^0^ ■ ^i^^^- m ^"^UlH ;i'f.r, r-r-rpri. ?,^,«V. w .W.-'M-^-^ m WM. Class ^ Book L- GopigM]^'^. COFmiGRT DEPOSm AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING A PRACTICAL WORK WHICH BEGINS AT THE BoiLER ROOM AND TAKES IN THE WHOLE Power Plant. Gives plain talk on every- day WORK about Engines, Boilers and their Accessories. Also facts, rules and gen- eral information gathered from THIRTY years' PRACTICAL EXPERI- ENCE AS RUNNING, ERECTING AND DESIGNING ENGINEER Contains complete examination for a license THIRD EDITION, REVISED, INCLUDES INDICATING AND DIAGRAMS NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING CO. 2 West 45th Street 1917 Copyrighted, 1917 and 1910, by THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Copyrighted, 1906, by THE DERRY-COLLARD COMPANY 11^ p. ///^ OCT 20 1917 ©C1.A47G657 Pref^ ace. The writer bought a milHon-gallon pumping engine and the low pressure side did not work smoothly. The builders sent three experts to remedy the trouble at as many different times, but made no improvement. These men were sent without giving me notice, so that I was never there to meet them. I wrote the builders to please not send any more experts, but if they had a plain, practical man that had a fair knowledge of steam pumps I would be pleased to meet him at the station. This is what this book is intended to be ; a plain talk on every-day work about engines, boilers and their acces- sories. It is not intended to be scientific or mathematical. I have tried to put all formulas in a simple form so that any one understanding plain arithmetic can readily under- stand any of them. The writer commenced when books were very scarce and he has seen the need of just such a book as this. Some of the matter I have been unable to find in any book at the present time. Sometimes when questions are asked it sets a man thinking deeper than by just reading the text, and a large number of questions has been introduced on sub- jects mentioned in the book. Direct answers have not 5 Preface. been given in all cases, but the reader can refer to index and learn what has been done under similar conditions and study and determine what he would do under like conditions. A number of books are published purporting" to g^ive questions and answers before an examining board when applying for a license. No man can know the questions that will be asked nor the answers that will be required. The examiners wish to learn how experienced a man is and the information he has of his own knowledge. A young man can get much information from the experience of practical men, but this must be supple- mented by study, experience and research of his own if he is to impress others with his ability. It will usually be found that thoroughly well-posted men are willing to give some of their time to imparting information to those whom they think will appreciate and profit by it. It is generally the rule that it is only those pos- sessing but a small fund of knowledge that become so important with their small lore that are churlish in the matter. It is the man that is willing to help others that gets along in life, and it is this man that will become posted in his business. Additional matter has been added on indicating and diagrams. This will be of value to the practical engineer, who has the ambition to make his plant as economical as possible. October, 19 17. The Boiler Room. T T T In a boiler room, neatness should be observed in everything. The floor should be kept clean, — and for this purpose a hose should be conveniently located, — the side walls and top of boilers should be cleaned once per week. All surfaces in contact with the fire should be swept as frequently as time will allow, but the tube surface should be cleaned at least twice per week. With some classes of boilers, and with fairly clean, soft water washing out once in six months may keep them in good condition, but the water should be changed every two or three weeks. With some types of water tube boilers, where the water enters at the front of the drum, it is frequently only necessary to let the water run out and then turn on the feed water full and the water will wash out all deposit in the drum and mud-drum. With most water tube and with tubular boilers, however, it is necessary to take a hose, and there should be consid- erable pressure. Where there is scale and considerable mud, the boiler should be gone over thoroughly as fre- quently as the opportunity offers. Filtration — Piping — Testing Water. With very muddy waters a filtration plant will pay, as mud and clay are more to be feared than lime. With tubular boilers properly set and the water fed at the proper place, the larger part of deposit will be found at the rear end, as that is the part with the slowest circulation. In water tube boilers the larger part will be found in the rear circulating tubes, rear manifolds and rear end of tubes. The important things for a man to look after when taking charge of a set of boilers for the first time is to see that his water gauges are all clear by blowing them all out. Look his piping all over and see if there are any water pockets that would be liable to collect water and let it over in a body ; note the position and design of all the stop valves and the manner of getting to them in case of emergency ; look the water piping over and the source of supply for the pumps ; the type of pumps, and try them to see that they work properly and that there are no broken valves; note the heater, or the absence of any, and test the water to see if it is hard. This can be fairly well decided by putting some in a pail and washing the hands with soap. If the water is soft there will be nothing but soap suds on top ; if hard, there will be a scum formed on top. A chemical analysis will be required to determine the kind of impurity and quantity. Silica means sand and the like, while this mixed with alumina and iron means clay and a dirty boiler. The safety valves should be looked to. If lever valves, they should be raised to see if they respond readily and if they leak after use. If *'pop" valves, bearing down on the lever will 8 Safety Valves — Gage Glasses. cause them to blow, if not set for too high a pressure. At the first opportunity the steam should be raised to the pressure at which it is desired to blow and see that they blow freely from the pressure. Note the blow-off pipe and valves and try the valves. The grates and furnace can be attended to the first time the fire is out. Note condition of brick work, connection of flues, etc., and see if there are any large cracks for air to enter. When firing up in morning be sure to try the water gauges the first thing, and see that every thing about them is free, and that there is no stoppage at top of column, provided the water goes down in the glass and raises partially. On modern glass gauges there are levers put across the stop cocks and chain attached to both top and bottom so that they can be closed from the floor. These are fastened to the stem with a set-screw. Should this set- screw become loose when the top is closed it will not open and the gauge will show nearly full of water until the water is entirely out of the water column. Any time that the glass gauge shows different from the gauge cocks, either this has hapened or the connections are closed. There was one case on a new boiler where the cocks and glass showed different, the glass showing nearly full, while the cocks showed steam, and it was found that the top glass gauge fitting had no hole through it and no valve seat. Firing. When using anthracite coal Professor Thurston's rule is correct — that the fire should be five times as thick as the average piece of coal. This applies to all sizes. With a fire on a flat grate much thicker than the above there will be a tendency for the coal to melt and Thickness of Fire — Clinkers. form an excessive amount of clinker, and if much thinner, too much air will pass through. Care should be used never to poke or molest a hard coal fire, except when cleaning, and then the fire should not be reduced too thin, even if all the clinkers are not removed, as when disturbed, and too thin, the fire will go out. It is important that the fire should be kept of uni- form thickness, and that this be done with the shovel, and never with hoe or poker. After cleaning a fire and the first layer of coal is ignited, it is sometimes beneficial to run a thin slice bar along just on top of the grates, and return in the same manner, being careful not to disturb the body of the fire. This loosens up any clinker that may be forming, and keeps the air space open. This slice bar is shown in Fig. I. The cross-piece can be 12 to 15 inches long and Ij4 to 2 inches wide. It should not be more than ^ inch thick. Clinkers that form on the brick are most easily removed after cleaning fires at night, when they are cooling off. They cool on the outside first and contract, which, in a measure, helps to pull them from the wall, and, being in a partially plastic condition at the wall at that time, they are separated with little injury to the wall. The hard case that is formed on the outside of the clinker makes them sufficiently rigid for a poker or breaking-up bar to get a good hold on them. The woman's method is to put oyster shells in the fire next the brick. Should a slice bar be run under the fire just top of grates every time the fire is replenished, the fire will be kept fairly clean, so that but little cleaning is necessary 10 Tools for Cleaning Fires. at night. This will make hot and warped grates, unless the ash pit is kept cool. This can be done with water in the ash pit or a small amount of steam. A small amount of steam will materially reduce the size and hard- ness of the clinker. A hoe, shown below, is a favorite for cleaning fire. This hoe is round on top, and by turning this side down and shoving the coal off the ash, it will do it much neater, get the coal off quicker and with less ash in the coal than when using the straight side. h [Jig. I . Hoc (at top) — Slice Bar — Breaking up Bar. The better plan is to have a bar made something like a boat oar, with the blade 15 inches long and 4 inches wide. Push all the coal from one side of the furnace to the other side, pull out the ashes, then push all the coal on to the clean grates, and when the ashes are removed the fire can be leveled off and have a perfectly clean fire. The best plan is to have dumping grates with front and rear sections, push the fire back, dump the front part, pull the fire forward and dump the rear. This leaves a clean fire and is very quickly done. II Soft Coal and Smoke. A "Lazy bar'' made from a piece of ^-inch iron or of gas pipe and arranged to lie across the front of the door so as to support the weight of the hoe, makes the work much easier, both in cleaning the fire and hauling the ashes out of the ash-pit. When it comes to burning the soft coal the problem is altogether different. These coals cake together and the air can only get through where there are breaks; there the fire burns rapidly and soon makes a large hole that allows too much air to pass through, which has a cooling effect. These coals contain a large amount of hydrocarbon gases that distill at a low temperature, and unless the firing is done so that they distill slowly, a large amount will pass up the chimney without imparting the heat to the boiler that would result from its proper combustion. Improper firing, when the fires are run hot, results in the emission of a large amount of smoke. It requires but a small amount of carbon to color a large amount of gas; so that the smoke alone is not a great waste, but it indicates that there is a great amount of gas, uncon- sumed, going away with it. During the Civil War, coal, like everything else, got very high. At one time and place coal was $i6 per ton delivered. At that time the buckwheat sizes were unknown, nut being the smallest size, and all smaller being thrown away. One man procured a patent for a steam blower to burn yard screenings, which included everything below nut, fine dust and all. The blower was made by making a circle of hoop iron, inside of which was a center with ^-inch pipes radiating therefrom. In these pipes i-i6-inch holes were 12 An Old Time Blower. drilled. The steam part is shown in Fig. 2. The center supported a little fan blower, the blades being of the same number as the steam pipes and the steam jets blow- ing against these blades made a steam turbine and a fan all in one. It revolved with a high velocity, and screen- ings were burned very satisfactorily. Great stress was laid by the inventor on the high velocity of the fan. Such a fan could not be durable, while the pipes would last for years, and when the fan went to pieces it was found that the blower consisting of steam jets did the business just the same. y D JJig. 2. An Old Steam Fan Blower. Since that time there have been innumerable inven- tions of steam blowers for burning small anthracite, and, of course, all of them improvements like the "improve- ments" on George H. Corliss' engine. They sell for all kinds of prices, depending a good deal on the talking ability of the maker. A home-made affair is shown in Fig. 3. The pipes are ^ inch, are set 3 inches apart and have i- 16-inch holes, 3 inches apart. The opening in the wall of the ash pit should be 3 inches wider than the blower on each side. 13 Home-made Blower. As anthracite deadens rapidly when stirred, the cleaning should be done quickly, leveled off, the fresh coal put on and draft given as quickly as possible. It is not possible to keep a fire with small sizes clean with a slice bar, as, if a fire is run so as to burn 12 to 15 pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour, the clinkers will be too large to go through a grate opening of suitable size for such coal. ^^^'^^^Q^^^^ a CD PJfES i4 SPACED 3* Dg- 3- A Home-made Blower. Where only a flat grate is provided, one method is to push the coal back against the bridge wall, haul out the ashes in front, pull the coal down in front and pull the ash and clinker from the rear over the coal. This leaves some ash and clinker in the coal. Various methods have been tried to prevent this waste, and many, also, to prevent smoke. It has been assumed by many that if the smoke was prevented the economy was sure. Among the early methods was that of admitting large quatities of air over the fire. This 14 Smoke Prevention — Pulverized Coal. plan, carried so far as to completely prevent all smoke, will result in loss ; although if properly applied, and the smoke reduced to a dull brown, there may be a good saving in fuel. One plan described by C. W. Williams was the down draft system, which consists in taking in the air through the furnace doors and down through the fire, where the gases pass over a bed of incandescent fuel, chiefly from the fire that has fallen through the grates. This style of firing cokes the green coal top of the fire and requires some slicing to let the air through, and also requires water grates as the fire must pass between the grates. A furnace of this type should be entirely outside of the boiler. Where the grate is under the boiler, the cold air rushing in at the furnace door cools the boiler at that point and sets up a strain. A later form on somewhat the same principles is to feed the coal under the fire with a screw. Another idea that has been tried, but not with much enthusiasm for boiler work, is to reduce the coal to fine powder and blow it into the furnace. On account of the power required to pulverize the coal it has not met with much success. To pulverize i,ooo pounds of coal per hour and blow it into the furnace would require about 15 horse-power. In the cement industry powdered fuel is used almost exclusively. The kilns rotate so that a grate is inad- missible and the heat required is over 3,000 degrees. Pulverized fuel blown in is the ideal plan. Where the air is so throughly mixed with this finely pulverized fuel no more than the theoretical amount of air is required and the combustion can be carried on without a particle of smoke. 15 About Firing. Anthracite coal cannot be used for this purpose, g-as coal being the best of all the soft coals. One of the best methods when firing by hand is the coking plan. The favorite plan is to have a plate at the front of the furnace, put the necessary quantity of fresh coal on to this plate; the gases will distill slowly and, in passing over the fire, will be consumed. When the coal has parted with the volatile gases it can be spread over the grates with a hoe and will produce very little smoke. Where the fires are run thin with hand firing and the coal is spread thin all over the furnace, the gases are distilled too rapidly for the furnace, cooled by the addition to the fresh fuel to completely consume. Keeping the fire somewhat thicker and ''patching" the fire — that is, throwing the coal so as to fill up the holes — will result in the loss of a large amount of gas unconsumed. Prevention of smoke has received a large amount of attention of late years because of the growing use of soft coal. One plan is to put in small steam jets over the fire; the valves to same opened when the door is opened by a suitable connection. Then, by another device, these valves are slowly closed automatically, the object being to be sure that the steam is turned on, and kept only when there is fresh coal put on and during the period of smoky fire. The better method of firing the soft coal is to put the coal on heavy on one side of the furnace. Just before the other side needs replenishing use a breaking- up bar, as shown in Fig. i. This bar is run along the top of the grates and the coke raised easily, so as to break it up as finely as possiblbe, but not in such a man- i6 A Good Plan of Firing. ner as to throw out great pieces and leave large holes. The bar should be of steel, i to i^ inches diameter, according to the length of the furnace. It should be about 3 feet longer than the grate. It requires a little practice and patience to learn to do this easily, but if handled right, it is easily done and the fire kept even. Fig. 4. Firing Soft Coal — Top View. After the coke on one side has been broken, then cover the other side in the same manner. For a furnace 7 feet square the coal would be put on one side, as shown in Fig. 4, nine shovelfuls with No. 6 scoop. Firing in this manner, the smoke will be reduced to a minimum, but where there are city laws regarding 17 Mechanical Stokers. smoke, recourse would be necessary to the steam jets on top of the fire. The smoke will come only from the part that is broken up, and not from the fresh coal. Another important thing is : With coal spread even and light over a thin fire, the evaporation of water was 9.81 pounds for each pound of coal from 212 degrees of feed water to steam at atmospheric pressure. With the coking fire, as indicated, the evaporation was 10.63 pounds. Big. 5. Sectional View of Stoker, An afternoon was spent in a boiler house having stokers like Fig. 5. Some of the boilers were being run above their rating, while two were running light, but not a particle of smoke came from the chimney. In furnaces where the fire was hot the fire was a white, incandescent flame. 18 Chemicals for Coal. With this stoker there is an opening under the coal hopper, where a slice bar can be put down under the fire to break it up if necessary, sometimes an important item. Occasionally a man will come along with a chem- ical, which he will dissolve in water and sprinkle over coal, and will show you the coal takes fire almost as readily as wood, and will give oflf more flame with hard coal than when the coal is used without it. He usually succeeds in selling large amounts for a snug sum. A friend who thought of taking an agency for such a mixture wanted the writer to make a test. The test showed that more fuel was required with it than with the untreated coal. A short time after this the company had a cargo of coal to use that had been sunk in salt water and raised again. It burned in the same manner as the chemically treated coal. Salt may not be the chemical used, but salt will do the same work. This can be tried in the kitchen stove. When new coal is put on sprinkle on a little salt and note how quickly the coal becomes ignited and the nice flame. Boiler Feeding. In feeding boilers, care should be exercised to keep the water level uniform, for two reasons — first, so that the water shall come from the heater as hot as possible, and, second, if the water level is continually changing the weight in the boiler is changing with it, which sub- jects the boiler to different bending strains. Should the water be found low after an absence for a time, and the pump has been running and supplying the 19 Feeding the Boiler. usual amount of water, the water cannot be very low unless there is some leak of water from the boiler, or from some person opening a steam valve and drawing of large quantities of steam. If the latter, the condition of the fire will indicate it, if there be an automatic damper. If the damper be regulated by hand, the steam will be low. By covering the fire, either with fresh coal or ashes, all danger of further overheating will cease. The steam, however, will run down rapidly and load will be thrown off the engine, as speed cannot be maintained, so that it is not important that the engine should continue to run. We have the following conditions: After the fire is covered the circulation in the boiler ceases and the water level is slightly lowered. There is a slight circulation, but in the same form as an ordinary kettle, if the engine continues to run ; but the water level will lower gradually as it cools down. Letting the pump continue to operate will, under the new conditions, slowly raise the water line if its speed be maintained. Should the pump slow down with the decreasing pressure the water will not rise until load is thrown off the engine ; after that it will rise. Opening the safety valve or any other valve will raise the water at first, but it will be very much lowered after the steam pressure is reduced. Suppose there be lOO pounds steam pressure and the boiler contains 6,000 pounds of water, the tempera- ture of water will be 341°, or a little over 341 heat units. If no water goes into the boiler, but steam is all blown down to atmospheric pressure, and 212° temperature of the water. Six thousand pounds of water, with 341 heat units per pound, will be 2,046,000 heat units in the water. 20 Heat Units — Duplex Pumps. Six thousand pounds of water, with 212 heat units per pound, will be 1,272,000 heat units in the water. The difference between the two is 774,000 heat units, which has been given up in evaporating water that has gone off in form of steam, 966 H. U. being the amount per pound required to evaporate the water. 774,000-^ 966=800 pounds, which is the amount of water that has been evaporated from 6,000 pounds of water at 100 pounds pressure in reducing the pressure to the atmos- phere, or 13 per cent. This is one of the points that examining boards make a strong point on, but they are not of the same idea. One board will want the engine and pump stopped and let all valves remain as they are. Another will want the engine and pump left running, while still another will want the engine and pump stopped and safety valve opened. It should be remembered that the above refers to a single boiler. When there is a battery of boilers it is evident that the stop valve on the offending boiler itlust be closed, and then the only complication is as to the policy of opening the safety valve or not. With a shell boiler there should be a fusible plug in the rear head. This plug should be filled with pure tin that melts at 440°. If this plug has not melted, it is evi- dent that the water has not fallen low enough, or that the fire was not hot enough to do any harm. Pumps for Boiler Feeding. A duplex pump will produce less strain and shaking of pipes than a single pump. It seems strange at this late day. that there can be 21 Pumps that Pound. found books and men that will claim that a power pump is a cheaper method of feeding a boiler than a steam pump, regardless of conditions. Where non-condensing engines are used it is true; but not with compound engines. One place may be taken as a sample. This place has a number of engines and boiler plants and the manager somewhere having read that power pumps are more economical has put in power pumps and taken the feed, either from hot wells with water at no degrees, and in some instances right from cold streams, and put the same through economizers. A power pump is not flexible and runs at its max- imum and the surplus must be pumped against the 150 to 170 pounds pressure and go to waste. The suction can be throttled, but will make a pounding pump. It is only with non-condensing engines that power pumps are the cheaper to use as with a condensing plant the heater will usually condense all the exhaust from the pumps, etc., and all the heat from the steam is car- ried back to the boilers, while if the pumps are driven from the main engine or from motor, the latent heat of steam producing the power goes out with the condensing water. In the place mentioned they were running small engines driving dynamos, the engines using not less than 5 pounds of coal per horse-power, then driving the power pump by motor and half the water pumped up to 150 pounds pressure going to waste, and then pumping cold water to the economizer, which delivered it to the boilers at less than 180 degrees. In two cases the pumps were driven by belts from the main engine, the steam from the condenser pumps 22 Scale Removing Solvents. going out to heat up the river. Had they used steam pumps and put the exhaust from the boiler feed and condenser through a heater, then through the economizer, they could have delivered the water to boilers at 300 degrees. With the water going to the economizer cold, or nearly so, the tubes sweat and the soot cakes on to the tubes, breaking the scrapers and rendering the economizer but of little value. Scale in Boilers. Where water contains lime, some agent should be employed to neutralize it, which can be done with a carbonate of lime. Kerosene will sometimes do this very nicely, and is a handy dissolvent, because it can feed constantly in the same manner as cylinder oil. Sal-soda is a good neutralizer, but when carbonate and sulphate both are present there is need of a strong astringent. This is found in tannic acid. Tannin can be procured in "japonica'' that comes from Japan, or from "cutch,'* which is acacia catechu, and comes from the East Indies. Gambier is another form, and comes from Africa. To make this preparation ready for use, take 50 pounds of sal-soda and 30 pounds of japonica, or cutch ; put in any old barrel that will hold about 50 ballons ; fill half full of water and boil until dissolved, then fill in water. If a water tube boiler is badly scaled, put in a gallon of the mixture for each 100 horse-power for three or four days, at which time most of the scale should be removed, when the quantity can be reduced until the right amount is ascertained. With a shell boiler more care is necessary, as it throws down the scale very fast, so that the preparation 23 Electrical Boiler Cleaner. should not be put in until two or three days before clean- ing, otherwise enough scale might accumulate over the fire sheets to burn them. These preparations when made up and sold under fancy names, are sold for about 60 cents per gallon, which makes kerosene a cheap substitute. The sal-soda should be procured for less than 2 cents per pound, and the crude cutch or japonica for not to exceed 6 cents, so that it will cost less than 10 cents per gallon. There are a number of makers of scale resolvents that will analyze the water and mix chemicals accurately to do the required work. Boiler Cleaning, In about 1865 there was an electric arrangement invented to charge the metal with an electric current, as shown in Fig. 6. This consisted of a number of copper points radiat- ing from a common center and from ten to twelve inches in diameter. This was placed inside and near the top of the boiler about four feet from the front end, the points nearly touching the shell. From the center a wire was led to an insulated plug about the same distance from rear of boiler and thence out to a battery. The boiler by this means was kept charged with an electric current and was free from scale. Sometimes little par- ticles would be found as thick as paper, but these were rare. This instrument was attached to a boiler for $80, and because people thought the price exorbitant very few were applied. All the neighbors paid as much per year for scale solvents. 24 Potatoes as a Boiler Cleaner. The feed and Mow-ofiF in this boiler was through a I J^ -inch pipe in the front head, a connection common in those days; there was no hand hole in the rear head, and from all that could be seen the boiler was perfectly clean. After a time a hand hole was cut in the rear head and jflbout two bushels of dirt was found banked up again^ it. A bottom blow-off remedied all this. Some years afterward the engineer had occasion to wani: something that would keep the scale from form- ing in boilers and wrote to his former employers for the Fig. 6. Electric Boiler Cleaner. 1865, name of the maker, asking also if it continued to do good work. He received a reply that the battery got out of order and it had been disconnected, and that a half bushel of potatoes put in the boiler each week would do for compounds. For the neutralizing of the scale-forming elements in the water there have been numberless compounds pre- pared, but most good ones have been expensive. Kero- sene oil has been used as much as any one thing, fed in the same way as cylinder oil in a steam cylinder, and in many cases has given excellent results, 25 Utilizing Waste Heat. Probably the most extensively used and at the same time the cheapest is the carbonate of soda. This acts on carbonate of lime, rendering it soluble in water and in a state where it will not bake. The carbonic acid takes up by the alkaline carbonate is Hberated again by heat and the soda is in its original state and ready to act again as before, which accounts for the necessity of using such a small quantity. A receptacle should be made for it and after disolving it should be fed contin- uously. From one to two pounds per lOO horse-power boiler per day will do the work in fair shape. Soda ash will require more; caustic soda less. When it comes to feeding water with clay and lime, and in some cases saline matter, there are but two ways ; a surface condenser or an eifficient filter. Where surface condensers are used, vertical engines are desirable, and sometimes necessary, as will be mentioned later under the subject of cylinder oils. Special Boiler Setting. Figure 7 represents a tubular boiler set to utilize waste heat from a steel furnace. The cut shows the original setting. There was a 9-inch space under the boiler and the waste gases could go through the tubes and under the shell. They preferred to go under the shell, and made but little steam. The boilers were then let down on to the brick and the space under the boiler entirely closed, thus causing all the gases to go through the tubes. This raised the steaming capacity over 30 per cent., but still there was not sufficient steam made from the waste heat for the work required. A battery of boilers were put in to be fired by hand, gases going under the boiler and through 26 Cooling Boilers for Cleaning. the tubes in the usual manner, and then over the top to chimney. As there was a good draft and egg coal was burned, these boilers would make a great deal more steam than those with the waste heat, and there were those in authority who thought that was the only way to set a boiler, and that if the first boilers were set that way, the boilers requiring coal could be shut down. So these boilers were raised to their original positions^ arranged so the gases would go under, then through the Boilers Set to Utilize Waste Heat. tubes, then over the top, and they did not do as well as in the first design and were finally taken out and aban- doned. These boilers were among one engineer's first expe- rience, and it was here he got an insight into cooling off boilers for cleaning. He was assistant here and worked under orders. It will be noticed that there is a door at each end of the boiler. Saturday nights both of these doors were opened, as well as all the doors on the furnace. It was 27 Leaky Tubes from Over Heating. his duty Sunday forenoon to draw the water out of the boilers and refill them with fresh water. After a few months the tubes on the end of the boiler towards the fire commenced to leak. A peck of horse manure was put in each boiler every week, which for a time kept the leak down, but finally a boilermaker had to be called, who reported that the fire ends of the boilers had been burned. As the boilers had had the best of care, and water had never been low, and as a good quality of water had been used and frequently changed, this was a surprise and could hardly be believed. The fact remained, hovv^ever, that that end of the boilers had been overheated suffi- ciently to cause the tubes to leak. He studied over the problem, and to his mind the cause was plain. It has been mentioned that the two doors shown were both opened. This, in effect, was nearly the same as leaving them both closed, as the door at base of chimney was as large as the area of chimney, and would supply all the air the chimney could take, so that none entered the other door, and the result was hot brickwork and a hot boiler when the water was changed. He remembered this, and in his practice when he was in charge of boilers, always left ash and firedoors opened, as well as the damper, and no other doors that could interfere with the draft through the boiler, and never had a leaky tube sheet or shell from any strains set up in changing water. The boiler was always cool enough so that the deposit would not bake on, the brickwork was cool so that the boiler was not overheated, and plenty of water could be used for washing without cooling por- tions of the boiler suddenly. As an illustration of the oposite policy which obtains in many places, he was sent to ja place to attempt to 28 Cooling off Boilers. reduce their coal bills. He saw that the fires were banked in such a manner that steam was blowing through the safety valves continually during the times the boilers were idle, with the result that the valves were leaking badly. He recommended new safety valves, a condenser and two or three other minor changes, and put them in. The boilers were 5x16 tubular s in a small electric station. In the afternoon he told the regular engineer that he wished to put on the safety valves the next day, and when he shut down at midnight to have his fire out and leave dampers and firedoors opened, so that steam would be down. In the morning he found firedoors and dampers closed and front flue door open, and steam up to nearly running pressure. Opening the flue door had stopped any possible entrance of air. It was three hours before any work could be done, and as some of the pipings had to be changed, it made a lively day's work. When the regular engineer came around after dinner he was asked why he had not carried out instructions about having the boiler cool. He replied he was told he must not allow any cold air to strike the tubes in rear end of boiler, as it would surely cause them to leak ; that the inspector had instructed him, and he had been very careful not to let any cold air under the boilers. Being asked for his procedure when changing water; he left everything closed, pumped in cold water and let it out until he got it cooled down so the steam was gone, then let out the water and pumped the boiler up. Asked if he realized the strains set up when letting out the water from the boiler surrounded by hot brickwork and filling the same, his reply was always the same — he could 29 Leaks in a Cool Boiler. not let cold air under the boiler, as it would cause the tubes to leak; he had been told so by the inspector, and he did not want his tubes to leak. By this time the boiler was cooled down, as well as the brick. A cool boiler will show leaks when it will not when heated, and the seam in head commenced to leak over the firedoor. It was pointed out to him that the leak was caused by the boiler being enclosed in hot fire brick while the water was let out ; that the boiler in contact with the brick got excessively hot, and that the cold water put in had strained this joint so that it leaked ; that his tubes and seams in the shell would go the same way in a short time; that if he opened his doors and damper he would not get cold air on his tubes for a long time, as the air passing through the hot furnace would be hot when it got to the rear end, and that everything had to cool down together. Any explanation had no effect. When the engineer got everything together it was Saturday evening, and that evening being the heaviest load, he started up with one boiler, much to the regular engineer's concern, as it had been hard work for two boilers to carry the Saturday evening load. The one boiler carried the load easily. The engineer heard no more from this job for two years, when he was again sent there to put in a new boiler. The regular engineer's care to allow no cold air to reach the rear end of the boiler had resulted in leaks in all the seams, patches over the fire, leaky tubes in the rear end, which had been rerolled until used up so that one boiler had to be taken out and one 5J^xi6 put in its' place. The engineer learned that shortly after leaving the first time the two boilers were deemed necessary and 30 Another Waste Gas Boiler. finally blowers had to be put in. On account of the manner of cleaning, here were two boilers less than four years old with every tube and seam strained apart and finally condemned, and still they had not let go and killed anyone. He has found a number of instances where the practice is to leave furnace doors and dampers closed and the attempt made to clean boilers in that condition, and the result was always the same, although the complete destruction is sometimes longer delayed. To clean a boiler thoroughly the boiler must be cool, and the desposit must be soft. To prevent strains on the boilers the change of temperature must be gradual, but when cold water is put on hot plates, or tubes, leaks will occur soon. Incidents. Figure 8 is a type of boiler that was put in a flue taking waste gases from crucible casting furnaces. There were three rows of bottle shaped projections, 6 inches in diameter and 2 feet long. The necks were 3 inches in diameter and were screwed into a bottom shell. There were partitions through the center, and one-half of the neck with this partition extended into the boiler about 3 inches higher than the other half, which was level. This was to insure circulation. This type worked very nicely and was easily cleaned. The arrangement shown in Fig. 7, being in a steel mill, provision against frost was not first class. There was a man whose duty it was to fire up the furnaces and get them hot enough Monday mornings to commence work on time, and also to watch the boilers. One morn- ing he made haste to wake the engineer up about 4 o'clock with the cheerful news that there was 160 pounds of steam on the boiler intended to carry but 90, and that 31 Imagination and Leaky Joints, the steam was coming out of every joint. He hurried to the scene and found all the joints all right, as well as the safety valves, but there was i6o pounds indicated by the gauge. An investigation revealed the fact that the gauge pipe was frozen, and the expansion had extended to the spring. Imagination had seen all the joints leaking. In another place he was aroused by the watchman A A A A A A A A A A ;;/,v;/;y;.;;;;A^;;^ m^ /^^ ^//.<'//////A Fig. 14. Best Location of Blow-off pipe and valves. level, as shown in Fig. 14. It should be extra heavy iron pipe and a casing of larger pipe put around it. Should the water get to boiling, it can circulate in this vertical pipe, which it would not do with the horizontal pipe shown by dotted lines. The blow-off valve for high pressures has given a 44 About Safety Valves. great deal of trouble. Put on two valves, both extra heavy solid disk gate valves with outside screw. When using, the valve nearest the boiler is opened first and then the other. When closing, the outside is closed first. This brings all the wear on the outside valve, as the inside is always balanced and moves freely. If preferred, an asbestos packed cock can be used for the outside valve. Lever safety valves have about gone out of date. They or single-seat spring valves should never be used alone, but there should always be a double seat or ''pop" safety valve. The latter, with a rise in pressure of 3 or 4 pounds, will open wide, and no further rise is possible; while with the two first the pressure may rise 20 to 40 pounds before the valve will relieve it. For years to come, in some cases, lever valves will be used. 'Tops'' are set before leaving the factory. They can be changed by tightening or loosening the spring, — one side of the hex nut for five pounds, but if this is changed very much the ring at the bottom of the valve wants changing to preserve the sensitiveness of opening and closing. All boilers should have two safety valves. The rules for area of safety valves are : For "pop" valve allow i square inch area of valve for each 3 square feet of grate. For lever valves allow i square inch for each 2 square feet of grate; or, multiply the weight of water evaporation per hour by .005 ; the result is area of valve disc in square inches. The water gage fittings should all be of a heavy pattern, and the glass gage 34 inch. The water glass gage should have automatic valves in the event of the glass breaking, or else levers on the valve stems, with chains so that the gage can be shut off. In case the 45 Side Walls. glass breaks and none of these are at hand, always shut off the water, or bottom, valve first. By doing this and using care one need not get burned. If steam is shut off first, look out. When building a bridge wall, put the fire-brick face as shown in Fig. 14. When the brick on the face are laid up square, the tools used in cleaning the fire will gradually knock off the Fig. 15. How Side Walls Should Be Built. top course, and after a time the whole bridge wall disinte- grates. Putting in bricks as shown locks the top brick effectually and makes a durable wall. When building the side walls the same course should be taken in putting in the fire-brick at the furnace as shown at the bottom of the bridge wall. This makes Fire Brick Arch. repairs quickly and cheaply done. This is shown in Fig. 14. These are headers above the clinker line, then a stretcher for binding, then all headers, but the top bricks are wedged so as to have the top ones embedded. This form of construction accomplishes two things: The bricks at the bottom burn out, and they can be taken out up to the stretcher, which will fall out, leaving the remainder of the wall intact. The bottom brick and stretcher can be replaced without the necessity of taking down the whole face. Where air space is left, it should be 3 or 4 inches next to the outer course of brick. Fig. 16. Making a Fire Brick Arch, The walls should be sloped away from the boiler as shown, leaving a space not less than 3 inches from the shell until the wall closes in to the boiler. Fig. 16 is a design for making an arch wuth fire brick. It consists of an iron form, as shown by the heavy line which can be either of wrought iron bent into proper shape for any length or radius of arch desired, or it may be of cast iron. The brick are built into it tight and the structure is set into place. It can be used over doors or at rear of boilers. As the metal is protected by the brick, the arch will last until the brick are burned out, if no mortar is put between them ; that is, if the brick are laid solid. 47 Furnace Plates. For a plate over the furnace the style shown in Fig. 17 is the best, if cast iron is used. This was designed by the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection & Insurance Com- pany. With this form the iron next the fire can expand until the spaces are entirely closed, and the plate will still keep its shape. The casting can be made in the form of a box, so as to take in the sides and top of the door ; but it should all be serrated, as shown, on the side towards the fire. Shell boilers are usually supported by two lugs on each side. The rear lug should rest on rollers. It would wwww Fig. 17. Best Cast Iron Plate for Over Furnace be a better plan to put up columns and channel bars and hang the boilers from these, after the manner in which tube boilers are supported, so as to have them entirely free from the brickwork. This would make the boilers more expensive, and as one reason for putting in this type of boiler is the low first cost, this form of support is rarely attempted. Fig 14 shows a pipe leading from the safety valve for a distance and then turned up. This is unsafe unless there be a firm support under the ell. Wherever there is an open end just beyond an ell, the ell should be well sup- ported. Pipes like this will break open the valve case when blowing oflf. One man had one ear partially torn off 48 Floor Plates. at one time with a ^-inch drain pipe put up in a similar manner. There should also be a drain at the ell. The better plan is not to put any pipe from the safety valve, but let it blow directly into the boiler-room. If this is done, one can always see just what the valve is doing. At one place where the pipe from the safety valve led out of doors in a horizontal direction, the valve leaked. Fig. 1 8. Floor Plates. and one cold Saturday night the pipe filled with ice. The fires were banked, but during Sunday night the boiler got to making steam, and while the safety valve did its duty the steam could not get away, and an explosion was the result. For a floor for boiler-house put in Portland cement concrete. Where no teaming is to be done on it, 4 inches will be sufficiently thick. Where teams bring in the coal it should be 6 inches. There should be a drain at the 49 Draining of Floors. corner of each boiler, leading down into an underground drain. The floor should slope in all directions to this drain. When this is done all water flows away quickly and the floor can be washed at any time. There should be a i- inch water pipe of cold water brought to the boiler-house, if the pumps are in another place, and plenty of ^-inch hose on hand for wetting ashes and washing the floor. In front of the boilers the floor should be of iron, as this will not wear out with the shovel and will stand hot ashes. Front of boiler put down a floor of iron plates like Fig. 1 8. These plates are ^ inch thick, diamond tread on top and ribbed on the bottom. They are 24x30 inches, and can be laid in two rows, so as to make the iron floor 4 or 5 feet wide, as desired. They are laid in soft cement, and should be hammered down to place, when they will stand all sorts of hard usage. 50 Boiler Explosions, T T T Boilers explode in all cases from lack of strength to sustain the pressure. In some cases a sound boiler explodes from more pressure than it was designed to hold. Boilers become weakened from many causes. Pitting is one cause. In some cases the water is of such nature that scale is formed, and underneath the scale there will be pitting that can be discovered only by the removal of the scale. It may be caused by insufficient circulation. In a tubular boiler the circulation rises over the fire, passes along the top of the rear; then descends and flows along the bottom, when the boiler is properly set and worked. Should such a boiler be run for any considerable portion of the time at one-quarter its duty, the circulation would stop before it reached the rear and descend, leav- ing the rear of the boiler without circulation, and the stagnant warm water at the rear would cause pitting. Sometimes acids in the water will cause it. One of the worse things is ammonia from sewage in the water. The writer had a case of this kind, and succeeded in stopping the pitting until a better water supply was secured, by painting the sheets with red lead and boiled linseed oil. External corrosion will be caused by water or damp- ness getting on the outside of the shell. One of the .SI Destructive Explosions. surest things to cause this is water dropping from a leaky valve stem or flange joint. Internal grooving occurs along the inside of the joint and can be caused by the bending strain set up by constantly changing temperatures, caused by shutting oflF and turning on the feed frequently, or firing unevenly, at times having a very hot fire, then leaving it to burn out until it is full of holes. When these strains are set up and resisted by the stiff seam it opens the surface of the metal at that point and makes it easy for impure water to attack that point. Unequal expansion will weaken iron so that it will let go easily. This is caused by sudden changes in temperature by incidents named in the preceding para- graph, by the practice of many in cooling off a hot boiler by filling it full of cold water several times while the brickwork is hot; by regulating the steam pressure by opening and closing the furnace doors; by feeding the boiler over the hottest part, thus bringing great strains on the boiler at that point and checking the cir- culation throughout the entire boiler. Boiler explosions are destructive, because of the expansive force of steam. A boiler well filled with w^ater will be the most destructive, because, as the rup- ture occurs and the steam expands and the pressure is reduced, the heat in the water liberates a large amount of steam instantly. This can be observed when blowing water out at the blow-off or at the water gauge. It will be noticed how largely the stream of water expands and that a large portion of it appears to be steam. At 150 pounds pressure a cubic foot of steam will weigh .885 of a pound and the temperature will be 366, the heat units 1224. S2 Facts About Steam. A cubic foot of water at the same temperature will weigh 55^ pounds, and the heat units contained will be 366 X 55M ^=^ 20220, a large portion of which is ready to become steam at a sudden lowering of the tempera- ture. Sensible heat is that portion that can be measured by a thermometer. From 32° to boiling the thermometer will register the heat added to water, and this heat is termed sensible. After the water reaches the boiling point the tem- perature is not raised, but the heat is absorbed in evap- orating the water. This cannot be measured by a ther- mometer and is called latent heat, or the heat of vapori- zation. The amount of this heat is determined b}' che heat that can be imparted to other bodies when the steam is condensed and changed to water at 212°. The total heat is the sum of the sensible and latent heat. The temperature of the steam and water will depend upon the pressure. At the pressure of the atmosphere the sensible heat will be 212°, the latent 996° and total 1178°. The weight of a cubic foot will be .038. At 100 pounds pressure the sensible heat will be 338°, the latent 875 and the total 1223. As the pressure rises, the total rises slowly, the sensible rapidly, while the latent decreases. The properties of steam are its sensible, latent and total heat, volume and pressure. These are all given in steam tables. Most steam tables are given from 32*^ and 15 pounds pressure, and when so given to the steam pressure must be added 15 pounds, or rather at 50 pounds, look forward to 65 pounds, and also add 32° 53 Too Light Pipe. to the total heat. Thus, if the total heat in steam table is given as 1 190, by adding 32° to it gives 1222. Water is heaviest at 39.1°. As the temperature is raised above this, the water expands and grows lighter. Because of this property, when it becomes steam its expansion is so great it moves the manufacture and commerce of the world. All matter other than water continues to contract as it grows colder. Unlike everything else, water con- tracts and grows dense as the temperature decreases until it gets to 39.1°, when it begins to expand, so that when it gets to 32° and ice forms the ice is lighter than the warmer water and floats on top. Were it not for this, when ice formed it would be at the bottom, turning the streams into glaciers, destroying all life therein, shuting off all water supply and making the northern and southern portions of the world a desert. Piping. In the matter of piping, an important item is the pipe itself. It should be of iron, as steel pipe ruins dies and the threads are inferior. The pipe should be of full stand- ard thickness. The outside must be of standard diameter to insure good threads, and if the pipe is thin, the thread will go through on one side. If the outside of the pipe is not full size, the thread will not be full and a tight joint impossible. At one place a company decided that it was large enough to have a purchasing agent, and this agent bought some pipe at a greater discount than the company had been getting. The engineer showed the pipe to the sec- retary, pointing out to him that it was deficient both in weight and thickness, but the secretary, after a talk with 54 About the Weld. the dealer, decided that the pipe was stamped with the name of a maker who had a national reputation and that it was all right. The company paid for it in repairs later. Soon after this the engineer was at the works where the pipe was made, and he asked them how they came to put their name on thin pipe. The reply was that very few bought full-weight pipe and very little was made; that it came about in this way : A contractor would bid low on a job and would buy his pipe by weight ; a dealer would try to give a bigger discount than another dealer, and he would order his pipe by weight ; a concern would get a new purchasing agent, who would try to make a better showing, and he would buy of the dealer giving the best discounts ; so that everything was working together to reduce the weight, and of course the thickness, of pipe. Another important thing is the weld. Pipe up to and including i%-inch is butt welded, and i^^-inch and above is lap welded. The weld should be such that it will not give out when it is necessary to cut long threads, neither should it crush under pipe tongs. There are brands of pipe that will stand neither of these tests. Another important thing is the threading of pipe and fittings. When threading fittings, it is absolutely neces- sary, in turning out good work, that the taps be standard thread and taper ; that there be a stop, so that the tap will go a certain distance and no farther, so that all shall be tapped to a uniform depth. When the pipe is threaded, equal care should be taken. Many accidents have occurred because the taper was not right, or the thread was not long enough, and the pipe has pulled out. Cases are not rare where a 4-inch pipe has been put in with less than^ five threads. In some cases 55 Pipe Threads. the taper is too great or the die has been run over it two or three times, reducing the end of the thread, and though the pipe may be screwed in the full length of thread, it actually holds only by the imperfect threads at the bot- tom, and all others are, soon corroded. The short and imperfect thread on pipes is usually Standard Pipe and Pipe Threads. STANDARD PIPE AND PIPE THREADS. A -= outside diameter of perfect thread. B = inside diameter of pipe. C = root diameter of thread at end of pipe. D = outside diameter of thread at end of pipe. JS = length of perfect thread. 