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 in 2011 with funding from 
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 ON THE BROAD, BUOAD OCEAN. ITS LAWS ; ITS PHENOMENA ; ITS 
 PRODUCTS AND ITS INHABITANTS ; GRAPHICALLY DESCRIBING ITS 
 CURRENTS, TIDES, WAVES; ITS WHIRLPOOLS, WATER-SPOUTS, 
 TYPHOONS AND TRADE WINDS; ITS CORAL REEFS, 
 PEARLS, SHELLS, SPONGES, FISHERIES ; ITS ANIMAL 
 LIFE, MINUTE AND MAMMOTH, FROM THE BUT- 
 TERFLIES OF SUB-MARINE FORESTS AND 
 MEADOWS, TO SHARKS, WHALES AND 
 SEA DRAGONS; WITH CHAPTERS ON 
 STEAMSHIPS, LIGHT - HOUSES, 
 LIFE SA^aNG SERVICE 
 &C., &C., &C. 
 
 BY 
 
 PROF. J. W. VAN DERVOORT. 
 
 EDITOR OF 
 
 THE TWO HEMISPHERES. 
 
 Wwrntummtj lltaetrat^d, 
 
 SOLD ONLY BY SUBSCRIPTION. 
 
 188«. 
 
 UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE, 
 
 NEW YOEK. 
 Cincinnati, O. Atlanta, Ga. 
 

 TO 
 
 MY ESTEEMED FRIEND, 
 
 MR, JAMES MONTEITH, 
 
 AS A 
 
 TESTIMONIAL OF HIS SUCCESS IN POPULARIZING THB 
 
 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED. 
 
 COPYRIGHTED BY 
 
 UNION PUBLISHING HOUSE. 
 
Earth has not a plain 
 
 So boundless or so beautiful as thine ; 
 
 The eagle's vision cannot take it in ; 
 
 The lightning's glance too iveak to sweep its space, 
 
 Sinks half-ivay o'er it, like a wearied bird ; 
 
 It is the mirror of the stars, where all 
 
 Their hosts tmthin the concave firmament, 
 
 Gay marching to the music of the spheres. 
 
 Can see themselves at once. 
 
 — Campbell. 
 
ERY little, comparatively, 
 V has heretofore been writ- 
 ten on this subject. This is 
 most singular when it is consid- 
 ered that this majestic ocean, 
 " whose mighty heart throbs in 
 sympathy with the pulse of 
 God," covers more than three- 
 fourths of the entire globe. 
 
 We write about the ocean be- 
 cause it is a subject of univer- 
 sal interest, and for the reason 
 that a knowledge of its laws, 
 phenomena, and inhabitants is 
 conducive to right-liviDg and 
 enjoyment. 
 
 It has been our aim to write 
 for the people and by avoiding 
 technical terms clothe the sub- 
 ject in such language as shall 
 make it interesting and easily 
 comprehended by all. 
 
CONTENTS. 11 
 
 Pack 
 
 sailed — Award of Paris Geographical Society — The Jeannette 
 Expedition — Return of the survivors — Polar Stations — The Greely 
 Expedition — Retreat to . Cape Sabine — Starvation — The Relief 
 Squadron — Home again . , 43 — 71 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ICEBERGS. 
 
 Icebergs among the wonders of the ocean world — Grand and im- 
 posing — Imitating every style of architecture — Differ in color — 
 Strange and sudden formations — Many of great height — Origin — 
 Greenland — Glaciers — Their immense length — Birthplaces of ice- 
 bergs — Moved by powerful currents — Dangers from icebergs on 
 their floating voyages — Terror excited by them among the early 
 navigators — Awful sublimity of the floating ice mountains — Hair- 
 breadth escape — Supposed loss of the "President" and other 
 vessels from collisions with icebergs — Danger of mooring vessels 
 to icebergs — A picnic on an iceberg — The " Resolute" exploring 
 ship — Formation and destruction of ice — Beautiful provision of 
 Nature . . 72—82 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 LIFE IN THE OCEAN. 
 
 Sublime ideas of the infinite — Mystery of life — Two great powers — 
 Death is the foster mother of life — Life maintains life — Exuber- 
 ance of life — The ocean in its profoundest depths — Sea influ- 
 ences — Seashore deposits — Source of greatli wealth — Unity and 
 diversity 83 — 87 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MINUTE ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 Vastness of organic life in the ocean — Food to the larger marine 
 animals — Abundance in the Northern seas — Sea nettles — They 
 color the waters — Microscopic determinations — A naturalist's 
 calculation of the number of animalculae — Animals in a drop of 
 water — Illustrates the immensity of creation — Seaweeds — Ani- 
 mated worlds — Minute creation governed by the same laws as 
 larger — Jelly-fish — Abound in the South Atlantic — Curious 
 shapes — Sea-worms — Sea-mouse — Its beautiful color — Curious 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 Pagp 
 
 arms of marine worms — Nereids — Beautifully colored — White 
 rag worms — Sea-leech — Leaping- worms — "Jumping Johnnies" — 
 Butterflies of the deep , 88 — 97 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CORAL— THE ROCK BUILDERS. 
 
 Beauty of color — Its curious form in the ocean — Formerly supposed 
 to be marine plants — Discovered to be the work of minute ani- 
 mals — Coral wonders described — How their habitations are 
 made — Coral examined under the microscope — Continents built 
 by the polyps — Wonderful instinct of the coral workers by 
 building walls on the windward side — Qualities and varieties of 
 coral described — Manufacture of false coral — Superstitions re- 
 specting the changing of color — Perils of the coral reefs — An 
 incident of shipwreck 98 — 109 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 PEARLS. 
 
 Rare and valuable objects of creation — Perilous employment of the 
 divers — Condemned criminals formerly employed — Character- 
 istics of the pearl divers — Shark charmers — Pearl fishing in the 
 Gulf of Manaar — Off the Bahrem Islands — Cingalese divers — 
 Separation of the pearl from the oyster — Extent of the pearl 
 fishery in Ceylon — System pursued at the Pearl Islands — Oriental 
 pearls — Their preparation for market — How pearls are formed in 
 the oyster — Amusing account given by Pliny — Suppositions re- 
 specting pearls — Curious methods pursued by the Chinese — The 
 pearl oyster not the only mollusk which produces pearls — Pearls 
 found on the British coasts — Incidents — Extravagant fancy of the 
 ancients — Names applied to various kinds — Largest pearls on 
 record — Runjeet Smg and his string of pearls 110 — 119 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 SPONGES. 
 
 Ancient use of the sponge for helmets, etc. — One of the most valuable 
 spoils taken from the ocean — Long undecided whether sponges 
 
CONTENTS. 13 
 
 Pagb 
 belonged to tlje animal or vegetable kingdom— Ranked as 
 
 "zoophytes" or animal plants — Aristotle's definition of the 
 
 sponge — Finest qualities come from the Ottoman Archipelago — 
 
 Sponge fishery at the island of Calymnos — Numbers of persons 
 
 engaged in the sponge fishery — Depth at which sponges are 
 
 found — Methods pursued in diving — Average quantity taken — 
 
 Preparation for market — The sponge in its natural state — Growth 
 
 and increase of the sponge — Article of commerce — Digestion and 
 
 respiration — Preservation, of the sponge fisheries , , .120 — 127 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SEALS. 
 
 Arctic summer the proper season for seal fishing — Divisions of labor 
 by the Esquimaux — Seal's flesh their chief food — Ancient super- 
 stitions — Use of blubber — Methods of capturing the seals — Seal 
 fishing the great employment of the Greenlanders — Dangers at- 
 tending — Different species of seals — The sea-calf — Peculiar char- 
 acteristics — Enemies of seals — The bearded or great seal — The 
 hoop-seal — The fur seal — Description, habits, and use — Seals 
 fond of music — Tame seals — Incidents — The marbled seal — Con- 
 trast between seals of northern and southern seas — Sea elephant — 
 Sea lions — The sea leopard — The otories 128 — 141 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 WHALES THE MONARCHS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 Peculiarities in whales — Distinct from fishes and land animals, 
 though resembling both — Description — Strength and utility of 
 its tail — Size of the head — Smallness of the throat — Food of the 
 whole — Whalebone — Tongue of the whale — The skin — The blub- 
 ber — Quantity of oil taken from a whale — Ears, eyes, and fins of 
 the whale — Age when they attain their growth — Anecdotes rela- 
 tive to the capture — Different species — The northern rorqual — 
 The smaller rorqual — The sperm whales — The white whales — 
 The deductor — Great capture of whales — Fight between a whale 
 and a grampus — Other enemies of the whale — Anecdotes — Attach- 
 ment of whales to their young 142— 153 
 
14 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE WHALE FISHERY AND ITS PERILS. 
 
 Pagb 
 
 Description of sli'.ps employed in the whale fishery — Hard work in 
 the Polar seas — Mode of Asking — The harpoon — Struggles of the 
 whale — Disappointment of a Dutch whaler — Dead whales — Cut- 
 ting up the whales — Whale fishery in the southern seas — Inci- 
 dent to the Essex in the Pacific Ocean — Ship destroyed by a 
 collision with a whale — Story of a Dutch harpooner — New 
 Zealand Tom — Incident in the Pacific to the whaling vessel 
 Independence — Paying out the rope — Incident to the whaling 
 vessel Aimwell — Loss of the Princess Cliarlotte — Wonderful 
 escape of the Trafalgar — Calamities of a whaling squadron — The 
 Rattler— The Achilles 1 54—1 67 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 SHARKS THE PIRATES OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 Fossil sharks — Enormous teeth — The white shark — Its extreme vo- 
 racity — Great tenacity of life — Its preference for human flesh — 
 Horrible tragedy — Habit of bounding out of the sea — Punishing 
 a shark — Manner of catcMng sharks in the South Sea Islands — 
 Captain Basil Hall's account of the capture of a shark — Worship 
 of sharks by the inhabitants — Rapacity of the shark — Hooks for 
 shark fishing — Fearful incident to the crew of the "Magpie" — 
 The hammer headed shark — The smooth shark — Dog fish — Angel 
 fish — Greenland shark — Basking shark — Taken for the sea ser- 
 . pent — Pilot fish — Companion to the shark — Pilot fish described. 168 — 185 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SEA-HORSES AND NARWAHLS. 
 
 The morse walrus or sea-horse — Description — Immense slaughter of 
 them — For what purposes — Ferocity when attacked — Affec- 
 tion for its young — Battles between the walrus and the Polar 
 bear — The sword fish a fierce enemy — Sea unicorn — Described — 
 Color — Their habits — Mode of catching them — Herd in flocks — 
 Playfulness — Its speed ,.....- 186 — 195 
 
CONTENTS. 15 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 NAUTILI THE FLOATING NAVIGATORS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 Pagk 
 
 The nautilus " the ocean mab" and " fairy of the sea" — The fish de- 
 scribed by Prof. Owen — Real method of its propulsion — The 
 paper nautilus — Its supposed sails — Glaucus a real rover on the 
 ocean — A wonderful builder — Intelliofence displayed — Pearly 
 nautilus — Gem of the deep — The argonaut — Sea bladder or Por- 
 tuguese man-of-war — Beauty of its colors — Appear like prismatic 
 shells — Their stinging properties — Specimens of fossil nautili in 
 the British museum — Ammonite — Most beautiful of all fossils — 
 Petrified snakes — The cuttle fish — One of the feasts of fisher- 
 men — Their ink bags — Prodigious size of some species — Mode of 
 fishing with the cuttle fish described by Columbus — Belongs to 
 a period before the flood 196 — 210 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 
 Use of nets dates from the earliest times — Great improvements of 
 late in the manufacture of nets — Variety of nets used by fisher- 
 men — Description of them — Fishing by electric light — Birds 
 trained to catch fish — Their wonderful sagacity — South Sea 
 Islanders expert fishermen — Singular mode of taking the needle 
 fish — Fishing by the light — Indians' method of taking tlie candle 
 fish — The white porpoise — Fishing for the sea pike — The tunny 
 fishery — Sturgeon fishery — Conger-eel fishery — Great conger-eel 
 described — Sand-eel fishery — Mackeral fishery — Nets employed — 
 Herring fishery — Modes of fishing — Curing herring — Dog fish — 
 Hake — Pilcherd — Sprats and white bait, and how taken — The 
 Sardine — Cod fishery on the banks of Newfoundland — The m<jdera 
 cod sinock — The haddock — The coal fish — Common hake — The 
 turbot — The turtle — Modes of taking them — Crabs — Mode of 
 taking them — Hermit crab — King crab — Prawns and shrimps — 
 Mussels — Mussel farms — Oyster farming — Age at which the 
 oyster is ready for the table — Its best qualities — The enemies of 
 the jyster — Lobsters 211—260 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ODDS AND ENDS ABOUT FISHES. 
 Strange and varied characters of fishes — The money of commerce in 
 some countries — Form of fishes — The tail the great organ of 
 
16 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 motion — Air or swimming bladder — Respiration — Baits made 
 
 attractive by scents — Nostrils of fislies — Taste — Touch — Scales — 
 Eyes — Teeth — Hearing — Brain — Eggs — Uses of fish — Curative 
 properties of certain fish — The torpedo — Violent shocks — Electric 
 apparatus described — Effects produced on fishermen — The elec- 
 tric eel — Its physical properties — The sting ray — Enormous fins — 
 The great and little weever — Stinging powers of the physalis — 
 Sucking fishes — Sea owl — Snail — Lumpsucker — The sea lam- 
 prey — Its powerful sucker — Lampreys fed on human flesh — The 
 gunard fish — Peculiarities — Many species remarkable for beauty 
 of colors — The sea scorpion — Sticklebacks — The flying gunard — 
 Emits phosphoric light — Flying fishes — Musical fish — The devil 
 fish — Its enormous size and strength — Devil fish taken hi Dela- 
 ware Bay — Monstrous skates — The fishing frog or angler — 
 Description — Mode of attracting its prey — Capture of an immense 
 saw fish — An East Indiaman attacked by a sword-fish — Dolphin — 
 Atlantic species — Cat-fish — Sucking fish — Sea peacock — Blue 
 fish — The true dolphin described — Pursue the flying fish — The 
 common mackerel a beautiful fish — The John Dory — The boar 
 fish — The opah or king fish — The red mullet — Purchased at 
 enormous prices — The basse or sea perch — The Mediterranean 
 Apogon — The lettered seranus — The choetocion — The Archer — 
 A favorite with the Chinese — The Riband shaped fish family — 
 The butterfly fish — Wrasses, or old wives of the sea — The rain- 
 bow — Parrot fish — The scarus — The sea horse — The chimera or 
 rabbit fish — Repulsive form — Beauty of colors intended for the 
 admiration of man 261—308 
 
 CHAPTER XYII. 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 Wonderful shaping and moulding of shells — The structure of shells 
 adapted to the requirements of the inhabitant — Apparatus of two 
 shelled animals — Power over the valves — Conchology — Shells 
 formerly regarded as toys — Shells of southern Europe — Greater 
 portion of shell animals carnivorous — Shells of tropical America- 
 Western coasts of Africa — The harp shell — The cockle — The 
 cowry — Bi^autiful and rare shells found on the coasts of Austra- 
 lia — Deep sea shells — Lowest part of the earth consist of shell 
 remains — Shells used for making roads — Helix or snail genus — 
 The clam or bear's paw — Varieties of shells — Formation of 
 
CONTENTS. 17 
 
 Pagb 
 shells — Sea shells perform an important part in the economy of 
 
 nature — Use of shells multifarious — Trumpet shell — Shell fish 
 
 as an article of food — Giant clams — Porcelain shells — Roaring 
 
 buckie harp shells — Fountain shells — Razor siiells — Trough 
 
 shells :-j09 322 
 
 CHAPTER XYIIL 
 
 bEA BIRDS. 
 
 Number and variety of marine birds — Roosting places — The gull 
 family — General description — Sorue gulls expert in breaking the 
 shells of mollusks — Tricks played by seamen on gulls — The 
 skuas — The petrels — Among the most interesting of marine 
 birds — The storm petrel — Sea swallows — The albatros — A great 
 fish eater — The divers — Expert fishers — Tue guillemots — The 
 great ausk — PuflSjig or sea parrot — The penguins — Darwin's de- 
 scription of the "jackass" penguin — The cormorant — Trained 
 to fish by some nations — The pelican- -Peculiar pouch for storing 
 fish — The ganet — Assemble at breeding times in myriads on the 
 bass rock — The hooper or wild swan — The great sea eagles — The 
 osprey and its fishing habits — The tropic sea birds — The frigate 
 bird — Its tyrannical treatment of the booby 323 — 351 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN. 
 
 Seamen naturally superstitious — Incidents regarded as prodigies — 
 Phantom ship — Power of raising tempests at sea by witchcraft — 
 Incident to James VI. of Scotland — Wind pillars — Double sight 
 — Apparitions at sea — Rats leaving a ship — Omens for good or 
 evil — Crows as guides to mariners — The ancient mariner — Carry- 
 ing dead bodies in ships — Good luck — Bad luck — Curious re- 
 flections — Sea divinities of the ancient times 352 — 359 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 MARINE PRODIGIES. 
 
 The Krasken a wonderful sea monster — Able to pull men-of-war to 
 the bottom of the ocean — The sea serpent — Marvelous stories re- 
 
18 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 lated by oar sailors — Account forwarded to the admiralty — Fishes 
 of the ribbon family may give rise to what are called sea serpents 
 — Mermaids and women — Icelandic description of a mermaid — 
 P. T. Barnum's famous exhibition — The manatee — The dugong 
 — The stellerus — A mermaid shown in London in 1822 ,360 — 368 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 MONSTERS OF THE DEEP— SEA DRAGONS, 
 
 Gigantic reptiles inhabiting the ocean before the deluge — Huge sea 
 lizards — Limestone rocks at Lyme Regis — Dragons in story books 
 — Description of the sea lizard — Head like a crocodile — Numer- 
 ous immense teeth — Enormous eyes — Body like that of a fish — 
 The plesiosaurus — Peculiarities of this huge monster — Head like 
 a lizard — Teeth of a crocodile — Neck of enormous length- — Body 
 rounded like that of a marine turtle — Its habits described — The 
 teleosaurus — The great pirate of the ocean — Armed to the teeth 
 — Its enormous jaws — Able to swallow animals as large as an ox 
 — The moesusaurus — Thought to be a crocodile 369 — 373 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 SUBMARINE SCENERY— ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE. 
 
