast, and the crews butchered by the inhabitants. This invincible expedition finally arrived at Spain with a loss of thirty large ships and about ten thousand men. The queen, throughout the impending danger, had evinced great spirit, reviewing her troops in person, and encouraging them by her elo- quence. Her ofl&cers and seamen were generously rewarded. At this time died the earl of Leicester, 'who, for thirty years, had been one of the prime favourites of Elizabeth; leaving the degree and nature of their intimacy a matter of much question for after- times. His character presents a curious compound of crimes and vices mixed with ability, generosity, and magnanimity. In 1589, by way of revenge, Drake and others fitted out a private expedition against Spain, which, after some successes, was compelled to return by the ravages of sickness. Half the troops had perished, and of eleven hundred gentlemen, not one-third returned. Henry ENGLAND. g41 IV. of France, who was at this time engaged in war with the Catho- lic League, was assisted with money and forces; and the English, commanded by Sir John Norris, the valiant earl of Essex, and others, gained many laurels. A naval warfare against Spain was still continued, and Frobisher and other commanders did much injury to her commerce. Maritime enterprise flourished. The East Indies were reached by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. Span- ish towns were captured, and many vessels taken on the coast of South America. In 1595, the gallant Sir Walter Ealeigh made an enterprising voyage and tour of discovery in the same region, seek- ing the famous and fabulous city of El Dorado. Philip making fresh preparations in 1596, it was resolved to attack him. An hundred and fifty vessels, with fourteen thousand men, commanded by Howard, Essex, Ealeigh, and other celebrated commanders, sailed for Cadiz. The Spanish fleet, at anchor there, was defeated; the town was taken, and an hundred and twenty thousand crowns were forcibly levied. The town, with a large number of merchant vessels, was burned, and the entire damage to the king of Spain on this occasion, was estimated at twenty millions of ducats. A fresh expedition of great force, commanded by Essex, and under him by Ealeigh and Sir Thomas Howard, set sail in 1597, but owing to a tempest, and to the want of nautical skill in Essex, effected but little. On their return, Essex fell into disgrace from a ludicrous circumstance. In a warm debate, he petulantly turned his back upon the queen, who instantly dealt him a sound box on the ear. He clapped his hand to his sword, swearing that he would not suffer such treatment from Henry YIII. himself, and left the presence abruptly. He was afterwards restored, apparently, to favour. At this time died Lord Burleigh, for forty years the most sagacious and confidential of the queen's advisers. Ireland, throughout the reign of Elizabeth, had been in a state of almost constant turmoil and warfare. The attempt to force the reformed doctrines upon the people had been met by determined resistance — a resistance which, in various forms, has been actively maintained to the present day. Hugh O'Neal, earl of Tyrone, assisted by Spain, revolted, and defeated the English forces which opposed him. Essex, at his own earnest desire, was sent against him, with eighteen thousand men. Through mismanagement and desertion, he found himself unable to accomplish any thing, and, dreading the influence of his enemies at court, hastened home with- 41 542 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. out orders, and suddenly entered the queen's cTiamber, Taken by surprise, she received him graciously ; but the next day, vexed at his disobedience, committed him to a mild custody. She also refused to renew a monopoly which he had held, alleging that " an unruly beast must be stinted of its provender." Irritated at these dis- graces, he began to meditate a conspiracy, and, more imprudently still, publicly abused the qiieen's person, saying that she was now grown an old woman, and as crooked in body as in mind. Plans were entered into by his partisans to seize the palace, and compel the queen to dismiss his enemies. On the 8th of February, 1601, the earl, who had been ordered to keep his own house, marched through the streets with nearly three hundred knights, gentlemen, and others of his faction; but finding that the people did not join him, surrendered to the queen's troops. Being tried for treason before a jury of peers, he was found guilty, and in a few days beheaded ; the queen exhibiting a great conflict between her pride and the real affection which she felt for him. He died in his thirty- fourth year, leaving a reputation for high courage and magnanim- ity, as well as for rashness and ambition. Others implicated in the the affair shared his fate. In 1602, the Deputy Mountjoy reduced Tyrone and the other revolted chiefs to submission ; and six thousand men, sent to their aid by the king of Spain, were forced to capitulate. Elizabeth was now nearly seventy, and the good health and spirits which she had always hitherto enjoyed, began to fail. The memory of Essex continually haunted her, and she sat for long intervals silent and in tears. Having recovered from an alarming stupor, for ten days she refused food and medicine. As she was evidently dying, the chief officers of state inquired whom she wished to be her successor. She selected James of Scotland, and soon afterwards expired, on the 24th of March, 1603, after a long and (as the term is commonly used) prosperous reign of forty -five years. The vigour of mind, the prudence and success of this sovereign, have secured for her the admiration both of her subjects and for- eigners. Her talent in perceiving merit was equal to her judgment in employing it ; and no sovereign was ever surrounded b}^ more brilliant and able favourites. Her defects were not greater than those of most of her predecessors, though appearing more glaring in a woman. She was excessively fond of dress and display; a trait which, however, increased her popularity. She was passionate, ENGLAND. g43 and wlien incensed, would swear and strike freely. Her reputation for modesty has been often attacked and defended. She has, how- ever, always been an especial favourite with the English nation. During her reign, four persons were burned for heresy, and about thirty Catholic priests, and some of those who harboured them, suf- fered the horrible death of traitors. Owing to the increase of men- dicancy, and the suppression of the monasteries, which had formerly relieved it. Poor Laws became necessary, and Avere, for the first time, enacted. Commerce made great advances, though fettered by gross and oppressive monopolies. Literature attained the highest excel- lence. Shakspeare, Spenser, and a host of other brilliant names, have made the " Elizabethan age " the brightest in the annals of letters. Newspapers, also, at this time first made their appearance in England. With Elizabeth ended the reign of the house of Tudor. During their dynasty, though to all appearance almost absolute, a new and most important power had been gradually growing up — that of the commons. They were cautious, especiallj'- latterly, of provoking it too far; and sought to counterpoise the opposing influence by the creation of new and useless boroughs, to be filled with their own creatures. The iniquitous court of the Star Chamber (so called from the council sitting in a room adorned with stars) was an arbi- trary tribunal, irresponsible except to the sovereign. The High Commission was a kind of Inquisition, composed of prelates and others, having almost despotic power over religious opinions. The exercise of these authorities, opposed by the commons, was destined, at no distant day, to* overthrow the government. uitiAiidiiii AVii, JAMES I. Although, by the will of Henry Ylll. and the accompanying act of parliament, the succession had been otherwise settled, James, who was the hereditary heir, succeeded without the least opposition. This was chiefly due to the efforts of Cecil, the son of Burleigh, who had been in treaty with him for some time before the queen's 644 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. death. The king left a barren and impoverished country, to enter the splendid and luxurious possession which he "facetiously called "The Land of Promise." The popularity which hailed his first appearance was nearly gone before he reached the capital. His per- sonal appearance was ungainly, his demeanour ungracious; and he hanged a pickpocket on the way, without law or trial. A number of Scots were added to the former council, and titles were bestowed with a prodigality that greatly diminished their value. James was at this time thirty-six years of age, and was, as Sully the French ambassador remarked, "the wisest fool in Christendom." The "British Solomon" (as he loved to be styled) was learned, wrote with facility, and possessed a good deJgree of shrewdness and saga- city; but was remarkably destitute of enlarged and practical good sense. Hardly had he assumed the crown, when it was menaced by two conspiracies. One, to surprise the king, imprison him, and secure toleration for the Catholics, was planned by certain priests and Romanists ; the other, to place Arabella Stuart, a lady of the royal line, upon the throne, was the scheme of Lord Cobham and others. Both were detected, and the parties arrested. The most interesting trial was that of Sir Walter Ealeigh, who had been com- mitted on accusation of participating in both. The proof against him was of the most unreliable nature ; he defended himself with great ability and force; yet the jury, to please Cecil and the king, whose succession he had opposed, found him guilty. He was com- mitted indefinitely to the tower. Some of the prisoners were executed, but Cobham, who turned state's-evidence,. was spared. The king's attention was next engaged by a fierce movement for further religious reform, opposed as vehemently by the two univer- sities. A conference of the two parties was appointed. The primate, the bishop of London, and many other ecclesiastics of high rank, appeared to defend their ceremonies; but when the case of the petitioners was stated, the king flew into a passion, told them that their purposes agreed with monarchy "as well as God and the devil," and said he would never hearken to them until he was pursy and fat, and needed exercise, which such doings would be sure to give him. With other similar abuse he disposed of the case ; and the prelates assured him that he had spoken by the spirit of God, and that there had never been such a king since. the time of Christ, Orders for strict conformity were immediately issued, and a griev- ous though bloodless persecution commenced. ENGLAND. 545 Presently danger sprung up from tlie opposite quarter — the equall}^ injured Catholic party. In the year 1604, a number of ardent and unscrupulous Eomanists conspired to strike a terrible blow at their enemies. Their object was nothing less than the entire destruction of the royal family and both houses of parlia- ment. For a time they endeavoured to mine through the basement of the parliament-house, and afterwards hired a cellar under it, which had been used for storing fuel. After long and arduous exer- tions, they succeeded in conveying thirty-six barrels of powder to this receptacle, and covered them with large stones and logs of wood. Parliament was to meet on the 5th of November, 1605, and it was arranged that on that day the magazine should be fired, and the Catho- lics should assemble, and proclaim as queen the Princess Elizabeth. A few days beforehand, a letter was received by Lord Monteagle, warning him, in ambiguous terms, not to attend the opening of par- liament, and hinting at some unforeseen and awful calamity. This excited suspicion ; diligent search was made ; and on the day before the 5th, the mine was discovered, and Guy Fawkes, the principal agent in this horrible scheme, was arrested on the spot. When brought before the council, like a thorough fanatic, he avowed his intention, and gloried in it. The names of his associates were forced from him by the rack, and they were mostly apprehended. A small number, who had openly risen, were forced to surrender. The principal conspirators, eight in number, were executed after the bar- barous manner of the times, vindicating and defending their scheme to the last. Though attempts have been made by the more zealous and prejudiced of their opponents to throw the odium of this "Gunpowder-plot" upon the mass of English Catholics, it seems certain that, great as their provocation to revenge might be, it met with their hearty abhorrence. The king was anxiously desirous to bring about a legal union of the two kingdoms; but succeeded only to a comparatively small extent. For a number of years he carried on a continued contest with the commons, struggling to gain subsidies without conditions ; and they, on the other hand, endeavouring to obtain the reform of purveyance, and other ancient abuses. Salisbury, (Cecil, the son of Burleigh) his chief adviser, died in 1612. In the same year died Prince Henry, the heir-apparent, a youth of the highest promise, and greatly beloved by the people. The circumstances of his death, and the subsequent conduct of James (who regarded him with jeal- 646 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. ousy) have given rise to suspicions of an unnatural crime; but there is little foundation for such a supposition. The king's prime favourite for a long time had been the earl of Somerset, a man of high personal accomplishments, but destitute of principle and integrity. He flourished for many years in the royal favour, but was finally supplanted by George Yilliers, a younger and more pleasing rival. Somerset's implication in the horrible murder of Sir Thomas Overbury, in the tower, furnished a sufficient pretext for his disgrace; and the new favourite soon enjoyed almost unlimited power, controlling the king and all around him. Through his influence. Sir Walter Ealeigh, after an imprisonment of thirteen years, was released, and permitted to command an exploring expedition to Guiana. Various misfortunes and the hos- tility of the Spaniards compelled him to return unsuccessful; and Gondomar, the Spanish ambassador, whose near kinsman had been slain in one of the encounters, sought his revenge. To the eternal disgrace of James, who was anxious to marry his son to the Span- ish infanta, he consented to the sacrifice of this great man, and, reviving the ancient sentence, gave orders for his execution. He died with the greatest courage and cheerfulness, leaving a splendid reputation as a soldier, a statesman, and an author. Sir Edward Coke, the chief justice, who had boldly defended the laws against the encroachment of the royal prerogative, was dis- missed from his office. Sir Francis Bacon, a man of the highest abilities, but of a mean and time-serving disposition, was appointed to the office of chancellor. In 1621, a parliament being summoned, proceeded to inquire strictly into the existing abuses. The most celebrated culprit impeached by them was Bacon, now Viscount St. Albans, who was arraigned for bribery and corruption in his office. He was found guilty, made a full confession, and was sen- tenced to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. These penalties were remitted by the king, and five years afterwards this celebrated man died in solitude and disgrace — a memorable instance of high talents and splendid opportunities, debased by the want of principle and honesty. His philosophical works have always been held among the most valuable and original in the English language. The session terminated in a fierce quarrel with the king, who resented the advice of the parliament on state affaii's, dissolved them, and committed some of the most prominent members to prison. In ENGLAND. g^.^ hopes to conciliate Spain, the Catholic penalties were, by his authority, greatly relaxed ; and negotiations for the marriage of Prince Charles to the infanta were diligently carried on. Yilliers, who was now mar- quis of Buckingham, had gained a complete ascendancy over the mind of the prince, as well as that of his father. He persuaded Charles to set off with him for Spain, in person, and, by browbeating the king, gained his consent. These young knights errant, under the names of Jack and Tom Smith, passed rapidly through France, and were received with great distinction at Madrid. Articles of marriage were agreed upon, and a day for the espousal was fixed; but the whole matter Avas finally broken off by the caprice of Buckingham, who had taken some offence, and whose influence with the king was irresistible. By his intrigues and misrepresentations, the commons were induced to believe that the fault lay with Spain; the people, ever hostile to that nation, exhibited the greatest delight at the prospect of a war : and parliament voted three hundred thousand pounds for carrying on the contest. In 1624, the prince was contracted to Henrietta, sister of the French king ; but James was not destined to witness the completion of his favourite project. He died on the 27th of March, in the following year, after a reign of twenty-two years. The mixture of learning and folly which characterized this monarch, has left his memory associated with somewhat of the ludi- crous; while the grossness of his personal habits, and the mean selfishness which marked his political career, have oppressed his name with deserved odium. During his reign, the experiment of colonizing Ireland with English inhabitants was attempted on a large scale; and though many circumstances retarded its progress, the general effect has been favourable to the civilization of that country. Eeligious jealousy and bigotry continued in full force throughout his reign ; the chief contest being between the Churchmen and Puri- tans. To the latter, though gloomy and censorious, the liberties of England are highly indebted. They always stood foremost in par- liament to defend the laws and the rights of the subject against the usurpations of the royal prerogative; yet, with a strange inconsist- ency, would have altogether denied to the Catholics that liberty of conscience which they so manfully upheld for themselves. Their good deeds have, however, survived them, while the evil that alloyed them has, in a great measure, disappeared. 548 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKT. CHAPTEB X?H CHARLES I. Chakles, wlio became king at tlie age of twenty -five; was of a grave and hanglaty character. His morals and manners contrasted most favourably with those of his predecessor ; but he was a bigoted believer in the absolute authority of kings, and Buckingham, the odious favourite, still maintained his entire preeminence. The king married Henrietta, and soon afterwards met his first parliament. Opposition to the court was excessively strong — the Puritans and the defenders of civil liberty greatly outnumbering their opponents. Subsidies were scantily and reluctantly voted, accompanied by requests for the redress of grievances. An impeachment of Buck- ingham was in agitation, when the king, to save his favourite, dissolved the assembly. He, however, by arbitrary measures, raised money for the war with Spain, and despatched Lord Wimbledon, with a large fleet, to attempt the conquest and plunder of Cadiz. This expedition failing, through the incapacity of the commander, Charles found himself obliged to summon another parliament. This body at once proceeded to agitate grievances, deferred voting subsi- dies, and impeached the duke of Buckingham, charging him with venality, embezzlement, and other misdemeanours. He made a plausible defence, but before determination of the case, Charles again dissolved the parliament, declaring that he would give an account of his actions to God only, "whose immediate vicegerent" he claimed to be. He then commenced a course of arbitrary despotism; levying taxes without authority, and severely punishing those who refused compliance. Several persons of note having been thus committed to prison by the council without any cause assigned, the judges, on a writ of habeas corpus, decided that the king's authority was supe- rior to the law, thus totally abrogating the liberty of the subject. Buckingham, to gratify a private quarrel, now involved the nation in a war with France ; and with a hundred sail, set out in person for Eochelle, a strong Huguenot city. He showed much per- U ±1 A K L E S I K 1 i: G O T E N G L A N Jj . .VKr Ii K THF OTUIUNAT. rORTRArr r.T Vi"NDyKE, NOW PHESE:-1';ED in the MUbKIJil Or THE LOUYRE ENGLAND. Q.^Q sonal gallantry, but, owing to his want of generalsliip, was forced to retreat, with a loss of two thousand men. In this strait, parliament in 1628 was again summoned, and, as a conciliatory movement, the political prisoners, seventy-eight in number, were set at liberty. The}^ were all elected to the parliament, an assembly which was principally composed of men ardent for popular reform. The king told them plainly and haughtily, that he had only called them to vote supplies. They immediately complied, but annexed to the vote of subsidy four conditions, securing freedom from arbitrary arrest and royal taxation. For two months the matter lay pending, and then the celebrated "Petition of Eights," embracing nearly the same particulars, was passed, and received the royal assent. Having thus obtained the money which he sought, Charles prorogued the parliament, privately resolving, however, not to fulfil the conditions of his agreement. At this time the duke of Buckingham, who was at Portsmouth, preparing to take charge of a fresh expedition, perished by the hand of John Felton, a fanatical assassin, stimulated by private revenge and misguided zeal for his faction. The victim was only thirty-six, but had for a long time ruled England as completely as he had unworthily. Sir Thomas Wentworth, one of the most distinguished of the liberal members, was now gained over by the king. He received title and oflS.ce, and became the principal adviser of Charles, and the staunchest supporter of despotic measures. In 1629, parliament reassembled, and, after some preliminary disputes with the king. Sir John Eliot introduced a set of resolutions strongly denouncing Popery, and declaring any one who should levy or pay the obnox- ious claim of "tonnage and poundage" an enemy to the state. Great confusion ensued, and some violence, but the motion was received and passed with acclamation, and the house then adjourned, disap- pointing the king, who had given orders to break up their meeting b}'- force. Parliament was immediately dissolved, and Eliot, Avith other leaders of the opposition, was committed to the tower. All were heavily fined, and Eliot ended his days in prison. Charles now resolved to dispense altogether with parliaments, and a course of absolute despotism, destined to last* for twelve years, immediately commenced. Laud, the primate, a man of narrow views and a persecuting spirit, persuaded the king to enforce a great variety of religious usages and ceremonies which he prescribed. These so strongly g50 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. resembled those of tlie cliurcli of Eome, that the Pope even sent over an envoy, trusting that England was about to renew her submis- sion to the See. Severe punishments were inflicted on all who opposed these innovations. Cropping, branding, the pillory, imprisonment, and enormous fines were freely inflicted. The violence and tyranny of the Star Chamber, in these times, fully equalled that of the worst despots by whom England had ever been oppressed. The king, meanwhile, raised a large revenue by every species of exaction. Among other oppressions, he revived the odious monopo- lies and the forest laws, by which many persons were ruined. The large sums thus obtained, were applied to the support of government and the maintaining a brilliant and extravagant court. In spite, however, of many cases of individual hardship, and the tyranny exercised over conscience, the country in general flourished and prospered during this period — a result imputable, not to the sj^stem of government, but to the natural energy of the English people, stimulated by increasing civilization and new fields for enterprise. The tax of ship-money, levied upon the maritime parts of the coun- try, for supplying the expenses of a fleet, had been submitted to, though with reluctance ; but the king determined to collect it from all parts of the kingdom, and thus assure himself of a permanent revenue. This was resisted, and the memorable trial of John Hamp- den, in which the legality of this imposition was full}^ argued, occurred in 1637. It was adjudged lawful by a majority of one; but the assumption of absolute authority put forth by the king's council, and its confirmation by the judges, justly alarmed the people. The money, amounting to two hundred thousand pounds a-year, was paid with great dissatisfaction. Persecution for freedom of speech and action on religious matters had now become so outrageous, that the Puritans and patriots began to turn their eyes for refuge to the New World. In 1629 a charter had been obtained for a colony in Massachusetts. More than three hundred persons had already sailed, and numbers, seeking freedom of conscience, now followed them. In 1638, many persons of emi- nence resolved to quit their country; and it is said that Hampden and his relation, Oliver Cromwell, were actually on board a vessel, when, by the royal proclamation, they were prevented from sailing. In Scotland, great commotions had been excited by the determina- tion of the king and his advisers to insist on conformity to the English church. By the direction of Laud, many of his innovations ENGLAND. Q^l were ordered to be enforced ; but the people every Vv^bere received tbe English liturgy with resistance, and in some cases with violent disturbances. Their meetings to petition against the distastefal measures were declared treasonable, and both sides prepared for a resort to force. The "Solemn League and Covenant," denouncing the innovations, and pledging all its subscribers to resist them, was signed bj nearly the whole Scottish nation. A free parliament and church assembly was also demanded. The assembly met ; the king, dissembling, suddenly assented to all their demands ; and they pro- ceeded to overthrow the entire fabric of Scottish Episcopacy. Meanwhile, Charles had raised supplies by every means in his power, and advanced into Scotland, with a force of twenty-three thousand men. His resisting subjects, under Lesley, lay at Dunse- law; where their camp resounded from morning to night with sermons, prayer, and psalmody. Finding their force superior, and his own disheartened, the king again consented to negotiate ; a par- liament and an assembly were again summoned ; and the royal assent to the decision of the latter was again given. Nevertheless, by the advice of Laud and of Wentworth (now earl of Strafford,) the king resolved to make another attempt to subdue Scotland by force. Strafford, the lord-deputy, returned to Ireland, where he was abso- lute ruler, summoned his parliament, and obtained ample supplies of money and arms. Large sums were also voluntarily subscribed by the royalists of England. An English parliament was now finally summoned, in 1640, though the liberal and Puritan party were in the majority; and the king, telling them he wanted no advice or interference, demanded a sup- ply of money. They, however, headed by Pym, immediately commenced a debate upon the various grievances, and after a fruit- less attempt at adjustment, were dissolved by the king in three weeks. Hostilities with the Scotch were at once commenced ; and these, receiving forged letters of invitation, entered and took pos- session of the northern English counties — Charles being unable, from the want of funds and the disaffection of his troops, to oppose sufficient resistance. His power, which for twelve years had been exercised in such an absolute and tyrannical manner, was draw- ing to its close ; and in the same year, he found himself under the necessity of summoning another parliament. On the 3d of November, 1640, met the celebrated "Long Parlia- ment" — a body composed mostly of men of high character and g52 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. influence, and having a strong majority of liberal members. Their first act of importance was to impeach the powerful earl of Strafford of high treason. The judgment of Hampden was reversed; and one of the judges was arrested on the bench, and taken to prison as an example of terror to the rest. Laud also was impeached and committed to the tower; while many of the imprisoned Puritans were released and compensated. The king's methods of raising money were declared illegal ; and a bill, to which he was obliged to assent, was passed, providing for a triennial meeting of parliament. Petitions against Episcopacy poured in from all sides. In hopes to save Strafford, the king admitted a number of liberal lords into the privy council, and even entertained a scheme for form- ing a cabinet of the chief members of the opposition — which project falling through, increased their bitterness. The trial of the earl took place at "Westminster Hall, on the 22d of March, 1641. The favourite had every thing to apprehend, both from his own arbitrary practices and the temper of those opposed to him. Both as Presi- dent of the North, and Governor of Ireland, his rule, though vigorous and effective, had been arbitrary and tyrannical in the extreme. All his advice and all his political influence had been directed to the purpose of making Charles an absolute and independent monarch. For thirteen days, charges were exhibited against him, from which he defended himself with great manliness and eloquence. His acts certainly did not legally amount to treason, and the house resorted to the odious measure of passing a bill of attainder — a proceeding fully as arbitrary and tyrannical as any of which their prisoner had been guilty. The popular clamour for his execution was great ; and after some feeble and ineffectual attempts to save him, the king, to his eternal disgrace, signed a warrant for the execution of the man who had been his chief adviser, and whose crimes, if such they were, had been committed with his own sanction, and for his own advantage. "Put not your trust in princes," said the unfortunate man, on hearing of his betrayal. He died with the greatest courage and magnanimity, in the forty -ninth year of his age. The king next assented to a bill providing that parliament should not be dissolved or adjourned until the grievances in ques- tion were redressed. Feeling themselves more secure, they next voted a large sum to the Scots, and suppressed the court of Star Chamber and that of High Commission. Some supplies were granted ; but the king incurred renewed distrust by an attempt to ENGLAND. 