7^= total length of thread, G = length of perfect thread plus two threads. BRIGGS' FORMULA. E = perfect thread = (4,8 + 0.8 A) P. F = pitch of thread =- — . N A^= number of threads. F = length of taper at top. Taper |^" to one foot. I Height of thread ==^8 — . N G — length of taper at bottom. S6 Standard Pipe Tables. made when piping is cut where the work is put up and the men have hand machines. The dies are usually dull, and the men stop as soon as they have a thread long enough to screw up and make a tight joint. The thread and taper for pipes that have been gener- ally adopted are known as the "Briggs standard." * sit*. Thread. A e D E F « . i 27 .405 .270 .334 .393 .19 .41 .264 • i 18 .540 .364 .433 .522 .29 .62 .402 1 18 .675 .494 .567 .656 .30 .63 .408 4 14 .840 .623 .702 .816 .39 .82 .534 1 14 1.050 .824 .911 1.025 .40 .83 .546 1 1H 1.315 1.048 1.144 1.283 .51 1.03 .683 rli in 1.660 1.380 1.488 1.627 .54 1.06 .707 'H 11i 1.900 1.611 1.727 1.866 .55 1.07 .724 2 Hi 2.375 2.067 2.200 2.339 .58 1.10 .757 2i 2.875 2.468 2.ei8 2.818 .89 1.64 1.138 3 3.500 3.067 3-243 3.443 .95 1.70 1.200 3i 4.000 3.548 3.738 3.938 1.00 1.75 1.250 4 4.500 4.026 4.233 4.443 1.05 1.80 1.300 41 5.000 4.508 4.733 4.933 1.10 1.85 1.350 5 5.663 5.045 5.289 5.489 1.16 1.91 1.406 6 6.625 6.065 6.347 6.547 1.26 2.01 1.513 7 7.625 7.023 7.340 7.540 1.36 2.11 1.612 .8 8.625 7.981 8.332 J 8.532 1.46 2.21 1.712 9 9.625 8.937 9.324 9.524 1.56 2.31 1.812 10 10.750 10.019 10.445 10.645 1.675 2.425 1.925 11 12.000 11.224 11.694 11.894 1.80 2.55 2.050 12 13.000 12.180 12.685 12.885 1.90 2.65 2.150 The threads have an angle of 6o degrees, but are rounded off slightly at top and bottom, so that the depth of the thread is only four-fifths as great as it would be if the threads were sharp. The outside surface of the pipe is tapered to a certain distance from the end, the standard taper being such that the surface inclines towards the axis of the pipe by i in 32. This makes the total taper, as measured by the variations in outside diam- eter, equal to i in 16, or ^ inch to the foot. The total length of the tapered part is given in the table. 57 High Pressure Piping. For some reason it has become the custom to list pipe above 12 inches inside diameter as O. D., or out- side diameter. At the present writing there is a move- ment on foot to list lo-inch pipe and above as O. D. Fig. 19 shows a section of 5-inch pipe reproduced from The Locomotive, The taper is slightly exaggerated for greater clearness. Two threads, it will be seen, are perfect at the bottom but flat on top, and four are imper- fect at both top and bottom. Standard weight pipe will withstand any steam pressure that will ever be put upon it if the weld is good and the threads perfect. For hydraulic work up to 1,000 to 1,200 pounds pressure, use ordinary pipe and fittings up to ^ inch. - i<-— ,50^-^.25^^-- Fig. 19. Section of Threaded Pipe. Above that, extra heavy is safer. For those high press- ures, cast-iron fittings are unsafe and brass should be used. For high pressures, it is better to use flanges rather than couplings, or sockets, as the end of the pipe in a flange can be expanded or peened in. This should be the case in all work 5 inches and over. The standard flanges for heavy work are safe for pressures up to 130 pounds, but for larger work the flanges should be steel castings, or, what is still better, drop-forged steel. Ordi- nary cast iron is too weak and even iron in which there is sufficient charcoal iron or steel to bring the tensile strength up to 26,000 to 28,000 pounds is liable to crack. For cold water at high pressures the tongue and 58 Flanged Joints. groove joint, where the tongue fits the groove accurate- ly, with a thin rubber gasket at the bottom makes the best joint. If the tongue does not fit the groove this joint is but Httle better than an ordinary faced joint. For steam, the use of rubber for packing is inadmis- sible. For large work and high pressures, the making up of large pipe mains requires close and accurate mechan- ical work. It is a machinist's job throughout. The flanges require to be fitted as closely as engine work, and after the pipe is put in the flanges and expanded, the ends Fig. 20. Rabetted Joint. Fig. 21. Peened Joint. Still must be faced off. A rabbetted joint is shown in Fig. 20, in which a corrugated copper gasket painted with black lead is used. This copper gasket packs the flange joint and also the end of the thread on the pipe. If accurate- ly done, this makes a tight and durable joint, but is very expensive. Another joint is shown in Fig. 21, but this joint is not trimmed after peening. The end of the pipe is peened in the form of a round corner down on to the thread. Where a pipe does not pulsate it will make a good joint, but should there be pulsations so as to strain the thread and 59 Joints Without Threads, get it loose, it will eventually leak, and it is a bad joint to tighten once it leaks at the thread. Riveted joints on piping are apt to leak. Some jobs of this kind are put up where the joints are all tight, so it is claimed. The engineer never saw one of these jobs. ^.V\V.\VVV.V.VVV'.\VVVV\^V'v'AV^ ^•-',>>/>";K>:>in',,>l)?)>J/T7ni Fig. 22. Van Stone Pipe Jointo Fig. 23. Mitchell Pipe Joint. All that he had seen, that had ri vetted joints, leaked more or less. Of course they can be caulked, but his observa- tios led him to think that caulking a leaky joint that was pulsating was not a thing to look forward to with pleasure. Fig. 2.2 is the Van Stone joint, made by the Walworth 60 Expansion and Leaks. Company. This has no thread and cannot leak between pipe and flange. Fig. 5 is a joint made by W. K. Mitchell & Co. This cannot leak along the pipe. Both of these joints need to be faced, and the flanges can be turned on the pipe. In ordinary flange joints the gasket should never be extended outside the bolts. All drillings should be made in multiples of 4, and then flanges can be turned. When a job is being put up, all bolt circles and all drilling should be alike for the same size of pipe. Taking Care of Expansion. I find a paper which states that for taking care of expansion in steam pipes, expansion joints and corru- gated copper have gone out of date and that the proper w^ay is to arrange to have a screwed joint acting some- thing like a swivel joint in a gas bracket; except that in this case the pipe swings back and forth where the pipe is screwed into an ell or the flange of an ell. All engineers know the result when a fitting is screwed up too far and then has to be backed off. We give the fitting another turn and use care next time not to go too far. Whenever a pipe is put up and the expansion really works the thread back and forth, there will be a leak in a short time. The reason there are not more leaks is because there is spring enough in the pipes so that there is no back and forth movement on the thread. Expansion joints should be avoided wherever pos- sible, as there is danger of their being misused in several ways. They may be packed with something that sticks 61 A Big Piping Job. them; the gland may be screwed up sideways with the same effect ; they may not be set up in line with proper guides, and they may not be properly anchored. An expansion joint has the pressure on the area of fhe pipe in which it is placed as well as the thrust on the pipe from the steam turning the corner. There can be no shaking of pipes with expansion joints, as, from necessity, the pipes must be anchored solid. The ideal way to take care of expansion is to have the branch pipes long enough to have sufficient spring and put in long curves. A job of piping was put up to carry i6o pounds of steam. The main pipe was i6 inches internal diameter, and to supply steam to the engines there were two 12- inch pipes taken off at right angles to the 16-inch pipe, in which was an expansion joint. Before the pipe was put up the engineer designing the work was replaced by others who simply bent a piece of flat iron at right angles, put a strut across and bolted it to a rough stone wall with J^-inch bolts to take the thrust of the end of the pipe. One thing was inevitable; the pipe let go. Then came along a pipe man who suggested putting in the thread twisting scheme shown in the cut of the expansion piece. Fig. 23a, page 66. His idea was that the pipe would twist on the threads at each of the joints. From sheer good luck the pipe did not twist on the threads and set them to leaking, but twisted on the flanges. Of course, a thing like this cannot be anchored until you get to the point A, and the shaking of the pipe togeth- er with the expansion soon had the packing worn out in 62 Don't Use Copper Ells. the joint that worked the easiest. There was a big leak requiring a shutdown to put in a new gasket. In a short time a flange on this joint cracked and had to be bound. This joint was finally made sufficiently tight so that the movement was transferred to another one, which was soon in the same condition. This arrangement was leaking so often and caused so many shutdowns that it was finally taken out, the expansion joint put back in the main pipe, and the end of the pipe securely anchored. It will be noticed that among the fittings in this hitch up there are nine companion flanges. It was in use about a year and a half and when taken down there were five of these nine companion flanges broken. Copper ells for expansion have a way of bursting, and copper is not a safe metal to use for this purpose. As globe valves were formerly made, it was a nice job to regrind them when leaks occurred. After a time very ingenious machines were made that would do accurate work. Attempts were made to get valve disks that had a medium soft composition, from a species of hard rubber to babbit metal. These are liable to give out under high pressure. Valves are now made with brass seats and disks, and both removable, so that repairs can be quickly made. These should not be put in with white lead. Some makers put their seats and bon- nets together with white lead. The engineer that takes these apart will find a nice job as it will be necessary to get a torch and heat the outside before they can be taken apart. He will then be glad to put them together with black lead. Valve Openings. Globe valves should always be used where it is neces- sary to open and close quickly, or where it is necessary to regulate nicely, like throttle valves, injection valves to condensers, feed valves to boilers, etc. There is not so much loss in pressure through a globe valve as is gener- ally claimed, especially when used for steam. The difference in an indicator diagram between a globe valve opened one turn and full open is hardly appreciable. A globe value should be put in so that the pressure should come on bottom for two reasons: First, if the pressure were on top the current of steam through or past the valve will keep it vibrating and soon pull it off the stem. Second, the valve disk when pressure is on top will be held on its seat until all lost motion is taken up, which will require about a turn of the wheel before the valve moves, thus rendering it useless for close regu- lation, and it will be no better in this respect than a gate valve. The throttle valves on straight-line engines are made with one-half of the valve a solid disk and the other half, or moving part, swings around on to it when the valve is open, so that one-half of the diameter is always closed. With this valve there is no wire drawing across the seat. Professor Sweet told the writer a story of an engi- neer who wrote him that he had found the trouble with his engine; the valve was never half open, and he had taken it off and put on a valve that could be opened full. Professor Sweet wrote him that if he would take a dia- gram from his engine with the new valve, then replace the valve he had taken off and take another diagram, should there be any appreciable difference between the two, he (Professor Sweet) would pay for the new valve. 64 Draining of Pipes. The engineer admitted there was no difference. For exhaust and water, gate valves should be used, except as noted above, as these are not as lively as high- pressure steam. The first gate valves that came out had disks made in two parts with a wedge in between. These wedges have a way of wearing in such a manner that they stick in closing. When this occurs with boiler blow-off valves it causes cold chills. The introduction of the solid disk saved all concern about the valve closing easily and these have had the largest sale. With the low pressure carried at the time of their introduction it was customary to put in rings of babbitt but it was soon evident that this metal was not durable under heat due to lOO pounds of steam. Babbitt seats have disappeared above a pressure of 70 pounds. When high pressures of 150 pounds and superheat began to be used it was learned that even brass seats and disks would not stand the temperature and the valves with seats and disks are all made of iron. The old line of check valves with spindle or wings for guide and vertical lift that, when they had become somewhat worn would stick and require several hard blows with a club before they would seat, have largely gone out of use and been replaced with the swinging check. Sometimes a man, when connecting a steam pipe to an engine, will incline the pipe towards the boilers as it seems that the proper place for the water is in the boil- ers and the drain from the pipe should go there. He will learn that the drain will not flow back against a current of steam. He will also learn that when the load is light and the current of steam slow and apparently largely 65 a EXPANSION PIECE dEZP 12 Fig. 23a. ^30} Fig. 24. Action in Pipes of Syphon Condenser. IP MIT. 66 XB0DT2^ HC JlI r I Water in Steam Pipes. along the top of the pipe, the water will loaf along the pipe, fill up all pockets, etc., and when a heavy pull comes on the engine it will all come over in body and that it is better to slope towards the engine so as to drain all the time and avoid any accumulation. There was an excellent opportunity to observe the action of water in pipes by the use of a syphon con- denser set up as shown in Fig. 24. The engine had a 28 X 60-inch cylinder and the exhaust was 8 inches. The engine was doing rolling-mill work and at times was only carrying friction load. When the load was first thrown off the vacuum would go from 23 to 26 or 2y inches. The vacuum would gradually drop back during the light load to 22 inches, when, if there was no increase in the load, there could be heard a rush of water in the pipe and the vacuum would go up to 26 inches again. The case was diagnosed in this way: When the load was thrown off, the volume of steam in the exhaust was small and the water condensed in the heater, etc., having such a long distance to travel would collect along the bottom of the pipe. As it collected, it would lessen the area of the pipe, thus partially choking the steam pas- sage, causing a drop in the vacuum. The vacuum in the condenser would remain the same, and when the differ- ence in pressure in the condenser and that on top of the water became great enough, or the pipe became choked sufficiently so as to start a wave motion, the water would be forced out of the horizontal pipe, up the vertical and through the condenser without trouble. During a case of high water this pipe and a portion of the heater were under water and ran without trouble. This condenser would at times get too full and would run water over into the exhaust pipe, but if it was only a (^7 A Better Plan. small amount and the pump was stopped, the water would go out all right. Twice during its use the pipe was flooded when no one was near the pump, water hammer was set up and the horizontal pipe burst, but in no case did any water get back through the vertical part of the heater. After this had been used for a short time, there was so much trouble with it that it seemed the better plan to change to the one shown in Fig. 25. The exhaust here entered at the top of the heater and passed out at the bottom before it entered the vertical pipe. The passage out of this heater to vertical pipe was so short that there was no chance for an ac- cumulation of water and there was never any trouble of loss of vacuum from this cause. One day, when the engine was stopped and drip open, the engineer noticed a stream of water running from the drip, and investigation showed that a hole had become worn in the coil and water was going from heater coil into the exhaust. The coil was taken out and a double coil put in, consisting of a 2-inch and Fig. 25. A Better Plan. 68 Heaters and Condensing Engines. I J^ -inch pipe. These pipes were screwed into headers and one day both pipes pulled out. Feeding these pipes was a pump with a lo-inch water cylinder controlled by a pressure regulator that would keep the pressure up to loo pounds. This forced water enough into the exhaust to condense all the steam so that there was no pressure to carry it away, and some got into the steam cylinder, though not enough to break anything. Since that time iMxa n nnOn Fig. 26. Pratt and Cady Receiver. this engineer has never put a heater in the exhaust pipe of a condensing engine. The difference in temperature be- tween the hot well and the vacuum, or the temperature in the exhaust, will not amount to a saving of 2 per cent., which, in many cases, would not pay for the investment, and when the risk is taken into account, he has thought best not to assume it. When draining, it is necessary in many cases to have 69 Heating Liquids. a place that will collect the water in such a manner that steam cannot get by without forcing the water ahead of it. The principle on which this is accomplished is shown in a Pratt & Cady receiver for their old style return traps, something like Fig. 26. Into this receiver the water comes through the various drain pipes. On these pipes should be check valves to prevent any interference one with another. From this receiver the water passes out through the central pipe. This pipe extends nearly to the bottom of the receiver, and it is evident that no steam can get out until the water has been forced out below the end of this pipe. With such a system, the drip can be forced as high as the pressure will raise water. When heating liquids in vessels where steam cannot come in contact with the contents, coils are used. If at the end of the coil an ell looking up is used, it will not be possible to get the condensed water out of the pipes and have them do their full work, without forcing a suffi- cient current through to drive all the water in the pipes ahead of it. This means big coal bills. Immersed coils can be successfully drained by putting a tee at the end of the coil, as shown in Fig. 2y, with a very short nipple and cap on one end, ambushing and smaller sized pipe with long thread at the other end. The small pipe reaching into the tee should go below the bottom of the pipe, com- ing into the side of the tee so as to drain the coil clear to the bottom. The coil should be put in the vessel so that there is a continual incline toward this tee. It will drain thoroughly and a trap can be used. Another form ma.de with ells is shown in Fig. 28. These pockets, to be effectual, must be short. 70 Main Steam Pipes. One method of putting up a main steam pipe is shown in Figs. 29 and 30. This is a good system where there are a number of small engines, and for such a purpose it really requires no separator, for it is itself one form of separator. Where a main pipe is put up like Fig. 31, the drain from the main pipe can be taken direct into the boiler by the ij^-inch pipe, as shown. In this pipe there should be a stop and swinging check valve and the pipe should KI ^a D Q D Fig. 27 and 28. Methods of Piping. enter the boiler below the water line. The pipe from the boiler to the main pipe should never enter the main at the bottom, as when the stop valve is closed it makes a pocket for water. In some cases an extra stop valve is put next to the boiler as an extra precaution. When this is done there should be a ^-inch drip valve just above this valve to drain any water that may collect from leak- age through the top valve, and the bottom valve should be opened first. The stop valve at main pipe should never 71 Main Steam Pipes, r\ a 2 S Fig 29-30 Main Steam Piping. be omitted. Another method is to put the main pipe at the proper level so that the connecting pipe from the boiler may lie level. This has to be done where there is not sufficient height for the other plan. Fig. 32 is a top view. This is equally as good a plan, but the main pipe may not be high enough to drain back into the boiler. It is claimed that 7 feet elevation above the water is neces- sary for this, although good work has been done with an elevation of 4 feet. In large electric stations it is good practice to put in CHECK =0 Fig. 31. Another Way. Fig. 32. Top View. 72 Main Steam Pipes. two steam pipes and two water pipes. Where this is done and there are two lines of boilers it is usual to run the main lines through the center of the boiler-room. This necessitates the crossing of one of the main lines with a pipe from each boiler. These cross-over pipes should not go under the main pipes, as this forms a pocket on top of the stop valve when closed- The cross- over pipe should go over the main pipe, as shown in Fig. 33. Plan for Crossing Pipes. Where the pipes are not too long, the expansion can be taken care of with generous curves in the pipe. Pipes 300 feet long or more require very circuitous routes. When curves like Fig. 34 are put in, they should be laid horizontally to prevent the trapping of water. Curves of this kind should never be put in with fittings or flanges, as they would be leaking in a short time. 7Z Curved Pipes and Slip Joints- Fig. 34. Curve that might Trap Water. I Wrought iron expands of an inch for each 150,000 degree chang^e in temperature. To determine the expan- degrees change X length in inches sion of a pipe: = 150,000 expansion. A pipe 300 feet long or 3,600 inches under a steam pressure of 150 pounds becomes, if we take 70 degrees as the temperature of the pipe before steam is 3,600 X 293 admitted, = 7 inches expansion. 150,000 BRASS SLEEVE F^g. 35* "^ 51ip Joint. 74 Water Hammer. Slip joints are made like Fig-. 35. They should be accurately guided, as the sleeve should work as true as a piston rod, and unless guided properly the gland can clamp the sleeve sufficiently tight to prevent it sliding. The pipe should be rigidly secured at each end, in the first place, to hold the pipe from pulling apart from pressure, and also to sHde the joint in when the pipe expands, and, in the second place, to prevent vibration and to pull the joint out when contracting. Large pipes should never be anchored to buildings, as the vibrations will loosen the bri^ ton 93 More about Foundations, per square foot, remembering always that the base should be built so that if there is settling it should settle equally all over. To accomplish this, a sub-foundation or base should be put in, covering the entire ground, and made 2 to 5 feet thick, depending upon the weights that are to be put upon it, and set some distance apart. When building foundations for machinery, there should be pockets left at the bottom, or a short distance from the bottom, so that the bottom of foundation bolts can be reached at any time. It is rare that foundation bolts break, but when they do, to have a chance to get at the bottom nut is worth a great deal. It is also handy to be able to let a bolt down out of the way during the erection or subsequent handling of the engine. The pockets should be at least i8 inches square. The holes through the foundation for bolts should be larger than the bolt, so that the bolt can be swung around in the hole if necessary. j The anchor bolts should not be grouted in, as there may come a time when it may be necessary to get them out. Should it be necessary to put new bolts into an old foundation, a hole can be drilled somewhat larger than the bolt, a split with wedge put in the bottom and clean Portland cement, without sand, put in the hole until it is half full. There need be no fear of pulling the bolt out. The general practice is to build foundations for ma- chinery to within half an inch of the level of the base of the machinery and fill this space with grout. This may fill the space, no one knows. Air pockets may get in and keep out the grout at the most important point. A good practice is to leave the top of foundation 2 to 3 inches below the machinery and support the latter 94 I -f—J- i I 4-4 I ' J U. Fig. 41 Poundation for Cross-Compound Engine. SIDE VIEW PLAN 95 Foundation for Compound. on iron wedges. When the frame of the engine is leveled and put into line, make a concrete of i part Portland, 2^ parts sand and 5 of roofers' gravel or of small crushed stone of the same size. Put just sufficient water in it so that when it is squeezed in the hand it would retain its shape. This is pushed under the machinery with a stick and rammed, solid with an iron rammer. If too much water is put in it will not stay in place, but will fall away, so that care should be exercised that it is not too wet. This method takes longer than grouting and is harder work, but there is no doubt that it fits every place, that it is in solid, and makes a filling that is much harder and fits better than grout. To prevent filling the holes around foundation bolts, fill the top of these holes with waste, excelsior or some- thing similar. The cut shows a foundation with base covering the entire ground under both foundations for a cross-com- pound engine. This is a good idea in any case, and es- pecially so if the ground is not of good gravel. This plan shows pockets for getting at the bottom of the foun- dation bolts so arranged that access can be had from the wheel-pit side, allowing all around the outside to be filled if desirable and a cellar not wanted. The holes for bolts can be made by building in gas-pipe or boiler tubing or square boxes of wood. Stakes have been used a great deal. They should be tapered, say from 4 inches at top to 2 inches at the bot- tom, and made smooth. They should be soaked in water for a week before using, so that they will not swell in the masonry. They should be pulled out as soon as possible after the foundation is finished. For this purpose, they should be sufficiently long to project 6 inches above the 96 Stone and Brick. top of the foundation. A light chain should be put around the top and a lever of 4x4 timber, 12 feet long, with a good fulcrum, will usually start them. If not, have two or three men put a strain on the lever and hit the stake a good, square blow directly on top with a sledge and it will pop right out. Foundations are built of brick, stone and concrete. An engineer was building some foundations, for an elec- tric station, of stone according to the terms of the con- tract, when the civil engineer employed by the owners objected and wanted them built of brick. The M. E. asked for his reasons, and he stated that brick made a better foundation and that all foundations of that char- acter in that vicinity were built of brick. The M. E. asked him what an engine foundation was for, and he replied that it was to hold an engine up. ''No," said the M. E-, "it's to hold an engine down and have it stay quiet, and to do this requires weight and stability, and stone fills the requirements better than brick, as it is heavier and stiffer." To this the C. E. took exceptions, but after consult- ing his books admitted that stone had more weight, but would not agree with the M. E. that stone was stiflfer and that brickwork would spring. ''Well,'' said the M. E., *'you go to any of the places where they have large engines on brick piers, and if you can find a single one where the engine is well loaded that it does not spring, I will take out the stone foundations and put in brick." The M. E. heard no more about foundations. Good Portland concrete is getting to be universal for engine foundations, and is rapidly coming into use for making bridges, dams, and buildings. A concrete house costs about one-half as much as a brick one, and 97 W.I. RiD« Fig, 42, Plan of Chimney. PLAN OF BASE.. f8 Brick and Steel Chimneys. -the same is true of mills. It can be molded in any form and can be made to represent any kind of cut stone de- sired at a minimum cost. Chimney, When it comes to deciding on draft, and first cost has to be kept down, a steel stack is usually decided upon. Carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases are very de- structive to steel, and a steel stack corrodes very quickly on the inside. The heavy, self-supporting stack will take longer to rust out than the thin, guyed ones, but they, too, must give way. Fig. 42 is a brick chimney that costs no more than a self-supporting steel stack. It is very stiff and stands up against wind pressure in good shape. The inside shell is 12 inches thick at the bottom and 8 inches at the top. It does not reach quite through the top. The outside shell is 12 inches thick at the bottom and 8 inches during the latter part, except at the enlargement at the top. Com- mencing at the top, there are 18 inches for the bevel. This has a cast-iron cap with rabbeted joints, so that no water can get under the plate. Copper bolts, Ji inch diam- eter, are built into the chimney at the top, and when the cap is in place these are riveted. The cap reaches down 4 inches inside of the chimney and 4 inches over the base of the bevel. The square part is 12 inches and the slope is 9 feet. Below this, for 30 feet, the chimney is straight, and from that point to the bottom the batter is 2-10 of an inch per foot on each side. As shown on the plan at the base, buttresses are built into the outside shell and ex- tend as high as possible. Thev should not come within 3 99 Reasons for Plain Designs. inches of the inner shell at any point. Above and below the opening for the flue and at the top of the chimney, there is a 2^ x^ -inch iron band built in next to the outer course of brick, and every 10 feet there is a band, ij^x^ inch, built in in the same way, so that the chimney is thor- oughly banded, and yet they do not show. The mortar should be made of one part lime to five parts clean, sharp sand, and when used one part Portland cement to one part lime should be added. When added the cement should be mixed with water before putting it into the mortar, otherwise the cement will be mixed in dry lumps. No more should be mixed than can be used with- in three hours of the mixing. The outer course should be laid in what is known as ''push joints," viz., the mortar should be put on the laid brick sufficient to fill the joint full, the brick laid in it and pushed to place. This fills the joint completely full. Ma- sons object to this because it makes a little thicker joint. They like to stick a little mortar on the inside corner of the brick and lay it down as in an ordinary straight wall. This makes a very thin joint at the outside, with often no mortar for an inch or two, and a weak construction. All interstices should be well filled with mortar for strength and for tightness. It will be noticed there are no rings at the top for looks nor any projections. All projections catch snow, ice and rain, and as water is a universal solvent, where there are projections there will be disintegrations. There should be a ladder built on the outside of the chimney of J^-inch round iron, the steps being 14 inches apart, 14 inches wide and projecting 9 inches, so that a man can put his leg through to rest. A chimney built as above, 6 feet internal diameter and 125 feet high, cost 100 Size of Chimneys. above the foundation $1,850. One 8>4 feet diameter and 150 feet high cost $2,800, and one 13 feet internal diameter and 200 feet high cost $8,750. The latter had 16-inch walls for 70 feet. The formula for area of chimneys : 120 X square feet of grate Area = V height A table has been prepared by Mr. Wm. Kent and is published in most hand books. Mr. Kent based his table on the consumption of five pounds of coal per horse- power, so as to have it ample during bad weather. Mr. George H. Babcock's rule of thumb was : "The area of chimney should be % the area of grate. It should never be less than i-io." In a high chimney, the velocity being greater, the area can be smaller than with a low chimney. There is an idea that the chimney should have an area equal to that of all the tubes. This would make the chimney too large. If we have a boiler with 70 tubes 4 inches in diameter we have an area of 500 square inches and a friction surface of 375 inches. A stack 28 inches in diameter would carry that all right, and this would have a friction of only 90 inches. Besides we have seen that a boiler flue is never full of gas at the full velocity ©f chimney. The flues between the boiler and the chimney should be slightly larger than the chimney, as, like the boiler flues, they are generally horizental and have bends. Of late years many owners of steam plants have put in induced draft. One of the drawbacks to chimney draft is that, when strong, it draws air through all cracks and interstices, as lei l-H o m o CM o PL, o a. ^ :^ w o o l-H 02 •S9qoui 'B9JB 9;BUI -ixoadd^ JO 9JBnbs JO 9pis O ON rt I^ O « W^CO COOO Th Ox -^ O iT) O O •;j 9j'Bnbs B9JV r>i rj- M 0-' O^ O- O coo u^ On'O r^ N m Tf m m M C< CO CO rf U-) r^OO CT^^ \r^ O^ fr)CO coco r^- Q MMMMWCOCOTl-Vn •;j 9JHnbs B9JY 9Ai;o9^a: r^r^oococo t^r^t^vo -^mco coco coo onm OrtO r^mTl-rl-»nr^"<^»« Ooo O !> f^ w o O M d N co^^u^O t^O coo O xnO"^00 MMMC^ g S U o H W o w O 8 ...MWOl^COt^ . . - oo CO O CO O'^ O^ *-* '^O CO M M rH M M C4 OO CO vr> O ^-^ O 1^ . . • • rt M O ^ CO r-« -> eor^ mo CO O N TtO CO W M M M M M 0^' O (^ o W ►-} o r^O r^oc^r^coi-'MM W COTj-voI^OO o N ^O )H M M M ■4-> 8 w ooo oo OiJ-jT^ininco'^r^ CO M mrfT^o OcoOO ■^co M M c^ CO •^ u->\0 oo O M CO vo M M M 4-> O ON . . . . 5*^ M coot IT) O t^ OOO N • • • • . . . .MTtt^OrJ-cocicoxnO' • • • . . . . M tH M w W CO t!" \n\0 r^ . . . . o CO • • N ro r^ CO coo m m co "^ • • O oo O coo O CO M o o • . IMMMMWCOCOm • • • • • 4-> R r^ vi 00 oo o "^ « coo ....*.... M M W I-. O inoo '^C«c»ir>M wcow^r^o*-''*- • • MM o IT) co»i^O»OTt N CO -"^O CO 1 •S9qc Ul "B CO M ■<+ t^ O coo OC100 TfOO woo Tj-OO M N N M cocococo-'tTtinoo r^i^oo oo 102 Induced and Forced Draft. well as through the brickwork itself, thus diluting the gases and cooling them. Induced draft has the same drawback. The induced- draft apparatus is made up of steel plates, which must be acted on the same as a steel stack. It is, or a portion of it at least, subject to repairs and breakdowns and a contin- uous expense for fuel. The products of combustion are discharged into the air that is breathed by the operatives and nearby residents. If high chimneys are not desired, would it not be better to build a chimney, say, lOO feet high, and put in the air by fan under the grate? It would not draw air through boiler setting to cool off the boiler, and the sur- rounding air would be purer. The apparatus would be more durable and could be smaller, as the volume of cold air is not so great as the hot air. Objections have been made to the steam jet for aiding or increasing combustion, on account of the large amount of steam used. One engineer tried to learn the amount of steam used with steam jets, and the result of his investigation was that the steam jet, as he used it, required 8 per cent. of the fuel burned to operate it. He then took the differ- ence between the amount of fuel used when running with natural draft and with the steam jet, and found the net result was that the jet took 2 per cent, more coal. Whatever system of draft is used there should be a draft regulator. There are damper regulators made now that are very powerful and will regulate the steam pres- sure within 2 pounds. For burning small anthracite and use a steam jet to help out. Put a valve in the steam pipe that leads to the jets and arrange the damper regulator so that when steam 103 Dampers. rises it will close this valve first and then the damper in the flue. Of course, when steam lowers, the damper opens first and then the jets. 104 The Engine Room. T ▼ ▼ When James Watt took hold of the steam engine it consisted of a cyHnder in which steam was admitted un- der the piston and raised it to the top of the stroke when cold water was admitted and the vacuum, or rather, the pressure of air on top of the piston forced it down, thus doing mechanical work. Watt built a separate condenser and used steam on both sides of the piston. He also invented and used the indi- cator. His researches led him to foretell the advantage of using steam expansively and of compounding the same, but he did not live to see it carried out. Later mathematicians took hold of the matter, and, by figures, showed the saving by expanding steam. A professor in Providence was looking over these figures, and, becoming interested, took them to a young man who had shown inventive ability while working at the harness maker's trade by inventing the sewing ma- chine for stitching leather. This young man was George H. Corliss. Elias Howe afterwards invented the placing of the eye at the point of the needle, thus making the sewing machine practical for all purposes. Young Corliss set about making an expansion engine, 105 What Corliss Did. the point of cutting off to be determined by the action of the governor so that full holier pressure should be main- tained in the cylinder until expansion commenced. Expansion of steam had been tried with poppet valves and a fixed cut-off, but had not met with much success. The poppet valve did not appeal to Mr. Corhss, neither did the slide valve with its long ports and large clear- ance, so he set to work to make something entirely new. His success was so remarkable as to place him as the foremost engineer of his age, with the probability that centuries will go by before his name will be forgotten. He accomplished four things. He did away with crooked steam passages, placing a valve close to each end of the cylinder, with short, straight ports, thus reducing the clearance to a minimum. He made a valve that while light, was rigid and would keep its shape; that was quickly and inexpensively made, requiring no scraping or grinding, and that would remain tight as long as the slide valve. By the use of the wrist-plate he quickened the motion of the valves at the right time, thus improving on the motion of the eccentric. By the use of his disengag- ing motion he brought expansion to perfection. He had the lot of most inventors, and was obliged to force his invention on an unwilling public. He had to take all the responsibility, and in many instances take his pay in what he could save in fuel. This in the end proved fortunate for him, as in most cases he received far in excess of the price he had put on the machine. At the time Mr. Corliss was selling his automatic cut- off engines for what he could save, the United States Government was spending money in experiments to show there was no economy in using steam expansively. With Mr. Corliss as draftsman, was a man by name of io6 Wright and Corliss. William Wright. Wright always claimed that he was the original designer of the Corliss valve. When a man cre- ates a great thing he is apt to imitate it later. Mr. Wright never afterwards built anything that remotely resembled the Corliss valve. He invented a cam motion — a cam moving around a central cam, its position being deter- mined by the governor. This cam operated poppet steam valves and made an automatic cut-off engine. The ex- haust was two slide valves, each valve being placed at the cylinder ends so as to reduce clearance, and as far as possible get the results obtained by Mr. Corliss. These engines were built for a number of years by Woodruff & Beach, at Hartford, Conn. Mr. Wright made a change in his cam and governor and went into business for himself. After a time he became convinced that the poppet was not a tight valve and built his engines with gridiron valves. When Mr. Corliss' patents expired, a great many builders started in to build ''improved" Corliss engines, and some of them have made rather sad work of it. In Mr. Corliss' day, piston and rotative speeds were slow, and he did not live to see the enormous amount of work that the steam engine was to do in the generation of electricity, calling for higher pressures, faster speed and large units. In all this work there has been a chance for inventive and constructive talent to meet the entirely new conditions. When electricity first came into use the Corliss engine was thought entirely too slow. High-speed engines had become partially developed and the new field developed them rapidly, and it was for a time given entirely over to them. The electric light company at Waterbury, Conn., went 107 Piston Valves. to the Corliss Company and asked them to build a cross- compound engine having a stroke of 4 feet and to run at the rate of 80 revolutions per minute. This, at the time, was considered terrific speed, but the engine company undertook the work, which turned out highly satisfac- tory. Others worked in the same direction, and results showed that for hard work and for economy and long life, the Corliss engine built for the new conditions was still the favorite. A favorite valve for a long time for the piston valve. This is a straight valve moving in a case. Fig. 13 is a typical piston valve. As the steam passes by the ends and through the center, there is no pressure on the valve seat, and there is only the sliding friction due to its weight and that due to the tightness of the valve in its case. In some cases this valve is put in without any pack- ing rings of any kind, and being frictionless nearly, will be fairly tight for some months if neatly fitted. To use spring rings it is necessary to put bars across the port to prevent the rings expanding into the ports and getting caught. Another method is to make a shell for the out- side of the valve and expand it with set-screws. This makes as rigid a valve as one entirely solid, and has the single advantage of being adjustable by hand instead of getting a new valve. One builder for a time made a valve that could be adjusted from the outside when the engine was running, and he had the wrecks incident to such a device. The piston valves are made to operate at the ends of the cylinder, thus imitating the Corliss in the attempt to get short ports. Of necessity, their ports are longer than the Corliss, because of the shape of the valve, and also the port must go clear around the valve. 108 Advantages and Objections. The advantage of the piston valve is that its construc- tion is lathe work and can be quickly and cheaply made ; it is nearly frictionless, can be operated at a high rate of speed and requires very little oil; all its mechanism can be light and easily handled by the governor. The objec- tions to it are the considerable clearance, the rather tortu- ous steam passages and the extreme probability of its leaking in a short time. Fig. 43. Double Ported Piston Valve for Valve Engine. For high rotative speeds the single valve can be made to give as good cards, except the compression, as a four valve with two eccentrics, with the same speed. The four-valve engine, however, will be the more economical under changes of load, because the exhaust valve closure is not disturbed by the governor and does not produce the excessive compression. The shorter the stroke, the greater the percentage of clearance. This is again increased by the number of times the clearance spaces are filled and emptied per minute. 109 Abouc Engine Design. When looking up a medium-speed engine (there are no slow speeds now) sufficient valve area, small clear- ance, sufficient area for bearings and pins, and one that is easy of access to all parts for repairs, are the points that should be looked after. This also applies to engines of all classes. In former years engines were designed by practical engineers who had experience with them or who watched the operation of them after they were installed. They were also assembled in the shop by hand or hand tools, and all the mechanics had a taste of putting them together under conditions similar to those of the engineer in the engine-room, and they were made easy to get at, get apart and get together again. Of late years, altogether too many have been designed by draftsmen who had no knowledge of the practical handling of them after they had once left the shop, with the result that there are some fearful monstrosities. They are also put together with a traveling crane, and many nice points arc not noticed by mechanics there. It is true that engines must be heavier than formerly, but there is no excuse for putting a stuffing box in in such a man- ner that the engineer can just reach it at arm's length through a hot hole that keeps his head and body out. Some builders put a sheet-steel case over the cylinder, and this case is fitted in such a manner that to put it on or remove it the whole valve motion must be taken off. One type of engine designed to be direct connected to electric generators has its main bearing so constructed that the armature must be blocked up, fields removed and shaft disconnected to get to the adjustment of the bear- ing. The builder says he does this to prevent monkeying with it; that it is too often the case that where things no Horizont?^ vs. Vertical. are handy to get at they are adjusted out of shape and use in a short time; that these journals will run two or three years without giving trouble if let alone, and that if they will do that, one can afford to be put to a little extra trouble when adjustments are so seldom required. When purchasing large cross-compound engines the difficulty of lubricating the low-pressure cylinder and the large number of cylinders of this class that have caused endless delays and expense, should be borne in mind. Another thing is the room they occupy. Said a manu- facturer to me: ''We have been in the habit of put- ting in Corliss engines, cross-compound, owing to their durability, small need for repairs, reliability and econ- omy, but they take up too much room. In our business they have to be close to the mill machinery, they are right in the way of our work and reduce the production the mill ought to turn out, so that we have gone to putting in high-speed engines. These engines will have less life, will consume more coal, but our production is increased so much by the extra space that the extra space is worth many times the extra cost of fuel, etc., and we can well afford to put them in, let them wear out and then put in more." In these cases the vertical engine is the solution. The wear on the cylinders is slight, there is a big saving in cylinder oil and the jfloor space is small. There is one drawback — the weight is taken from the bottom of the cylinder and put on the crank pin, and also the engine is unbalanced, as the weight of the moving parts is all downward with the full area of the piston to push them down, and only the area of piston less the area of piston rod to pull them up; also, the jerk that the engine gets at the bottom of the stroke when it takes III Fig. 44„ Cylinder Designed to Balance Moving Parts on Vertical Engine. 112 Balancing Vertical Engines. steam at the bottom makes a noisy engine, and on boats gives disagreeable jerks. It is not possible to balance one of these engines by counterweights in the crank, as when the engine is on the bottom center the counterweight is in equilibrium. Some engineers argue that one side will balance the other through the shaft, but if they will stand by the shaft on a boat with the three-cylinder engines they will see that this is not true. Builders of engines with two-cylinders and cranks set at 1 80 degrees argue that in their case one side balances the other through the shaft when they have good counter- weights, but to balance such an engine with counter- weights would necessitate the putting in of a counter- weight in the low-pressure crank to make up the differ- ence between the high and low pressure moving parts, and putting none in the high-pressure crank, surely not a very mechanical device. Should the attempt be made to put sufficient counter- weight in the crank to balance the moving parts, it will be found that there is not sufficient room for the neces- sary weight. It is necessary to keep the pins and main journal keyed up snug to prevent jar and pound on the bottom, and this means an excessive amount of oil and excessive wear. Even with this, it is cheaper to put in new pins and brasses than new pistons and rebore large cylinders on horizontal engines. Builders of vertical engines will guarantee better economy for them than for the horizontal type. The writer designed and patented a cylinder to put on top of the steam cylinder of a vertical engine, as shown in Fig. 44. This device is simply a cylinder open at the bottom and with a small relief valve on top to relieve any 113 Pounds and their causes. air that may leak in. The weight of all the moving parts is ascertained, as well as the difference between the area of the piston at the bottom and top, and the area of the balancing piston is made to sustain this weight with a pressure of 12 pounds per square inch. Vacuum is formed at the top after the piston has traveled a short distance, and, as the bottom is open to the atmosphere, the whole moving parts are suspended on air and the resistance of the air going down carries the parts back to nearly the end of the stroke, when they are let down easily on the pin going over the top center. As they are supported at the bottom center by the small piston, the jar is removed and the parts can be run looser, with the result of less wear. This arrangement should remove the disagreeable jar on steamers caused by the engines going around the bottom center. Pounding from various causes. An engine that is not in line will not run quietly. Sometimes the engine wears out of line or the shaft gets out of level for want of proper adjustment at the right time ; it perhaps has been ''tinkered'' with and gotten out from that cause ; some portions may have worn faster than others ; the foundation may have not settled uniformly or some parts have been too weak and sprung out of shape. There are altogether too many cases where the engine was not put in proper alinement when built, or pins were not put in straight. A self-contained engine had been run for a number of years ; one of the wheels had become loose ; the cross- head and boxes on both ends of the rod were worn and 114 Weak Crossheads. the builders were directed to send new parts and an attempt would be made to get the wheel tight at the side of the engine. To this plan the builders objected, stating that they must have the engine returned to the shop to do a good job. This would necessitate shutting down a large plant, but a breakdown gave them the oppor- tunity. The shaft, rod and crosshead were sent, but were delayed in returning, so that it was necessary to get it together and start up as quickly as possible. When the engine was started it pounded badly, but as the work o I i ! t ( — X If J.- .., i i Fig. 45. Weak points in Crossheads. required this engine to run continuously it meant con- siderable loss to stop and locate the trouble. Another engine was therefore purchased, so as to have a duplicate engine. Before this arrived the piston rod let go. New studs for the cylinder head and a new rod were made and hustled in in a few hours, and the engine continued at work. As all the hands were busy with this work, there could be no chance to hunt up the trouble. Before the spare engine was ready the crosshead let go at points shown by arrows in Fig. 45. This cross- head was cored out, as shown by dotted lines, and was rather weak at the square corners. 