 The earth has its counterpart in the ocean — Glory of submarine 
 scenery — In the tropics — China seas — Deepest colors of fishes and 
 marine vegetation in the tropical seas — The Indian Ocean — 
 Splendid colors of tropical fishes — Flowers of the ocean — Abun- 
 dance and beauty of marine fauna — Wonders of coral scenery — 
 Coput medusae, or basket fish — Anemones the loveliest ornaments 
 of sea-gardens — Sea aue i ; ones a hungry class — Clearness of the 
 TFateis of the red sea — Sea slug and sea cucumber — Waters of 
 the North Sea remarkable for its transparency — Submarine forests 
 and meadows — A sea covered with weeds — Enormous expanse of 
 ihe Atlantic Ocean covered with vegetation — Seaweeds brought 
 Jrom a great depth — The true seaweed — Beauty of smaller varie- 
 ties — Marine plants vie with land-flowers — Seaweeds as food — 
 Numerous applications of seaweeds 374 — 391 
 
CONTENTS. 19 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE BED OF THE OCEAN. DEEP SEA SOUNDINGS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Beauty of the tropical ocean — Average depth of the sea — Long a diffi- 
 cult question — First determined by the U. S. navy — Mode of 
 taking soundings — Brooks' sounding apparatus — The telegraph 
 plateau — No currents below 3,000 feet — No decomposition at 
 extreme depths — The sea a great nursery — Animal life at extreme 
 depths — Preservxtioa of marine life — Conclusions of Professors 
 Bailey and Ehrenburg — Deep sea dredging expeditions — Food of 
 deep water animals — Limestone formations 392 — 412 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PHENOMENA OP THE OCEAN. 
 
 Optical illusions in Arctic seas — The mirage — Vivid description by 
 Dr. Hayes — Aurora Borealis, or " Northern Daybreak" — Origin 
 supposed to be electrical — Other luminous meteors — Halos and 
 mock suns — The ice blink — Tide rip and Sea drift — Evaporation 
 and precipica.tion — Formation of water-spouts — Perilous escape 
 from a water-spout — Tornadoes and typhoons — The trade winds — 
 Explanation of atmospheric currents — Their functions — The 
 monsoon — Its beneficial effects — Hurricanes and cyclones — De- 
 scription of the Bore and Egre — Sub-marine earthquakes and 
 volcanoes — Islands rising from the sea — Cause — Red fog, or 
 shower-dust , 413 — 444 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. 
 Universal interest respecting the "ocean palaces" — Fulton's "Cler- 
 mont " — Her size and rate of speed — Her first trip from New York 
 to Albany — Terrific appearance — Contrasted with modern steam- 
 ships — The Anchor Line of Steamships — The City of Rome — The 
 largest passenger steamer afloat — Her remajkable dimensions — 
 minute description of her interior 444 — 449 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 
 Various modes of signaling — Field telegraph trains — Instruction of 
 officers and men for the service — Branches taught — Number of 
 
20 CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 Stations with equipments — Inauguration of the " Weather Bu- 
 reau " — Co-operation of Agricultui'al and otlier societies — Rapid 
 expansion of tlie work — Improvement of instruments — Superior 
 to European systems — Mode of preparing the daily weather-map — 
 Predicting rise and fall of great rivers — Great benefit to inter- 
 state commerce — Storm signals described — Universal benefit of 
 the Signal Service — International code of flag-signals — Incidents 
 illustrating the service 449 — 475 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. 
 
 Development of the system — Number of stations — Appliances — Patrol 
 men on duty — Wreck of the "J. H. Hortzell" — The " Life Boat 
 Coming " — A terrible journey — Relief at hand — The ' ' short- 
 cut" — The frightful spectacle — The perilous descent — Prepar- 
 tions for the rescue — The breeches-buoy — Life car attached — The 
 crew saved — Wreck of the schooner "A. B. Goodman " — To the 
 rescue — Sublime heroism displayed 475 — 498 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIIL 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS. 
 
 The "Pharos" — The oldest lighthouse — One of the seven wonders of 
 the world — Colossal statue of Apollo »t Rhodes — Lighthouse on 
 the Eddystone rocks — Originally built by Winstanley — His sad 
 fate — The Bell-Rock — The " Skerry vore" on coast of Scotland — 
 Minot's Lodge lighthouse — Modes of signaling in fogs — Coal or 
 wood fires formerly used — Later adaptations — The electric light — 
 Life in a lighthouse — Appointments to position of keeper — How 
 obtained — The sea veteran. 498 — 113 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Frontispiece 2 
 
 Aurora Borealis in Artie Regions. .417 
 
 Albatross 138 
 
 Archer Fish 242 
 
 Arctic Chimaeridar 275 
 
 Boats Stranded by the Tide 35 
 
 Breaking up of Icebergs 78 
 
 Boobie 336 
 
 Common Carp . 242 
 
 Cormorant 33G 
 
 Cramp Fish 276 
 
 Coral 106 
 
 Drag Net 380 
 
 Diver at Work 401 
 
 Devil Fish 210 
 
 Electric Eel 268 
 
 Esquimaux Seal Hunters 131 
 
 Frozen to Death 51 
 
 Fleet of Medusa} 93 
 
 Flying Fish 284 
 
 Frog Fish 287 
 
 Father Lasher 304 
 
 Fight between Walrus and Polar 
 
 Bears 194 
 
 Frightful Encounter with Sharks. . . 180 
 
 Gurnard 261 
 
 Greenland Whale 154 
 
 Gigantic Cuttle-Fish 205 
 
 Globe Fish 220 
 
 Great Auk 336 
 
 Golden Penguin 1 38 
 
 Hurricane 436 
 
 Halibut 220 
 
 Herring Fishing 247 
 
 Ice Blink 421 
 
 Luminosity of the Sea 40 
 
 Launching the Life Boat 480 
 
 Lamprey Eel 270 
 
 Lump Fish 233 
 
 Monsters before the Flood 371 
 
 Montauk Lighthouse 505 
 
 Mirage 414 
 
 Northern Lights 75 
 
 Ocean Shells 315 
 
 Penguins 323 
 
 Pipe Fish 276 
 
 Piles Covered with Mussels 253 
 
 Pearl-Divers at Work 113 
 
 Pearl-Producing Shells 118 
 
 Potwal 142 
 
 Punt of the Marsh 253 
 
 Skate Fish 295 
 
 Sword Fish 308 
 
 Sea Shells 309 
 
 Swell at Sea 351 
 
 Sticklebacks — Nest-building Fishes. 281 
 
 Shark Fishing 173 
 
 Stratagem of the White Bear 189 
 
 Submarine Scenery of the Indian 
 
 Ocean 375 
 
 Sections of Ocean Cable 412 
 
 Steamship City of Rome 445 
 
 Ship in a Storm 462 
 
 Spring Tide 35 
 
 Ship under Full Sail 22 
 
 Ship in the Ice 82 
 
 Submarine Scenery 87 
 
 Sponge-Divers at Work 120 
 
 Sponge in its Natural State 124 
 
 Sea Lions 138 
 
 Tree Coral 98 
 
 The Nautilus 197 
 
 The Albatross 336 
 
 Whiting Fish 242 
 
 Wandering Chaetodon 233 
 
 Walrus 186 
 
 Water-spout, First and Second 
 
 Stages 424 
 
 Water-spout, Third Stage 429 
 
 Water-spout in the Mediterranean..414 
 
||ii!i|il|iiiiliiil'i'i'liififm"|% nil "I I ||M||',j/i 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE OCEAN— ITS LAWS AKD ELEMBirm. 
 
 :N the beginning," the sacred historiaii informs 
 us, " God created the heavens and the earth : 
 and the earth was without form and void, and 
 darkness was upon the face of the deep, and 
 THE Spirit of God moved upon the face 
 OF the waters." 
 How wondrously solemn and grand are these inspired and 
 holy words! What human imagination can fully realize 
 their sublimity? In a few plain but soul-stirring sentences 
 the great mystery of creative power is unfolded, and the 
 mind gets bewildered in the contemplation of such vastness, 
 beauty, and beneficence. We may exclaim with the royal 
 psalmist, " Thou, even Thou, art Lord alone ; Thou hast 
 made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host; 
 the earth, and all things that are therein ; the seas, and all 
 that are therein; and Thou preservest them all." 
 
 On the second day, or generation, uprose progressively 
 the fine fluids or waters of the firmament, and filled the blue 
 ethereal void with a vital atmosphere. The third day, or 
 generation, the waters more properly so called, or the 
 grosser or more compact fluids of the general mass, were 
 gathered together into the vast bed of the ocean, and dry 
 land began to make its appearance. 
 
 No subject, surely, could be more delightful than the study 
 of the " world of waters " and its strange inhabitants, and 
 there is none upon which the mind of man has been more 
 absorbed in inquiry and research. 
 
24 ESSENTIAL TO THE EXISTENCE OF MAN. 
 
 We never tire of the sea; it is a laboratory in whicli de- 
 lightful processes are continually being wrought out for our 
 admiration and use. Its flora and its fauna, its waves and 
 its tides, its salts and its currents, all afford grand and profit- 
 able themes of study and thought. But, as interesting as 
 they are separately, and as wonderful, too, they are not half 
 so marvelous as the offices which, with their aid, the sea 
 performs in the physical economy of our planet. 
 
 Viewed in this light, the ocean, its inhabitants, and its 
 vapors, is a mechanism constructed by the All Wise, of per- 
 fect workmanship. 
 
 It is so fixed and true in its work that nothing can throw 
 it out of gearing ; and yet its returns are so delicate that 
 the task of preserving them is allotted to the minutest of 
 sea dwellers, and to agents apparently the most subtle and 
 fickle. 
 
 They preserve its intricate relations, making its adjust- 
 ments, in beauty and sublimity of effect, to vie with the 
 heavens. These marvelous wonders proclaim, in songs di- 
 vine, that they, too, are the work of holy fingers. 
 
 We may but imperfectly represent this great bcdy of 
 water and the many wonderful objects it contains, but any 
 deficiencies may be supplied later, Avhen the open book of 
 nature is read by thoughtful minds eager for knowledge. 
 
 The ocean is essential to the existence of man and of all 
 vegetation ; it is the great moderator and equalizer of terres- 
 trial climates, purifying the atmosphere that we breathe, and 
 sending off a perpetual supply of vapors, which condense 
 into clouds, and are the sources of moisture and fertility to 
 the soil. We must also think of the facilities afforded for an 
 intercourse with distant nations. It has been remarked that 
 contact with the ocean has unquestionably exercised a bene- 
 ficial influence on the cultivation of the intellect and form- 
 ation of the character of many nations, on the multiplication 
 of those bonds which should unite the whole human race, on 
 
COMPOSITION OF WATER. 25 
 
 the first knowledge of the true form of the earth, and on the 
 pursuit of astronomy, and of all the mathematical and physi- 
 cal sciences. 
 
 Since Columbus was sent to unbar the gates of ocean, 
 man has boldly ventured into intellectual as well as geo- 
 graphical regions before unknown to him. How perfect. 
 Infinite One, are all thy works, and how shortened our 
 aspirations ! 
 
 If the existing waters were increased only one-fourth of 
 their present area, they Avould drown the earth, with the 
 exception of some high mountains. If the volume of the 
 ocean were augmented only by one-eighth, considerable por- 
 tions of the present continents would be submerged, and the 
 seasons would be changed' all over the face of the globe. 
 Evaporation would be so much extended, that rains would 
 fall continually, destroy the harvests, fruits, and flowers, and 
 overturn the whole economy of nature. 
 
 There is, perhaps, nothing more beautiful in our whole 
 system than the process by which the fields are irrigated 
 from the skies, the rivers are fed from the mountains, and 
 the ocean restrained within bounds which it never can ex- 
 ceed so long as that process continues on the present scale. 
 The vapor raised from the sea by the sun floats Avherever it 
 is lighter than the atmosphere ; condensed, it falls upon the 
 earth in water. And what is water? It is composed of 
 two important gases — oxygen and hydrogen — these being, 
 probably, the two most abundant and essential substances in 
 nature, as regards ourselves and our earth. 
 
 These, when combined, become converted into vapor, 
 many gallons of them in this state forming one small drop 
 of fluid water. It is the simplest of combinations, and the 
 compound most resembling a simple element ; the most uni- 
 versal solvent at all temperatures; the most widely dis- 
 tributed substance in nature ; the most powerful agent ; the 
 
26 SALTINESS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 most perfect representation of perpetual motion, penetrating 
 everything, passing everywhere, always present, in sight or 
 out of sight, and everywhere producing a marked eflfect. 
 When it is remembered that a very large proportion of the 
 w^eight of every living being, animal or vegetable, consists 
 of water, and that for life to continue at all, an incessant 
 supply of fresh fluid is required, the necessity of water will 
 be fully understood. 
 
 The Saltness which distinguishes the waters of the ocean 
 is explained by the circumstance that chloride of sodium 
 (common salt) and other dissolvable salts, which form essen- 
 tial ingredients of the earth, are being constantly washed 
 out of the soil and rocks by rain and springs, and carried 
 down by the rivers ; and as the evaporation which feeds the 
 rivers carries none of the dissolved matter back to the land, 
 the tendency is to accumulate in the sea. We know that 
 beds of rock-salt, of enormous thickness, form part of the 
 crust of the globe; and we may infer that immense banks of 
 salt exist in the bed of the deep. The uniformity of this 
 saltness is preserved by the constant movement of the 
 waters, caused by the regular and perpetual action of the 
 winds. It has been said that if all the salts of the sea were 
 spread equally over the northern half of this continent, it 
 would cover the ground to the depth of one mile ! What 
 force could move such a mass of matter on dry land ? Yet, 
 the machinery of the ocean, of which it forms a part, is so 
 wisely, marvelously, and wonderfully compensated, that the 
 most gentle breeze that plays on its bosom — the tiniest in- 
 sect that secretes solid matter for its sea-shell — is capable of 
 putting it instantly in motion. Still, when solid and placed 
 in a heap, all the mechanical contrivances of mankind, aided 
 by the tremendous forces of all the steam and water power 
 of the -world, could not move so much as an inch in centuries 
 of this matter, which the sunbeam, the zephyr, and the in- 
 fusorial insect keep in perpetual motion and activity. 
 
EFFECTS OF ITS SALTNESS. 27 
 
 Why was the sea made salt ? If the sea were not made 
 salt, the rays of the sun could not so readily penetrate it. 
 This penetration of the waters by the sun's rays produces 
 expansion. The force or dynamical power resulting from 
 this expansion, or the spreading up and outward of the 
 waters, increases the circulation of the currents. "Were tlie 
 waters of the sea fresh instead of salt, we should probably 
 have no such thing as a Gulf Stream nor marine climate ; 
 the torrid zone would have been hotter and the frigid zone 
 colder; and the climate of England would have vied with 
 Labrador for inhospitality : all for the lack of the watery 
 circulation. With no salts in the seas, evaporation, volume 
 of our rivers, and the quantity of rain, would all have been 
 different. The thunderbolt of the heavens, the sheet light- 
 ning of the clouds, and the fitful flashes of the storm, all 
 have their beginning principally in the salts of the sea. 
 
 With a few exceptions, such as the Red Sea, Great Salt 
 Lake, etc., the salts of the sea are everywhere the same. 
 They could not be made so, were they not well shaken to- 
 gether. The circulation of the currents of the sea is quite 
 as perfect and wonderful as the circulation of the blood in 
 our bodies. Evaporation in some waters is more rapid than 
 in others. Water can hold only a given amount of salt in solu- 
 tion. We cannot see that the quantity of salt deposits is 
 increasing. It reasonably follows from all this that there 
 must be a system of circulation in the waters, wliereb}' an 
 equilibrium is produced, making each and all of the waters of 
 the same degree of saltness. The currents which produce 
 these results do not flow from chance, but in accordance 
 with physical laws, assisting to maintain the order and pre- 
 serve the harmony which is so apparent in every depart- 
 ment of God's handiwork. 
 
 The coral islands of the Pacific were built up of matter 
 which a certain kind of animal quarried from the ocean. These 
 rivers of the sea become the hod-carriers of the little animal. 
 
28 CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 If the currents of the sea were not employed to carry off 
 from this animal the waters that have been emptied by it of 
 their lime, and to bring to it others supplied with more, it is 
 apparent that it would have died for want of something to 
 eat long before its work was completed. But for the benign 
 current, the emptied drop of water would have remained, 
 not only as the grove of the little builder, but as a monu- 
 ment recording a monstrous failure in the beautiful system 
 of terrestial adaptations. 
 
 It may be reasonably concluded that the marine animals, 
 whose secretions are so constituted as to alter the specific 
 gravity of the water, to disturb its equilibrium, to originate 
 currents in the ocean, and to control its circulation, are not 
 in any place nor doing this work by accident. Nature is 
 sublime and perfect in adaptation through all her domain. 
 
 Currents, which exercise so great an influence on the cir- 
 culation of the waters, and in producing remarkable changes 
 in the form of coasts, are described as constant, periodical, 
 and variable ; the two latter classes being determined chiefly 
 by the winds and tides. The first motion of the ocean 
 waves is derived either from the attraction of the sun or 
 moon, or from w^inds which blow over the surface of the 
 waters; the second arises from the sun, which directly 
 through its heat, and indirectly by scorching dry winds, 
 produces evaporation, to a great extent, of the parts most 
 exposed to its influence ; and by its similar action on the 
 atmosphere, causes a transference of this vapor to remote 
 latitudes, where it descends as rain, and by destroying the 
 equilibrium of the ocean, gives rise to currents. The prin- 
 cipal currents of the ocean are four, two warm, and two 
 cold ; these originate, the former among the islands of the 
 Archipelago and in the G-ulf of Mexico, and the latter in the 
 Arctic and Southern Oceans. 
 