653 induce the armj to declare for him. Parliament, however, from various causes, had lost much of its popularity. Church reform was again vehemently agitated without; and several measures were car- ried, attacking the prelates and enforcing Puritanism. The armies were disbanded, and Charles hastened to Scotland, where he -increased the popular distrust by attempting to seize the persons of several noblemen, against whom he had a charge of treason. Meanwhile, a terrible rebellion broke out in Ireland, where the native Catholics had long been jealous of the English heretical intruders. This discontent had been aggravated by a great usurp- ing seizure on the part of the crown, and by the severities of Strafford. On the 24th of October, 1641, the original inhabitants, by previous agreement, rose simiiltaneously in Ulster and other places, expelled the English settlers, and seized their goods. They soon proceeded further, and an indiscriminate massacre commenced, accompanied with circumstances of atrocious cruelty. The priests and friars, it is said, were the principal inciters of this outrage, in which many thousands perished, and vast numbers were driven from their homes. Charles, having done much to conciliate the leading Scottish nobles, returned to his capital, where, by a reaction of popular feeling, his reception was marked with much warmth and loyalty. The opposition in parliament, displeased at this, passed a "Pemonstrance," recapitulating all the illegal acts of the king, and laying the blame on the "malignant" party of royalists — Cromwell declaring that if it had not been carried, he and many others would have left England for ever. The bills which were pro- posed for the suppression of the Irish revolt, failed from the dispute between the king and parliament, as to the royal right of impress- ment ; the commons feared to intrust him with an army ; and the unfortunate Irish Protestants were sacrificed to the jealousy of these conflicting interests. A bill, depriving the bishops of their votes in the House of Lords, was next proposed, and was accompanied with such popular vio- lence, stimulated by the opposition party, that they were unable to attend parliament, and sent in a protest against all acts done in their absence. For this they were impeached and committed to the tower. Quarrels between the citizens and the king's guard increased, and blood was shed in some of these encounters. In January, 1642, the king committed a piece of violence and im.prudence that rendered the breach irreparable. Having accused 654 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. five members of the House of Commons, including Pym and Hamp- den, of treason, he went down to the house in person, attended by a numerous guard, for the purpose of seizing them. It is said that he was stimulated to this rash step by the haughty queen, who told him to go and "pull these rogues out by the ears/' or never to see her more. Being warned beforehand, they escaped; the com- mons were furious at this invasion of their privileges; and the whole city took up arms, under the greatest excitement. Parlia- ment dissolved for the present, averring themselves unsafe; and a committee was appointed to inquire into all the particulars. The king, beset with tumultuary petitioners, retired to Hampton court, at some distance from London. The house shortly met, and the five members, conducted by an immense procession, and receiving the highest honours, resumed their seats. Four thousand men on horse- back, from Hampden's shire, came to complain of his accusation, and to proffer their services for the popular cause. The tower, garrisoned by the king's men, was blockaded by order of the parliament, and other hostile measures were taken — instigated, doubtless, by a knowl- edge of the king's designs, betrayed by a member of his household. Parliament, which had long been anxious to get the entire control of the military force, now passed an act for putting all forts, castles, and other strong places, into the hands of such officers as they could confide in. This, with other measures, was sent to the lords, backed by the petitions of immense numbers of poor people, porters, Avomen, and others, threatening, if refused, to take the law into their own hands. The queen was now despatched to Holland, with the crown jewels, to provide arms and ammunition for the coming contest. An irreconcilable dispute ensued, as to whether the power of com- mand should be first vested in the king, without which he abso- lutely refused to sign the bill. In the civil war which was now approaching, the parliament were by no means free from blame. They had, in many instances, violated the constitution and the royal prerogative ; they had imprisoned (in one case for life) those who spoke violently against their proceedings ; and had intimidated the minority of their own body, by committing them to the tower, on the least license of debate. They had, moreover, encouraged riotous mobs and petitions on their own side, while promptly suppressing those of the royalists. Their only excuse for these acts may be found in the fact, that they were dealing with a man utterly faith- less, and determined to crush them on the first opportunity ; that it ENGLAND. 655 was a struggle for life or death; and that, in their situation, thej dared not stand upon abstract justice, or even allow fair play to their opponent. The point of open rupture was their demand and his refusal to surrender an undoubted legal authority over the troops. The nobility and gentry of the north flocked around him, and he assumed a more elevated tone. With a few hundred attendants he went to Hull, for the purpose of securing the magazine ; but Hotham, the governor, by order of parliament, refused to admit him. By the same authority, the stores were soon after removed to London. Both sides Avere now busy in enlisting and disciplining troops. Before actual hostilities, parliament sent the king an ultimatum of nineteen articles, putting all power into their own hands, and com- pletely changing the constitution. He indignantly refused consent, and nine of the lords who had joined him Avere impeached. With four thousand men he made an unsuccessful demonstration against Hull, but was compelled to retire. Parliament voted to levy a large army; and by loans and voluntary contributions, they raised abund- ant supplies. The country was now every where divided against itself, parliament holding nearly all the strong places and magazines, and being supported by the inhabitants of most of the towns; while the great body of nobility and gentry, much of the rural population, and all the Catholics, espoused the cause of the king. But every county, town, and village was divided; and different members of the same family might often be found adhering to opposite sides. The earl of Essex was appointed to the command of the parlia- mentary army — a large and motley array, many of them, as Crom- well said, "decayed servingmen and tapsters, and such kind of fel- lows." His own regiment, composed of substantial countrymen, formed a notable exception. Goring, the governor of Portsmouth, having declared for the king, a force was sent against him by par- liament. Charles hereupon proclaimed Essex and his followers traitors, and summoned all loyal subjects to meet him in arms at Nottingham on the 25th of August, (1642). From this place he moved on that day with a small force, which, by the time he arrived at Shrewsbury, amounted to eighteen thousand men. He was also joined by his nephews, the Princes Rupert and Maurice, who each received important commands. Goring at Portsmouth, and the marquis of Hertford, in the West, had been overcome by the par- liamentary forces; and on the 23d of October, the two armies, commanded by the king and Essex, engaged at Edgehill, a bleak 656 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. eminence overlooking the Yale of ttie Red Horse. For the first time since the days of Richard III., Englishmen now engaged in battle among themselves. Rupert making a fiery charge, scattered the force opposed to him; but pursuing them too far, was unable to return in time to render effectual assistance to the king. Night ter- minated the conflict, two thousand having been slain, of whom nearly an equal number belonged to either side. Both, claimed the victory, but the real advantage lay with the king, who, after some negotiation, marched to Oxford, and passed the winter there. In January, a committee from London waited on him with fourteen unreasonable propositions, to which he replied by others quite as impracticable. The next month the queen retvirned, having nar- rowly escaped the violence of the enemy with her life, and was impeached of high treason by the parliament. The advantage in various local contests had been chiefly on the side of the royalists ; but parliament disavowed all treaties or truces which the different factions had concluded, and Essex, with fifteen thousand men, sat down before Reading, which surrendered on honourable conditions. Here he remained, detained by disease and desertion among his troops. A plot in London for the king's benefit, and another in Bristol, were detected by the commons, and several persons of eminence were hanged— the poet Waller, who was engaged in the former, basely betraying his associates. Stringent measures followed ; but the parliamentary army, under their general. Waller, after some indecisive engagements, sustained a severe defeat near Devizes, (13 th July, 1643). The queen, with a large reinforcement of troops and military stores, joined her husband, and the royal cause, encour- aged by several victories, began to flourish. Rupert, assisted by Colonel Hurry, a deserter from the parliamentary army, sallying fi'om Oxford, had fallen upon the quarters of Essex, near that town, and had defeated or captured several regiments. In the action which ensued during their return, the gallant and patriotic Hampden was mortally wounded, and died in a few days. His death was an irrep- arable loss to England; for he was respected by both sides, and might probably by his mediation have averted the calamitous scenes which followed. On the 27th of July, Rupert took the town of Bristol, and Prince Maurice about the same time reduced the most of Devonshire. Essex had retired in discomfiture to Kingston. The affairs of parliament now began to look desperate, and they ENGLAND. 657 sent a commission to Scotland, to entreat assistance. London was also intrenched; but it seems probable tbat the king might have marched thither, and perhaps ended the war at once. He stopped to lay siege to Gloucester, which soon after was relieved by Essex, with a force of fifteen thousand men. The latter wished to avoid an engagement, but was furiously attacked by Rupert with five thousand horse; and the next day a general action took place near Newbury. The contest lasted until night, with great loss to the royalists, the gallant and patriotic earl of Falkland being among the slain. Essex returned to London, and the king again wintered at Oxford. During the siege, several nobles had repaired from London to the king; but with his usual ill-judgment, he received them coldly, and they were soon again found in the ranks of the opposi- tion. He also did great injury to his cause by making a private peace with the rebellious Irish, receiving a large sum from them, and ordering the regiments stationed there to return to England. A solemn league and covenant had now been entered into with the Scots, by which the latter were to furnish twenty-one thousand men, and a committee from both nations was to sit at London, and carry on the war.. A new "Great Seal" was put in commission, bearing the impress of the parliament in session. Soon after these events, died the celebrated John Pym, chief leader and prompter of the opposition — a man of great talent and republican principles, but somewhat implicated in the more questionable transactions of his party. To satisfy the popular affection for parliaments, Charles summoned one on his own account, which met at Oxford in January, 1644. The rival body at Westminster, however, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. Both parties raised money by every means in their power ; by forced and voluntary loans, taxes, excises, and the sequestration or plunder of such property of their opponents as could be reached. The Irish troops, which arrived and joined a detachment of the king's forces, at first gained some advantages, but were finally defeated, with great loss, by Fairfax and Brereton. The royal forces, under the earl of Brentford and Hopton, were also defeated by Waller. The Scots, under the earl of Leven, advanced into England, and effecting a union with their allies, under Fairfax, Lord Kimbolton, and Cromwell, laid siege to York, which was defended by the earl of Newcastle. Charles, on the approach of Essex and Waller, quitted Oxford, but afterwards routed the latter near Bunbury, and forced him to retreat. Rupert, with twenty 42 g58 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. thousand men, marched to the relief of York, which was hard pressed; and, passing the enemy, entered the city. Having received positive orders from tlie king to engage the besiegers, he marched out the next day, (July 2cl,) and the two armies, each about twenty- five thousand in number, encountered on Marston Moor. Eupert, with his usual impetuous valour, charged the right wing of the enemy, and drove them from the field. The attack on the centre was also successful, and the Scots fled in confusion; but Cromwell, who commanded the other wing, defeated his opponents. Sir Thomas Fairfax, rallying his troops, joined him; tViey took the royalists in the flank; and the battle ended by a complete victory of the parliamentary army. Four thousand were slain, the greater part royalists; fifteen hundred of them were made prisoners, and all their artillery and baggage was taken. Rupert retired to the West, and Newcastle, with other lords, betook himself to the conti- nent. York, surrendered, and the Scots, moving homewards, took Newcastle by storm. In the west of England, however, the royal cause was more fortunate; and Essex, surrounded in Cornwall by the forces of Prince Maurice, left his army, which soon was obliged to surrender. An indecisive action with the parliamentary forces, under Waller and the earl of Manchester, during which Charles fled from the field, terminated the campaign. The revolutionary party was now much divided, especially by religious schisms. Cromwell, an independent in religion and a republican in politics, was embroiled with some of the leaders of rank on the parliamentary side. An ordinance was passed, requir- ing members of either house to lay down their commands and offices. The army was at the same time remodelled; Sir Thomas Fairfax being made commander-in-chief (1645). The trial of Archbishop Laud, accused of attempting to intro- duce popery and arbitrary power, had been for a long time on hand ; Prynne, whose ears had twice been cut off" during the late tyranny, being one of the principal conductors of the proceedings against him. The accused primate made an excellent defence, and a con- viction of treason being found impossible, an attainder was passed. He was beheaded on Tower Hill, in the seventy-second year of his age, dying with all that constancy and courage which has usually distinguished the execution of religious or political martyrs. Through the Scottish influence, a form of worship similar to the Presbyterian was introduced, with penalties provided for those who OLIVER CROMWELL,, LORD PROTECTOR OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF EM This singular man, perhaps the most original character in British history, wns horn in moderate circumstances, at Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599 Both in parliament and at the head of the revolutionary forces, he played a most conspicuous part against Charles I. and the loyalist party. Afber the exe- cution of the king, he attained, under the title of "Protector," the actiia] sovereignty of the three kingdoms, and, during the remainder of his life, held the government -with a firm and prudent hand. His character appears to have heen composed of an extraordinary mix ture of piety, courage, amhition, hypo- crisy, remorselessness, and love of country. He expired Septemher 3d, 1658, worn out -with the cares of war and of empire. ENGLAND. 659 adhered to tlie Episcopal rites. Nearly two thousand clergymen and collegiate officers were, at the same time, ejected from their liv- ings. On the 20th of January, by mutual agreement, commissioners on both sides of the civil contest met at Uxbridge, for the purpose of discussing the subjects in dispute; but after more than a month's debate, were unable to agree upon terms. The king, always san- guine, was rendered more confident of the final restoration of his full power by the late successes of the earl of Montrose. That devoted partisan, with a force of Irish and Highlanders, had gained a brilliant series of victories in Scotland, but finally, overpowered by numbers, was compelled to retreat into the mountains. On the 9th of May, Charles, with ten thousand men, took the field, the enemy retiring before him. He stormed and plundered Leicester ; but on the 13th, Fairfax, with the parliamentary army, engaged him near the village of Naseby. Rupert, as usual, charged success- fully, but, through mismanagement, threw away the advantage; whereas Cromwell, who commanded the right wing, having broken the opposing ranks, fell upon the rear of the king's centre, and decided the day. After an obstinate and bravely-contested action, during which the leaders on both sides distinguished themselves, Charles was compelled to withdraw from the field. The parliament gained an important prize in his private letters, which they shortly afterwards published. These fully showed his insincerity in the late negotiations, and his application for assistance to foreign powers and to Ireland. He now began to expect nothing but final ruin; and every day brought tidings of the surrender of some royal stronghold; yet he would not consent to any other terms than those which he had offered at Uxbridge. After ravaging the eastern counties, he again took refuge in Oxford, where he was greatly encouraged by news of the fresh and brilliant successes of Montrose. The earl, breaking from the mountains with a force of six thousand men, had defeated the Scottish army with terrible slaughter ; great part of the country submitted to him ; and Lesley, with his forces in England, was com- pelled to return in haste to his own country. With five thousand men, the king again sallied forth from Oxford, but after some suc- cesses, was defeated with loss by General Poynts, and finally returned with only five hundred of his followers. Montrose, too, after a gallant defence, had been also overcome by numbers, and was again forced to retire into the Highlands. The king, meanwhile, QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. had been in treaty witli the Irish Catholics, who, in consideration of religious toleration, engaged to supply him liberally with men and money ; but the misfortunes of the royal cause in England pre- vented any effectual aid. The whole south and west of England had been reduced to submission ; and many strongholds, some of which had held out for years, were reduced, one after the other. The parliamentary army, new-modelled by Cromwell and other able commanders, had become, for its numbers, the most irresistible which the world has ever seen. The remarkable men who com- posed it, were mostly zealous Puritans, men of sober life, but filled with political and religious enthusiasm, fighting alike with the zeal of patriots and fanatics. Nevertheless, Charles kept up separate negotiations with the Scots, the Independents, and the Presbyte- rians — thinking, and justly, that his name and party, joined to either of these, would secure it a preponderance. As the parliamentary forces closed around Oxford, he left that city in disguise, and trav- elled into Norfolk, sending an emissary to negotiate terms with the Scots. They agreed to receive the king, and, it would appear, held out hopes of assistance never intended to be realized. He repaired to their camp at Newcastle, on the 5th of May, 1646, and soon found himself held in a kind of honourable imprisonment. He there rejected further propositions from his revolted subjects, the same in effect which had been debated before. On the 1st of Feb- ruary, 1647, the Scots surrendered him to the parliamentary com- missioners, four hundred thousand pounds having been voted them for their services. This has given rise to the accusation, which seems not entirely unfounded, that they delivered him up to secure the payment of their arrears. The civil war, which had endured nearly four years, was now at an end. The king was in the hands of his enemies, and the last strongholds of his party soon surrendered. Montrose, by the command of his master, laid down his arms, and retired to the Continent. Dublin, and other Irish towns, with their garrisons, were surrendered by Ormond, the lord lieutenant. The contest, carried on so long, and with such bravery on both sides, was disgraced by few of those excesses (either during its continu- ance or after the final triumph) which commonly distinguish a social war. The Presbyterian influence was predominant in parliament, but the Independents controlled the army; and, moved by Cromwell, now their leading adviser, they stubbornly refiised agreement to the ENGLAND. 661 schemes in agitation for their disbandment, or employment in Ire- land, Their arrearages of pay, and certain other satisfactions, were peremptoril}'- demanded. At length, parliament, alarmed at the atti- tude of their powerful and dangerous servants, issued positive orders to disband them.. To this they replied by seizing the king's person, and conducting him to Newmarket — a step not disagreeable to Charles, who was encouraged (perhaps by Cromwell, who had secretly planned this movement) with the hope of receiving the sup- port of the soldiers. Parliament recalled their order, but in vain. The army marched near London, and the legislative body, overawed, sought to appease it; eleven of the most obnoxious members being compelled to seek a sort of voluntary exile. Their prisoner was treated with great respect and indulgence. Fairfax, the parliamentary general, was entirely under the control of Cromwell and his son-in-law, Ireton, who both really entertained designs of restoring the royal authority ; but Charles, elated by a belief that the people were moving in his favour, refused "Pro- posals" from the army, far more reasonable than any which had yet been offered him. Parliament, urged by the citizens, at last pre- pared for resistance, and endeavoured to levy a force more devoted to their interests. They were, nevertheless, compelled, in effect, to put the city into the hands of the discontented troops. Meanwhile, the king enjoyed great liberty, on his parole, and had frequent interviews with Cromwell. The latter, with Ireton, earn- estly sought to effect an accommodation, on the basis of the late "Proposals" of the army, but met with such opposition, both in the house and army, especially from the "levellers," that they could not carry out their views. It is said that, in event of success, Cromwell was to have been made an earl, and, with Ireton, held certain important oflEices. Charles, however, meanwhile, was in secret treaty with the Scots, and it is said that Cromwell intercepted a letter to the queen, declaring his intention of hanging his present allies, whenever he should recover his power. The anti-royal party, moreover, was too strong, and a plot was formed, it is said, by the levellers, to get possession of the king's person. Charles, on learn- ing this, (probably from Cromwell, who desired to save him,) pri- vately escaped, and repaired to Sussex. Thence, intending to escape to the Continent, he betook himself to the Isle of Wight, where Hammond, the parliamentary governor, received him honourably, and permitted him to go at large. 652 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOEY. Cromwell, meanwhile, had suppressed a dangerous mutiny among the troops, and had executed one of the ringleaders. Per- ceiving, however, the fixed determination of the army to destroy the king, he determined to preserve his popularity by joining their party ; at the same time, warning Charles to escape as soon as pos- sible. The latter, however, was in treaty with the Scots; and, rejecting terms again offered by the parliament, entered into a pri- vate agreement with the Scottish commissioners. On learning this, Hammond immediately put him in greater security, and thus frus- trated all the measures which were attempted for his escape. Par- liament immediately (January, 1648.) passed resolutions to use no further negotiation with him ; and made it high treason for any one to communicate with him without their permission. The great body of the people, though in favour of royalty and the existing constitution, were held in check by the army, which was mostly opposed to monarchy as a matter of religion. The Scottish royalists, in pursuance of their agreement, attempted to raise forces, but found much difficulty, from the opposition of the clergy, who were dissatisfied that the Presbytery was not made absolutely compulsive on the English. The English partisans of the royal cause, tired of waiting, took up arms prematurely, and after a few successes, were defeated by Fairfax and Cromwell. The Scots, with fourteen thousand men, finally entered the kingdom. Sir Marmaduke Langdale, with four thousand men, engaged the parliamentary army at Preston, and fought with such intrepidity, that had he been supported by his Scottish allies, he would vindoubt- edly have defeated them. But the latter concluded a series of feeble movements by a retreat on this occasion ; their infantry was forced to surrender ; and the English royalists dispersed. Colches- ter, after a gallant defence of three months, was taken by Fairfax, and several eminent royalists were executed by sentence of a court martial. The prince of Wales, with nineteen ships, sailed from Holland to the Downs, and for some time negotiated with parlia- ment ; but was unable to bring the enemy 's fleet to an engagement, and was finally compelled to return by the want of provisions. Parliament, alarmed at the feeling in the army, opened fresh com- munication with the king; but nothing was agreed on — Charles firmly refusing to abolish the Episcopal church, or to surrender his friends to their vengeance. Petitions for a republic in its fullest forms were presented to parliament; and in some, especially from ENGLAND 663 the Independents, tlie king's punishment was strongly suggested. Finally, a large "Remonstrance" came from the army, demanding the same things in explicit terms. It was rejected, but the king, in some alarm, yielded to the demands of parliament, though only ostensibly. He was then again conveyed to Carisbrooke castle, in the Isle of Wight. Here he might have escaped, but refused to break his parole. He was soon after seized by a detachment of the soldiers, and confined in Hurst castle, on a rock in the sea. The army immediately marched to London, and there took up their quarters. Parliament assumed a firm position, and voted, by a large majority, that the king's concessions were sufficient. But on the following day, December 6th, 1648, two regiments came to the house, and Colonel Pride, the commander of them, forcibly detained all members opposed to the will of the army. Some were imprisoned, and others excluded from the house, which was thus reduced to about fifty members, and was afterwards commonly styled the Rump Parliament. Cromwell had been absent, but on his return approved of the proceeding. Every thing was now done according to the will of the soldiery, the real arbiters of the fate of the kingdom. The miserable rem- nant of a parliament tried in vain to throw the responsibility of the king's arraignment upon their masters, the army ; but were com- pelled to continue their work. On the 1st of January, 1649, they voted it treason in a king of England to levy war against "the par- liament and people; and sent an ordinance for the king's trial to the lords. The latter, only sixteen in number, unanimously rejected it, and the commons, voting their own house the supreme authority of the nation, passed the ordinance themselves. An hundred and thirty-five persons, members, lawyers, oflicers of the army, and citi- zens, were appointed as a court; and on the 20th, about seventy of them attended at Westminster Hall, where the proceedings were opened with considerable state and formality. An accusation was publicly read, charging the king with attempting to "rule according to his will," with traitorously levying war against the