115 Frames out of Line. The spare engine was gotten together and put into service. A new crosshead was procured by a nearby foundry, and when it was put in the precaution was taken to key the rod up snugly on the crank-pin and drop the other end down on to the crosshead pin. It fitted squarely. The rod was then disconnected from the crank-pin, and keyed up on to the crosshead, and then dropped down onto the crank-pin, and that came square. The engine was then started up, and it ran perfectly quiet. Fig. 46. Frame out of line. The old crosshead was so badly broken that just what the trouble was could not be determined, but the probability is that the pin was put in something as shown in Fig. 45, though not so crooked. Had the trial of the connecting rod been made witK the first pin in the same manner that it was with the second, the trouble would have been discovered at the outset. When setting up engines it is a good plan to try the connecting rod, as described. Another error that has been found many times is shown in Fig. 46. A line put through the engine will show that the cylinder is not in ling with the guides and will have to be thrown around by putting in shims at either O or E. 116 Twisted Guides. A not infrequent defect is shown in Fig. 47, and can be detected by placing a plumb, as shown. This is par- ticularly bad with V-guides. In one factory I have in mind there are four engines from the same builder with V-guides that stand in this manner. Fortunately, the Fig. 47. Guides out of live vertically. engines run forward and do not make as much trouble as the running backward. The only remedy is to trim down the shoes at A and A' until the crossheads stand plumb. There is no excuse for a V-guide. There have been cases where the foundation under a cylinder has settled 117 Crank Pin not Central. more under one side than the other and twisted the guides. Pounding from this cause is a compound noise, and while it takes place on the center the pound will be at ■^"^^ O Fig. 48. Crank Pin not Central. the crosshead and crank-pin both, but not exactly the same time. Another trouble that sometimes occurs is that the center line through the engine does not come through center of pin, as shown in Fig. 48, where the center of 118 Cranks out of Square. pin IS the line A, while the line through engine Is at B. The remedy for this is to trim down one side of the brasses and add on to the other side, as shown in Fig. 48. When they have to be cut off on the side toward the crank and the rod is round, care must be taken that the , 1 u 1 ^ Fig. 50. Crank disk out by plumb. Crank pin put in crooked. large part of the rod does not get too close to the crank disk when the crank-pin is at the forward center. If the crosshead is one-sided, the same course may be pursued. To determine if the shaft is level, suspend a plumb line, as in Fig. 49. If it is out, as shown, the pound will 119 Pistons too Small. not be on the center, but when the crank-pin is nearly half way between. The only remedy is to make the shaft level and with a pin put in crooked, as in Fig. 50, a new pin put in straight will be necessary. Should a piston be too small, as shown in Fig. 51, and a larger force of the steam strike it on one side, the piston will be forced to the other side and there will be Fig 51. Piston too Small a severe pound. When the cylinder head Is taken off, nothing out of the way can be seen. The remedy is a piston with a broader bearing at the bottom. A cylinder having shoulders will pound. A Corliss or similar valve having end play may pound if the steam impinges just right to force it endwise. The valve will wear smoother if it has end play, and unless the pound is too great it will be better to leave it. It can be eased 120 Loose Glands or Packing, somewhat or stopped entirely by putting a little plate and spring at the end and put in a bolt through the valve bonnet to adjust the tension of the spring. Pounding is sometimes caused by side play in rod brasses, but the engine must be out of line somewhere to make this serious. A loose gland or loose metallic packing in the stuffing-box will make a disagreeable pound. A loose piston rod, either in the crosshead or the piston, will pound. =r* Fig. 52. Lining up from piston rod. Sometimes, if brasses get loose so as to turn in the straps or stub ends, they will cause a pound. If an engine is working very light and the internal surface of the cylinder is exposed chiefly to low pressure and to the condenser, a large amount of steam will be condensed when the valve opens and will cause a snapping in the cyl- inder like entrained water. This is sometimes mistaken for pounding, but it is really water. It will wash off the cylinder oil from the wearing surfaces, which might cause cutting, but other than this does no real harm. When the piston rod runs straight, a line can be strung, as shown in Fig. 52. Put the engine as near the outer center as will allow measurements to be made from both sides of the disk above the rod. Put a stick tightly 121 Locomotive Pounds. back of the gland and draw a line X parallel with thfe piston rod, measuring from B B'. Then take the distance from the disk at C C Should there be a crank instead of a disk, both in this case and in Fig. 48, measure from the end of the pin on one center, turn the engine to the opposite center, and make the same measurements in this position. An engine in perfect alinement with the bearings well fitted and keyed fairly snug will run smoothly with very little com- pression. All that will be necessary is to have the exhaust valves close quickly enough to have sufficient lap to make them tight on the admission of steam. A locomotive engineer discovered a pound on one side, and located it in the cresshead. He took out the piston rod, put a thickness of letter-paper around the taper, put the rod back and drew it up with the key, and the trouble was over. When paper can be drawn down tight and held rigid it makes an excellent packing for this purpose, or for any place that needs filling up, even top of a foundation for supporting an engine. On a stationary engine a pound at the crosshead was found to be the jam nut had become loosened. When these nuts get loose they give warning by pounding. When the rod gets loose on a key it will do the same thing. Also when a piston gets loose there will be a pound in the cylinder. If it is simply forced on the rod and riveted over it will rarely give warning when loose, but comes off at once. A pound was located at the crosshead of sn engine and the men in charge were unable to find it, as the jam nut and everything about the crosshead was snug an"^ tight. A consulting engineer was sent for, who un- 122 Set screws don't hold fly-wheels. screwed the jam nut and the rod was found broken off in the center of the nut. An engineer was sent for, with the information that on one of the engines the crank pin was heating and pounding. This was caused by the pin being loose in the crank. Should a crank or wheel become loose on the shaft they will give notice by a creaking noise, sometime be- fore there is any danger. There will also be a slight exudition of oil having a rusty appearance. A certain engine had a shaft 14" diameter on which was a wheel 20 feet diameter, having a heavy rim. This wheel had been creaking at the hub for some time. The engineer finally decided it was getting seri- ous. After a talk with some of his engineering friends he submitted the following plan to the management: Have a new shaft and crank made. Borrow some small engines and set them up to do the lighter work and get a sufficient amount of the heavier work ahead, and thus keep up the product. Then take the wheel and shaft out, bore the hub to fit the new shaft and put it in service. It was estimated that the loss from stoppage of this engine was $1,000 per day. Now, in these works there was a machinist who was styled M — . M , who was a good talker and who had succeeded in getting the management to think there was nothing in mechanics he was not master of. He reported there was no danger with the wheel, but should anything happen he could tighten it without any such expense. A few weeks after this the engineer left for other fields, and shortly afterwards the wheel slid along the. shaft until it brought up against the foundation. This 123 Where they failed. meant a shutdown. After a day's delay ($i,ooo) the machinist shoved the wheel back to place, and the engine started and ran a few days, when it was again over against the foundation. The wheel was again shoved back to place, two steel set screws were put in in a slanting direction, as Fig. 53. Set screws that did'nt hold the fly-wheei. shown in Fig. 53, extending through into the shaft. After a few days' delay (more $1,000) the engine was again started, and ran a few months, when, as was to be ex- pected, the set screws broke off level with the shaft, and the wheel was again against the foundation. A new shaft was then procured, and the wheel put on in proper shape. This required a shutdown of a month. 124 Pressing crank pins. A heavy-rlmmed wheel on an engine cannot be held with set screws, but must hug the shaft tightly. This engine had a crank pin 7" diameter, and three of them had become loose. A new pin was made, .01 inch larger than the hole, estimated to require 100,000 pounds pressure to force it in place. When about half way in, taking about 90,000 pounds pressure, one of the straps broke, and by the time another was made and in place it required 150,000 pounds and some persuasion with a hammer. This pin did not come loose. This was at the time when the engineer was look- ing up the best way to take care of the wheel. At the time there was a mechanic on the premises superintending the erection of machinery built by a large machinery firm and the subject of forced fits came up. This mechanic was not in favor of building machinery so as to require high pressures to force them on. When asked what he would do if they got loose, he said he would bush them. Asked if his people had ever done that, he replied, "Yes, lots of them." Further discussion seemed useless. Lining up an Engine, The writer had the annoying experiences which most engineers encounter with pounding, hot journals, water, etc. . He learned that the most fruitful cause of pounding is want of alinement. Keying up an engine out of line makes the trouble worse in many cases. The old V-guide that holds a cross-head and con- necting rod rigid in a straight line when the rest of the engine is in such shape that it \^ants to turn a little is 125 Lining up Engines. 54 55 Figs. 54-55. Two ways of holding a center line. one of the annoyances. If the bottom of one of the main journals wears faster than the other the V-guide makes a fuss about it, whereas a round guide would go all right. In one case where the foundation under the cylinder had settled slightly, so that it threw the guides slightly out of line the struggle between cross-head and crank as to which should be master was noisy. As usual at such times, the shop was too busy to shut down and put in a new foundation without warning, so it was ascertained Figs. 56-57. Two views of stake. 126 Holding the line. how much was necessary to turn the cross-head so that it stood straight, planed one side of the cross-head at the top and the other at the bottom put in liners along-side the shoes, and the conflict was over. Bored g^uides would have saved that work. To ascertain if the engine is in line, take out all the reciprocating parts and put a line through the cylinder reaching to front of the crank. This line should be a fine, braided line, of silk. It can be fastened and centered in the back end of the cylinder with a stick bolted with one Fig. 58. For holding the line. bolt, as in Fig. 54, or can reach across and be fastened with two, as in Fig. 55. In front of the crank set a stake that can be adjusted sideways, as shown in front and side views in Figs. 56 and 57. Put the line as near central of the cylinder as possible and draw it tight so that there shall be no sag. Commence at the back end of the cylinder and center the line. A better way for holding the end of the line is to notch a piece of iron, as shown in Fig. 58, and put screws into the board through the notches. The iron strip can 127 Shimming the frame. then be fastened just tight enough to hold it in place and raised or lowered to suit the work. Let the cord lay across the iron strip and suspend a weight on it sufficient- ly heavy to hold the cord tight. The best thing to use for caliper is a pine stick nearly sharp at one end and a pin in the other that can be drawn out or pushed in for adjustment. Have one for the end of the cylinder and one for the stuffing-box. After the line is central at the cylinder end, try it through the stuffing-box, moving the line at its support at the stake in front of the crank. When central n s ^ II .1 Fig. 59. Lining frame with shims. here, try the back end of the cylinder and so alternate until the line is central. at both points. It is then in line with the cylinder and all other parts should be in line with it. Try the guides. One builder had most of the engines that he built and erected crooked at the point A, Fig. 59, and shims were required to throw the cylinder around into line with the guides. Bring the crank-pin down to the line, or if the crank IS down, which is the better position, bring it up to the line and see if the line is central to the pin. Turn the crank around to the other center. If the line is central at both points, it is all right ; if the line comes one side of the center on one side and on the other side on the other, 128 A quick alignment test. the outside journal wants swinging around, if a single engine; if double, one of the cylinders may have to be moved. If the line comes to the same side of the center of the pin when the crank is in both positions, then the shaft journals are not set right The cheapest and quickest way to overcome this is to take off the required amount of metal from one side of y Fig. 60, Leveling shaft by plumb line. the crank-pin boxes and sweat, or solder an equal amount on the other side. A temporary alinement can be made without taking the engine apart by putting the engine on the back center and putting a line alongside the engine parallel with the piston rod and then measuring off to the crank-pin or to points on the disk from that line. 129 Where the belt man was wrong. To find if the shaft is level, drop a plumb line outside of the crank-pin when it is up, as in Fig. 60, and then turn the engine over until the pin is down. This can be done with steam and without disconnecting anything. Some do it by dropping a Hne down the side of the wheel. A foundation for an engine, shafting, etc., was made and the engine was put in place. The shaft man came along and set up the shafting by marks that were given him. The man who was to put on the belt went to line up the pulley on the shaft, and it was out. He sent for the engineer and told him that to get the engine in line with the shaft the back end of the engine would have to be swung around 1^2 inches. As the foundation bolts were cemented in, this meant the cutting out of the holes in cylinder feet and a bad job. A transit was procured and the whole job gone over, proving that everything was in line and the work put up correctly. The belt man was asked how he arrived at the conclusion that the engine was out of line with the shaft and he put a line alongside the pulley on the engine and another alongside the pulley on the driven shaft, which showed that one of them wa«s badly out. He was asked to turn the line shaft half way around and when this was done the work was out in the opposite direction. A pulley may be turned up true, but it is not always put on the shaft true — in fact, seldom is — so that when anything is attempted by line by using the side of a pulley, it should be demonstrated first that the pulley runs abso- lutely true. Sometimes a pillow block is not set absolutely level like Fig. 61, and there will be heating on one end, and after a time this bearing will be out of shape, so that the only remedy is re-boring. 130 About pedestal bearings. It has been the custom to make crank bearings Hke Fig. 62, with the base of the bottom shell narrower than the side shells, so that when the cap was screwed down hard the bottom shell was spread out, causing the bearing to heat. The base of the bottom shell should be as wide as the sides. Eccentrics are usually held in place by set-screws through the hub of the eccentric and against the shaft. This forces one side of the hub away from the shaft, and Fig, 6 1 , Shaft out of line. Fig, 62. Poor bottom shell. light eccentrics are distorted, causing heating. One builder has recognized this evil and his practice is to drill into the shaft and draw the eccentric to the shaft, thus keeping it in true form. There is a slot in the hub at the bolt hole for adjusting the eccentric. The question of the wear of rings and cylinders of modern engines is an interesting one. An engineer was interested in having four large engines built and there was a verbal agreement that the last cut should be with a 5^-inch feed and the cylinder left rough. When the engines came the cylinders were 131 Cylinder Oils. smooth. He went to the agent and then to the superin- tendent to know why they were bored smooth. He didn't know and wanted to know ''What there was about boring cylinders anyhow." The engineer told him he had started a great many engines and never knew of a cut cylinder. Cutting a new cylinder did not seem to be possible. Since he went into the electric business there was all kinds of trouble with cut cylinders — even one of the super- intendent's engines, only a 22-inch cylinder, had been cut while in charge of his own man. He went to Investi- gating and found that with coarse cuts and the cylinders full of little ridges, any clinging, should it start, would only take off the top of the ridge. It took a year to wear a cylinder smooth, but it was tight all the time, and when it did get Its surface it was a natural one and there was no trouble. When electricity came Into the field It brought a new class of men who thought they should be bored smooth. The trouble with this Is that if there was a disposition to cling, a little shaving would start and go the whole length of the cylinder. Cylinder oils have many times been blamed unjustly for cut cylinders. One builder had a low pressure cylin- der cut and there seemed no way to prevent It. He took off the cylinder head of the low pressure cylinder, run- ning with one end and the high pressure side, and had an oil syringe so that oil could be Injected to any part of the cylinder. Oil was applied liberally but there were spots all over the cylinder that would get red hot and it was not possible to prevent it with oil. There were two packing rings and he had an idea that possibly these packing rings brushed the oil away. He took out one ring and rounding the edges of the other and the engine went off without any more trouble. 132 Cylinder Bushings. One large engine with the cylinder bushed had the bushing cut and another was put in only to go the same way. A third was made. On boring it the iron was found to be soft, but was put in to run until they could get a hard one. When the hard one was ready it was found that the soft one was wearing all right and the trouble there was over. Babbitt liberally applied to both junk and packing rings has been used in some cases with good results. One builder told of a place where he had trouble and put in babbitt which cured the trouble, and he thought he had a remedy for all such cases. Other engines he put it into were badly cut. Rings of ordinary copper were then tried, and they started ofif beautifully, but in the next case they proved no better than iron rings. This builder has given up being sure. Exhaust Pipes for Vertical Engines. Vertical engines have come into use for various rea- sons and will be used more when their utility is more generally understood. The large low-pressure cylinders on compound hori- zontal engines require an excessive amount of com- pounded cylinder oil, and even then there is much trouble with many. Where water is bad, or scarce, or dear, and surface condensers are used, it is very difficult to separate the compounded oil. Where space is limited the vertical is the only solution. There are some verticals sold whose builders have 133 Exhaust passages. not had practical experience, and as a result the engines give a great deal of trouble. An example of this is shown in Fig. 63. This shows the principle on which the exhaust JUNK RING Figs. 63-65-66, Exhaust outlets. Fig, 64, Low pressurs piston. side of this engine is built. On the opposite side are the steam valves, also piston valves. This engine has a large clearance, but the chief defect is in the exhaust outlet. It will be noticed that this is in the center. All the 134 Water in Cylinders. condensed water from the top is thrown to the bottom. When the bottom valve opens, the water from both top and bottom must pass upward and turn the right angle with the steam to get out. This it will do if the engine is loaded and the exhaust passages are filled with steam. When the engine has a light load the water falls back, enters the bottom of the cylinder and makes all kind of trouble. This engine has pistons with conical faces, and the bottom head is a beautiful water-pocket. It is a delight for the engineer to take care, of the rod packing and scoop up the water that is thrown in all directions. The maker of metallic packing for this engine has little peace in life. The valves being of the piston type, there is no escape for the water except such as has gone down the rods, and there are cracked pistons, and broken jour- nal cap bolts, these apparently being the weaker part of tlie engine. A section of the low-pressure piston is shown in Fig. 63. The piston is a single casting with a rebate joint for junk ring, and the follower is a ring of metal held in position with tap bolts. The distress in this cylinder from water showed itself in the loosening and breaking of these tap bolts. This engine drives a railway generator. The cars are of the 60-seat type, and run at regular railroad speed. The schedule is such that for about one-half hour the cars are at the terminal stations or on down grades. At such times the pistons pounding on the water at the bot- tom of the cylinders is a delight to mechanical ears. When the cars strike the up grades, which a portion of them do nearly simultaneously, and the engine is loaded, the water will be driven out and quiet reigns until a short time after the light load comes on. 135 Breaks from Water. Most of the trouble could be obviated by making the exhaust passage like that shown by the dotted lines. The pockets caused by the conical pistons and at bottoms of valves would give trouble, however, in keeping the rods tight. An engine was wrecked by the breaking of the cross- head end of the connecting rod. This end was made of ordinary yellow brass screwed on to the end of rod. The throttle had been closed by an automatic device, and the engineer had unhooked the wrist-plate to stop the engine by hand in the usual manner, when this casting gave way. The question then arose as to the cause of the casting breaking at just that time. Examination of the break showed that there were two small places where cinder had got in the mixture when poured and there was also evidence of crystallization. The engine was a vertical Corliss type, shown in Fig. 65. The exhaust was the old-fashioned kind, with the exhaust chamber surrounding a portion of the outside of the cylin- der. This type is bad enough when horizontal, but when set up on end it is barbarous. We have here the same feature in a modified form, as mentioned in the piston valve engine, with two excep- tions in its favor. It has a flat head, and there is a chance to keep the rod tight. It has Corliss steam valves, and there is a chance for a partial escape of water into the steam pipe. When the engine runs light, there will be some shock when it strikes the water that in time will cause the weak- est part to give way. This type of engine, either vertical or horizontal, should have the exhaust chamber arranged as shown in Fig. 66, the valves in circular form with port through the 136 Piston Rods And Follower Bolts. center and seat on what in this engine is the back of the valve. This brings the steam pressure top of the valve to hold it on its seat, thus doing away with springs, as well as reducing clearance. Vertical engines should have the outlet at bottom as shown, horizontal in center. Water, in these cases, does not flood the cylinder or cause immediate wreck, but it will cause distress on weak parts for future trouble. Engines working with full and con- tinuous load will generally clear themselves of water. It is the irregularly loaded ones that give cause for appre- hension. It may be noticed that in both these cases the valves are shown reversed from the position they would be in when in operation. This is to show the easy path for the water to flow back into the cylinder when the light exhaust has left it and the cylinder is empty. These are cases where the designer "didn't think." Piston Rods and Follower Bolts. An engineer was told one morning that the back cylin- der head of one of the engines had gone through the engine-room door and was lying out in the yard. The rod was what is known as a screwed rod and had broken just outside the jam nut ; the piston had taken out head, doors and all. The end of the cylinder was cracked some, but it looked as though it could be strapped if a new; rod and piston could be had. The front head was all right. The engineer took the jam nut for size of thread and oth- er necessary dimensions and started for the builders, feel- ing that a screwed rod was not just the thing. At a place where he changed cars the train he was to take was half 137 Key or Screw — Which? an hour late and when it arrived the locomotive had been through his experience. A piston rod had broken in the key slot in cross-head. Here was a keyed rod broken; at the shop he saw an engine cylinder wrecked by a break in the key. Here were two keyed rods broken to one screwed. Which plan was the safer? After he arrived at the shop he received a telephone from home that as the cylinder cooled ofif the cracks extended and new ones showed up; that there was no hope of saving it, and the only thing to do was to get a new cylinder, which was done. There was this difference between the stationary engine and the locomotive: The bolts holding the head of the stationary engine were made too large, and when the strain came and something had to go, the expensive cyl- inder took the punishment. On the locomotive the work- ing strain on the bolts had been carefully calculated ; they were made strong enough for that and no more, and when the shock came the bolts let go, the cylinder was unin- jured as well as the head and piston. All that was neces- sary was a new rod and a new set of small bolts. If stationary engine builders would take lessons from locomotive builders in this respect, there would be less disastrous wrecks when there is trouble with the back head. There is one other trouble that has caused a great many bills of expense, and that is : follower bolts on the piston. With good, tough iron bolts nicely fitted there should be no trouble. Many bolts are not properly fitted and they get loose and come out, and but few engines have clearance enough for them. A follower bolt should be fitted so as to require some pressure of the wrench all 138 Corliss' Way of Doing It. the way. It should not stick when part way in. It should be set up snug, but not enough pressure should be put upon it to strain it in any way. A great many follower bolts are strained beyond their elastic limit and they break when at work. Either of these evils is the result of carelessness or incompetency. According to the obser- vation of ]\Ir. Corliss, the most prolific cause of wrecked engines was broken follower bolts, and these broken bolts were caused by screwing them up too hard. It was a rare thing if they got loose. To avoid the possibility of get- ting too much strain on them, during the latter part of Fig, 67. Corliss follower bolt. Fig. 68. Tapered plug for screwing in nis life he had them made like Fig. (^y^ the bolt large, with fine thread and a tapered socket in the end. This was set up with a tapered plug. Fig. 68, so that when a certain strain was put on the plug it would come out. This worked well for a time, but with some engineers who did not adjust their pistons often the bolts would stick and the tapered plug would not hold, so engineers had to invent something to start the bolts, and the same device that would start them when stuck would also set them up too tight. However, these bolts were so large there was little trouble from breaking. 139 Prof. Sweet's Plan. During later years, when the practice has been to make parts interchangeable, some builders have bought ma- chine bolts of steel;, and in most cases of this kind the bolts are loose fitting, especially so after they have been in use and have been removed a few times. An old bolt, or a new one put into an old hole, makes a bad job, and generally they are too small. If builders of stationary engines would make the follower bolts on pistons larger and pay more attention to the fitting, and make the back cylinder head bolts smaller, there would be less expense for their customers from breakdowns. Fig. 69. Sweets' flower bolt. Fig. 70. A slow-acting (?) junk ring. Prof. John E. Sweet writes: ''We overcome the difficulty perfectly by doing away with that sore of bolt. The drawing shows what we use and the success comes from riveting in the stud and turn- ing down the body to the bottom of the thread. The stud will stretch one-half inch before it will break, and before that takes place the end of the nut will be shoved off, and the man with the long-handled wrench will have a warning. The elasticity of the long body is so much that it is like putting a spring washer under the nut, and they don't work loose. The nuts we use are Tobin bronze, capped over so as to prevent steam from getting to the thread or 140 Piston Packing Rings. leaking. Cost ! Yes, but is not the preventing of the trou- ble — and this does it — worth the cost? The recesses shown in the piston rings in the drawing are cast eccentric, giving the effect of an eccentric ring and parallel surfaces in the grooves in the piston. The rings are limited expansion — that is, the ends are hooked togeth- er so as to prevent their crowding against the surface of the cylinder, but when the whole is up to running temper- ature they are a mechanical fit in the cylinder. They cost, too, twice or three times as much as ordinary rings, but they are worth it.'' For many years pistons were made with rings set out with springs and screws. In one respect this plan was excellent when skill was used in the adjustment. The rings had the same tension at all parts of the cylinder and the cylinder was always the same size the whole length. Later came the self-adjusting steam packing rings, which wore the cylinder large on the ends. Then came the vari- ous sectioned packing rings set out with springs and all self-adjusting. Many of this type are ingenious, simple and do good work. The snap ring has pprobably the most advocates. The concern an M. E. was with at one time rented a factory and power to another concern. The engine had steam packing in the piston and the cylinder being in bad shape it was decided to rebore it and put in new packing. The engineer wanted steam packing rings and the M. E. proposed to let him have what he wanted with the plea that a man made happy would take better care of the machine. The president said ''No. Put in the same packing we have on our own engines," and a pair of snap rings were put in. The engineer spent several evenings taking off the 141 (( Slow Acting" Piston Rings. cylinder head trying to find something the matter with the packing. At last he gave up, and one evening wanted the machinist who fitted the packing to come and look at it. He had the wheel blocked, and turned on full head of steam, but not a particle of steam or a drop of water showed. He said nothing of it to the M. E., but was always a little sore because he did not get the steam packing. The steam packing would have cost about 60 per cent, more and the cylinder would have been out of shape much quicker with it. One maker of steam packing claims that his rings are made in such shape that the steam acts on them slowly. A cross-section is something like Fig. 66, and his claim is that the beveled edge prevents the steam from acting quickly. As well claim that steam acts on a conical pis- ton slowly. With most packings that are put in junk rings, the junk ring has to be removed to get the rings out, and unless the ports are well blocked up there is trouble with them, and getting rings over the counterbores is at times exasperating. Some builders — the Bass company being the first — make their rings so that the packing rings can be removed and replaced without removing the junk ring. This makes the examining of the packing and truing up of the piston a quick and easy job. It has been remarked on several occasions that it appears to be the settled policy on the part of some builders to make their engines as unhandy and expensive to take care of as possible. One of these things is a solid piston. A solid piston is heavy, it cannot be centered ; if the ring breaks, or if it is thought one is broken, the rod packing must be removed, rod taken from cross-head, the whole arrangement taken out 142 Stopping a Pound. and then the whole thing put back. A job that with a proper piston could have been done in an hour takes half a day to a day and lots of extra help. When a man con- fesses he can build nothing but a solid piston it is a con- fession that he has not the ''know how." Many engines have a pound at the back end of the cylinder. Some engineers claim to have discovered the cause, which is a pounding piston, and they want a large sum for pointing out the remedy. An engineer had a Fig. 67. Junk ring too smnll. Fig. 68. A renaedy for this. heavy pound in the back end of a cylinder and took oflf the head and removed packing, but found nothing to indicate that there was any trouble. There was nothing out of the way, except the junk ring was small and the piston could move sideways if the force of the entering steam should strike the piston heavier on one side than the other. Fig. 67 shows this in an exaggerated form. He made a new junk ring with new snap packing rings, the junk ring being turned the exact size of the cylinder, then set off the center so as to turn the top of the ring off to 143 High Speed Engines. allow for clearance. This is shown in Fig. 68. A ring turned in this manner will fit the cylinder nearly half of its circumference and there can be no side movement. After this there was no more "pounding piston." The joints of the packing rings can be anywhere in the lower portion of the junk ring and the piston will be tight, even should they be open for one-fourth of the circumference. This may not be the cause of a pound- ing piston, but with a junk ring made in this manner there will be no pounding, also the packing will be tight with packing joints on the bottom. Where High Speed Engines Pay. There are many cases where light machinery, like fans, small dynamos, etc., is operated where power is wanted when the main engine is shut down. These are required to run at high rotative speed, and in such cases it is a good policy to investigate the small engines running in a case with the moving parts continually slushed with oil and water. For those who like all parts in plain sight where every- thing can be examined thoroughly at any time and ad- justments easily made, there are a number of high-speed machines of this character that are doing excellent work. For light work at night it often pays to have these engines so placed that they can be hitched on at any time. For places that belting and shafting costs too much to fit up, these engines are valuable, especially where steam is used about the mill and the cost of piping not great. Many a large engine has been materially injured by running too light a load evenings, to say nothing of the economy. 144 Electricity in Place of Shafting. In an electric station an 1 8-inch cylinder Corliss engine required more coal after 12 o'clock than a high-speed engine doing the same work. The latter engine had a 12-inch cylinder and the load was just a full load and it was doing its best service. It is becoming the practice to use electricity and thus save the installation and friction of shafting and belts. Large, tight belts can make sufficient friction to consume a great deal of coal. This is the proper thing to do when machines can be grouped so that too small motors are not used. In this case the engine is large, and should there be small loads to be run through the evening it would be a good plan to use a small engine for the purpose rath- er than run the large engine with the electric equipment. Turbines have come to stay, but just what can be ex- pected of them is not yet known. So far, one can get as good guarantees for economy from builders of vertical engines, and in some cases horizontal engines, as from turbine builders. There is one case where the claim is made that the company operating the plant does not know what either system is using, but they do know that when the turbines are in operation but half the fuel is used that is required to operate the same plant with high-grade Corliss en- gines. Their Corliss engines should produce a mechani- cal horse-power with not to exceed 13^^ pounds of water per hour. This would make the turbines running with 6}i pounds. Evidently something is wrong. The tur- bine has a tremendous peripheral speed amounting to 30,000 feet per minute. There are cases where the engine builder makes great promises about the performance of his engines and guar- antees great results. The engine is sold f. o. b. factory. 145 Satisfactory Engines. After the engine is put in use it is found faulty and does not come up to the guarantee, and when the builder is appealed to to make it good he falls back on the claim that the engine was sold f . o. b. factory, and after it leaves the factory it is the customer's machine and he has noth- ing further to do with it. He sends a man to erect it and his work is inferior, and when complaint is made he claims that he furnished the man as an accommoda- tion; that the man during the erection was working for the customer and under the customer's direction ; that the engine was f. o. b. factory and the customer is at fault if he does not see that the man does his work right. Two cases of this kind have come to my notice, both of them from one firm. The better plan is to insist that the engine builder shall deliver and erect his own engine and be responsible for his work and his men. Steam pressures are increasing, which is of advantage in many ways where there is a large amount of power and the work is continuous. Because of this, there are some mill owners who hear of the high pressures and think they must not be outdone, so put in engines of no more than 500 horse-power, that think they must use 160 pounds or more steam pressure, and they only run ten hours per day. One case that came to my attention was of a man that put in a single 24-inch cylinder and arranged to carry 160 pounds steam pressure, and put in piping, heater, etc., none too heavy for 100 pounds. The excessively high steam pressures have not yet demonstrated so much economy as to warrant the neces- sary extra weight, piping and accessories for ordinary small and medium powers for light and medium work. 146 Hot Boxes and Bearing Metal. A firm had a new engine which, in common with engines of that time, had all of its bearings of bronze. The outer journal was short for a regular wheel, but this being in a rolling mill, an extra heavy wheel was put on and put close to the outer bearings, and there was a hot journal right off. Stove blacking — the black lead of those days — sulphur, salt pork, etc., were tried without avail, and cold water was the only reliable thing that would allow work to con- tinue, and cold water was used as long as that engine was run. The crank-pin boxes were also bronze and these had spells of heating. After a trial of several cooling mixtures, white lead, thinned to the consistency of paint with lubricating oil, was found to be the best, cooling the quickest and leaving the pin smooth. This was applied by taking a small funnel, putting the forefinger of the left hand over the bottom until the oil hole was reached and then holding the funnel with the right hand. This, of course, is not possible with high-speed engines, but there are a number of ways that suggest themselves as different conditions arise. There is a mineral called bary- tes that is used extensively in the adulteration of white lead, and if this is used it will make trouble, but genu- ine white lead is an excellent cure for hot journals. Cold water is a sure thing if enough can be used, but there are many places where it cannot, as it would ruin belts or machinery. An M. E. went into an engine-room one afternoon and found them shut down with a hot main journal, and they could only run a few minutes at a time. They could not use water because it would not do to let it run into the wheel-pit. He called for some white lead 147 Cooling Hot Bearings. and some ice; mixed up the lead and showed them how to apply it, put the ice on to the cap of the journal and built a fence around it with waste that would absorb near- ly all of the water and at the same time keep the melted ice spread over the whole top. The engineer said if he could only run long enough to bring down the goods they were to ship that day they would be satisfied. The M. E. called again in two hours, found everybody happy, jour- nal cool and the engineer did not have to work that night. Bronze boxes are nearly gone by and their use is very rare, babbit metal and the cheaper white metals having taken its place. Some of the white lining metals are no better than bronze, and they have a way of melting out that is not pleasant. One journal, 14x26, used to have spells of heating without any apparent cause. After ten years of service it was thought best to put in some new shells, and in order that they should be all right, the engineer had the lining metal made up and sent to the builder who made the new shells. As there was considerable work to be done, they sent a man from the shop to put them in. This man evidently had had experience with new shells on old journals and was careful to make all preparations for hot work, even having a hose laid. Everything went off cool and all right and the engine- man expressed his astonishment, and the following con- versation took place: Engineer — But those shells have babbitt metal. Engineman — ^We put in babbitt metal. Engineer — What kind? Engineman — The best we can get. Engineer — How much do you pay? Engineman — Twenty-two cents. 148 Crank Pin and Cross Head Boxes. Engineer — They cost thirty cents without the labor. Babbitt's receipt called for copper 4 parts, antimony 8 parts, and the best Banca tin 96 parts. This is the same, except it has only 85 parts tin and is a little harder, and you will notice that when first cast it has a slight tinge of yellow. It will stand hammering and at the same time, when chipped, the chips will fly all over the room. The outer journal of this engine had a way of getting very hot persistently. Taking off the cap revealed a small line about i- 16 of an inch wide that was very bright and there was so much friction that oil fed through the cup would have no effect. The cap was removed and a wooden box with a lid made, and this was packed with waste, when a very little oil would run it all right. This shaft was made from horseshoe scrap and a piece of steel caulk might have made the hard spot. It has been the custom for years to line the crank-pin boxes with babbitt and make the crosshead boxes of bronze. An engineer had an engine with crank-pin 7}4 inches and crosshead pin 7 inches in diameter. The crank-pin boxes would run without keying up for months, but the crosshead boxes would need keying twice per week. In the Mechanics' Fair at Boston, in 1883, there was on exhibition what was termed "hardened cop- per" that was claimed to be superior to any metal for bearings. It was not "hard" but it was treated in some manner so that it would file and work with tools some- thing like cast iron. The engineer got some of this and had some crosshead boxes made. These would go for a longer time without adjusting than the crank-pin. Evi- dently, the makers of this metal could not make people believe that copper would make good bearings and had 149 Bearings that Bind. to give up the business. None of it can be found now. It is a fact that pure copper is one of our best non-at- trition metals. One lubricant used in drawing brass and copper is made by boiling together tallow, hard soap and water, putting in w^ater to make it of the proper consistency. This is better than oil for cutting brass and copper pipe. Soap is a fair lubricant and at one time was extensively used in packing axles on locomotives that heated. A dash of spirits of camphor sometimes has a good effect. Kerosene, when gummy oils are used, will clear a jour- nal, but not so quickly as potash or ammonia. The causes for hot journals are many. Of course, a tight journal will heat. A journal in a solid box, if it gets warm, will pretty surely get hot, as it will expand faster than the box ; the outside of the box not being hot will not expand and will cause the box to bind. The only place that there is any excuse for using solid boxes is on the parallel rods of a locomotive. With reciprocating motion a box too loose will heat from the pounding out of the oil. A bronze box is cause for apprehension. The name "bronze" covers a multitude of sins, and worse. A few are made of good material ; many are simply cheap brass with an occasional small percentage of tin. When they get hot they tear the journal and frequently ruin it. A great many of the white lining metals are as bad, so far as heating is concerned, as "bronze.'' They are made up of cheap material, lead being largely used. When a man offers cheap lining metal it must be made from cheap ingredients. Sometimes the best lining metal is ruined through improper treatment, and this is more liable to be the case with the better qualities than with 150 Causes of Heatin g' the cheaper. Tin melts at 440 degrees Fahr., and a metal made chiefly from tin should not be overheated. A good rule is that it is sufficiently hot when it will char a pine stick. It should always be covered with a flux when melting to preserve it from oxidation. Charcoal is often used for this purpose. Heating may be caused by all parts not being lubri- cated, there being no oil channels to spread the oil; by hard metals made up in the shaft, like pieces of steel, or cast iron, or cinder, or any material that does not wear smoothly and evenly; by the casting not being properly cleaned and sand working out under the lining metal ; by the edges of the lining metal not having been trimmed off and the thin edges cracking off; by the work not being in line, or level and the load not distributed evenly; by the journal not being of sufficient size, there being more than 150 pounds pressure to the square inch. In some cases dirt may get in, and in many cases improper lubri- cants are used. Too tight a belt makes an excess of friction. 151 Corliss Engines, ▼ T T This chapter will be to a large extent personal. For a number of years I had tried to get some one interested in putting on an extra eccentric but was unable to do so, and all Corliss engine builders of the time claimed that it was not necessary and would make a needless combination and expense. In 1872 I had added to my equipment a Corliss en- gine, 28 X 60, running at 52 revolutions. To this engine was attached a syphon condenser. At that time indicators were scarce, but I had a Richards. I was unable to get a card that suited me. If the attempt was made to get any compression the exhaust was late and would not show full vacuum before half stroke. I tried compression by giving the eccentric a large advance and by lengthening the exhaust connections. By doing this it was necessary to lengthen the steam connections. This made about three-eighths stroke the latest possible cut-off. As the en- gine was doing rolling mill work, some of the time it meant full stroke. The slowness of the exhaust also troubled me. It was learned after repeated trials that getting compression at the expense of release meant more coal burned, while the earlier the release, the less coal 152 Corliss Indicator Diagrams. was required. It finally settled down to the diagram shown in Fig. 69, as the best that could be done and still have the engine run fairly quiet. I began to talk two ec- centrics for Corliss engines, but no one would listen to me, all interested parties claiming the extra one was not needed. I tried to induce those having new engines built to insist on it, but all were easily talked out of it. In 1883 I was in a position to say that the engine should be changed that way. In conversation one day with the superintendent of the engine works, he was told there was going to be another eccentric. Said the super- intendent, ''We can build it for you," and it was arranged Fig. 69. Single eccentric diagram. - that I should send the dimensions and a sketch of what was wanted and the engine builder would make it. It was made in 1884. For some reason everyone had the idea that the of- fice of a second eccentric was to give freedom to setting the exhaust valves and the principal thing was to get com- pression. I wanted to get early release and have the vacuum have effect the full length of the stroke; also a longer range of cutting-off. With a Corliss engine it is evident that the valve must release at or before the full throw of the eccentric, so the steam eccentric was set at right angles to the crank, which would insure a range of cut-off up to half stroke. Both 153 Wristplates. eccentrics were set at right angles to the crank, both wrist plates vertical, the steam valves with 1-16 inch lead and the exhaust with }i inch lead. The exhaust eccen- tric was then turned to about 30 degrees angular advance of the steam eccentric. I have always had the idea that one should never depart from the builder's design of an engine if pos- Fig. 70. Old Corliss Wristplatc. sible; that there should be no special parts, so that re- pairs could be quickly and cheaply made. The wrist plate originally was like Fig. 70. The new wrist plates were made one-half as thick, with the outline shown by dotted lines, and fitted to the same stud. The new rocker arm was the same as its mate, and all valve connections 154 More Corliss Cards. Fig. 71. Diagram from two eccentrics. were the same. After the new arrangement was started a diagram was Hke Fig. 71. It will be noticed on this that the cut-ofif is round. I wrote the builder, sending some cards, and inquired if there was any remedy. The builder suggested that the studs operating the steam valves be set i inch nearer the circumference of the wrist plate, which would give the valve more and quicker travel. This was done, and the precaution was taken to work the wrist full throw both ways to see that every- thing was clear, but when the steam was turned on and the engine was partly up to speed, the dash-pot rod pulled just out of the guide, and the result was a broken wrist plate. As everything was uniform with the old, the old single wrist plate was put back and attached to the steam eccentric set at right angles to the crank, and Fig. 'J2 was the result. Fig. 72. Another card from one eccentric, IS5 Two Eccentric Coriiss Engines. The round cut-off was not overcome by the longer and quicker travel to the valve, and I have observed since that, with a condensing engine, early release and compression, the cut-off will be round. There was. another thing observed, and that was that the range during which the engine could cut off was ex- tended to three-quarters stroke. At first it did not seem possible, but it was reasoned that the release taking place at half stroke, and the piston being at its highest speed, it must travel the extra quarter stroke while the valve ;was closing. The first engine to which it was applied was speeded Up two revolutions by the change, owing to the governor in its old position having a longer cut-off. It has largely been the custom on Corliss engines to build the governor with a travel of 4 inches. This was cut down to 2j^. With two eccentrics set in the manner described so that steam can follow three-quarter stroke, and the gov- ernor travel reduced to 2j^ inches, a Corliss engine is a powerful machine and the regulation is very close. The wrist plates should be as light and simple as possible. A few builders make small balance wheels for this purpose. It should be remembered that a wrist-plate must be stopped and started twice every revolution, and, \vhen made heavy, brings a severe strain on the whole gearing from wrist plate to eccentric, and means hot eccentrics, shaky rods and a pound in every joint. Some wrist plates are built like Fig. 73, evidently with the idea that they can be finished all over in the lathe. Wrist plates like this are very hard to stop and start the other way, and with this type there will always be hot eccentrics. It is not necessary that wrist plates should 156 Setting Corliss Valves. be finished and many are made that are left plain castings. On the end of valves, on the opposite side of cyHnder from wrist plates, is a mark showing the edge of the valve, and below on the seat are marks showing port openings. Fig. 74 shows these marks and my method of setting the wrist plates and valves before splining the valve stems for the little jim cranks. The usual method for setting Corliss valves with one eccentric, with engine on the center, is to give from 1-32 to I- 16 inch lead for cylinders from 12 to 36 inches. With wrist plate on center, steam lap from 3-16 to ^ inch and exhaust lap from 1-32 to % inch. According to Fig. 73. Round wristplate. my plan with compound engines, the steam lead on the low-pressuure cylinder should be from ^ to ^ inch, depending on size of cylinder. With cylinders without steam jackets, the corner of steam line on indicator card should be a little rounding. This is caused by initial condensation. To bring this 157 Marks for Valve Setting. corner up square means excessive lead, more coal and more oil. With a steam jacket, this corner will be brought up square. Fig. 75 shows plan of wrist plates and my way of putting in the starting bars. By this method both bars can be taken in one hand and the engine handled the same as with a single wrist plate. Most builders put in round rods, and in such a manner that it is impossible to handle the engine by hand. Fig. 74. Valve setting marks. These bars are struck out in all sorts of directions but the right one. They are usually laid out by drafts- men or someone having no practical knowledge of engineering. When a Corliss engine, or any other four-valve en- 158 When Valves Make Trouble. ^ Fig. 75. Both bars handled together. gine except piston valves, is running light so that the steam expands below the atmosphere on non-condensing single engines, the exhaust valves will lift and rattle. This is particularly noticeable when steam is shut off. Because of this, a very few engine builders have got into the practice of making the ends of the valves solid to pre- vent them lifting. Valves made in this manner are liable to give trouble when starting the engine. When a valve which is solid on the end, or a piston valve, or any valve that fits tight to case, has steam admitted, the valve will become heated before the surrounding case and will stick and cause something to break. This has caused lots of single pump mechanisms to break, especially when new. Where there are valves of this kind, care should be taken to heat everything thoroughly before attempting to start. Fig. 76. a good plan. How to Place an Engine on Centre. Another bad practice some builders have gotten into is to construct the valve mechanism in such a manner as to bring the jim cranks very nearly in the center at full throw of wrist plate— nearly as bad as Fig. 76. A very little shortening up on the connections means a wreck. To place engine on exact center, turn the crank just past the center and mark the cross-head and guide, as at Af Fig, yy. Also measure from the floor to side of wheel rim, say one foot, or two feet, and make a mark upon the wheel, as at B, then turn the crank the other way past the center to bring the mark on crosshead and guide and with the same distance from the floor as before make another mark on the wheel, as at C. Now make a per- manent mark D on the wheel just half way between the two marks, and this mark, brought to same distance from the floor, puts the engine exactly on the center, and the mark being permanent can be used at any future time. Mark for the other center in the same manner. Should it become necessary to alter the steam con- nections between wrist plate and jim crank, be careful to see that the dash-pot rod is also adjusted properly, so that it will not be pushed to the bottom or lifted so high it will not hook on. Next give attention to the reach rods from governor, to see that the valve cuts off properly and that the stop motion has not been put out of service. An engineer had occasion to examine five engineers for a chief engineer's position for an 8,000 horse-power station, and when the question was asked, "When changes have been made in the steam connections, what changes should be looked after in the governor ?'' not one of them could think of a thing, although, if 2, governor belt should break, it means a runaway. 161 An Answer to Criticism. . Cards were sent to the builder, and the superin- tendent showed them to the head draftsman, who in- quired why they had not done it before. "Oh,'' said the superintendent, ''Crane has been after us to build this for the last five years." Being asked why he had not done it he replied, ''Because we don't want outsiders to come here and show us how to build engines.'' The new arrangement cost $263. The amount of coal burned two months before it was applied and for two months afterward showed a saving in fuel of $500 per year. This engine was not built at the Corliss works, but at the time there was at this place a 30 x 60 engine built at the Corliss shop, and the Corliss company was asked for a price for putting on an extra eccentric, and the reply was, "We will not do it for any price. We do not want our engines run that way." The extra eccentric went on, nevertheless, and a few years afterward I went to the Corliss works and had a compound built just as I wanted it — ^two eccentrics and all. After about 1892 any one could get two eccentrics who asked for them, and by 1897 most Corliss builders claimed they had built them for years. I have been amused at seeing Corliss engines fitted with two eccentrics and both wrist plates working in uni- son. There are many engines running this way that would do just as good service with one plate. Criticism has been made of my method of setting the valves. With 1-16 inch lead on the steam valves and the large lead on the exhaust, it is reasoned that for a short time steam will blow through when the engine is on the center, but this does not occur after the engine is up to speed and the cut-off in operation. 