 The most important and best known of ocean currents, the 
 Gulf Stream — the river in the ocean, one of the most mar- 
 
THE O ULF STREAM. 29 
 
 velous things In this worhi of waters — derives its name 
 from the Gulf of Mexico. The general direction of this 
 stream is in the arc of a great circle, towards England, by 
 which it is divided; one branch, passing to the west and 
 north, reaches the coast of Norway, and can be perceived on 
 the southern borders of Iceland and Spitzbergen. The 
 Avaters are of a deep indigo blue, and are so distinctly 
 marked that their line of junction with the common sea- 
 water may be traced by the eye. 
 
 The existence of the Gulf Stream can also be readily as- 
 certained by means of a thermometer, the temperature be- 
 ing so elevated. It is this warmth which tempers and 
 softens the climate of all Western Europe. It is the influ- 
 ence of the Gulf Stream upon the climate that makes Ireland 
 the Emerald Island of the sea, and clothes the shores of 
 England with evergreen robes ; while in the same latitude, 
 on our side of the Atlantic, the shores of Labrador are 
 fast bound in fetters of ice. How wonderful is this benefi- 
 cent operation of Providence, when we think that this warm 
 stream felt on England's shores, which are thus bathed with 
 water heated under a tropical sun, comes from a distance of 
 four thousand miles ! Nor is its influence thus circum- 
 scribed. In mid-winter, off the inclement coasts between 
 Cape Hatteras and New Foundland, ships, when beaten 
 back from their harbors by fierce north-westers, loaded 
 down with ice, and in danger of founding, turn their 
 prows to the east, and seek relief and comfort in the Gulf 
 Stream. In high northern latitudes, after having run three 
 thousand miles towards the north, it still preserves even in 
 winter the heat of summer. With this temperature, it 
 spreads itself out for thousands of square miles over the 
 cold waters around, and covers the ocean with a mantle of 
 warmth that serves so much to mitigate in Europe the 
 rigors of winter. 
 
 With a breadth of about fifty miles in its narrowest por- 
 
30 TEE GULF STREAM. 
 
 tions, the Gulf Stream has a velocity, at times, of five miles 
 an hour, pouring on like an immense torrent. 
 
 The cause of these phenomenal ocean river currents, up 
 to the present time, is only conjectured, and the nature and 
 extent of this work will hardly warrant any extended theo- 
 retical discussion. 
 
 Each current seems to have a circulation of its own, i.e., 
 an upper and lower stratum. In the warm currents, the 
 upper portion only is warm, while beneath runs a counter 
 cold current. In the cold currents, the order of stratums is 
 reversed. 
 
 There is a constant tendency of polar waters toward the 
 tropics, and of tropical waters toward the poles. 
 
 It is a custom often practiced by seafaring people to 
 throw a bottle overboard, having inside a paper, stating the 
 time and place at which it is done. These minute little 
 voyagers leave no trace behind them, and therefore their 
 routes cannot be exactly ascertained, though we can approx- 
 imate closely, knowing where they were cast and where they 
 were found. Charts have been prepared showing the routes 
 of over one hundred bottles, by drawing straight lines from 
 the starting to returning point, with the time elapsed. From 
 this it appears that the waters from every quarter of the 
 Atlantic tend towards the Gulf of Mexico and its stream. 
 Good circumstantial evidence exists to prove that bottles 
 cast overboard in the Gulf Stream have performed the entire 
 tour of that current. 
 
 Other currents as well as the Gulf Stream are utilized in 
 a similar manner. As an instance of this we quote the in- 
 structions of Mr. G. M. Robeson, Secretary of our Navy, to 
 Capt. Francis Hall, of the Polaris expedition in 1869, as fol- 
 lows ; " To keep the Government as well informed as possible 
 of your progress, you will, after leaving Cape Dudley Digges^ 
 throw overboard daily, as open water or drifting ice may 
 permit, a bottle or small copper cylinder, closely sealed, con- 
 
GULF STREAM UTILIZED BY NAVIGATORS. 31 
 
 taining a paper, stating date, position, and such other facta 
 as you may deem interesting. For this purpose you will 
 have prepared papers, containing a request, printed in sev- 
 eral languages, that the linder transmit it by the most direct 
 route to the Secretary of the Navy, U. S. of A." 
 
 Toward the end of the seventeenth century, a Dutch brig, 
 pursued by the French corsair. Phoenix, was overhauled be- 
 tween Tangier and Tarifa, and seemed to be sunk by a sin- 
 gle broadside ; but in place of going down, the brig, being 
 freighted with a cargo of oil and alcohol, floated between 
 the two currents, and, drifting toward the west, finally ran 
 aground in the neighborhood of Tangier, more than twelve 
 miles from the spot where she had disappeared under the 
 waves. She had therefore floated that distance, driven by 
 the action of the under current, in a direction opposite to 
 that of the surface current. 
 
 Recent invention has wrought out an improved plan of 
 warming houses in winter by hot water. A furnace heats 
 the water; this heated water and steam is conveyed by 
 pipes to the place to be warmed. 
 
 This convenient mode of warming our ofiices and dwell- 
 ings was probably suggested by two things : first, because 
 of its utility ; and, second, the fact that we have a similar 
 heating apparatus in nature, in the warm waters of the Gulf 
 of Mexico. The heater is the torrid zone ; the Gulf and the 
 Caribbean Sea are the boilers ; the Gulf current is the means 
 of conveyance ; from New Foundland to Europe is the reser- 
 voir. According to Maury ^ " the quantity of heat discharged 
 over the Atlantic by the Gulf Stream in a winter's day 
 would be sufiicient to raise the whole column of atmosphere 
 that rests upon France and the British Islands from the 
 freezing point to summer heat." 
 
 How benign is the influence of this wonderful stream, 
 and how a contemplation of it leads one to revere its creator. 
 
 ** He treadeth upon the waves of the sea, and is seen in 
 
32 INFLUENCE UPON CLIMATE. 
 
 the waters of the deep. Yea, He calleth for its waters, and 
 poureth them out on the face of the earth." 
 
 Investigation as to the causes oi the severe storms raging 
 so frequently in certain portions of the Atlantic, and which 
 have proved so disastrous to navigation, led to the conclusion 
 that they were caused by the irregularity between the tem- 
 perature of the Grulf Stream and neighboring regions, both 
 in the air and water. " To use a sailor's expression, the 
 Gulf Stream is the great ' weather breeder ' of the North 
 Atlantic." It is a " storm fiend " that out-tops the " stormy 
 capes," and out-vies the furious storms of the North Pacific 
 and China Seas. 
 
 Storms from the right and left of the Gulf Stream break in 
 upon it; and, turning about, rush along with it, leaving be- 
 hind a steamy mist, caused by the cold water and warm air 
 coming in contact, to mark its course. 
 
 Formerly the Gulf Stream exercised a greater infiuence 
 npon commerce than it does at the present day. Up to the 
 last century, the navigator guessed as much as he calculated 
 the place of his ship. 
 
 For three centuries navigators had been crossing and re- 
 crossing this Gulf Stream daily, without using it as a means 
 of giving them their longitude, or warning them of their ap- 
 proach to this continent. 
 
 Before the warmth of the Gulf Stream was known, a voy- 
 age from Europe in winter to portions of our own. coast was 
 exceedingly perilous. Gales and snow storms would be met 
 which would set at naught the seaman's skill. His vessel be- 
 comes incrusted with ice and her crew benumbed and helpless. 
 She remains obedient only to her helm, which almost in- 
 stinctively guides her to the Gulf Stream. She crosses its 
 magic boundary and is embraced by its healing presence. 
 The ice vanishes from her garments ; the weary sailor laves 
 in its healing properties, being invigorated by its genial 
 warmth. He is now ready to make another efibrt to enter 
 
EFFECTS OF CURRENTS UPON NAVIGATION. 33 
 
 his port, perhaps to be as rudely driven back again. But 
 each breathing" spell renews his energies, until at last he 
 may enter his haven in safety, though many, in this terrible 
 contest, may sink to rise no more 
 
 Other currents as Avell as the Gulf Stream materially af- 
 fect navigation. While an intimate knowledge of them is 
 necessary, in order to avoid the danger of mistaking the 
 true position of a vessel, its progress to port may be facili- 
 tated by falling in with a local stream, or steering clear of 
 it, according as its direction is favorable or adverse. 
 
 The effect of currents was perceived long before anything 
 was known of their direction and velocity, and Columbus 
 was strengthened in his belief that land might be reached 
 across the Atlantic westward, by substances which had 
 drifted from that quarter. After the commencement of his 
 great undertaking, when, day after day, nothing had been 
 seen but a shoreless horizon, and hope had nearly expired 
 in his own breast, while his crew were on the verge of open 
 rebellion, the effect of the oceanic currents restored his con- 
 fidence and allayed their clamors. A branch of thorn, with 
 berries on it, appeared ; a reed was picked up, and a stafF 
 artificially carved — intimations that an inhabited land lay 
 before the adventurers, which was at length revealed to their 
 gaze, and terminated forever the mystery which had rested 
 upon the western flood. 
 
 A Tide is a w^ave of the w^hole ocean, w^hich is elevated 
 to a certain height, and then sinks after the manner of a 
 common wave. The interval between the two positions 
 forms the tide. The principal cause is the attraction of the 
 sun and moon, the latter being the more potent agent. The 
 sea rises or flows, as it is called, by degrees, about six hours ; 
 it remains stationary about a quarter of an hour ; and then 
 retires or ebbs during another six hours, to flow again after 
 a brief repose. Thus every day, or the period elapsing 
 between successive returns of the moon to the meridian of a 
 
34 TIDES. 
 
 place — which is twenty-four hours, fifty minutes and a half — 
 the sea ebbs and flows twice, much less, indeed, towards the 
 poles than within the tropics, where the waters lie under 
 the direct influence of the lunar attraction. It is in the 
 southern hemisphere that the tidal wave originates, and 
 from thence moves northward, influenced in its direction by 
 the motion of the earth. Almost excluded from the North- 
 ern Pacific by the barrier of islands and coral reefs which 
 stretch across from Australia nearly to South America, the 
 effect of the tides, excepting on the w^est coast of that con- 
 tinent, is little felt in that ocean. In the Indian Ocean, 
 compressed between Africa on the north and Australia and 
 Sumatra on the east, it bursts in full strength on the shores 
 of Hindoostan. In the narrow channel of the Atlantic the 
 tidal wave progresses northward with great rapidity, and on 
 the shores both of Europe and America, producing, as in 
 Southern India, the Bore, which is described in the chapter 
 on the " Phenomena of the Ocean," 
 
 The highest floods and the loAvest ebbs occur at the 
 period of new and full moon, near the equinoxes, in March 
 and September, when the moon is nearest the earth. 
 
 Winds have also a powerful influence over the tidal cur- 
 rents, especially in narrow seas, keeping them back when 
 blowing from an opposite quarter, and quickening their flow 
 when pursuing the same direction ; but the motion of the 
 water in the tide-wave is totally unlike that in an ordinary 
 surface-wave, such as the wind produces ; and it diff"ers, also, 
 in affecting the whole depth of the ocean equally from the 
 bottom to the surface, while the wand-waves, even in the 
 most violent storms, agitate it to a very trifling depth. In 
 the deep water of the ocean, the tidal-wave does not exceed 
 twelve feet in height. 
 
 The ancients knew that the time of high water, and also 
 the height of the tide, were in some way connected with the 
 age of the moon. It was the illustrious Sir Isaac Newton 
 
BOATS STRANDED BY THE TIDE. 
 
 ^ V- '^-^ F*" ' "■-- "" ^^£^^•^1^-^^' ^ 
 
 SPRING TIDE. 
 
36 WIND- WA VE8. 
 
 who made the first attempt to explain the phenomena of 
 the tides, on the principle of the influence of gravitation, 
 the grand agent in the movement of the universe. 
 
 What are called wind-waves are small at their first origin, 
 commencing with a mere ripple, or, as the sailors term it, a 
 " cat's-paw." But each wave, as it advances, acquires in- 
 creased height by the continued pressure of the wind. Thus 
 it is that the larger waves are not developed in narrow seas, 
 or where the wind blows off the land ; they require breadth 
 of water and continued pressure for their formation. The 
 greatest waves known are those off the Cape of Good Hope, 
 under the influence of a north-west gale (the storm-wind of 
 that region), Avhich drifts the swell around the Cape, after 
 traversing obliquely the vast area of the South Atlantic. In 
 such gales, the waves attain a height of above forty feet, so 
 that two ships in the trough of the sea, with such a wave 
 between them, lose sight of one another from their decks. 
 Ofi" Cape Horn, also, the waves reach upwards of thirty feet 
 in height. In our own seas, they rarely exceed eight or 
 nine feet. 
 
 The crossing of waves, instead of dividing the water into 
 parallel ridges, causes the pitching and rolling so distressing 
 to passengers and trying to vessels. When more than two 
 series of waves cross one another, they give rise to the term 
 chopping seas. 
 
 Whatever relates to the color of the ocean is a matter on 
 which many and various opinions have been expressed. 
 Very curious is the statement of Martyn, one of the early voy- 
 agers, attributing these changes in the sea to the color of the 
 skies : " If," he says, " the sky be clear, the sea looks as blewe 
 as saphire ; if it is covered somewhat with clouds, the sea is 
 as greene as an emeralde ; if there be a foggy sunshine, it 
 looketh yellow ; if it be quite darke, like unto the color of 
 indigo ; in stormy and cloudy weather, like blacke sope, or 
 exactly like unto the color of blacke leade." 
 
VARIETY OF COLORS OF THE SEA. 37 
 
 The Greenland sea varies in color from ultramarine blue 
 to olive green, differences which have been found, on exam- 
 ining the water, were due to the presence of innumerable 
 minute animals. The red, brown, and white patches of the 
 Pacific and Indian Oceans, are attributed to the presence of 
 swarms of animalcuhe, and the colors of the Red and Yellow 
 Seas to matters of vegetable origin. On both sides of the 
 island of Ceylon, during the south-west monsoon, a broad 
 expanse of the sea assumes a red tinge, considerably brighter 
 than brick-dust ; and this is confined to a space so distinct, 
 that a line seems to separate it from the green water which 
 flows on either side. On examining some of this water with 
 a microscope, it proved to be filled with animalculse, prob- 
 ably similar to those which have been noticed near the 
 shores of South America, and whose abundance has imparted 
 a name to the Vermillion Sea off the coast of California. 
 
 Captain Kingman passed through a tract of water twenty- 
 three miles in breadth, and of unknown length, so full of 
 minute (and some not very minute) phosphorescent animal 
 organisms, as to present the aspect at night of a boundless 
 plain covered with snow. Some of the animals were ser- 
 pents six inches in length, of a transparent jelly-like nature. 
 This appearance is noticed by Dr. Collingwood as a '' milky 
 sea," the whole surface composed of a white fluid-like milk. 
 The contrast of the ocean, thus colored, with the dark sky, 
 is very striking. 
 
 This proceeds from a great variety of marine organisms, 
 some soft and gelatinous, and some minute shelly animals. 
 They mostly shine Avhen excited by a blow or by agitation 
 of the water, as when a fish darts along or oar dashes, or, 
 in the wake of a ship, when the Avater closes on its track. 
 In the latter case are often seen what appear to be lamps 
 of light rising from under the keel, and floating out to the 
 surface, apparently of many inches in diameter. One of the 
 most remarkable of these luminous creatures is a species of 
 
38 LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 
 
 shell animals with mufF-shaped bodies upwards of an inch in 
 length, which, when thrown down on deck, burst into a glow 
 so strong as to appear like lumps of white-hot iron. 
 
 There are few subjects of study more interesting than 
 the luminous appearance presented by the sea under various 
 circumstances. That the sea, the great extinguisher of fire, 
 should be turned into flame — that the darkness of night 
 should be illuminated by the luminous glow which bathes 
 every ripple and breaks over every wave — that globes of 
 light should traverse the ocean, or that lightning flashes 
 should coruscate no less in the billows of the sea than in the 
 clouds of the air — are all facts Avhich seize on the imagina- 
 tion. Nor is the interest lessened by the knowledge that 
 all these phenomena are produced by animals whose home 
 is in the great waters ; that not only do the fiery bodies of 
 large animals give out steady patches of light, but that of 
 the myriad animalculge with which the sea teems, like motes 
 in a sunbeam, each contributes its tiny scintillation, the ag- 
 gregate forming a soft and lovely radiance. 
 
 A vivid description of a luminous sea is given by an emi' 
 nent French naturalist, as follows : 
 
 " It exhibited to us in all its splendor the glorious phe- 
 nomena of its phosphorescence. For more than an hour the 
 waters around us seemed to be kindled into a blaze of light, 
 as if they had borrowed some of the hidden fires of Strom- 
 boli. The waves, as they broke along the rocky shores of 
 Sicily, encircled it with a glowing band of light, Avhile every 
 projecting cliff was circled with a wreath of fire. Our boat 
 seemed as if it were opening for itself a passage through 
 some glowing and fused liquid, while in its wake it left a 
 long track of light, each stroke of the oar brightening the 
 bosom of the waves with a broad silver gleam. The water 
 that was taken up in a bucket presented the appearance of 
 molten lead, as it was poured back into the sea. Every- 
 where over this brilliant surface of calm light, myriads of 
 
LUMINOSITY OF THE SEA. 39 
 
 dazzling green sparks and globes of fire were flashing, 
 quivering, and dying amidst the undulations of the waves, 
 and these sparks and globes of fire were so many living 
 beings. At certain times of the year these microscopical 
 beings acquire the property of emitting light at each mus- 
 cular contraction ; and hence every movement in these ani- 
 malcule is made apparent by a luminous flash." 
 
 Mr. Edmonds alludes to the luminous Avaters frequently 
 witnessed in Mount's Bay : 
 
 " On these occasions, particularly when the night is dark, 
 if a fish rise from the calm water, a most brilliant and beau- 
 tiful effect is produced. Were you, from a boat, to look 
 down into the sea while fishes were darting to and fro, their 
 paths would be luminous, and the deep would be traversed 
 by streams of light as bright and beautiful as those of stars 
 shooting through the sky. If you draw in your fishing-line, 
 it will appear as a line of fire, and the fish at the end of it 
 like a ball of fire coming near you. A net suspended in 
 the sea appears * like a brilliant lacework of fire,' and the 
 fishes may be seen carefull}^ avoiding it. When fishermen 
 by night wish to know whether any fish are near, they stamp 
 on the bottom of the boat, and instantly, if there are any 
 beneath, they will be seen darting away in all directions." 
 