people and parliament, enumerating the various battles in which he had been present, and finally impeaching him as "a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and a public and implacable enemy to the Commonwealth of Eng- land." He smiled on hearing these abusive epithets, and answered by demanding their authority for these proceedings, and refusing to acknowledge the legality of his arraignment. The trial lasted several 654 THE TEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. days, Charles still denying botli tlie authority of the court and the crimes alleged against him ; and reasonably asserting that their pro- ceeding was a tyrannical exertion of "power without law," On the 27th, the king waived all further defence, seeing that it was useless. He was found guilty, and sentence of death was passed against him by a unanimous vote of all present, sixty-seven in number. He was refused liberty of speech, and various insults were offered him on his way back, which he bore with much patience and kingly magnanimity. On the next day, a proposal was made to him by some of the principal persons in the army and parliament, that his life and crown should be secured to him on certain conditions, which would place almost entire power in their hands and those of the army. This, to his honour, he indignantly rejected. Ambassadors sent from Holland interceded for him to no effect, and a warrant for his execu- tion was signed by fifty -nine of the commissioners. It is said that Cromwell, with that strange buffoonery which he would sometimes mix with the most serious business, marked one of his fellow-judges in the face with the pen which signed his name, and received the same compliment in return. On the 30th of January, the king, who had throughout evinced the highest calmness and self-possession, was conducted through a window of the palace at Whitehall, upon a scaffold built in front of it. He made an address, in vindication of his career, but admitted that he suffered justly for having consented to the execution of Strafford. He also declared that he died a martyr to the rights of the people. Having performed his devotions, he said to the attend- ing clergyman, "Remember," knelt down, and was beheaded at one blow by a masked executioner. A dismal groan broke forth from the multitude assembled before the scaffold, and many pressed for- ward to dip their handkerchiefs in his blood. Charles Stuart died in the forty-ninth 3'ear of his age, and in the twenty-fourth of a reign which, for several years, had been merely nominal. His pri- vate morality and domestic virtues have, in the eyes of many, thrown a mantle over the crimes and errors of his political career. He was bigoted, despotic, and insincere; and had doubtless forfeited his throne by many acts of injustice and oppression. Still, his exe- cution was a violent and unlawful procedure, wholly discountenanced by most of the English people. It was the work of men equally unprincipled with himself, and especially of a body of military ENGLAND. g(55 officers, who felt insecure so long as any one was alive who could call them to account for their share in the revolution. Its value, however, as an example to arbitrary rulers, has been great; being the first instance in which a king had been tried and executed by his own subjects for offences against them. The Lords Hamilton, Holland, and Capel were beheaded a few days afterwards. THE COMMONWEALTH. Immediately after the execution of Charles, the office of king and the House of Peers were abolished by the commons, and a new Council of State, consisting of forty-five members, was chosen for the executive. Bradshaw, who had presided at the trial, was made president of it, and the illustrious Milton was Latin secretary. By new elections, and the readmission of certain members, parliament was increased to about an hundred and fifty in number. The great majority of the people, especially the Royalists and Presbyterians, were opposed to the new government; but it was supported by the zealous Independents, and especially by an army ably officered, and forty thousand strong. The levellers, however, both in the army and elsewhere, poured in petitions for yet further changes; formi- dable mutinies broke out, but were suppressed by the energy of Cromwell, who defeated the malcontents, and exec^ited a number of them. When the news of the king's execution reached Scotland, the parliament of that nation forthwith proclaimed the prince of Wales, under the title of Charles II., on condition of his adhering to the covenant. The prince, who was at the Hague, gave unsatisfactory ansAvers, hoping much from Montrose, who, with a few hundred adventurers, had landed in the North. He was, however, defeated, and captured by his enemies, the Presbyterian party, and was hanged with much ignominy at Edinburgh. He perished in the thirty-ninth year of his age, having won a wide renown for valour and loyalty, QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. thougli occasionally stained witli cruelty. Other royalists of distinc- tion shared a similar fate. Charles, on learning the event, publicly declared his approval of the fate of his devoted follower, and at once closed with the conditions of the Scots. He landed in their country, where his insincerity was sufficiently punished in the miser- able treatment he received. Though allowed the title and forms of roj^alty, he was constantly watched; and was harassed almost to death by the interminable prayers and sermons of the clergy, reflecting on the guilt of his father, the idolatry of his mother, (a Catholic,) and especially on any levity of his own. In Ireland, the royalists, assisted by the Scottish army, had gained considerable successes; and Cromwell and Ireton, with other able officers, were sent over. Their enemies had sustained a severe reverse already; and, two weeks after his arrival, Cromwell stormed the town of Drogheda, put the garrison, upwards of two thousand, to the sword, and massacred a great number of the defenceless inhabitants. "Their friars and priests," he remarks in his despatch, " were knocked on the head promiscuously with the others." In the church alone, one thousand of the unfortunate people were massacred. At Wexford, which he took shortly afterwards, similar atrocities were perpetrated; three hundred women, who had gath- ered around the great cross, as some protection, being all murdered together. The unhappy prisoners were shipped as slaves to the colonies. By these and similar exhibitions of courage and ferocity, he took many strongholds, and departed in May, 1650, leaving the command to Ireton. Fairfax resigned his command, and Cromwell was appointed by parliament captain-general of all forces in the commonwealth. On the 22d of July, he marched into Scotland with sixteen thousand veteran soldiers. His opponents, occupying favourable positions, might have repulsed him; but were embarrassed by the fanatical zeal of the clergy, who insisted that all " malignants " should be dismissed from the army, that it might be composed entirely of " saints." The army, thus purified, under Lesley, engaged the invader at Dunbar, and was entirely defeated, with a loss of three thousand slain, ten thousand prisoners, and all their artillery and baggage. The whole country south of the Forth submitted to the conqueror. The defeated nation now gladly allowed the proscribed malignants to enlist in their behalf; Charles was crowned at Scone on the 1st of January, 1651, and by great exertions an army of twenty thousand ENGLAND. QQ'J men was got together under arms at Stirling. Cromwell, however, had pushed his conquests so rapidly, that their communication with the North was entirely cut off, and Charles determined on the des- perate step of a march into England. With fourteen thousand men, he entered Carlisle; and marching rapidly to Worcester, was there solemnly proclaimed. Few, however, joined his standard; and the parliament, recovering from the alarm into which they had been thrown, proclaimed all his abettors guilty of high treason, and ordered the militia to Worcester. Cromwell himself arriving, found himself at the head of thirty thousand men, and speedily engaged the Scottish army, consisting of less than half that number. They fought for five hours with great gallantry, but were overpowered by numbers, and driven into the city. Cromwell stormed the fort, put its garrison of fifteen hundred to the sword, and turned its guns upon the city. This victory (which Cromwell called his "crowning mercy") was overwhelming' — three thousand of the Scots being slain, and nearly all the others made prisoners. Several distinguished leaders were executed, and the prisoners were barbarously sent to the plant- ations as slaves — a piece of cruelty first commenced by the parlia- ment, and afterwards continued by the kings. Large estates and honours were bestowed on the victorious general and his officers. The defeated prince, flying in disguise, met with many narrow escapes and strange adventures. At one time, surrounded by ene- mies, he was compelled to secrete himself among the boughs of a tree, afterwards called, from this circumstance, the "Royal Oak," and greatly venerated by all loyal subjects. He finally escaped to Nor- mandy, after having been assisted or recognised by more than forty persons, not one of whom betrayed him. Scotland now entirely submitted, and a commission was appointed by the English parliament to regulate its affairs. A union was pro- jected; but before the terms were settled, parliament itself had fallen, and Scotland remained a conquered country, secured by a chain of new fortresses. Ireton, after subduing nearly all Ireland, died of the plague, and Ludlow completed its subjugation. A commission was appointed to settle its affairs, and all who had been opposed to parliament were punished in the severest manner. Two hundred, many of them people of rank, were executed, and ruinous forfeit- ures transferred a great part of the landed property to the soldiers of Cromwell, and to other adventurers. The natives, driven from their possessions, became formidable by private robbery and violence. 668 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. The Dutch, aggrieved by several acts of hostility, had fitted out a large fleet, and their admiral, Van Tromp, had fought an indeci- sive action with the English commander, Blake. War was soon after declared by the parliament, and the Dutch commander's fleet, being dispersed by a storm, lost five of its ships to the English. De Witt and De Euyter, who succeeded him, fought other naval battles without any decisive result. Van Tromp, being restored to his command, sailed with seventy ships to the Downs, and engaged Admiral Blake, who had only half that number. They fought an entire day, when the English admiral, who had lost five ships, ran np the river, and Van Tromp, with a broom at his mast-head, for some time insultingly swept the English channel. This disgrace was, however, speedily avenged. With seventy sail, and large reinforcements of marines, Blake again encountered him on the 18th of Februar}?-, 1653, while convoying a fleet of merchantmen; and, in an action of three days, the Dutch lost thirty-five vessels, nine of them ships of war. The Long Parliament, which had sat for twelve years, and which had degenerated into a mere faction of selfish men, seeking their own interests, was near its end. Aware of the ambition of Crom- well, they commenced disbanding the army, but were checked by a forcible petition, aiming at their own authority. During the win- ter of 1652-3, the general had carefully fomented the discontent among his ofiicers, representing the greediness of the parliament, and its neglect of their interests. Finally, on the 20th of October, as the house was about to pass a bill thwarting his wishes, he went down to them with a party of soldiers, whom he left in the lobby. As the speaker was putting the question, he arose and commenced a speech, warming as he proceeded. Accusing them of injustice, self-interest, and other faults, he cried, "The Lord has done with you, and chosen other instruments for carrying on his work that are more worthy." A short altercation ensued; he stamped his foot, and the soldiers entered. After abusing several of the members personally, and accusing them of drunkenness, debauchery, &c., he cleared the house of them, ordering "that fool's bawble," the mace, to be carried ofP. No effective resistance was made by any one, and this celebrated body was dispersed without the least sympathy from the nation which it had latterly tyrannized over and plundered. ENGLAND. QQQ ■U Jb (JU bu uj iL Lu iXJ uu 6 t6u> Of l6w THE PROTECTORATE, ETC. By agreement of Cromwell and the leading officers, a new council of state was appointed, consisting of thirteen members, in imitation of Christ and tlie apostles — nine of them, Cromwell included, being officers. He perceived, however, that something in the form of a parliament must be convoked to satisfy the people, and accordingly there met at Whitehall an hundred and twenty persons, selected by the council from a number chosen by the congregational churches. In a "grave, seasonable, and Christian speech," he informed them that the reign of Christ would, he supposed, commence from that date, and gave them a written authority to act for fifteen months. This assembly, called Barebone's Parliament, (from Praise God Barebone, a member,) was an honest but wrong-headed set of men, who commenced the necessary work of reform with injudicious alacrity. Besides useful enactments for the abolishment of sinecures, for economy, for education, &c., they at once fell upon the system of law, which they proposed to abolish entirely, and to substitute a kind of pocket code, accessible to all — a scheme, from the diversity and magnitude of the subject, utterly impracticable. They also attacked the right of presentation to livings, and thus brought the whole bar, the clergy, and the aristocracy in opposition to them. Cromwell, seeing their want of judgment, and their feeble position, induced a considerable portion to retire ; and the remainder were unceremoniously turned out, like the Long Parliament, by a file of soldiers. Nearly all gave in their resignations, and the council forthwith adopted a new constitution, conferring upon Cromwell an authority altogether regal. On the 16th of December, 1653, he was installed with great state at Westminster in the office of "Protector of the Commonwealth," which he accepted with feigned reluctance. By the new instrument he Avas to hold the supreme authority, assisted by a council, and to exercise all the functions of royalty. A parliament was to be sum- moned once in three years, and, for five months, was not to be dis- solved, except by its own consent. Provision was made against 670 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. royalists, Catholics, and other enemies of the commonwealth. This piece of usurpation was probably a fortunate thing for the nation, which might otherwise have fallen from one state of anarchy into another. The protector took advantage of the authority placed in his hands until the meeting of parliament, to decree an ordinance of union with Scotland, and other important matters. A conspiracy of the royalists for his assassination was detected, and several of the contrivers were executed. Success had meanwhile attended the British arms. On the 2d of June, the Dutch fleet of an hundred sail, commanded by Tromp, De Ruyter, and others, fell in with that of the English, of equal force, under Greneral Monk, Dean, Penn, and Lawson. After an action of an entire day, the English fleet, reinforced by Blake, gained the victory with the loss of a single ship, while their oppo- nents, whose vessels were mostly smaller, lost twenty-one. In an another action, with the same force, under Monk and Tromp, the latter, after a long and doubtful contest, was again defeated, and fell in the fight. Peace was declared in 1654; and commercial treaties were also made with other powers. The elections for parliament had been perfectly free ; and it was soon evident that the party of the protector was in a minority. The members immediately commenced a vigorous debate upon his authority and their own ; and for the third time he employed mili- tary force, and excluded all who would not sign a " Eecognition " of four points. These were : Supreme power in one man — successive parliaments — liberty of conscience — and a united command over the army by both parliament and protector. About this time, Cromwell, in one of his usual frolics, attempting to drive six fiery horses, presented to him by a German prince, was upset, and nearly lost his life, much to the delight of the Cavaliers. As soon as the five months were at an end, he dissolved the parliament in the midst of their business — reproaching them with their inertness and encouragement to the enemy. A singular coalition between the royalists and idtra-republicans was now planned, and an ineffectual rising was made. A number of the leaders being apprehended, were executed, and the other pris- oners were shipped for slaves to Barbadoes. Severe measures were now taken against the royalists, especially noblemen, cavaliers, and clergy, and excessive taxes were imposed on the disaffected party. To levy these, and to carry out his other arbitrary measures, he ENGLAND. g7J_ divided England into eleven districts, eacli under a major-general. These officers had almost unlimited power, and the nation soon found that the despotism of the Stuarts had been feeble, compared with the iron rule of its new master. Foreign affairs were conducted with vigour and manly spirit. The protector demanded of Spain free trade in the Atlantic, and non- molestation of English subjects by the Inquisition, The Spanish minister answered that the two points in question were the two ejes of his master, neither of which he would allow to be put out. Crom- well had, meanwhile, prepared two fleets, one of which; of thirty sail, under Blake, had gone to the Mediterranean, enforcing satisfac- tion for English losses, and chastising the piratical states of Africa. The other, of the same force, had sailed to the AVest Indies, and, after an attempt on Hispaniola, rendered fruitless by mutiny and disease, made a descent on Jamaica. A terrible persecution of the Protestants in Piedmont called forth his interference, and the duke of Savoy was compelled to allow them the free exercise of their religion. This occasion also formed the subject of those sublime verses of Milton, commencing, "Avenge, Oh Lord, thy slaughtered saints, whose bones Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold." A treaty of alliance Mdth France was concluded, and the Jews, through, the protector's liberality, were permitted to reside in Eng- land, whence they had been banished since the reign of Edward I. An extraordinary and somewhat formidable alliance was secretly made between Charles, the levellers, and the court of Spain. Mean- while, Cromwell summoned a parliament for September, 1656. In spite of the exertions of government, many bostile members were returned; but, as the council was empowered to examine their cjualifications, about one hundred were excluded, under various pre- texts, such as immorality, &c. Large supplies were voted for the war with Spain; and Cromwell entertained strong hopes of receiv- ing the title of king, to which he had for some time aspired. To conciliate the popular favour, he refused to protect the major-generals from suits for their previous oppressions. Another scheme for his assassination was disconcerted, but the chief conspirator died mys- teriously before execution. When the first movement in favour of his elevation was made in the house, great excitement and disorder ensued; but after long 672 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. debate, and strong opposition from tlie army, it was voted, in a "Humble Petition and Advice," that tie should be requested to accept the title of king. He affected great surprise and consterna- tion, deferring his answer. The opposition of the army, his main dependance, was, however, so implacable, that he perceived the danger of assenting; and in a long, embarrassed speech before par- liament, to the surprise of almost every one, declined accepting the new honour. The word "protector," was substituted in the "Peti- tion," which empowered him to appoint his successor, and to nominate members for the "Other House," as it was phrased. He was inaugurated with great solemnity, and with somewhat of regal ceremony, at Westminster, on the 12th of May, 1657. The house then adjourned for six months. At this time appeared the cele- brated pamphlet of Colonel Titus, entitled "Killing no Murder," and strongly advocating his assassination. Admiral Blake, after several brilliant exploits against the Spanish fleets, and the capture of much treasure, died while reentering the harbour of Portsmouth, He was interred, with a magnificent funeral, in Westminster Abbey, Parliament again met in January, 1658, the protector having summoned sixty persons, mostly nobles and gentlemen, to form the "Other House." But the excluded members of the commons had been allowed to resume their seats; the rights and title of the other body were immediately discussed; and Cromwell, perceiving that his authority was not preponderant, went down to them, and, after various reproaches, dissolved them — thus for the fourth time taking the entire government forcibly into his own hands. He now seemed at the height of his j)ower. Conspiracies and preparations for invasion were disconcerted by his address ; his arms and policy prospered abroad; but he was oppressed with deep mel- ancholy, and constantly dreaded assassination. The death of his favourite daughter Elizabeth, added to his grief; and it is said that, in her last moments, she remonstrated with him on his course of violence and usurpation. His own illness soon followed, and he seems to have manifested some anxiety concerning an hereafter, though comforting himself with the reflection that he had once been in a state of grace, from which, his chaplain assured him, it was impossible to fall. On the 3d of September, the anniversary of the victories of Dunbar and Worcester, and which he had ever regarded as his fortunate day, death ENGLAND. 673 "Deposed him gently from his throne of force, And laid him with the earth's preceding clay." A terrible storm, wliicli accompanied this event, was variously interpreted by his adherents and the royalists, according their own sentiments. The career of this remarkable man, originally an obscure country gentleman, forms the best comment upon his char- acter and principles. Commencing with patriotism and religious enthusiasm, (which never quite forsook him,) he ended with engross- ing ambition. The funeral of the late protector was conducted in a stjde of magnificence which England had never before witnessed ; and his son Richard was proclaimed in his stead, without any opposition. He was a man of amiable temper, but unfit for the stormy and perilous times in which he assumed this weighty office. He was speedily obliged to make concessions to the army, and in January, 1659, summoned a parliament. The Protectorists constituted about one- half of the house ; Republicans and Moderates, among whom were some royalists, the remainder. His recognition was carried with great difficulty, after a fierce debate. The Republicans united with the army; and the majority, in alarm, voted that the officers should no longer meet in council. The troops, however, disobeyed the protector, and adhered to their own commanders. He was conse- quently obliged to dissolve parliament, and put himself into their hands. By a general council of the officers, the remains of the "Long Parliament" (dissolved by Oliver in, 1653) were again summoned, and sat in their house, to the number of forty-two. While the various factions in the house and army were debating over their respective plans, the royalists were secretly active. The leading Presbyterians were all won over to the cause of Charles, and it is even said that Richard, now the mere shadow of a ruler, tempted by the offer of a title and a large pension, entertained the same views. A premature rising, however, in Cheshire, was easily suppressed by Lambert, who then hastened to London, where he was in hopes to gain the supreme power. After much altercation among the ambitious officers, and some show of military force, par- liament was again dissolved, and the power left with the council of the army until another could be summoned. General Monk, who commanded in Scotland, was a man of mod- erate views and supposed to be a supporter of the present form of 43 674 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. government, Lambert was sent against him by the army; but he amused him with negotiation, meanwhile strengthening his own authority in every possible way. In England, the officers continu- ally lost ground ; the fleet and various strongholds declared against them; and finally, in November, 1659 the soldiers in London, desert- ing their officers, declared for parliament, and reinstated the remains of the Rump. These immediately remodelled the army, dismissed fifteen hundred officers, and proceeded to punish their late dis- turbers. Fairfax and Monk had seized upon York, but the latter, profoundly dissembling his real sentiments, refused to proclaim the king, and even caned an officer who charged him with the design. Being invited to London, he marched thither with five thousand men, still keeping his intentions wrapt in impenetrable secresy. Meanwhile, the royalists were every where busy, and the loj^alty of the city daily increased.' Tlie common council was at open variance with the parliament; and Monk, seeing that he could act with safety, insisted upon a dissolution, that a free parliament might at once be summoned. This resolution caused great joy and excitement among the citizens — the excluded members, some of whom had been expelled for more than eleven years, resumed their seats ; and all acts against the king and royalists were annulled. Monk was made commander-in-chief, and this memorable body adjourned, for the last time, on the 16th of March, 1660. Monk, though still pretending to support the new commonwealth, entered into communication with Charles, advising him what meas- ures to pursue. Partially following his suggestions, the prince forwarded a declaration, with letters to the two houses, the city, the army, and the navy. The parliament, which met on the 25th of April, had been elected in the freest manner, there being no inter- ference on the part of the government. The royalists were in a decided majority. The Republicans, with Lambert at their head, had attempted to get control over the army, but he and his coad- jutors were taken, and committed to the tower on the 24th. The House of Peers also gradually reassembled, no one opposing them. On the 1st of May, the letter to the House of Commons was delivered, and the bearer received the thanks of parliament, with a handsome reward. Those to the city, army, and navy, were also read to them, and addresses to the king were unanimously voted. The declaration contained promises of amnesty, liberty of conscience, and the settlement of titles and military arrears — all, however, CliaKLES il. fR 'J'HE ORIGINAL, HY SIH FETER LK3.T. "Fhoi-i swfii M souool, it miguc have been expected that a young man who vriuted ueithei" iibiUties nor amiable qualities, would have come forth a great Hud good king. Charges came I'orth from that school, with social habits, with Tioiite and engaging manners, and with some talent for lively conversation, ■nddieted beyond measure to sensual indulgence, fond of sauntering and of frivolous amusements, incapable of self-denial and of exertion, without faith m human virtue or in human attachment, Avithout desire of renown, ar'^ with- out sensibility to reproa.ch ' — IvlAC,\ni,AT s History of England ENGLAND. 