162 Selecting an Engine. With some types of Corliss exhaust valves there will be pounding caused by the valve not having the springs put in correctly and the valve dropping a little during the exhaust to be forced against the seat suddenly by the entering steam. Most automatic cut-off engines have a rattling in the exhaust valves when the engine is working light and running non-condensing caused by the steam in the cyl- inder expanding below the atmosphere, thus lifting the exhaust valves from their seats. With junk ring fitting the entire lower half of cylinder there are those who will contend that this will add to the friction, arguing that the pressure on top of the ring produces a pressure on every square inch of bottom. This question is the same as that of the slide valve, whether the pressure is over the total face or over the ports only. No extra coal was burned with this form of junk ring. When selecting an engine, some people are governed more by scruples than by conditions. There are many who are strictly Corliss men and can listen to nothing but a Corliss engine under any and all circumstances where there is sufficient power to be used that requires even the smallest sizes of this engine. There are others who will listen to nothing but high speed and direct con- necting to individual shafts or to generators. When short stroke and high rotative speeds came out the claim was made that they used steam faster, and as a result hotter ; there would be less condensation; the engine could be directly coupled to the engine shaft, thus doing away with a big wheel, jack shaft and belts and much power could be saved in that way. One large manufacturing company put in two of these 163 What Engine to Buy. engines, each coupled to a main Hne of shafting. They advertised extensively their plans and gave glowing ac- counts of the results after starting. After a time they began to count the cost, and it did not look so flattering. It would not do to make the change to a Corliss engine right away, in view of all they had said, so they kept very quiet for a long time and then put in a Corliss. For their work they did a wise thing finally, and should have done it in the first place. Even with this in view there are many cases where a Corliss is prohibitive. A person just starting a small business has sufficient money to buy a high-speed engine and small building to put it in. His busmess pays so that it is enlarged, and he finally gets a Corliss. He did not have sufficient capi- tal in the first place to pay for the Corliss, with the large building required for the engine, belt, pulleys, etc. There are many cases in large, well-established concerns that have use for power, where they have room for a high- speed engine and where the extra amount of coal used would not warrant the extensive changes in the buildings and grounds necessary for the installing of a Corliss. In many new buildings the same conditions exist. Where a small portion of the works run overtime a high-speed en- gine is a necessity, and, while using more coal per horse- power when the main engine is loaded, will drive the small amount of work required with less coal than the large engine would require. Many business concerns have got a good start with a high-speed engine that could not have made a beginning had they been obliged to put in its bigger brother at the start. It is more necessary, however, to have the high-speed engine loaded to about its capacity than for a Corliss. A 164 Power of an Engine. Corliss engine changes neither its lead nor compression. with change of load. While doing work it has the resist- ance on the exhaust side to overcome, and this resistance will be the same under a light as under a heavy load. With a non-condensing engine it would appear something like this : Assuming an engine to have i6o square inches area and 500 feet piston speed per minute, it will give 80 horse- power with 33 pounds mean effective pressure. An en- gine with the same mean effective pressure will require 50 square inches of piston and the same piston speed to do 25 horse-power. Adding back pressure to the latter case, 49X50X500 we have 49 pounds total pressure, and =34 33000 horse-power. Should the larger engine be only loaded to 25 horse- power it would require but 10 pounds mean effective pressure, and adding the 16 pounds back pressure we have 26X160X500 =63 H. P., 33000 showing that the small engine to overcome all resistance would require coal for 34 horse-power, while the larger engine doing the same work would require coal for 63 horse-power. Should a condenser be used these results would be materially changed, but there would still be the greater amount of condensation in the larger cylinder. When we have a high-speed engine with single valve and shaft governor we have the above exaggerated by the compression. When a shaft governor is used, the com- pression is increased with every reduction in the point of cutting off, so that with light load the piston not only 165 Highest Possible Economy. has to displace the resistance that falls to the lot of the four-valve engine, but from half stroke must push this resistance up to nearly boiler pressure in compression. It is estimated that the highest economy that is pos- sible for an engine to reach is i horse-power with i pound of coal. Under favorable conditions this is accomplished in the Uniflow engine by using high steam pressure, superheat, high compression and a low vacuum. The economy of this type of engine is equal to that of the best compound engines. As the name implies the flow of the steam is in one direction, the exhaust taking place through a central port at the end of the stroke. i66 Valves. Among the more prominent valves formerly used were the D sHde valve and the single poppet valve. After pressures were increased the latter gave way to the double poppet shown in Fig. 78. This is balanced valve except Fig. 78. Double poppet valve. one end must be made sufficiently small to pass entire through the port of the other. This is a difficult valve to make tight. In the first place, the seat frames are of iron and the valves brass and the expansion is different, and this difference increases 167 Slide Valves. with the increase of pressure* In the second place, these valves must be ground to their seats when cold. It is rare that the same amount of material will be put on each seat. A single poppet valve can be made tight, but it would require heavy machinery to open it. The slide valve. Fig. 79, can be made tight, and if made so that the valve will always wipe clear over the seat will remain tight for years. Some of these valves and ports are very crudely designed. At one time lead was supposed to be necessary to 7^777, 7^'77^, Fig. 79. A typical slide valve. keep an engine from pounding. After the advent of the high-speed engine, compression was deemed the thing. With some builds of engines, both are thought necessary by the builders with the result that we have some pretty poor results, owing to the design of the valve. Not very intelligent work can be done in valve setting without an indicator, but either with or without an indicator a very clear idea can be got by taking out the valve. Take two parallel strips of pine and on one mark the dimensions of the valve and opening for the exhaust ; on the other, the seat with ports, and put them together as shown in Fig. 80. Then find the travel of the valve and move the top stick ^ 168 Laying Out a Valve. over the bottom corresponding with the valve travel. The lead, both steam and exhaust, can be plainly seen as well as all the movements of the valve. Builders who have the idea that imperfections in the build and alignment of the engine resulting in a noisy engine can be overcome by compression, are apt to put an inside lap as shown by the dotted portion at A, Fig. 79. This, with a fair clearance, will make excessive compression and a late exhaust, both very expensive. An indicator card will tell how much of this should be taken out. Lead will cause an engine to pound. Steam pressure Fig. 80. Wooden valve for experimenting. admitted to the cylinder raises the pressure suddenly and takes up the lost motion too quickly. An engine properly built, and not run at too high a rotative speed, will run smoothly . with a moderate amount of compression. To attempt to get smooth running with an extra amount of compression or of lead means more oil, more coal and more repairs. The longer the ports the more lead is required, as it takes time for steam to move. With small-sized engines about I -16 of an inch lead for steam and yi for exhaust is a fair guess. When setting an eccentric a rule that can be easily remembered is : It should be set far enough ahead of a right angle to the crank to allow for the lap and lead of the valve. When it becomes necessary to run 169 Setting the Eccentrics. the engine the other way this rule should not be forgotten. The eccentric would be turned either greater or less than half way, as indicated by the points on the shaft of Fig. 8i. An engineer was at one time called upon to look at the governor of a small engine. The owner said that the engine had run all right until of late, when he could not get speed. The governor was gone over carefully and Fig. 8 1. Setting eccentric to reverse engine. nothing was found wrong. The owner was asked if any- thing had been done to the engine, and received a reply that there had not. The governor pulley was taken off, so as to get at the eccentric, and while looking this over the owner volun- teered the information that he had moved the engine from an old location, had had a piper who wrote "M. E.'' after his name to do the changing, piping, etc., and the piper had an engineer come to set the eccentric. "Yes," said the engineer, who by this time had the steam-chest cover 170 The Gridiron Valve. off, "and he turned the eccentric just half-way around.'* The eccentric was then set, and, by the way, there were marks on the shaft to set it to run the engine either way, and the governor gave no more trouble. Turning the eccentric half-way had delayed the admission of steam about one-third of the stroke ; also delayed the exhaust. There are many modifications of the slide valve. In some cases there are ports through the valve and a loose valve riding on top for a cut-off. In some cases there are two or more steam ports and a corresponding number of ports through the valve, making what is termed a "gridiron'' valve. As you add a port you of course add to the surface exposed to the steam and add to the skin friction, so that for the same area there will not be the same amount of steam passing through at the same time. Should you try to lessen this and make the valve thin, if a large one, it will warp under heat and pressure. Some builders try to overcome this by facing off the seat and valve when hot. A man about to buy an engine was solicited to buy an engine with a gridiron valve. While employing an engineer he took to investigating the subject personally. He paid four visits to a place where they had a very large engine with this type of valve, and on three of his visits they were facing off the valves. This springing of the valve occurs only in the larger sizes. As ports are added, the travel of the valve is reduced so that the gridiron valve becomes a neat and a necessary design for a releasing valve under moderately high speeds. There are a number of nicely designed bal- anced slide valves which have the good quality of remain- ing tight for a long time and requiring much less power than the D valve. 171 High Speed Engines. The poppet valve is very little used in mill, factory or electric work. Where met with they are operated by cams. To set the valves, the governor is raised to its highest position and blocked. The cams are brought around to the valve stems; if more cams than one, be sure and get the right cam to the right stem. Set the valve stem at the proper length so that as the cam passes it, it will touch but not open the valve. Then let the gov- ernor down, place the engine on the center and bring the cam into position to open the valve for the lead required. Mention has been made of a small amount of com- pression necessary for smooth running of a well-built, moderate-speed engine. When it comes to a high-speed engine, these calculations are all upset. A high-speed engine requires nice design, nice workmanship and perfec- tion in balancing. With a slow or moderate-speed engine, the pressure on the pin and main journal will be direct, as the push or pull comes from the piston. On a high-speed engine, the weight of the working parts and relative speed may be so great as to change the thrust on the opposite side. This tendency is increased with the increase of the weight of the working parts and also with light loads. It also increases as the square of the number of revolutions. With a piston valve in engine or pump, one should be careful when starting up cold. if the valve is nearly new, or if it has been recently adjusted, as the valve, when steam is admitted, will heat up much faster than the steam chest and will expand so as to be tight and liable to break something. The valves for engines therefore are : the D slide valve, with its modification, the gridiron valve; the poppet valve, the piston valve, shown in Fig. 43 ; the balanced slide valve, shown in Fig. 82, and the Corliss valve. 172 Balanced Valves. "Imitation is the sincerest flattery," therefore the valve most imitated is that most desired by the public. The sHde, because of the size necessary, is limited to small and medium sized engines where high-pressure steam is used. It is possible to use it on the low-pressure cylinders of compound engines where the heat and pressure are not great. The poppet valve has largely gone out of use, but, like baggy trousers, may occasionally come in fashion. The piston valve, because of its small friction, simplic- ity and cheapness, is very attractive and has considerable demand. Even those that own up to its liability to leak mr/m/mmm/mm. 1 1 \W/Mm/////m////m Fig. 82. Balanced slide valve. will use it on high-pressure cylinders of compound en- gines, and by using a tight valve on the low-pressure cyl- inder get, in many cases, very good results. Steam will blow through stronger into a vacuum than into the atmosphere. George was trying to reduce the coal bill at an electric station where they ran the day load with a single cylinder, piston valve engine. He connected the exhaust to the condenser, and immediately the coal account increased. He had a new valve and complete new chest put on, and, while there was some improvement, it still required more coal with the condenser. When ex- hausting into the condenser the steam could be plainly heard rushing by the valve. 173 Runaway Engines. The balanced slide valve requires skill and time to make a tight fit, but can be made tight and durable. With from 15 to 20 per cent of the pressure to hold the valve in place it is a neat arrangement and vies with piston valve in attractiveness with the advantage of keeping tight. They are easily handled by a shaft governor and are largely used in medium and high-speed engines, and have a large sale. When an engine with shaft governor is attached to a condenser it should be carefully watched when there is no load. A shaft governor is supposed to govern the admission of steam from no steam admitted up to three-quarter stroke. With a single valve, with lead, compression, exhaust and the variable cut-off all to look out for, requires nice calculation, and in many cases the governor has not sufficient range to entirely prevent the admission of steam with no load, and with a vacuum the chances are in favor of a runaway engine. An M. E. attached a condenser to an engine with a shaft gover- nor, and, knowing what he had to expect, explained to the engineer the probability of excessive speed at midnight, when the street lights were thrown off, and cautioned him to jump for his throttle as soon as he threw the switch. The M. E. stood close by the engine so as to be sure to prevent trouble. He, however, wanted the engineer to do the work and see what he had to deal with. He had to close down to save the engine and then let the engineer try and regulate it. The patrons that were using the lights at that time must have wondered a little. He finally took hold of the throttle, closed it down and then turned it slowly up to the point where the lights were all right and then put a mark on top of wheel of valve. He then threw on the street lights and opened the throttle, counting the number of turns. The switch was then 174 A Tandem Compound. thrown out, the valve closed that number of turns and, leaving the wheel with mark on top, brought the speed down, or rather regulated the amount of steam necessary for the proper speed, so that the governor could handle it without the lights fluctuating. This would not do for a railroad load. An M. E. had a case with a tandem compound engine, piston valves, shaft governor, that was not safe with a condenser, and the builders had a man at work a month before he had the valves and governor so that it would control the engine with light load with a condenser. The builder sent in a bill for $600, and insisted on its being paid or would bring suit. To avoid a law-suit the M. E. advised the payment of the bill and that not another dol- lar's worth of goods be ordered from the builders. So far as the Corliss valve is concerned, there are many that do not like to admit they are imitators and claim to have something just as good or better. The horse-power of the other types are small as compared with the Corliss type. The Corliss type with disengaging valve gear is limited in rotative speed. There are builders that put in double-ported valves with steam closed dash-pots that will get 150 revolutions. The objection (there seems to be but one) to the Corliss engine is the cost of the mech- anism for operating the valves, which makes the first cost of the engine large; also the longer strokemust always make this engine more expensive in first cost than the single-valve engines, but not more so than those imita- tions of the Corliss idea of using four valves at the ends of the cylinder. The valve gear should not be run over 125 revolutions. 175 Air Pumps and Condensers. When James Watt separated the condenser from the cyHnder of the steam engine, he built his air pump CONNECTION FOR MR PUMP TRUNK ^V- . IT Fig, 83. similar to Fig. 83. There has been some refinement put on this, but in the main it is the best plan for an air pump ever designed. Mr. Corliss added something to it of value. He put in iron rods A A, with set-screws through cover, to hold 176 Air Pump Packing. down the top valve plate. When it is necessary to lift this cover the set-screws can be loosened and the rods taken out. He then put in two holes through this plate, which are closed with plugs when the pump is in operation. When the plate is to be lifted, the pump is put at its lowest position, these plugs taken out and bolts with an engagement, threaded near the head, shown at B. This bolt reaches to the plunger, and by raising the pump to its position the top plate is raised and access had to the plunger. Mr. Corliss also made an arrangement for driving the pump — that is, the connection to the bottom of the trunk of a long strap with a rod between the top and bottom brasses, so that when the key is driven at the top, both top and bottom brasses are tightened alike. The usual method for packing the plungers was with hemp, which would last but a short time. A man got a patent for a packing made from maple blocks, the joints rabbeted, and this packing made double. This packing was held against the cylinder by two coils of rubber hose made without canvas. Fig. 84. He sold his patent to Mr. Corliss, and it was the only patent Mr. Corliss ever bought. An engineer had one of these pumps, 26-inch cylinder, in use six years, and thinking the packing must be used up, he procured a new set to replace the old ; but upon taking the old out he found it in perfect condition, and replaced it. These pumps, as generally run, have a pound wher the water on top of the plunger strikes the valve plate. One of Mr. Harris's engineers learned to put in a ^- inch pipe with globe valve, as shown at C, and by open- ing this valve about one-eighth of a turn, just sufficient 177 A Patent Corliss Bought. to let in air enough to cushion the water and open the valves before the water struck them, all pounding from the above cause would be prevented. This is sure on all properly designed pumps, but as these pumps are lined with bronze, and all the parts of bronze are very expensive, there is too often a tempta- tion to make them too small. When too small, this air cushion is of no avail, and will reduce the vacuum. Fig. 84. Air pump packing that Corliss bought. An air pump cylinder should be of sufficient capacity so that the water to be removed should not fill over 35 per cent., leaving the rest for air and vapor, which at that pressure require a large space. When boiler pressures were low, condensers were a necessity, but as pressures increased many steam users got along without them, and because of their expense, the percentage of condensing engines was small. About the year 1870 a man by name of Ransom invented a condenser, a cross-section of which is shown 178 The First Syphon Condenser. in Fig. 85. This was the first syphon condenser. At the top of the condenser was a plate, perforated Fig. 85, The ftrst syphon condenser— Ransom's, except over the end of the exhaust pipe. The injection pipe reached above the perforated 179 Trouble with early Condensers. plate. The discharge pipe was of the same size as the exhaust and filled with i-inch pipes, as shown. These pipes, near the top, had branches through which the water entered, and as the water passed down the pipes it drew in air and vapor at the top. Of course this con- denser must be 34 feet above the hot well. A great many of these condensers were put in, as they were inexpensive and had nothing about them to need repairs, except a cold water pump. They would produce from 24 to 2"] inches of vacuum, and many of them did good work; but there being no way of telling the height of water in them, and as it was necessary to have the water over the top of the discharge pipe to get the best vacuum, many an engineer pumped the water until it went over the top of the exhaust pipe, and a wreck followed. There were so many of these wrecks that this condenser was short lived. About the time these condensers were wrecking engines and steam users had awaked to the fact that about 25 per cent, of fuel could be saved with a good con- denser, Mr. Henry W. Bulkley came out with his syphon- injector condenser, his patent being for a syphon and injector combined when applied to a condenser. This condenser is shown in Fig. 86. If we let water flow from the end of a pipe, it will take a tapered form. These condensers are made in that form. They are finished inside so as to give a smooth flow. There is a cone having a small annular space at the end, this annular space being of the right capacity to let a sufficient amount of water through without pressure, and also the throat at the bottom is of the same capacity. The flange at top of condenser is placed 34 feet above the hot well, and the hot well should be of sufficient size 180 Bulkley's Condenser. to hold the water at all times over the lower end of the pipe. Accidents with this condenser can occur : By allow- ing the lower end of the discharge pipe to become uncov- Fig. 86. Bulkley's syphon condenser. ered and air bubbles to enter, lifting the water after the manner of the air lift in wells ; by putting on a heavy pressure of water and forcing more through the end of i8i Hot Well Capacity. the cone than will readily pass out of the throat; by put- ting on sufficient pressure to collapse the cone; by the bursting of a tube in a heater in the exhaust pipe. There is no excuse for any of these mishaps to occur. The hot well should be double the capacity of the down, or tail pipe, and no water other than the feed should be taken from it. If necessary to use water from the hot well for other purposes, there should be a second well for that purpose. An important thing is to have a good strainer over the suction pipe, or there will be the annoyance of taking out the cone to remove obstructions. The objection to this condenser is that it requires a constant water supply to fill the throat regardless of the load. The vacuum produced with not over 300 feet elevation above sea level is 28 inches by mercury gage. One of these condensers was elevated 20 feet above the water supply, and which, after starting, would draw its own water. In one case a large hole wore through a heater coil, allowing the water to flow direct into the exhaust without giving trouble. This went on for some time and was finally discovered by seeing a large stream of water running out of the drain pipe while the engine was standing. There have been some modifications of this con- denser. Because of the trouble with the cone stopping up, one builder made them with adjustable cones, so that more or less water could be let through and also the cone could be lifted to let out any obstructions. A condenser of this description will not produce a high vacuum. The Worthington Pump Company, in 1900, com- menced building a condenser similar to the Bulkley, which 182 Worthington's Condenser. is shown In Fig. 87. This does not have the cone, and if it depended on the condenser alone, would not produce a high vacuum. They put in a pipe in the center of the condenser which leads through a cooler placed in the in- HAND WHEEL' AIR COOLER OPENING TO TAIL PIPE Fig. 87. Worthington's syphon condenser. jection pipe and then to a dry vacuum pipe. The ob- ject is to pump any air not taken out by the water through this dry vacuum pump. The claim is made that a less amount of water is required than with the Bulkley. The syphon condenser showed steam users that there 183 Conover's Plan. was about 25 per cent, saved by the use of condensers. A demand arose for condensing apparatus, and nearly every pump builder commenced building them in con- nection with their horizontal pumps. Some of them did very good work, but a horizontal pump is not the better plan for an air pump. In the first place, horizontal direct-acting pumps sometimes stop. They are great consumers of steam. A large horizontal water cylinder has a way of collecting grit in the packing and cutting the lining out. A vertical pump as built by Watt is not so liable to do this. A duplex pump is an improper pump to use, as it is very liable to take short strokes, which makes large clear- ance, and is also liable for a time to make so short strokes that the engine cylinder becomes filled with water. Mr. E. K. Conover, seeing the large amount of steam used for the condenser, took up the Watt air pump and attached it to a special compound engine with Corliss valves and adjustable cut-off. This made an exceedingly economical independent condenser and very compact. As it is driven by an engine with crank and eccentric it does not stop when one is not watching. If sufficiently large for the work it will maintain the high vacuum of this type of air pump, and as it is ver- tical, there is very little danger from cut cylinders. It cannot be built as cheaply as the horizontal type. Since Mr. Conover showed such excellent results, other builders have adopted the practice of building the larger sizes of air pumps vertical, and with compound engines, so that vertical pumps have become universal. The important thing to look after in a condensing plant is absolute tightness. A small leak of cold air ad- mitted to the exhaust and becoming heated, takes up a 184 Hot Well Temperature. great deal of room. Care, therefore, should be taken to have all joints in the exhaust and all rods and stems as nearly tight as possible. If only a partial vacuum can be obtained and the pointer on the vacuum gage fluctuates, it is a pretty sure sign of an air leak. An excellent way for stopping air leaks is to get as high a vacuum as possible and then paint the whole exhaust system, carefully watching the whole surface to see if any place is found where the paint is drawn in. If the hole is not too large, constant paint- ing will finally stop it. After the whole surface has been gone over carefully, test the exhaust relief valve. The final test is to stop up the outlet from condenser, fasten down the relief valve and turn on steam until 15 or 20 pounds pressure shows. This test should not be tried un- less absolutely necessary, as it expands everything, and of itself is liable to induce leaks. The water in the hot well is sufficiently cool if 100 degrees Fahr. It may be no degrees and with a good condenser get 26 inches. 90 degrees for 28^^ inches. With any engine a vacuum will rlemove the atmos- pheric resistance and will show economy, except with leaky valves or piston. In such a case the steam will leak faster into a vacuum than into the air, and a con- denser may show a loss. A condenser, however, shows best with a full loaded engine. When the Ransom condenser came out, a manu- facturer put one on a 24-inch cylinder. The addition of the vacuum showed such a saving that he reasoned that if he had a larger cylinder the va- cuum would do more work and he would get still better results, so he took ofif the 24-inch and put on a 30-inch, 185 Water for Jet Condenser. with the result that he consumed more fuel. His 24-inch cylinder showed a diagram card like the full lines in Fig. 88, while the 30-inch showed one like the dotted lines. The work done by the vacuum was no more with the larger cylinder, because of the earlier cut- off, while the cylinder condensation was largely increased. A 22 X 42-inch cylinder and 75 pounds of steam with 2.(> inches vacuum showed much better results than a 38 x 48-inch with 8 pounds of steam and the same vacuum doing the same work. For determining the amount of water for a jet con- denser, the usual approximate rule is 20 times the amount of water that is used to generate the steam. Fig, 88. One rule to estimate the amount is: Divide 1,000 by the difference between 100 degrees and the injection water ; multiply the weight of steam used per hour by the quotient, and the result will be the weight of water required. Because of the amount of water required for a con- denser there are many places where they could not be used. About 1891 H. R. Worthington came out with a cooling tower, shown in Fig. 89. This consists of a steel 186 Cooling Tower. shell, open at the top and supported on a suitable founda- tion. On one side of the shell is a fan to force a current of air through the tower. The filling consists of earthen KOT WATER COLD WATER SUCTION TANK rig. 89. Worthington cooling tower. tiling set on end. The water from condenser is carried by pipe to top of tower and distributed by spraying over the ends of the top set of tile, and the water is spread 187 Action of Cooling Tower. evenly and in a thin sheet over the outside and inside of the tiles, and is met by the air from the fan. When the writer was first shown one of these, and having some knowledge of the power required to move large bodies of air, he inquired why they did not put a stack on top and save the power required to drive the fan. This has later been done. Later Mr. Barnard invented a tower that operates with neither fan nor stack, although it will do more work if encased and used as the Worthington. This tower consists of mats made from wire cloth and hung in a ver- tical position, over the tops of which the water from the condenser is distributed. As the water flows down the mats it turns in and through the interstices and is thor- oughly broken up and exposed to the action of the air, and, its progress being so slow, a long time is given the air for contact with it. It is open on all sides to the air ; and, to get the best results as a fanless and stackless tower, it should be placed in an exposed position where the wind has free access from all sides. The action of all these towers is the same — the con- tact of air and evaporation. The latter is the most impor- tant, as the more rapidly the moist air can be driven away the greater will be the evaporation with a conse- quent reduction of temperature. Other fanless towers have been built of wood with excellent results. Connected with the cooling tower in many cases, but more often in marine work, is the surface condenser, one form of which is shown in Fig. 90. The circulating water passes through the tubes, and the exhaust steam, com- ing in contact with the outside of the tubes, is condensed and removed by the air pump. The air pump, in this case, can be smaller than when all water must be handled 188 Surface Condenser. by it, and the condensed steam, free from all impurities but oil, can be returned to the boilers. The oil question with large horizontal engines is a serious drawback. ■3nOH QNVH 31 0H QNV H bo 310H QNVH 3nOH QNVH The low-pressure cylinders of compound engines of the horizontal type require large quantities of com- pounded cylinder oil, the worst thing that can be used for 189 Using Surface Condenser. a boiler. In some cases it is absolutely impossible to use the water from condensation. In the first place, there should be a good oil separator put in the exhaust just as it enters the condensers. This will separate all the water and oil in the form of liquid, but the larger part of the oil has been vaporized, and the animal part has become an emulsion in the steam and becomes a portion of the condensed steam. It is at this point that the great trouble arises in separation. Salt, hay, excelsior, sponges and various absorbents have been tried. Should sponges be tried, soak them in oil and squeeze them dry. They will then reject water and take up oil. About the best plan is a tank like Fig. 91. This consists of a series of partitions whereby the water goes first under, then over, then under, etc., until it comes to the opposite end, when it is taken out by a pipe, as shown. During all the movement of the water through the tank the oil has every facility to come to the top and stay there. The important thing is that the tank be large and the passage of the water very slow. It is still better if the water can be carried a long distance through a large pipe before coming to the tank and frequently a second tank is necessary. It is advisable to build a large tank, as large as one can afford, but for 1,000 H. P. capacity not less than 15' square and 12' deep, let the water enter at the top and pass to feed pump from bottom. When used together, a cooling tower should cool the water below the temperature of the surrounding air and the surface condenser should cool the condensed water to not above 115 degrees. It has been claimed that one foot area of tube surface would cool 10 to 12 pounds of steam, but experience has shown that with water from 190 Getting the Oil Out. tower at 98 degrees one could not count on over 6 pounds of water from one foot of tube area. These condensers are necessary only with bad waters, and with bad water and high temperature in the con- denser, the tubes get scaled quickly. In one case a firm had such bad water and the condensing apparatus was so small for the work that the temperature of the water as it went to the tower was so high that the inside of the pipe, valve disc and seats were covered with scale. Where water is scarce, one reason for putting in a cooling tower has been the idea that most of the water required for the boilers could be saved, but the evapora- Fig. 91. A good plan for a tank. tion from the tower amounts to nearly as much as the exhaust from a non-condensing engine. The idea that some people have as to the nature of a vacuum is surprising. Many consider it a source of power, whereas there is no power in it. It is simply a space devoid of power or resistance. It removes all re- sistance from the exhaust side of the piston and allows a pressure that equals the pressure of the atmosphere to do mechanical work. An engineer came across an article that stated that at the dock trial of a steamship, to the engines of which was attached an independent condenser, the valves and pistons of the engines were so tight, and the engines 191 About Vacuum. throughout were so perfect, that when the steam was shut ofif the engines continued to run from the vacuum produced by the independent condenser, and that the vacuum had to be broken before the engines could be stopped. The engineer wrote an article saying that it did not show perfection; that it simply showed that the throttle leaked. This was resented by the writer of the article, and it started a discussion that was taken up by the various mechanical papers, that lasted over a year, and it was surprising the number of engineers who actually believed that with an independent condenser a marine engine could turn a propeller in the water indefinitely without any steam being admitted to the cylinders. He had an engine with steam cylinder, 30x60 inches, with tight piston, valves and throttle valve, to which was connected an air pump, 26 x 12 inches. He reasoned that as the steam piston was larger and ran at a higher speed, it must produce a better vacuum on the steam side of the piston when the steam was shut off tight, than the smaller and slower-moving air pump, so he took a card under those conditions. The vacuum on the exhaust side of piston was 2y inches, and on the opposite or steam side was 28^ inches. This any one can verify if he has an engine perfectly tight, including the throttle. Some men have an idea that the vacuum can lift water out of a condenser into the cylinder. A vacuum can do no work, not even lift water. Take a gage glass, plug one end tight, fill the glass to within 2 inches of the top with water and produce a vacuum at the top, and it will be seen that the water cannot be moved. 192 Work of a Vacuum. Admit a little air at the bottom and the water will be raised all right. Not until water can be raised out of a glass tube plugged tight at the bottom will it ever be possible to raise water out of a condenser into an engine cylinder, unless air be admitted from the outside. The condenser may be flooded and flow back, but never raised. The writer was in the oflice of a large engineering firm, and there heard the remark so often made, ''When steam is shut ofif the engine is changed into an air pump." It seems strange what a large number of engineers believe this. When steam is shut off the engine is not changed into an air pump. The exhaust valve on exhaust end is open to the vacuum on a condensing engine, and the exhaust valve on the other end is closed. Cards taken from an engine with tight throttle, piston and valves, showed about one inch better vacuum on the steam side of the piston than on the exhaust side, but this was im- mediately lost as soon as the exhaust on that end com- menced to open. An engine can only become an air pump when the valves are reversed. When the engine is driven from some other source, or by the momentum of the wheel, and the valves reversed, the engine will be changed into a pump. This engineer also made the other remark we hear so frequently, "When the engine is changed into a pump it will 'suck' water out of the condenser.'* This shows what confused ideas many men get about the nature of a vacuum. A vacuum is a space that is inert. It has no force or energy of any kind. We see a non-condensing engine attached to a con- denser and noting how much easier it runs it naturally 193 An Example. seems that the vacuum has done lots of work. We see steam shut off from an engine with the exhaust open to the atmosphere and note that the engine stops in one minute. We then attach the exhaust to a condenser with a high vacuum and note that when steam is shut off the engine may run five or ten minutes, and it appears as though the vacuum was doing a whole lot of work in that engine. Suppose a boy is pushing a cart and is applying a force of 30 pounds, but a boy in front of him is holding back with a force of 15 pounds, the cart will be moved forward with a force of 15 pounds. Suppose the ob- structing boy drops out of the way. The boy pushing, exerting no more force than at first, can move double the load, or move the same load faster. It is this boy that, while putting forth no more energy, is accomplish- ing work. It is not the obstructing boy who is doing any work. His case is simply that of resistance removed. He is simply out of the way. It is the same with a vacuum. It is simply atmos- pheric resistance removed. A vacuum cannot suck water out of a condenser or out of any other place. Water has never been raised by a vacuum, even to the extent of one one-thousandth part of an inch. It has always been raised by pressure. 194 Tools for the Engine Room. An important item for the engineer is a complement of handy tools. The much-abused monkey-wrench will never be entirely replaced, but, if one can afford it, a set of drop-forged steel wrenches will do much better work, as they do not spring. Sometimes there will be a large nut or plug that no ordinary wrench will fit, when a square bar of steel can be bent at the end, as shown. The bar should be of sufficient area so that it will not spring open, and as the entire bar can be used for a lever it makes a power- ful wrench. One form of home-made, large monkey-wrench is made like Fig. 92, the key being used to set the jaws for any sized nut. These are made 4 feet long, with a hole at the end of the lever for attaching a small tackle. Sometimes an obstinate nut can be started by holding it hard against the nut and striking the end of the wrench with the ball of the hand, or a block of heavy wood can be used, striking the wrench with the end of the stick. A stick of wood does not batter the wrench like a ham- mer and does more effectual work — a hammer strikes too solid a blow and is liable to break something. Altogether too many wrenches are ruined by the use of hammers, and in screwing up work, too many bolts are broken or are strained to such an extent that they let go in service. A piece of gas pipe over the end of a wrench has been the cause of many disasters. A handy tool for many uses is the Jimmy. This is made from %-inch steel and is 18 inches long. Another form is also shown, the long end being used to put through holes in flanges to bring them into line. 19^ ^ 3 t* 9 2 o ^ •-1 ^ r/> ::! S t« a erg ^B. m trq' vo 3' n p Crq 0) CD ^ O ' K //\\ /^ « LJ c:^] (n1 i Engineers' Handy Tools. Wrecking wedges, as shown, are used for opening joints of all kinds, being sharp at the end and a long taper. They are easily inserted and very powerful. For cleaning flanges that can be separated but slight- ly the thin tools are convenient, the tool being but 1-16 inch thick and the flat part 4 to 5 inches long. A small screw-jack, the jeck being 3 inches long, is a convenient tool. A handy form of scraper in many cases for flange joints is shown, also a hardwood stick for driving packing into stuffing boxes. This does not injure the rod. For removing packing a hook at the end Hke a corkscrew is the neatest thing, although if the packing is thoroughly rotten, the old-style hook, simply the end of a rod bent over, must be resorted to. At the present time very neat cutters for cutting glass gages are on the m.arket, but where one finds himself v/ithout one he can make the tools shown. In order to do a neat job it is necessary to cut the glass on the inside. This tool is drawn down and bent over as shown, and the point made sharp. When hardening, be careful not to heat the tool too hot. It is not necessary to draw the temper any, provided it was not too hot. When steel is too hot and plunged into water, the grain is made coarser and the work will be brittle. If heated just right, the grain will be made finer and the tool will be hard and tough and difficult to break. With this tool a scratch can be made around the inside of the glass tube, and, if it does not break of itself, it can be broken by placing the end of the thumbs on each side of the crack and attempting to bend it. It will then break oflf at the mark miade by the tool. 197 Belting. r was called upon to examine and report upon a belt, as the claim had been put forth that it was a sham. I found the belt connecting the engine to line shaft, the engine pulley 20 feet in diameter and shaft pulley about 5 feet. The belt was made from a fine quality of leather and well put together. It had been stretched so that in many places the leather was actually pulled apart and still the glue held. The belt was large enough for the work, but the center of shafts were not far apart, making a short belt, and as the pull was on top, it was necessary to keep it taut. There was no idler. The case was diagnosed as follows: As the belt centers were short and it was necessary that the belt be tight to drive the load, there had been trouble with the belt stretching. When the weather is damp a belt will stretch and will grow short again when the weather is dry. The belt having given trouble by stretching, it was but natural that the men when taking it up should say that they would take it up so that it would be all right for a long time. Should this be done when there was damp weather and a severe strain be put on it then, when the weather became dry it would be put to a severe test and would probably be in the condition found. The concern using the belt did not believe in idlers. There are many ideas both for and against idlers. When the belt is long and pull on the bottom, idlers are not nec- essary. When the belt is short and the pull is on top, an idler saves many anxious moments. An idler should al- ways be put on the slack side of the belt whether the slack side be bottom or top. 198 Don't Run Belts Too Tight. An idler should be arranged, in adition to the tight- ening screws, so that one end of the shaft can be moved back and forth by screws. This will serve to guide the belt and ofttimes save tightening it. It does this on the same principle that a roll can be knocked sideways when moving a load. Fig. 93 shows one form of tightener with a side ad- justment for the end of shaft. C i~„z.~-"i::iarBiJ Fig. 93. A substantial tightener. A belt should never be run tighter than absolutely necessary, both on account of friction of shaft and also the life of the belt. Where an idler is used the belt can be tightened and save many a shut-down. When screwing up a tightener it is only in rare cases that a man does not get tired and stop when the belt is sufficiently tight. There may be a few cases different, but they are rare. When a belt has to be tightened by shutting down and using belt clamps, the temptation is to overdo things. A belt, to be of value, should be made of the best 199 Picking Out a Good Belt. part of the hide, which is the back. The neck and shoul- ders are a spongy mass, easily absorbing moisture and stretching in all directions. In the belly, the grain runs different and this is also inferior. The hide is thick at the center of the back and slop- ing down thinner for a short distance and then gradually growing thicker to the belly. Fig. 94 is an exaggerated cross section. _The dotted lines on Fig. 95 show all the portion that should be taken from the hide for the manufacture of belts. Fifty-four inches has been settled upon as the longest part that should be put in a belt. There are many hides that will yield longer pieces than this, but if only 54 inches are allowed, one is fairly safe. Fig. 94. Exaggerated cross section of a hide. The backs are called ''centers." After one has be- come familiar with the appearance of the center of the back he cannot be deceived. There is no possible way discovered yet of imitating it and one can always tell whether a piece of belting has the center of the back run- ning through it. A belt larger than 48 inches wide should have more than one center, else it will be encroaching on the belly, with a stretchy belt as the result. A belt of more than one ply should be made of only solid leather without any filling. It should be borne in mind that a hide is not uniform in thickness, and that to produce a belt of the same thick- ness throughout, the hide must have the high portions 200 Where Belt Leather Should Come From. shaved down on the flesh side, or the low places must be filled up with leather shavings. When a belt is put together it should be with glue alone and there is no excuse for stitches, pegs or rivets. Some belt makers claim that to shave down the high parts of the flesh side so as to make the thickness uni- form greatly reduces the strength of the hide, and that a stronger belt can be made by filling the low places and they succeed in getting many of their customers to be- lieve it. This is a matter for the purchaser to decide. Fig. 95. Shows only part to be used for belts. It would be a good idea for him to see the belt put to- gether if he elects to have the leather shaved down. Heavy main belts should weigh not less than 16 ounces per square foot for each single ply without any filling. A double ply will be a little over ^ of an inch thick and three ply ^ inch thick. At one time I had the pleasure of putting on a three- ply belt that was plump ^ inch thick, and that without 201 Making a Wide Belt. any filling of any kind. The belt maker was two years selecting the hides for this belt. Hides for a belt should be dried on a stretcher and should be seasoned for several months, so that the order for an important belt should be given as early as pos- sible. We have here again two ideas. Some makers claim that to take the stretch out of new leather permanently injures it and that a belt will be longer lived if it is stretched in use — and business is shut down to take it up several times. Even if this were so, the interruption of business for taking up a belt frequently would be of more account than the cost of a new belt. ' . Fig. 96. The best way to make a wide belt. When pulleys are properly made and the shafts in line, there are two causes for a belt not running true. One is that the belt is not made straight, or the last joint is not put together straight. The other is lack of uni- formity in the hides, there being belly leather and one side stretching more than the other. An excellent way to make a belt 48 inches wide and over is to put three centers on one side and two on the other made with a running splice, or the joints length- wise lapping about 3 inches instead of butting together. This is a more expensive belt, but fine running. Fig. 96. To determine the length of a belt, multiply the dis- tance between center of shafts by two, add the diameter of the two pulleys together, divide by two and multiply by 3J^. Add this product to the first product. 202 Horse-power of Belts. To determine the horse-power of a belt some authori- ties give the speed of a i-inch belt as 600 feet equals i horse-power, and from that on to 1,000 feet equals i horse- power. If we take the first the rule is : speed X width = H.P. 600 If we have a single belt 12 inches wide and running 5,000 feet per minute, it becomes 5,000 X 12 = 100 H.P. 600 Should we take 1,000 feet as i horse-power it would make 60 horse-power. Another rule takes into account the allowable strain on a belt, which is taken to be 70 pounds as the highest allowable strain on a belt one inch wide, speed X width X strain = H.P. or 33,000 S,ooo X 12 X 70 = 127 H.P. 33,000 By adding another ply will add 75 per cent, to the strength of the belt. Extra plys add weight, which is also important. Belts sometimes do not run well because the pulleys are not turned accurately. At one place an engineer put up some work where the belt ran to one side and the purchaser was very much put out and was saying all sorts of things about the belt Arc of Contact vs. Speed. and wanted the maker sent for right away. The engineer admitted that if the belt was the cause of the trouble the maker should be called upon to remedy it, but suggested that before he was called upon that the purchaser should do the first thing the belt maker would do — measure the pulleys. This was done and the engine pulley, 20 feet in diameter, was found Yz inch larger on one side than the other. After this was straightened out there was no further trouble. There used to be a great account made of the "arc of contact'' on the pulley notwithstanding that the belt usually slips on the driving pulley, which is the largest and has the largest ''arc of contact.'' One strong ''arc of contact" man argued that as he had had trouble with the belt slipping on some of his work and as increasing the diameter of his pulleys had remedied the slipping, there- fore the larger pulleys, having a larger "arc of contact," were what was desired. After some talk he finally ad- mitted that the higher belt speed caused by the larger diameter pulleys might have something to do with it. Belts that run at a high speed frequently get charged with static electricity. This dries out a belt, rendering it dry and brittle. A copper wire, size from No. 6 to No. 12, with a number of points composed of wire, stretched across the belt at a point where it runs the smoothest, the points of wire being about i inch from the belt and the ends of the wire grounded on bearings, or anywhere convenient, will remove all that is harmful. New belts are dressed with what is termed "water- proof dressing." Hardly two belt makers use the same preparation. It should be made from ingredients that will keep the belt soft and pliable, and is waterproof only so 204 A Good Belt Dressing. far as it has filled the pores of the belt and leaves smaller space for moisture. One of the best belt dressings is made from i part neatsfoot oil and 3 parts castor oil. Nothing should ever be put on a belt except some- thing that will keep it clean, soft, pliable, etc. No rosin, or like drying or sticky substance should ever be allowed upon a belt, either alone, or in conection with other in- gredients. But little should be put on at a time. Fig. 97. A good hinge joint. In dusty places nothing has yet been found that is good for the belt that will prevent the belt from catching the dust. In such places belts should be kept as clean as possible by frequent wiping, and even with the best of care they will have to be changed and thoroughly cleaned frequently. The best joint for a belt is the cemented joint. This requires time to shave down properly, and about five hours to set. Because it cannot be pressed like the rest of the belt there will be some noise when this joint goes over the pulley, but if properly done there will be no jumping and the speed will be uniform. 205 Lacing a Belt. The worst joint is the ordinary laced joint. It has the merit of being quickly made. Another method is the ''hinge plan" shown in Fig. 97. An important item in this plan is good lace leather, which should be strong, well tanned and uniform in thickness. Annealed nickel wire makes a good belt lacing, or what is better a composition wire made especially for this purpose. Number 18 wire will do for single 3-inch belts and number 10 for double for 6 inch and above. A single row of holes are used, the holes being no farther from the end than the thickness of belt and }i inch apart and should be cut with a 3-32 inch belt punch. Cut depression on inside of belt for the wire. Commence lac- ing at center by passing the ends of the wire through the two center holes to the pulley side of the belt. The lac- ing should be double on the -pulley side ; then lace each way to the side, double lacing on the inside, drawing up tightly all the time without kinks or crossing the wire. When finished, flatten down with a hammer on some new surface. With a proper wire laced joint there is no jar. There are various patent metallic fastenings, many of them doing first-class service. A good form of specifications for belt is as follows : Specification for belt to be put on pulleys 10 feet and 9 feet 6 inches diameter and shaft centers 48 feet : The belt shall be made from the centers of selected hides, which shall be well seasoned and stretched, shall be from pure oak-tanned leather. The belt shall be 60 inches wide, shall be three ply, made with running splice, shall have three centers on one face and two on the other, and three in middle ply. No 206 Belt Specifications. center shall be longer than 54 inches. The belt shall be made without filling, splits or rivets, and shall weigh when finished 48 ounces to each square foot before any water- proofing is applied. When the hides are ready to make up the engineer shall be notified in ample time and shall have the oppor- tunity to examine the hides and also see the belt put to- gether. After putting together the belt shall be thoroughly treated with a waterproof dressing acceptable to the en- gineer. The manufacturer shall furnish sample of belt he pro- poses to furnish with his proposal. This sample shall be 12 inches square and shall show the texture, weight, etc., that are proposed, and the maker agrees that if the belt shall not, in every particular, be equal to the sample in weight, texture, etc., and made according to specifications, he will put the belt on the pulleys and allow it to be used without charge until a suitable belt can be procured. The sample of belt shall not be waterproofed. The maker shall put the belt on the pulleys and shall take it up once within one year if needed. 