 To these observations may be added the interesting de- 
 scription of this phenomenon, as witnessed in the vicinity of 
 the Plata by the distinguished Darwin : 
 
 " One very dark night the sea presented a very beautiful 
 and singular appearance. There was a fresh breeze, and 
 every part of the surface which, during the day, is seen as 
 foam, now glowed with a pale light. The vessel drove be- 
 fore her bows two billows of liquid phosphorus, and in her 
 wake she was followed by a milky train. As far as the eye 
 reached, the crest of every wave was bright, and the sky 
 above the horizon, from the reflected glare of these livid 
 flames, was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the 
 
ilii! iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Mill iii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiin 111 wm mm "f iipiii wwm 
 
PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN. 41 
 
 heavens. Farther south, the sea is seldom phosphorescent, 
 probably owing to the scarcity of organic beings in that 
 part, of the ocean. The same torn and irregular particles of 
 gelatinous matter seem, in the Southern as Avell as in the 
 Northern Hemisphere, to be the common cause of this phe- 
 nomenon. The particles were so minute as easily to pass 
 through fine gauze, yet many were distinctly visible by the 
 naked eye. The water, Avlien placed in a tumbler and agi- 
 tated, gave out sparks, but a small portion in a watch-glass 
 scarcely ever was luminous. All these particles retain a 
 certain degree of irritability. My observations gave a dif- 
 ferent result. Having used the net one night, I allowed it 
 to become partially dry, and twelve hours after, having 
 occasion to use it again, I found the whole surface sparkle 
 as brightly as when first taken out of the water. It does 
 not appear probable, in this case, that the particles could 
 have remained so long alive. When the waves scintillate with 
 bright green sparks, it is generally ownng to minute shell- 
 covered animals; but there can be no doubt that very many 
 other pelagic animals, when alive, are phosphorescent. The 
 phenomenon is the result of the decomposition of the or- 
 ganic particles, by which process the ocean becomes purified." 
 
 Having briefly glanced at some of the most important 
 features of the world of waters, it may not be amiss to call 
 attention to some of its principal divisions, and these are 
 five: the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic 
 Oceans. Although no one portion is completely set off from 
 the rest, it has been found desirable to arrange it into these 
 divisions. 
 
 The extreme breadth of the Atlantic system is about five 
 thousand miles, and its narrowest part about sixteen hun- 
 dred miles. The extent of its shores is immense — above 
 fifty thousand miles — several thousand more than the Pacific 
 and Indian Oceans combined. The Atlantic, from its relation 
 to civilized countries, and as the most frequented highway 
 
42 BISGOVERY OF THE PACIFIG. 
 
 of communication for commerce, is regarded as the most im- 
 portant, and is, consequently, much better known than the 
 Pacific. Its waters wash the eastern coasts of North, and 
 South America, and the western coasts of Europe and 
 Africa. Its northern and southern extremities are the Polar 
 waters. 
 
 The Mediterranean Sea, one of the arms or tributaries of 
 the Atlantic, with which it is connected by the Straits of 
 Gibraltar, is one of the greatest inlan'' seas of the world. 
 Its shores Avere the successive seats of the governments 
 of the earth for thousands of years. It was the central 
 ocean of the Ancients, on which all the early discoveries 
 and hardships of navigation were experienced. 
 
 The Pacific was discovered by Balboa, in 1513, not quite 
 four hundred years ago. The causes that led up to this im- 
 portant discovery, and the effect it produced upon what 
 was then called the Old World, are matters of common his- 
 tory, and need not be related nor discussed here. As a high- 
 way of commerce, it does not compare with its sister, the 
 Atlantic, though each decade increases its importance in this 
 respect ; for the light of the Gospel, and the rigor of modern 
 research, and commercial enterprise, is gradually but surely 
 opening up a lively correspondence and communication be- 
 tween the civilized inhabitants of North and South America 
 bounding its eastern shores, and the benighted hosts of Asia 
 on its west. 
 
 The Indian Ocean, an arm of the Pacific, and embraced 
 by Africa on the west, Asia on the north, and Australia on 
 the east, possesses a remarkable interest, inasmuch as the 
 earliest voyage on record, made by the navy of Solonic, was 
 taken on its romantic waters. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE FROZEN OCEAN. 
 
 ^THOSE of us who pass our days in a sun-favored 
 and temperate portion of the earth, with 
 every comfort we could desire around us, the 
 green face of nature only covered at brief 
 wintry intervals with a mantle of snow, 
 and a wide-spread fertility attesting the 
 bounty of an indulgent Providence, cannot realize the dark 
 and repelling picture of the frozen North. 
 
 We can only fancy, with a shudder, a winter of nine 
 months reigning over the boundless regions of ice ; and we 
 might wonder how human nature is able to support such an 
 intensity of cold with its attendant privations, did we not 
 know that the inhabitants of this bleak climate, accustomed 
 to hardships which Ave could not endure, pursue an exist- 
 ence which we might consider miserable, but which theyf 
 active, self-reliant, and with but few Avants to satisfy, except 
 the cravings of hunger, are contented with, and Avould not, 
 probably, exchange for Avhat we might consider a hap- 
 pier lot. 
 
 It is astonishing what amount of cold can be endured by 
 the human frame. Dr. Kane, one of the Arctic navigators, 
 records, 7th of February, 1851, a frost three degrees below 
 the freezing-point of mercury ! Only a few degrees above 
 this, the creAv of the ship engaged in the expedition per- 
 formed a farce, called " The Mysteries and Miseries of New 
 York." One of the sailors had to perform the part of a dam- 
 sel with bare arms, and when a cold flat-iron, which was 
 
44 HUMAN END URANCE OF GOLD. 
 
 employed in the play, touched his skin, the sensation was 
 like that of burning with a hot iron. On the 22d of the 
 same month (Washington's birthday), there was another 
 theatrical performance. "The ship's thermometer outside 
 was at 46°; inside, the audience and actors, by aid of lungs, 
 lamps, and hangings, got as high as 30°, only sixty-two de- 
 grees below the freezing-point, perhaps the lowest atmos- 
 pheric record of a theatrical representation. It was a 
 strange thing altogether. The condensation was so exces- 
 sive, that we could barely see the performers ; they walked 
 in a cloud of vapor. Any extra vehemence of delivery was 
 accompanied by volumes of smoke. Their hands steamed ; 
 when an excited Thespian took off his coat, it smoked like a 
 dish of potatoes." 
 
 As another instance of extreme cold in these fearful re- 
 gions, it may be mentioned how, under a temperature of 
 15° below" zero, Captain M'Clure, one of the most adven- 
 turous of Arctic explorers, spent the night of the I3th of 
 October, 1851, on the ice, amid prowling bears, and that 
 without food or amunition, his only guide being a pocket 
 compass, which, however, the darkness, aided by mist and 
 drift, rendered useless. He, nevertheless, wiled away the 
 time by sleeping three hours on " a famous bed of soft 
 dry snow," and by wandering ten miles by the crow's flight, 
 over a surface so rugged with ice and snow as to endanger 
 his limbs. It was at the close of a walking expedition of 
 nine days, on a very short allowance of food and water, he 
 accomplished his desire of reaching the winter quarters of 
 the expedition, so as to ensure a warm meal ready for his 
 men when they arrived at their destination. 
 
 Edward Parry mentions his experience of Arctic rigors 
 thus : " Our bodies appeared to adapt themselves so readily 
 to the climate, that the scale of our feelings was soon re- 
 duced to a lower standard than ordinary, so that after being 
 some days in a temperature of 15° or 20°, it felt quite 
 
EFFECTS OF THE COLD. 45 
 
 mild and comfortable when the thermometer rose to zero — 
 that is, when it was 32° below the freezing-point !" One 
 of Dr. Kane's crew put an icicle into his mouth to crack it, 
 when the thermometer was at 28°; one fragment stuck 
 to his tongue, and two to his lips, each taking off a bit of 
 skin, burning it off, if this term might be used in an inverse 
 sense. The same writer observes, " that at 25° the 
 beard, eyebrows, eyelashes, &c., acquire a delicate, white, 
 and perfectly enveloping cover of venerable hoar-frost. The 
 moustache and under-lip form pendulous beads of dangling 
 ice. Put out your tongue, and it instantly freezes to this 
 icy crusting, and a rapid effort and some hand-aid will be 
 required to liberate it. Your chin has a trick of freezing to 
 your upper jaw by the biting aid of your beard. My eyes 
 have often been so glued as to show that even a wink may 
 be unsafe." 
 
 One day Dr. Kane walked himself into "a comfortable 
 perspiration " with the thermometer seventy degrees below 
 freezing-point ! A breeze sprang up, and instantly the sen- 
 sation of cold was intense. His beard, coated before with 
 icicles, seemed to bristle with increased stiffness, and an un- 
 fortunate hole in the back of his mitten " stung like burning 
 coal." On the next day, while walking, his beard and mous- 
 tache became one solid mass of ice.* Inadvertently he put 
 out his tongue, and it instantly froze fast to his lip. This 
 being nothing new, costing only a smart pull and a bleeding 
 afterwards, he put up his mittened hands to *' blow hot," and 
 thaw the unruly member from its imprisonment. Instead of 
 succeeding, his mitten was itself a mass of ice in a moment; 
 it fastened on the upper side of his tongue, and flattened it 
 out like a batter-cake between the two disks of a hot griddle. 
 It required all his care with the bare hands to release it, and 
 then not without laceration. 
 
 Such is the relation of the rigors experienced by Arctic 
 navigators in the frozen regions. The Esquimaux, on the 
 
46 EARLY ABCTIG VOYAGERS. 
 
 approach of winter, cut the hard ice into tall square blocks, 
 with which they construct their dwellings. They pass their 
 nights covered with bear and seal skins, near a stove or 
 lamp, every portion of the hut being closed against the 
 piercing cold. Their provisions are often frozen so hard as 
 to require to be cut with a hatchet. The whole of the inside 
 of the hut sometimes becomes lined with a thick crust of 
 ice ; and, if a window is opened for a moment, the moisture 
 of the confined air it immediately precipitated in the form 
 of a shower of snow. 
 
 Without interest and adventure to stimulate the energies 
 and excite the curiosity of mankind, these gloomy regions 
 might not, probably, have been penetrated by the brave 
 seamen who have imperilled their lives amidst those icy 
 waters or on the inhospitable coasts, and whose explorations 
 have developed and tested more heroism and skill than, 
 perhaps, the exploration and discovery of all the rest of the 
 world since the age of Columbus. But for these Arctic voy- 
 agers, we should have been ignorant of the strange and 
 wonderful countries of the North, and their inhabitants. 
 These voyages originated in an attempt to discover a shorter 
 passage to India across the Northern seas. In 1553, an ex- 
 pedition of three vessels for this purpose left England. The 
 resiilts to two of these ships were most disastrous; the 
 crews, seventy in number, and the commander of the expe- 
 dition, Sir Hugh Willoughby, being frozen to death. Since 
 this period, upwards of a hundred expeditions have been 
 made in search of the North-west Passage — that is, a navi- 
 gable channel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, round 
 the northern margin of America. Among the heroic leaders 
 of these expeditions are the conspicuous names of Parry, 
 John and James Ross, Back, Franklin, Beecher, Austin, Kel- 
 lett, Osborne, Collinson, M'Clure, Rae, Simpson, M'Clin- 
 tock, Hayes, Kane, Hall, and other famous men. 
 
 The fate of the unfortunate Sir John Franklin, one of the 
 
MODERN EXPEDITIONS. 47 
 
 bravest and boldest of the Arctic explorers, is well known : 
 how, in 1845, when nearly sixty years of age, he started on 
 his last and fatal voyage to the frozen regions, with the 
 ships "Erebus" and '^Terror." The vessels were seen three 
 months afterwards, but for eleven years their fate remained 
 a mystery, although twenty expeditions were sent, at the 
 cost of a million sterling, to discover traces of the missing 
 crews. In 1857 the "Fox," commanded by the gallant 
 M'Clintock, was fitted out, at the expense of Lady Franklin, 
 on the same mission ; and in 1859, the sad end of Franklin 
 and his associates was ascertained. The " Erebus" and 
 " Terror" had been beset by ice and abandoned in 1848; the 
 commander himself had died the year previously (11th of 
 June), and was thus spared the agony of witnessing and 
 sharing the sufferings of his crews, all of whom had, it is 
 presumed, perished on those fearful shores. Many sad and 
 interesting relics of the Franklin expedition Avere recovered 
 and brought home. The discoverers obtained their infor- 
 mation in a remarkable manner : lying amongst some stones, 
 which had evidently fallen off from the top of a pillar, was 
 a small tin case, deposited on this spot by the crews of the 
 abandoned vessels and containing a record of the long-lost 
 expedition. 
 
 It was in one of the attempts in search of Franklin and 
 his companions that the discovery of the North-west Passage 
 was effected in 1850, by the successful though perilous ex- 
 ertions of Captain M'Clure, who had shared in the Arctic 
 expedition of Captain Back in 1836, and in the voyage of 
 James Ross in 1848. Captains M'Clure and Collinson 
 were sent out in the "Investigator" and the "Enterprise." 
 The course of the latter vessel was chiefly in open waters, 
 close to our shores; but M'Clure steered in a more northern 
 route, and encountered fearful perils from the ice in those 
 storm-bound regions. During four years he underwent 
 trials and exposures, which would have daunted many a 
 
48 DISCO VEE T OF THE NORTH- WEST PASSAGE. 
 
 navigator, however accustomed to these dangers. His ves- 
 sel, several times beset by ice, was at length so firmly 
 locked in, that M'Clure, seeing no hope of release, decided 
 upon sending thirty of his crew to make their way home- 
 wards ; some by way of North America, up the Mackenzie 
 River, and the others by Cape Spencer, Beechey Island ; 
 while he himself, with the remainder of the officers and 
 crew, would stay by the ship, spend a fourth winter in those 
 dreary regions, and then, if not relieve^, endeavor to retreat 
 upon Lancaster Sound. Such was the arrangement, when 
 an incident occurred that thrilled their hearts with joy. 
 The captain and his first lieutenant were walking near the 
 ship conversing, when they perceived a figure rapidly ap- 
 proaching them from the rough ice at the entrance of the 
 bay. When about a hundred yards from them, he shouted 
 and gesticulated, but without enabling them to guess who 
 he might be. At length he approached, and to their aston- 
 ishment thus announced himself: "I am Lieutenant Pym, 
 late of the 'Herald,' and now in the 'Resolute.' Captain 
 Kellett is in her at Denby Island." Lieutenant Pym had 
 come from Melville Island, in consequence of one of Captain 
 Kellett's parties having discovered an inscription left by 
 M'Clure on Parry's famous sandstone rock in Winter Harbor. 
 
 The ship was abandoned, and the commander and his 
 crew, released from a very perilous position, returned to 
 England in 1854. Although he was obliged to leave his 
 ship blocked in mountains of ice, and had to walk and sledge 
 over hundreds of miles of ice, to reach other ships which 
 had entered the frozen regions in the opposite direction, 
 still, he had water under Mm all the way, and was thus the 
 first commander of a vessel who really solved the problem 
 of the famous North-west Passage. 
 
 The Arctic and Antarctic Circles are the boundaries 
 which separate the frigid and temperate zones. At the 
 poles themselves there is only one day of six months, during 
 
FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS. 49 
 
 ■which the sun never sets, and one night of six months, when 
 the sun never rises. At the Arctic Circle the greatest 
 length of continuous light is twenty-four hours, at the sum- 
 mer solstice or Midsummer's day ; while, at the same time, 
 at the Antarctic Circle, the sun is twenty-four hours below 
 the horizon, and the reverse at the opposite seasons of the 
 year. 
 
 The coldness of the Polar regions arises from the fact of 
 the rays of the sun striking the earth obliquely, as, at the 
 equator, the heat is produced by the sun's rays falling upon 
 the earth vertically. In the Arctic Ocean — that part of the 
 universal sea which surrounds the North Pole — lie the most 
 fearful dangers which can beset the seaman on his perilous 
 course, arising from floating ice, the ship being frozen in, the 
 fogs, the blinding snow, the darkness, the storms, and the 
 tides and currents, comparatively unknown, which he has to 
 encounter. 
 
 The following thrilling incident, described in the West- 
 minster Review, is one of the most fearful histories that 
 have been recorded : 
 
 " One serene evening in the middle of August, 1775, Cap- 
 tain Warrens, the master of a Greenland whale-ship, found 
 himself becalmed among an immense number of icebergs, in 
 about 77'-* of north latitude. On one side, and within 
 a mile of his vessel, these were of an immense height and 
 closely wedged together, and a succession of snow-covered 
 peaks appeared behind each other as far as the eye could 
 reach, showing that the ocean was completely blocked up in 
 that quarter, and that it had probably been so for a long 
 period of time. He did not feel altogether satisfied with his 
 situation; but, there being no wind, he could not move one 
 way or the other, and he therefore kept a strict watch, know- 
 ing that he would be safe as long as the icebergs continued in 
 their respective places. About midnight the wind rose to 
 a gale, accompanied by thick showers of snow, while a sue- 
 
50 FEARFUL INCIDENT IN THE FROZEN SEAS. 
 
 cession of thundering, grinding, and crashing noises gave 
 fearful evidence that the ice was in motion. The vessel re- 
 ceived violent shocks every moment, for the haziness of the 
 atmosphere prevented those on board from discovering in 
 what direction the open water lay, or if there was actually 
 any at all on either side of them. The night was spent in 
 tacking as often as any case of danger happened to present 
 itself, and in the morning, the storm abating, he found, to his 
 great joy, that his ship had not sustained any serious injury. 
 He remarked with surprise that the accumulated icebergs, 
 which had the preceding evening formed an impenetrable 
 barrier, had been separated and disengaged by the wind, 
 and that in one place a canal of open sea wound its course 
 among them as far as the eye could discern. 
 