675 referable to the decision of future parliaments. These promises were plainly of little value, since every one might see that the next parliament would probably consist of devoted royalists; and Sir Matthew Hale and others urged a final settlement of all points in dispute between the crown and parliament. Through the influence of Monk, however, this was overruled; the house rung with accla- mation, and Charles was restored to the throne without the slightest limitation. He was proclaimed on the 8th of May, with great solemnity, and landed on the 2oth at Dover, where he was received by Monk, with many of the nobility and gentry. He made a tri- umphant progress to the capital, attended by a great concourse of people. The city received him with the greatest exultation, and he remarked that it must have been his own fault that he did not come sooner, since all protested that they had longed for his restoration. The Commonwealth and Protectorate, after an existence of eleven years, thus ended. They had never been popular with the greater portion of people, attached to the ancient forms, incapable of appre- ciating true liberty, and associating the late government, naturally enough, with military rule and heavy taxation. They had, however, been of great service in destroying slavish reverence for ancient usages, and opening the way for a gradual and more enlightened reform in the constitution. vj ujcL) UiOi ii X iLt iLii Ui^ i£^ CHARLES II. The nation, after its relief from the rigid rule of the Puritans, ran wildly into the opposite extreme of gayety and licentiousness. The king rewarded with titles and offices such as had been chiefly instrumental in his restoration. Parliament settled on him an income of one million two hundred thousand pounds, various feudal revenues of an oppressive nature being relinquished in return. The excise on liquors was devoted to defray this new expense. The army, consisting of sixty thousand men, was gradually and peace- ably disbanded — only about five thousand being retained. Twenty- QJQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. nine of tliose who had officiated at the trial of Charles I. were arraigned before commissioners, all were found guilty of treason, ten of them were executed, and the remainder were imprisoned for life. The bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw, were taken from their tombs in Westminster Abbey, ignominiously dragged to Tyburn, and hung oil the gallows. Their heads were afterwards fixed on Westminster Hall, The king was crowned with great solemnity on the 23d of April, 1661, and the new parliament met on the 8th of May. Titles gained by action of the late government had been already annulled, and the new assembly, which was strongly royalist, proceeded at once to restore the Episcopal Church and its ceremonies, by the most stringent measures — enacting, among other things, that all officers of corporations must take the sacrament according to the rites of the established church. Sir Henry Yane, who had received from Charles an assurance of his life, was, at their instance, tried and executed, justifying to the last the late king's sentence and his own political career. In Scotland, the royal commissioner summoned a parliament, composed of unprincipled wretches, and called, from the continual inebriety of its members, "The Drunken Parliament." A law was passed annulling all previous acts, since 1633, and the country was at once laid open to the mercy of a greedy and revengeful faction. The duke of Argyle and other distinguished covenanters were exe- cuted, and it was resolved forcibly to replant Episcopacy. Charles had been for some time in treaty for marriage with Catha- rine, the infanta of Portugal. On the 20th of May, 1662, she arrived in England, and was shortly afterwards espoused to him ; but fell down in a fit on being compelled to receive as one of her chief attendants Lady Castlemain, the favourite mistress of the king. She was, nevertheless, obliged to submit; and the king, for many years, was ruled by a succession of favourites, who, by their num- ber and beauty, seemed rather the appendages of an oriental seraglio than of an English and Christian court. The " Act of Uniformity " was strictly enforced, and about two thousand of the clergy forfeited their livings rather than give assent in full to the Book of Common Prayer. A severe statute against all who should attend any religious meetings except those of the church, soon filled the prisons with persecuted dissenters, especially with the Quakers, who had now increased into a considerable sect. ENGLAND. Q'J'J In 1664, tlie Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, in North. America, was claimed as belonging to England by right of discovery, was taken possession of without resistance, and named New York, in honour of the king's brother, James, duke of York. By this, and similar acts of hostility, war was brought on, and parliament voted two millions five hundred thousand pounds to defray the expenses of the contest. In April, 1665, the duke of York, who had effected great improvements in the navy, put to sea, with more than a hundred ships, and for a month rode triumphantly along the coast of Holland. On the 8d of June, Admiral Opdam, with an hundred and thirteen ships, came out, and engaged him ofi" the coast of Suffolk. The action, which was violently contested, resulted in the entire defeat of the Dutch, with the loss of their admiral, eighteen ships, and seven thousand men. At this time the plague broke out in London, and committed dreadful ravages. During the summer of 1665, the city was half- depopulated by the death and flight of its inhabitants. Immense pits were dug, in which the dead were thrown almost indiscrimi- nately. More than a hundred thousand died of this terrible disease, and the mortality in other places was in proportion to the density of their population. Other misfortunes speedily followed. On the 1st of June, 1666, the duke of Albemarle, with fifty ships, was defeated with great loss, by a superior force of the Dutch, under De Witt and De Euyter. This disaster was in some measure coun- terbalanced by a more successful action, and the destruction of a vast number of Dutch merchantmen. On the 2d of September, a fire broke out in the capital, which, increased by a violent wind, spread rapidly over the city. The king showed unusual energy and humanity; but the people were panic- struck by the suddenness and fury of the conflagration. It raged for several days, and was at last subdued only by blowing up various houses with gunpowder. Two thirds of the citj^ comprising thirteen thousand houses and eighty-nine churches, had been destroyed ; and vast numbers of the people were reduced to extreme distress by the want of shelter. The city, however, was soon rebuilt in a greatly improved manner, and a lofty monument, ascribing this disaster to the Papists, v^as erected on the spot where the fire commenced. These misfortunes, and the utter mismanagement of the treasury, so crippled the resources of the country, that, in June, 1667, the Dutch fleet entered the Thames with impunity, sailed up to Upnor, 678 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. and burned several ships of war. Their cannon were heard even in London, and men now turned their thoughts to the memory of one whose body had been dragged to Tyburn, and whose head was yet bleaching on the great Hall of their city. Whatever had been his faults of violence or usurpation, Oliver Cromwell had, at least, never suffered a foreign foe to alarm the shores of England. After the coasts had been insulted by De Kuyter for six weeks, peace was concluded. Lord Clarendon, the high chancellor, and father-in-law of the duke of York, had heretofore been the king's principal adviser. He was bigoted and intolerant, but superior in principle to most of the statesmen of his time. Both qualities had made him many ene- mies; the king was weary of his lecturing; and, more than all, he would not permit his wife to visit Lady Castlemain. The nation was incensed at the recent misfortunes, and his dismissal from ofl&ce and banishment from the kingdom were generally satisfactory. In his foreign retirement he completed the able and elegant historical works which, more than his political career, have preserved his reputation, A new ministry was now formed, consisting of some of the most profligate men in England, and called, from the initials of its mem- bers, the "Cabal," The duke of Buckingham, son of the favourite of Charles I., and a man of great ambition, talent, and levity, was the prime favourite of the king, and, though without any ostensible office, was the most influential member of government. Most of these venal officials were soon in the pay of Louis, the French king. Charles and his brother were both secretly Catholics, and in 1669 resolved to remove the obstacles which prevented them from making an open profession of their faith. The aid of Louis was sought, and promised, in event of the change producing an insurrection. Mean- while, persecutions against the dissenting ministers continued with much rigour, and the odious trade of informers was openly encour- aged by parliament. The court viewed these proceedings with satisfaction, hoping assistance from the dissenters in obtaining uni- versal toleration. A secret treaty was concluded with Louis, by which the two nations were to conquer and divide Holland, and to seize on other important possessions — the French king bearing the chief expense ; and Charles was to declare himself a Catholic as soon as the measure should appear safe. The Cabal commenced raising supplies for the contest by the most odious means. One million ENGLAND, 679 three hundred thousand pounds were procured, and a vast number of persons ruined by the seizure of such revenues as were pledged for the payment of previous debts. A piratical expedition was also despatched to seize the Smyrna fleet belonging to Holland, with which power the nation, as yet, was in friendly alliance. It was, however, disconcerted by the address of the Dutch government. War was then formally declared (1672) — various petty and frivolous reasons being alleged by the French and English sovereigns, whose true motives, however, were the desire of conquest and the hope of dealing a fatal blow to the Protestant interests in Europe. Other powers entered into this iniquitous confederacy. Hostilities commenced at sea, the Dutch, under De Euyter, losing three ships to the duke of York. Louis, with an hundred thousand men, poured into Holland, reduced a great part of it, and advanced within three leagues of Amsterdam. The people, in an ignorant phrensy, murdered the De Witts, their ablest and most patriotic leaders, and put at their head William, the young prince of Orange, (a son of Mary, daughter of Charles I.,) whose genius and courage saved them from the impending ruin. He took the most energetic measures of resistance. The dykes were opened, and half the coun- try was laid under water. It was also resolved by the patriotic Hollanders, if all resistance should be vain, to leave their country for ever, and found a new nation in the East. But fortune assisted their endeavours, and Louis, returning to the pleasures of his capital, left the war to be slowly protracted by his generals. Parliament met in February, 1673, and voted a large sum to carry on the war. They, however, vehemently attacked a "Declaration of Indulgence" which the king had passed, and resolved, by a large majority, that no one except themselves had power to dispense with the penalties in matters of religion. Charles was indignant, but was compelled to yield, and withdrew the declaration. A "Test Act" was also passed, requiring all persons holding ofl&ces of trust to receive the sacrament of the English Church, &;c. The duke of York, against whom, with other Catholics, this measure was levelled, laid down all his offices, and others were compelled to follow his example. A fleet, under Prince Eupert, was despatched against the Dutch ; and three actions with De Ruyter, all indecisive, followed. Hostili- ties at sea continued, and Count Schomberg, attempting to land an army on their coast, was disappointed. The prince of Orange, 680 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOET. assisted bj Austria, defended his country witli great courage and success. Peace with England was concluded in February, 1674, the questions in dispute being settled by arbitration, and a subsidy being paid by the Dutch. At the same meeting of parliament which settled this question, several of the ministry had beei^i attacked ; and Buckingham, deserted by the king, joined Shaftes bury and the opposition, Louis, anxious to keep down the Protest- ant influence, procured the king to prorogue parliament for fifteen months, paying him five hundred thousand crowns as a considera- tion. He further privately engaged to pay him a yearly pension of one hundred thousand pounds, on condition that the two nations should be in strict secret alliance — a dishonourable bribe, which made the English monarch almost the vassal of his French ally, Louis had again entered Flanders at the head of a large army, and the parliament, which met in 1667, strongly urged the king to declare war in favour of his Protestant allies. He tried to obtain a large sum from them, perfidiously pledging his word that it should be applied to the purposes for which it was granted; but they dis- trusted him, and the French king, by further bribery, prevailed on him to adjourn the parliament. Soon afterwards, the prince of Orange was married to Mary, daughter of the duke of York; and Charles entertained serious desires of permanently settling the long- disputed contest. Louis, although winter was at hand, refused the terms offered to him, and again took the field with his forces, stop- ping the payment of the pension, but still offering large bribes, in case the king would continue to sustain his interests. Charles, however, informed the parliament, which met in January, 1678, that he had concluded a treaty with the Dutch for their protection, and thus gained large supplies from them ; but after some forces had been despatched, distrusting him, they refused to vote further subsidies until satisfied in respect to religious matters. Enraged at this, he immediately prorogued them, and concluded a secret treaty with Louis, engaging, in consideration of four hundred thousand pounds, to withdraw his troops, if Holland would not consent to the treaty of Nimeguen, which was greatly to the advantage of the French monarch. The treaty, with some modifications, was, how- ever, signed, and peace was concluded. In this year, a most atrocious persecution, under sanction of the law, was perpetrated against the Catholics, Titus Gates, a man of infamous character, pretended to have discovered a great conspiracj ENGLAND. QQ^ of the Jesuits and otliers, for the purpose of killing the king, burn- ing the city, and reestablishing the Komish supremacy. This, with a vast mas? of improbable circumstances, often entirely contradic- tory, he detailed before the council. In the excited feeling against the Catholics, however, all these absurd stories were greedily swal- lowed by the multitude; and, unluckily for the accused party, papers w ere taken from Coleman, a dependant of the duke of York, proving the existence of a plot for introducing Romanism, though certainly not that which Gates pretended to reveal ; but one much more respectable and formidable, comprising Louis, the king, the duke of York, and other influential names. The public excitement was increased by the mysterious disappearance of Godfrey, the magistrate who had first taken the deposition of Gates. His body was found in a ditch, thrust through with his own sword, leaving it difficult to determine whether he was murdered or had committed suicide. Many persons were taken into arrest upon the perjured evidence of Gates, and parliament, in alarm, voted that "a dam- nable and hellish plot" existed, and that all papists should be removed from London and, its vicinity. A bill was also passed, which, for an hundred and fifty years, excluded Catholics from the House of Lords. The trials of the accused were conducted with great tyranny and injustice, and many persons were executed. Gates, assisted by Bedloe and other perjured informers, Avas voted large sums as reward for his villany. The queen herself was accused, but Charles refused to abandon her to this merciless Protestant per- secution. The city was kept under arms, and in the excited state of the public mind, no one ventured to question the existence of this pretended plot. In January, 1679, parliament was dissolved, after having held their places for eighteen years. Popular agitation still continued so violent, that the duke of York was compelled to depart for the continent. The new parliament met in March, 1679, and immediately impeached the earl of Danby, the king's principal adviser, who was committed to the tower. He was sa\ed by Charles, however, who had resolved not to consent to his destruction. The king, vainly hoping to conciliate the popular party, admitted, by advice of Sir William Temple, a number of popular members into the council, and even appointed as president Lord Shaftesbury, the leader of the opposition. Nevertheless, a bill was speedily passed by a large majority of the commons, excluding the duke of York, although (382 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. the hereditary heir, from the throne. To prevent farther action, Charles immediately prorogued parliament for ten weeks. Persecution still continued; and a considerable number of Jesuits and other priests were executed — some as accessaries to the pre- tended plot, and others for exercising their ministerial functions. Through the influence of the king, it was at last abated, and several innocent prisoners were acquitted. In Scotland, the greatest oppression had prevailed. The people, attached to their own form of worship, and seeing their clergy expelled from their livings, held meetings, called "Conventicles," in the open air. These were forcibly suppressed, and the people, driven to desperation by many acts of cruelty, took to arms. After several actions, they were defeated with great loss at Bothwell Bridge, by the duke of Monmouth, a natural son of the king. Many had already been executed, and though the duke, a. man of humane disposition, advocated the cause of the unfortunate covenanters, they were for a long time harassed with the most cruel persecutions. The king dissolved the parliament, and a new one was elected. Finding this assembly constituted much like the former, he pro- rogued it on the day it met, and prevented any action for more than a year. In January, 1680, the duke of York was recalled to court, and was soon afterwards presented, for recusancy, to the grand jury, by Shaftesbury and other leaders of the opposition. The attempt was defeated by the chief justice, but the duke was compelled to return to Scotland, where he had lately been residing. Parliament met on the day after his departure, and immediately resumed the subject of his exclusion. A perjured witness swore to his plotting against the king's life; other questionable evidence was taken, and the bill of exclusion was passed by a strong majority, and sent up to the House of Lords, where, however, it was rejected by a large vote. The House of Commons had now become so dictatorial and insolent, that another arbitrary parliament was feared ; but a private gentle- man having resisted their sergeant-at-arms, they discovered that they had exceeded their lawful power, and receded from their pre- tensions. Enraged at their disappointment in the matter of exclusion, they attacked the king's ministry, and maliciously impeached the venerable Lord Stafford, a Catholic nobleman. He was tried in Westminster Hall, and convicted of being accessary to the plot, on the villanous testimony of Gates and other perjured informers; and shortly after was executed. ENGLAND. 683 In January, 1681, the king, alarmed at the attitude of the house, dissolved it, and summoned another to meet at Oxford in two months — the object being to transfer the government from a turbu- lent and republican city to a more loyal vicinity. To ensure his independence, he entered into treaty with Louis for a new pension, to last three years. The parliament was mostly composed of its former members; but the king, not being compelled to sue for money, addressed them in a tone of authority, and perceiving them still busy with the exclusion, dissolved them, to the great satisfac- tion of the country, which was beginning to be weary of their factious and impracticable course. The power of the court now suddenly displayed itself, and Shaftesbury was committed to the tower; but the grand jury, who were of his party, refused to find a bill of indictment against him. In Scotland, persecution still continued, and numbers, both of men and women, were executed. The duke of York, having held a parliament there, returned to court; and Monmouth, whose ambi- tious designs on the succession had occasioned his banishment to Holland, also returned. He was received with great joy by the people, among whom he was exceedingly popular ; but was arrested during a sort of triumphal procession, which he was making through the kingdom. The court, by intrigue, now obtained the appointment of the sheriffs, and thus ensured juries ready to obey its wishes. In 1683. a frivolous accusation was made against the city of London, and its charter was declared forfeited by the judges, who w'ere the mere tools of court. The whole power of this and many other corporations was thus thrown into the king's hands. A more deadly blow still was to be struck at the opposition. Since the dissolution of parliament, the popular Protestant leaders had been in the habit of holding consultations, and the project of a rising against govern- ment was no doubt entertained. Betrayed by one of their associates, several of the leading members of this secret council had been arrested. Lord Essex, despairing of a fair trial, took his own life, and Lord Russell, being tried before a jury, w^as found guilty of high treason. This amiable and patriotic nobleman had certainly brought himself within the compass of the law; but his execution, which the king obstinately refused to avert, was an impolitic and unneces- sary act of cruelty. Algernon Sidney, an ardent republican of the same party, was next tried before the brutal Jeffreys, chief justice of the king's bench, and convicted in a manner utterly opposed to 634 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. law and evidence. Like Russell, lie died with great constancy and heroism. The duke of Monmouth, who was also fully implicated, was, nevertheless, partially reconciled to the king, his father. The opposition now seemed annihilated; for a scheme to murder the king (the celebrated "Rye-house Plot") had been . discovered, and the people, confounding this with the charge alleged against the condemned, every where supported the court. The Princess Anne, daughter of the duke of York, was married to Prince George, brother of the king of Denmark; and from this , time the influence of the duke, owing to the indolence of Charles, was predominant, and he had the principal direction of affairs. On the 2d of February, 1685, the king was seized with a fit of apoplexy, and on the 6th expired, having previously received absolution in • private from a priest of the Catholic faith, to which he had always secretly inclined. This king presented a striking picture of amiable manners and strong private affections, joined to almost all the qualities which can disgrace a monarch. He was deceitful, mean, rapacious, ungrateful, and utterly careless of the national welfare arid honour. The license and immorality of his court exceeded all that had ever been witnessed in England. Nevertheless, the people, charmed by his gayety and affability, were always fond of him, and lamented his death much more than they would probably have done that of a better king. lu iLJj ui\) lL tL Jj Jill u\> uXi Ji I JAMES II. James, immediately on his accession, conciliated the people and the church, by a most express and public declaration that the Establishment should not be disturbed. The ministers of the late king were continued in office. He made, however, no secret either of his own religion or that of his brother, and was at some pains to publish the secret views and conversion of the latter. He also gave much uneasiness to zealous Protestants by attending the ENGLAND. 535 Catliolic worship in the most public and conspicuous manner ; and further still, by ordering the discharge of all recusants. He had also a secret Catholic council, and at his coronation took the oaths with a mental reservation. Parliament, which, on account of the surrender of charters to his brother, was composed almost entirely of loyal subjects, voted him, unanimously, a revenue equal to that of the late king; yet, while declaring their implicit confidence in his declaration, manifestly felt uneasy on the subject of religion Meanwhile, however, a formidable plot had been concerted among the Protestant exiles, headed by Monmouth and Argyle. The latter landed in Scotland on the 2d of May, 1685, but was only able to raise two thousand five hundred men. This small force soon dis- persed, and the duke, attempting to escape in disguise, was taken, and on the 30th executed at Edinburgh. Monmouth, detained by various circumstances, did not ar.-i^^''?. until the 11th of June, when he landed at Lyme, in Dorse t^nuic, and put forth a proclamation, styling James " a usurper " and accusing him of the burning of Lon- don, and of other crime5r Large numbers flocked to his standard, and he marched with four thousand men to Taunton, proclaiming himself king. He received some farther marks of popular favour, but learning of the defeat of Argyle, and finding himself joined by none of the gentry, began to despair of success. He finally, on the 1st of July, encountered the royal forces under the earl of Feversham, at a place called Sedgemoor. The ill-armed peasants, of which his army was composed, fought bravely, but were defeated with a loss of five hundred killed and fifteen hundred prisoners. The duke himself, with other leaders, attempting to escape, was taken. ' The hatred of his uncle, exasperated by the late attempt, was implacable; and on the 14th of July, this gallant and popular noble- man was beheaded on Tower-hill, amid the lamentations of the people, by whom he had always been beloved, despite his weakness and ambition. He perished in the thirty-sixth year of his age. The most barbarous vengeance was taken upon the deluded and ignorant insurgents. The infamous Jeffreys made a circuit through the country, trying the accused, and several hundred were executed by his orders, after a species of mock trial. One aged matron was beheaded, and another burned alive, for affording succour to the fugi- tives. The air was infected from the number of victims whose mangled remains were exposed by the road-side. Great numbers were sold into slavery, and others were given to the Maids of Honour, (J^g THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. who sold their liberty at exhorbitant rates. The king instigated and approved all these murderous proceedings, and Jeffreys is said to have declared, on his death-bed, that his blood-thirsty master waf "unsatisfied even with these extraordinary and sweeping executions The chief instigators of the insurrection, except Monmouth, saved their lives by bribery and other means. James now felt secure and highly elated. He addressed the parliament in a tone of authority, and finding them not completely submissive, prorogued them, to act no more during his reign. He kept up the army from his own revenue, and resolved to fill the principal commands with Catholics. To annul the act requiring their compliance with the rites of the church, he appointed judges pliant to his wishes, and gained from these a decision that his dis pensation (an ancient, but disputed branch of the royal prerogative) was sufficient to render the required conformance unnecessary. He gave similar dispensations to certain Catholic officers in the Univer- sity of Oxford. These measures alarmed the Protestants, who saw his intention of reestablishing Romanism, and prepared the way for his overthrow. Father Petre, the king's confessor, a zealotis and fanatical priest, approved and stimulated the almost insane projects of the king. By especial request of James, a papal nuncio was appointed to the court of England. The pontiff, however, and his emissary, more prudent and moderate than their royal partisan, endeavoured vainly to restrain his rash proceedings. Convents were openly established in London ; the Jesuits opened a school ; and the earnest Protestants were scandalized at seeing friars ranging through the city in the long-proscribed habit of their order. To overawe opposition, the army, fifteen thousand in number, lay encamped on Hounslow Heath, mass being publicly performed, and great efforts made to convert the soldiery. These were mostly unsuccessful, and it is remarkable that in an age of such shameless venality and dishonest ambition, so few could be found to barter their conscience or their prejudices for court favour. Even Kirke, a brutal officer, refused the king's solicitations, alleging that he had promised the emperor of Morocco to turn Mahometan, if he changed at all. The few men of influ- ence who complied, were promoted to high stations, and both the cabinet and privy council were partly composed of Catholics. Great numbers of Protestants holding offices under government and in tae army, were dismissed, or resigned their commissions, the vacancies ENGLAND. 