207 Oils. In the early days tallow was the lubricant for the cyHnder, and there were many ingenious devices for feed- ing it. The cup that gave the best satisfaction was one having a bottom valve for adjusting the feed, a vent to open when filling and a valve at the top under a small cup. This required the tallow to be ''tried'' out and kept in a pot set where it would keep warm, so the cup could be filled readily. There was another cup that was filled with 'leaf tallow, and the tallow was cooked out by the steam heat. This plan had the merit of feeding slowly, but one hardly knew when it began to feed or when it ended. Taken as a lubricant alone, there is nothing superior to tallow. It also has the merit of not being expensive. It has in its composition, however, the animal stearic and oleac acids that are set free by heat and change all inside steam sur- faces into oxide of iron. A cylinder head made from iron was very porous, and in a few years the acids from the tallow had worked through these pores, making them larger, until the steam leaked through so much that the head was ruined. There was also a sediment from the tallow, which, 208 A Good Oil. mixed with the corroded iron, would form balls that would sometimes clog the steam passages. Neatsfoot and lard oils were used, and while not forming the balls from sediment as much as tallow, they would corrode about the same. Sperm oil did very well, when genuine sperm could be obtained, but the trouble with the fish oils of all kinds was the amount of gum they would leave, requiring the valves and piston to be all taken apart and cleaned once in three or four months, and the piston follower bolts that were broken were legion. An engineer had had his trials with all these lubri- cants, when one day an oil agent appeared who claimed to have a new oil, made from petroleum with a slight amount of animal oil, that would do better work than the animal oils, would not gum or corrode, and would clean out all the old oil. His story seemed so much like a fairy tale, the engineer was not inclined to deal with him, but he persisted in having a barrel sent for trial, and it was thought an easy way to get rid of him. When the engineer came to try the oil, he found the agent had not overstated it, and it did elegant work. After this oil had been introduced and it was found that petroleum was a good cylinder lubricant, other manufac- turers commenced producing oils from^ petroleum, the systems and mixtures being different. Some attempted to make cylinder oil from clear petroleum. One day the treasurer came to the engineer and told him there was an oil firm he would like to purchase from, on account of the price of the goods and also for other business reasons, and they were to send a barrel for trial. After using the oil two or three days, the engineer reported the oil fully equal to anything they had used. 209 Oil Agents. After two weeks he could not lubricate the valves, and reported the manner in which the oil was working, but said he could manage to use it up. The oil was a straight petroleum ; a piece of tallow as large as a hen's egg was put in a quart, and it went all right. That proportion of tallow will not show in the cylinder, but use one-half, and the deposit in the cylinder will remind one of the old days of tallow. When trying dififerent oils it was noticed that after a good oil had been used for some time and a new oil was put in, for a few days the new oil would work better, even though it were an inferior oil. In two or three weeks much larger quantities would be required. It is this peculiarity that has been the undoing of many engineers who have persisted in opposing a change in oils. An oil agent would come along and want to sell a cheaper oil for a cheaper price, but could not get the con- sent of the engineer. The agent would then propose to the manager that he deliver to the agent one of his empty oil barrels and he would fill it with his oil, while the en- gineer, knowing nothing of the trade, would suppose he was using the same oil, and yvhen asked by the manager if the oil was still going all right would reply that it was. This would be deemed proof that the engineer was untruthful, and he would get his discharge. If an inferior oil would always show up within a day or two, many an engineer's reputation would have been saved. At the time the engineer tried the petroleum product there were no lubricators and he had only an oil pump. In a 28-inch cylinder he would put in about two table- spoonfuls at one and one-half hour intervals. What would be thought of oiling a cylinder in that manner and quantity nowada)'S, when, if there is an oil pump on a 210 Oil That Doesn't Lubricate. cylinder, the man running the engine will pump in a tea- cupful every half hour in addition to the sight feed. Shortly after the petroleum oils came in use, the sight-feed lubricators came out. These made possible constant and correct lubrication. Since then have come the mechanical oil pumps, so that engineers can now take their choice of a number of first-class devices. The requisite for a cylinder oil is that it shall be suit- ed to the temperature, the quality of the steam and the weight of the parts to be lubricated. In the first place the oil should be vaporized. It will be noticed that when an oil requires large quantities a large amount of the oil will be found in the cylinder in the same condition that it was in before using, while an oil that did efficient service none of it would be found in the cylinder, except in the form of milky water in low places. The effects of it, however, could be plainly seen. Should an oil not be of sufficient high-flash test, none of it will be found in the cylinder, and the surfaces will appear dry and devoid of lubrication. For high pressure and light pistons an oil having a high fire test and medium body or viscosity is required, while with low pressure and heavy pistons, a low fire test and heavy body is required. If an engineer has only the high fire test oil he can sometimes make it right for the low-pressure cylinder by the addition of ordinary lubricating oil, provided there be sufficient animal oil compounded with the cylinder oil. If not properly compounded, if he can get tallow that is clean, he will find it of advantage to put in a tablespoonful of that to a quart of his cylinder oil. This proportion of tallow will have no ill effect in the cylinder. 211 To Detect Alkali. In some rare cases, where a high fire test oil is used for high pressure and the body of the oil is so heavy that it will not find its way under light-weight moving parts, the addition of one-quarter of ordinary engine oil will improve it. For heavy weights and low pressure steam there must be some animal oil. An indication of what this animal oil is is shown by saponifying a sample. Take a 2-ounce bottle, fill half full of water and put in a stick of caustic soda or potash or a little strong ammonia, and then fill nearly full with the oil and shake it well. Petroleum will not make soap, but animal oils will, so that the animal oil will separate and leave the mineral oil intact, except when compounded in special ways with neatsfoot oil, when the whole of it, mineral oil and all, will thicken. Neatsfoot oil will make a yellow soap, lard oil and tallow a white soap, fish oils a little darker color than lard oil. If you are buying a pure lard, sperm or any animal oil, the saponifying test will indicate whether it is adulter- ated with the cheaper mineral products To detect acids or alkali in the oil, wash a sample of oil with distilled water and draw ofif the water. Take a piece of blue litmus paper and dip in the water, and if it turns red there is acid in the water. If red litmus paper turns blue, there is alkali. Many engineers have a high regard for graphite and have believed that if it were possible to suspend graphite in oil so that it would feed in an ordinary lubricator with- out clogging, it would be an ideal cylinder lubricant. To suspend graphite in oil the question of gravity comes in, and some oil or some substance must be used that is heavier than graphite so that the graphite will float in it. Will such a substance be a good cylinder oil? 212 Viscosity. Such a combination has been made and the floating of the graphite is perfect. I have mentioned viscosity in oils. It is generally sup- posed to mean, body, or ability to withstand pressure, a highly viscous oil may be valueless. The test for viscosity is the length of time in seconds it requires for a given quantity of oil to flow through a given opening at a given temperature. It is the length of time in seconds that it requires for 60 cubic centimeters of the oil at 212° to flow through an opening of about %^\ An oil requiring 175 seconds would be 175 deg. vis- cosity and one requiring 150 seconds would be 150 degrees viscosity. There should be no pressure but its own weight. The most viscous oil from petroleum is the tar resi- due, of no value, while the least viscous is tallow, the highest value as a lubricant known, so that viscosity is an indication, not a proof. One day an oil agent called on the engineer, but was told that oil was out of date, that a graphite oil had been procured and no more cylinder oil would be needed. Said the agent : ''What is the easiest running bearing made ? Is there any bearing that is less f rictionless than a ball bearing?'' The engineer admitted there was none. Said the agent : 'Tt is the ball bearing that represents the oil. Oil is made up of globules which roll like a ball bearing. Graphite, to be of value, must be the flake graphite. Flake graphite must cause sliding friction and sliding friction will always be greater than rolling fric- tion. Graphite may do good in filling up low places, but as a lubricant it will not take the place of oil.'' The engineer went ahead and tried his graphite, and 213 Continuous Oiling. while it fed perfectly it would not do the work of oil and was abandoned. It appeared to work more like the cylin- (der oil that does not vaporize. Machine oil can be all mineral oil, and should be for some places. Wherever the oil is in a case with mechan- ism running in the same, should there be animal oil of any kind compounded with the mineral, the animal oil or fats will form an emulsion and soon get thick and unfit for use. When oil is filtered and continually used it should be all mineral. The ideal oil is one that can be used in a hot room in summer and will feed in exposed places in winter. This kind is seldom found. There are many good oils that will feed in winter that become so light by warmth that they are valueless in summer for heavy work, and the heavy oil that is necessary for summer use will not feed in win- ter. There are a few oils that can be used at any time. With modern systems of catching oil it is possible to keep a continuous stream of oil on the bearings, pipe the drain to an oil filter, raise the oil to a distributing tank and pipe from there to the different journals. Where air pressure is at hand it makes a cheap and efficient meth- od of raising the oil. There are many elaborate systems for doing this. A simple way is to let the oil run into a tank capable of holding sufficient pressure Here the pipe to take out the oil extends to nearly the bottom of tank and the air inlet opens at the top. When air is turned on, the pressure on top of the oil forces it to a height due to the pressure. There should be two tanks, so that the drain can be kept constant. The filter can be below or above the engine, as most convenient. Where air pressure is not convenient, a small pump can be used and an attachment made to some part of engine. 214 About Grease. When a man is obliged to use an oil that thickens by cold he will need to be careful of his drain pipes. These pipes should not be less than i inch in diameter. In onp case a drain i inch in diameter that was laid on the floor alongside the wheel pit the oil would not drain even when the engine-room was warm. It was finally seen that the air set in motion by the wheel was sufficiently cool to chill the pipe, and it became necessary to put a box around the pipe and a 3^ -inch steam pipe alongside the drain pipe. Some engineers prefer grease because it is cleaner. A few claim it is cheaper, but its advantage over oil is problematical. Grease is made from horse oil; a better grease is made from mule oil. Either has a terribly rank smell, and to overcome this they are flavored with oil of mervane, which drowns the bad smell and gives the grease the flavor of a peach pit. To be of value oil must be manufactured from good stock and by those that understand the business. A first- class cylinder stock just mixed with a lighter oil will not give the results required unless it be put together in proper form. A good test for oil is to make a bearing for the largest shaft available and line it with babbitt metal. On top of this bearing put a hole for an oil cup and another hole extending through top and nearly through the bab- bitt, so that it will come to within 3-16 inch of the shaft. This is for a thermometer. Arrange a clamp of wood or iron like Fig. 98, with a weight at the end of the lever. When oil is to be tried, set the oil to feeding and tighten bolts so as to just balance the weight. The oil should have a determined length of time to flow, say one-half hour or one hour. Several trials should be made with a 215 Testing Oil. standard oil, so as to be accustomed to its use, before try- ing oil for comparison. A heavy oil should not be fed as many drops per min- ute as a light oil, as there is more oil in a drop of the heavy than in the light. After becoming accustomed to the machine so as to feed the proper amount, the thermometer will indicate v^hich has the best lubricating properties. A straight, clean mineral oil can be filtered continu- ously, and care should be used to save all oil by proper THERMOMETER Fig. 98. Oil testing device. guards and pans, and but a small amount of new oil need be used. With a good filter, filtered oil will cool a hot journal more quickly than new oil. For shafting, ring oiling bearings should be used, and the rings should be solid and not less than ^2 inch in width. Rings made from half-round material, bent into a circle and the ends not closed together securely are liable to get out of shape, the ends catch and the feed be stopped. 216 Oiling Bearings. It is not a bad Idea to have pockets on the outside of the ring, but these pockets should be smooth on the out- side and should not project beyond a true circle, as oth- erwise they might catch and stop the ring. The thrust rings should aways be in the center of the bearing and the groove should be lined with babbitt At each end of bearing should be a small collar turned to a sharp edge. This will throw off all oil and prevent it running along the shaft. The babbitt wipers usually used for this purpose do not do the work satisfactorily, and there is a waste of oil as well as an untidy looking shaft and floor. The oil cellars should be of ample size. For a 5-inch shaft, they should be not less than 2 quarts capacity, and would be still better if they held a gallon. A few engine builders are getting to building ring or chain oiling bearings for the engine shaft. This, when universal, will be a great improvement. For oiling crosshead pins the telescope oiling device is a neat thing, as it places the oil cup where it can be filled and adjusted at any time, and there is not the spat- tering of oil as with the wiper. It also works nicely on the eccentrics. 217 Cleaning. T T T Should any part of the machinery get covered with gum, use a strong solution of potash. This can be ap- plied with a piece of waste wrapped around a stick. If the metal is cold it will not be discolored, but if hot, the metal will be blue. A strong ammonia will do the same thing. The work needs polishing afterwards in either case. For this purpose, when cold, get a pepper box and use Rosedale cement on a wet rag. The moisture soon dries out, and the dry cement can be easily wiped off, leaving the work thoroughly clean. As the metal is clean it will rust quickly should it be exposed to dampness. When cleaning an engine, after it is wiped as clean as possible with waste, a little of this dry cement on a piece of waste will remove the last vestige of oil and leave the work clean and bright. For this latter work rotten stone is better. Use care not to get any of either on the bearings. Some engineers like their bright work burnished. Those who have the time and inclination can do this as follows : If the finish on the engine is rough, use coarse emery cloth to bring the surface down level and finish with fine. Take a drill rod and heat it to a mild cherry 218 Cleaning Solutions, red and dip it in water. Do not draw the temper. Polish, the rod with the fine emery and then draw the rod at right angle over the work, using considerable pressure. When the engine is wiped, use a fine powder like rotten stone. Be careful about the bearings. For cleaning the brasses around the pins, rub with waste until bright. This requires some time at first. After they are once bright it is easy to keep them so. Oil is good to clean off fresh tarnish, and if the oil is wiped oflf every day and then a piece of clean waste used to wipe dry and clean, the brass can be made to shine all the time, without the use of any powder or cleaner, and no harm done to the pins. Brass oil cups can be treated in the same manner. In the days when the dome, sand box and wagon top of a locomotive was covered with brass, as a general thing the firemen had nothing but Rosedale cement to clean with. This was put on with oil to scour the tar- nish off and then the polishing was done with dry cement. The firemen learned that a solution of oxalic acid would remove the tarnish and then the scouring was easy. Some firemen used to get spermaceatic candles, rub the brass over and let it stand a few hours, or over night, when it could be wiped off and the brass was clean. Since that time a number of polishing pastes have come into use. They require but little labor, leave the brass a nice color, and are also good to clean the hot ironwork. Tripoli is one of the best. Paint work should be wiped clean every day, paying particular attention to the corners. An engineer's thor- oughness can be told by looking at the corners. On work that has not been cleaned for a few days, and also on 219 Leaving a Film of Oil. work where the varnish is getting thin, take a piece of waste, get it wet through and squeeze out most of the water and put on some engine oil, about the same quan- tity as there is water. Wipe the work over with this. In the case of considerable dirt, it should be rubbed until thoroughly clean. It is a good idea to wipe off after- wards with clean waste, especially if the surface was dirty. This leaves just a very thin film of oil, the paint is clean and the work looks nearly like new varnish work. This is a neat way of caring for work that is exposed to the weather. 220 Notes, Rules and Tables. ▼ TV One H. P. is 33,ocmd pounds raised one foot high in one minute, or 33,000 foot pounds per minute. A heat unit or H. U. or British thermal unit or B. T. U. is the heat required to raise one pound of water at 39.1° one degree. According to Joule's experiments i heat unit was equal to 'JT2 foot pounds, but further experiments have demonstrated that one heat unit is equal to 778 foot pounds, 33,000 foot pounds per minute divided by 778 = 42.62 heat units per H. P. per minute, or 42.62 X 60 =: 2557.20 heat units per hour. A pound of carbon contains 14,500 H. U. A pound of coal having 10% of ash will have remaining 13,050 H. U. A good boiler with a good fireman should get 75% of this into steam, which allows 8% for radiation and losses from air leaks, etc., and 17% loss of heat in gases going up the chimney, which leaves 9787.5 H, U. in steam per pound coal. Of this, 2257.20 is converted into work, the remainder, or 7230.30, going out in the exhaust. This is providing that i pound coal produces I H. P. If it requires 2 pounds, then the total H. U. will be 221 Keep the Boiler Clean. 9787.5 X 2 = 19575 — 2557.2 = 17017.8 H. U. going out in the exhaust. As the H. U. in i pound coal with 10% of ash is 13050, this number divided by 2557.20 = 5.1 H. P. that would be obtained with one pound coal, if all the heat could be converted into work, or if the heat put into steam, 9787.5 H. U. could be converted into work, it would make 9787.5 = 3.86 H. P. per pound coal. 2557.2 The efficiency of the boiler will depend upon the ease with which it can be kept clean, the tightness of its setting in preventing air leaks, the thinness of the heating surface, the draft and the circulation. The latter point is very important. The greater the difference in temperature between the water within the boiler and the fire the more rapid the absorption of heat. The more rapid the water flows over the heating surface bringing fresh water into contact, the greater will be this difference, and the more rapid the move- ment of the water the easier will be the disengagement of the steam. Wrought iron expands 1-150000 of an inch per inch for each degree. A pipe 300 feet long and 150 lbs. pressure would expand as follows : 300 ft. is 3600 inches. Temperature of room 80°. Temperature of steam at 150 lbs. pressure 366° less the 80° = 286° difference in temperature of 3600 X 286 pipe. =6.86 inches the pipe would expand. 150000 222 Standards ot Pressure. All pressures are measured or standardized by the weight of mercury. The atmosphere sustains mercury 30" high. One cubic inch of mercury weighs .49 of a pound. 30 X 49 = 14.7- Weight of water. A pressure of one pound is exerted per square inch by a column of water 2.3093' high, and one atmosphere, or 14.7 pounds, by a column 33.947' high. The pressure multiplied by 2.3093 will give the height of a column of water due to that pressure. A column i' high has a pressure of .433 pounds. Height, multipHed by .433 equals the pressure. The efficiency of an engine depends upon the small amount of heat required to do a certain amount of work. The engine that has the lowest terminal pressure in proportion to the mean effective pressure will require the least heat, or, put in another way, the lowest amount of heat will go out in the exhaust. An engine that requires a large amount of com- pression to secure quiet running will have a rounded cut- off corner on the diagram, and this, together with the compression, will make the terminal pressure higher. An engine having a slow piston speed will condense a large amount of steam when it enters the cylinder, and this will be re-evaporated towards the end, bringing the terminal pressure high. Too slow piston speed will give too much time for a cylinder to cool off and cause cylinder condensation, with consequent re-evaporation. Should we wish to get a high piston speed we have the problem of rotation speed to contend with. To get a piston speed of 800' per minute we can 223 About Clearance. build an engine with 6' stroke and 66 revolutions. This number of revolutions will require no more compression than is necessary to lap the exhaust valves to have them seated properly when the steam valves open, the indicator card vfill show nearly square corners all around, which will be the theoretic and practical card for economy.. Should we conclude that this stroke is too long, we can divide it by 4, making it 18'' stroke and a rotative speed of 266 revolutions. The piston speed is the same, but the compression required will increase as the square of the number of the revolutions, the card from the engine will have round corners and the terminal pressure will be higher. Clearance plays an important part. Clearance is that portion that exists between the piston and cylinder head, between the valves and cylinder in the steam parts and in any depressions in the piston ^dr heads. The clearance spaces are filled with steam at each stroke and are emptied, doing only the work that ' the steam in them expands, and are finally emptied, the unex- 'panded portion doing no work. The effect is to increase the terminal pressure. :/ The clearance spaces are filled and emptied at each stroke. "^ "^ The shorter the stroke, the greater the percentage o:^ clearance. ^\ ;The nearer the valve is to the cylinder, and the 'shorter and ^smaller the port, provided it is of ample area for, the passage of the steam, the less will be the clear- "ance, which is the reason for the four-valve engine. The quicker the cut-off valve closes, the sharper "will be the cut-off and the lower will be the terminal - 224 Compression- — Lap — Lead. pressure. The terminal pressure will be the lowest in pro- portion to the mean effective pressure when the engine is cutting off at about ^ stroke, so that an engine loaded to that amount will be at its most economical load. Compression is the vapor enclosed within the cylin- der by the closing of the exhaust valve before the crank reaches the center. Its object is to absorb the inertia of the moving parts gradually and allow them to come to a state of rest without jar. Lap of a valve is the amount that the valve travels beyond the port more than is necessary to cover the same. Its office is to cover the port, or space beyond, sufficiently to insure tightness, and in a steam valve to provide for cutting off the sffeam. In an exhaust valve, to give compression. Lead is the amount the valve opens before the crank reaches the center. Pre-release is sometimes applied to the exhaust valve and is the same thing as lead on the steam valve. An eccentric is a wheel placed off the center, and is used to be placed on a shaft to give motion to the valves of an engine. The distance it will move a rod or valve is the extreme movement between the distance of its circum- ference on both sides of the shaft, and is termed the throw of the eccentric. The travel of the valve is the total distance the valve moves. If the eccentric rod be attached direct to valve the throw of eccentric and travel of valve will be the same. The travel of the valve should be the width of the 225 Selecting Size of Feed Pump. port and the lap. When it is desired to give a greater travel of the valve than the throw of the eccentric, a rocker arm is placed between, and by attaching the valve rod at a greater distance from the center than the eccentric rod the valve travel is lengthened. In the Corliss type, the rapidity of opening and clos- ing the valves is increased by the use of a wrist plate. To determine the size of pump for a set of boilers. A boiler H.P. is 30 pounds of water evaporated per hour, but it should be capable of evaporating 45 if a call for that should arise. Find the total amount that would be evaporated by the boiler, or set of boilers, per hour, and divide by 60, which gives the amount per minute. Divide this by 8.33, which reduces the-pounds to gallons. Multiply this by 231 will give the amount in cubic inches. A pump should not exceed a piston speed of 100' per minute. Multiplying 100 X 12 = 1200" piston speed. Divide the cubic inches by 1200 gives the area of piston. To get the diameter extract the square root or find the diameter from a table of areas. If we have 1000 H.P. and allow for a possible evap- oration of 45 pounds per H.P., 1000 X 45 = 45000 45000 ^ 750 pounds. = 750 pounds per minute. = 90 60 8.33 20790 gallons. 90 X 231 = 20790 cubic in. = 17.2" 1200 area of piston, or 5" diam. There should be at least 10% allowed for slip and for duplex pump it would not be unwise to allow 20%. To determine how much water a pump will deliver, 226 "Powers" Rule for Pumps. multiply the area of the cyHnder in inches by the stroke in inches and by the number of strokes per minute. This gives the cubic inch capacity. Divide this by 231 gives the number of gallons. Gallons multiplied by 8.33 equals the pounds, and by 60 gives the pounds per hour. Deduct the percentage for slip. To determine the power, multiply the area by the pressure of water and the speed of the piston, allow 20% for friction, etc., and divide by 33000. "Power'' gives the rule. Multiply the number of gallons by 15 times the elevation and divide by 33000 will give the H.P. To find the H.P. of a boiler from the heating sur- face, allow 12 square feet of heating surface for a tubular boiler and 10 square feet for a water tube. In a recent catalog of a well-known maker of engineer- ing specialties the writer noticed the following approxi- mate rules for calculating the horse-power of various kinds of boilers. The rules are intended for use in deter- mining the proper sizes of injectors and other apparatus when the exact dimensions or heating surface of the boil- er is unknown or hard to obtain : Kind H. P. Horizontal Tubular = Dia.^ X Length -:- 5 Vertical " = Dia.2 X Height -^ 4 Flue Boilers = Dia. X Length ~ 3 Locomotive Type . . = Dia. of Waist^ X Length over all -^ 6. All dimensions to be in feet. In the first and third cases the length is the length of the tubes or that of a ''flush-head" boiler and does not include the extended smoke-box. In the second case, the height is that of a plain vertical boiler in which the upper part of the tubes is above the water line; it is not the 227 Boiler Ratings. height of a boiler with submerged tubes. The extreme simplicity of the rules aroused curiosity as to their accuracy and comparisons were made between manufacturers' ratings and ratings calculated by the formulas above. The results are given below. They agree very closely, except in a few of the larger sizes of tubular boilers, where the calculated rating falls below that of the manufacturer. And in these sizes it will be noticed that the heating surface per horse-power is less than in the smaller sizes where the two ratings practically agree. It is quite possible that the ratings of other manufac- turers would show a better or worse agreement. In any event, the rules prove to be valuable for just what is in- tended and will save considerable trouble in measuring up and calculating the power of existing boilers when ordering injectors, feed pumps, and the like. The ratio of grate surface to heating surface varies from I to 40, to I to 60. At 3 pounds of coal per H.P. and ratio, i to 40, the amount of coal burned per square foot of grate will be 12 pounds, while with a ratio of i to 60 the consumption will be 19 pounds coal per square foot of grate. To find the contents of a shell boiler, multiply the area of the head in inches, less the area of all the tubes in inches by the length of the shell in inches. This gives the total capacity of the boiler. From this we must substract that portion not filled, or the segment of the circle. There are a number of short rules that are only approximate. To find the area of the segment of a circle, we first find the area of sector of a circle, 228 Calculating Steam Room. The length of the arc of a circle— chord of whole arc is 8 times the chord of half the arc, and taking y^ of the remainder. The area of the sector of a circle equals length of arc X y2 the radius. Area of segment of circle — area of sector of circle — area of triangle when segment is less than a semi- circle. A boiler 72'' diameter filled to within 18'' of top will have the dimensions of cut, the radius being 36", the chord of whole arc 63" and chord of half the arc Fig. 99. Boiler calculations. 36". The two sides of triangular arc 36" and base 63. From the above rule. 8 X 36 — 63 = 225. One-third of this is 75 X 18 (J^ the radius of the circle) = 1350. The area of the triangle is found by adding the three sides together and dividing by 2. From the half sum subtract each side separately; multiply the half sum and the three remainders continuously together; take the square root of the product. 135 The three sides, 36, 36, 63. 36 + 36 + 63 = 229 How it is Figured. = 67.5 and 67.5 — 36 = 31.5; 67.5 — 63 = 4.5. And 31-5 X 67.5 X 31-5 X 4.5 = 301388 and the square root 549- 1350 — 549 = 801 square inches, area of segment. Another short method is to take the chord of the arc and versed sine, or the rise only. To Yz of the product of the chord A. B. and rise C. D. of the segment, add the cube of the rise, divided by twice the chord; the remainder is the area nearly. 63 X 18 = 1134 X ?^ = 756. 5832 18 X 18 X 18 = 5832. 63 X 2 = 125. = 46 126 756 -(- 46 =: 802 sq. in. area. To get at the principle requires use of the higher mathematics. With a copy of Trautwine's tables the result can be obtained accurately with but few figures. Divide the rise by diameter of circle. In the table find a number opposite the quotient and multiply this number by the square of the diameter. 18 — = .25. In the table opposite. '25 is the number 72 •153546. ^2 squared = 5184. .153546 X 5184 = 795.98 area. This is the accurate area. From the same arc can be found the radius of a circle. Add the square of half the chord A. B. to the square of the rise C. D. and divide by twice the rise, gives the radius of the circle. This applies to a railroad curve or the arc of a pulley. Should the occasion arise, where the distance from center to circumference cannot be found, stretch a line 230 Area of Tubes. across the corcumference at any point and measure from center of line to circumference. The usual rule to apply for boiler braces is to allow 2" space around the head and tubes that do not need bracmg. To find the area for the braces, find the area of segment of the space above the tubes and subtract the 2". ^ \ i 1 / / \ 1 r ") v\ 1 / v^ ^ p" ^ Fig. 100. Showing area of inches. Fig. loi. The area of a circle is .7854 of the square of the diameter. Fig. loi. Doubling the diameter increases the area four times, as shown in Fig. 100. 2.^1 Real Boiler Economy. T ▼ T When filling a boiler or emptying it without pressure, there should be a vent. Mr. P. H. Bullock puts a check in a vertical pipe ^ inch in diameter, the check opening in. When there is no pressure, the check is always open and prevents a vacuum in the boiler when water is run- ning out, and will let air out when water is running in. It will close itself when steam is raised to about 2 pounds. ^ , When economy, ease of taking care, first cost, etc., :are concerned, it is a difficult matter to beat a tubular boiler. When it comes to space occupied, long life, high pressure and large units, it is of necessity supplanted by the water tube. The water tube, correctly designed and honestly built, is also much safer than the tubular. Where the tubes are put into manifolds, or headers, and suspended from the drums by short tubes, these short tubes should be two sizes heavier than the tubes in boiler. For instance, a 4-inch tube is made from No. 10 metal, and the short tubes should be No. 8. All of them should be full size in the thinnest part, and should be made from wrought iron. Grates under a boiler should last as long as the boiler, and this can only be done by keeping them cool. When a fire is cleaned by shutting the ash pit doors the grates become red hot. This will be more effectually done if the ash and small coal be left in the ash pit, espe- cially at night. When iron is heated to a red heat the grain becomes coarser under expansion and does not return to its original size when cooled. This process con- tinued causes the iron to swell in places where the heat 232 About Grate Bars. has been most intense and distortion occurs, bringing some portion up into the fire and the grates then go pretty fast. It is the better plan to have the ash pit made with a place to hold water 8" to lo" deep and keep water in it during the time there is fire on the grate. B m Fig. 102. Forms of grate bars. The ash pit doors should not be closed so long as there is fire on the grates, and the regulation should all be done by damper in the flues. It is sometimes necessary to take the ash pit doors off when the firemen persist in closing them. There are numerous forms of grate bars, but the form shown at A, Fig. 102, will give the best distribution of air, while that at B will come next. Either of these types can be made lighter, and a furnace full will cost less than with a straight bar. Bars set with the rear end raised or lowered will give better results than if placed level. Shaking grates are of service only for relieving the ■finer ash, while they are valueless for removing clinker and the coarser ash. The better grate is that made after the plan of A and put in with front and rear sections, so that the front or rear can be dumped separately. A soft patch for a boiler is a patch made to fit, and either lead putty with iron borings or some form of sheet packing put under to make a joint after the man- ner of making a flange joint, and the patch is screwed up with counter-sunk bolts. Generally the piece of boiler 233 Boiler Patches. is not cut, which leaves two thicknesses of iron, so that that nearest the fire, not being protected by water, is burned. A hard patch is a patch where the iron is cut out of the boiler, a piece fitted to cover it, holes drilled and riveted on, chipped and caulked and made tight. The soft patch is liable to get to leaking and is dan- gerous. The hard patch is safe, although over the fire it would be better to put in a new fire sheet entire to avoid a double thickness and rivets where the fire is intense. Drilled holes are better than punched, because the fiber of the iron is not disturbed as in punching. Laying out Gaskets. To lay out a gasket for the regular shaped manhole or handhole, find the length of the plate and divide it by three. On the line A B and with J^ as radius and with centers at C and D lay off the two circles. Should the length be 15", set the dividers at 5" and lay off the two circles. Then with the center at E lay off the arc G, and with the center at the intersection of the circles at F lay off the arc H. With the same centers the outside circle can be laid out. This will make a regular ii"xi5" gasket. There will sometimes be found a plate, where, instead of the small arcs G. and //, there will be a straight line drawn from the same points. Foaming. Foaming is the raising of the water with the steam. It is caused by grease or dirt that prevents a free sep- aration of the steam. In one case where the engineer 234 Foaming Boilers. Fig. 103. Laying" out a Gasket. had not kept his boiler clean there was a large amount of deposit. It became necessary to raise the front end three inches and this changed the circulation within the boiler and stirred up the deposit so much as to set up a dangerous foaming until the boiler was cleaned. Soap, or any substance like an alkaline boiler com- pound when grease is present, salt water put into fresh water, too little steam room or not sufficient area at top of water, or a strong draft of steam that causes the water to raise, will produce foaming. It is dangerous by drawing too much water from boiler and also by getting water into the engine which washes off the oil and may break something. Boiler Braces. There are two general forms of braces — the crow- foot, where both ends are riveted to the boiler, and the 235 Boiler Braces. angle. In the latter there are a pair of angles riveted to head the entire length, and the braces are held to the angles with a tapered pin. r^^^- ^^ hr" 3 ^ ^ ^-^ ..^Z""^^**- Fig. 104. Boiler braces. Pumps. With a non-condensing engine exhausting through a heater it is the more economical to feed water to boiler with a power pump. With a condensing engine or a number of engines the steam pump exhausting through a heater not connected with the engines will be the more economical. The amount of heat converted into work in moving the plungers will be the same in each case, and the heat 33000 at I H. U. = 778 foot lbs. = X 60 = 2557 H. U. 778 per hour per H. P. for driving pump. 236 Steam Pumps. The main engine driving the pump and using ij^ lbs. of coal per H. P. will, with 9800 H. U. per lb., 9800 4900 delivered into the steam, means that 2557 = 14,700 12,443 H. U. per H. P. are loaded on to the condenser and goes out in the discharge and lost. If the pump were driven direct by steam there would be the same amount of heat converted into work, and while the amount of steam required to drive the pump would be more, all the waste heat going into the heater would heat the feed water and all waste heat would return to boiler. A steam pump is elastic and can be run at any speed to keep the feed regular. A power pump runs at one speed and must feed the boiler too fast and have the water shut off a portion of the time or there must be a relief valve to waste water through after it has been pumped to a high pressure. A duplex pump will be easier on piping, etc., than a single pump. A pump may give trouble from a leak in suction pipe ; from a strainer becoming clogged ; from the piston packing leaking ; from a valve breaking through, or from a portion of the pump filling with air. A leak in suction will be known from there being larger quantities of air. A clogged strainer from there not being a sufficient amount of water to fill the pump. An air chamber of ample size should be put in the suction of a pump, as shown in Fig. 105, so that the cur- rent of water will flow direct to it. An air chamber put on as indicated by the dotted lines is of no value. A check valve should be put in the discharge of a 2Z7 Air Bound Pumps. pump, and an air or vent valve at the top of pipe between it and the pump. This valve should never be less than Yz inch, and for large pumps much larger. When a pump gets air-bound it can be quickly relieved. A man tried to syphon spring water over a hill to his house, and the water would flow but a short time. r\ Fig. 105. Air chamber on suction end of pump. He then put a chamber at the extreme high point for the accumulation of air with a valve to shut the chamber off from the pipe and means to refill it with water driving out the air. This helped matters, but did not insure a constant operation. The pipe was 2-inch. He took out the 2-inch on the downhill side and put in 2 J^ -inch, and had no further trouble. Injectors should be used where heaters are not avail- able and are valuable on locomotives, traction and port- able engines. All of the heat for driving them is 238 Injectors. returned to the boiler, but they use Hve steam for all this work. Where a heater can be used they are valuable only as auxiliary for a cheap substitute when the pump is broken. It is the better plan to install two pumps. The injector must have supply not to exceed iio°. Some will raise their water by suction 15', while others will raise it but a short distance. The principle reasons for their not working is get- ting hot (as they must be sufficiently cool to condense the steam). To be sure of this, the water supply must not be too warm ; it must be ample and unobstructed, and the strainer must be sufficient to prevent the entrance of anything that will clog the small ports. The check valves may stick, and the inner tubes will wear large and require removal. The better plan is to have the printed directions of the builder on hand if possible. Also do not put an ell or turn within two feet in the discharge line. A leaky piston can be detected by the noise of a leak through both strokes; a leak through one valve by a noise on one end. If a pump is air bound it can be told by opening the vent cock in valve chamber; also there will be a jerky motion of the plunger, caused by the pump cylinder being partially filled with air. All pumps should have a check and stop valve in the discharge and a vent not less than ^". When the pump gets air sufficient to cause trouble the quickest method to get rid of it is to stop the pump, open the vent, and as soon as the water is out the air will follow. Leave the vent open for a few strokes. In the smaller sizes of duplex pumps, where both cylinders are cast together and one plate extends over both heads, it sometimes happens that the gasket in the 239 Duplex Pump Valves. partition between the two cylinders gives out, allowing the contents of one cylinder to blow through into the other. This may happen on either end. A duplex pump may sometimes refuse to work from improperly set valves. To set the valves of a duplex pump place the pistons at center of stroke; place the valves at center of travel. The valve stems have a little play in the valve and this play should also be set central. With a single cylinder pump it may refuse to work from the supplemental piston on top sticking from want of oil or from dirt, or when new from the piston valve expanding before the chest gets hot, or from some of the small parts getting stopped up. When high pressures are used and cold water, medium hard rubber should be used for water end. When pumping hot water, hard valves should be used and the pump placed below the supply. Heaters. Heaters are of different designs, one being a coil through which the water passes the entire length, the steam being on the outside. The claim for this type is that the water travels so far, all the time changing direction and all of the water is exposed to the heat. With this type there is no reser- voir and no space for deposit of sediment. Another type has the steam passing through the tubes, the water being enclosed in a shell outside the tubes. In some cases the tubes are expanded into two heads, one of the heads being constructed so as to allow for expansion. In some types the tubes are corrugated, 240 Using Waste Heat. and in others the tubes are bent into U shape to allow for expansion. This type has a reservoir and a space for deposit for sediment but has the drawback where the shells are made from rolled metal that the metal will pit at lower portion of shell where the water is simply warm and no cir- culation. In the open type the water is sprayed over and brought in direct contact with the steam. This type requires watchfulness, will get the water nearly as hot as the steam, will deposit a large per cent. of the impurities in the water; but care is necessary all of the time to prevent the oil getting into the boilers. Economizers. An economizer is composed of cast iron tubes forced into headers, these headers connected together. Outside these tubes are scrapers being continually moved up and down, thus keeping the surface clean from the soot. These economizers are placed in flue from boiler to stack and absorb a portion of the heat from the flue gases. From whatever source the feed water absorbs waste heat, for every io° the economy in fuel will be practically 1%. A good heater with sufficient exhaust at pressure of the atmosphere will heat the feed water to 200 to 210°. An economizer will add about 100° more. The effect of an economizer in a flue is to reduce the temperature of the flue gases, and as the tempera- ture is reduced the draft will be reduced so that where economizers are used the chimney should be higher. 241 Steam Gauge. The spring in a steam gauge is a flat tube and is constructed on the principle that "a thin elliptical metal tube if bent into a coil will seek to coil or uncoil itself as subjected to external or internal pressure." A steam gauge should have a coil, bend or some provision to retain water directly under it, so that steam or heat shall be kept from the spring, as heat would expand it and show false. The spring is connected to pointer by lever and gears. The spring should move but a short distance, as there is a tendency for these tubes to ''set" when their traverse is long, and when there comes a permanent ''set" a new spring and dial is required. Rope and Pulleys. When a rope is put over one pulley the weight will be raised at the same speed as the power at the other end, and powder and weight will be equal except the friction. When another pulley is added the speed of the weight or resistance will be one-half that of the power applied and double the weight can be moved at Yz the former speed, and for every pulley added the speed will be reduced and greater resistance overcome. This is the "law of movable pulleys." The same law applies to the lever and wedge. Safety Valves. To find weight to put on safety valve lever, let A represent area X pressure; 1 represent " length of lever from fulcrum to center of valve ; L, length of lever from fulcrum to weight; W, weight. 242 Safety Valve Calculations. Then W = aXl This rule does not include the weight of lever and valve and would slightly overload the valve. Let L = length of lever from fulcrum to weight. L' = length of lever from fulcrum to center of valve. d 8" 20' 34-' — > n 90 lbs p. Fig. 106. Safety valve calculations. L" = length of lever from fulcrum to center of gravity. W = weight in pounds, w = weight of lever, w' = weight of valve, a =: area of valve, p = pressure of steam. 1. Then, W = — L 2. Weight of a cubic inch of cast iron is .2607. Cubic inch of wrought iron, .2816. Let L = length of lever from fulcrum to weight 34". L' = length of lever from fulcrum to center of valve 8". L" = length of lever from fulcrum to center of gravity 20". 243 How It Is Done. w = weight of lever, lo lbs. w' = weight of valve, 6 lbs. a = area of valve, 12J/2 lbs. p =: pressure in boiler, 90 lbs. W = weight to be found. The center of gravity of lever is the point where it would balance and is near the center depending upon the amount of taper. i2>^X90-(^-P+6) X8 Then 34 200 ID X 20 = = 25 + 6 = 31 8 90 i2y2 1080 45 1 125 31 1094 8 34)8752(257 lbs. 68 weight 195 170 252 257 244 J W. Hill. Pop Valves. To change the pressure on spring safety valves, known as ''pop'' valves, remove the lock-up cap and slacken check nut. To increase the pressure, turn the compression to the left, or down, about one square of the nut for each five pounds pressure. Then secure the check nut and let the valve blow. Note if the pressure is reduced too much after the valve "pops." A "pop'' valve is made with the regular conical valve and outside of this is a lip with sharp edge nearly seating on a movable plate. When the valve commences to blow a small amount will pass out under this lip, but as the amount increases it is retained by this lip and the extra pressure under the increased area causes the valve to "pop" or open fully at once. From the outside case is a place to reach the plate, or movable ring, generally by removing a plug. After screwing down on the valve and the pressure is reduced too much, insert a pointed instrument and turn this mov- able ring down three or four notches and let it blow,' and repeat until the seating is right. If it seats quickly and the pressure rises too much before it "pops," screw the ring in the opposite direction. Should it be necessary to reduce the pressure, pro- ceed in the opposite manner. Flywheels. In fly wheel rims, for a given material there is a definite speed at which disruption will occur, regardless of the amount of material used. 245 Fly Wheel Problems. This is expressed by the following formula : V = 1.6 V^^ 4 in which V is the velocity of rim in feet per second at which disruption will occur, w the weight of a cubic inch of material used, and s the tensile strength of one square inch. The formula means that if we divide the tensile strength of the material by its weight per cubic inch, extract the square root of the quotient and then multiply by 1.6 the result will be the speed in feet per second. Instead of the ultimate strength let us take the, safe strength. Cast iron in large castings could be depended upon for a tensile strength of io,ooo lbs., and with a factor of safety of lo would give us looo lbs. per square inch. The w^eight of a cubic inch of cast iron is .26 of a lb., so that we have for solid cast iron rims V = 1.6 V^ = 100 feet per second. This corresponds to 1.15 miles per minute. There will probably be some shrinkage strains, so that it is con- sidered good practice not to run them faster than a mile a minute. With jointed rims and joints between the arms it is not considered possible to make a joint to exceed one- fourth the strength of a solid rim. With steel having a tensile strength of 60,000 lbs., or a safe strength of 6000 and weighing .28 lbs. per cubic inch, we have V = 1.6 V"^ =146 feet per second, or 1.66 miles per minute. Hard maple has a tensile strength of 10,500 lbs. It is made up in segments so that a factor of safety of 20 is taken, and the weight is .0283 per cubic inch. V = 1.6 V^^ = 1-54 ft. per second, or 1.75 miles per minute. W. H. BOEHM. 246 Right Angle Triangle. When it is necessary to determine a right angle a distance can be measured off in one direction of 6 feet and another of 8 feet, and from these two points the dis- tance should be 10 feet. B 6 /" e y/^ 'A y^ 8X8 = 64- 6X6=36 64+36 =IOO yiOO= lO Fig. 107. Right angle triangle. The cut shows the dimensions and method of finding the third side. Multiply each of the two sides by them- selves, add the products together and extract the square root. Facts About Steam. Flow of steam in pipes should not exceed 100 ft. per second, or 6000 ft. per minute. At sea level fresh water boils at 212°. For each degree less estimate the elevation at 550 ft. 247 Cylinder Pressure, Discharge of steam through pipes. Trial made at Novelty Iron Works. H. P. at 80 lbs. steam. i" pipe 140 H. P. IJ4" " 214 " ly-," " 315 2" " 560 2>4" " 875 i( Cylinder Pressure. To find average mean pressure in cylinder by cal- culation when cut-off is known : Divide initial pressure by ratio of expansion and multiply by hyperbolic logarithm increased by i. With 100 pounds initial pressure and cutting of? at 54 of the stroke, the ratio will be 4 and the hyperbolic logarithm 1.386. 100 = 25 1.386 + I = 2.386. 2.386 X 25 = 59.65 lbs., mean effective pressure. The above does not take account of the loss from back pressure, compression, lowering of steam line or rounded corner at release, so that an indicator card would show a result somewhat less. The following are tables showing points of cutting off at 8ths and loths with ratio of expansion and hyper- bolic logarithms : Point of cutting off I \ | Ratio of expansion 8 4 Hyperbolic Logarithms . . . I2 .079I1 . 386 Point of cutting off -^^ -fj Ratio of expansion 10 5 Hyperbolic Logarithms. . . 2.303I1.609 I I i 2.66 |2 0.97810.693 f 1.6 1.33 0.470I0.285 TIT 3.33 1.203 2.5 0.916 1.66 0.507 1.42 0.351 I I. 14 O.I3I A 1.25 0.223 248 Mean Effective Pressures, Another table is often convenient. Mean pressure in cylinder when cutting off at y^ stroke = boiler pressure X -597 % X .670 H — ' X .743 /2 X .847 H — X .919 % — X .937 M — X .966 Vi — ' X .992 Buell gives the rule for finding terminal pressure in the cylinder as : ''The terminal pressure of steam in a cylinder is the product of the pressure at cut-off multi- plied by cut-off. 95 lbs. steam X .25 cut-off = 23.75, terminal pres- sure. POINTS OF CUTTING OFF. Initial 1 \ 1 1 3 1 5 3 Pressure 8 ¥ 3 8 2 8 ¥ 10 3.8 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.4 8.4 9.1 9.6 15 5-7 7.8 8.9 10.4 II. I 12.7 13.7 14.4 20 7.6 10.4 II.9 13.6 14.8 16 9 18.3 19.2 25 9.5 13.0 14.9 17-5 18.5 21. 