 It was two miles beyond the entrance of this canal that a 
 ship made its appearance about noon. The sun shone 
 brightly at the time, and a gentle breeze blew from the 
 north. At first some intervening icebergs prevented the 
 captain from distinctly seeing anything but her masts; but 
 he was struck by the strange manner in which her sails 
 were disposed, and with the dismantled aspect of her yards 
 and rigging. She continued to go before the wind for a few 
 furlongs, and then grounding upon the low icebergs, re- 
 mained motionless. His curiosity was so much excited that 
 he immediately leaped into his boat, with several seamen, 
 and rowed towards her. 
 
 On approaching, he observed that her hull was consider- 
 ably weather-beaten, and not a soul appeared upon the deck, 
 which was covered with snow to a considerable depth. He 
 hailed her crew several times, but no answer was returned. 
 Previous to stepping on board, an open port-hole near the 
 main chains caught his eye, and on looking in he perceived 
 a man reclining on a chair, with writing materials be- 
 fore him ; but the feebleness of the light made everything 
 indistinct. The party went upon the deck, and having 
 
52 • FROZEN TO DEATH. 
 
 uncovered the hatchway, they descended below to the cabin 
 which the captain had viewed through the port-hole. A 
 tremor seized him as he entered it. Its inmate retained his 
 former position, and seemed to be insensible to the presence 
 of the strangers. He was found to be a corpse, and a green 
 damp mold had covered his cheeks and forehead, and veiled 
 his eye-balls He had a pen in his hand, and a log-book lay 
 before him, the last sentence in whose unfinished page ran 
 thus: *' — November 11th, 1762. We have now been en- 
 closed in the ice seventeen days. The fire went out yester- 
 day, and our master has been trying ever since to kindle it 
 again, but without success. His wife died this morning. 
 There is no relief." 
 
 The captain and his men hurried from the spot without 
 uttering a word. On entering the principal cabin, the 
 first object that attracted their attention was the dead body 
 of a female, reclining on a bed in an attitude of deep interest 
 and attention. Her countenance retained the freshness of 
 life, and a contraction of the limbs alone showed that her 
 form was inanimate. Seated upon the floor was the corpse 
 of an apparently young man, holding a steel in one hand and 
 a flint in the other, as if in the act of striking fire upon some 
 tinder which lay beside him. In the forepart of the vessel 
 several sailors were found lying dead in their berths, and 
 the body of a boy was found crouched at the bottom of the 
 gangway stairs. 
 
 Neither provisions nor fuel could be discovered any- 
 where ; but Captain Warrens was prevented, by the super- 
 stitious prejudices of his seamen, from examining the ves- 
 sel as minutely as he wished to have done. He therefore 
 carried away the log-book alpeady mentioned, and returning 
 to his own ship, immediately steered to the southward, 
 deeply impressed with the awful example which he had just 
 witnessed of the danger of navigating the Polar seas in 
 high northern latitudes. On returning to England, he 
 
AWAEJ) TO CAPT. FRANCIS HALL. 53 
 
 made various inquiries respecting vessels that had disap- 
 peared in an unknown way ; and by comparing these results 
 with the information which was afibrded by the written 
 documents in his possession, he ascertained the name and 
 history of the imprisoned ship and of her unfortunate mas- 
 ter, and found that she had been frozen in thirteen years 
 previous to the time of his discovering her imprisoned in 
 the ice." 
 
 One of the most successful Polar expeditions Avas that of 
 the late Capt. Francis Hall, ship Polaris. 
 
 The Geographical Society of Paris voted, at its session, 
 April 21, 1875, the biennial prize, a gold medal, devoted to 
 Arctic explorations, to Capt. Hall, In giving a brief 
 account of his explorations, we shall quote a few extracts 
 from the report of the Geographical Society, both as a de- 
 served tribute to the memory of Capt. Hall, and as helping 
 to furnish the reader with a description of the voyages 
 undertaken by him. 
 
 ** The Prize Commission has before it several enterprises, 
 which have had for their object either Smith's Sound, East- 
 ern Greenland, Spitzbergen, or Nova Zembla. All of these de- 
 serve our tribute of praise ; but especially that of the Polaris, 
 the ship in which the American Francis Hall, passed be- 
 yond Smith's Sound and Kennedy's Channel, as far as 82^^ 
 16" — that is to say, the nearest to the pole that any vessel 
 has reached under sail — has particularly commended the 
 unanimous vote of the Commission." 
 
 Capt. Hall was a veteran in arctic explorations. In 1850 
 he was seized with the desire to take part in the expedition 
 sent out in search for Franklin. Laying aside his grav- 
 ing-tools, he devoted all his leisure hours to the study of 
 the polar regions of America. He designed taking part in 
 the McClintock expedition, failing in which, he resolved to 
 organize a new expedition. He succeeded in interesting 
 in his enterprise, Mr. Henry Grinnell and other distin- 
 
54 PREPARATIONS FOR HIS POLAR EXPEDITION. 
 
 g'uislied philanthropists ; he left New London, Conn., in 1860, 
 in the whale ship George Henry. The loss of his own boat 
 prevented him from completing his expedition ; but he sat- 
 isfied himself, among other geographical determinations, 
 that what on previous charts had been marked as Fro- 
 bisher's straits is a long open bay, without any communi- 
 cation with the bay of Hudson. 
 
 On his return here, in 1862, he published the results of 
 his researches, in a work entitled, " Life with the Esqui- 
 maux." In 1864, he returned to the Polar regions with his 
 faithful companions, Joe and Hannah. The five succeeding 
 years he spent in these regions in explorations. Sharing 
 the daily life of this rude people, he made himself thoroughly 
 acquainted with their language, customs and traditions, 
 and thus was prepared on his return to this country, in 
 1869, for his great expedition to the Pole — the final object of 
 all his efforts. 
 
 He busied himself very promptly in organizing it, ap- 
 pealing to Congress for assistance, and while awaiting its 
 action, sustained himself and his dusky friends, by lectures 
 upon his preceding voyages. He met with many hind- 
 rances, but finally obtained the use of a tug of 400 tons, 
 which he admirably fitted up for its rough navigation in 
 the ice, significantly naming her the Polaris. 
 
 The following is an extract quoted from a letter written 
 by Capt. Hall, in 1869 : " There is a great sad blot upon the 
 present age, which ought to be wiped out, and this is the 
 blank on our maps from about the parallel of 80° North 
 up to the North Pole. I, for one, hang my head in shame, 
 w^hen I think how many thousands of years ago it was that 
 God gave to man this beautiful world — the whole of it — to 
 subdue ; and yet that part of it which must be most interest- 
 ing and glorious, at least to me, remains as unknown to us as 
 though it had never been created. Neither glory nor money 
 
VOYAGE OF THE POLARIS. 55 
 
 has caused me to devote my very life and soul to Arctic ex- 
 plorations." 
 
 The Polaris sailed from New London, July 3, 1871. Capt. 
 Hall died, November 8, 1871, Capt. Budington then took 
 charge of the expedition. 
 
 The voyage from this time on, and until most of its sur- 
 vivors providentially returned to their homes, is very sad, 
 though full of heroic endurance. The sad tale has been 
 read in most of our homes with moist eyes and aching 
 hearts; how the Polaris left Thank God Harbor, drifted 
 south and west, sprung a leak, requiring the most constant 
 efforts to keep her from going down ; how, on that terrible 
 stormy night of October 15, 1872, it was thought the vessel 
 must sink, and orders were given to take to the ice. Instru- 
 ments, charts, boats, etc., ivere hurriedly transferred to the 
 floe ; but the drift changes its direction, the Polaris is re- 
 leased from her grim pressure, the floe parts assunder, and 
 the vessel, breaking from her moorings, drifts away in the 
 darkness and howling tempest, leaving Capt. Tyson and 
 eighteen of the crew on the ice. " Several men were seen 
 hurrying toward the ship as she was leaving, but they failed 
 to reach her. The voice of the steward, John Herron, was 
 heard calling out, ' Good-bye, Polaris!'^' 
 
 We will not attempt to picture the consternation of the 
 separated voyagers, nor try to describe their after adven- 
 tures ; suffice it to say, that most of them marvelously 
 escaped the thousand dangers incidental to their perilous 
 position. 
 
 In concluding this meager description of the Polaris ex- 
 pedition, we quote from the closing paragraphs of the re- 
 port of the Paris Geographical Society : 
 
 " In consideration of these results, your Prize Commis- 
 mission has judged it their duty to award to Captain 
 Francis Hall, the promoter and chief of the Polaris expedi- 
 tion, that which is otherwise due him for his previous 
 
56 THE JEANNETTE EXPEDITION. 
 
 labors, the gold medal of the Roquette Foundation. But 
 Francis Hall, like his fellow countryman Kane, seven- 
 teen years before him, has fallen a victim to his suffer- 
 ings, and it is on a tomb that we must once more deposit a 
 crown. If we are denied the gratification of giving to 
 Francis Hall the medal which we have awarded him, we will 
 have at least the consolation of transmitting it to his family. 
 It will bear witness across the seas that death itself cannot 
 prevent the just tribute of your gratitude for services ren- 
 dered to geographical science. The Prize Commission 
 awards this year the gold medal of the Roquette Founda- 
 tion to the Arctic Explorer, Francis Hall, a medal which will 
 be sent to the family of the unfortunate explorer," 
 
 The Jeannette Expedition. — On July 8, 1879, about ten 
 years after Capt. Hall started out on his voyage of discovery 
 with the Polaris, Mr. James Gordon Bennett sent out an 
 Arctic expedition from San Francisco, commanded by Lieu- 
 tenant De Long, U. S. N. The details respecting route and 
 purpose were withheld from the public. The Jeannette was 
 early caught in the ice drift, and having no volition of her 
 own, was driven hither and thither by the mechanical impulses 
 of the pack for nearly two years. Thus day after day she 
 drifted like Coleridge's ancient mariner. In this manner 
 passed the year 1880 and the following spring, in monotony 
 and hopelessness, when she was finally overwhelmed, and 
 went down, June 11, 1881. Before she sank, provisions and 
 boats were transferred to the ice, and the crew camped on 
 an ice floe for four days, while preparations were being made 
 for a retreat southward. Provisions were abundant, and the 
 party, so long accustomed to danger, faced the perilous 
 situation with courage, each trying to improvise amusement 
 to raise the spirits of the party and make them forget for a 
 time the anxiety caused by the loss of the ship. 
 
 On June 17th, the entire party moved southward, hoping 
 to reach the New Siberian Islands, and from there by boat 
 
SEPA RA TION OF THE BOA TS. 67 
 
 to the coast of Siberia. They had five sledges and boats 
 which curried nearly seven thousand pounds of provisions, 
 besides lire-arms, clothing, etc. There being only tveenty-two 
 dogs, each man was obliged to assist in hauling the heavily 
 laden sledges. As the party proceeded southward, openings 
 in the ice became frequent, which had to be bridged over 
 with blocks of ice. This tedious work employed more than 
 one half their time. 
 
 As summer advanced, the floes became more broken, and 
 piled so as to form huge mounds which were often thirty feet 
 high. The dragging of the heavy sledges over this uneven 
 surface was a work of inflnite danger and exhaustion, and 
 great was the rejoicing on July 29th when land was sighted. 
 It proved to be an island of considerable size and possessing 
 many valuable products. This land was named Bennett 
 Island. Game was found in abundance, and here the party 
 remained till August 7th, when open sea was discov^ered 
 southward. As the weather was favorable, De Long thought 
 it expedient to abandon the island and take to the sea in 
 boats. 
 
 The provisions were equally distributed among the three 
 boats. De Long appointed Melville to take command of the 
 whale boat, and placed the second cutter in charge of Lieut. 
 Chipp. De Long himself remained in the lirst cutter. He 
 then instructed them to keep as near him as possible, and in 
 case of separation to make for the Lena Delta. After a week 
 of fearful battling with the waves and heavy floes, they had 
 only gained forty miles, and starvation stared them in the 
 face if the Siberian coast could not soon be reached. 
 
 On the 12th of September the boats were caught in a ter- 
 rific storm in whicli they were separated. De Long reached 
 the Lena Delta seven days later with hardly sufticient food to 
 last the party two days, and set out to And the nearest Rus- 
 sian settlement. 
 
 They were able to find game occasionally; but, owing to the 
 
58 THE SAD FATE OF DE LONG. 
 
 illness of several of the men, progress was slow. Erickson 
 had for many days undergone most dreadful suffering on 
 account of his feet having been frozen. The very sinews and 
 muscles of his feet were exposed ; yet in this condition he was 
 forced to travel and carry a load of nearly forty pounds. 
 Thus the terrible journey continued till October 6th, when 
 Erickson died and was buried in the Lena River. 
 
 Their situation now became most desoerate. The provi- 
 sions were entirely exhausted. Nindemann and Noros, being 
 the strongest of the party, set out, in obedience to their com- 
 mander, in search of relief. Having no food, they had to sub- 
 sist on pieces of their seal skin clothing. After untold suffer- 
 ing, they reached a Russian settlement, called Ku Mark 
 Surka, where they were kindly received. Through these peo- 
 ple they had the joy of learning that Melville and party were 
 in the neighboring settlement of Bulem. On meeting, expe- 
 riences were soon exchanged. Melville had barely escaped 
 being swamped at sea. Upon landing at Lena Delta they had 
 been fortunate in meeting natives and obtahiing food. The 
 terrible condition of De Long was soon told Melville, who 
 immediately prepared to go to his relief after sending all 
 save Nindemann to Takoutsk. 
 
 Melville with I^indemann and two exiles started with ten 
 days provisions to the relief of De Long. They were gone 
 twenty-three daj'S in a fruitless search, as a heavy snow storm 
 had completely covered the trail of Noros and Nindemann. 
 They continued the search, with starvation staring them 
 in the face, bat no traces were found of the missing men, 
 although they traversed a distance of 663 miles. 
 
 Upon returning, Melville communicated with the Ameri- 
 can Minister at St. Petersburg, to whom he -gave a full ac- 
 count of the expedition. Melville remained till the following 
 spring to continue the search for his lost comrades, but sent 
 nearly all the other survivors to the United States. March 
 16th, 1882, they again set out on their mission of mercy, hav- 
 
HONORING THE BRA VE DEAD. 59 
 
 ing received instructions from the Secretary of Navy to spare 
 no pains for the recovery of tlie remains of the lost explorers. 
 Tliey traveled over many miles without finding any traces of the 
 lost De Long party. Finally they came upon the remains 
 of a camp fire. Near by were found the bodies of De Long 
 and his brave followers deeply buried in the snow. 
 
 The bodies, thirteen in number, were placed in a common 
 grave and a cairn of stones was erected to mark the place, that 
 could be seen at a considerable distance. 
 
 Melville then made a thorough search for Lieut. Chipp and 
 party, but was unsuccessful. Nothing has ever been heard of 
 them since the boats were separated in the gale. They were 
 probably lost at sea. 
 
 Lieut. Danenhower, with the survivors of the Jeannette crew, 
 reached New York in May, 1881. Great interest and pity 
 was felt when the sad story was told, and Congress gener- 
 ously appropriated $25,000 to fit out a vessel with which to 
 prosecute a diligent search for the lost parties. The Rogers^ 
 Commander Lieut. Berry, reached Wrangle Land, August, 
 1881. Three parties immediately commenced the search. 
 When found, the bodies were carefully conveyed to Yakoutsk, 
 where they were placed in caskets. They sailed for New 
 York, reaching there early in 1883. On the 22d of February, 
 the bodies were taken from the Brooklyn Navy Yard across 
 the bay to the battery, and then 6scorted through the streets 
 of New York by marines, regular troops and a vast concourse 
 of people. On the 23d, they were conveyed to the Church 
 of Holy Trinity, where services were held before they were 
 consigned to their last resting-place. 
 
 Owing to the unfortunate accident attending the Jeannette 
 expedition, so early in its course, but few new geographical 
 determinations or scientific knowledge was attained, but by 
 whatever we know of the awful suiTerings and the unflinching 
 adherence to duty of the Jeannette crew, we are lead to 
 reverence the spirit of the brave and noble men who sacrificed 
 themselves for the good of many. 
 
60 THE OBJECTS OF POLAR EXPLORATION. 
 
 The Greely Expedition. — Lieut. Karl Weyprecht, as 
 Commander of a successful Austrian Expedition in 1872 
 and discoverer of Franz Josef Land, had become famous as 
 an able and daring explorer. When, therefore, he appeared 
 in September, 1875, before a meeting of German scientists 
 with an original and definite project for establishing a 
 series of co-operative Polar stations, his opinion carried 
 great weight. He pointed out that the numerous costly 
 expeditions that had previously been sent out, had done 
 little more for physical research than to show that the Polar 
 regions offers one of the most fertile fields for the investiga- 
 tion of natural phenomena, particularly in reference to the 
 physical condition of the earth. 
 
 True, recent expeditions had been abundantly furnished with 
 their scientific men and the most approved instruments, but 
 it was a fact that each expedition had had no fixed plans laid 
 down for the observation of phenomena, and the results had 
 been unsatisfactory to the scientific world. It has long been 
 admitted that the laws governing the winds and the great 
 ocean currents will never be thoroughly understood until the 
 physical condition of the Polar basin and the movements of 
 the great ice masses are known. Hence the importance of 
 scientific explorations in Polar regions. There are also many 
 problems of magnetism and electricity which might have a 
 most interesting solution, provided systematic experiments 
 were conducted in the far north. 
 
 Weyprecht's plan was, that each country should establish 
 one or more Polar stations, to remain several years, and con- 
 duct a series of simultaneous observations according to a pre- 
 arranged plan. He thought that year by year these stations 
 might be gradually advanced toward the north, and finally, in 
 some favorable season, a dash might even be made to the Pole 
 itself. He soon had many enthusiastic followers. In 1879 
 the International Polar Conference was organized and at once 
 took active measures to secure the co-operation of a sufficient 
 
THE CIRCUMPOLAR STATIONS 
 
 Map Showing the Scientific Colonies Established in the Arctic Circle, 
 According to the Directions of the Polar Conference. 
 
THE POLAE BASIN. 
 
 Map Showing the Route to Lady Franklin Bay, the Site of the Greely Arctic Colony, and the 
 Tracks of Former Exploring Expeditions Toward the Pole. 
 