687 being filled with Romanists. A declaration was issued, suspending the penal laws and the requirements of tests; and was, at first, received with much joj and loyalty by the dissenters. Their antipa- thy to the Catholics, however, proved in the end so much stronger thati dieir desire for toleration, that they vehemently opposed the king's measures, and supported the bishops in their resistance. Ser- mons vv'ere even preached against the very act by which alone the speakers were permitted to occupy their pulpits. Great excitement was caused by the king's persistance in attempt- ing to convert the universities into Catholic institutions, and by his oppressively forcing his own creatures upon them for officers. The people had now become generally alarmed upon the subject of religion, and turned their thoughts for assistance to the prince of Orange, the acknowledged champion of the Protestant cause. Several noblemen opened a secret correspondence with him, and an armed resistance was contemplated. In this state of popular feeling, the opposition of the Episcopal clergy determined the fate of James. In May, 1688, he required that his declaration of general toleration should be read from all the pulpits. The bishops and others of the clergy remonstrated; but the king was firm. He accused them of rebellious practices, and persisted in his demand. Out of a body of ten thousand clergymen, not more than two hundred complied. James, in spite of the advice of even his Catholic counsellors, resolved to prosecute the bishops for the remonstrance which they had signed ; and, amid the lamentations of the people, seven of them were committed to the tower. At the trial, in spite of every exer- tion on the part of the crown, they were acquitted, and the popular cause gained a vast accession, of strength and confidence. The king, who had been grievously annoyed by the confirmed Protestantism of his daughters, was somewhat consoled by the birth of a son and heir to the throne ; but such was the prej udice against his cause, and all that seemed to strengthen it, that hardly any of the Protestants would admit the reality of the birth, though attested by the strong- est evidence. It was maintained, and generally believed, that a supposititious child had been palmed upon the people for the sake of securing a Catholic heir to the throne. The occurrence of this event decided the leaders of opposition; and an invitation, signed by a number of the nobility and clergy, was sent to the prince, entreating him to come to their assistance. A great part of Europe was already in alliance, under the direction 688 '^^^^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTCP.Y. of tliis politic and able sovereign, to check the ambition of France.' and he was enabled to make large preparations for the invasion of England, under pretence of preparing to defend Holland. Louis, who saw the impending danger, hastened to offer his aid and alli- ance to James, which that infatuated prince refused. He soon, however, perceived his error, for the designs of William became unmistakeable ; and immediately commenced the work of conces- sion, neglecting no means to conciliate his offended clergy and people. A large fleet was also kept on the coast, and an army of forty thou- sand men was enlisted. But these acts of prudence and vigilance came too late. The prince, supported by the States of Holland, had in readiness a fleet of sixty men-of-war, and seven hundred transports. A force of fifteen thousand men was also ready to embark, commanded by Schomberg (William's former opponent and present ally) and by other able continental officers; and a number of noble English exiles and others were engaged in the undertaking. The sailing of this armament was, however, delayed for more than a month by furious gales from the west, and it did not leave the shores of Holland until the 1st of November (1688). The king, meanwhile, had done every thing to prop his sinking cause. He had proved, by a most formal investigation, the reality of the birth of his son ; had dismissed Sunderland, his unscrupulous adviser, from ofl&ce, and removed Father Petre from the council. On the 5th of November, William, with his forces, arrived safely at Torbay, in Devon, and landing, marched to Exeter. He was at first joined hj very few, the people being overawed by the late executions; and had serious thoughts of returning. At length. Sir Edward Seymour setting the example, numbers of the nobility and gentry came to his standard. His partisans also began to raise men in the different counties. James beheld himself deserted by one adher- ent after another, and his daughter Anne herself fled from him. "God help me!" he exclaimed, in tears; " my very children have forsaken me." Disaffection spread rapidly through the kingdom, and the most important places were soon occupied by the adherents of the prince. The queen and the infant prince of Wales had been secretly despatched to France, and James, after an ineffectual attempt at negotiation, resolved to follow them. He privately posted to Feversham, flinging the great seal into the river on his way; but, after having embarked, was detained, with his companions, on suspi* ENGLAND. 689 cion that they were Jesuits. His rank being ascertained, a guard was appointed for his protection, and he returned to London, where he was received with great demonstrations of loyalty, and resumed the functions of the royal authority. William, however, whose ambitious designs had been grievously disappointed by his return, compelled him, under pretext of securing his safety, to leave the capital, and take up his residence at Rochester. The aspirant to his throne, while omitting no means of alarming him, disposed the guards around his house in such a way that he could easily escape. His friends remonstrated ; yet this deluded prince (perhaps terrified by the fate of his father) actually fell into the snare, and precipi- tately retreated to France. This circumstance terminated his brief and odious reign, which, in the short space of three years, had proved him bigoted, faithless, cruel, and totally unfit to govern. The prince, proceeding to London, met with a most cordial recep- tion, and summoned the peers to consult upon the state of the nation. He received from them the entire charge of the administration until January 22d, 1689, when a convention was elected to meet at the capital. This body, on its meeting, immediately resolved that James, by his abuse of the law, his connection with popery, and his withdrawal from the kingdom, had abdicated the throne, and that the same was vacant. The convention then settled upon the prince and his wife a joint-title to the crown, under the names of William IIL and Mary IL, the real authority, however, being vested in the former. In default of heirs, the succession was settled on Anne, and in default of her heirs, on those of the prince of Orange. This event terminated the long struggle, in which, from the time of John, the crown and people had been almost continually engaged. When the unfortunate and ill-advised house of Stuart acceded to the throne, the power of the sovereign was almost without restraint. Increasing civilization, and their want of tact and ability, had kf-pt up an almost continued contest for popular rights, ending in the final expulsion of the direct heirs, and the firm establishment of nearly all the present principles of the English constitution. gg0 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. WILLIAM III., AND MARY II. The new reign commenced on the third of February, 1689. All Protestants were confirmed in their appointments, and the officers of state were chosen from the ranks of both the Whigs and Tories — names which though with very different significations, have been ever since adopted by the leading parties of Great Britain. By act of parliament, any Catholic, or any person marrying a Catholic, was excluded from the throne. An "Act of Toleration," through the king's influence, exempted dissenters from certain penalties, and the Catholics, though not mentioned, shared the benefit. Louis openly espoused the cause of James, and on the 7th of May, war was declared against France. In Scotland, a convention had been summoned immediately after the flight of James, and the "Whigs being in a majority, it was declared that he had forfeited the throne. William and Mary were proclaimed in his stead. His adherents, foiled in the convention, appealed to force, and Viscount Dundee (infamous, under the name of Claverhouse, for his cruelty to the Covenanters,) hastened to the Highlands, and raised a considerable force. General Mackay, who with a superior force was sent against him, was defeated, with a loss of fifteen hundred men. Dundee, however, received a wound, of which he died the next day, and the clans, deprived of a leader, laid down their arms. This decided the cause in Scotland; and Episco- pacy was soon supplanted by Presbytery. In Ireland, all the power was in the hands of the Catholics, and Lord Tyrconnel, the governor, declared for James. The dethroned monarch himself, furnished with supplies by Louis, landed with twelve hundred of his own subjects, at Kinsale, on the 12th of March. He entered Dublin, amid the acclamations of the Catholics, and took command of the army. Enniskillen and Londonderry alone offered any resistance, the latter being defended by the Protestants with desperate courage. After a close siege of some months, it was relieved from the sea, and the besiegers retired, after losing eight or nine thousand men. They were equally unsuccessful at Enniskillen. An Irish parliament was summoned, the "Act of Settlement" was ENGLAND. 691 repealed, and every measure taken to transfer the property into the hands of the CathoHcs. The Protestant worship was suppressed, and tithes were made payable to the priests. In August, the duke of Schomberg landed with ten thousand men, and was at first successful ; but after losing one-half his men by disease, was compelled to go into winter-quarters. An English squadron, sent to intercept the French supplies, was defeated, and forced to retreat. In 1690, Schomberg, with a reinforcement of seven thousand men, commenced the campaign successfully. In June, William landed in person, and found himself at the head of thirty-six thousand men. James, with a somewhat inferior force, encountered him at the river Boyne on the 1st of July. Crossing the river in three divisions, the English engaged their oppone».ts. The latter were compelled to retreat, with a loss of fifteen hundred men, and James himself, perceiving the probable event, fl&.-. in haste CO Dublin, embarked in a small vessel, and landed in «f ranee. William, after reaching Dublin, and proclaiming an £,mnesty to the 3ommon people, attempted to storm Limerick, but was repulsed with great loss, and embarked for England, leaving the war in the hands of his generals. The combined English and Dutch fleets, under Lord Torrington, were, on the 20th of June, defeated by the French. Displeased with the conduct of parliament, he had dissolved it, and summoned a new one to meet in 1690. The Tories were in the majority, and with great difiiculty a bill had been passed, declaring the king and queen "rightful and lawful" sovereigns of Great Brit- ain, and ratifying the acts of the convention, as originally valid. Through the influence of the crown, it passed, and the Tories ceased to question the rights of the new incumbents. A bill of indemnity, and other important measures were carried through. On his return from Ireland, William obtained a grant of four millions, and, with his continental allies, undertook to prosecute vigorously the w ai against France. It seems certain that some of the leading politicians in Englar " were, at this time, in correspondence with James ; and. the earl c« M^-rlborough, who had recently commanded successfully against him ic Ireland, entered into a plot for his restoration. During the i'lm- mer ol 1691, William, accompanied, among others, by the earl^ carried on the continental war, and, on his return in October, learned that Ireland was completely reduced to submission. Keasonable terms were granted to the defeated painty. 692 THE PEOPLE'S l.\.iOK OF HISTORY. In February, 1692, a most barbarous massacre was committed in the dead of night upon the tribe of Macdonalds at Glencoe, who had been adherents of the expelled dynasty. Misrepresentations had been made to the king; but his readiness to sign an order for the indiscriminate slaughter of a defenceless people, will always attach to his reputation the stain of cold-blooded cruelty. He returned to Holland in the spring, and great preparations for an invasion of England, were made both by James and his English adherents. Louis had furnished him with troops, which, with the exiles from his former dominions, amounted to fifteen or twenty thousand men. But the fleet which was to have transported this force to the shores of England, was defeated with great loss by that of the English and Dutch, and the attempt was, for the present, abandoned. During the continental campaigns of 1692 and 1693, the French were almost uniformly successful ; they took a number of strong- holds, and, intercepting the great Smyrna fleet, captured and destroyed property to the amount of a million sterling. In the following year, however, the advantage was upon the side of the allies. The machinations of the Stuart party still continued — Marl- borough, Godolphin, and other influential politicians, still holding forth hopes of a restoration. Owing to the treachery of these men, an expedition against Brest was defeated with much loss. On the 21st of December, 1694, the queen died in the thirty-third year of her age. Her duties as a wife and daughter had for a num- ber of years been in constant collision; and it is not too miich to say, that she sacrificed the latter to the former more than justice demanded. Almost the only point on which sympathy can be felt for James, is that of the undutiful conduct of his children — whose demeanour toward their discrowned and exiled father has been com- pared to that of the daughters of King Lear. In the campaign of 1695, William, to the great joy of the allies, took the strong city of Namur, after a siege of seven weeks. In the new parliament, which met this year, an act was passed, regulating trials for treason upon more humane and liberal principles. The coinage, which was in a miserably debased state, was also restored to its purity, under the superintendance of Sir Isaac Newton. Plots for the assassination of "William had already been detected, and in February, 1696, a most nefarious scheme for this purpose was discovered, originated by the Jacobites, and probably sanctioned ENGLAND (393 by James himself. Upon trial, seven persons were found guilty, and executed. Sir John Fenwick, who had contrived to suppress the evidence against him, was also beheaded, on th 3 odious authority of an attainder. An expedition of invasion, ,vhich was to have accompanied this plot, failed, on its detection. This was the last attempt of the partisans of James, and in September, 1697, the treaty of Ryswick restored peace to the nations so lon|_^ . ngaged in hostilities, Louis resigned the most of his conquests, and acknowl- edged William king, in spite of the protests and manifestoes of James — the latter, on account of his faith, or bigotry, rejecting a proposal that the succession should be settled on his son, if he might receive a Protestant education. The parliament of 1699, jealous of the king and the foreign troops, reduced the army to seven thousand men, and expelled the Dutch guards and French Huguenots, who had fought so bravely for their liberties. William was so deeply affronted at this measure that he contemplated resigning the government, and returning to Holland. The next year, a most cruel measure, punishing priests and disin- heriting Catholics, was passed; but owing to the better feeling of the nation at large, remained inoperative. The Princess Anne being now without children, the parliament of 1701 passed an act regulating the succession. By this "Act of Settlement," the crown, after her death, was secured to the Princess Sophia of Hanover, and her heirs. This lady was a Protestant, and niece to Charles I. Other important and liberal provisions were made concerning the rights of the crown, the judiciary, and other important matters. Great indignation was excited by the conduct of Louis, who, in pursuance of a pledge made to James, on his death-bed, had publicly recognised his son as king of England. Stringent measures were passed against all supporters of this claim, and ninety thousand men were voted for the two services. The king did not long enjoy the freshly-awakened confidence and support of the nation. His health had been gradually failing, and in February, 1702, he met with an accident which eventually proved fatal. His horse stumbled, and broke his collar-bone. No fears of the result were at first entertained ; but a fever set in, and on the 7th of March he expired, in the fifty-second year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. This prince was undoubtedly the most able monarch of his time. He was skilful in war, politic, and tolerant though, as in the cas^ ^J04 THIS PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. «tf Glencoe, he had little compunction at shedding blood. The cold- ness and formality of his manners prevented him from ever becoming uersonallj popular. ij JjJi Jjo^ di di iXJi iLh c&Oa uni^ iX JL J> ANNE. The queen at her accession was in her thirty-eighth year. She was a firm Protestant, and strongly inclined to the Tory party, which she preferred in forming her ministry. The abilities of Marlborough, despite his well-known treachery, procured him the command of the forces, and the chief charge of the foreign interests of the nation. On the 15th of May, according to the previous agreement, war was declared against France by England, Holland, and Germany. Marlborough, who commanded the allied army, effected little during this campaign, being hampered by the vexa- tious conduct of the Dutch deputies accompanying the army. An expedition of great force, planned by William, was now sent against Cadiz, which was regarded as a portion of the French dominions. It retired, however, without effecting any thing except the taking of plunder ; but falling in, on the passage home, with the great treasure-fleet of the Spaniards, captured and destroyed property to the amount of eight millions of dollars. The contest entitled the " War of Succession," in which England was now engaged for eight years, was founded on an alliance made by William and other con- tinental powers to repress the ambition of Louis, who, by intrigue, had succeeded in placing his grandson Philip on the throne of Spain. The allies, impeded by various causes, effected little in 1703 and the early part of 1704, the genius of Marlborough being still restrained by the pertinacious deputies. In August, however, assisted by Prince Eugene, he engaged the French and Bavarian army of fifty-six thousand men, under Marshal Tallard and others, at Blenheim, with a slightly inferior force. After a desperate con- test, the enemy was entirely defeated, with a loss of forty thousand men. Other successes followed this remarkable victory, and the ENGLAND. 695 duke received splendfCT testimonials of gratitude from the queen anc parliameiU. In the same year, the strong fortress of Gibraltar was taken by an English force under Sir George Rooke. In 1705, little was effected in Flanders, the principal seat of war, but an expedition to Spain, headed by Lord Peterborough and the Archduke Charles, (the rival claimant to the Spanish crown,) was very successful, and several provinces espoused the cause of the lat- ter. In 1706, Marlborough, with an army of about sixty thousand men, encountered that of the French, of equal force, under Marshal Villeroy, near Ramillies. The latter again sustained a terrible defeat, with a loss of thirteen thousand men. A large part of the disputed territory surrendered. Negotiations for peace being ineffect- ual, Marlborough again took the field in 1707, but with little result of importance. In Spain, the allies were entirely routed by Philip, and the revolted provinces were again subdued. In 1708, a fleet fitted out by Louis, and commanded by the son of James II., (called in England the Pretender,) sailed for Scotland ; but owing to storms and the presence of an English squadron, returned unsuccessful. In the same summer, Marlborough besieged and took the towns of Lisle and Ghent. Louis was now desirous of peace; but the allies insisted on such unreasonable terms, that he renewed the war. On the 11th of September, 1709, occurred the hardest-fought battle of the whole war. Marlborough and Eugene, with ninety thousand men, had invested the town of Mons, and Marshal Villars, with an equal force, hastened to its relief. The two armies encountered near Malplaquet. The French lost fourteen thousand men, and the allies twenty thousand ; but the advantage remained with the latter. Afi;er another ineffectual attempt at negotiation, in 1710, further hostilities ensued; and in Spain, Charles, with twenty-three thousand men, defeated his rival, Philip, and compelled him to quit the capital. The successes of the duke of Vendome, however, restored the failing fortunes of Philip. The English and German allies Avere captured or discomfited, and the conquest of Spain became evidently hopeless. Meanwhile, a most important political event had occurred at home. The necessity of a closer union between the kingdoms of England and Scotland had been deeply felt ever since the accession of James L, with whom it had been a favourite object. This feeling was strongly increased by an independent and rather dictatorial resolu- tion of the Scottish parliament, called the "Act of Security" — a measure which called forth a still more violent response from the QQQ THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF IIISTOKY. English, assembly. By adroit management, however, the measure was entertained by both, and the queen was empowered to appoint commissioners from both kingdoms, for the purpose of a settlement. These met at Westminster, in 1706, and, after some dispute, agreed upon the particulars. Of these, the most important were, the succession of the house of Hanover and the distribution of repre- sentation and taxation — a share in each, very feebly proportioned to her population, being, in consideration of her poverty, allotted to Scotland. When these terms were made known in that country, a storm of public indignation arose. Some just, and many ridiculous objections were urged, and two-thirds of the nation were vehemently opposed to the scheme. Nevertheless, when their parliament met on the 13th of October, 1706, the court party was sufficiently power- ful to carry the measure — a result due, partly to the necessity of the case, and partly to the "Equivalent," a sum of three hundred and ninety-eight thousand pounds, paid under pretext of recompense for the loss of customs and excise, but in reality as a fund for bribery. On the 1st of May, 1707, the two nations were incorporated under one government, by the name of Great Britain. On signing the deed which destroyed the separate existence of his kingdom, the Scottish commissioner coolly remarked, laying down his pen, "And there is tne end of an auld sang." Daring all the time of the war, a fierce struggle had been main- tained between the Whig and Tory parties, involving, however, few principles of national importance. In this selfish warfare for political power, the queen's private feelings and attachments deter- mined the result. She had, for many years, been warmly attached to the duchess of Marlborough, whose husband had thus been loaded with wealth and honours. This ambitious and imperious woman was supplanted in the queen's affections by Mrs, Masham, one of her waiting-women, of whose influence the Tories, directed by Harley, took advantage. The government, however, was principally Whig in 1710, but was overthrown by a ridiculous incident. Doc- tor Sacheverell, a fanatical high Tory preacher, had in a sermon reasserted all the exploded doctrines of passive obedience, &c., and had vehemently attacked th:e administration. Godolphin, the treas- urer, had the folly to bring him to trial ; the whole Tory party espoused his cause; and the nation generally, considering him a martyr, were enthusiastic in his favour. A lenient sentence was regarded as a victory by the Tories, and Harley, sure of the temper ENGLAND. 697 of tlie nation, and aided by liis confederate, Mrs. Masham, prevailed on the queen to dismiss her ministry. Godolphin, who had brought about the union, was suddenly deprived of his office, and Marlbo- rough, whose genius had so long sustained the honour of the English arms, was treated with great indignity. At the entreaty of the allies and of the Whig party, however, he still consented to retain his command; and in 1711 made another successful campaign, distin- guished, by extraordinary military science. But peace had be* resolved on by the new administration, and secret negotiations hau been commenced, with France. The proposed terms, being madi? public, excited strong popular indignation; and .Harley (now Juorr^ Oxford, high-treasurer,) determined on the destruction of Marlbo- rough, regarding his success and popularity as the chief obstacle. The queen dismissed him from all his employments, and charges of peculation and dishonesty were preferred against him before the houses of parliament. He was, indeed, of a grasping and avarici'^^"^? disposition, and had received large sums for his own benefit frc; the allies and others, but only in accordance with prescriptive custon His defence was so forcible, that the ministry thought it unwise i. proceed to extremities. The army of the English and their allies in the Netherlands, under Prince Eugene, amounted to an hundred and twenty thousand men. The French, with a smaller force, weakened and dispirited, could hardly have made any effectual resistance ; and it seems prob- able that they might have marched into the enemies' country, and dictated terms of peace under the walls of Paris. Nevertheless, Oxford, who is supposed to have been secretly in the interest of the Stuarts, determined on peace; and, on the 14th of April, 1713, the peace of Utrecht was concluded, to the rage and despair of the con- tinental powers. Nothing of any importance had been attained by this long and disastrous contest. Philip retained the throne of Spain, and certain minor advantages were granted to England. The cause of the allies on the continent was, for the most part, deserted and betrayed. During this treaty, which overthrew all the efforts of his former administration, died Lord Godolphin — a minister of the high- est talents, and so disinterested, in that corrupt age, that even Swift, the inveterate abuser of his government, admitted his freedom from venality. Marlborough, his intimate political friend, went to reside abroad. An attempt, supported by the Whigs, was made at this time to G9S 1-E PEOPLE'S B( )K OF HISTOEY. dissolve tlie union, and failed only by a majority of four. St. John, Viscount Bolingbroke, a man of splendid talents and dissolute habits, in 1714 contrived, through the influence of Mrs. Mashara, to expel from officf. Lis colleague, Oxford. His expectation of being prime minister ^^s, however, disappointed by the sudden illness of the queen, who, for some time, had been failing. She was induced by those around her to fill the vacant post with the duke of Shrews- bury, and in a short time expired, in the fiftieth year of her age, and the thirteenth of her reign. The intrigues of the Stuarts and their adherents had been persevering, and seemed likely to be irowned with success ; but they were disconcerted by the superior address of their opponents; and the elector of Hanover, son of the Princess Sophia, was proclaimed king under the title of George I. Anne was the last of the Stuart family who sat upon the throne of Great Britain. Her capacities were small, and she was almost entirely governed by her personal favourites. She was always popu- lar, however, and received from her people the universal title of "good Queen Anne." During this and the preceding reign, the constitution had received many improvements. The limits of the prerogative were settled, and the judiciary, empowered to retain their of&ces during good conduct, became really independent. A national bank was estab lished, and paper money was introduced. The more questionable advantages of a standing army and a national debt were also attained Science and literature flourished eminently, and were patronized by intelligent ministers. Sir Isaac Newton was master of the Mint, Locke a commissioner, ai\d Addison secretary of state. Swift and other men of literary eminence were influential, and well rewarded. ENGLAND. 699 CHAPTEH XII?, GEORGE I. AND GEORGE II. The new monarcTi, fifty-four years of age, was a foreigner, entirely ignorant of tlie language, laws, and manners of his adopted kingdom. He was a man of prudence and courage, but rather low in his tastes, and unintellectual. He landed in England on the 18th of Septem- ber, 1714, and selected a new ministry, almost entirely Whig. Marlborough, who had been a strenuous supporter of his accession, was again made commander-in-chief A new parliament, strongly Whig, met in March, 1715, and immediately impeached Oxford, Bolingbroke, and other members of the late government. The first Avas committed to the tower, and others fled to the continent, and entered the service of the Pretender, James III. At the end of two years, Oxford was released. Bolingbroke in 1723 procured a reversal of his attainder, returned to England, and again took an active part in political affairs. The pretender and his partisans had been making secret prepara- tions; and on the 6th of September, 1715, the earl of Mar raised his standard in the Highlands, and assembled a force of ten thousand men. A similar movement was made in the north of England, but was easily suppressed by the forces of government. On the 13th of November, the duke of Argyle, with four thousand men, engaged Mar, who had more than twice that number, at Sheriff Muir. Five hundred were slain on each side, and both claimed the victory. On the 22d of December, James landed in person, but perceiving the hopelessness of his cause, returned to France, whither he was fol- lowed by most of the insurgent chiefs. The forces were disbanded. Only twenty-nine persons were executed in consequence of this attempt. In 1716, a bill was passed, changing the term of the duration of parliament, from three to seven years. Government at this time, as well as long afterwards, was exceedingly corrupt. The king's Ger- man mistresses and favourites were continually impatient for estates and titles, and possessed sufficient influence to determine the fate of measures and of ministries. A bill, however, which George (to 700 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK C/ HISTOEY. gratify his hatred to the prince of Wales, by injuring the prerogative) would willingly have signed, for limiting the number of peers, was defeated. In 1720, a most extraordinary delusion seized upon the people. The South Sea Company, an unsuccessful establishment of 1711, made a large financial contract with government, and, being in the (lands of unprincipled men, used every effort to inspire the public with a belief in its unbounded resources. To such an extent did the infatuation reach, (founded on improbable stories of gold mines and enormous profits in trade,) that the stock went up to a thousand per cent., and all classes hastened to invest their property in the treach- erous concern. Many, by speculating in the stock, made fortunes; but the bubble soon burst, and thousands were ruined. The king's mistresses and several members of government were deeply con- cerned in this iniquitous transaction. Lord Townshend and Eobert Walpole, two men of high ability, who had lost their places in the government for a time, were enabled, by the odium which this transaction cast on the ministry, to regain 1 high position — the first becoming secretary, and the latter first lord of the treasury. In 1722, died the duke of Marlborough, the most able commander, and one of the most sagacious statesmen of his age. He possessed many excellent and amiable traits of character, though his public life was stained by treachery, and his private life by covet- ousness. The remainder of the reign of George I. was chequered by few incidents worth recording. An unsuccessful plot of the Stuart faction was detected; one conspirator was executed, and Bishop Atterbury, with other persons of high rank, was commit- ted to prison. In Ireland, a great excitement, fomented by Dean Swift, was occasioned by the attempted issue of a debased copper coin, entitled, from the name of the patentee, "Wood's half-pence." So great was the clamour, that government was compelled to retract from the measure. During this reign, the foreign relations of the kingdom were entirely changed, a close alliance existing with France and other powers, and a state of jealousy or hostility toward Spain and the empire. Sir George Bying, in 1718, destroyed a Spanish fleet of twenty-seven sail of the line, off Sicily. In 1725, Admiral Hosier made an unsuccessful expedition to Spanish America, and perished, with great numbers of his men, from disorders incident to the cli- mate. The king died in his yearly journey to Hanover, on the 11th ENGLAND. 