1 22 9 24.1 30 11.5 15.6 17.9 20.9 22.2 25.4 27.5 28.9 35 13-4 18.2 20.8 24.4 25.9 29.6 32.1 33.8 40 15.4 20.8 23.8 27.9 29.6 33.8 36.7 37.5 45 17-3 23.4 26.8 31.4 33.3 38.1 41.3 • 43.4 50 19.2 26.0 29.8 34.9 37.0 42 3 45.9 48.2 55 21.2 28.7 32.8 38.4 40.8 46.5 50.5 53.7 60 23.1 31.1 35.7 41.9 44.5 50.7 55.1 57.8 65 25 33.9 38.7 45.4 48.9 54.0 59.7 62.4 70 26.9 36.5 41.7 48.9 52.4 59.2 64.3 67.4 75 28.8 39.1 44-7 52.4 55.6 63.4 68.9 72.5 80 30.8 41.7 47.7 55.9 59.3 67.7 73.5 77.1 85 32.7 44.3 50.7 59.4 63.0 71.9 78.0 81.9 90 34.6 46.9 53.6 62.9 66.7 76.1 82.6 86.7 95 36.6 49.5 56.6 66.4 70.8 80.4 87.0 91.2 100 38.4 52.1 59.6 69.9 74.1 84.6 91.8 96.3 105 40.4 54.7 62.6 73.4 77.8 88 8 96.4 lOI.I no 42.5 57.4 65.5 76.4 81.5 93.1 lOI.O 106.0 120 46.1 63.4 71.5 83.9 89.4 105.5 1 10. 2 115. 2 130 50.0 67.8 77.5 90.9 95.3 IIO.O II9.I 125.4 140 53.8 78.0 83.5 97.9 103,8 118. 5 128.6 135.9 249 About Heat Units. Average pressure from rule: — Divide the initial pres- sure by ratio of expansion and multiply quotient by the hyperbolic Logarithm increased by i Loss of Heat. To find loss in the gas going up chimney in heat units : Weight of flue gas X specific heat X temperature above boiler room = heat units. The weight of air theoretically necessary for the com- bustion of one pound carbon is 12 lbs, but the usual amount in practice where draft is used is 24 lbs. The specific heat of air compared with water is .238. If temperature of gas leaving boiler is 500° and tem- perature of boiler room 80°, then the coal has put 420° heat units into 24 lbs. air for each lb. of coal. 24 lbs. air X .238 = 5.732. This multiplied by 420 = 2407.44 heat units. Should we wish to determine the amount of water it would evaporate from 212° to steam at 21.2^' we divide the heat units by 966. This gives us 2.48 lbs. of water. This is the heat lost in producing draft, or the heat lost in chimney. It is at this point that the only hope lies in economy in the use of powdered fuel. With the fuel powdered fine and the air thoroughly mixed and blown in it should require but the theoretic amount of air which would save one-half the above loss There is another small loss that might be saved. With draft in the flue at the end of the boiler, either by chimney or by induced draft with exhaust fan, there wiii be air drawn in through the brick work and through every crack and crevice and has a cooling effect '-250 Forced Draft. Air put in by a blower so that the pressure inside of the furnace shall be equal to that of the external air will prevent any air coming in except that which goes through the fuel. Boiler Tests. When making a boiler test and it is desired to find what the evaporation is ''from and at 212°/' or from 212° of feed water to steam at same temperature, divide the heat units put in by the coal by 966°, which is the latent heat of steam at the pressure of the atmosphere. Suppose the pressure was 100 lbs. and temperature of feed 96°. The total heat units, taken from Porter's tables, of 100 lbs. steam 1216.9. The temperature in feed was 96°. 1216.9 — 96 = 1 120.9 -^-966= 1. 164. This is called the factor of equivalent evaporation. Multiplying the actual evaporation by this factor will give what the evaporation w^ould have been "from and at 212°." If the evaporation had been 8.6 lbs. of water, then 8.6 X 1.164 = 10.01. _ If it is desired to find the H. P., which is recog- nized as 30 lbs. of water, evaporated per hour from feed at 100° to steam at 70 lbs. pressure. _ Find the factor from the above figures which are at 70 lbs. 1210. 32 H. U. — 100° = 1 1 10.32 -f- 966 =: 1. 150. The factor of equivalent evaporation, 1.164 multi- plied by the actual amount evaporated per hour and divided by the factor of 100° feed to steam at 70 lbs., viz.: 1.50 will give the standard H. P. If the actual evaporation per hour had been 10,000 lbs. of water from 96° of feed water and 100 lbs. pres- 251 Electrical Terms and Phrases. sure, then 1.164 X 10,000 -f- 1.150 = 10,121.73. This number divided by 30, which is 30 lbs. of water per hour; 10,121.73 -^ 30 = 337.37 H. P. with feed at 100° to steam at 70 lbs. pressure. Piston Speed and Horse Power. Piston speed of engine X area of piston X M. E. P. -r- 33.000 = H. P. Piston speed of engine X area of piston X M. E. P. -7- 44,236 = Kilowatts. Electrical Terms. In measuring the electric current there is one thing that puzzles the beginner. He cannot understand why the dynamo is not doing work when the switches are thrown out and wonders where the current goes. He is told that the current must be calculated the same as water and the amperes as volume, and that throwing out a switch is the same as shutting off a valve. He realizes that shutting off a valve means raising the pressure and this is what puzzles him. If we look upon the electric current as a volume of air from a fan blower, that when a gate is shut and a portion or all of the air is shut off that none is being moved and that the fan is simply turning in the case it can be better understood. If it is desired to find the K. W. at switch board with 10% loss, -^ 48,659 K. W. X 1.34 = H. P. Allowing for 10% loss, K. W. X 147 = H. P. A volt is the measure of electric pressure and corre- sponds to pounds pressure in hydraulics. An ampere is the measure of electric quantity and corresponds to gallons, etc., in hydraulics. 252 Siectricai Noteii. Volts X amperes gives the watts which correspond to energy, 446 of which = i horsepower. The number of watts divided by 446 =: horsepower. An Ohm is the measure of electric resistance in the wire and corresponds to friction in pipes. A copper wire i-io" area and i' long has a resist- ance of 10.6 ohms. In determining the size of wire the entire circuit, both the outgoing and the return must be taken into account. A 16 candle-power lamp at no volts requires 3^^ watts per candle power or 56 watts. When estimating the size of wire the first thing to be taken into account is the "drop" or loss in voltage that can be allowed. For lighting there should be a drop of but 2 volts on a no volt service, or 2 per cent. For some kinds of power service there can be a loss of 5 %. At 500 volts this would mean a drop of 25 volts, and at 10% it would mean 50 volts. The latter is allowed on railway work. In three phase work the volume of current in each wire, or terminal, will be 58% of total. If we have a three phase generator of a capacity of 750 K. W. and generating current under 12,000 volts pres- sure, the amperes in each terminal will be about 37. 750 K. W. is 750,000 watts. 750,000 -f- 12,00 = 62.5 amperes. 58% of 62.5 = 36.25 amperes per terminal and the volume of current that determines the size of each wire. If we wish to supply 50 amp. 100 feet distant we have a circuit of 200 feet. If the voltage is no ana we ^•53 Hardened Copper. want a drop of but 2 volts we proceed as follows : resistance X amp. X distance = circular mils, or volts loss 10.6 X 50 X 200 1= 53,000 circular mils. 2 We look at a table of circular mils and find this cor- responds to No. 2 wire, as, if there is no number of wire that corresponds, the larger number should be taken. This number is from Brown's & Sharp's gauge. Brown & Sharp's gauge differs from all others in that all the numbers have a direct relation to each other. If we have a wire and wish to get one just double the area we count up three of the numbers. A No. 000 wire has just double the area of No. i. No. 4 is one-half the area of No. i. No. 10 is half the area of No. 7. Hardened Copper. Receipt for hardened copper-Blue clay, borax, pot- ash and straw, equal parts; crush fine, mix thoroughly together and let it remain three days preparatory to use. To I lb. copper, when melted, take i lb. 8 oz. of the mix- ture ; stir well in and let it remain one hour. Remove the slag, then put in a small piece of glass the size of Yz oz. bottle with a teaspoonful of borax ; stir well, let it remain 15 minutes and pour. A patent for the above was granted to a woman. This woman was not a metallurgist, but a clairvoyant, and her story was that during a trance an old Egyptian appeared to her and gave her the above receipt. 254 Estimating Water Power. Copper made from the above will be 99% copper and the stuff put into the copper comes out in the form of slag. From the above receipt copper drills have been made that would drill granite. For bearings it should be made so that it will work about like cast-iron. A few years since a man in Pennsylvania designed a compound metal having about 85% of copper that could be made so hard that a hatchet made from it will cut nails. It was suggested by the writer that a trial be made to show its shot resisting qualities compared with steel. A ball from a Mauser rifle that would perforate a 34 " steel boiler plate would only penetrate the copper plate ys\ Points of compass by a watch point the hour hand of the watch to the sun and half way between that point and 12 is due south when north of the equator. When estimating water power at 75% efficiency, a flow of 705 cubic feet of water per minute equals i H. P. for each i foot fall. Other Metals. Regarding copper as a metal for journals, a maker of seamless tubes had the following experience: When drawing seamless tubes, the cast shell is put on an arbor and pushed through a die and the friction on the arbor is enormous. He had trouble in getting a lubri- cant for his arbors that would prevent the brass clinging and cutting the arbor. He noticed that he had no trouble with the copper tubes, so he would draw a copper tube, then three or four brass tubes, then a copper and so on and then he had no trouble with the brass tubes. It was 255 An Expanding Metal. shown that a sufficient film of copper was left on the arbor to lubricate the following brass tubes. Metal that will expand in cooling: 9 parts lead. 2 " antimony. I " bismuth. Examination Questions* Some time ago the owners of a large building erect- ed in New York City put in an elaborate steam-heating and elevator machinery plant, and they required a good engineer to take charge. They were prepared to pay good salary to a suitable man, and this fact becoming known, a host of applicants became candidates for the place. As a means of helping to indicate what man would best suit the position, the candidates were required to take part in a competitive examination, the subjoined being the ques- tions submitted. Few engineers would be able to answer half of the questions, but the publication of them will give engineers an idea of the range of knowledge required by those favoring the system of appointment through merit alone, and they may serve as a guide to study : What is your name ? Your age, and where born? Are you a machinist ? Where were you apprenticed, and number of years you worked at the trade? What is steam? What are the properties of steam? At what temperature does water boil at sea level ? What is the volume of steam from i cubic inch of water ? 256 Examination Questions. What is the temperature of steam, and volume at i pound above atmospheric pressure? What is the temperature of steam at 60 pounds above atmospheric pressure? What is the proper course to pursue should the water be found low in the boiler? If a boiler J^!' diameter had the tubes to within 30" of the top of the boiler and allowing 2" around the shell and top of the tubes did not call for braces, what would be the area to be braced? What form of braces are commonly used ? If a boiler ^2" diameter were filled with water to within 18'' of the top, what would be the area of that por- tion filled with steam? What is the largest area allowed between braces ? What types of engines are you familiar with ? What is a sHde valve? What is a piston valve ? What are Corliss valves ? What is an eccentric ? How much throw should an eccentric have ? How should an eccentric be set ? What is lap? What is lead ? What is compression? Can this be carried too far ? How would you place an engine on the exact center ? How would you set a slide valve ? How would you set Corliss valves with single ec- centric ? How with a double ? What causes an engine to pound? How can it be remedied? 257- Examination Questions. What causes an engine to heat ? What are some of the remedies ? How would you determine the travel of a piston so it should be the same distance from both ends of the cylinder ? Upon what does the efficiency of an engine depend ? What is the effect of too slow a piston speed? What is the effect of too high a rotative speed ? What is the effect of clearance ? What relation does a four-valve engine bear to clearance ? When re-setting the steam valves on a Corliss engine what is there to look after in relation to the governor? In what way is a vacuum of benefit to an engine ? What is a heater ? In what way is a heater of benefit ? How many types are there? What is the object of a surface condenser? Can oil be separated from the exhaust steam? What is an economizer ? What are the important points about piping? What is the cause of water hammer ? Should a pipe incline towards the boiler or towards engine ? Why ? What is the expansion of a pipe 300' long with 150 lbs. steam? How can this expansion be taken care of ? What is the important point about traps ? What is sensible heat? What is the British unit of heat? What is the mechanical equivalent of heat? What is the equivalent of a horse-power? What is the horse-power of an engine — cylinder, 258 Examination Questions- I2"xi8"; initial pressure, 80 pounds per square inch; cut- off, J4 stroke; revolutions, 100 per minute? If the initial pressure be 80 pounds per square inch, and cut-off ^ stroke, what will be the terminal pressure ? What will be the point of cut-off to reduce the termi- nal to atmospheric pressure? Have you ever used the indicator? And whose make ? Draw an indicator diagram, and compute the horse- power from it, of an engine I4"x22", initial pressure 75 pounds, cut-off stroke, revolutions 80 per minute. Have you had any experience with piston valves? State what other valves you are familiar with, and give a sketch of them. What is lap and lead ? What is pre-release? Of what benefit is compression? What is the tensile strength of iron? And of steel ? What is the safe working pressure per square inch of a tubular boiler 54" diameter, plates 5-16" thick? What pressure will be necessary to burst an iron boiler 30" diameter, 5-16" thick, the diameter and pitch of rivets so they will shear off when the plates have reached the limits of their tensile strength? Give a sketch of what you consider the best boiler stay. And how a boiler should be stayed. What grate surface do you allow in square feet per horse-power ? What is a fair allowance of heating surface per horse-power ? How much water will i pound of coal evaporate ? 259 Examination Questions. How much coal would be a fair average per horse- power per hour? How much water evaporated per horse-power per hour? Give a rule for computing the diameter of a safety valve for a given boiler. Where is the best place to introduce the feed water in a boiler? Where should the blow-oflf pipe be situated ? When is the best time to remove clinkers from the fire-brick walls with the least injury to the brick? Where should the connections be made in a boiler for the attachment of steam and water gauges? Where should the steam and water gauges be situ- ated? What is your opinion as to the use of Croton water in boilers ? State your objections, if any? What different make of steam gauges are you fa- miliar with ? • State maker's name, and draw a vertical section of them. Have you had an experience in steam heating? State where. Would it be economy to use the exhaust steam for heating purposes, if it should throw a pressure of 2 pounds per square inch on piston? What weight is required for a safety valve 4" diame- ter, total length of lever 36", from fulcrum to valve 4", boiler pressure 80 pounds per square inch, weight of valve and connections 12 pounds? The diameter being i, what is the area? 260 Examination Questions. What is the square of 12? What is the cubical capacity of a cylinder 4'xio'? What is the pressure per square inch of a column of water 100' high? And at what height will it support a column of mer- cury ? What is a soft patch on a boiler? What is a hard patch? Which is to be preferred, and why? Which is bet- ter, drilled or punched holes ? Why ? How should a boiler be cooled oft ? How should the water in a boiler be changed? What is the effect of leaving the doors and damper shut? What is foaming? What are the causes of foaming? How are boilers injured by it ? How are engines? Hqw often should water gauges and gauge glasses be blown out? How would you change the point of blowing off with a spring or "pop" valve? What pumps are you familiar with? How would you set the valves for a duplex pump ? What are the causes of a pump not working? How remedied? What are the causes for an injector not working? What is a vacuum? Where is a vacuum used? How would you de- termine the amount of water for a condenser ? How would you determine the amount of water a boiler required ? How would you determine the size of pump for it? 261 About Chimneys. How much grate area should there be per horse- power of boiler? How much heating surface? What are the causes that lead to boiler explosions ? What is external corrosion? What is internal corrosion or pitting ? What are the causes ? What is grooving and cause? When are explosions the most destructive? Upon what does the effciency of the boiler depend? Stability of Chimneys. Stability, or power to withstand the over-turning force of the highest winds, requires a proportionate rela- tion between the weight, height, breadth of base, and ex- posed area of the chimney. This relation is expressed in the quotation dh^ C = W, b in which d= the average breadth of the shaft; h = its height; b = the breadth of base, — all in feet; W = weight of chimney in lbs., and C = a co-efficient of wind pressure per square foot of area. This varies with the cross-section of the chimney, and = 56 for a square, 35 for an octagon, and 28 for a round chimney. Thus a square chimney of average breadth of 8 feet, 10 feet wide at base and 100 feet high, would require to weigh 56 x 8 X 100 X 10 = 448,000 lbs., to withstand any gale likely to be experienced. Brickwork weighs from 100 to 130 lbs. per cubic foot, hence such a chimney must average 13 inches thick to be safe. A round stack could weigh half as much, or have less base. 262 Indicating and Diagrams ▼ ▼ The practice to test the performance of engines is be- coming almost universal in power plants. The price of fuel is climbing too high to let things just jog along; it is of great importance to know exactly what an engine is doing, and where to make a saving. No instrument is of greater value for this purpose than the indicator. Already James Watt felt the neces- sity, soon after the introduction of his engines, to know what was going on in the cylinder, when steam was moving the piston. For that purpose he designed an in- strument, which is supposed to have had all the essential features of our present day indicators except the rotating drum and pencil motion. Watt's indicators had none of the refinements of the instruments now in use, but they seem to have been satisfactory on engines running in those days only 15 to 20 revolutions per minute. Watt kept his indicator a secret for a long time and we have no very authentic information about it. No material improvements were made until almost a century later Richards of Hartford, Conn., designed an indicator at the suggestion of John T. Porter, which the latter could use to indicate the high speed Porter- Allen engines he was building and introducing at the time. Richards' indicator was designed on the same lines as Watt's, but it was provided with a pencil motion which produced on a piece of paper fastened to a rotating drum diagrams, with which every engineer of the present day should be familiar. 263 Richards' Indicator. Richards' indicator, of which Fig. io8 shows an outhne, took like wildfire in America as well as in Europe; it seemed to fill a long-felt want, and from its conception on, we may say, that Steam Engineering has to a very large extent become dependent on the use of the steam engine indicator. Fig. loS.^Richards' Indicator. As the speed of engines increased it was found that Richards' indicator became unreliable above 150 revolu- tions per minute, and a number of designers set to work 264 Thompson Indicator. to produce instruments, which would indicate engines correctly at much higher speeds. Improvements in the direction of lighter parts, reduction of piston travel, elimination of a number of pins and levers, greater re- liability of springs, etc., suggested themselves and were Fig 109. — Thompson Indicator. taken up by several American designers and brought to high perfection. The Thompson indicator was the next in Hne; we may say, this instrument has become the 265 Thompson's Parallel Motion. standard, it certainly holds its own against all competi- tors. Fig. 109 gives a sectional view of the Thompson indicator, and Fig. no shows its principal feature, the parallel motion which actuates the pencil bar. The levers are so arranged, that the pencil point describes a straight line between certain limits. Fig no. — Thompson's Parallel Motion. Other pencil motions have been designed, but the result is about the same, it becomes merely a matter of prefer- ence. There are, however, some indicators which elim- inate one of the levers and substitute a roller guided in a slot. The best known instrument of this type was 266 Tabor's Pencil Motion. designed by Harris Tabor and its pencil motion is shown in Fig. iii, which will give excellent results if kept in perfect order. The next step in indicator construction was made by placing the spring which forces the piston back to its original position, on top of the cylinder instead of inside of the same. Engineers who have had to change springs in a hurry on a hot indicator will appreciate this design, it saves time and trouble. One of the first indicators on Fig. III. — Tabor's Pencil Motion. which this change was made, was the Crosby, the new design of which is shown in Fig. 112. The new Crosby deviates also in another way from the common practice of indicator design, which is that the area of the piston is made one square inch, instead of the usual half inch area, customary on other makes of indi- cators. The object of this is probably to counteract the inertia due to the increase in length and weight of the 267 Crosby Outside Spring. Fig. 112. — Crosby Outside Spring. piston-rod, which reaches from the piston to the top of the spring, making it over three times as heavy as in the old design. The piston is made of spherical shape on it^ outer surface, acting as a ball joint; it has a small groove around the centerline for lubrication. The spherical piston gives greater freedom of action, and 268 Bachelder Indicator, prevents binding and friction, which may be caused by any eccentric action of the spring. The parallel motion on Crosby indicators is in all its parts extremely light; the connection between piston and pencil mechanism is made by a ball and socket joint. While it cannot be denied that the outside spring con- struction adds considerable to the ease of operation of an indicator, it is possible, that under certain conditions Bachelder Indicator. it may impair the accuracy of the instrument due to variation of temperatures. An inside spring will have practically the same temperature as the cylinder, and can be calibrated accordingly, placing the spring outside changes the conditions and atmospheric influences may affect the result. One of the handiest instruments, which can be imag- ined, is the design shown in Fig. 113, the Bachelder in- 269 Reducing Motions. dicator; the characteristic feature of which is, that it is provided with two flat springs instead of a number of spiral springs. The two springs, one for high and another for low pressure, cover the full range, which in other instruments would require a dozen different springs. If for any reason a change in the stiffness of the spring is desirable, this can be done by sliding the bushing In the spring case to any point marked on the outside and indicating the stiffness of the position. Fig. 114. — Lever Reducing Motion. The reliability of an Indicator depends not only on the accuracy of the pencil motion and sensitiveness of the spring, but also to a large extent on the correctness of the movement of the drum. It has been found In prac- tice, that the most convenient length of a diagram is 4 270 Pantograph. inches; now to produce this motion of the drum, every position of which must represent a corresponding posi- tion of the piston in the steam cyHnder, a reducing motion must be used. During the time when engine speeds did not exceed 60 to 75 revolutions per minute, it was customary to reduce the stroke of the piston by attaching levers, panto- graphs, inclined bars and other contrivances to the cross- head. A simple lever reducing motion is shown in Fig. Fig. 115. — Pantograph. 114. The whole thing may be made of wood with a few bolts to hold it together and fairly accurate results may be obtained for slow speeds. Another contrivance, which may be used is a pantograph, as shown in Fig. 115 ; it is more complicated than the simple lever motion, and perhaps a trifle more accurate, but also limited as to speed. Fig. 116 shows an inclined bar reducing motion, which may be used for higher speeds with satisfactory results, and so can the telescopic arrangement shown in 271 Inclined Bar. Fig. 117, which makes a very convenient, and combined with a crosshead pin oiler also neat looking rig, that is used to a considerable extent on medium speed engines. However, these rather crude appliances are going out of use, and reducing motions of more convenient de- sign, suitable for high engine speeds, are taking their place. What makes the new devices so serviceable for the operator, is that they are directly attached to the indicator. The reduction is made by means of wheels, Fig. 116. — Inclined Bar. actuated by cords, gears or worms, as the case may be. Fig. 118 shows an arrangement, which has met with a great deal of favor by makers as well as users of these instruments, the reduction is made by means of two drums, which are driven by cords. There are three cords altogether, one from the crosshead to the large wheel, another from a small pulley to a spring case, and the third from another pulley to the indicator drum. These e<3rds must be watched closely, if they ride or run un- 27^ Telescopic Reducing Motion, Fig. 117. — Telescopic Reducing Motion. 273 Reducing Wheels. evenly, the indicator cards will be inaccurate. It takes a certain knack to get the cords properly adjusted, but with a little practice the operator will soon overcome any difficulties. Fig. 1 1 8.—^ Wheel Reducing Motion. A reducing wheel, which requires only two cords, is shown in Fig. 119, it is used on the Crosby indicator, and is of the same high perfection as the instrument with which it is identified. The reducing motion is in this case supported by a special bracket, a construction, which prevents any strain on the indicator from a pull on the long cord to the crosshead. The intermediate reduction is effected by means of bevel gears, making this part of the operation positive. A very neat and compact 274 Crosby Reducing Wheel, Fig. 119. — Crosby Reducing Wheel. reducing motion is used on the Tabor indicator, prob- ably as simple and efficient as anything, which can ever be devised for the purpose. Its principal claim for sim- plicity and efficiency rests in the application of a worm- wheel and worm, shown in Fig 120. The teeth, which are engaged by the worm, are cut directly on the rim of the base of the drum. A spring case and pulley are placed on the outside of the worm shaft, and so is a clutch, which enables the operator to stop the indicator 275 Tabor Reducing Wheel drum at any time for removing and renewing the card without disturbing the cord to the crosshead. This Httle contrivance saves a great deal of time and annoyance, especially for the beginner. To disconnect the cord from the crosshead on a fast- running engine requires some skill and considerable practice, which not every engineer has the time to ac- quire, therefore some indicators are provided with so- called detent motions, for the purpose of stopping the drum without unhooking the cord. If the drum is Fig. 120. — Tabor Reducing Wheel. Stopped with the cord still attached to the crosshead, the cord will be thrown fore and back unless the slack is taken up by some special device, this is what happens on some of the old indicators, and has been the cause of a good deal of trouble due to the cord getting twisted or caught. If a direct connected reducing motion is at- tached to the indicator, only the slack of the short cord between the drum and pulley has to be taken up, and for 276 Take-Up Device. this purpose a 'Take-Up-Device'' as shown in Fig. 121 may be attached, which will take up the slack cord, when the detent is engaged. Every indicator manufacturer has a different device for this purpose, it remains for the engineer to decide, which one will suit him best. Indicators should, of course, be so made that they can be used for either right or left hand ; on most all of the latest designs this is provided for, all that is necessary Fig. 121. — Take-Up-Device. is to throw the pencil movement around and to reverse the drum and pencil stop. In some instances it is desirable to take a number of cards in succession, in order to ascertain how the load of an engine varies during a certain period; for this purpose some indicators are provided with a special paper drum, on which diagrams for successive strokes are described on a roll of paper, which automatically unwinds from one drum onto another. Fig. 122 shows 277 Drum for Continuous Cards. such an arrangement, with which any number of succes- sive cards can be taken, as long as the roll of paper will permit. A typical card of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 123, showing a string of diagrams and the variation of the load for a number of strokes. Although perhaps not very frequently used, the continuous indicator rig fills a long-felt want; before its introduction the customary way to produce something of a similar kind, was to hold ^^S Fig. 122. — Drum for Continuous Cards. the pencil on the ordinary paper drum for a short time and get several diagrams on one card, as shown in Fig. 124. To ascertain the average load conditions this latter method is often used, but it does not give an accurate idea of sudden changes from one stroke to another. 278 Continuous Cards, Fig. 123. — Continuous Card. Fig. 124. — Several Diagrams on One Card. 279 Indicator Connections. How to Use an Indicator. If an indicator could be attached to the cylinder head, directly in line with the piston and with the shortest pos- sible connections, no doubt the most accurate results could be obtained, but unfortunately there is no proper place for it, so we must look for another place which will give us almost the same accuracy. We find this in some engines on the side of the cylinder, on others on the top, if the cylinder is horizontal. Anyway the hole for the indicator connection should run into the clearance space. Access to the hole must be perfectly free, and there should be no obstruction or resistance to the passage of the steam. It is important that the piston should not overrun the hole. In Fig. 125 A shows the correct way of a;: 3. Fig. 125. — Indicator Connections. 280 Two Indicators Used. making the connection, in this it will be noted that a small cavity is provided in the cylinder head to the hole, which has a rounded edge on the inside, the hole in the nipple has an easy taper, and the face of the piston is in line with the inner side of the hole. Fig. 125 B shows a very careless way of drilling the hole, no accurate card can be expected from it, there will be a drop in initial pressure in the indicator. Fig. 126. — One Indicator at Each End. The arrangement of the indicator piping is just as important as the location and shape of the hole; the best way to get correct cards would be to avoid all pip- ing and place one indicator at each end of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 126. This is all right for accurate tests, but for every day indicating piping and fittings may be used with a three-way cock in the middle. The size of 281 Indicator Piping. piping is usually one-half inch iron pipe size, but brass pipe must be used, no iron should enter into the con- struction. In Fig. 127 three styles of piping are shown, style No. i may be used for short stroke engines, style No. 2 is a better way, mostly used on Corliss engines, it has long radius elbow cocks, so that the piping can be shut of? when the indicator is not in use ; style No. 3 is still more complete, it shows one additional indicator Fig. 127. — Different Styles of Piping. cock placed in vertical position at each end, thus permit- ting the use of one instrument at each end, or one in the center, as may be desired. In connecting an indicator to an engine, it is well to remember that it is a delicately constructed instrument, any abuse of which will make results inaccurate and perhaps do considerable damage; nothing will be more 282 Engine Room Practice. detrimental than scale and dirt entering the cylinder of an indicator in taking any diagrams. Therefore, the first thing to do before the instrument is attached, is to blow out the piping with steam. No r3d lead or cement of any kind should be used in making the connections tight, if any such stuff gets into the indicator cylinder it will be ruined in a short time. It is good practice to heat up the instrument before taking diagrams, and of course the condensed water must be blown out of the piping, before operations can begin. For ordinary engine room practice, where the steam pressure varies between 60 and 120 pounds, two or three springs will be sufficient, a 40 and a 60 spring will do the work, or a little better if a 50 spring is added. The height of an indicator diagram must not exceed 2 inches, and since the scale of the springs indicates the steam pressure that will move the pencil one inch, it is a very simple matter to determine, which spring should be used for certain occasions. There is no sense in having a whole lot of springs in the indicator box, unless the in- strument is to be used under all kinds of conditions. The cord from the indicator reducing motion must run in as direct a line as possible to the crosshead; if for some reason the indicator is placed in a position, which makes a direct connection impossible, as for instance on the low pressure side of a compound engine, guide pul- leys should be used. If the crosshead is provided with a wipercup or a telescopic oiler the cord may be hooked on to these, but if no such provision has been made, a hole, say V2 inch or % may be drilled and tapped into the side of the crosshead. A pin is to be screwed into this hole of such a length, that it will not strike and 283 Placing the Paper. injure any passer-by, who is not aware of its existence. The paper must be placed firmly around the drum, and the cord adjusted to produce a card about 4 inches long; next the indicator cock is turned to the position which will blow the water out of the piping and then turned on full and the card is taken. The cock is closed again and the atmospheric line is described on the paper by holding the pencil against the paper, while the cord is still attached to the crosshead and the indicator running. This last operation is of considerable importance, since without the atmospheric line an indicator card is useless. It is common practice to describe two diagrams on each card, one from the head end and another from the crank end, but before these double cards are taken, there should be produced one separate card from each end of the cylinder and properly marked. The record on the card must give the date, time of day, size of engine, boiler pressure, number of revolutions per minute, scale of spring, and perhaps the nature of the load which the engine carried. When through taking cards, the indicator should be carefully cleaned and returned to its box; it must never be left on the engine for any length of time, when not in use. How to Figure Indicator Cards. An indicator card is a graphical illustration of varying pressures on the piston of a steam cylinder during one stroke. The length of the diagram represents the stroke of the piston, and the height at any point, measured on a scale, graduated to correspond with the number stamped on the spring, with which the card was taken, gives the pressure per square inch on the piston for that 284 Ordinates Method, position in the cyhnder. For instance, if the card meas- ured % inch in the middle on a 40 scale, this would in- dicate that the pressure on the piston at half stroke was % times 40=30 pounds per square inch. From this it is evident that the average height of a diagram would give the average pressure on the piston during one stroke. The measurements must be taken from the atmospheric line. If on the return stroke the diagram shows any back pressure, the average height of this line, converted Fig. 128. — Ordinates Method. into pressure and subtracted from the average pressure of the working stroke, will give us the mean effective pressure. This proceeding is correct for a noncondens- ing engine ; for condensing there will be a line below the atmospheric line, and the average of this line from the atmospheric line converted into pressure and added to the average steam pressure above the line will give the M.E.P. If no planimeter is at hand, the mean effective pres- sure of a diagram can be found by means of ordinates. As shown in Fig. 128 the diagram is usually divided into 28s Planimeter Saves Time. lo equal parts, and vertical lines or ordinates are drawn, shown in full lines, the mean pressures of the small areas thus formed are indicated by the dotted lines halfway between the ordinates. By measuring the mean pressures on the dotted lines with the scale, correspond- ing to the spring used in taking the diagram, adding them together and dividing the sum by ten the mean ef- fective pressure in pounds per square inch is found. If the diagram is very irregular in shape it may be neces- sary to divide it into a greater number of divisions in order to correct measurements. In case the proper scale should not be at hand, the height of the divisions may be marked off on a piece of paper, one after another in one continuous line, and the whole distance be meas- ured with an ordinary rule. The number of inches and fractions thereof, divided by the number of divisions of the diagram and multiplied by the scale of the spring, will give the mean effective pressure. The results of this method are fairly accurate; how- ever, they do not compare with those obtained by means of a planimeter, an instrument, as the name signifies, which will measure the area of any plane surface rep- resented by a figure drawn to a certain scale. Another thing, a planimeter saves time ; it would be almost an end- less job to figure say 20 cards by the ordinates method, while with a planimeter the work could be done in a few minutes, and with much greater accuracy. The polar planimeter was invented about 50 years ago by Professor Amsler; in the course of time the original design has undergone a number of changes, but the original idea of letting a measuring wheel carried by a tracer arm, which swings around one end of a pole arm, 286 Amsler's Planimeter. whose other end is stationary, revolve around its axis when the point of the tracer arm is moved in any direc- tion, remains the same. A very convenient little instru- ment of this kind is shown in Fig. 129. In measuring the area of a diagram fastened to a drawing board or other Fig. 129.— Amsler's Planimeter, flat surface, covered with a piece of smooth drawing paper, the point A is pressed slightly into the paper and the tracer point B moved around the diagram, to make sure that it is within the range of the. instrument and 287 . Using the Planimeter. that the roller moves on a continuous flat surface. It must not come in contact with any obstruction, as for instance the edge of the indicator card, if it does point A must be moved to let the wheel move perfectly free. The measuring wheel is graduated on the rim, it has lo large divisions, each of which is again divided into lo subdivisions, making loo small divisions in all. The tracer arm is moved in the direction traveled by the hands of a watch. With this in mind operations can be- gin, the roller may be set by hand or by moving the tracer point along the diagram, so that zero on the roller coincides exactly with zero on the Vernier; make a slight pencil mark on the diagram, where the tracer point rests, and now move the same along the outline of the diagram, carefully taking in all the little curves and irregularities until the pencil mark has been reached again and take the reading on the roller. If the zero mark on the Vernier should coincide exactly with the line marked 4 on the roller, that would indicate that the area of the diagram would be 4 square inches, if the roller had moved an additional 3 subdivisions, the area would be 4.3 square inches. For any fractional part of a sub- division the Vernier would come into use and another decimal would be added according to which line on the Vernier would coincide with some mark on the roller. This is the way a beginner should proceed, anyone fa- miliar with the instrument can of course take the first reading, where the roller stands and subtract it from the final result. This simple little instrument only gives the area of the diagram in square inches ; to find the mean effective pres- sure it will be necessary to divide the area by the length 288 Figuring M.E.P. of the card in inches and to multiply the* quotient by the scale of the spring, with which the card was taken. A simple performance enough, but it has been improved upon by a change in the instrument, making it as shown in Fig. 130. In order to get the mean height of the dia- gram, which is equivalent to dividing the area of the diagram by the length of the card, it is only necessary to hold the planimeter upside down and adjust the two points so that the distance between them is equal to the Fig. 130. — Planimeter with Two Points. length of the diagram, then fasten the arm by means of the little thumb screw and run the tracer point over the diagram the usual way. The difference between the second and first readings multiplied by 10 and divided by 4 will give the mean height of the diagram in inches, this multiplied by the scale gives the M.E.P. There are planimeters made which have still further refine- ments not necessary for indicator work. The simpler instruments of this kind are, the better for the engineer, who has not the time to spend on a lot of delicate ad- justments. Some of them even will give direct readings of mean effective pressures, which may appeal to people, 289 Diagram Analysis. who have only a very limited knowledge of arithmetic or do not care to read a Vernier. What Indicator Cards will Show. To get the full benefit of everything shown by an indi- cator card it should be submitted to a more careful exam- ination than was done in figuring its area and determin- ing the mean effective pressure. Let us take a diagram as shown in Fig. 131 and see what we can learn from it. To the left of the diagram we draw a line at right angles Z£7 M. ." l^ACUUAf L./NS X. 0. Fig. 131. — Diagram Analysis. to the atmospheric line and divide it according to the scale of the spring used in taking the card; if the scale was 50, every inch in height will be divided into 50 equal parts. Now from the record on the card we get the 290 Diagram Lines. boiler pressure, when the card was taken ; assuming this to be 90 pounds, we draw a Hne through the correspond- ing point on the vertical line parallel to the atmospheric line. We note that the highest point of the diagram coincides with division line 83 on the vertical, this gives us the initial pressure in the^ cylinder. The difference of 7 pounds between the boiler pressure and initial pressure shown on the card indicates, that there is a drop of pres- sure of 7 pounds in the steam pipe between boiler and engine. Through point D we draw a line parallel to the atmospheric line, and through G, the extreme point at the right hand end of the diagram, we draw a vertical line, which intersects the horizontal line through D at P. The line DP we divide into a number of equal parts, 10 in this case, and draw a vertical line through each divi- sion line; next we draw the vacuum line XZ below the atmospheric line, the distance between the two to be 14.7 pounds measured on the scale. With the help of the lines we will make an investiga- tion and analysis of the diagram and the performance of the steam in the cylinder. From D, the highest point of the diagram, to E steam is admitted to the cylinder; DE is called the admission line. The slope of the line indi- cates that the steam is wiredrawn somewhere, probably in the steam port. At E the cut-off takes place, and from E to F the steam expands in the cylinder; EF is the expansion line. At F the exhaust opens, this is the point of release, EG is the exhaust line; when the pencil point is at G the piston has reached the end of the stroke. The line GH, called the back pressure line, shows the back pressure which acts against the piston on its return stroke. At H the exhaust port closes, and the steam 291 Theoretical Curve. which still remains in the cylinder is compressed, which is indicated by the rising line HC, called the compres- sion line. Just when the valve is closed can not be determined from the diagram, neither can we tell exactly when the steam valve opens, which happens with the pencil point somewhere between H and C ; the vertical part of the line HC may be due to compression or to the lead of the steam valve. If steam was admitted to the cylinder without being wiredrawn the line DE would be perfectly straight from D to K, and with the cut-off at K the expansion line should be an adiabatic curve, under the assumption that there would be neither a loss nor gain of heat, which is the meaning of the word "adiabatic/' We will draw a line which nearly resembles it on the card ; to draw the curve absolutely correct would require the use of a com- plicated formula, but it very closely corresponds with a hyperbola, which can be drawn by very simple means. If the cylinder had no clearance, we could proceed with the lines as drawn so far, but since the clearance space is filled with live steam at the beginning of the stroke it must be taken into account and we must draw a line on the card to the left of the diagram, which represents the same. The clearance in an engine cylinder consists of the space in the counter-bore, valves and ports, and all other cavities in addition to the part of the cylinder, which is not swept over by the piston, the volume of the same is usually determined by actual measurement or by figuring from a drawing. The ratio of this volume to the volume of the piston displacement is to be spaced off on the card and a line representing the same drawn. However, there is a way to determine the clearance from 292 Clearance Line. the diagram, If there are difficulties in taking the actual measurements. The result is accurate enough for ordinary purposes and the procedure as follows : Take any two points of the expansion curve a and d and draw the rectangle abed, draw a line through he and continue the same till it intersects with the vacuum Une in 0, the perpendicular OY determines the clearance. With the help of the point O we can construct the theoretical expansion Hne from point K, by drawing first the vertical KL and next the lines 03, 04, 05, etc., to 010. From the points where these lines cross KL we draw horizontal lines, and mark the points where they meet the verticals from points 3, 4, 5, etc. A curve drawn through the intersections gives us the hyperbola, which forms the expansion line KN, The diagram represented by the let- ters DKNBM gives us the theoretical performance of the steam for the initial steam pressure of 83 pounds. The mean effective pressure of the actual performance of the steam subtracted from the MEP of the theoretical con- stitutes the losses due to wiredrawing, condensation in the cylinder, back pressure and compression. This is a very interesting study and analysis of a diagram and should be undertaken, whenever an engine is indicated. Diagrams are not always as regular as the one shov/n in Fig. 131, it is more likely that a diagram would show a much more irregular shape, especially if taken on an en- gine, which has not been indicated and on v/hich the valve gear has not been adjusted for a considerable time. Are Indicator Diagrams Necessary. The question may be asked, why is it necessary to go to all this trouble and indicate an engine, figure the mean 293 Wear Changes Valve Gear. effective pressure and construct theoretical expansion curves, etc. Is it not sufficient, if an engine is kept well oiled and cleaned, and occasionally keyed up at the crankpin and crosshead ? It certainly is if nobody cares, how much steam is used or wasted, and if the main ob- ject of the engine is to keep things running without any regard to the coalpile. There are thousands of engines which have never been indicated, and there are perhaps just as many engine rooms, where an indicator is un- known. The instrument is often looked upon as an un- necessary adjunct, difficult to handle and hard to under- stand. And yet the perfection of the modern steam en- gine and the high economy, which we find in some plants is mainly due to this little tool, which has been of in- calculable value to the engine builder and the intelligent power user. Without taking diagrams of an engine it is practically impossible to tell, whether the valve gear is set right or not ; an engineer running an engine which has never been indicated, is simply groping in the dark. The adjustment of the valve gear of a engine is not permanent, constant wear will change it. It often happens that nuts get loose while an engine is running and are tightened without regard to the valve setting. An indicator diagram of the engine would show the defects. To summarize, from the diagrams of an engine we can ascertain losses caused by wiredrawing, back pressure, premature release, excessive compression, leakage of valves and piston, and a de- ranged valve gear; they will show whether an engine is overloaded, carries too light a load or- is run with an economical load, they will also tell how the load is divided on both sides of the piston. Besides, from indi- 294 Cards Will Tell. cator diagrams we can figure the indicated horse-power of an engine and get some idea about the steam con- sumption. 295 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. Pressure, Temperature, Volume and Density. (Haswell.) t-l s, I' in u t 2 a Total Heat from Water at 32°. O Density or Wt. of \ Cubic Foot, I.bs. Ins. Deg. Deg. Cu. Ft. I.b. 1 2.04 102.1 1112.5 330.36 .003 2 4.07 126.3 1119.7 172.08 .0058 3 6.11 141.6 1124.6 117.52 .0085 4 8.14 153.1 1128.1 89.62 .0112 5 10.18 162.3 1130.9 72.66 .0138 6 12.22 170.2 1133.3 61.21 .0163 7 14.25 176.9 1135.3 52.94 .0189 8 16.29 182.9 1137.2 46.69 .0214 9 18.32 188.3 1138.8 41.79 .0239 10 20.36 193.3 1140.3 37.84 .0264 11 22.39 197.8 1141.7 34.63 .0289 12 24.43 202. 1143. 31.88 .0314 13 26.46 205.9 1144.2 29.57 .0338 14 28.51 209.6 1145.3 27.61 .0362 14.7 29.92 212. 1146.1 26.36 .03802 15 30.54 213.1 1146.4 25.85 .0387 16 32.57 216.3 1147.4 24.32 .0411 17 34.61 219.6 1148.3 22.96 .0435 1 18 36.65 222.4 1149.2 21.78 .0459 ; 19 38.68 225.3 1150.1 20.7 .0483 20 40.72 228. 1150.9 19.72 .0507 21 42.75 230.6 1151.7 18.84 .0531 22 44.79 233.1 1152.5 18.03 .0555 23 46.83 235.5 1153.2 17.26 .058 i 24 48.86 237.8 1153.9 16.64 .0601 25 50.9 240.1 1154.6 15.99 .0625 26 52.93 242.3 1155.3 15.38 .065 27 54.97 244.4 1155.8 14.86 .0673 28 57.01 246.4 1156.4 14.37 .0696 29 59.04 248.4 1157.1 13.9 .0719 296 Properties of Saturated Steam (Continued). u ft) a I* I" 1 Total Heat from Water at 32^ O 11 Density or Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot. I,bs. Ins. Deg. Deg. Cu. Ft. I.b. 30 61.08 250.4 1157.8 13.46 .0743 31 63.11 252.2 1158.4 13.05 .0766 32 65.15 254.1 1158.9 12.67 .0789 33 67.19 255.9 1159.5 12.31 .0812 34 69.22 257.6 1160. 11.97 .0835 35 71.26 259.3 1160.5 11.65 .0858 36 73.29 260.9 1161. 11.34 .0881 37 75.33 282.6 1161.5 11.04 .0905 38 77.37 264.2 1162. 10.76 .0929 39 79.4 265.8 1162.5 10.51 .0952 40 81.43 267.3 1162.9 10.27 .0974 41 83.47 268.7 1163.4 10.03 .0996 42 85.5 270.2 1163.8 9.81 .102 43 87.54 271.6 1164.2 9.59 .1042 44 89.58 273. 1164.6 9.39 .1065 45 91.61 274.4 1165.1 9.18 .1089 46 93.65 275.8 1165.5 9. .1111 47 95.69 277.1 1165.9 8.82 .1133 48 97.72 278.4 1166.3 8.65 .1156 49 99.76 279.7 1166.7 8.48 .1179 50 101.8 281. 1167.1 8.31 .1202 51 103.83 282.3 1167.5 8.17 .1224 52 105.87 283.5 1167.9 8.04 .1246 53 107.9 284.7 1168.3 7.88 .1269 54 109.94 285.9 1168.6 7.74 .1291 55 111.98 '287.1 1169. 7.61 .1314 56 114.01 288.2 1169.3 7.43 .1336 57 116.05 289.3 1169.7 7.36 .1364 58 118,08 290.4 1170. 7.24 .138 59 130.12 291.6 1170.4 7.12 .1403 60 122.16 292.7 1170.7 7.01 .1425 61 124.19 293.8 1171.1 6.9 .1447 62 126.23 294.8 1171.4 6.81 .1469 63 128.26 295.9 1171.7 6.7 .1493 64 130.3 296.9 1172. 6.6 .1516 65 132.34 298. 1172.3 6.49 .1538 66 134.37 299. 1172.6 6.41 .156 67 136.4 300. 1172.9 6.32 .1583 68 138.44 300.9 1173.2 6.23 .1605 69 140.48 301.9 1173.5 6.15 .1627 297 Properties of Saturated Steam (Continued). per G V 4-> Wl -, 'li: 4-< c9 ""& . o feo S a fa 3 u Vna t>« h Otal from at 32 n ensit; of 1 Foot. ^ P-I H H > Q I,bs. Ins. Deg. Deg. Cu. Ft. I.b. 70 142.52 302.9 1173.8 6.07 .1648 71 144.55 303.9 1174.1 5.99 .167 72 146.59 304.8 1174.3 5.91 .1692 73 148.62 305.7 1174.6 5.83 .1714 74 150.66 306.6 1174.9 5.76 .1736 75 152.69 307.5 1175.2 5.68 .1759 76 154.73 308.4 1175.4 5.61 .1782 77 156.77 309.3 1175.7 5.54 .1804 78 158.8 310.2 1176. 5.48 .1826 79 160.84 311.1 1176.3 5.41 .1848 80 162.87 312. 1176.5 5.35 .1869 81 164.91 312.8 1176.8 5.29 .1891 82 166.95 313.6 1177.1 5.23 .1913 83 168.98 314.5 1177.4 5.17 .1935 84 171.02 315.3 1177.6 5.11 .1957 85 173.05 316.1 1177.9 5.05 .198 86 175.09 316.9 1178.1 5. .2002 87 177.13 317.8 1178.4 4.94 .2024 88 179.16 318.6 1178.6 4.89 .2044 89 181.2 319.4 1178.9 4.84 .2067 90 183.23 320.2 1179.1 4.79 .2089 91 185.27 321. 1179.3 4.74 .2111 92 187.31 321.7 1179.5 4.69 .2133 93 189.34 322.5 1179.8 4.64 .2155 94 191.38 323.3 1180. 4.6 .2176 95 193.41 324.1 1180.3 4.55 .2198 96 195.45 324.8 1180.5 4.51 .2219 97 197 . 49 325.6 1180.8 4.4G .2241 98 199.52 326.2 1181. 4.42 .2263 99 201.56 327.1 1181.2 4.37 .2285 100 203.59 327.9 1181.4 4.33 .2307 101 205.63 328.5 1181.6 4.29 .2329 102 207 . e-G 329.1 1181.8 4.25 .2351 103 209.7 329.9 1182. 4.21 .2373 104 211.74 330.6 1182.2 4.18 .2393 105 213.77 331.3 1182.4 4.14 .2414 106 215.81 331.9 1182.6 4.11 .2435 107 217.84 332.6 1182.8 4.07 .2456 108 219.88 333.3 1183. 4.04 .2477 109 221.92 334. 1183.3 4. .2499 298 Properties of Saturated Steam {Continued)], 1" .S U U h ^ CO 1» B Total Heat from Water at 32°. iH o It Density or Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot. I,bS- Ins. Beg. Beg. Cn. Ft. I.b. 110 223.95 334.6 1183.5 3.97 .2521 111 225.99 335.3 1183.7 3.93 .2543 112 228.02 336. 1183.9 3.9 .2564 113 230.06 336.7 1184.1 3.86 .2586 114 232.1 337.4 1184.3 3.83 .2607 115 234.13 338. 