CIRCU^^-POLAR STATIONS. 61 
 
 number of governments. The United States readily acqui- 
 esced in the scheme. March 3, 1881, Congress made an 
 appropriation for the fitting out of two expeditions — one to 
 establish a station at Point Barrow on the northern coast of 
 Alaska — the other at Lady Franklin Bay in Smith's Sound. 
 The Point Barrow station was successfully established under 
 the command of Lieut, llae. He remained two years and 
 carried out instructions to the letter. He returned safely to 
 San Francisco in August, 1883, and was commended for his 
 very successful work. 
 
 In July, 1881, the Polar Conference held its third meeting 
 at St. Petersburg and reported the requisite number of sta- 
 tions as secured. 
 
 It was decided that the observations at all the circum- Polar 
 stations should begin as soon after August 1, 1882, as possi- 
 ble and that they should be continued until September in the 
 following year. 
 
 The stations were finally resolved upon as follows : 
 
 United States — at Lady Franklin Bay, also Point Barrow. 
 
 Denmark — at Godthanb, in Greenland. 
 
 Germany — at Cumberland Sound, west side Davis' Strait and South 
 Georgia Islands. 
 
 England — at Fort Eae, near Great Slave Lake. 
 
 Russia — at Mouth of Lena River, and Nova Zembla. 
 
 Holland — at Dickson's Haven, near Mouth of Yenesei River. 
 
 Norway — at Bossekop. 
 
 Sweden — at Spitzbergen. 
 
 Austria — at Jan Mayen Island. • 
 
 France — at Cape Horn. 
 
 Finland — at Sodankyla. 
 
 At this important meeting, a very elaborate programme for 
 work at each of the above stations was agreed upon. The 
 programme included meteorological and magnetic observa- 
 tions to be made every hour during the whole period, and on 
 the 1st and 15th of each month, observations were to be made 
 every 20 seconds at a certain hour at all of the stations. All 
 of the observations and calculations were finally to be pub- 
 
62 THE VOYAGE TO LADY FRANKLIN BAY. 
 
 lished. This programme has for the most part been success- 
 fully carried out, and the important and far-reaching results 
 will be made known to the world in due time. 
 
 Lieutenant Adolphus W. Greely, an able Officer in the 
 United States Signal Service, an enthusiast on the subject 
 of Arctic discovery, and a man of acknowledged bravery, 
 was appointed to take command of the Lady Franklin Bay 
 Expedition. Two other Acting Officers from the Signal Ser- 
 vice, Second Lieutenants Frederick F. Bislingbury and James 
 B, Lockwood were also selected. The expeditionary force 
 when completely organized consisted of twenty-five men, 
 including Dr. Octave Pavy the surgeon of the party, and 
 two Esquimaux which were taken on board on the coast of 
 Greenland. 
 
 Lieutenant Greely sailed from St. Johns, IST. F,, July 7, 
 1881, on the steamship Proteus^ bound to Lady Franklin 
 Bay. Five days afterward, the expedition encountered 
 huge bodies of ice. Passing safely through the pack, the 
 harbor of Godhaven, on the coast of Greenland, was reached. 
 Here the first stop was made, and fourteen dogs and two 
 sledges were taken on board, also several tons of walrus 
 flesh and dried fish. Upernavik, the last point of communi- 
 cation between Europe and America, was safely reached on 
 the 23d, where a six days halt was made to procure addi- 
 tional supplies. Proceeding due north, Melville Bay, which 
 usually abounds in the treacherous ice pack, was soon entered. 
 All went well. The previous winter had been unusually 
 mild, and the ice had broken up some time before, leaving 
 the passage clear. Steaming onward at full speed, Littleton 
 Island was reached August 2. Three hours later Cape 
 Sabine was passed. Here the Neptune the following year was 
 turned back, and the Proteus, in 1883, was crushed in the pack; 
 strange to say Lieut. Greely passed through at full speed, and 
 August 4th arrived in Lady Franklin Bay. Here the first 
 obstruction was found. For seven days he was detained by an 
 
WORK OF THE GliEELY ARCTIC COLON F. 53 
 
 immense harrier of ice from twenty to fifty feet thick, when 
 within only a few miles of his destination. The pack finally 
 broke up, allowing the vessel to pass through, and they arrived 
 at Fort Discovery, where Greely had decided to establish the 
 station. The work of unloading the stores and building a 
 house began at once. Lieut. Greely named the station Fort 
 Conger, in honor of Senator Conger of Michigan, wlio had 
 been instrumental in securing the passage of the bill which 
 authorized the expedition. 
 
 The Protens left the party on August 1 8 and returned in 
 safety to St. Johns, I^. F. The comparative ease with which 
 the Prote^LS made the voyage to and from Fort Conger was 
 unfortunate in one respect : it blinded people as to the real 
 dangers of the route. The impression seemed to prevail, that 
 the difficulties of the way had been exaggerated, and that 
 Greely could be reached with ease. It was forgotten that 
 only three vessels had ever before been successful in passing 
 Kane Sea, and they only with the greatest difficulty. 
 
 The party itself seems to have been blinded to the fact, 
 that it miglit be impossible for another vessel to reach them 
 for years. They confidently expected another vessel would be 
 sent to visit them the next summer, and again in 1883, as had 
 been promised. With courageous hearts, and witli no appre- 
 hensions for the future, they settled down to their work. A 
 large house had been built to contain their instruments, sup- 
 plies, etc. They immediately began scientific work. Beside the 
 work required of them by the International Series, they made 
 voluntary observations covering almost every field of natural 
 science. These included the galvanic earth currents in con- 
 nection with magnetic and auroral phenomena, atmospheric 
 electricity, the growth and structure of ice, temperature of the 
 soil, snow and ice, hydrographical, spectroscopical and pendu- 
 lum observations, etc. They accumulated large collections of 
 Zoological, Geological and Botanical specimens. They also 
 engaged in the more brilliant work of exploration. One of 
 
64 THE HIGHEST POINT EVER BEACHED. 
 
 these exploring parties succeeded in pushing farther north 
 than any discoverer had ever done before. It is briefly 
 described in a dispatch from Greely to the Signal Office on 
 his homeward voyage in 1884: — " For the first time in three 
 centuries England yields the honor of the farthest north. 
 Lieut. Lockwood and Sergeant Brainerd, May 13, reached 
 Lockwood Land, lat. SS'' 24' N., long. 44" 5' W. They saw 
 from 2,000 ft. elevation no land north or N.W , but to north- 
 east Greenland, Cape Robert Lincoln, lat. 83° 35', long. 38°. 
 Lieut. Lockwood was turned back in 1883 by open water on 
 North Greenland shore, the party barely escaping drift into 
 the Polar Ocean. Dr. Pavy, in 1882, followed Markham's 
 route, was adrift one day in the Polar Ocean, north of Cape 
 Joseph Henry, and escaped to land abandoning nearly every- 
 thino" "********* 
 
 This unparalleled reach was made May 13th, 1882. 
 Parry, in 1827 reached lat. 79°. Dr. Kane, in 1854, lat. 
 80° 30^ Dr. Hayes, 81° 31 in 1861. Hall, 82° 17' in 1871 
 and Nares, 83° 20' in 1876. Lieut. Lockwood reached 83° 
 24', being four miles farther north than civilized man had 
 ever been before, but saw and computed 83° 35', which most 
 northern point he named Cape Robert Lincoln. Lieut. 
 Greely himself, in the summer of '82, discovered Lake Hazen 
 in the interior of Grinnell Land. This Lake, about one-fourth 
 the size of Lake Erie, is the most northern body of fresh 
 water on the globe. Lying near this were two ranges named 
 respectively after Senator Conger and the late President 
 Garfield. Here were found evidences of a former Esquimaux 
 Tillage, in all probability, the most northern habitation ever 
 attempted by man. 
 
 Lieut. Greely's instructions, before leaving the United 
 States, had been to remain at Lady Franklin Bay two years. 
 Vessels were to be sent to the station in 1882, and also in 
 1883, which were to bring " supplies for, and such additions 
 to, the present party as are deemed needful." If these vessels 
 
OREELY'S RETEEA T TO C.\ PE ,SM BIXE. g5 
 
 were unable to reach Greely, they were to land a portion of 
 their supplies on the coast of Grinncll Land and at Littleton 
 Island. Li case neither vessel reached the station, Lieut. 
 Greely was to abandon it, not later than Sept. 1, 1883, and 
 proceed southward by boats until he should meet the relief 
 vessel at Littleton Island. 
 
 Lieut. Greely remained at Fort Conger two years, and, 
 receiving no tidings from the United States, in accordance 
 with his instructions, he abandoned the station, Aug. 9, 1883, 
 and, with his entire party in good health, set out for Cape 
 Sabine, where he arrived two months later. The journey 
 was attended with much sufiering and many narrow escapes. 
 At Baird's Inlet, the boats had to be abandoned. For thirty 
 days they were afloat in Smith's Sound on an ice floe, when 
 they were providentially driven upon Cape Sabine. Here 
 they learned of the loss of the Proteiis, which had been sent 
 out to them with supplies in 1883, and to their dismay, saw 
 that another long Arctic winter, with scanty food, was before 
 them. The food brought with them from Fort Conger was 
 exhausted ; only a small quantity of food was found that had 
 been saved from the Proteus. The prospect was most dis- 
 heartening. Game abounded in abundance, but could not be 
 secured on account of the loss of their boats. As a last 
 resource from threatened starvation, Greely sent Elison, 
 Rice, Linn and Fredericks to Cape Isabella, thirty miles dis- 
 tant, to flnd, if possible, the beef cached by Captain Nares in 
 1879. The four men set out on their perilous journey, 
 and reached their destination in four days time. They found 
 the meat and started on their return journey; a strong gale 
 was blowing, and it was intensely cold. Elison sutiered 
 greatly from thirst, and to relieve it ate snow against the 
 advice of his companions. His hands became wet, and were 
 soon frozen. His mouth and tongue ^were blistered. His 
 feet also were frozen. He was placed in his sleeping bag 
 and the others worked over him the entire night to restore 
 
QQ EXECUTION OF PRIVATE HENRY. 
 
 circulation. The next day they resumed the journey. Elison 
 soon gave out, and begged them to leave him to die and push 
 on with the meat. They left the meat cached, and continued 
 the march ; Elison having to be supported at nearly every 
 step. Linn next gave out, and it was decided then that Rice 
 should leave them and go_ on to camp for assistance. The 
 men remained in their sleeping bags until twenty-four hours 
 later, when Searg't Brainerd reached them with restoratives, 
 which soon revived them. The remainder of the relief party 
 soon arrived, and they were taken into camp. Elison lost the 
 use of his feet, and all of his fingers and thumbs. Linn never 
 recovered entirely from the exposure. The situation now of 
 the little band was most critical, on account of the failure to 
 bring the meat from Cape Isabella. They were at last 
 obliged to resort to soup made of boiled seal-skin, mixed 
 with reindeer moss and small shrimps. This was an extremely 
 innutritions and indigestible diet. The men rapidly grew 
 weak, and after January 1st the death rate was appalling. 
 
 We have now to record a very serious incident, which is 
 the only blot on a long chapter of heroism and unselfishness. 
 Private Henry had many times been caught in the act of 
 stealing provisions. Lieut. Greely's expostulations and 
 warnings were of no avail. At last Greely, feeling that the 
 safety of all depended upon Henry's removal, ordered him to 
 be shot, which was quietly done, and the entire justice of the 
 act was concurred in by the rest of the party, and has since 
 been sanctioned by public opinion. 
 
 One more elfort was made to obtain the meat which had 
 been abandoned by the Elison party. Rice and Fredericks 
 volunteered to go for it, and bravely started forth. But they 
 were both weak from their scanty diet, and after wandering 
 three days, they became completely exhausted. Rice sank 
 down and died in his comrade's arms, Fredericks, after burying 
 his friend, nerved himself for a mighty effort, and after three 
 days wandering, succeeded in finding his way back to camp 
 
SAILING OF THE BELIEF .SQUADRON. gy 
 
 again. His return, alone and empty-handed, cut off all hope 
 from the despairing party ; nothing remained, hut to die hy 
 a gradual process of starvation. 
 
 At the time Greely was carrying out his plans and doing 
 his meritorious work at Fort Conger, the Government at 
 home were taking measures to fultill their part of the agree- 
 ment, to dispatch supplies in both the following years. The 
 JVejytime, in 18S2, was fitted out with supplies for the 
 station at Fort Conger, l)ut she found Smith's Sound an 
 impassable barrier of ice, and after battling with the pack 
 from July until September, she turned back and returned 
 to St. Johns. 
 
 In June of 1883, another Relief Expedition was fitted out, 
 under Lieut. Garliugton, bound for Fort Conger and points 
 south, where supplies were to be cached. But misfortune 
 awaited the trial. Not far from Cape Sabine the Proteus was 
 crushed in an ice nip and sank. Her crew were rescued by 
 the Yantic and returned to St. Johns, with nothing accom- 
 plished for the men whose lives were already in peril. Blame 
 is attached to the management of the Expedition on account of 
 the failure of the Proteus to land a greater quantity of sup- 
 plies at Cape Sabine or Littleton Island, before attempting to 
 go farther north in the ice pack, thereby risking the loss of 
 nearly all the stores, which caused the suflFering that soon 
 followed, when Greely and his men returned to Cape Sabine, 
 where they expected to find sufiicient supplies. 
 
 Notwithstanding the ill-fated results of the former expedi- 
 tions, and the general opinion that the Greely party could not 
 have survived the last hard winter, Congress promptly appro- 
 priated another large sum for making one more attempt to 
 find the lost explorers. England kindly offered the use of 
 the steamship Alert to aid in the search, and expressed great 
 sympathy. The Expedition was commanded by Commander 
 W. S. Schley, and consisted of three ships, the Thetis^ the 
 Bear and the Alert. At no previous time had an expedition 
 
68 DISCOVERY OF THE GREELY CAMP. 
 
 been fitted out so thoroughly, and great hope was entertained 
 for its success. 
 
 The Relief Expedition left New York about May 1, 1884, 
 bound on its errand of mercy. The voyage to the ice-bound 
 north was made with few adventures, and the ice-pack prov- 
 ing favorable, they found themselves off Cape Sabine on the 
 22d of June. By whistling at frequent intervals, and by keep- 
 ing a sharp look-out, their efforts were at last rewarded. 
 The unusual sound of the steam-whistle had attracted the 
 attention of Long, who left the Greely tent, and wemt to a 
 large rock that afforded an extensive view of the sea. At 
 first nothing was visible, but he was finally rewarded by the 
 welcome sight of one of the relief vessels. Long succeeded 
 in attracting their attention by means of a signal flao;, and a 
 small steam launch was immediately dispatched from the 
 ship, bearing Colwell and a few others. As the boat reached 
 the shore. Long ran to meet it, falling every few steps from 
 weakness. Colwell hailed him from the boat, and inquired, 
 " Who all are there left ? " Long answered, " Seven left.'^ 
 The cutter touched the shore, Colwell sprang quickly out and 
 greeted Long, who soon informed them where to find the 
 camp. He was then taken into the cutter, while the others 
 hastened to the camp. It was found that the tent had been 
 partly blown down by a gale that had been blowing for sev- 
 eral days, so that there was very little i*oom left inside. The 
 party had been too weak to raise it. Colwell and his com- 
 panions raised the tent and looked in ; a sight of horror 
 greeted them. It is thus described by Commander Schley 
 in his Official Report : 
 
 " Lieut. Greely was found in his sleeping bag, his body 
 inclined forward, and head resting upon his left hand. Tlie 
 book of Common Prayer was open in his right hand. He 
 appeared to be reading prayers to Private Connell, whose 
 condition was most desperate and critical. He was cold to 
 the waist ; all sensation of hunger gone ; his eyes were fixed 
 
^TARVATloy. 69 
 
 and glassy ; indeed his weakness was such, that it was with 
 difficulty that he swallowed the stimulants given liini by 
 Dvs. Green and Ames. 
 
 " This tender scene, of a helpless, almost famislied 
 officer consoling a dying companion, was, in itself, one 
 that brought tears to the eyes of the strongest of 
 those who stood about them on the merciful errand of relief. 
 To look upon such wretchedness and destitution, eyes that 
 had not wept for years were moistened with tears, in the 
 solemnity of that heroic hour in the lives of that little heroic 
 band of sufferers, until that moment so hopeless and helpless. 
 At length they were safely placed on board the rescuing 
 squadron, where every preparation had been made to insure 
 their recovery." 
 
 The next day was spent in collecting the belongings of the 
 camp, and in exhuming the bodies of the dead to be carried 
 home with the survivors. This was carefully done, and in a 
 manner that no mistake could be made in regard to the iden- 
 tit}'^ of the bodies, which was of the more importance, as it was 
 afterwards found, in preparing the bodies for burial, that six 
 of them had been mutilated by the knife and the flesh 
 removed. 
 
 Through a sensational press, it has since become generally 
 known that the men, in the last stages of starvation, did act- 
 ually eat the flesh of their dead comrades. At first, great 
 indignation and disgust was expressed at this inhuman act, 
 but, in calm after-thought, society has been lead to look upon 
 the deed in a charitable light, and perhaps to even wonder if, 
 liad they themselves been placed in so trying a position, 
 whether they, too, might not have done the same in fulfilling 
 tlie first law of nature — self-preservation. 
 
 The survivors, though out of danger, were still in a very 
 weak condition upon their arrival at St. Johns, July 17th. 
 Here they were received with the greatest enthusiasm and 
 excitement. A dispatch was immediately sent to the Secre- 
 
70 HOME AGAIN. 
 
 tary of Navy, giving a full account of the expedition. The first 
 message from Greely to his wife was also sent. 
 
 The following is an extract from a dispatch from Lieut. 
 Greely to Gen. W. B, Hazen, Chief Signal Officer at 
 Washington, D. 0. : 
 
 " The survivors owe their lives to the indomitable energy 
 of Capt. Schley and Lieut. Emory, who, preceded by three and 
 accompanied by five whalers, forced their vessels from Uper- 
 navik through Melville Bay into North Water at Cape York, 
 with the foremost whaler. They gained a yard wherever 
 possible and always held it. Smith's Sound was crossed and 
 the party rescued during one of the most violent gales I have 
 ever known. Boats were handled only at imminent risk of 
 swamping. Four of ns were then unable to walk and could 
 not have survived exceeding twenty-four hours. Every care 
 was given us. I saved and bring back copies of meteorolog- 
 ical, tidal, astronomical, magnetic, pendulum and other 
 observations ; also pendulum Yale and standard thermometers ; 
 forty-eight photographic negatives, a collection of blanks and 
 photographic proofs. Esquimaux relics and other things were 
 necessarily abandoned." 
 