701 of June, 1727. He was in tlie sixty-eiglitli year of his age, and in the thirteenth of a reign distinguished by few events of national interest. His son George II. ascended the throne at the age of forty-four. Though more familiar with English customs, his tastes were as Ger- man as those of his father; and both seem to have been more solicitous for the welfare of their petty electorate of Hanover, than for that of the splendid empire over which they were called to reign. Walpole (now Sir Eobert) continued for nearly fifteen years to hold the chief control of government, his colleague, Townsend, resigning in 1730. During all this time there continued a fierce opposition, composed of Tories and disaffected Whigs. Among his most formidable adversaries were Pulteney and Bolingbroke, who now began to make a new figure in the political world. The chief object of the opposition, as is too generally the case, was to get the government, with its enormous and profitable patronage, into their own hands; but "Walpole, who had reduced the art of bribery to a perfect system, Avas always enabled to command majorities in the house. His administration was, however, able and tolerably enlightened; but his favourite scheme of excise and customs, very similar to that now adopted, (the warehousing and bonding system,) was finally defeated in 1733, by the clamour of the ignorant and interested. The "Septennial Act" was also warmly attacked. In 1737 the queen, a firm friend of Walpole, and a woman of excellent character, died. She possessed far greater talents for gov- ernment than the king himself, who trusted almost implicitly to her advice, and during his frequent visits to Hanover, always lefi; the control of affairs in her hands. For many years England, guided by her skilful and pacific minis- ter, had been at peace; but in 1739 the nation, irritated by the insulting demeanour of Spain in regard to her colonies, compelled him to declare war. Admiral Vernon, with only six ships, took and destroyed the town of Porto Bello; but failed in a more important expedition against Carthagena. In 1740, Anson sailed upon his celebrated voyage. After losing all his vessels but one, and doing much injury to the Spanish on the western coast of South America, he stretched into the Pacific, and, having captured a galleon of immense value, returned by the Cape of Good Hope, after an absence of four years, during which, like Drake, he had circumnavigated the globe. The general ill-success of this war, though he had strongly opposed ii, was thrown upon Walpole ; and strenuous efforts were 702 I^E PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. made to remove him from office. A parliament newly elected con tained a majority of his opponents; and in February, 1742, lie resigned his office, and was created Lord Orford. He survived the loss ^f his power but three years. The peaceful and able adminis- tration of this firm and consistent Whig minister presents less lustre than that of others, from the corrupt means by which he acquired and perpetuated his power. Of the leading men who opposed or succeeded him in the adminis- tration, the most distinguished was William Pitt, already conspicuous for his talents. Henry Fox, the rival of Pitt, was also a man of great ability and eloquence. Murray (Lord Mansfield), Conway, Townsend, and others had already began to play a conspicuous part. The ministry, however, was now chiefly directed by the duke of Newcastle, Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), and some others. By virtue of a treaty with the empress of Austria, (now at war with Frederick the Great,) a subsidy was granted, and a force of sixteen thousand men was despatched to her assistance. The king of England, eager to acquire martial renown, joined it in person in 1743, and, at the age of sixty, distinguished himself at the battle of Dettingen. France next entered the contest, and the English, with their allies, commanded by the duke of Cumberland he king's son, were defeated by Marshal Saxe, at Fontenoy, with i loss of ten thousand men. It was now resolved by the court of France to embarrass the British, by assisting the long-neglected house of Stuart; and in August, 1745, Charles Edward, son of the pretender, landing with a few adherents, was joined by many of the Highland clans. He moved rapidly southward, entered Edinburgh, and took up his abode in Holyrood House, the ancient palace of his ancestors. At Preston Pans he completely defeated General Cope, who had been sent against him, and then, with a force of only five thousand men, marched in the most daring manner into England. Taking Carlisle and Manchester, he advanced as far as Derby ; but finding himself joined by few, was compelled to retreat. He gained one more vic- tory in January, 1746, but on the 16th of April, with four thousand men, was defeated at Culloden, by the duke of Cumberland, with c- yreatly superior force. The brutal victor ordered that no quartet ihould be given; and the most atrocious acts of cruelty and military licentiousness followed. The unfortunate chevalier, after undergo- ing great hardships, and expei'encing many romantic adventures^ CHARLES EDWARD (CALLED THE PREI'ENDER). He -TO-as the grandson of James II., the exiled king of England, and m >iis youjiger days a prince of great enterprise and chivalrous courage. In 174;"), Twith only .seven attendants, he landed on the coast of Scotland, resolved on the perilous attempt to recover the throne of his ancestors After a brief career of surprising success and invasion, he -was compelled to retreat, and his little arm.y, at the hattle of Culloden, was cut to pieces by the English, under the duke of Cumberland. He escaped, amid the greatest perils and sufferings, to France, and passed the remainder of his life in obscurity and lamentable sen- sual indulgences. ENGLAND. 703 escaped into France. Nearly two hundred prisoners, some of them of high rank, were executed for their share in this attempt. 'iranville, who had principally controlled affairs since the fall of Walpoit., was, in 1744, supplanted by Pelham and his brother the duke of Newcastle, a weak, but intriguing man. Pitt also received an important office. In 1748, after an immense effusion of blood and treasure, a general peace was signed, leaving all parties much the same as they were at the commeirC^ment of the contest. Anson, Warren, and Hawke had fully sustained the reputation of the English navy. In 1751 Frederick, prince of Wales, who had always been at bitter enmity with his father, died, and his son George became heir- apparent to the three kingdoms. But a few years of peace had elapsed, when a fresh war with France was brought on by the con- flicting claims of the two nations to extensive tracts in North America. In 1754 arms were taken up, and young Major Washington was compelled to surrender to a superior force of French and Indians. The events which followed belong properly to American history, and may be very briefly detailed. G /leral Braddock, with a con- siderable force, was surprised, defeateJ, and slain; and in 1756 war was formally declared. In this year also commenced the famous "Seven Years' War," in which all the powers of Central Europe were engaged — Frederick the Great, supported by England, having forcibly seized the Austrian province of Silesia. Great fears of the invasion of England were entertained, and a body of Hessian and other foreign troops were imported for the defence of the country. The first event of importance to England was the failure of Admiral Byng, from a too strict adherence to naval tactics, to capture the French fleet. The king and ministry basely yielded to the popular clamour against him, and this brave and patriotic man was judicially murdered by a court martial. At his execution, he displayed the highest calmness and courage, effect- ually refuting the charge of cowardice which his enemies had endeavoured to fasten on him. After a curious vacillation of power, during which Pitt, Newcastle, Fox, and others in turn controlled the ministry for a brief period, the former became the actual minister, (Newcastle retaining the title,) and, by his boldness and genius, rescued the nation from the depth of despondency. Misfortune, however, continued for a time. An 704 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOPvY. expedition against Eoclifort utterly failed, and the duke of Cum- berland, witli an army of forty thousand Hessians and Hanoverians, was forced to capitulate, and abandon the electorate to the French. In America, Montcalm had greatly extended the strength and territory of the latter. In 1758 the arms of England were more successful; and in the following year, great successes awaited them. Boscawen, in the Mediterranean, and Hawke, in the Channel, gained decided naval victories. In America several forts had been seized, and the city of Quebec was taken by storm by the gallant General Wolfe, who, with his rival, Montcalm, expired on the field of battle. The battle of Minden, on the continent, in which the English gained much distinc- tion, occurred about the same time. On the 25th of October, 1760, the king expired of apoplexy, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and the thirty-first of his reign. His grandson, George III., succeeded him. During these two reigns, the monarch being a foreigner, and compelled to govern according to the will of majorities, the Whigs had retained almost the entire control of government. The most shameless venality had prevailed, and all branches of munici- pal government were indifferently administered. The police were inefficient, and crime, consequently, was of frequent occurrence. Compared with the present day, morals and manners were in a very uncultivated state. GEORGE III. The young kmg, at the age of twenty-two, came to the throne under most favourable circumstances. The country was prosperous and united, and his parliament was generous and loyal. The war was still continued, though the king, whose predilections were for the Tory party, was anxious for peace, that he might dismiss Pitt, the principal leader of the Whigs. France had suffered greatly, especially in her commerce and colonies, and was anxious for the ENGLAND. 705 cessation of hostilities. Negotiation, however, was fruitless. Pitt, finding that he could not obtain the consent of his colleagues to a war with Spain, resigned his ofiice, and retired on a pension of three thousand pounds. In 1761 the king was married to Charlotte, a German princess, and shortly afterwards war was declared against Spain, which had evinced hostile intentions. The duke of Newcastle, who had man- aged to keep in office for more than thirty years, now resigned, and Lord Bute, a Scottish nobleman, became prime minister. In March, 1762, a powerful expedition was despatched against Cuba, and, after a protracted and difficult contest, took the wealthy city of Havana, with shipping and treasure to the amount of three millions of pounds. By the taking of Manilla and two rich galleons, an equal amount of plunder was obtained. France lost a number of her possessions in the West Indies. The expense of carrying on these wars had, however, been enor- mous. France was desirous of peace, and, in spite of the opposition of Pitt and his faction, a treaty (the Peace of Fontainbleau) was signed at Paris in February, 1763. By this agreement, England retained Canada and many of her conquests in the West Indies and elsewhere. Others she restored. Her national debt had been increased seventy-five millions of pounds. Lord Bute, who was unpopular, and personally disliked by the king, retired from office, and Grenville, with his colleagues, came into power. Great annoyance was occasioned to the king and minis- try by the factious conduct of a demagogue, called Wilkes, who assailed them with great talent and personality in a paper called the North Briton. He was generally supported by the people, who, in spite of (or perhaps on account of) the prosecution of government, adhered to him faithfully. He was, however, outlawed, and com- pelled to leave the kingdom. Eeturning in 1768, his sentence was reversed, and he was repeatedly elected to parliament, and as often expelled by the majority. He finally became lord mayor of London. To Grenville succeeded the marquis of Eockingham, in 1765, and to him Mr. Pitt, who, after organizing a ministry which he could not control, resigned office for ever, and retired in 1768, with the title of Lord Chatham. The duke of Grafton, whom he left in office, and who had been bitterly assailed by the celebrated Junius, gave place in 1770 to Lord North, whose administration proved one of the most eventful in English history. 45 706 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. For several years previous, a storm had been brewing upon the western shores of the Atlantic. The prudent Walpole had refused to lay a tax upon the North American colonies; but in 1764 the king himself compelled Grenville to introduce a bill asserting the expediency of stamp duties on the colonies. Strong remonstrances were made by the colonists; but in 1765 the bill passed, and Avas met by the most determined resistance. It was repealed the follow- ing year, but in 1767 duties were imposed on various articles. These, except the tax on tea, were taken off in 1770. In 1773 the ships of the East India Company, carrying a supply of the obnoxious article, were not permitted to land it ; and a portion was forcibly thrown into the sea in Boston harbour, by a party of citizens dis- guised as Indians. Eetaliatory proceedings were immediately insti- tuted, and the provinces made zealous and patriotic preparations for an armed resistance. The long and desperate struggle which followed, belongs properly to American history, and may be briefly stated. A general alliance for mutual defence was made among the numerous colonies on the Atlantic. By the result of a new election for parliament, it was obviously the determination of the English people to reduce their revolted provinces by force, the celebrated Burke vainly attempting a reconciliation. The first blood was shed at the little town of Lexington, in April, 1775; and Boston, where the English troops were stationed under General Gage, was soon surrounded by twenty thousand of the American militia, eager to avenge the death of their countrymen. The battle of Bunker's Hill, where the English, in attempting to drive a small body of troops from their intrenchments, lost a thousand men, was the first action of importance. George Washington, already distinguished in the French war, was intrusted with the command of the provincial forces — a task which he fulfilled with wonderful courage, skill and perseverance. He blockaded Boston till the spring of 1776, (a daring, but unsuccessful attempt on Canada being made meanwhile,) and finally compelled the English garrison to evacuate it. The provincial forces were defeated with great loss on Long Island, by General Howe, and the city of New York, surrendering, was held by the British during the remainder of the war. On the 4th of July, 1776, a general congress declared the independence of the colonies, and all prospect of an adjustment became hopeless. In 1777 the Americans were defeated at Brandy wine, but retrieved ENGLAND. 707 this disaster by the capture of General Burgojne, and his entire army, of nearly six thousand men, at Saratoga. This success decided the court of France, which acknowledged the independence of the states, and supplied them with a fleet and other assistance, thus recommencing hostilities with England; and in 1779, Spain also joined the hostile alliance. In America, the war was conducted with alternate fortune. The brave provincials, though suffering extremely from the want of food, clothing, and shelter, still fought desperately, and, on the whole, maintained their ground. In 1780, Sir George Eodney defeated a Spanish fleet; a French one, which he also engaged, escaping through the incapacity of his officers. He also relieved Gibraltar, which was besieged. Clinton and Cornwallis were highly successful in the southern states. In the North, at this time, occurred the celebrated treason of Arnold, and the execution of the unfortunate Major Andr^, as a spy. The Whig party had been generally in favour of conciliatory measures; but the nation was mostly desirous of carrying on the war. The idea of a dismemberment of the empire was indeed generally regarded with great aversion; and in 1778, Lord Chatham, who had been a vehement advocate for conciliation, came to the house, though suffering severely from disease, and spoke in the most impassioned manner against a motion for acknowledging the inde- pendence of the states. Having finished his speech, this great statesman fell backwards in convulsions, and four days afterwards expired, in the seventieth year of his age. About the same time, a terrible riot, caused by excitement against the Catholics, and instigated by Lord George Gordon, prevailed for some time in London. A mob, composed of fifty thousand fanatical Protestants, destroyed the Catholic chapels and dwelling houses, burned or threw open the prisons, and plundered the residences of Lord Mansfield and other obnoxious persons. It was finally sup- pressed by the military, many of the rioters being killed. The blockade of Gibraltar still continued, and it was repeatedly attacked and defended with the most desperate courage ; but neither bombardment nor famine could subdue the resolution of the garri- son. The Dutch had joined in the hostile alliance against England, but were defeated at sea, and lost the island of St. Eustathius, with much valuable property. The war in the southern states was still protracted; but on the 19th of October, 1781, Lord Cornwallis, with his whole army, was compelled to surrender at Yorktown, to a com- 708 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOKY. bined force of Americans and French. This event effectually terminated the war. The administration of North, unpopular on account of this and other misfortunes, grew weaker and weaker; it was compelled to sustain the united attacks of Pitt, (son of the earl of Chatham,) of Fox, and Sheridan, the most brilliant orators of the day, and finally, in March, 1782, the cabinet was dissolved, and the offices filled with the most distinguished members of the opposition. In the West Indies, Eodney had completely defeated the French admiral, De Grasse, capturing or destroying most of his fleet. Gib- raltar was besieged and bombarded by more than an hundred thousand men ; but by its impregnable position and the gallantr}'^ of its defenders, maintained a successful resistance. Negotiations had, however, been for some time carried on, and, in 1783, a general peace was concluded, by which the independence of the United States was acknowledged, and the conquests of England, France, and Spain, were mutually restored. Another hundred millions of pounds had been added to the national debt. By the most singular coalition of North and Fox, the ministry, headed by Lord Shelburne, was overthrown, and the former oppo- nents entered office together. This union was, however, too unnatural to last long, and the scheme of Mr. Fox, to effect a change in the affairs of India, having failed to command a majority, they retired in their turn. Pitt, at the age of twenty -four, now formed a new ministry, of which he was the head; and, with a single interval, continued to hold the post of prime minister during the remainder of his life. The opposition, henceforth, was led by Fox. The new minister was, however, in a decided minority himself; but, with wonderful tact and perseverance, allowed the opposition to become unpopular by defeating his measures. Then, dissolving parliament, he secured an immense majority at the next election, great numbers of the Whigs having lost their seats in the House of Commons. His power, however, was nearly overthrown in 1778, by the king's mental derangement. George, prince of Wales, and a friend of the opposition leaders, was about to be appointed prince- regent, though with very limited powers; but his father's sudden recovery, just before the passage of the bill, confirmed the ministry in their position, and disappointed the Whigs, who were daily expect- ing to step into office. During the incidents which have been narrated, remarkable events ENGLAND. 709 had transpired in India, already a most important member of the British empire. Elizabeth, in 1600, had first granted a charter to a company of merchants trading in the East. During that and the succeeding reigns, they established factories at Surat, Madras, Cal- cutta, and Bombay, In 1698, a rival company had obtained a charter, but in 1702, the two were consolidated into one, under the title of " The United East India Company." The hostilities with France had extended to this distant region, and Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had made him- self formidable by an alliance with a native prince. The English, threatened with expulsion from the country, took the part of a rival to the latter, and a French and Anglo-Indian war was commenced. In 1751, the affairs of the English were retrieved by the courage and genius of Robert Clive, who repeatedly defeated the allied French and natives, and finally destroyed the power of the former. In 1756 Calcutta was taken by Surajah Dowlah, a powerful native prince, jealous of the English power. A horrible scene followed this success. An hundred and forty-six of his unfortunate captives were shut up in a small dungeon, called the " Black Hole, " where all, except twenty-three, perished before morning, from the want of air and water. Clive, who was then at Madras, marched against the savage nabob, and compelled him to make peace and restitution. Soon after, finding him allied with the French, this enterprising general, with only three thousand men, attacked him at Plassey, where he was stationed with fifty thousand native troops, defeated and dethroned him. His successor, Meer Jaffier, bestowed great treas- ures on Clive and the company. In 1760, this successful adventurer returned to England, at the age of thirty -five, with an income of forty thousand pounds. Such abuses and rapacity, however, pre- vailed in his absence, that four years afterwards he was obliged to return, with the office of governor-general, to attempt a reform. In effecting this, he made so many enemies among the dishonest servants of the company, that an effort, though unsuccessful, was made to censure him in parliament. After having raised the company to great wealth and power, he died at the age of forty-nine, by his own hand. In 1773, the notorious Warren Hastings was appointed governor, and by his career of rapacity and tyranny, earned himself an unen- viable memory. With great ability, he joined treachery and avarice; and so used his influence and his forces among the native powers, 710 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. as to extort great sums of money, at the expense of every principle of honour and humanity. After a tyrannical reign of twelve years, he returned from India, laden with riches, and was soon after impeached for his various enormities by the House of Commons. On his trial before the Peers, in February, 1788, the eloquence of Burke, Fox, and Sheridan, displayed his crimes in the most glowing colours; his guilt was palpable; yet, by the artifices of his counsel and the influence of powerful friends, the case was protracted for seven years, and a judgment was finally given in his favour. The French Revolution, fraught with events of such importance to mankind, both for good and evil, broke out in 1789; and Eng- land, with other European nations, was soon involved in the alarming progress of affairs. To the Whig party, as to liberal men all over the world, it seemed at first the harbinger of a better era. The Tories regarded it with horror and alarm ; and Burke, heretofore one of the greatest ornaments and supports of the opposition, openly quarrelled with Fox, Sheridan, and other friends, and joined the ministerial party. An agitation of Parliamentary Reform, perhaps urged forward by the example of France, was opposed and sup- pressed by Pitt, himself formerly the author of a similar movement. His policy toward France had been one of neutrality ; but a dispute was brought about by the interference of England in behalf of the Dutch. On the 21st of January, 1793, Louis, the king of France, was executed ; and, twelve days afterwards, the Convention declared war against England. The Whigs now separated, a part joining the ministry upon the war question ; and the remainder, headed by Fox, subsiding into a powerless opposition and minority. Treaties of alliance against France were made with most of the continental powers, but owing to mismanagement, and to the cour- age and patriotism of the French, were of little avail. Pitt, though of great talents as an orator, had no genius for war, and wasted vast sums in fruitless expeditions and in subsidizing greedy allies. His forces, after suffering great hardships, were driven from Holland by the French ; and Toulon, which had been occupied by Lord Hood, was captured by the genius of Napoleon Bonaparte, then a young officer of artillery. The navy was more successful, and Lords Howe and Bridport each defeated a squadron of the enemy. An attempt at negotiation, in 1796, was unsuccessful ; and the financial pressure became so great, that the Bank of England was compelled to suspend payments. Great quantities of paper money ENGLAND. 