1184.5 3.8 .2628 116 236.17 338.6 1184.7 3,77 .2649 ' 117 238.2 339.3 1184.9 3.74 .2652 118 240.24 339.9 1185.1 3.71 .2674 119 242.28 340.5 1185.3 3.68 .2696 120 244.31 341.1 1185.4 3.65 .2738 ; 121 246.35 341.8 1185.6 3.62 .2759 .122 248.38 342.4 1185.8 3.59 .278 123 250.42 343. 1186. 3.C6 .2801 124 252.45 343.6 1186.2 3.54 .2822 125 254,49 344.2 1186.4 3.51 .2845 126 256.53 344.8 1186.6 3.49 .2867 127 258.56 345.4 1186.8 3,46 .2889 128 260.6 346. 1186.9 3.44 .2911 129 262.64 346.6 1187.1 3.41 .2933 130 264.67 347.2 1187.3 3,38 .2955 131 266.71 347.8 1187.5 3.35 .2977 132 268.74 348.3 1187.6 3.33 .2999 133 270 . 78 348.9 1187.8 3.31 .302 134 272.81 349.5 1188. 3.29 .304 135 274.85 350.1 1188.2 3.27 .306 136 276.89 350.6 1188.3 3.25 .308 137 278.92 351.2 1188.5 3.22 .3101 138 280.96 351.8 1188.7 3.2 .3121 139 282.99 352.4 1188.9 3.18 .3142 140 285.03 352.9 1189. 3.16 .3162 141 287.07 353.5 1189.2 3.14 .3184 142 289.1 354. 1189.4 3.12 .3206 143 291.14 354.5 1189.6 3.1 .3228 144 293.17 355. 1189.7 3.08 .325 145 295.21 355.6 1189.9 3.06 .3273 146 297.25 356.1 1190. 3.04 .3294 147 299.28 356.7 1190.2 3.02 .3315 148 301.32 357.2 1190.3 3. .3336 149 303.35 357.8 1190.5 2.98 .3357 299 Properties of Saturated Steam {Concluded). Pressure per sq. in. p-i 6 u a a, B Total Heat from Water at 32°. i-t O it Density or Wt. of 1 Cubic Foot. I.bs. Ins. Deg. Beg. Cu. Ft. I.b. 150 305.39 358.3 1190.7 2.96 .3377 155 315.57 361. 1191.5 2.87 ,3484 160 325.75 363.4 1192.2 2.79 .359 165 335.93 366. 1192.9 2.71 .3695 , 170 346.11 368.2 1193.7 2.63 .3798 175 356.29 370.8 1194.4 2.56 .3899 180 366.47 372.9 1195.1 2.49 .4009 185 376.65 375.3 1195.8 2.43 .4117 190 386.83 377.5 1196.5 2.37 .4222 195 397.01 379.7 1197.2 2.31 .4327 200 407.19 381.7 1197.8 2.26 .4431 210 427.54 386. 1199.1 2.16 .4634 220 447.9 389.9 1200.3 2.06 .4842 230 468.26 393.8 1201.5 1.98 .5052 240 488.62. 397.5 1202.6 1.9 .5248 250 508.98 401.1 1203.7 1.83 .5464 260 529.34 404.5 1204.8 1.76 .5669 270 549.7 407.9 1205.8 1.7 .5868 280 570.06 411.2 1206.8 1.64 .6081 290 590.42 414.4 1207.8 1.59 .6273 300 610.78 417.5 1208.7 1.54 .6486 350 712.57 430.1 1212.6 1.33 .7498 400 814.37 444.9 1217.1 1.18 .8502 450 916.17 456.7 1220.7 1.05 .9499 500 1018. 467.5 1224. .95 1.049 550 1119.8 477.5 1227. .87 1.148 600 1221.6 487. 1229.9 .8 1.245 650 1323.4 495.6 1232.5 .74 1 . 842 700 1425.8 504.1 1235.1 .69 1.4395 800 1628.7 519.5 1239.8 .61 1.6322 900 . 1832.3 533.6 1244.2 .55 1.8235 1000 2035.9 546.5 1248.1 .5 2.014 300 INDEX Air— weight of 250 Alkali in oil 212 Ammonia in water 51 Ampere 252 Anchor bolts 94 Anthracite coal 9 Area of tubes 231 Areas of Circles 263-267 Areas of Segments 268-270 Atmospheric Pressure 223 Average pressures 249 Babbitt metals 148 Babbitt packing rings 133 Banking fire 20 Balancing vertical engines 113 Balanced valves 173 Bearing metal 147 Belt dressing 205 Belt joints 205 Belt leather 201 Belting 130-198-207 Belts — ^power of 203 Black lead 63-147 Blowers 12 Home made 14 'Blow-off valve troubles ss Blow-off pipes 44 Boiler braces 235 Boiler compounds — Cutch 23 Gambier 23 Carbonate of Soda .23 Japonica 23 Kerosene 23 'Potatoes 23 Sal. soda 23 Tannic acid 23 Boiler — contents of 228 Boiler economy 221-232 Boiler explosions 51 Boiler feeding 19 Boiler fittings 42 Boiler horse power 227 Boiler ratings 228 Boiler room 7 Boiler settings 26-42-44 Boiler tests 251 Boilers 51 301 Boilers — material 39 Boilers — strength of 39 Boilers — weakness of 51 j Braces 235 I Brick foundations 97 1 Bricklaying 82 Bridge walls 46 Bronze bearings 149 Bulkley^s condensers 180 Burnishing 218 Carbonate of soda 2^ Caustic soda 23 Cards i52-i55-i57 Causes of heating 151 Air bound pumps 238 Air chambers 237 Air pumps and condensers 176 Air pump packing 177 Cement and mortar .83 Cement 84 Mixing 88 Portland 84 Rosendale < 84 Specifications , 87 Testing T 86 Centering engine 160 Check valves 65 Chemicals for coal 19 Chimneys 98 Brick or steel 99 Size of loi Stability of 262 Table of 102 Circles 231 Circles, Areas of 263-267 Circulation 31-43-222 Cleaning Boilers 7-222 Cleaning boiler flues 7 Clean boilers 222 Cleaning engines 218 Cleaning fire il Clearance 224 Clinkers 10 Compound engines ill Compounds for cleaning 218 Compounds — tandem 175 Compression 172-225 Concrete 90 Condensation 223 Condenser troubles 180 Condensers and air pumps 67-176-178 Condensing Engines 69-174 302 Contents of boiler 228 Continuous oiling 214 Cooling bearings 147 Cooling mixtures 147 Cooling off boilers 27-29 Cooling towers 186-188 Copper elbows — don't use 63 Copper — hardened 254 Copper rings 133 Corliss engines 107-111-120-136-139-145-152 Corliss engine with two eccentrics 153-156-162 CorHss, Geo. H 105-177 Corliss valves I7S Corliss valve setting 158 Corrosion • . . .51 Crank pin and cross head boxes 149 Crank pin not central 118 Crank pins — pressing on 125 Cranks out of square 119 Crossheads — weak 115 Curved pipes 74 Cutch. 23 Cut-off 224 Cylinder bushings 133 Cylinder drips ^J'J Cylinder oils 132 Cylinder pressure 248 CyHnder — smooth or rough 131 Cylinder — water in 135 Cylinder — wear of , 131 Dam for water supply 37 Dampers 103 Defective steam gages 32-242 Direct connected engines no Dirty streams — feed water from 38 Down draft 15 Draft— forced or induced 103-251 Draining of floors 50 Draining of pipes ^ 65 Drip pipes for cylinders 79 Drop of voltage 253 Duplex pumps 21-237-239 Eccentrics 133 Economizers 241 Economy 166 Economy of boiler 232 Efficiency of boiler 221 Efficiency of engine 223 Electric light engines 107-174 Electrical boiler cleaner 24 Electrical terms 252 Electricity or shafting 145 303 Engine design no Engine efficiency 223 Engine room tools 195 Equivalent evaporation 251 Erecting engines 146 Estimating water power 255 Evaporation 250 Examining boards 21-256-261 Examining masonry 91 Examination questions 256-261 Exhaust passages 134 Exhaust pipes 133 Expanding metal 256 Expansions in pipes 61-222 Expansion of steam .248 Expansion of wrought iron 222 Extracting oil from water 191 Factor of evaporation 251 Factor of safety 41 Feeding boilers 19-226 Feed pipes 43 Feed pump — size of ' '22i6 Filtering oils 214 Filtering water 8 Fire brick arch 47 Fire — Thickness of 10 Fire tools lo-ii Firing 9-12-14-16-17 Fish oils 209 Fittings for boilers 42 Flanged joints 60 Flash test, of oil 211 Floors— draining of 50 Flow of stearn 247 Fly wheels 123-245 Foaming , 234 Follower bolts I37-I39 Foot valves :^ Forced draft 103-251 Foundations 92-94 Stone and brick 97 Strength of 92 Frames out of line 116 Frozen gage pipe 2>2 Furnace plates 48 Fusible plug 21 Gage cocks may deceive ZZ Gage connections ZZ Gage glass cutters • 197 Gage glass points 33-197 Gage — steam 32-242 Gambier - - . ,2Z 304 Gaskets — laying out 234 Graphite .212 Grate surface '.228 Grates 232 Grease 215 Gridiron valves 171 Grooving 52 Guides 117 Gum 209 Hard patch on boiler ,234 Hardened copper 149-254 Heat — latent 53 Sensible 53 Total 53 Heat units 20-53-221 Heaters — feed water 69-239-240 Heating by steam 79 Heating of bearings — causes 151 Heating liquids 70 Heating surface 42-228 High test oils 211 High speed engine 144-164-172 High steam pressure 146 Hinge joint for belt 205 Holding fly wheels 123 Home-made blower^ 14 Horizontal vs. Vertical engines iii Horse power 221 Horse power of belts 203 Horse power of boiler 227 Horse power of engine 165-252 Hot boxes and bearing metal 147 Hot well capacity 182 Hot well temperature 185 Howe, Elias 105 Hydraulic piping 58 Idlers or tighteners 198 Indicator cards 152-155-157 Induced draft 103 Inertia 225 Injection water 186 Injectors 238 Japonica 23 Jet condensers 186 Joints for pipe 59 Joule's experiment 221 Junk ring 140-163 Kerosene boilers 23 Keys 122 Kilowatts 252 Lacing a belt 206 Lap • , 225 305 Lard oils- 209 Latent heat 53 Laying out a valve 169 Lazy bar 12 Lead 154-168-225 Leather for belts 201 Leaky blow-off valve 33 Leaks in a cool boiler 30 Leaky tubes 28 Leveling shaft 1 19-129 Lime 23 Lining up engine 121-125-128 Locomotive pounds 122 Loose glands or packing 121 Loss by dirt and scale 222 Loss of heat 250 Lubricants 150-208 Mason work 82-89 Examining 91 Mean effective pressure 249 Mercury, weight of 223 Metal for bearings ......... i ;;; ^ * * i 255 Metal that expands in cooling 256 Mineral oil 214 Mortar and cement ... . . 82 Mud in boilers 8 Neatsfoot oil 209 Notes, Rules and Tables 221-231 Ohm 253 Oil agents 210 Oil filters 214 Oil in condensers 189 Oil in water 133 Oil mixtures 210 Oil separators , iQi Oils 132-208 Oiling continuously 214 Open heaters , 241 Overheating boilers 28 Oxalic acid 219 Packing for air pumps 177 Packing sticks ^ 197 Packing with paper ... 122 Paper packing 122 Pastes for polishing 219 Patching boilers 233 Pedestal bearings .....*......;..................... 131 Petroleum 209 Picking out belts ... . . ......*................. 200 Pile driving 93 Pillow block not level 130 Pipes, draining^ of .............. ;;;;;;;.••;;;•;;•;.;;•;•;.. .65 306 Pipe joints -59 Pipes — steam 71 Pipe threads 55 Table of 57 Welds 55 Piping 8-54 Piping a hotel 80 Piping a receiver 81 Piping, expansion of 61-222 Piping, hydraulic 58 Pistons 135 Piston packing rings 141 Piston rods and follow bolts 137 Piston rod breaks 115 Piston rod fastenings 138 Piston speed 223-252 Piston too small 120 Piston valves 108-172 Points of compass by watch 255 Polishing metals 219 Pop valves 8-45-245 Poppet valves 106-167 Potatoes as boiler cleaner 25 Pounds and their causes 114-118-120-122-143 Powdered coal 15-250 Powder or steam pump 22 Power of engines 165 Power pumps 2^ Power taken by pumps 22,6 Pre-release 225 Pressing on crank pins 125 Pressure in cylinders 248 Pressure, standards of 223 Properties of steam 271-275 Pulleys and Ropes 242 Pulleys not put on true 130 Pulverized coal 15 Pumps 21-77-226-236-239 Pumps — duplex 237-239 Pumps for boiler feeding 21 Pump, leaking piston 239 Pump, power required 236 Pumps, rule for 226 Pump, slip of 226 Pumps, suction for 77 Pumps that pound 22 Pump valves 240 Putting engine on center 160 Questions for examinations 21-256-261 Ransom's condenser 179 Ratio of grate and heating surface 228 Real boiler economy 232 307 Receiver piping , , , 8i Reversing an engine 170 Ring oiling 216 Ropes and pulleys 242 Rosendale cement 84 Rough cylinders 132 Rule for pumps 227 Rules for strength of boilers 4 Rules, Notes and Tables 221-231 Runaway engines 174 Safety valves 8-45-242 Safety valve outlet 48 Sal soda 23 Scale and mud 7-23 Scrapers 197 Sector of circle 228 Segment of circle 228 Segment of circle — Area of 268-270 Selecting an engine 163 Sensible heat 53 Separators 190 Set screws in fly wheels 123 Setting eccentrics 169 Settings for boilers 42-44 Shaking grates 233 Shimming the frame 128 Side walls of boiler setting 46 Size of wire 253 Slide valves 168 Slip joints 74 Slip of pump 226 Smoke 12-14-16 Smooth cylinders 131 Soft coal firing 12-17 Soft patches 233 Solutions for cleaning 219 Specifications for belts 207 Specifications for cement 87 Speed of belts 204 Stability of chimneys 262 Standards of pressure 223 Starting bars 159 Starting up a boiler '-. 89 Steam — Facts about 53 247 Steam gage connections 33 Steam gage frozen 32 Steam gage 242 Steam heating 79 Steam jackets 157 Steam packing rings 142 Steam pipes 71 Steam vs. power pump 22 308 Steam, Properties of 271-275 Steam pumps 237 Steam room , 229 Steam traps "jd Steel for boilers 39 Stokers 18 Stone and brick foundations 97 Stove blacking lubricant 147 Strainers 34-36-182 Strength of boilers 39 Strength of boilers, Rules for ; 40 Stroke 224 Suction for pumps "jy Surface condensers 189 Sweet's follower bolt 140 Syphon condensers 179 Tables- Areas of circles 263-267 Chimneys 102 Pipe threads 57 Segments of circles 268-270 Steam, Properties of 271-275 Tables, Notes and Rules 221-231 Tallow 208 Tandem compound I75 Tannic acid 2^ Testing alignment 129 Testing cement 86 Testing oils 215 Testing water 8 Temperature of hot well 185 Terminal pressure 225 The engine room 105 Thickness of fire 10-16 Three phase work 253 Tight belts 145-198 Tighteners 199 Tools for engineer 195 Traps ^(i Travel of valve 225 Triangles 247 Trying gage cocks ; zz Tubes, Cleaning 7 Iron 41 Steel 41 Too many 42 Twisted guides 117 Two eccentrics on Corliss engines 153-156-162 Unequal expansion 52 Vacuum 185-192 Valves 167-173 Valves, balanced i73 Valve on Straight Line engine 64 Valve openings 64 Valve setting 158 Valve travel 225 Valves setting, pump 240 Valves that spring 171 Vent valves 238 Vertical engines ill Vertical engine exhausts 133 Viscosity of oil 211-213 Volt 252 Waste gas boiler 31 Waste heat, using 26-241 Water 54 Water for jet condensers 186 Water from streams 34 Water in cylinders 13S Water strainers 34-3^ Water in exhaust pipe 68 Water in pipes 42 Water in steam pipes (ij Water hammer 75 Water power, estimating 255 Water, pressure of ' 223 Water test 8 Water, weight of 223 Watt, James 105 Watts 253 Wear of cylinders 131 Welds in pipe S8 White lead vs. black lead for valves ^Z Wide belts 202 Winter masonry 89 Wire, size of 253 Wirthington condensers 182 Wright, William 107 Wrist plates , 154-156 Wrought iron, expansion of 222 INDEX TO ADDITIONAL MATTER ADDED TO THIRD REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION Amsler's planimeter 287 Bachelder indicator 269 Cards will tell 294, 295 Clearance line 293 Continuous card 279 Crosby outside spring 268 Crosby reducing wheel 275 Diagram analysis 290 310 Diagram lines 29I Drum for continuous cards 278 Engine room practice 283 Figuring mean effective pressure 289 How to figure indicator cards 284 How to use an indicator 280 Inclined bar reducing motion 272 Indicating diagrams 263 Indicator, Bachelder 269 Indicator connections 280 Indicator, Richards* 264 Indicator, Thompson 265 Indicator piping •. . .282 Indicator, Watt's 263 Lever reducing motion 270 Mean effective pressure 285 Mean effective pressure. Figuring 289 Ordinates method 285 Planimeter 286 Planimeter with two points 289 Pantograph 271 Placing the paper 284 Reducing motion, IncHned bar 272 Reducing motion, Lever 270 Reducing motion, Telescopic 273 Reducing motion, Wheel 274 Reducing wheel, Crosby 275 Reducing wheel, Tabor 276 Richards* indicator 264 Several diagrams on one card 279 Tabor's pencil motion 267 Tabor's reducing wheel 276 Take-up device 277 Telescopic reducing motion 273 Theoretical curve 292 Thompson indicator 265 Thompson parallel motion 266 Two indicators used 281 Uniflow engine 166 Using the planimeter 288 Watt's indicator 263 Wheel reducing motion 274 311 GnnDDaDnaanDnannannDnnnnnnDDDanDna DD DD I CATALOGUE | D D n OF Q D n □ Latest and Best a n . D a - n g Mechanical^ Scientific and § □ n g Practical Books g n n a D n n D PRACTICAL BOOKS FOR PRACTICAL MEN D n □ n • D n n ° H ° S n ^ □ ^ ^Inj' of these books will be sent prepaid to any g D part of the world, on receipt of price. D □ Remit by Draft, Postal Order, Express □ S Order or Registered Letter, q □ a R a n n D g n a □ PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY Q 8 He Noraitfi W. Henley Pylilisliifl^ (o. § B 2 West 45tli Street, New York, U. S. A. 8 n Q DD nn aaDnnnnnnnaannnnnaDnnnnDDQODnoDaDa INDEX TO SUBJECTS Automobiles 3, 4, 5 Automobile Charts 4, 5 Balloons 4 Bsazing and Soldering 5 Cams 15 Charts 4, 5, 6 Chemistry 26 Compressed Air 6 Concrete 6, 7, 8 Dictionaries 9 Dies— Metal Work 8, 9 Drawing — Sketching Paper 9 Electricity 10, 11, 12, 13 Enameling 13 Factory Management, etc 13 Fuel 13 Flying Machines 4 Gas Engines and Gas 14, 15 Gearing and Cams 15 Hydraulics 16 Ice and Refrigeration 16 Inventions — Patents 16 Knots 16 Lathe Work 17 Liquid Air 17 Locomotive Engineering 18, 19, 20 Machine Shop Practice 20, 21, 22, 23 Manual Training 24 Marine Engineering , 23, 24 Mechanical Movemerxts 22 Metal Work-Dies 8, 9 Mining 24 Motor Cycles 4 Patents and Inventions 16 Pattern Making 25 Perfumery 25 Plumbing 26 Receipt Book 26 Refrigeration and Ice 16 Rubber 27 Saws 27 Screw Cutting 28 Sheet Metal Work 8 Soldering 4 Steam Engineering 28, 29 Steam Heating and Ventilation 30 Steam Pipes 29 Steel 30 Tractor 31 Turbines 31 Welding 31 Wireless Telephones 13 Any of these books will be sent prepaid to any part of the world, on receipt of price. REMIT by Draft, Postal Money Order, Express Money Order, or by Registered Mail. AUTOMOBILES — MOTORCYCLES MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE, ITS DE- SIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. The most complete, practical and up-to-date treatise on gasoline automobiles, explaining fully all princi- ples pertaining to gasoline automobiles and their component parts. It contains the latest and most reliable information on all phases of automobile construction, operation, mainte- nance and repair. 1917 Edition just published. :)>^ x 7^. Cloth, 850 pages, 600 illustrations, 12 folding plates. Price ^2.50 QUESTIONS AND ANS"WERS RELATING TO MODERN AUTOMOBILE COl^i STRUCTION, DRIV- ING AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. A practi- cal self-instructor for students, mechanics and motorists, con- sisting of thirty-seven lessons in the form of questions and answers, written with special reference to the requirements of the non-technical reader desiring easily understood ex- planatory matter relating to all branches of automobiling. A popular work at a popular price. 5i^x7>4. Cloth, 650 pages. 392 illustrations, 3 folding plates. 1917 Edition just published. Price, ^1.50 AUTOMOBILE REPAIRING MADE EASY. By Victor W. Page. A thoroughly practical book containing complete directions^ for making repairs to all parts of the motor car mechanism. Written in a thorough but non- technical manner. This book contains special instructions on Tire repairing and rebuilding. Latest timing practice. Eight- and twelve-cylinder motors, etc., etc. You will never "get stuck" on a job if you own this book. 1,,000 specially made engravings on 500 plates. 1,056 pages (5>^x8). 11 folding plates. 1917 Edition. Price, $3.00 STARTING, LIGHTING AND IGNITION SYS- TEMS. By Victor W. Pag6. A practical treatise on modern starting and ignition system practice. Includes a complete exposition of storage battery construction, care and repair. Explains all types of starting motors — generators — ■ magnetos and all ignition or lighting system units. Noth. ing has been omitted, no details have been slighted. Nearly 500 pages. 2^97 specially made engravings. 1917 Edition Price, .^1.50 THE MODEL T FORD CAR, ITS CONSTRUC- TION, OPERATION AND REPAIR, By Victor V/. Page. This is a complete instruction book. All parts of the Ford Model T Car are described and illustrated; the con- struction is fully described and operating principles made clear to everyone. Every Ford owner needs this practical book. 1917 Edition, 75 illustrations, 300 pages, 2 large folding plates. Price, ?1.00 HOTV TO RUN AN AUTOMOBILE. By Victor W. PagI:. This treatise gives concise instructions for starting and running all makes of gasoline automobiles, how to care for them, and gives distinctive features of control. Describes every step for shifting gears, controlling engine, etc. Thor- oughly illustrated. Price, SI. 00 3 AUTOMOBILE WELDING WITH THE OXY- ACETYLENE FLAME. Jby M. Keith Dunham. Ex- plains in a simple manner apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construct necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. Gives principles never to he forgotten. Aluminum, cast iron, steel, copper, brass, bronze and malleable iron are fully treated, as well as a clear ex- planation of the proper manner to burn the carbon out of the combustion head. This book is of utmost value, since the perplexing problems arising when metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to overcome them shown. 16/ pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.00 THE AUTOMOBILIST'S POCKET COMPANION AND EXPENSE RECORD. By Victor W. PAci:. This book is not only valuable as a convenient cost record but contains much information of value to motorists. In- cludes a condensed digest of auto laws of all States, a lubri- cation schedule, hints for care of storage battery and care of tires, location of road troubles, anti-freezing solutions, horse- power table, driving hints and many useful tables and recipes of interest to all motorists. Not a technical book in any sense of the word, just a collection of practical facts in sim- ple language for the everyday motorist. Convenient pocket size. Price, .$1.00 MOTORCYCLES, SIDE CARS AND CYCLE- CARS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION, MANAGEMENT AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. Describes fully all leading types of machines, their desien. construction, maintenance, operation and repair. 550 pages. 3^50 specially made illustrations, 5 folding plates. Price, $1.50 AUTOMOBILE CHARTS LOCATION OP GASOLINE ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. This chart shows clearly all parts of a typical four-cylinder gasoline engine of the four-cycle type. It simplifies location of all engine troubles. No details omitted. Size 25 x 38 inches. Securely mailed on receipt of Price, 35 cents LOCATION OF CARBURETION TROUBLES MADE EASY. It shows clearly how to find carburetion troubles and names all defects liable to exist in the various parts. Instructions are given for carburetor adjustment. Size 24 X 38 inches Price, 25 cents LOCATION OP IGNITION SYSTEM TROUBLES MADE EASY. In this chart all parts of a typical double ignition system using battery and magneto current are shown, and suggestions are given for readily finding ignition troubles and eliminating them when found. Size 24 x 38 inches. Price, 25 cents LOCATION OP ENGINE COOLING AND LUB- RICATING TROUBLES MADE EASY. This is a com.bination chart showing all components of the approved form of water cooling group as well as a modern engine lu- brication system. It shows all points where defects exist that may result in engine overheating, both in cooling and oiling systems. Size 24 x 38 inches. Price, 25 centfik 4 LOCATION OF FORD ENGINE TROUBLES MADE EASY. Chart shows clear sectional views depict- ing ail portions of the Ford power plant and auxiliary groups. It outlines clearly all parts of the engine, fuel supply sys- tem, ignition group and cooling system, that are apt to give trouble, detailing all derangements that are liable to make an engine lose power, start hard or work irregularly. This chart simplifies location of all engine faults. Size 25x38 inches. Price, 35 cents LUBRICATION OF THE MOTOR CAR CHASSIS. This chart presents the plan view of a typical six-cylinder chassis of standard design and outlines all important bear- ing points requiring lubrication, and is a valuable guide to the correct lubrication of any modern car. A practical chart for all interested in motor car maintenance. Size 24 x 38 inches. Price, 35 centa LOCATION OF MOTOR CYCLE TROUBLES MADE EASY. This chart simplifies location of all power plant troubles and will prove of value to all who have to do with the operation, repair or sale of motorcycles. No details omitted. Size 30 x 20 inches. BRAZING AND SOLDERING BRAZING AND SOLDERING. By James F. HoBART. The only book that shows you just how to handle any job of brazing or soldering that comes along; it tells you what mixture to use, how to make a furnace if you need one. Full of valuable kinks. The fifth edition of this book has just been published, and to it much new matter and a large number of tested formulas for all kinds of solders and fluxes have been added. Illustrated. 35 cents CHARTS MODERN SUBMARINE CHART — WITH 300 PARTS NUMBERED AND NAMED. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a submarine of the latest type. No details omitted — e-wrything is accurate and to scale. This chart is really an enc^iclo- pedia of a submarine. Price, 35 cents BOX CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list. Price, 35 cents GONDOLA CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper reference name given in a refer- ence list. Price, 3 5 cents PASSENGER CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list. Frice^ 35 cent* 6 STEELi HOPPER BOTTOM COAL. CAR. A chart showing the anatomy of a steel hopper bottom coal car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list. , Price, 25 cents TRACTIVE POWER CHART. A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any loco- motive without rnaking a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given draw- bar pull or anything you desire in this line. 50 cents HORSE POIVER CHART. Shows the horse power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke, the steam pressure or cut-off, the revolutions, or whether condensing or non-con- densing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate and saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and de- signers. Price, 50 cents BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowler. A ehart — si«e 14 x 28 tno'hes — showing in isometric perspective the meohani§«ns belonging in a moder-ii boiler room. This qbart is rea?lliy a di&tiona,mr of th« boiler room — w§ naijies 0f more ^wti IC^ partd \mtg g^v^n, P«i-im> ^ e^titH COMFRBSSESD AIR IIT Alili ITS AFPIilCA- TIONS. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is the most com- plete book on the subject of air that has ever been issued, and its thirty-five chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of. It may be called an encyclopedia of compressed air. It is written by an expert, who, in its 665 pages, has dealt with the subject in a comprehensive manner, no phase of it being omitted. Over 500 illustra- tions. Fifth Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth bound, t^5.00. Half Morocco, Price, ?6.50 This is the standard work on this important subject. CONCRETE CONCRETE "WAIili FORMS. By A. A. Houghton. A new automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other types of wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained. Price, 50 cent* CONCRETE FLOORS AND SIDEWALKS. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for molding squares, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and sidewalk blocks are fully illustrated and explained. Price, 50 cents PRAOTICAIi CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUC- TION, By A. A. Houghton. Complete working drawings and specifications are given for several styles of concrete silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables, data, and information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms of concrete silos. Price, 50 cents 6 MOL-DIIVG CONCRKTE BATH TUBS, AaUAR^ lUMS AXD IVATATORIUMS. By A. A. Houghton. Simple molds and instruction are given for molding differ- ent styles of concrete bath tubs, swimming pools, etc. Price, 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE3 CHIMNEYS, SL.ATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A. Houghton. The manu- facture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable data on all forms of reinforced concrete toofs are contained within its pages. The construction of concrete chimneys by block and monolithic systems is fully illustrated and described. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds are shown in this valuable treatise. Price, 50 cents MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL. CON- CRETE. By A. A. Houghton. The proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the meth- ods of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive treatise on this subject that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value. Price, 50 cent« CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS AND BURIAL VAULTS. By A. A. Houghton. The mold- ing of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this treatise, with working draw- ings of easily built molds. Cutting inscriptions and designs is also fully treated. Price, 50 cents CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEW- ERS. By A. A. Houghton, A number of ornamental con- crete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A col- lapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with detailed instructions for building. Price, 50 cents CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. Houghton. A number of designs with working draw- ings of molds are fully explained so any one can easily con- struct different styles of ornamental concrete porches with- out the purchase of expensive molds. Price, 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for producing many original designs of flower pots, urns, flower boxes, jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct and operate same. Price, 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS.^ By A. A. Houghton. The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitch- ing posts, pergolas, sun dials and other forms of ornamental concrete, for the ornamentation of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described. Price, 50 cents CONCRETE ON THE FARM AND IN THE SHOP. By H, CoLviN Campbell. This is a new book from cover to cover, illustrating and describing in plain, simple language many of the numerous appliances &i concrete within the range of the home worker. 150 pages, 51 illus- trations.! "*.' " - Price, 75 cents 7 €01VCRETE2 FROM SAXD MOIiDS. By A. A. Houghton. A practical work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the few who possessed it, and which will successfully mold every and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand^ molds is of the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all orna- mental designs, density and increased strength of the con- crete, perfect curing of the work without attention and the easy removal of the molds regardless of any undercutting the design may have. 192 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, $2.00 ORXAMENTAIi COXCRETE TVITHOTJT MOJLDS. By A. A. Houghton. The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal templates of different designs, to mold or model in concrete any cornice, archivolt, column, pedestal, base cap, urn or pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the specifications demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Cloth. Price, ?2.00 POPUIiAR HAXDBOOK: for cement AND CONCRETE USERS. By Myron H. Lewis. Everything of value to the concrete user is contained, including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, waterproofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, working and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters. A valuable addition to the library of every cement and concrete user. Cloth, 430 pages, 126 illus- trations. Price, ?2.50 WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By Myron H. Lewis. Modern methods of waterproofing concrete and other structures. A condensed statement of the principles, rules and precautions to be observed in waterproofing and damp- proofing structures and structural materials. Paper binding. Illustrated. Second Edition. Price, 50 cents DIES— METAL ^A^ORK PUNCHES, DIES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFAC TURING IN PRESSES. By J. V. Woodworth. A« encyclopedia of die-making, punch-making, die-sinking, sheet, metal working, and making of special tools, subpresses, de- vices and mechanical combinations for punching, cutting, bending, forming, piercing, drawing, compressing, and assem- bling sheet-metal parts and also articles of other materials in machine tools. This is a distinct work from the authors book entitled "Dies; Their Construction and Use." 500 pages, 700 engravings. Second edition. Cloth. «. ^ ^^ Price, f 4.00 8 DIES, THEIR COIVSTRUCTIOX AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING OP SHEET METALS. By J. V. WooDWORTH. A new book by a practical man, for those who wish to know the latest practice in the working of sheet metals. It shows how dies are designed, made and used, and those who are engaged in this line of work can secure many valuable suggestions. Fifth edition. 505 illus- trations, 384 pages. Cloth. Price, $3.00 DROP FORGING, DIE-SINKING AND MA- CHINE-FORMING OF STEEL.. By J. V. Woodworth. The processes of die-sinking and force-making, which are thoroughly described and illustrated in this admirable work, are rarely to be found explained in such a clear and con- cise manner as is here set forth. The process of die-sink- ing relates to the engraving or sinking of the female or lower dies, ^ such as are used for drop forgings, hot and cold machine forging, swedging and the press working of metals. The process of force-making relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upper dies used^ in producing the lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate parts of metal. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged-metal worker. All opera- tions described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed illustrations. 339 pages, cloth. Price, $2.50 DICTIONARIES STANDARD ELECTRICAL. DICTIONARY. By T. O'CoNOR Sloane. a practical handbook of reference coil- taining definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. Twelfth Edition. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. Price, $3. GO DRAWING — SKETCHING PAPER LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By Herman T. ^ C. Kraus. This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, engi- neering and mechanical drawings. The arrangement of the book is good; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descrip- tive text follows on the opposite page, so' as to be readily referred to. The drawings are on sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. The whole work makes a very complete course on perspective drawing. Cloth. Price, $2.50 SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE DESIGN. By F. L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsman, with additions by Erik Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." A practical ele- mentary treatise on Mechanical Drawing and Machine De- sign, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechan- ical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of materials and the calculation and design of machine details, compiled for the use of practical mechanics and young draftsmen. 330 pages, 215 engravings, cloth. Price, $3. OO 9 A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. A new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no work- man can help seeing just what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches. Price, 25 cents 9 X 12 inches. Price, 50 cents 12 X 18 inches, Price, $1.00 PRACTICAIi PERSPECTIVE. By Richards and CoLViN. Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can^ understand a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves time in the drawing room and mistakes in the shops. Contains practical exam- ples of various classes of work. Third edition. Limp cloth. Price, 50 cents ELECTRICITY ARITHMETIC OP ELECTRICITY. By Prop. T. O'CoNOR Sloane. a practical treatise on electrical calcula- tions of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems with de- tailed solution of each one. This book is classed among the most useful works published on ^ the science^ of electricity, covering as it does the mathematics of electricity in a man- ner that will attract the attention of those who are not familiar with algebraical formulas. 160 pages. Twenty-first edition. Cloth. " "Price, ^l.OO DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FIFTY WATT I>Y- NAMO. By Arthur J. Weed. A practical treatise show- ing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the entire machine work of which can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working drawings are given for each piece of machine work, and each operation is clearly described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a sewing machine on any and all^ ordinary work. The book is illus- trated with more than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. Price, paper binding:, 50 cents; Clotli, ^l.OO ELECTRIC W^IRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By Newton Harrison. This is the only complete work issued showing and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It is a ready reference. The work is free from advanced tech- nicalities and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, com- prehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, forem;»n, con-' tractor* or electrician. 21 Z pages, 105 illustrations.' Cloth. Price. ;pi.50 COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. Bax- ter, Jr. The business end of any dynamo or motor of the direct current type is the commutator. This book goes into the designing, building and maintenance of commutators, shows how t© locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. Fourth edi- tion. Price^ 25 cents STORAGE BATTERIES SIMPIilFIED. By Victor W. Page. Tells how to charge, care for and rebuild storage batteries, also outlines all the industrial uses. Tells how they run street cars, locomotives and factory trucks. The important functions they perform in submarine boats, isolated lighting plants, railway switch and signal systems, marine applications, etc. Tells how they are used for starting automobile motors and in ignition systems. Every practical use of the modern storage battery is treated. Price, $1.50 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND HEATING POCK- ET BOOK. By Sydney F. Walker. This book puts in convenient form useful information regarding the apparatus which is likely to be attached to the mains of an electrical company. Tables of units and equivalents are included and useful electrical laws and formulas are stated. 438 pages, 300 engravings. Bound in leather. Pocket book form. Price, J^S.OO ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILD- ING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION. This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. 210 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. Twentieth edition, enlarged. Price, ^l.OO PRACTICAL ELECTRICITY. By Prop. T. O* Conor Sloane. This work of 768 pages was previously known as Sloane's Electricians* 'Hand Book, and is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire field of electricity is covered within its pages. It contains no useless theory; everything is to the point. It teaches you just what you should know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Forty-one chapters, 610 engravings, 761 pages, handsomely bound in cloth. Third edition. Price, $2.50 ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O* Conor Sloane. The object of "Electricity Simplified*' is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two •plates of different metals immersed in acid can send a mes- sage around the globe; to explain how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension mean; and to answer the ques- tions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age oj elec- tricity. 17^2 pages. Illustrated. Thirteenth edition. i^^Ioth. Price, $1.00 11 - HOITSE/WIRING. By Thomas W. Poppe. Describing and illustrating up-to-date methods of installing electric light wiring. Intended for the electrician, helper and apprentice. Contains just the information needed for successful wiring of a building. Fully illustrated with diagrams and plans. It solves all wiring problems and contains nothing that con- flicts with the rulings of the National Board of Fire Under- writers. It gives just the information essential to the suc- cessful wiring of a building. 125 pages, fully illustrated, flexible cloth. Price, 50 cents MAN^AGEMEIVT OF DYNAMOS. By Lummis-Pat- ERSON. A handbook of theory and practice. This work is arranged in three parts. The first part covers the elementary theory of the dynamo. The second part, the construction and action of the different classes of dynamos in common use are described; while the third part relates to such matters as affect the practical management and working of dynamos and motors. Fourth edition. 292 pages, 117 illus- trations. Price, $1.50 ELECTRICITY IIV FACTORIES AND WORK- SHOPS. Its cost and convenience. A handy book for power producers and power users. By Arthur P. Haslam. 5^x8. Cloth, 312 pages, 70 illustrations. Price, $^.50 HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL. ELECTRI- CIAN. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. An interesting book from cover to cover. Telling in simplest language the surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. 202 pages. Illustrated. Eighteenth revised edition. Cloth. Price, $1.00 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. A practical handbook of refer- ence containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Twelfth edi- tion. 682 pages, 393 illustrations. Price, $3.00 SWITCHBOARDS. ^ By William Baxter, Jr. This book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wants to know the practical side of things. All sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and circuits are shown by diagram and illustrate just how the switchboard should be connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those for arc lighting, incandescent and power circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power transmission. Second edition. 190 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.50 TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLA- TION, WIRING, OPERATION AND MAINTE- NANCE. By W. H. Radcliffe and H. C. Cushing.^ This book gives the principles of construction and operation of- both the Bell and Independent instruments; approved meth- ods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting them from lighting and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation as series or bridging stations; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the wiring and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. 224 pages, 132 illustrations. Second revised edition. Price, ?1.00 12 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TEIiEPHOlVV SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By Alfred P. Morgan. ^ This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehen- sible treatises on the subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will_ enable one to master all the details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has £lled a long-felt want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. 154 pages, 156 engravings. Price, $1.00 WIRING A HOUSE. By Herbert Pratt. Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it accord- ing to insurance rules; in fact, just the information you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition. Price^ 25 cents ENAMELING HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY RE- CEIPT BOOK. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. A work of 10,000 practical receipts, including enameling receipts for hollow ware, for metals, for signs, for china and porcelain, for wood- etc. Thorough and practical. 1914 edition. , Price, $3.00 FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By O. E. Perrigo, M.E. a work designed for the practical and every- day use of the architect who designs, the manufacturers who build, the engineers who plan and equip, the superinten- dents who organize and direct, and for the information of every stockholder, director, officer, accountant, clerk, super- intendent, foreman and workman of the modern machine shop and manufacturing plant of Industrial America. Price, $5.00 FUEL COMBUSTION OP COAL AND THE PREVEN- TION OF SMOKE. By Wm. M. Barr. This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combustion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals ^ particularly with the conditions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coals in stationary and locomotive steam boilers. The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language, *^Tee from technicalities, the sev- eral processes involved in the furnace combustion of Amer- ican fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for per- fect combustion, and points out the best methods for fur- nace construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Fifth edition. Price, $1.00 SMOKE PREVENTION AND FUEL ECONOMY. By Booth and Kershaw. As the title indicates, this book of 197 pages and 75 illustrations deals with the problem of complete combustion, which it treats from the chemical and mechanical standpoints, besides pointing out the economical and humanitarian aspects of the question. Price, ^2.50 13 GAS ENGINES AND GAS r GAS EXGINE CONSTRUCTION, Or How to Build a Half-'Horse-power Gas Engine. By Parsell and Weed. A practical treatise describing the theory and principles of the action of gas engines of various types, and the design and construction of a half-horse-power gas engine, with illus- trations of the work in actual progress, together with dimen- sioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the vari- ous details. 300 pages. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $2.50 CHEMISTRY OP GAS MANUFACTURE. By H. M. RoYLES. This book covers points likely to arise in the ordinary course of the duties of the engineer or manager of a gas works not large enough to necessitate the employment of a separate chemical staff. It treats of the testing of the raw materials employed in the manufacture of illuminating coal gas and of the gas produced. The preparation of standard solutions is given as well as the chemical and physi- cal examination of gas coal. 5^4x8^, Cloth, 328 pages, 82 illustrations, 1 colored plate. Price, $4.50 THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND USES. By Xeno W. Putnam. A useful and practical treatise on the modern gasoline and kerosene engine, its construction, management, repair and the many uses to which it can be applied in present-day farm life. It considers all the various household, shop and field uses of this up-to-date motor and includes chapters on engine installation, power transmission and the best arrangement of the power plant in reference to the work. 5%x7y2 Cloth. 527 pages, 179 illustrations. '^ Price, f 2.00 GASOlilNE ENGINES: THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. Hyatt Verrill. A comprehen- sive, simple and practical work, treating of gasoline engines for stationary, marine or vehicle use; their construction, de- sign, management, care, operation, repair, installation and troubles. A complete glossary of technical terms and an alpha- betically arranged table of troubles and symptoms form a most valuable and unique feature of the book. 5^x754. Cloth. 275 pages, 152 illustrations. Price, $1.50 GAS, GASOLINE AND OIL. ENGINES. By Card- NER D. Hiscox. Revised by Victor W. PagJ:. Just issued new, revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive and right up- to-date.^ The only complete work on the subject. Tells all about internal combustion engineering, treating exhaustively on the design, construction and practical application of all forms of gas, gasoline, kerosene and crude petroleum-oil en- gines. Describes minutely all auxiliary systems, such as lubrication, carburetion and ignition. Considers the theory and management of all forms of explosive motors for sta- tionary and marine work, automobiles, aeroplanes and motor- cycles. Includes also Producer Gas and Its Production. Invaluable instructions for all students, gas-engine owners, gas-engineers, patent experts, designers, mechanics, drafts- men and all having to do with the modern power. Illustrated by over_400 engravings, many specially made from engineer- ing drawings, all in correct proportion. 650 pages, 435 en- gravings. ^- " Price, net, $2.50 14 MODBRIV GAS EXGIXES AND PRODUCER GAS PLANTS. By R. E. Mathot, M.E. A practical treatise of 320 pages, fully illustrated by 175 detailed illus- trations, setting forth the principles of gas engines and pro- ducer design, the selection and installation of an engine, conditions of perfect operation, producer-gas engines and their possibilities, the care of gas engines and producer-gas plants, with a chapter on volatile hydrocarbon and oil en- gines. This book has been endorsed by Dugal Clerk as a most useful work for all interested in gas engine installation and producer gas. Price, $2.50 HOW TO RUN AND INSTALL GASOLINE ENGINES. By C. VoN Culin. New revised and enlarged edition just issued. The object of this little book is to fur- nish a pocket instructor for the beginner, the busy man who uses an engine for pleasure or profit, but who does not have the time or inclination for a technical book, but sim- ply to thoroughly understand how to properly operate, install and care for his own engine. The index refers to each trouble, remedy and subject alphabetically. Being a quick reference to find the cause, remedy and prevention for troubles, and to become an expert with his own engine. Pocket size. Paper binding. Price, 25 cents MODERN GAS TRACTOR, ITS CONSTRUC- TION, UTILITY, OPERATION AND REPAIR. By Victor W. Page. Treats exhaustively on the design and construction of farm tractors and tractor power-plants, and gives complete instructions on their care, operation and re- pair. All types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene and oil tractory are described, and every phase of traction engineer- ing practice fully covered. Invaluable to all desiring re- liable information on gas motor propelled traction engines and their use. 5^x7J^. Cloth. 475 pages, 204 illustrations, 3 folding plates. Price, $2.00 GEARING AND CAMS BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. Ag. Engstrom. No one who has to do with bevel gears in any way should be without this book. The designer and draftsman will find it a great convenience, while to the machinist who turns up the blanks or cuts the teeth, it is invaluable, as all needed dimensions are given and no fancy figuring need be done. Third edition. Cloth. Price, f l.OO CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By Oscar E. Perrigo. A book for every designer, draftsman and mechanic who is interested in feed changes for any kind of machines. This shows what has been done and how. Gives plans, patents and all information that you need. Saves hunting through patent records and reinventing old ideas. A standard work of reference. Cloth. Price, ^l.OO DRAFTING OP CAMS. By Louis Rouillion. The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts you on the right road for prac- tically any kind of cam you are likely to run up against. Third edition. Price, 25 centa 16 HYDRAULICS HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By Gardner D, Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, and resource! of water for all purposes. Including the measurement of streams; the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse- power of falling water; turbine and impact water-wheels; wave-motors, centrifugal, reciprocating and air-lift pumps. With .300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. 32(3 pages. Price, $4.O0 ICE AND REFRIGERATION POCKETBOOK OP REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING. By A. J. Wallis-Taylor. This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the installment and operation of a refrigerating plant. New edition just published. Price, $1.50 INVENTIONS— PATENTS INVENTOR'S MANUAL., HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY. This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents, and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Solicitor's circular nor a Patent Broker's advertise- ment. No advertisements of any description appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's ex- perience of a successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other inventors. Revised edi- tion. 120 pages. Cloth. Price, $1.00 KNOTS KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. Hyatt Verrill. ^ This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most useful and orna- mental knots in common use, with chapters on Splicing, Pointing, Seizing, Serving, etc. This book is fully illus- trated with one hundred and fifty original engravings, which shows how each knot, tie or splice is formed, and its appear- ance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest value to eampers, yachtsmen, travelers or Boy Scouts, in fact, to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical, and is not only a guide but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. 118 pagesj 150 original en- gravings. Price, 75 cents 16 LATHE WORK THRIVING AND BORING TAPERS. By Fred H. CoLViN. There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things that you should follow. Fourth edi- tion. Price, 25 cents L.ATHE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION, WITH PRACTICAL. EXAMPLES OF LATHE WORK. By Oscar E. Perrigo. A New revised edition, and the only complete American work on the subject, written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its de- scriptions and illustrations. Lathe history and the relations of the lathe to manufacturing are given; also a description of the various devices for feeds and thread cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, including back gearing, driving cones, thread-cutting gears, and all the essential element of the modern lathe. The classification of lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of lathes including, as is usually understood, engine lathes, bench lathes, speed lathes, forge lathes, gap lathes, pulley lathes, forming lathes, multiple-spindle lathes, rapid-reduction lathes, precision lathes, turret lathes, special lathes, electrically-driven lathes, etc. In addition to the^ complete exposition on construction and design, much practical matter on lathe installation, care and operation has been incorporated in the enlarged 1915 edi- tion. All kinds of lathe attachments for drilling, milling, etc., are described and complete instructions are given to enable the novice machinist to grasp the art of lathe oper- ation as well as the principles involved in design. A number of difficult machining operations are described at length and illustrated. The new edition has nearly 500 papes and 350 illustrations. Price, $2.50 PRACTICAL METAL. TURNING. By Joseph G. Horner. A work of 404 pages, fully illustrated, covering in a comprehensive manner the modern practice of machining metal parts in the lathe, including the regular engine lathe, its essential design, its uses, its tools, its attachments, and the manner of holding the work and performing the opera- tions. The modernized engine lathe, its methods, tools and great range of accurate work. The turret lathe, its tools, accessories and methods of performing its functions. Chap- ters on special work, grinding, tool holders, speeds, feeds, modern tool steels, etc., etc. Second edition. Price, $3.50 LIQUID AIR liiaUID AIR AND THE LiaUEPACTION OP GASES. By T. O'Conor Sloane. Theory, history, biog- raphy, practical applications, manufacture. Second edition. 365 pages. Illustrated. Price, ^2.00 17 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING air-brake: catechism. By Robert H. Black- all. This book is a standard text book. It is the only practical and complete work published. Treats on the equip- ment manufactured by the Westinghouse Air Brake Com- pany, including the E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment, the K (Quick-Service) Triple Valve for freight service; the L High Speed Triple Valve; the P-C Passenger Brake Equip- ment, and the Cross Compound Pump. The operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail and a practical way of locating their peculiarities and remedying their de- fects is given. Endorsed and used by air-brake instructors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. Twenty-sixth edition. 411 pages, fully illustrated with fold- ing plates and diagrams. New edition. Price, $2.00 AMERICAN COMPOUND L.OCOMOTIVES. By Fred H. Colvin. . The most complete book on compounds published. Shows all types, including the balanced compound. Makes ieverything clear by many illustrations, and shows valve setting, breakdowns and repairs. 