 To this dispatch Greely received the following reply, from 
 Gen. Hazen : 
 
 " Our hearts are overflowing with gladness and thanks to 
 God for your safety, and in sadness for those who, without 
 fault of yours, are dead. Your family are well in San Diego. 
 Your dispatches are most satisfactory and show your expedi- 
 tion to have been in the highest degree successful in every 
 particular. This fact is not affected by tlie disaster later." 
 
 August 2d they arrived at Portsmouth, N. H., where they 
 were met by a large fleet of war vessels. They were warmly 
 greeted by the Secretary of Navy, the Chief Signal Officer 
 of the United States, and by many friends of both expe- 
 ditions. 
 
 The first person to come on board the Thetis was Mrs. 
 
PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED. 71 
 
 Greely. The meeting between husband and wife was most 
 affecting. Their stay in Portsmouth was one continued ova- 
 tion. August 8, tlie squadron arrived at New York. Sailing 
 up the Bay they were saluted by twenty-one guns from Fort 
 Columbus. At Governor's Island, the batteries of the 4th and 
 5th Artillery, with a large number of prominent citizens and 
 officers of high rank, were drawn up to receive them. Every 
 tribute of respect was shown the honored dead, and to the six 
 brave survivors was accorded by their countrymen a hearty 
 welcome home. 
 
 Every decade of modern history witnesses renewed attempts 
 to draw aside the veil that seems to shroud the beginning of 
 earth's distance in impenetrable mystery. Does the magic 
 circle encompass vast treasures hoarded by nature, that God 
 in His own good time will reveal to man for his admiration 
 and use ? Will the North Pole ever be discovered ? Will 
 such discovery explain the attraction of the magnetic needle, 
 and tell us what is electricity ? Will gravitation cease to be a 
 law, and a new law take its place that will be the basis of 
 new departures and inventions ? These queries remain to be 
 answered, and the solution of the enigma is engaging the 
 best thought of the world. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ICEBERGS. 
 
 ' ' These are 
 The palaces of Nature, whose vast walls 
 Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy scalps, 
 And throned eternity in icj halls, 
 Of cold sublimity." 
 
 Byron. 
 
 ["MONG- the most imposing and grand of the 
 many wonders of the ocean world, are the 
 fixed and floating icebergs, the " palaces of 
 nature," which assume extraordinary and fan- 
 tastic shapes, and more than realize the most 
 sublime conceptions of the imagination. Well indeed may 
 the mind become awe-struck and the heart almost cease 
 to beat as the lips exclaim, " Wonderful Thou art in all 
 Thy works ! Heaven and earth are full of the majesty 
 of Thy glor}^ !" on beholding these mighty and surpassing 
 works of the great Creator. East and west, north and 
 south, the Arctic regions present a picture of grandeur 
 and magnificence nowhere to be equalled — great beyond 
 conception — impossible to be portrayed. 
 
 These icebergs are described by Arctic navigators as 
 imitating every style of architecture on earth ; cathedrals 
 with pillars, arches, portals, and towering pinnacles, over- 
 hanging cliffs, the ruins of a marble city, palaces, pyramids, 
 and obelisks; castles with towers, walls, bastions, fortifica- 
 tions, and bridges ; a fleet of colossal men-of-war under full 
 sail; trees, animals, and human beings: one is described as 
 an enormous balloon lying on its side in a collapsed state. 
 
VUANGINO 2UNTS Ot' ICEBEIiOS. 73 
 
 A number of icebergs seen at the distance of a few miles 
 presented the appearance of a mountainous country, de- 
 ceiving the eyes of experienced mariners. 
 
 These icebergs differ somewhat in color, according to 
 age, solidity, or the atmosphere. A very general appear- 
 ance is that of cliffs of chalk, or of white-gray marble. A 
 few have a blue or emerald-green tint. The sun's rays re- 
 flected from them give a glistening appearance to their sur- 
 face, like that of silver. In the night, they are readily 
 distinguished in the distance by their natural effulgence, 
 and, in foggy weather, by a peculiar blackness of the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 A writer thus describes the strange and sudden trans- 
 formations and the changing tints of icebergs. " One re- 
 sembled, at first, a cluster of Chinese buildings, then a 
 Gothic cathedral of the early style. It was curious to see 
 how all that mimicry of a grand religious pile was soon to 
 change to another like the Coliseum, its vast interior now a 
 delicate blue, and then a greenish white. It was only neces- 
 sary to run on half a mile to find this icy theatre split 
 asunder. An age of ruin seemed to have passed over it, 
 leaving only to view the inner cliffs, one a glistening white, 
 and the other blue, soft and airy as the July heavens." An- 
 other berg shone like polished silver, dripping with dews, 
 the water streaming down in all directions in little rills and 
 falls, glistening in the light like molten glass. Veins of gem- 
 like transparency, blue as sapphire, crossed the mass. 
 
 " Solomon, in all his glory," was not clothed like the flowers 
 of the field. Would you behold an iceberg appareled with 
 a glory that eclipses all floral beauty, and makes you think 
 not only of the clouds of heaven at sunrise and sunset, but 
 of heaven itself, you must come to it at sunrise and sunset. 
 Lofty ridges of the shape of flames have the tint of flames; 
 out of the purity of the lily bloom the pink and the rose. 
 We will not say cloth of gold drapes, but water of gold 
 
74: ORIGIN OF ICEBERGS. 
 
 washes — water of green, orange, scarlet, crimson, and purple 
 wash — the crags and steeps; strange metallic tints gleam in 
 the shaggy caverns, copper, bronze, and gold : endless grace 
 of form and outline. 
 
 These icebergs — so beautiful in summer, so grand and 
 awful under a wintry aspect — project above the surface of 
 the sea like high hills composed of rugged and steep rock. 
 Navigators have frequently stated that they have seen them 
 rising from four to five hundred feet above the water, and 
 extending more than a mile in length. A Danish navigator 
 examined an iceberg on the eastern coast of Greenland, and 
 estimated its circuit, at its base, at four thousand feet. In 
 height it was one hundred and twenty feet above the sea- 
 level. He calculated that its contents amounted to upwards 
 of nine millions of cubic feet. 
 
 The reader may be interested to know the origin of 
 these stupendous floating bergs, whence they come, how 
 they are formed, and their ultimate destination. It has 
 been ascertained, beyond all doubt, that they originate in 
 the land, being nothing more than fragments of glaciers — 
 a name given to immense masses of ice, or appendages to 
 snow mountains. By far the larger number of these are 
 formed on the coast of Greenland. The mountains are 
 always covered with snow ; the valleys between them are 
 filled with ice, derived from the higher portions of the 
 mountains, and are thus converted into enormous glaciers. 
 If the extent of all the shores of Greenland, in which the 
 glaciers advance to the very sea, were put together, it is 
 probable they would constitute a coast-line exceeding six 
 hundred miles in length. These are the birth-places of the 
 icebergs. The average height or depth of the ice at its free 
 edge, or seaward, in these valleys is about twelve or fifteen 
 hundred feet. As the glaciers advance farther into the sea, 
 the rise and fall of the tide undermine the base, and enor- 
 mous masses become detached and fall into the sea with a 
 
1p 111 '''''•'' 
 
 Sill", 'III r'", iiiii 
 
76 TEBB0R8 OF NA VIQ ATOMS AMONG ICEBERGS. 
 
 crash like thunder. The icebergs thus formed — vast moving 
 mountains or islands — are drifted along, some finding their 
 way to the North Atlantic — a distance of more than two 
 thousand two hundred miles from the place of departure — 
 brought down by a strong current which appears to origi- 
 nate under the immense masses of ice which surround the 
 Arctic Pole. 
 
 Fearfully appalling are the dangers arising from these 
 icebergs on their floating voyages, and we cannot wonder at 
 the terror excited by their appearance among the early 
 navigators among these ice-bound seas. In the expedition 
 of Captain James Hall, under Danish auspices, for exploring 
 Greenland, the sailors were in sight of the south point of 
 that country, and, to avoid the ice, which encompassed the 
 shore, they stood to the westward, and fell in with " mighty 
 islands of ice, being very high, like huge mountains of ice, 
 making a hideous and wonderful noise," and on one of them 
 was observed " a huge rockstone of the weight of three 
 hundred pounds or thereabouts." Finding nothing but ice 
 and fog from the 1st to the 10th of June, the LiovbS people 
 hailed the admiral, " calling very fearfully, and desiring 
 the pilot to alter his course, and return homeward." The 
 alarm spread to the admiral's ship, and they had determined 
 to put about, had not Cunningham (the captain) protested 
 he would stand by the admiral, "as long as his bloode 
 was warme, for the good of the Kinge's majestic." This 
 pacified the seamen for a moment, but the next floating 
 island of ice renewed the terrors of those on board the Lion., 
 who, having fired a piece of ordnance, stood away to the 
 southward. 
 
 All later voyagers in the Arctic Seas describe the su- 
 blimity of these moving mountains and islands of ice, and 
 the fearful perils encountered among them. The following 
 thrilling instance of hairbreadth escape is related : " It was 
 awful to behold the immense icebergs, working their way 
 
FSGAFES FROM ICEBERGS. 77 
 
 to the northeast from lis, and not one drop of watc to be 
 seen; they were working themselves right through the mid- 
 dle of the ice. The dreadful apprehensions that assailed us 
 yesterday, by the near approach of the iceberg, were this 
 day awfully realized. About three P. M. the iceberg came 
 in contact with our floe, and in less than one minute it broke 
 the ice we Avere frozen in quite close to the shore ; the floe 
 (similiar to field ice, but smaller, as its extent can be seen), 
 was shivered to pieces for several miles, causing an explos- 
 sion like an earthquake, or one hundred pieces of cannon 
 fired at the same moment. The iceberg, with awful but 
 majestic grandeur (in height and dimensions resembling 
 a vast mountain), came almost to our stern, and every one 
 expected it would have run over the ship. The intermediate 
 space between the berg and the vessel was filled with heavy 
 masses of ice, v/hich, though they had been previously bro- 
 ken by the immense weight of the iceberg, were again 
 formed into a solid body by its pressure. The iceberg was 
 drifting at the rate of about four knots an hour, — and by its 
 force on the mass of ice, was pushing the ship before it, and. 
 as it seemed, to inevitable destruction. A gracious Provi 
 dence ruled this otherwise : the iceberg, that so lately threat- 
 ened destruction, was driven completely out of sight to the 
 northeast." 
 
 It has been supposed that the unfortunate steamship the 
 President, which left England for New York in 1841, was 
 crushed to pieces between icebergs. In the year that 
 this magnificent vessel was lost, the Atlantic Ocean was 
 more thickly beset wdth icebergs, and at an earlier season, 
 than commonly occurs. This is ascertained from a report 
 of the Great Western steamer, which was published in New 
 York. This vessel left England about the middle of April 
 in the same year, and encountered an ice-field, wdiich ex- 
 tended far more than a hundred miles, and along the south- 
 ern edge of which she proceeded. This edge w^as lined by 
 
BREAKING UP OF ICEBERGS. 
 
VESSELS LOST BY CONTACT WITH ICEBERGS. 79 
 
 a broad border of loose ice, consisting of numerous floes 
 and icebergs, and a considerable quantity of flouting ice. 
 To make way between these masses, the steamer was com- 
 pelled frequently to change her course, for fear of coming 
 in contact with them. The number of icebergs which were 
 in sight of the vessel amounted to three hundred, and the 
 largest was three-fourths of a mile long, and about a hun- 
 dred feet high. A similar calamity to that which is sup- 
 posed to have befallen the President is said to have well- 
 nigh occurred to the brig Anne, of Poole, which, in a voy- 
 age from Newfoundland to England, was so completely be- 
 set by ice that no means of escape were visible. The ice 
 in its whole extent rose fourteen feet above the surface of 
 the water. It drifted toward the southeast, and bore the 
 ship along with it for twenty-nine successive days. An 
 opening most providentially occurred, by which the vessel 
 became disengaged. 
 
 The President in 1841, the City of Glasgoio in 1854, the 
 Pacific in 1856, and, later, the City of Boston, have disap- 
 peared, from, it is supposed, their contact with icebergs. 
 
 Captain Ross draws a vivid picture of what a vessel is ex- 
 posed to in sailing amidst these moving hills. He reminds his 
 readers that ice is like stone, as solid as if it were granite, 
 and he bids them *' imagine these mountains hurled through 
 a narrow strait at a rapid rate, meeting with the noise of 
 thunder, breaking from each other's precipices huge frag- 
 ments, or rending each other asunder, until, losing their 
 former equilibrium, they fall over headlong, lifting the sea 
 around in breakers, and whirling it in eddies. There is not 
 a moment in which it can be conjectured what will happen 
 in the next; there is not one which may not be the last." 
 
 It is generally found that a strong current runs along the 
 sides of an iceberg, and a vessel approaching too near is vio- 
 vently forced against the mass, and dashed to pieces. 
 
 Another source of danger arises from mooring vessels to 
 
80 BANGER OF MOORING TO ICEBERGS. 
 
 icebergs, which is frequently done for slielter in strong ad- 
 verse winds, or when the vessel is rendered unmanageable by 
 the accumulation of drift-ice around ; but there is this dan- 
 ger: the icebergs are very nicely poised; if a large piece of 
 ice breaks off from one side, the whole mass is suddenly and 
 rapidly turned over, by which vessels have often been 
 wrecked or destroyed, while boats have been upset, even at 
 a considerable distance, by the vast waves produced by the 
 sudden change of position of an iceberg. 
 
 An incident is related of two sailors who were attempt- 
 ing to fix an anchor to an iceberg. They began to hew a 
 hole in the ice, but scarcely had the first blow been struck, 
 when suddenly the immense mass split from top to bottom, 
 and fell asunder, the two halves falling in contrary direct- 
 tions with a prodigious crash. Fortunately the men 
 escaped. 
 
 Sometimes vessels moor to icebergs when in want of 
 water, and obtain it from the deep pools which, in the 
 summer season, are found on the depressed surface of some 
 bergs, or from the streams running down their sides ; but 
 if, meanwhile, the iceberg should fall to pieces, which is 
 likely at any moment during the summer season to be the 
 case, the vessel is liable to be buried under its icy mooring. 
 The precarious character of these huge mountains of ice 
 will be understood from an anecdote related by Dr. Hayes,, 
 the Arctic navigator : " A few years ago, while a French 
 man-of-war was lying at anchor in Temple Bay, Labrador, . 
 the younger officers resolved on amusing themselves upon 
 an iceberg a mile or more distant in the straits. They 
 made sumptuous preparations for a picnic upon the very 
 top of it, the mysteries of which they were curious to see. 
 All warnings of the fishermen in the ears of the smartly- 
 dressed gentlemen who 'had seen the world,' were useless. . 
 It was a bright summer morning, and the jolly-boat with a 
 showy flag went oif to the iceberg. By twelve o'clock the = 
 
PICNIV ON AN ICEBERG. 81 
 
 colors were flying from the icy turrets, and the wild young 
 midshipmen were shouting from its walls. For two hcmrs 
 or so they hacked and clambered the crystal palace, frolicked 
 and feasted, drank toasts to the King and the ladies, 
 and laughed at the thought of peril where all seemed 
 so fixed and solid. As if in amazement of such rashness, 
 the grim Alp of the sea made neither sound nor motion. 
 A profound stillness reigned on its shining pinnacles and in 
 the blue shadows of its caves. When the youngsters, like 
 thoughtless children, had played themselves weary, they 
 went down to their boat. As if the time and distance were 
 measured, they were scarcely out of harm's way when 
 the mighty iceberg collapsed and broke into a myriad 
 fragments, which filled the surrounding waters. This 
 was, no doubt, the first and last day of amusement on an ice- 
 berg by the daring young seamen." 
 
 Icebergs are not affected by the swell of the sea, which 
 breaks up the largest fields of ice in the space of a few hours ; 
 they rise and fall with a tremendous noise, though their size 
 and form remain the same. But, when acted upon by the 
 sun or a temperate atmosphere, they become hollow and 
 fragile. Few icebergs are destroyed in the Northern seas; 
 a large number get as far as the great banks of Newfound- 
 land, which is occasionally crowded with them. 
 
 The fields of ice that float in the Polar Seas are often 
 twenty or thirty miles in diameter, and some hundreds of feet 
 in thickness. It is calculated that upwards of twenty-thou- 
 sand square miles of drifting ice come down every year 
 along the coast of Greenland into the Atlantic, moving on 
 during the winter at the rate of about five or six miles 
 a day. The Resolute exploring ship, which was abandoned 
 in Melville's Straits, on account of its being enclosed firmly 
 in a vast field of ice, was afterwards found in Baffin's Bay, 
 having been carried a thousand miles from its former posi- 
 tion by the drift of an icefield three hundred thousand square 
 
82 
 
 THE WISE PROVISION OF NATURE. 
 
 miles in extent and seven feet thick. This will give an 
 idea of the quantity of ice which is carried out of the Polar 
 regions, independent of the icebergs, and drifted into 
 warmer climates. 
 
 The formation and destruction of ice within the Arctic 
 Circle is a beautiful provision of Nature for adjusting the 
 inequality of temperature. Had only dry land been thus 
 exposed to the sun, it would, in summer, have been actually 
 scorched by its beams, yet severely pinched during the 
 darkness of the winter by the most intense and penetrating 
 cold. None of the animal or vegetable tribes could have 
 supported such extremes. But in the actual arrangement 
 the surplus heat of summer is spent in melting away the ice. 
 As long as ice remains to thaw or water to freeze, the tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere can never vary beyond certain 
 limits. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LIFE IN THE OCEAN. 
 