711 were issued, prices rose, and a period of great apparent prosperity ensued. Much alarm was excited in the same year by a general mutiny in the navy. The sailors, whose health and comforts were shamefully neglected, rose in the Channel fleet and that of the ISTore ; imprisoned or sent ashore their officers, and kept possession of the vessels till parliament complied with their demands. Parker and other ringleaders at the Nore were, however, executed. The year was, nevertheless, distinguished by the naval victory of Jarvis, off Cape St. Vincent, over the Spanish fleet, and that of Duncan, off Camperdown, over the Dutch. Meanwhile, great disturbances had been gradually increasing in Ireland. That unfortunate country was oppressed in every possible way. It had but a shadow of political power ; the greatest abuses prevailed; and the miserable peasantry were the mere serfs of the landholders. It is remarkable that, although the Catholics had by far the greatest cause of complaint, the Protestants made the first movement towards reform, and secured an independent parliament. A spirit of republicanism, stimulated by the example of America and France, had grown up, and a formidable association of Protest- ant dissenters, called the " United Irishmen," with which the Catholic party soon formed an alliance, was organized in 1791. In Ulster, however, a mutual hatred subsisted between the oppo- site sects; and the Protestants, who had the superiority, formed themselves into a society called "Orangemen," (from William III.,) and barbarously expelled their rivals from the country. The new association, like any other which appeals to selfishness and bigotry, met with success, and spread rapidly over the kingdom. In 1796, a formidable armament, which, under command of General Hoche, sailed from France to assist the Irish republicans, was dispersed by storms, and retired, unable to effect a landing. A general rising against the English government had been meditated for some time. The ministry, thovigh aware of this inten- tion, were unable to get sufficient evidence against the leaders, and in 1797 commenced a system of the most frightful atrocity. Under pretence of searching for arms, (fee, they let loose upon the people a licentious and brutal soldiery, with instructions to u.se such tyr- anny as should rouse the people into a premature and less formidable rebellion. These horrible orders were fully carried out, and the miserable peasantry were, in all directions, murdered, tortured, and driven from their homes. The chiefs of the conspiracy, Lord 712 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Edward Fitzgerald and a number of others, were detected and arrested. The persecutions which followed were of such an outrage- ous nature, that the object of government was at last attained, and the people, by a continuance of savage oppression, were forced into insurrection. The peasants were at first defeated, but in May, 1798, with fifteen thousand men, took the town of Wexford. A despe- rate attack, which they made upon New Eoss, was repulsed with the loss of a thousand of their number; during which, two hundred Protestant prisoners were brutally massacred by certain ruffians. A division of the English army was defeated near Gorey, but the insur- gents, twenty -seven thousand in number, were repulsed in Wicklow by a small force under General Needham, and their leader, Father Murphy, was killed by a cannon-ball. The English forces being finally concentrated, the insurgent army was defeated and dispersed at Vinegar-hill, their chief station, and war, in effect, thus ended. During this contest the Irish Catholics had murdered several hundred of their Protestant prisoners. But a far greater amount of butchery — accompanied, too, by studied and deliberate tortures — lies at the door of their foreign and Protestant conquerors. General Humbert, with about a thousand French, landed at Con- naught in August, 1798, and was joined by a portion of the peasantry. Being surrounded by Lord Cornwallis, with a large army, he was compelled to surrender, and the insurrection was thus finally crushed, after the loss of fifty thousand lives, and an immense destruction of property. The government now began to feel the necessity of union or extermination ; and Lord Castlereagh, to whom the affair was com- mitted, succeeded, by the most open and shameless bribery, in passing a bill for the former through the Irish parliament, and in March, 1800, the national existence of Ireland was effectually terminated. The British arms had, in the interval, gained some brilliant successes at sea. Nelson, in 1798, attacked the French squadron which had lately conveyed Napoleon and his forces to Egypt, and gained a complete victory in the Bay of Aboukir. An expedition to Holland, however, in the following year, commanded by the duke of York, met with a most disgraceful failure. In 1801, Mr. Pitt, unable to redeem his pledges to the Catholics, went out of office, and his place was taken by Mr. Addington, who was, however, supposed to be only a puppet, moved by the retired minister. In the same THt: DUXE Oh' WELLINGTON. AHrniifi Wjsllesley, Duke of Wellington, -was "born in the county of Meatb, in Ireland, on the first of May, 1769. His professional education was commenced at a very early period, and he entered the army as an ensign at the age of eighteen. The high military reputation \vhich he acquired in Indian "warfare, was sustained and widely extended by his Tenn.ark,ah]e achievements in the Penin.sular war, and, less deservedly, hy the victory of Waterloo, ■which British panegyrists are accustomed to attribute entirely to his talents Since the general peace, he has always taken an active part in political affairs, and has generally been found at the head, or in the ranks, of the ultra tcries Very recently, at the advanced age of eighty-one, the settlement of the British Cabinet was again placed in his hands; and his advice to the Queen, of recalling her moderate whig minister, Lord John Russell, was adopted ENGLAND. 713 year, Nelson, after a terrible battle at Copenbagen, defeated the Danes, who bad resisted tbe long-disputed "right of search" claimed by England. In March, 1802, General Abercrombie, in Egypt, defeated a portion of the French arm}', and compelled the remainder to surrender on honourable terms. Napoleon, having utterly routed the Austrians, made great preparations the same year for the inva- sion of England. Equal enthusiasm was manifested for its defence ; but in March, a treaty of peace was signed at Amiens, by which England restored a portion of her conquests. Her national debt had again been terribly augmented. The treacherous and perfidious conduct of the English ministry, in refusing to comply with the terms of the treaty, reawakened hos- tilities. By an equal act of perfidy, anticipating war, they issued secret orders — to seize all colonies of the French, and laid an embargo on their vessels. Napoleon retaliated by imprisoning all British subjects within his territories, and war was recommenced. To meet the crisis, Pitt again assumed the premiership, in May, 1804, just as Napoleon was proclaimed emperor at Paris. A brilliant victory soon strengthened the new administration. Admiral Nel- son, who had long been in search of the enemy, finally, on the 12th of October, 1805, encountered the combined French and Spanish fleets, under Yilleneuve, off Cape Trafalgar. With twenty-seven sail of the line, he completely defeated thirty-three. Nineteen of them were taken, but the British admiral, having won the most sig- nal naval victory on record, died from the effect of a wound which he received in the action. In January of the following year, expired Pitt himself, worn out with care, anxiety, and excess. This celebrated statesman died in his forty-seventh year, after a life chiefly spent in office, and labori- ously devoted to the service of his country. His genius and integrity no one can question ; but from an error common to the entire party which he represented, Great Britain was plunged into ruinous wars, and a terribly increased burden was laid upon posterity. The king, in spite of his antipathy to Mr. Fox, was compelled to appoint a new ministry, of which that gentleman was the chief. During his brief period of power, this great man exerted himself strenuously to procure a peace, and to secure the abolition of the African slave-trade. Death, however, closed his brilliant and patriotic career, and in a few months after his elevation, he reposed by the side of his great rival and predecessor in "Westminster Abbey. 714 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. His favourite and philanthropic measure (against the slave-trade) was carried out by his party; but, having in 1807 introduced a bill for the relief of the Catholics, the ministry were dismissed from office, and their places supplied from the opposite party. Cas- tlereagh, Canning, Percival, and Eldon were the most prominent members of the new administration, which, owing to the prejudice against Catholicism, commanded a great majority. Napoleon, whose influence, after the conquest of Prussia, extended over all continental Europe, had declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, and succeeded partially in preventing inter- course. The ministry, fearing lest he should seize upon the naval resources of Denmark, sent a piratical expedition against that power, which was unsuspicious of hostilities, took possession of her fleet, and captured a great number of her merchant vessels. This atrocious act excited the indignation of every civilized nation. In 1808 an expedition of considerable force was despatched to Portugal, to operate against the French. Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Lord Wellington), with sixteen thousand troops, defeated Junot, the French commander, at Yimiero, and, by agreement, the French evacuated Portugal. On the 16th of January, 1809, Sir John Moore, with fourteen thousand men, repelled a furious attack of Marshal Soult, with a superior force, at Corunna, but lost his life in the engagement. Operations were much hampered by the folly of the ministry, which undertook to plan campaigns, and thus discon- certed the schemes of their ablest commanders. On the 27th of July, 1810, a terrible battle was fought at Talavera, between "Wel- lington and Victor, the French army being fifty thousand in number, and the British and Spaniards about the same. Seven thousand men were slain on each side without any very decisive result. On the same day, an expedition of forty thousand men sailed for Holland, but met with no success, the greater number perishing on the pestilential island of Walcheren. In the same year, the king experienced another attack of insanity, from which he never recovered. His son George was made regent, and, deserting his old friends the Whigs, retained the Tory ministry. Hostile operations were still carried on with great vigour in Spain and Portugal, and at Busaco, Albuera, and other fields of battle, both parties wasted their forces in indecisive engagements. At length, in 1812, the attention of Napoleon being engrossed by approaching hostilities with Eussia, Wellington commenced an active ENGLAND. 7]^5 campaign. He took by storm the strong cities of Ciudad Kodrigo and Badajoz, defeated Marmont, who lost twelve thousand men, and entered Madrid itself He was, however, soon compelled to retire into Portugal. Being largely reinforced and supplied, he was at last placed in the supreme command over the allied forces, and in 1818, defeating Joseph Buonaparte at Vittoria, expelled the French from the Peninsula. The fall of Napoleon, overpowered by the northern allies, and his first abdication in 1814, soon followed, the British army at the same time entering France from the south. In 1812 the American government, unable to obtain redress for the impressment of its seamen, and for other grievances, had declared war. In that year, an American army, under General Hull, attempting the invasion of Canada, was compelled, through the incapacity of their leader, to surrender to an inferior force. At sea and on the lakes the Americans gained brilliant successes, and proved the naval character of Britain to be less invincible than had been generally supposed. In 1813 the advantage in naval conflicts still continued with America, the British meeting more success on land. In the following year a large force, under Greneral Ross, sailed up the Chesapeake, defeated the militia called out to oppose them, and destroyed all the public buildings in the city of Washington. Toward the close of the year, the British arms experienced a signal reverse. General Pakenham, with a large force, making an attack on the city of New Orleans, was utterly defeated by General Jack- son, the American commander. Exposed to a terrible fire from the American intrenchments, the invading force was compelled to retreat, leaving on the field their leader, and more than two thou- sand of the Peninsular veterans, who had lately been transferred to this service. Peace was concluded the same year. In 1815 occurred the return of Napoleon, his brief and brilliant second career, and the final extinguishment of his power on the field of Waterloo. After his fall, he sought the hospitalit}^ of Eng- land, and found it in the island-prison of St, Helena, where he survived for a few miserable years. A general peace, in which the allied powers partitioned Europe at their will, succeeded. The condition of England, exhausted by the long contest, was miserable, and frequent riots and local insurrections were caused by the sufferings of the poorer classes. The king, whom blindness, insanity, and age, had long deprived of all that renders life desirable, expired on the 29th of January, 716 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. 1820, in the eiglity-second. year of his age, after a reign of nearly sixty years, the longest in the annals of the nation. The temperate and domestic private character of this monarch secured him the respect and affection of his subjects, although his incapacity, obsti- nacy, and bigotry caused them incalculable injuries. During this long and troubled reign, which seemed to connect two different ages of the world, the most important changes had occurred in almost every political relation of England. Her territorial pos- sessions had greatly increased, and in particular, almost the whole of India had been brought under subjection to her government. GEORGE lY., WILLIAM IT., AND VICTORIA. On the death of his father, the prince-regent, under the title of George IV., ascended the throne. His queen, Caroline of Bruns- wick, from whom he had long been separated, now returned from Italy, and claimed her title and conjugal rights. To gratify the king's aversion and evade her claims, it was resolved to bring her to trial on a charge of conjugal infidelity; and evidence of the basest character was accordingly sought out. So great, however, was her popularity, and so questionable the proof alleged against her, that the ministry were compelled, in the midst of the trial, to with- draw their charges ; a measure which was regarded by the people as a triumphal acquittal. She died soon afterwards, overcome with grief and mortification. Lord Liverpool, who had for some time been premier, was suc- ceeded in 1827 by George Canning, the brilliant and accomplished orator, who, however, expired, after holding ofl&ce only four months. In 1828, the duke of Wellington filled the same responsible office. The odious test act was repealed ; and in 1829 a bill for the emanci- pation of the Catholics was introduced by the ministry, who saw no other means of preserving order in Ireland. Supported by "Welling- ton and Sir Eobert Peel, it was passed by a majority of an hundred and five, in spite of the strenuous opposition of the more bigoted or interested adherents of the church. •QUEEN VICTORIA ENGLAND. 717 George IV. expired on the 2-ith of June, 1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the tenth of his reign. This prince, though highly popular in his youth, and always distinguished by the urbanity of his manners, has left an unenviable reputation for selfish- ness, sensuality, and meanness in his private life, and for want of faithfulness and magnanimity in his public career. His brother, the duke of Clarence, succeeded him under the title of William lY. He had been long in the navy, and was rather distinguished by a sailor-like frankness and openness of disposition, than by any decided talent for government. The second French Revolution, which broke out just as he ascended the throne, pro- duced a strong desire in England for the extension of popular rights. The Whigs, supported by the general feeling, came into office, and Earl Grrey was placed at the head of the new ministry. The bill which he introduced for the reform of parliament, met with the most furious opposition from the Tory party. It provided for the representation of many large towns and other places which had heretofore been exckided, and abolished a great number of "rotten boroughs," which had been exclusively under the control of the aristocracy. By this measure, which was passed in 1832, the voice of the people, though still only partially heard, gained a great accession of strength and authority. During the brief reign of William IV. other most important m.easures were carried: the emancipation of slaves in the colonies, the amendment of the poor laws, and similar acts of a liberal nature. He died on the 20th of June, 1837, and was succeeded by his niece, Victoria, daughter of the duke of Kent, (third son of George III.,) and the present sovereign of Great Britain. With the principal events of her reign hitherto, most persons are sufficiently familiar. Great Britain, though generally preserving a pacific attitude towards the continental nations of Europe, has car- ried on an extensive and protracted warfare in the East. The hostilities witk the warlike nations west of India, in which at times her forces suffered materially, and those with China, in which that ancient empire was compelled to submit to the most onerous and humiliating conditions of peace, have been the chief events of great importance in her foreign relations. Though anxious, as ever, to preserve the so-called "balance of power" among the European states, her government has, in a great measure, relinquished the spirit of dictation and intermeddling which so often has involved her 718 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. in hostilities, and thrown such heavy burdens on posterity. Her present policy appears to be one of conciliation and non-interference, a result due partly to the more enlightened spirit of the present age, and partly to the obstacles which embarrassed finance, and the fear of popular outbreak, would present to the success of any important or protracted contest. The domestic policy of England has also under- gone the most material modifications. The duties upon grain and other articles of general consumption have been repealed or essen- tially lightened, under the untiring and patriotic exertions of the League. Other relaxations in the more obnoxious features of her system have also taken place, the leaders of the Conservative party seeing the absolute necessity of a concession to popular feeling. A very material extension of the right of suffrage is proposed, and will doubtless, at no distant day, be carried into effect. The few last months have witnessed with amazement a strange revival of the Anti-Catholic excitement. An apostolical letter of the Pope of Eome, constituting a cardinal and other ecclesiastical dignitaries within the queen's dominions, has awakened a perfect storm of indignation among the zealous Protestants and church party. The most exciting meetings have been held, and addresses to the queen, couched in the strongest language, have been voted. In compliance with this strange spirit of alarm and displeasure, a bill has been introduced into parliament, which, though materially cur- tailed of its most oppressive features, nevertheless provides a con- siderable penalty for the assumption of ecclesiastical titles conferred by the Pope and derived from English localities. Great Britain presents, at the present moment, the singular spectacle of a nation controlling the most extensive dominions, dis- playing the highest magnificence and the most lavish expenditure, yet deeply involved in debt, and perhaps liable to suffer great convulsions from any trifling cause which might increase the pres- sure upon her suffering operatives. That gradual amelioration, in preference to sudden, disastrous, and perhaps fruitless revolution, may be her fate, is the hope and belief of the most wise and benevo- lent politicians. No American, who regards at its due value, the glorious heritage of heroism, genius, and national spirit which this country has inherited from England, can wish otherwise than that this splendid nationality, purified from its corruptions, and expanded by perfect freedom, may yet emerge into more real greatness and more universal prosperity than it has ever yet experienced. ENGLAND. 719 THE RULERS OF ENGLAND. The Romans, b. c. 55toa.d.420 The Britons and their Saxon invaders, .... a. d.420 " 584 The Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, 584 " 827 ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. Egbert, 827 " 836 Ethelwulf, son of Egbert, 836 " 858 Ethelbald, son of Ethelwulf, 858 " 860 Ethelbert, son of Ethelwulf, 860 « 866 Ethered, son of Ethelwulf, . . . . . . . 866 " 871 Alfred the Great, son of Ethelwulf, 871 " 901 Edward I, son of Alfred, 901 " 925 Athelstan, son of Edward I., 925 " 940 Edmund I, son of Edward L, 940 " 946 Edred, son of Edward I., 946 " 955 Edwy (the Fair), son of Edmund I., 955 " 959 Edgiir, son of Edmund I., . , . . . . . . 959 « 975 Edward II. (the Martyr), son of Edgar, . . . . . 975 " 978 Ethelred, son of Edgar, 978 « 1016 Edward II. (Ironside), son of Ethelred, 1016 " 1017 DANISH KINGS. Canute, an Invader, 1017 " 1035 Harold (Harefoot), son of Canute, . . . . . . 1035 " 1040 Hardacnute, son of Canute, ; . . 1040 " 1042 ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. Edward III. (the Confessor), son of Ethelred, . Harold II., son of Godwin, earl of Wessex, . . . . ANGLO-NORMAN KINGS. William I. (the Conqueror), son of Robert duke of Normandy, William II. (Rufus) son of William I., Henry I. (Beauclerc), son of William I., . Stephen, grandson of William I. by his daughter Adela, THE PLANTAGENETS. Henry II., grandson of Henry I., by his daughter Matilda, . Richard I. (Coeur de Lion), son of Henry II., John (Lackland), son of Henry II., . . . . 1042 <( 1066 1066 1066 (( 1087 1087 (1 1100 1100 u 1135 1135 u 1154 1154 u 1189 1189 " 1199 1199 (( 1216 720 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Henry ni., son of John, . from 1216 to 1272 Edward I. (Longshanks), son of Henry HI., . . . . 1272 « 1307 Edward II., son of Edward I., 1307 " 1327 Edward HI., son of Edward II., 1327 " 1377 Richard II., grandson of Edward III., by Edward the Black Prince, 1377 " 1399 HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Henry IV., grandson of Edward III., by John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, his fourth son, 1399 " 1413 Henry V., son of Henry IV., 1413 « 1422 Henry VI., son of Henry V., 1422 « 1461 HOUSE OF TORK. Edward IV., the fifth in descent from Lionel duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., . 1461 " 1483 Edward V., son of Edward IV., 1483 Richard III., brother of Edward IV., 1483 " 1485 HOUSE OF TUDOR. Henry Vn., a descendant ofJohnofGaunt, fourth son of Edward in., . . . 1485 " 1509 Henry Vffl., son of Henry VII., . . . . . . 1509 « 1547 Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., 1547 « 1553 Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., 1553 « 1558 Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII., 1558 " 1603 HOUSE OF STUART. James I. (VI. of Scotland), great-grandson of Margaret, daughter of Henry vn., . . 1603 " 1625 Charles I., son of James I., 1625 « 1649 The Commonwealth, 1649 " 1653 The Protectorate, Oliver Cromwell, 1653 " 1658 The Protectorate, Richard Cromwell, 1658 " 1659 Interregnum, 1659 " 1660 Charles II., son of Charles I., 1660 « 1685 James II., son of Charles I., 1685 " 1688 house of orange and STUART. ( William III., son of Mary, daughter of Charles I., ) ^„„o « •■ f>r> . JOINT REIGN OF <,. tt j i .. i- t tt >1688 " 1694 ^ Mary II., daughter 01 James 11., ) William m 1694 « 1702 Anne, daughter of James H., 1702 « 1714 house of HANOVER. George I., son of Sophia of Hanover, niece of Charles I., . .1714 " 1727 George II., son of George I., 1727 « 1760 George III., grandson of George II., 1760 « 1820 George IV., son of George IE., 1820 " 1830 William IV., son of George III., 1830 « 1837 Victoria, grand-daughter of George III., 1837 " Danish Costaraea. Costume of the Swedes SWEDEN AID IOE¥AI. These countries, forming tne great Scandinavian Peninsula, are now, though, with separate constitutions and legislatures, united under a single sovereign. Originally peopled by the same race as the ancestors of the Finns and Laplanders, they were, at an early period, occupied by the Gothic and other Germanic tribes. The famous Odin, (rather a mythological than an historical character,) removing from Denmark to Sweden, became the founder of the first royal dynasty of that country, (the Ynglingar,) which was succeeded by the Ifwarian^ reigning until the middle of the tenth century. In Norway, the famous Harold Harfagar (the "Fair-haired"), in 875, reduced the various principalities of that country under his sole sway. Other dynasties succeeded in Sweden, but in 1897, both kingdoms were united under Margaret of Denmark, who had mar- ried a Norwegian prince. The Danish rule continued, for the most part, until 1521, when Gustavus Vasa ascended the independent throne of Sweden. His grandson, the celebrated Gustavus Adol- phus, who came to the throne in 1611, acquired great renown by the wars which he waged in Germany for the support of the Protestant religion. Under his generalship, the Swedish nation acquired the first military reputation in Europe, and its power and territory were greatly extended. His daughter Christina, who in 1633, at the age of only seven, succeeded to the throne, proved a woman of the most masculine energy, both of body and mind ; and, on attain- ing the sovereignty, governed the nation with considerable success and intelligence. "Weary of the cares of royalty, in 1654 she resigned the crown, and for several years led a life of strange caprice and eccentricity in various European capitals. The private execu- tion, or rather the murder of her chamberlain, Monaldeschi, has stamped her character as deeply sanguinary and unprincipled. After the reigns of Charles X. and Charles XI,, (nephew and 46 722 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. grand-nepliew of Adolphus) succeeded Charles XII., the most famous name in Swedish history (1697). He came to the throne at the age of eighteen, and was speedily involved in war with the neighbour- ing powers. His military genius enabled him to achieve the most astonishing successes, and for a time, fully to support the renown of Gustavus Adolphus. Poland, Denmark, and other hostile nations were speedily overcome, and the victor dictated terms in their very capitals. Eussia, whose ambitious sovereign (Peter the Great) was eagerly desirous of obtaining a footing on the shores of the Baltic, was at first disgracefully repulsed and defeated ; but by continued perseverance and improvement in the art of war, the czar finally attained his object. By gradual movements, he continued to extend his territories, and the city of St, Petersburg, his new and splendid capital, soon arose amid the swampy and inhospitable regions which he had acquired. In 1707, Charles, with an army of forty-five thousand men, which he commanded in person, and with a lesser force, under his general, Lewenhaupt, invaded the- Russian empire, declaring his intention of treating for peace only in the city of Moscow. Peter retreated before him, laying waste the country as he went; and the Swedish army, after a brilliant commencement of the campaign, was reduced to extremities from the want of supplies. An injudicious march into the Ukraine, where Mazeppa, the hetman or chief of the Cos- sacks had promised to join them, produced further misfortunes. The Cossacks refused to transfer their allegiance, and the invader, after marching through the desolate wastes of the Ukraine; exposed to all the horrors of a Russian winter, finally, with his army dimin- ished to eighteen thousand men, sat down before the Russian fortress of Pultowa. The czar, with a force nearly three times as great, hastened to attack him (June 15th, 1709). The Swedes fought with all their accustomed bravery ; but, exhausted and outnumbered, were defeated and almost annihilated on the field of battle. The unfortunate Charles fled into Turkey, where for five years he remained a miser- able exile, dependant on the protection of the Sultan. He finally returned to his kingdom, and, with the aid of his faithful subjects, made fresh efforts to withstand the encroachments of his rivals. He also undertook the conquest of Norway, and in 1718, was killed by a cannon-shot, while besieging the little fortification of Frederickstadt. JENNY LIND, THE GREATEST SINGEH. OF MOnERN TIMES, Was "born in the city of Stockhoina, in comparatively humble circumstancee Her admirable command of voice, at the age of five or six, attracted the attention of a Swedish actress, and she "was placed under the care of Berg, a most skilful musician, at the Musical School attached to the P^oyal Theatre Her first distinguished success was at Berlin, in the year 1842 or 1843 Her reputation at once became Continental, and from that time she has achieved a succession of brj'liant triumphs in Europe, Great Britain, and America. She is uncLuestionably the most popular public performer who has appeared within the memory of man — and deservedly, her wonderful talent in music being fully equalled by her generosity and kindness of heart BERNADOTTE Jean-Bap iisrE-JoLES-BERNADOi'TT? was born at Pau, January 2Gth, 176-1. His father was an attorney. By distinguished "bravei'y, he rose to he a Marshal of France under the empire; and on the dethronement oi' Gustavus IV. of Sweden, was elected C'l'own Prince of Sweden, of which, under the title of Charles SIV., in 1818, he heoame king. OflFended hy the arbitrary conduct of Napoleon, he Joined the hostile alliance of Prussia and Austria, and used his influence and military skill against his former master After the fall of the latter, he ruled peaceably under the Russian protection, and at his death leit hi.'^ crown to his son Osc?ir SWEDEN AND NOEWAY. 723 "His foil was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress and a dubious hand; He left the name at which the world grew pale To point a moral, or adorn a tale." The career of Eussian aggrandizement continued, and fresh, provin- ces, wrung from Sweden, were added to the empire. During several reigns, the influence of the stronger nation grew so predominant, that the pohcy of Sweden has latterly become almost entirely sub- servient to that of Eussia, and the country itself, little more than a province of its imperial rival. The most remarkable event in Swedish history, of late years, is the accession of a French soldier of fortune to the throne of that distant and northern kingdom. In 1810, the nation, through the sudden death of the heir presumptive to the throne, found itself obliged to seek out some person of sufficient talent and reputation to sustain the weight of government. Marshal Bernadotte, distin- guished in the service of Napoleon, had acquired the good- will of a portion of the Swedish army by his generous conduct in the late hostilities; and was accordingly, by the reluctant consent of Napo- leon, appointed crown-prince, with the real sovereignty of the nation. The resolute maintenance of the independence of his kingdom was, no doubt, honourable to his feelings, but his concurrence with the allied powers in plotting the overthrow of France, and the per- sonal part which he took in hostilities against the country of his birth, must always attach to his name a degree of opprobrium. In 1814, the sovereignty of Norway was formally annexed to that of Sweden, and in 1818, by the death of the king, (Charles XIII.,) Bernadotte assumed the crown, (which had already in reality been his,) under the title of Charles XIY. He died in 1844, and was succeeded by his son Oscar, the present sovereign, a prince, it is said, of amiable and enlightened character. ITALY After the dethronement o± Augustulus and the destruction of the "Western Eoman empire, (A. T>. 