142 pages. Cloth. Price, $1.00 APPIilCATIOlV OP HIGHLY SUPERHEATED STEAM TO LOCOMOTIVES. By Robert Garbe. A practical book which cannot be recommended too highly to those motive-power men who are anxious to maintain the highest efficiency in their locomotives. Contains special chap- ters on Generation of 'Highly Superheated Steam; Super- heated Steam and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Com- pounding and Superheating; Designs of Locomotive Super- heaters; Constructive Details of Locomotives Using Highly Superheated Steam. Experimental and Working Results. Illustrated with folding plates and tables. Cloth. Price, $2.50 COMBUSTION OF COAL AXD THE PREVEl^- TION OF SMOKE. By Wm. M. Barr. To be a success a fireman must be "Light on Coal." He must keep his fire in good condition, and prevent, as far as possible, the smoke nuisance. To do this, he should know how coal burns, how smoke is formed and the proper burning of fuel to obtain the best results. He can learn this, and more too, from Barr's ^'Combination of Coal.** It is an absolute authority on all questions relating to the firing of a locomotive. Fifth edition. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.00 DIARY OP A ROUND-HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. Reilly. This is the greatest book of railroad experi- ences ever published. Containing a fund of information and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc., that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price, ^1.00 LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SET- TING. By Fred H. Colvin, Associate Editor of "American Machinist." A handy book that clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how they work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every rail- road man in the motive-power department ought to have. Fully illustrated. New revised and enlarged edition just published. Price, 50 cents IS TRAIM^ RUIiB EXAMIXATIOIVS MADSS EASY. By G. E. CoLLiNGWOOD.* This is the only practical work on train rules in print. Every detail is covered, and puzzling points are explained !n simple, comprehensive language, mak- ing it a practical treatise for the train dispatcher, engine- man, trainman and all others who have to do with the move- ments of trains. Contains complete and reliable information of the Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Shows signals in colors, as used on the different roads. Explains fully the practical application ox ioir orders, giving a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. 256 pages. Fully illustrated with train signals in colors. Price, ?1.?;5 LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By Frank A. Kleinhans. The only book showing how locomo- tive boilers are built in modern, shops. Shows all types of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of riveting punches and dies, work done per day, allowance for bending and flanging sheets and other data that means dollars to any railroad man. Second edition. 451 pages, 334 illustrations. Six folding plates. Cloth. Price, $3.00 LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOTITNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By Geo. L. Fowler. Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. Revised pocket edition. It is out of the queston to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this pocket edition of Loco- motive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of re- pair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as Questions and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. Eighth edition. 294 pages. Fully illustrated. Price, j^l.OO LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By Robert Grim- SHAW. Twenty-eighth revised and enlarged edition. This may well be called an encyclopedia of the locomotive. Con- tains over 4,000 examination questions with their answers, including among them those asked at the first, second and third years' examinations. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and 3 folding plates. Price, $2.50 WESTINGHOUSE ET AIR-BRAKE INSTRUC- TION POCKET BOOK CATECHISM. By Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. A practical work containing examination questions and answers on the E. T, Equipment. Covering what the E. T. . Brake is. Howi it should be oper- ated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E T equipment that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the E T equipment get a copy of this book. ^ It covets every de- tail. Makes air-brake troubles and examinations easy. Fully illustrated with colored plates, showing various pressures. Cloth. Price, S1.50 19 PRACTICAL. INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCES BOOK FOB LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN AND EN- GINEERS. By Chas. F. Lockhart. An entirel^^ new- book on the locomotive. It appeals to every railroad'^man, as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do them.^ Written by a man who has had years of practical experience in locomotive^ shops and on the road firing and running. The information given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which '"ill prove specially helpful to those preparing for exam- inac:on. 368' pages, 88 illustrations. Cloth. Price, $1.50 PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. By George Brab- SHAw. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with railroad em- ployees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and drawings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures. Just plain facts and practical suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copy; read it, and do their part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket size. Fully illustrated. Price, 50 cents WAL.SCHAERT L,OCOMOTIVE VALVE GEAR. By \Vm. W. Wood. If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear, you should possess a copy of this book. The author divides the subject into four divisions, as follows: I. Analysis of the gear. 11. Designing and erecting of the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. This book is specially valuable to those preparing for promotion. Third edition. 245 pages. Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price, $1.50 MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE MACHINE -SHOP ARITHMETIC. By Colvin- Cheney. Most popular book for shop men. Shows how all shop problems are worked out and "why." Includes change gears for cutting any threads; drills, taps, shink and force fits; metric system of measurements and threads. Used by all classes of mechanics and for instruction in Y. M. C. A. and other schools. Sixth edition. 131 pages. Price, 50 cents TOOLS FOR MACHINISTS AND WOOD WORKERS, INCLUDING INSTRUMENTS OP MEASUREMENT. By Joseph G. Horner. The prin- ciples upon which cutting tools for wood, metal, and other substances are made are identical, whether used by the ma- chinist, the carpenter, or by any other skilled mechanic in their daily -work, and the object of this book is to give a correct and practical description of these tools as they are commonly designed, constructed, and used. 340 pages, fully Uiustrated. Price, $3.50 20 AMERICAIV TOOL MAKING AND IIVTEJRi CHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. By J. V. WooDWORTH. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only. Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices and special appliances which are in general use in all machine-manufacturing and metal-working establishments where economy, capacity and interchangeability in the pro- duction of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular atteri- tion is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. AH of the tools, fixtures and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, type- writers, electrical apparatus, mechanical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal arti- cles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. Second edition. 531 pages. Price, $4.00 HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OP PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. EditecJ by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. This book covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The best known experts in all branches of engineering have con- tributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well^ as the mechanical engineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman and machinist. It is a modern treatise in five volumes.^ Handsomely bound in half morocco, each volume containing nearly 500 pages, with thousands of illustrations, including diagram- matic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. Price, for the complete set of five volumes, $25. OO MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By Oscar E. Perrigo. The only work published that describes tlie Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed by those contem- plating the erection of modern shop buildings, the rebuilding and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern Shop Methods, Time and Cost Systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto pages, 225 original and specially-made illus- trations. Price, $5.00 "SHOP KINKS.'> By Robert Grimshaw. This shows special methods of doing work of various kinds, and releas- ing cost of production. Has hints and kinks from some of the largest shops in this country and Europe. You are almost sure to find some that apply to your work, and in such a way as to save time and trouble. 400 pages. Fifth edi- tion. Cloth. Price, ?2.50 21 ' THE WHOLJS FIELD OF MECHANICAL MOVE* MENTS COVERED BY MR, HISCOX'S TWO BOOKS We publish two books by Gardner D. Hiscox that will keep you from "inventing*' things that have been done be- fore, and suggest ways of doing things that you have not thought of before. Many a man spends time and money, pondering over some mechanical problem, only to learn, after he has solved the problem, that the same thing has been accomplished and put in practice by others long before. Time and money spent in an effort to accomplish what has al- ready been accomplished are time and money lost. The whole field of mechanics, every known mechanical movement, and practically every device is covered by these two books. If the thing you want has been invented, it is illustrated in them. If it hasn'tj been invented, then you'll find in them the ^ nearest things to what you want, some movement or device that will apply in your case, perhaps; or which will give you a key from which to work. No book or set of books ever published is of more real value to the inventor, draftsman or practical mechanic than the two volumes de« scribed below. MECHAXICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS AND DEVICES. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appli- ances, accompanied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all read- ers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen sections or chapters, in which the subject-matter is classified under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmis- sion of Power; Measurement of Power; Steam Power; Air Power Appliances; Electric Power and Construction; Navi- gation and Roads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Control- ling Motion; Horological; Mining; Mill and Factory Appli- ances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices; Miscel- laneous Devices, etc. Fourteenth edition. 400 octavo oages. Price, $3*00 MECHANICAL. APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES OP CON- STRUCTION. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a sup- plementary volume to the one upon mechanical movements. Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in char- acter, this volume contains illustrations and descriptions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found in different lines of machinery, each device being shown by a line drawing with a description showing its working parts and the method of operation. From the multitude of devices described and illustrated might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boil- ers, solar engines, oil-fuel burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve gears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway lock signals, car coup- lers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of Others of equal importance. 1,000 specially m^de engravings. 396 octavo pages. Third revised edition. Price, $3.00 92 MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AXD SHOP PRAC- TICE. By W. H. Vandervoort. A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, shapers, and their tools; milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting, and transmission machinery; useful data and tables. Sixth edition. Cloth. Price, $3. GO MODERN MILLING MACHINES: THEIR DE- SIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION. By Joseph G. Horner. This book describes and illustrates the Milling Machine and its work in such a plain, clear, and forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and completely, that the up-to-date machinist, student, or me- chanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable information which it contains. It describes not only the early machines of this class, but notes their gradual develop-' ment into the splendid machines of the present day, giving the design and construction of the various types, forms, and special features produced by prominent manufacturers, Ameri- can and foreign, 304 pages, 300 illustrations. Cloth Price, $4.00 THE MODERN MACHINIST. By John T. Usher. This book might be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any machinist's library and should be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth edition. 320 pages, 250 illus- trations. CU^th. Price, $2.50 THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Colvin and Stabel. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread- cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 25 cents MARINE ENGINEERING ^THE NAVAL. ARCHITECT'S AND SHIP- BUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK of Formulae, Rules, and Tables and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow and Lloyd Woollard. The eleventh revised and enlarged edition of this most com- prehensive work has just been issued. It is absolutely in- dispensable to all engaged in the Shipbuilding Industry, as it condenses into a compact form all data and formulae that are ordinarily required. The book is completely up to date, Including among other subjects a section on Aeronautics. 750 pages, limp kather binding. Price, $5.00 net 23 MARINE] ENGIIVES AlVD 130IL.ERS, THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson and S. Bryan Donkin. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a condensed treatise embodying the theoretical and practical rules used in designing marine engines and boilers. The need^ of such a work has been felt by most engineers engaged in the construction and working of marine engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those oi greater experience. The fact that the original German work was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin, is in itself a guarantee that this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the information which is necessary for the design and con- struction of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. It may be said that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have been turned out of late years from the Stettin Works represent the very best practice in marine engineering of the present day. The work 'is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the character of the plans, drawings, tables, and sta- tistics is without reproach. The illustrations are careful re- productions from actual working drawings, with some well- executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages, 550 illustrations and numerous tables. Cloth. Price, $9*00 net MANUAL TRAINING ECONOMICS OP MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis RouiLLiON. The only book that gives^ just the infor- mation needed by all interested in manual training, regarding buildings, equipment and supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and Normal School. Gives itemized lists of every- thing needed and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies. Illustrated. Second edition. Cloth. Price, Sl«50 MINING ORE pEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON HINTS TO PROSPECTORS. By J. P. Johnson. This book gives a condensed account of the ore deposits at present known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist one in his search for metalliferous mineral occurrences and, so far as simple ores are concerned,, should enable one to form some idea of the possibilities of any they may find. Illustrated. _ Cloth. Price, $2. GO PRACTICAL COAL, MINING. By T. H. Cockin. An important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustra-* tions, complete with practical details, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of the principles of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects. The treatise is positively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every colliery engi- neer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are interested in or connected with the indus- try. Third edition. Cloth. Price, $2.50 24 PHYSICS AXD CHEMISTRY OF MINIIVG. By T. H. Byrom. a practical work for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying for colliery man- agers' certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent book is to place clearly before the reader useful and authori- tative data which will render him^ valuable assistance in his studies. The only 'work of its kind published. The infor- mation incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and all others who ^ are specially interested in the present-day treatment of mining problems. 160 pages, illustrated. Price, $2.00 PATTERN MAKING PRACTICAL, PATTERN MAILING. By F. W. Barrows. This book, now in its second edition, is a com- prehensive and entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, illustrating pattern work in both wood and metal, and with definite instructions on the use of plaster of paris in the trade. It gives specific and detailed descrip- tions of the materials used by pattern makers and describes the tools; both those for the bench and the more interesting machine tools; having complete chapters on the lathe, the circular saw and the band saw. It gives many examples of pattern work, each one fully illustrated and explained with much detail. These examples, in their great variety, offer much that will be found of interest to all pattern makers, and especially to the younger ones, who are seeking informa- tion on the more advanced branches of their trade. Con- taining nearly 350 pages and 170 illustrations. Second edi- tion, revised and enlarged. Price, $2.00 PERFUMERY HElVIiEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by G. D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno-chemical receipt book published. Contains over 10,000 practical receipts, many of which will prove of special value to the perfumer. $3.00 PERFUMES AND COSMETICS, THEIR PREP- ARATION AND MANUFACTURE. By G. W. AsKiNSON, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the perfumer or manufacturer of toilet preparations. Com- plete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling- salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles; preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cosmetics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic substances; their nature, tests of purity, and whole- Bale manufacture, including a chapter on synthetic products, with formulas for their use. A book of general, as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not only of the drug- gist and perfume manufacturer, but also of the general public. Fourth edition much enlarged and brought up-to-date. Nearly 4QQ pages, illustrated. Price, $5.00 25 PLUMBING STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. Starbuck. This is a complete treatise and covers the subject of modern plumbing in all its branches. It treats ex- haustively on the skilled work of the plumber and the theory underlying plumbing devices and operations, and commends itself at once to everyone working in any branch of the plumbing trade. A large amount of space is devoted to a very complete and practical treatment of the subjects of hot water supply, circulation and range boiler work. Another valuable feature is the special chapter on drawing for plumbers. The illustrations, of which ttiere are three hun- dred and forty-seven, one hundred being full-page plates, were drawn expressly for this book and show the most modern and best American practice in plumbing construction. 6Kx9>4. Cloth, 406 pages, 347 illustrations. Price, $3.00 MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. Starbuck. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with the plumbing trade. Nothing -will so helo the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to cus- tomers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibility. 150 illus- trations. Price, $1.50 M023ERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. Starbuck. The author of this book, Mr. R. M. Starbuck, is one of the leading authorities on plumbing in the United States. The book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. A very comprehensive work, illustrating and describ- ing the drainage and ventilation of dwellings, apartments and public buildings. The very latest and most approved methods in all branches of sanitary installation are given. The stand- ard book for master plumbers, architects, builders, plumbing inspectors, boards of health, boards of plumbing examiners and for the property owner, as well as the workman and apprentice. It contains fifty-five entirely new and large full pages of illustrations with descriptive text, all of which have been made specially for this work. These plates show all kinds of modern plumbing work. Each plate is accompanied by several pages of text, giving notes and practical sugges- tions, sizes of pipe, proper measurements for setting up work, etc. Suggestions on estimating plumbing construction are also included. 400 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 55 full-page engravings. Price, $4.00 RECIPE BOOK HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECIPES, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES, Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. The most valuable techno- chemical form.ulae book published, including over 10,000 se- lected scientific, chemical, technological and practical recipes and processes. This book of 800 pages is the most complete book of recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, helps, practical ideas and secret processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every 'ranch of the useful arts 26 p-r.^ ff-j^ thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. The pages are filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable prac- tical value to the photographer, the perfumer, the painter, the manufacturer of glues, pastes, cements and mucilages, the ^ physician, the druggist, the electrician, the brewer, the engineer, the foundryman, the machinist, the potter, the tanner, the confectioner, the chiropodist, the manufacturer jof chemical novelties and toilet preparations, the dyer, the electroplater, the enameler, the engraver, the provisioner, the glass worker, the goldbeater, the watchmaker and jeweler, the ink manufacturer, the optician, the farmer, the dairyman, the paper maker, the metal worker,^ the soap maker, the veterinary surgeon, and the^ technologist in general. A book to which you may turn -with confidence that you will find what you are looking for. A mine of information up-to-date in every respect. Contains an immense number of formulas that every one ought to have that are not found in any other work. New edition. Cloth binding, ^3.00; Half Morocco binding, Price, $4.00 RUBBER HENI^EY'S TIVEIVTIETH CENTURY BOOK OP RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PROCESSES. Edited by Gardner D, Hiscox. Contains upward of 10,000 practical receipts, including among them formulas on arti- ficial rubber. Price, ?3.00 RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIP- ULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. By T. O'ConoK Sloane. This book gives full details of all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly every- thing it is necessary to understand for a commencement iil any branch of the India rubber manufacture. ^ The making of all kinds of rubber hand stamps, small articles of India rubber, U. S. Government composition, dating hand stamps, the manipulation of sheet rubber, toy balloons, India rubber solutions, cements, blackings, renovating varnish, and treat- ment for India rulDber shoes, etc.; the hektograph stamp inks, and miscellaneous notes, with a short account of the dis- covery, collection and ^ manufacture of India rubber are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the ex- planation being plain and simple. Third edition. 175 pages, illustrated. Cloth. Price, $1.00 SAWS SAW FILING AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By Robert Grimshaw. A practical hand book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for thos^ mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, setting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. Third edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price, $1.00 27 SCREW CUTTING THREADS AND THRE3AD CUTTING. By Col. ViN and Stabel. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. Third edition. Price, 25 cents STEAM ENGINEERING AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. Crane. A new book by a well-known author. Begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. Con- tains the result of years of practical experience in all sorts of engine rooms and gives exact information that cann-?* be found elsewhere. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of value to those high in the profession. Has a complete ex- amination for a license. Second edition. 285 pages. Illus- trated. Cloth. Price, $2.00 STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By Robert Grim- SHAW. This volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer principle, but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the steam problems that appertain to the operation and management of the steam engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with their principles of operation are given. 34 tables that are in- dispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within its pages. It is a most valuable instructor in the service of steam engineering. Leading engineers have recommended it as a valuable educator for the beginner as well as a reference book for the engineer. Sixteenth edition. Price, $2. CO BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Kowler. A chart — size 14 x 28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. Water tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed water heaters and pumps comprise the equipment. The various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the in*- ternal construction is fully illustrated. Each part^ is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room — the names of more than 200 parts being given. It is educational — 'worth many times its cost. Price, 25 cents EMINENT ENGINEERS. By Dwight Goddard. Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions as the steam engine, steamboat, locomotive, sewing machine, steel working, and other fundamental discoveries, is inter- ested in knowing a little about the men who made them and their achievements. Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of the world's engineers who have contributed most largely to the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, giving only such facts as are of general interest and in a way which appeals to all, whether mechanics or not. 280 pages, 35 illustrations. Price, ^1.50 28 TSXGINE RUIVIVER'S CATECHISM. By Robert T. Grimshaw. Tells how to erect, adjust and run the princi- pal steam engines in use in the United States. The work is of a handy size for the pocket. To young engineers this citechism will be of great value, especially to those who may be preparing to go forward to be examined for certificates of competency; and to engineers generally it 'will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information than is to be found any- where else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price, $2.00 MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical work issued for stationary engi- neers and firemen dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, ^ motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engineer must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam and electrical engineering, likely to be^ asked by the exam- ining board, are included. Third edition. 487 pages, 405 engravings. Cloth. Price, $3.00 . HORSE_ POWER CHART. Shows the horse power of any stationary engine without calculation. ' No matter what the cylinder diameter or stroke; the steam pressure or cut-off; the revolutions, or whether condensing or non- condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calculations. Especially useful to engineers and designers. Price, 50 cents STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By CoL- vin-Cheney. a practical pocket book for the steam engi- neer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of en- gines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you onto all of the little kinks in figuring what- ever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of engines; factor of safety; and 1,001 other things; and every- thing is plain and simple — not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. Second edition. Price, 50 cents STEAM PIPES STEAM PIPES: THEIR DESIGN AND CON- STRUCTION. By Wm. H. Booth. The work is well illustrated in regard to pipe joints, expansion offsets, flexible joints, and self-contained sliding joints for taking up the ex- pansion of long pipes. In fact, the chapters on the flow of steam and expansion of pipes are most valuable to all steam fitters and users. The pressure strength of pipes and method of hanging them is -well treated and illustrated. Valves and by-passes are fully illustrated and described, as are also flange joints and their proper proportions. Exhaust heads and sepa- rators. One of the most valuable chapters is that on super- heated steam and the saving of steam by insulation with the various kinds of felting and other materials, with comparison tables of the loss of heat in thermal units from naked and felted steam pipes. Second edition. Cop.tains 187 pages. Cloth. /Price, $2.00 29 STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATING PRACTICAL. STEAM, HOT- WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By A. G. King. This book has been prepared for the use of all engaged in the business of steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be used, with "Tricks of the Trade" for shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot-water heating and ventilation. It describes all the prin- cipal systems of steam, hot-water, vacuum, vapor and vacuum- vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot-water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Second edition. 367 pages, 300 detailed engrav- ings. Cloth. Price, $3. GO 500 PLAIN ANSWERS TO DIRECT QUES- TIONS ON STEAM, HOT-WATER, VAPOR AND VACUUM HEATING PRACTICE. By Alfred G. King. This work, just off the press, is arranged in question and answer form; it is intended as a guide and text-book for the younger inexperienced fitter and as a reference book for all fitters. All long and tedious discussions and descriptions formerly considered so important have been eliminated, and the theory and laws of heat and the various old and modern methods and appliances used for heating and ventilating are treated in a concise manner; This is the standard Question and Answer examination book on Steam and Hot Water Heating, etc. 200 pages, 127 illustrations. Octavo. Cloth. Price, $1.50 STEEL HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL. By J. V. Woodworth. A book containing special directions for the^ successful hard- ening and tempering of all steel tools. Milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet- metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery and metal-cutting tools of all descriptions, as well as for all implements of steel, both largfe and small, the simplest, and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are presented. 320 pages, 250 illustra- tions. Fourth edition. Cloth. Price, $2.50 STEEL: ITS SELECTION, ANNEALING, HAR- DENING AND TEMPERING. By E. R. Markham. This work was formerly known as "The American Steel Worker," but on the publication of the new, revised edition, the publishers deemed it advisable to change its title to a more suitable one. This is the standard work on hardening, tempering, and annealing steel of all kinds. Thia book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It is the standard book on selecting, hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. 400 pages. Very fully illustrated. Fourth edition. Price, @2.50 30 TRACTORS THE MODERN GAS TRACTOR. By Victor W. Pag6. a complete treatise describing all types and sizes of gasoline, kerosene, and oil tractors. Considers design and construction exhaustively, gives complete instruction for care, operation and repair, outlines all practical applications on the road and in the field. The best and latest work on farm tractors and tractor power plants. A work needed by farmers, students, blacksmiths, mechanics, salesmen, implement dealers, designers and engineers. 500 pages. Nearly 300 illustrations and folding plates. Price, $2.00 TURBINES MARINE STEAM TURBINES. By Dr. G. Bauer and O. Lasche. Assisted by E. Ludwig and H. Vogel. Translated from the German and edited bjj- M. G. S. Swallow. The book is essentially practical and discusses turbines in which the full expansion of steam passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more shafts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which the complete expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calcu- lation necessary for the construction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theo- retical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why turbine blades are designed as they are, the course which steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermody- namics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very information which a designer and builder- of steam turbines most requires. Large octavo, 214 pages. Fully il- lustrated and containing 18 tables, including an entropy chart» Price, $3.50 net WELDING AUTOMOBILE WELDIXG WITH THE OXY- ACETYL.ENE FLAME. By M. Keith Dunham. Ex- plains in a simple manner apparatus to be used, its care, and how to construct necessary shop equipment. Proceeds then to the actual welding of all automobile parts, in a manner understandable by everyone. Gives principles never to he forgotten. Aluminum, cast iron, steel, copper, brass, bronze and malleable iron are fully treated, as well as a clear ex- planation of the proper manner to burn the carbon out of the combustion head. This book is of utmost value, since the perplexing problems arising when metal is heated to a melting point are fully explained and the proper methods to overcome them shown. 167 pages, fully illustrated. Price, $1.00 3i Henley's Twentieth Century Book of Recipes, Formulas and Processes Edited by GARDNER D. HISCOX, M.E. Price $3.00 Cloth Bindmg $4.00 Half Morocco Binding Contains over 10,000 Selected Scientific, Chemical, Technological and Practical Recipes and Processes, including Hundreds of So-Called Trade Secrets for Every Business THIS book of 800 pages is the most complete Book of Recipes ever published, giving thousands of recipes for the manufacture of valuable articles forevery-day use. Hints, Helps, Practical Ideas and Secret Processes are revealed within its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. The pages are filled with matters of intense interest and immeasurable practical value to the Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements and Mucilages, the Physician, the Druggist, the Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manufacturer of Chemical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner, the Glass Worker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker and Jeweler, the Ink Manufacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairy- man, the Paper Maker, the Metal Worker, the Soap Maker^ the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general, A book to which you may turn with confidence that you will find what you are looking for. A mine of informa- tion up-to-date in every respect. Contains an immense number of formulas that every one ought to have that are not found in any other work. FORD OWNERS: You cannot AFFORD to be without one. .ATTeW Complete Book for every Owner, Dealer, Salesma n and Repairman ■ ~~ ■ ' ■ - ', ■ ■ — ■ ■ — - — a The Model T Ford Car Its Construction, Operation and Repair By VICTOR \A/. PAGE, M.E. Member of the Society of Automobile Engineers Author: of 'The. Modern Gasoline Automobile," etc. '^300' Pages C$x7) Over 100 specially, made engravings-^ and two large' folding plates Price ;$ 1,00 THIS is the Most Complete and Practicar instruction hook ever published on the Ford Car. A'- high grade cloth bound book printed on the best paper, illustrated by speciallv made drawings i and photographs. Ail parts of the Ford Model T Car are des^ibed and illustrated in a com- ' prehensive manner — nothing is left for the reader to guess at. , The construction is fully treated (.and Operating Principle Made Clear to Everyone. Complete instructions for driving and repairing are given. Every detail is treated in- a non-technical yet thorough manner. This book is written especially for Ford Drivers and Owners, by a recognized automobile engineer- ing authority and an expert on the Ford, who has driven and repaired Ford Cars for a number of years. He writes for the average -man in a practical way from actual knowledge. All parts of th© jFord Model T Car are described. All Repair Processes Illustrated and Fully Explained. WRITTEN SO ALL CAN' UNDERSTAND— NO THEORY, NO GUESSWORK AUTHORITATIVE UNBIASED INSTRUCTIVE - COMPLETE CONTAINS SPECIALCHAPTERS ON: . 1. The Ford Car; Its parts and their functions; -The Ford Three Point Suspension System-— Frame Assembly Details — Spring Construction — The Ford Body — The Ford Power Plant, Etc. i 2. The Engine and Auxiliary Groups. ■ How the engine works, the fuel supply system, the carburetor, * making the ignition spark, cooling and lubrication. — induction Coil System Action Explained — Why a Magneto Is Used on a Ford — Wiring Dry Cell Batteries — Master Vibrator Systems — The Ford 'Muffler, Etc. 3. Details of Chassis. Change speed gear, power transmission, differential gear action. • steering gear, front axle, frame and springs, brakes, etc. A'.~~How to Drive, and Care of the Ford. The control system explained, starting the motor, driving the car, locating roadside troubles, tire repairs. -oiling the chassis, winter care of car. — Lighting System — Electric Lighting for Ford Cars — A Typical Engine Stop Analyzed — Conditions That Cause Failure of the Ignition System — Common Defects in -Fuel Systems — Adjusting Transmission — Adjusting Loose Front Wheels — What to Do When .Rear Brakes Do Not Hold, etc. .5. Overhauling and Repairing Mechanism. Systematic location of troubles and remedies — Faults in Power Plant and Symptoms — Value of System in Overhauling — How to Take Down Motor — Carbon Deposits and Their Removal — How to Rep air, Cracked Water Jacket — Reseating and Truing Valves — Method of Valve Grinding — Inspection of Piston Rings — -Piston Ring Manipulation — Fitting Piston Rings-^ Wrist Pin Wear — Inspection and Refitting of Engine Bearings — Knocking Indicates Loose Bearings — Adjusting Main Bearings — Scraping Bear- ings to Fit — Rebabbitting Connecting Rod — Testing Bearing Parallelism — Camshafts and Timing Gears — How to Time Valves in Ford Engines — Repairing Ford Magneto— Packings and Gaskets for Ford Engines — Precautions in Reassembhng Parts — How to Take Down Transmission — Relining Brake Bands — Rear Axle Troubles and Remedies — Care of Springs — Steering Gear Repairs — Mis- cellaneous Chassis Parts, etc. The Illustrated Chapter on Repairing and Overhauling Alone is Worth Many Times the Price of this book. WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: I have a copy of the "Ford Car, Book" which I can cheerfully recommend as indispensable to aD^ Ford owners. — Dr. Henry Remy, Biddeford. Maine. ' — ^ " I received the book and am u'c/r pleased with it. — H, Trumai*. Gcary.-Okla. It.is worth the price to every owner of a Ford car. — Medical World. JUST PUBLISHED Automobile Repairing Made Easy By VICTOR W. PAGE, "M. E. Member Society of Automobile Engineers Author of "The Modern Gasoline Automobile," Etc, 1056 Pages (5^x8) 10 Folding Platea! 1000 Specially Made Engravings' .on 500 Plates Price $3.00 Net A Comprehensive, Practical Exposition of Every Phase ^ of Modern Automobile Repairing Practice Th6 only book of its kind It .fills a real demand OUTLINES every process incidental to motor car restoration. Gives plans for workshop con-' struftion, suggestions for tuiuipnifut, power iieeded, machinery and tools necessary to carry on business successfully. THls how to overhaul and repair all parts of all automol^iles. The information given is founded oi* practical e.xpt'rience, everything is explained so simply that motorists and otudents can acquire a, full working knowledge of automobile repairing. Other works dealing witli repairing cover only certain parts of Mie car — this work starts with the engine, then considers carburetion, ignition, cooling and lubrication systems. The clutch, change speed gearing and transmission system are considered in detail. Contains instructions for' repairing all types of axles, steering gears and other chassis parts. Many tables, short cuts in figuring and rules of practice - are given for the mechanic. Explains fully valve and magneto timing, "tuning" engines, systematic location of trouble, repair of ball and roller bearing, shop kinks, first aid to injured and a multitude- of subjects of interest ta-all in the garage and repair business. All illustrations are especially made" ior this book, and are acttial photographs or reproductions of engineering drawings. This book also contains Special Instructions on Electric Starting, Lighting and Ignition Systems, ' Tire Repairing and Rebuilding, Autogenous Welding, Drazirig^and Soldering, Heat Treatment of Steel, ' Latest Timing Practice, Eight and Twelve Cylinder Motors, ett., etc. You will never ''Get Stuck" on a Job if you own this booh. CONDENSED SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS: 1. The Automobile Repair Shop. Buildings for Repair Work. Machinery and Power. Ar- rangement of Departments. Bench and Floor Equipment. 2. Small Tool Equipment for Repair Shops. Tools for Adjusting and Erecting. Precision Measuring Tools and Their Use. Special Tools. Complete List of Tools and Supplies Needed. 3. Overhauling the Gasoline Engine. How to Dis- mantle Motor. Defects in all Motor Parts. Repairing Scored and Cracked Cylinders. Valve Repairs. Fitting Bearings. Valve Timing. Eight Cylinder V Motors. Sleeve Valve Motors. 4. Cooling, Carburetion and Lubrication System Faults, Overheating. Radiator Repairs. Water. Pump Repairs. Fuel Feed Methods. Adjusting Carburetors. Oiling Systems. Where to Look ior Lubrication Trouble. 5. Location and Remedy of Ignition Faults. Battery Ignition System. Magneto Systems. How to Find All Ignition Troubles. Magneto Care and Adjustment. Modern Ignition Timing. 6. Motor Starting and Car Lighting Systems. Leading Systems Described in Detail. Wiring Diagrams. ■ Tracing Faults. 7. Clutch and Gearbox Faults. Principal Clutch Troubles Outlined. Clutch Repair. • Planetary Gearsets. Friction Drives. Sliding Gear Trans- missions. 8. Faults in Chassis Components. Overhauling the Chassis. - Spring Repairs. Steering •Gears. 9. The Rear Axle and Driving System. Semi, Three-quarter and Full Floating Axles. Care, of Drive and Differential Gears. Axle Bearings. 10. Wheel, Rims and Tires. Wire Wheels. AU^ Types of Rims. Rebuilding and Repainng Tires. 11. Miscel.aneous Repair Processes. Autogenous Welding. Heat Treatment of Steel. Brazing and Soldering. 12. Useful Information. 13. Hints,' Kinks. Recipes and Formulae. 14. Useful Tables for Mechanics. Mathematical, Mechanical, i**-'' eluding "Horse-power and Speed Charts, jug T PUBLISHED t^lBITew, li'evised and Enlarged Edition, Showing all Recent Tmprovementi^V' 3f,[ The ModerhGssoune ll :Ai]tQMiii& THE MODERN GASOLINE AUTOMOBILE Its Construction, Operation, Maintenance and Repair By VICTOR W. PAGE, M.E. Member Society of Autopiobile Engineers 600 Illustrations Over 850 (5 H^S) Pages Twelve Folding Plateo Price $2.50 net A Complete Automobile Bopk, Showing Every Recent Improvement. THE most complete treatise on the Gasoline Automohile ever issued. Written in simple language by a recognized authority, familiar with eyer^ branch of the automobile industry. Free^from teclmical terms. Everything is explained so simply that anyone of ordinary intern-* gence may gain a comprehensive knowledge of the gasoline automobile. The information' Is up to date and includes, in addition to an exposition of principles of construction and descriptloa of all types of automobiles and their components, valuable money-saving hints on the care and operation of motor cars propelled by internal combustion engines. CQ^T^mS SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON I. — ^Types of Modern Automobiles. II. — How Power is Generated. III. — Principal Parts of Gasoline Engines; Their Design, Construction and AppUcation. IV. — Constructional Details of Pistons. V. — Liquid Fuels Used and Methods of Vaporizing to Obtain Explosive Gas. VI. — Automobile Powet-Plant Ignition Ss^st^ms Out- lined. VII. — Reasons for Lubrication of Me- chanism.' VIII. — Utility of Clutches and Gear-sets, IX. — The Chassis and Its Parts. X. — ^Wheels, Rims and Tires. XI. — ^Motor Cap Equipment and Accessories. XII. — Operating Advice and Explanation of Automobile Con-, trol Methods. XIII. — Hints to Assist in Locate ing Power-Plant Troubles. XIV.^-Keeping Up the Motor-Car ChassLs. XV. — Elements of Magneto-Electric Phenomena; Why Current* Flows; Action of High Tension Coil Ignition Sys- tems, etc. • All 1916 Improvements Fully Ijo* scribed and Illustrated. TO THE 1916 REVISED EDITION • The subjet., American Boy Magazine' 128 Pages~(5x7; 150 Original Engravings Price 75 Cents Cloth Binding This is a practical book, giving complete and simple directions for making all the most useful and ornamental knots in common use, with chapters on splicing, pointing, seizing, serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with 150 original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or splice is formed and its appearance when finished. The book will be found of the greatest valne to campers, yachtsmen, travellers, boy scouts, in fact to everyone, having tojuse or handle ropes for any purpose. FEW people realize the importance that knots have "played in the world's history. It might be safe to state that the real diirercnce l:)etween civilized and savage man consists largely in the knowledge of rope work. Is'o cloth could be woven, no net or seine knitted, no bow strung and no craft sailed without numerous knots and proper ropes. . Gradually the various pro- fessions have adopted the knots best suited to their requirements, and thus we lind the sailor's knot, the fisherman's knot, the weaver's knot, the builder's knot, and many others. AH of Avhich are described and illustrated in this book, making an interesting useful treatise. AMONG THE CONTENTS ARE: Introduction. — Cordage: Kinds of Rope; Construction of Rope; Strength of Ropes; Weight Of Ropes: Material Used in Making Ropes. Simple Knots and Bends: Parts of Rope; Whipping and Seizing Rope; Loops; Cuckolds' Necks; Clinches; Overhand and Figure-eiglit Knots; Square ,«,nd Reef Knots;- Granny Knots; Open Hand and P'ishcrmen's Knots; Ordinary Knots and Weavers* Knots; Garrick Bends and Hawser Hitches; Half Hitches. Ties and Hitches: Larks' Heads; Slippery and Half Hitches; Ciove Hitches; Gunners' Knots and Timber ?Titches; Twists. Catspaws 'and Blackwall Hitches; Chain Hitch; Rolling and Magnus Hitches; Studding Sail and GafT-topsaii Halyard Bends; Roband and Fisherman's Hitches. Nooses, Loops and jM coring Knots: Water- man's Knot; Larks' Heads with Nooses; Cleat and Wharf Ties; Bow Line Knots; Loops and' Loop Knots. Shortenings, Grommets and Selvages: Two-, Three-, and Five-hold Shortenings; Single Plaits Z^d Monkey Chain; Twist Braids and Braiding Leather; Open Chains; Seized and Bow Shortenings; Sheepshanks and Dogshanks; Grommets: Selvaged Straps and Selvaged Boards; Flemish and Artificial Eyes; Throat Seizings; Lashed Splices. Lashings, Seizings. Splices, etc.: Wedding Knots and Rose Lashings; Deadeye and Loop Lashings; Belaying-pin Splice; Necklace Ties; Close Bands and End Pointing; Ending Ropes; Short Splices; Long Splices; Eye and Cut Splices. Fancy Knots and Rope Work: Single Crown Knots; Tucked Crowns; Single Wall Knots; Common and French Shroud Knots; Double Crown and Double Wall Knots; Crowning Wall Knots; Double Wall and Crown; Manrope Knots; Topsail-halyard Toggles; Matthew Walker and Stopper Knots; Turks' Heads and Turks' Caps; Worming, Parcelling and Serving; Serving Mallet; Half- hitch Work; Four-strand and Crown Braids; Rope Buckles and Swivels; Slinging Casks and Barrels; ^ope Belting. 'WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: Jt is the Standard, Work on the subject. — Far Eastern Review, tJseful to those who handle rope for any purpose. — Dodge Idea. •The explanations are readily understood, while the illustrations are very clear. — Automobile. It is a book well worth \?hilo for ail who have to use or handle ropes for any purpose. — Practical iingineer. JUST PUBLISHED NEW EDITION House Wiring 125 Pages ^4x6) By THOS. W. POPPE Klectrical Engineer and Contractor ' Fully Illustrated Limp Cloth Binding Price SO Cents I This work describes and illustrates the actual installa- tion of Electric Light Wiring, the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The • book can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helper and Apprentice. It solves all Wiring Problems and contains nothing that conflicts v/ith the rulings of the National Board of Fire Underv/riters. It gives just the information essen- tial to the successful Wiring of a Building. A VERY practical book describing the methods and de-vices used in house wiring. The descrip- tions refer essentially to the mechanics of the. subject and give directions for installing electric lamps and wiring in the average two-story dwelling house. Af^OPSQ THE CHAPTERS CONTAaS^ED ARE: I..:— Showing the Plans and Layout of the Electrical Work. Floor Plans; Circuits; Brackets: :Switches; Plug Receptacles; Feeding Mains; Meter Connections; Panel Board. II.— Flexible J^Ietallic Wiring System: Flexible Conduit: Flexible Steel-armored Cable; Installing Switches; Brackets, Plug Receptacles, and Ceiling Fixtures; Panel Board and Feeding Mains; Fuses and Cir- cuit Switches; Drawing Flexible Conduit and Steel-armored Cable Under the Floors and Between Partitions; Setting Switch. Bracket and Ceiling Boxes. III. — Installing Rigid Conduit: Method of Setting Boxes, Including Switch, Bracket, Ceiling and Plug Receptacles; Placing Conduit Under the Floors and Through Partitions; Elbows; Bending Conduit; U.sing Running Threads. IV. — Combining Flexible and Rigid Conduit* Showing How to Change from One System to the Other; Several Problems Shown and Explained by Using a Combination of the' Two Systems; How Timo •can be Saved and a Neater Work Installed by Combining the Systems. V. — Wiring and Switch Diagrams and Connections: "Fishing" the Conduits; Drawing the Wires into the Conduit; Dia- .grams and Explanation of Single- and Double-pole 3- and 4-way Switches and Connections; Tho Easiest Method of Testing the 3- and 4-way Switeh Wires Preparatory to Connecting Them to the •Switches. VI. — Grounding Metallic Conduit Systems: The Connecting to the Ground of Metallic Systems of Wiring; The Proi>er IMethod of Connecting Conduits to Boxes; The Reason for Ground- ing; The Insulating of Brackets and Electric Ceiling Fixtures and the Reason for Doing So. VII. — Knob and Tube System: Bracket Outlet; Ceiling Outlet; Switch Outlet; Wiring in Partitions Sn ^Qyr and Old Buildings; Placing Wires Under Floors. . WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: Contains just the information needed for the successful wiring of a building. — Scientific American. The information is exact and exhaustive, without being overladen with details. — Druggist Circular. Only practical examples of work are mentioned in this book. — The Power House. 1915 EDITION JUST PUBLISHED Gas, Gasoline AND Oil Engines By GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E. Enlarged and Brought Up to Date By VICTOR W. PAGE, M. E., Author ot "The Modern Gasoline Automobile," Etc. 640 PAGES— WITH FOLDING PLATES— 435 ILLUSTRATIONS PRICE $2.50 NET The 1915 Revised, Enlarged and Entirely New Edition of this Standard Work, Considers Exhaustively All Types of Stationary, Marine, Motor Vehicles and Aerial Pov^^er Plants The mechanic, gas engine operator or salesman must have a practical knowl- edge of the gas engine in order to increase his value to his employer. This work, written primarily for this large class, contains matter of vital interest. It shows all the latest developments, such as the Diesel engine in the stationary power field, the Knight sliding sleeve automobile motor and the Gnome rotating cylinder aero- plane motor. It details all the practical ignition systems and methods, including the hot tube and hot bulb for stationary engines and all forms of high and low tension electrical ignition groups. It shows high and low tension magnetos, describes battery forms, induction coil construction and all kinds of wiring diagrams for stationary, marine or auto motors. It defines all the liquid fuels and their properties, shows how to adjust and use all types of gasoline and kerosene carbur- etors. All leading producer gas plants are described and illustrated. Full instruc- tions are given for valve and spark timing, all kinds of valves and operating mech- anisms are discussed. Practical instructions are given for making all kinds of engine power tests and latest forms of testing apparatus are described. The rules regulating gas, gasoline and oil engine installation are given in full, also a com- plete chapter on engine management. The application of the gasoline engine to the automobile, motorcycle, aeroplane, motor boat, gas tractor, and in farm use is fully described. The requirements of motors for these uses, their peculiarities, constructional details and actual installation are also considered. Many practical rules and easily worked out formulae relating to engine power determination, design of parts, etc., are given that can be used by those without technical knowledge. NOT TOO TECHNICAL FOR THE STUDENT— NOT TOO ELEMENTARY FOR THE ENGINEER. A PRACTICAL WORK FOR PRACTICAL MEN The Norman W. Henley Publishing Co, 132 Nassau Street, New York 3 '^MM 1 '^ ''. -^ ^d 4M ^^ ;^!t: ^^«g^ ^S3