476,) the victorious Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, assumed the title of King of Italy, and for fourteen years held possession of the country. In 490, Theodoric, the famous* king of the Ostrogoths, by agreement with Zeno, emperor of the Eastern Koman empire, invaded Italy, defeated Odoacer in three battles, and was proclaimed as sovereign in his stead. At the death of the Gothic prince, in 526, the Emperor Justinian, anxious to recover the ancient seat of empire, despatched into Italy his generals Narses and the famous Belisarius, who, after a struggle of eighteen years, succeeded in wresting it from the invaders, and for a brief period reuniting it to the empire. In the year 568, the Lombards, a power- ful German tribe from the Elbe, invaded northern Italy, and gained possession of that fertile region, since called, from the name of its new masters, Lombardy. Other conquests followed, and Eome itself was only saved by the interference of the warlike Pepin (the Short), king of France, who, at the intercession of the Pope, repelled the German invaders, and compelled them to cede to his Holiness those territories which have formed the foundation of the States of the Church and the origin of the temporal power of the Papal See. Lombardy, soon after, was conquered by Charlemagne, whose devotion to the church increased the power of the pontificate yet farther. Sicily and Lower Italy remained provinces of the Eastern empire until 842, when that island and Calabria fell for a time into the hands of the Saracens. The number and frequent political changes of the various principalities into which the Italian peninsula has, for many centuries, been divided, forbid any thing more than a brief survey of the fortunes of the most distinguished. The wonderful political and ecclesiastical career of the long sue- Italian Costumes Italian Costume ITALY. 725 cession of pontiffs wlio have filled the chair of St. Peter, presents a singular instance of the success of bold spiritual assumption over ignorant and superstitious force. Their fierce and protracted con- tests with the imperial power of Germany, (briefly described in the account of that country,) in despite of temporary defeat and humiliation, usually resulted in an increase of the papal haughtiness and dictatorial power. The power of disposing of crowns and sov- ereignties was arrogated in the most impudent, and, owing to the slavish mental subjection of Europe, often in the most successful manner. The spirited resistance of Philip IV. of France, early in the fourteenth century gave the first check to this insolent and domineering spirit; the self-will, greediness, and impatience of Henry VIII. of England, struck a yet heavier blow at the papal supremacy ; and the Great Reformation, commenced by Luther, which immedi- ately followed, for ever prostrated the European dictation so long endured from the Roman pontificate. While the spiritual and civil liberties of mankind were strictly proscribed by the Popes, they still, by their munificent patronage of art and letters, greatly assisted in the advancement of taste and refinement. Genius and successful innovation (in every department except politics and theology) were most liberally encouraged and rewarded. The names of Petrarch, of Raphael, of Michael Angelo, and a host of other luminaries, will always attest the merits of the Papal See, in promoting the revival of art, of science, and of litera- ture. The noted exception in the case of Galileo only illustrates the rule — an ecclesiastical dogma being found sufficient to outweigh the most noble and enfranchising discoveries which the genius of philosophy could effect. The magnificent church of St. Peter's, " the most glorious structure that has ever been applied to the use of religion," yet remains the proudest monument of the power and resources of the Holy See. The erection of this wonderful edifice occupied the reigns and absorbed the spare revenues of seventeen successive Popes. The first stone was laid in 1506, by Julius II., and the front completed by Paul V. an hundred and fifteen years afterwards ; yet even then it was not perfected, and immense sums have subsequently been lavished upon its accessaries and adornments. Two hundred and sixty-five years were requisite for its entire completion, and during that time nearly an hundred millions of dollars have been expended upon the work. The zealous Protestant, while viewing the magnificence of 726 '^^^ PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTORY. a structure witla wliicli none erected by his own cliurcli can compete, feels a certain satisfaction in the reflection that, to supply the requi- site treasures, indulgences were vended, Luther was aroused, and the Great Reformation rolled in, and swept away the power and pre- dominance of which this splendid striicture is now but a memorial. The beautiful kingdom of Naples, occupying the southern extrem- ity of Italy, was, at a very early period, settled by Grecian colonists, who founded, among others, the famous cities of Crotona, Sybaris, and Naples — the latter of which is still the capital of Southern Italy. It was an important and favourite portion of the Roman empire ; after the fall of which, it came successively under the sway of the Goths, the Greek emperors, and the invading Saracens. In the year 1016, and for some time afterwards, the roving warriors of Normandy flocked to this delightful region, expelled the Saracens, and extended their conquests over the greater part of Sicily and Lower Italy. Roger II. of Hauteville (their principal house) was crowned by the Pope as "King of the two Sicilies." With the extinction of the male line of this family, it came by marriage under the imperial house of Hohenstaufen, with which it remained until the middle of the thirteenth century, when by arms and the papal influence, Charles of Anjou (brother of Louis IX. of France) gained possession of Lower Italy. At the death of Joanna II., the last of this line, in 1442, it fell under the sway of Alphonso Y., King of Sicily and Arragon ; his natural son Ferdinand succeeded to the acquisition; and in 1503 Naples and Sicily were reunited under a single sovereign. They continued to form a part of the Spanish dominions nntil 1714, when by treaty they were surrendered to Austria. Twenty years after- wards they were regained by Spain, and in 1759, were erected into an independent sovereignty under Ferdinand, a younger son of the royal family of that country. The kingdom of Naples, soon after the Great Revolution, was included by the French in their Italian con- quests, and Napoleon in 1806 bestowed the crown upon his brother Joseph. In 1808, the celebrated Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, was placed upon the throne, and by his enlightened and liberal administration became justly popular with his subjects. The bril- liant and successful military career of this extraordinary man, aud his melancholy fate, have been elsewhere described. In attempting, in emulation of Napoleon, with a few attendants, to regain his king- dom, (which he had lost on the success of the allies,) he was captured, MURAT. .IdACHiM Mdrat, Marshal of France and King of Naples;, w:\,s torn in huml'io "iiie in 1767 at the little village of Bastide. In attempting to regain his thron--. niter che fall of Napoleon, he was taken on the coast of Calabria, and shot, Octo- ber 13th, 1815, by order of the Neapolitan governnient "And thou, too, of the sno'w-'white plume, "Whose realm denied thee even a tomb ! Better thou hadst fallen "while leading France o'er hosts of liirelings bleeding, Thau Fold thyself to death and -shame For a meanly royal nanae. There, where death's brief piang was quickest. Where the battle's wreck lay thickest. Where the broken line enlarging, Fell, or fled across the plain — There, be sun'e, was Murat charging! There he ne'er shall charge again " FROM THB FRENCH ITALY. 727 and suffered military execution by order of tlie contemptible Ferdi- nand, who bad been restored by foreign arms to tbe throne. The ancient and wonderful maritime republic of Yenice, after au existence of twelve hundred years, succumbed before the victorious arms of Napoleon; and since his fall has been, with other Italian states, under the hated and tyrannical sway of Austria. Her origin and duration were alike remarkable. " * * * * A few in fear, Flying away from him whose boast it was* That the grass grew not where his horse had trod, Gave birth to Venice. Like the water-fowl, They built their nests amid the ocean waves ; And where the sands were shifting, as the wind Blew from the north, the south; where they that came Had to make sure the ground they stood upon. Rose, like an exhalation from the deep, A vast metropolis, with glittering spires, With theatres, basilicas adorned; A scene of light and glory, a dominion Which has endured the longest among men. Through many an age in the mid sea she dwelt, From her retreat calmly contemplating The changes of the earth, herself unchanged. Before her passed, as in an awful dream. The mightiest of the mighty. What are these Clothed in their purple 1 o'er the globe they fling Their monstrous shadows; and while yet we speak. Phantom-like, vanish with a dreadful scream! What — but the last that styled themselves the Caesars * * * * followed fast by shapes As new and strange, Emperor, and King, and Czar, And Soldan, each with a gigantic stride Trampling on all the flourishing works of peace, To make his greatness greater, and inscribe His name in blood, * * among the rest, Lo, one by one, passing continually, Those who assume a sway beyond them all. Men gray with age, each in a triple crown. And in his tremulous hands grasping the keys That can alone, as he would signify. Unlock Heaven's gate." — ^Rogers's Italy. * Attila. 728 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Italy has had even more than its share of the pohtical and revo- lutionary contests by which Europe, during the past few years, has been convulsed; and here, unfortunately, as elsewhere, the efforts of the people for the cause of freedom have been suppressed by for- eign policy and foreign bayonets. YenicC; after a resistance against her Austrian tyrants, which merited a better fate, has been reduced rather by famine than by arms ; her depopulated streets, and hastily- emigrating citizens, at the present moment, furnishing the best comment on the nature of that "paternal despotism" which has been so often lauded by the admirers of Austrian usurpation, Naples and Sicily, by an ill-concerted and premature movement, have gained only a fresh accession of tyranny. The defeat of Sar- dinia, the forced abdication of her patriotic sovereign, and the reviving ascendancy of Austria over the North of Italy, seem utterly to preclude the hope of a renewed or successful attempt for freedom in any of its ancient strongholds. The fate of Eome has been more melancholy still. The accession of Pius IX. to the pontificate was hailed as the commencement of an era of reform and liberality. To a certain extent, this prospect was realized; but the time-honoured abuses of the papacy, sanctioned by neighbouring despotism, could not suddenly be swept away : the people, impatient, took redress into their own hands ; and the head of the Catholic Church, but lately almost worshipped as a divinity, sought safety in flight, and assistance from foreign arms. The utterly selfish and unprincipled action of France, in this emergency, has procured her no sympathy, except such as is awarded to successful violence. The government of a republic, which but yesterday owed its existence to a sudden revolution, lent its influ- ence and its arms to suppress the most noble and hopeful struggle for freedom which Italy has ever made. The advocates of this armed interference have, indeed, attempted to justify it by pleading the necessity of anticipating Austria, and of maintaining the influence of France on the Italian peninsula. Whether the motive were sym- pathy for despotism or a mere scramble for national power the result has been the same. — Eome, after a defence worthy of the ancient republic, has been obliged to succumb to the artillery and bayonets of a republican army ; her brave defenders are slain, in prison, or in exile; and the puerilities of the hierarchal sway, protected by the arms of foreigners, have once more ventured back into their ancient haunts and brood over the Eternal City. THE NETHERLANDS. These countries, now politically called Holland and Belgium, have long borne the foregoing title on account of their low and swampy situation, being in some points even depressed below the level of the adjacent ocean. The industry of man has rescued from the sea this extensive tract, originally composed of a few sand-hills and marshes, half-covered by the waves, and has converted it into the most fertile, productive, and thickly-populated region of Europe, About the year B. 0. 54, Julius Ctesar subdued or conciliated its original inhabitants — ^the Belgians, Batavians, and Frieslanders — and it became a province of the Roman empire. It was next a portion of the Frankish, and afterwards of the Germanic empire, and the provincial nobles and governors appointed by the emperors gradually acquired their independence. Thus were founded the earldoms of Holland and Flanders, with other principalities. Philip of Burgundy, in 1369, by marriage with Margaret, heiress of Flanders, secured a footing in the Netherlands; and during the following century, by inheritance and otherwise, nearly the whole country came under the sway of Burgundy. Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, who died in 1477, was married to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria; and the Netherlands, with other immense possessions, both in the old and new world, were inherited by their grandson, the celebrated Emperor Charles V. During the reign of his son, Philip II. of Spain, the northern provinces of the Netherlands proclaimed their independence, under the title of the ''Republic of the United Provinces." After a fierce and protracted struggle for their liberties and their religion, (the Protestant,) and after many sufferings inflicted by their Spanish oppressors, they finally succeeded in gaining their independences which, in 1648, was fully acknowledged by Spain. They were soon called upon to resist an oppressor still nearer and more formidable. Louis XIY. of France, a monarch of vast 730 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OJF HISTOEY. resources, devoted to ambition, and a determined enemy of liberty and the reformed religion, undertook tbe subjection of these com- paratively feeble provinces. Their prospect appeared desperate, but the genius and valour of the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England) saved the republic from destruction. The dykes were laid open ; the sea, flowing over a vast extent of fertile and cul- tivated country, retarded the march of the invaders. It was even resolved by this patriotic and spirited people, in the event of their final defeat, rather than be subjected to the tyranny of French Catholicism, to take shipping, and transfer their entire nationality to the Indian Archipelago. "There the Dutch commonwealth . might commence a new and more glorious existence, and might rear under the Southern Cross, amidst the sugar-canes and nutmeg-trees, the Exchange of a wealthier Amsterdam, and the schools of a more learned Leyden." Happily, this bold and romantic enterprise was rendered unnecessary ; the invader was repelled ; and during an old age of misfortune, their grand enemy experienced the defeat and humiliation which he had so often inflicted on others. The southern provinces of the Netherlands had remained under the sway of Spain until, by the treaty of Eastadt, in 1714, they were ceded to Austria. This power, in 1797, overawed by the suc- cesses of Napoleon, surrendered them to France. The influence of the French emperor was such, that in 1806, the provinces of Holland, whose independence, surrounded by powerful states, was little more than nominal, accepted his brother Louis as their hereditary sove- reign, with the title of "King of Holland." The reign of the new monarch was of such a mild and benevolent nature, as effectually to conciliate the attachment of his subjects; the emperor, however, being dissatisfied at his unwillingness to enforce the ruinous severity of the continental system. After the fall of Napoleon, the Low Countries, in 1814, came again under the authority of Austria, which, however, relinquished her claims in favour of an arrangement by which the whole were constitutttd into the "Kingdom of the Netherlands." By the revolu- tion of 1830, a fresh separation occurred ; and while the northern provinces still retain the title of the kingdom of Holland or the Netherlands, the southern are united under the , new name of the "Kingdom of Belgium." D E Nl AE I. Little authentic is known of Danish history during the few first centuries of the Christian era. Denmark was settled at an early day by the German Goths, a prince of which people, named Odin, quitting the country to found a new realm in Sweden, left behind him his son Skjold, the first of that Danish dynasty which for many centuries afterwards bore his name. The country was divided into small principalities until 883, when it was united under a sovereign named Gorm. In the following century, Christianity was introduced, and diffused through the country. The Danish rovers, or sea-kings, had for centuries been the terror of the neighbouring countries; and the shores of England had especially suffered from their ravages. Their final conquest of that country, under Sweyn and Canute, in the early part of the eleventh century, has already been narrated. The sway of their sovereigns over the English, however, was brief, expiring with Hardacnute, in 1041. Their maritime superiority still continued, and for many centuries, commanding the great highway to ,the Baltic, they levied toll upon the numerous vessels which passed the straits. On the death of Valdemar III., in 1376, his daughter Margaret succeeded him. She was married to Haco, prince of Norway; and at his death became possessed of that kingdom. She also laid claim to Sweden, the crown of which her husband, had he lived, would have inherited. Her ambitious scheme, by arms and policy, was suc- cessful; and by the famous "Union of Calmar," the sovereignty of the three kingdoms was solemnly assured to her and her successors. The cruelties of Christian II., in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- tury, caused great discontent among his Swedish subjects; and a revolt, headed by a distinguished noble named Gustavus Vasa, result- ed, in 1523, in the detachment of Sweden from the crown of Denmark, and the elevation of the successful chief to the Swedish throne. The Eeformation, at an early period, spread widely in Denmark, 732 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. and in the "Thirty Years' War," waged by the Protestant league against the German emperors, the Danish sovereign, for a time, though with fortune unequal to his bravery, conducted the contest in behalf of the confederacy. Denmark, for many years, was involved in perpetual wars with Sweden, and finally sustained the most humiliating defeat and loss at the hands of the celebrated Charles XII. Since that time her policy has been of a pacific and conciliatory nature, and for many years she enjoyed much peace and prosperity. It is honourable to this nation, that her government, before any other, took an active part in the abolition of the odious slave-trade. The neutrality and pacific attitude of Denmark could not secure her from becoming involved in the great vortex of European war- fare which succeeded the French Eevolution. The jealousy of Eng- land, alarmed by an unfriendly coalition of the northern powers, prompted her to commence hostilities, and the expedition of Nelson, in 1801, followed by the naval battle of Copenhagen, inflicted great loss and suffering upon the feebler nation. In 1807, a most outrage- ous infraction of the law of nations was committed by England. Although at peace with Denmark, she despatched a naval force too powerful to be resisted, demanding a complete surrender of the fleet and marine stores of her weaker neighbour, on the pretext that otherwise they might fall into the hands of France. This impudent demand was of course resisted by the Danish sovereign, and a second contest ensued, resulting in the partial destruction of Copenhagen, an immense loss of life, and the complete success of the piratical attempt. In 1813, on the triumph of the allies, Denmark was compelled to relinquish her sovereignty over Norway, receiving in return an inconsiderable accession of other territory. Civil hostilities, of a sanguinary nature, have recently occurred in Denmark. The inhabitants of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, stimulated by the revolutionary spirit of Germany, have made a vigorous effort to establish their independent nationality. At the obstinately-fought battle of Idstedt, on the 25th of July, 1850, an army of forty-five thousand Danes, under Yon Krogh, attacked the revolutionary forces of twenty-eight thousand, under Willisen, and after a contest of two hours, in which seven thousand of the combatants were killed or wounded, compelled them to retreat. The success of the insurrectionary movement, at present, from the attitude of the neighbouring powers, appears hopeless. POETUGAL. This country, tlie Lusitania of the ancients, was invaded by the Eomans, B. C. 148. The struggle for its conquest, with some inter- vals, was protracted for more than a hundred years; but, in common with the whole Spanish peninsula, a little before the Christian era, it was forcibly subjected to the sway of the empire. The Visigoths included it in their conquests, and after them the Moors, who, in the eighth century, gained possession of nearly all the great south-western peninsula. As the power of the Christians revived, the Mahometans were gradually expelled from their- possessions ; and, about the mid- dle of the eleventh century, Ferdinand of Castile wrested from them a considerable part of Portugal. At the close of the same century, Henry of Burgundy, who mar- ried the daughter of the Spanish King Alphonso, received with her a portion of the country, erected into the earldom of Portucalia,* whence the present appellation of the country. Further victories over the Moors, under his son Alphonso, increased the limits of the principality, and elevated it into the dignity of a kingdom. Private wars, feuds, and deadly revenges, both with Christian and Saracen neighbours, present little of interest until the commencement of the fifteenth century, the famous epoch of Portuguese discovery. The names of John I, and his enterprising son Prince Henry, will always be celebrated as the earliest and most enlightened promoters of maritime enterprise. Under their auspices, from the year 1416 to 1432, a great part of Western Africa and the adjacent islands was discovered. Under John II. and Emmanuel, enterprises of still greater importance were undertaken. In 1486, the famous Bartholomew Diaz doubled the southern extremity of Africa, which, from the terrors of the passage, he termed the Cape of Storms, but which his patron, more sanguine, denominated "the Cape of Good * Derived from Partus Cale, the ancient name of Oporto 734 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. Hope." The famous expedition of Vasco de Gama, in 1497, by tliis route, to the western shores of India, and the momentous results which followed, have been narrated io the history of that country. By a similar expedition, in 1500, Brazil, destined to become the most important of the Portuguese acquisitions, was likewise discovered. After the disastrous fate of King Sebastian, (who, inspired by fanaticism, in 1578, made a crusade against the Moors of Morocco, and perished or disappeared at the fatal battle of Alcassar,) various pretenders to the throne of Portugal started up. Philip II. of Spain, the grandson of Emmanuel, was enabled, in 1580, by his superior military force, to gain possession of the crown. The kingdom remained an appanage to the Spanish crown until 1640, when the Portuguese, taking advantage of the weakness and inefficiency of Philip IV., threw off the yoke of Spain, and placed upon the throne the duke of Braganza, (descended from a natural son of John I.) under the title of John IV. of Portugal. His descendants, except for a brief interval, have ever since continued to occupy the throne. On the invasion of Portugal by the French, under Junot, in 1807, the royal family took shipping, and fled precipitately to Brazil. The king (John VI,) returned to his country in 1821; but his eldest son, Don Pedro, who remained in Brazil, in the following year con- verted that province into an independent empire, such as it has since remained. At the death of John VI., in 1826, his second son, Don Miguel, advanced pretensions to the throne, and in 1828 was proclaimed sovereign by the Cortes. His bigotry, cruelty, and illiberality, however, soon provoked powerful enemies; and Pedro, who in 1831 had been compelled to abdicate his Brazilian crown, resolved on an effort to gain the sovereignty. By English assistance, he fitted out an expedition, and, after a short struggle, succeeded in expelling Miguel from the kingdom. He survived his success but a brief period, dving in 1834; but his daughter Donna Maria II., the pres- ent sovereign of Portugal, was peaceably elevated to the throne. SWITZERLAND. Switzerland, the ancient Helvetia, lias for many ages been known as the residence of a bold, ingenious, and liberty -loving peo- ple. The rugged and precipitous mountains, of which it is almost entirely composed, have not only served to harden the frames and elevate the souls of their inhabitants, but have always proved the most efficient barrier against foreign invasion and tyranny. It was originally thinly inhabited by a race of savage and hardy mount- aineers, who were, however, at an early period obliged to yield to the superior forces of the Eoman empire. After remaining a Roman province until A. D. 406, the country fell under the power of the roving nations of the Alemanni and Burgundians, then on their grand migration of conquest and plunder. About the year 500, it came under the sway of the Franks, with whom it remained until the death of Charlemagne, in 814. This event was the signal for its dismemberment from the Avestern empire, and many of the chiefs and nobles of Switzerland, secured by the inaccessible nature of their domains, succeeded in maintaining their independence. A nominal allegiance to the German emperors was, however, mostly acknowledged until the year 1308, when the memorable revolution commenced, which finally resulted in the overthrow of a foreign usurpation, and the union of several states into the confederacy of Switzerland (so called from Schweitz, the most powerful of the enfranchised cantons). In the annals of this contest, perhaps the earliest for European freedom, the name of Tell still shines with all the lustre of heroism and romance. The popular version of his struggles and adventures, if not absolutely authenticated in all particulars, displays sufficiently the hardihood and personal enterprise of the early assertors of the freedom of Switzerland. More glorious still, perhaps, is the name of Arnold Winkelried, who, when the Swiss, outnumbered, but 736 THE PEOPLE'S BOOK OF HISTOEY. undaunted, were endeavouring vainly to break tlie ranks of tlie Aus- trian army, rushed forward, and clasping in his arms a number .of the opposing spears, made a breach, at the expense of his life, through which his countrymen pressed forward, and gained the victory. The patriotic resistance of the Swiss against their Burgundian oppressors, offers another of the brightest pages in the annals of freedom. At the battle of Morat, in 1476, a body of these brave mountaineers, with rude and primitive weapons, defeated Charles the Bold, who, with a fierce and disciplined soldiery, was endeav- ouring to reduce them to subjection. The bones of his fallen army, piled in a great pyramid, remained for centuries to attest the com- plete and sanguinary nature of their victory. Switzerland, from its central position among jealous and conflicting powerful states, has, during several centuries, been occasionally exposed to the march of hostile armies ; and the magnificent scenes which it every where presents have received fresh interest from the encounters of German, Russian, and French battalions, amid passes where the difiiculties of nature and the terrors of climate added immeasurably to the horrors of warfare. From the time of Hanni- bal, it has always been considered one of the most dangerous and difficult feats of military enterprise to conduct an army safely through the Alps — and the losses of Suwarrow, Macdonald, and other renowned generals, sufficiently attest the formidable nature of the undertaking. The Helvetic Republic (as the union of the Swiss cantons is polit- ically designated) has long been an object of jealousy to the arbitrary governments by which it is surrounded — a jealousy so aggravated by the late convulsions of Europe, and so menacing in its nature, that Switzerland looks eagerly for assistance to the friends of liberty throughout the world in an anticipated struggle for her freedom. The late treaty of alliance with our country (though simply com- mercial) has been received with general sympathy and enthusiasm. With a population of less than two millions and a half, it would seem that Switzerland must speedily succumb to any effort of the greater powers for her political destruction; but the battle is not always to the strong, and any attempt upon her nationality may yet be answered by a second Sempach or Morat. THE END. .%'09 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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