 ITHE appearance of the open sea," says Fridol, 
 " far from the shore — the boundless ocean — 
 is to the man who loves to create a world 
 of his own, in which he can freely exercise 
 his thoughts, filled with sublime ideas of 
 the Infinite. His searching eye rests upon 
 the far distant horizon. He sees there the ocean and the 
 heavens, meeting in a vapor}- outline, where the stars ascend 
 and descend, appear and disappear in their turn. Presently 
 this everlasting change in Nature awakens in him a vague 
 feeling of that sadness, Avhich, says Humboldt, ' lies at the 
 root of all our heartfelt joys.' " 
 
 Emotions of another kind are produced by the contem- 
 plation and study of the habits of the innumerable organized 
 beings which inhabit this great deep. In fact, that immense 
 expanse of water which we call the sea, is no vast liquid 
 desert; light dwells on its bosom as it does on that of dry 
 land. Here this mystery of life reigns supreme. It is 
 among the most beautiful, the most noble, and the most in- 
 comprehensible of His manifestations. Without life, the 
 world would be as nothing. All the beings endowed with it 
 transmit it faithfully to other beings, they, again, to their 
 successors, which will be, like them, the depositories of the 
 same mysterious gift; the marvelous heritage thus traverses 
 years and hundreds of years without losing its powers ; the 
 globe is teeming with the life which has been so bounteous- 
 ly distributed over it. 
 
84 DEATH THE FOSTER-MOTHER OF LIFE. 
 
 In every living being there are two powers, between \vhich 
 a silent but incessant combat is being carried on — life, which 
 builds up ; and death, which pulls asunder. At first, life is 
 all powerful — it lords it over matter; but its reign is 
 limited. 
 
 Bej^ond a certain point, its physical vigor becomes gradu- 
 ally impaired ; with old age, it feebly struggles ; and it is 
 finally extinguished with time, when the chemical and physi- 
 cal law^s seize upon it, and its organization is destroyed. But, 
 in turn, the very elements, though inert at first, are soon re- 
 animated and occupied with new life. Every plant, every 
 animal, is bound up with the past, and is a part of the future ; 
 for every generation which starts into life is only the corol- 
 lary upon that which is about to be born. Life is the school 
 of death; death is the foster-mother of life. 
 
 Life, however, does not always exhibit itself at the actual 
 moment of its formation. It is visible later, and only after 
 other phenomena. In order to develop itself, a suitable 
 medium must be prepared, and other determinate physical 
 and chemical conditions provided. 
 
 If we expose a quantity of pure water to the light and 
 air, in the spring-time or summer season, we would soon see 
 it producing minute spots of a yellowish or greenish color. 
 These spots, examined through the microscope, reveal 
 thousands of vegetable forms. Presently thousands of Rhiza- 
 pods and Infusoria appear, which move and swim about the 
 floating vegetable forms upon which the}'' nourish themselves. 
 Other infusoria then appear, which, in their turn, pursue 
 and devour the first. 
 
 In short, life transfers unorganized into organized matter. 
 Vegetables appear first, then come herbivorous animals, and 
 then come the carnivorous. Life maintains life. The death 
 of one provides food and development to others ; for all are 
 bound up together, all assist at the metamorphosis continu- 
 ally occurring in the organic as in the inorganic \vorld, the 
 
INJ!^UMERABLE ORGANIZED BEINGS. 85 
 
 result being general and profound harmony — harmony always 
 worthy of admiration. The Creator alone is unchangeable, 
 omnipotent, and permanent ; all else is transition. 
 
 The inhabitants of the water are at least as numerous as 
 those of the solid earth. " Upon a surface less varied than 
 we find on continents," says Humboldt, " the sea contains 
 in its bosom an exlmberance of life, of which no other por- 
 tion of the globe could give us any idea. It expands in the 
 north as in the south; in the east as in the west. The seas, 
 above all, abound with this life ; in the bosom of the deep, 
 creatures corresponding and harmonizing with each other 
 sport and play. Among these the naturalist finds instruc- 
 tion, and the philosopher subject for meditation. The 
 changes they undergo only impress upon our minds more 
 and more a sentiment of thankfulness to the Author of the 
 universe." 
 
 Yes, the ocean, in its profoundest depths — its plains and 
 its mountains, its valleys, its precipices — is animated and 
 beautified by the presence of innumerable organized beings. 
 Among these we find the Alg^e, solitary or social, erect or 
 drooping, spreading into prairies, grouped in patches, or 
 forming vast forests in the ocean valleys. These submarine 
 forests protect and nourish millions of animals, which creep, 
 which run, which swim among them ; others, again, sink into 
 the sands, attach themselves to rocks, or lodge themselves in 
 their crevices; these construct dwellings for themselves; 
 they seek or fly from each other; they pursue or fight, caress 
 each other lovingly, or devour each other without pity. Our 
 terrestial forests do not maintain nearly as many living be- 
 ings as those which swarm in the bosom of the sea. 
 
 The sea influences its numerous inhabitants, animal or 
 vegetable, by its temperature, by its density, by its saltness, 
 by its bitterness, by the nevei'-ceasing agitation of its waves, 
 and by the rapidity of its currents. 
 
 When the tide retires from the shore, the sea leaves upon 
 
86 8EA.SH0BE DEPOSITS. 
 
 the coast some few of the numberless beings which it car- 
 ries in its bosom. In the first moments of its retreat, the 
 naturalist may collect a crowd of substances, vegetable and 
 animal, of various characteristic color and properties. The 
 inhabitants of the coast may find there their food, their com- 
 merce, their occupations. 
 
 At low water, the nearest villages and hamlets send their 
 contingents, old and young, to gather the riband seaweed, 
 a source of great wealth to the dwellers by the sea, being 
 much used in making kelp ; others gather the small shells 
 left on the sand ; boys mount upon the rocks in search of 
 whelks and of mussels, and detach limpets from the rocks to 
 which they attach themselves. 
 
 On some coasts, shells are sought for their beauty. By 
 turning the stones, or by sounding the crevices of the rocks 
 with a hook at the end of a pole, cuttles and calmars are 
 sometimes surprised, sometimes even a young conger eel 
 which has sought refuge there ; while the pools, left here 
 and there by the retiring tide, are dragged by nets of very 
 small mesh, in which the smaller Crustacea, mollusks, and 
 small fish are secured. 
 
 In the Mediterranean and other inland seas, where the 
 tide is almost inappreciable, there will be found to exist a 
 great number of animals and Algse belonging to the deep 
 sea, which the waves or currents very rarely leave upon 
 the sea-shore. There are others again so fugitive, or 
 which attach themselves so firmly to the rocks, that we can 
 watch them only in their habitats. It is necessary to study 
 them, floating on the surface of the waves, or ia their mys- 
 terious retirements. 
 
 " We find in the sea," says Lacepede, " unity and divers- 
 ity, which constitutes its beauty ; grandeur and simplicity, 
 which give it sublimity ; puissance and immensity, which 
 command our wonder." 
 
SUB-MARIXE PCEXERY. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 MINUTE ANUIAL LIFE. 
 
 ** Oh, wliat an endless work liatli lie in hand 
 Who'd count the sea's abundant progeny ; 
 Whose fruitful seed far passetli that on laud. 
 And also them that roam the azure sky, 
 So fertile be the floods in generation, 
 So vast their numbers, and so numberless their nation." 
 
 — Spencer. 
 
 LRUE and just are the words of the British 
 poet; though the surface of the ocean is 
 less rich in animal and vegetable forms 
 than that of continents, still, when its depths 
 are searched, perhaps no other portion of our 
 planet presents such fullness of organic life. 
 It has been said that our land forests do not harbor so many 
 animals as the low-wooded regions of the ocean, where the 
 sea-weeds, rooted to the shoals, or long branches detached by 
 the force of waves and currents, and swimming free, up- 
 borne by air-cells, unfold their delicate foliage. The micro- 
 scope still further increases our impression of the profusion 
 of organic life which pervades the recesses of the ocean, 
 since throughout its mass we find animal existence, and at 
 depths exceeding the height of our loftiest mountain chains. 
 Here swarm countless hosts of minute animals, which, when 
 attracted to the surface by particular conditions of weather, 
 convert every wave into a crest of light. The abundance 
 of these minute creatures, and of the animal matter supplied 
 by their rapid decomposition, is such, that the sea-water 
 
PROFUSION OF ANIMAL LIFE. 89 
 
 itself becomes a nutritious fluid to many of the large inhab- 
 itants of the ocean. 
 
 Even in the bleak and dreary regions of the Northern 
 world the wintry seas are filled with a profusion of animal 
 life. The smaller species, of which the herring may be 
 talven for an example, are found amidst the depths of the 
 Arctic zone in immense shoals ; countless millions of crea- 
 tures, sometimes known as sea nettles, a genus of Acalephce, 
 signifying "nettles'"' (so named from the stinging power 
 which many of them possess), of higher organization than 
 the 3Iedusce, or jellj^-fish, exist here, with globular or oval 
 bodies of a delicate or jelly-like substance, strengthened by 
 bands which are covered with rows of large cilia (a peculiar 
 sort of moving organs resembling microscopic hairs), the 
 motion of which is extremely rapid, and is evidently con- 
 trolled by the will of the little animal. Jelly-Fish, Zoophytes, 
 etc., swarm also to such an extent as to convert the surface 
 water in some places almost into a kind of soup, which fur- 
 nishes food not only to small fish, but to whales and animals 
 of the largest growth. Even the color of the ocean is influ- 
 enced by the enormous quantity of the organic life it sus- 
 tains. The application of the microscope — for by far the 
 most numerous of the animalculte can only thus be traced — 
 shows them to be the cause of a peculiar tinge observed 
 over a great extent of the Greenland Sea. This color is 
 olive-green, and the water is dark and dense compared to 
 that which bears the common cerulean hue. The portion of 
 the ocean so distinguished amounts to not less than twenty 
 thousand square miles, and hence the number of animalculae 
 which that space contains is far beyond human calculation. 
 
 Some of the calculations of an ingenious and clever writer 
 are very curious and instructive. In a drop of water there 
 were fifty of these animalculae, on an average, in each square 
 of the micrometer-glass of an eight hundred and fortieth of 
 an inch ; and as the drop occupied a circle on a plate of 
 
90 ANIMALCUL^^ IS A DROP OF WATER. 
 
 glass containing five hundred and twenty-nine of these 
 squares, there must have been in this single drop of water — 
 taken out of the yellowish-green sea, in a place by no means 
 the most discolored — about twenty-six thousand four hun- 
 dred and fifty of these animalculge ! Hence, reckoning sixty 
 drops to a dram, there would be a number in a gallon of 
 water exceeding, by one-half, the population of the whole 
 globe ! It gives a wonderful conception of the minuteness 
 and vastness of creation, when we think of more than twen- 
 ty-six thousand animals — living, obtaining subsistence, and 
 moving perfectly at their ease, without annoyance to one 
 another — in a single drop of water! 
 
 The diameter of the largest of these animalculse was only 
 the two-thousandth part of an inch, and many only the four- 
 thousandth. The army which Bonaparte led into Russia in 
 1812, estimated at five hundred thousand men, would have 
 extended — in a double row, or two men abreast, with two 
 feet three inches space for each couple of men — a distance 
 of one hundred and six and a half English miles; the same 
 number of these animalculse, arrayed in a similar way in two 
 rows, but touching one another, would only reach j^ve/ee^ tioo 
 and a half inches ! A whale requires an ocean to sport in, 
 but about one hundred and fifty millions of these animalculas 
 would have abundant room in a tumbler of water! What a 
 stupendous idea is thus afforded of the immensity of crea- 
 tion, and of the bounty of Divine Providence, in furnishing 
 such a profusion of life in regions so remote from the habi- 
 tations of men! Even if we consider the number of animals 
 in a space of two miles square as great, what must be the 
 amount requisite for the discoloration of the sea through an 
 extent of, perhaps, twenty or thirty thousand square miles! 
 
 If we turn from the Arctic seas to the warmer regions of 
 the ocean, we find the same wonderful profusion of animal 
 life existing in minute forms of infinite variety : small Mol- 
 luska (soft animals inhabiting shells) ; Crustacea (with artic- 
 
INHABITANTS OF THE SEA- WEED. 91 
 
 ulated limbs and hard coverings;, and luminous creatures, 
 as Salpcp, of Avliich vast gelatinous shoals are met with at sea, 
 associated in a round mass like a chain, transparent, and of 
 beautiful colors, of which, we are told, that during a journey 
 of nearly eight hundred miles, they were thickly abundant 
 throughout the track of the ship in the ocean. Eucli por- 
 tion of the vast masses of floating seaweed consists — when 
 carefully examined — of a little densely populated world, be- 
 ing crow^ded with living beings, all active and full of bust- 
 ling animation — strange-shaped little fishes, bright sea-slugs, 
 tiny shells of the nautilus tribe, grotesque sea-spiders, and 
 whole gangs of odd crabs, jelly-fish, and transparent shrimps. 
 " The number of living creatures of all orders," observes 
 Darwin, " whose existence intimately depends on the kelp 
 (marine plants) is wonderful. A great volume might be 
 w^ritten describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of 
 seeweed. Almost all the leaves, excepting those on the sur- 
 face, are so thickly encrusted wdth coralines as to be of a 
 white color. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some 
 inhabited by simple hydra-like Polypi, others by more or- 
 ganized kinds and beautiful compound Ascidice (from the 
 Greek askos, a bottle or pouch, these little molluscs resem- 
 bling sacs everywhere closed, except at two orifices.) In- 
 numerable Crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On 
 shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, 
 cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, and animals 
 of a multitude of forms all fall out together. Often as I re- 
 curred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover 
 animals of new and curious structures. I can only compare 
 these great aquatic forests of the Southern Hemisphere with 
 the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any 
 country a forest were destroyed, I do not believe nearly so 
 many species of animals would perish as would here from the 
 destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant 
 numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find 
 
92 iii^A JSETTLES. 
 
 food or shelter; with their destruction, the many cormorants 
 and other fishing birds, the otters, seals, and porpoises, would 
 soon perish also." 
 
 How elevating- is the thought that amidst all this pro- 
 digious variety and profusion, the boundless extent of which 
 no human mind can conceive, yet the minutest animated par- 
 ticle that is revealed by the microscope is governed by the 
 same laws that regulate the highest objects in creation! 
 
 "Eacli moss, 
 Each sliell, eacli crawling insect, holds a rank 
 Important in the scale of Him who framed 
 This scale of beings; holds a rank which, lost. 
 Would break the chain, and leave a gap behind, 
 Which Nature's self would rue." 
 
 Very interesting is the study of those curious inhabitants 
 of the ocean, constituting vyhat are termed by naturalists 
 AcalephcB, as has been previously mentioned, but which are 
 more commonly known by such names as jelly-fish, sea-blub- 
 ber, etc., and are sometimes called sea-nettles. Most of 
 them were included in the Linnaean genus Medusa, and the 
 name Medusce is still frequently applied to them. They 
 abound in all parts of the ocean, although some are tropical 
 and others belong to cold latitudes. Some are of a large 
 size, reaching two feet in diameter, and others are very 
 small. They are of an extremely soft jelly tissue, which in 
 most of them, and all in the true Medusse, is unsupported 
 by any harder substance. The latter comprise various 
 species that shine with great splendor in the water. The 
 South Atlantic abounds with them, and much amusement 
 may be derived in a long sea voyage by observing these 
 beautiful organisms, for endless are the moulds in which 
 prolific Nature has cast them. Some are shaped like a 
 mushroom, others are like ribbons, or globular, flat or bell- 
 shaped; others again resemble a bunch of berries. Their 
 motions are generally slow, their sensations dull and directed 
 
iiijiiil^Vw 
 
 7 ^r> ^ ""^ 
 
 FLEET OK MEDUS.-E. 
 
94 SEA WORMS. 
 
 entirely to the procuring of food. They often float without 
 any apparent animation, trusting in the winds and waves to 
 waft them about, and to carry them their food ; some keep 
 a little beneath the surface, and propel themselves by con- 
 tracting their pellucid disks. They have been termed the 
 " living jellies of the deep," and some are endowed with an 
 acrid secretion, which irritates the skin, and has thus caused 
 them to be termed sea-nettles. 
 
 " Those living jellies wliicli the flesh inflame. 
 Fierce as a nettle, and from that tlie name; 
 Some in huge masses, some that you may bring 
 In the small compass of a lady's ring. 
 
 Figured b}' hand Divine — there's not a gem 
 Wrought by man's art to be compared to them; 
 Soft, brilliant, tender, through the wave they glow, 
 And make the moonbeam brighter where they flow." 
 
 There is one large species common in the Straits of Singa- 
 pore dreaded by the Malays on account of the violence of 
 this power. 
 
 Sometimes these animals are colorless, and as transparent 
 as crystal; others are embellished with the most brilliant 
 hues, and seem as if adorned with the richest enamel. Ste- 
 vens, dne of the first voyagers to the East Indies, describes 
 the jelly-fish he saw in the Gulf of G-uinea as " a thing swim- 
 ming on the water, like a cock's comb, but the color much 
 fairer, which comb standeth upon a thing almost like the 
 swimmer of a fish in color and bigness." 
 
 Another curious and Avidely-distributed class of marine 
 animals are the Annelides or Sea- JVorms, the bodies being- 
 composed of rings and joints. Some species are only met 
 with in the high seas, swimming freely, while most of the 
 others are to be found on the sea-shore, burrowing in the 
 sand or mud, or living under stones, or amidst seaweed. A 
 few construct a sheath or case for themselves, in which they 
 
THEIR WONDEllFUL BEAUTY. 95 
 
 ordinarily live, but which are not essential to the existence 
 of the tenant, as they can leave it without inconvenience, and 
 wander at liberty for their food elsewhere. Their bodies are 
 formed of more or less numerous rings, each of which is 
 furnished with feet, which are the chief organs of motion, 
 and are truly wonderful. They are generally in the form of 
 small tubercles, and for the most part are composed of two 
 branches. Their summit or tip is frequently armed with 
 one or more bundles of bristles, which play an important 
 part in the history of the animals. They form an orna- 
 mental appendage to the worm, and at the same time are 
 used as organs of defence and offence. Notwithstanding 
 they live in situations in which they are seldom seen by the 
 human eye, yet in some species these organs have a remark- 
 able degree of brilliancy, shining with a metallic lustre and 
 splendor of the richest kind. The common Sea-Mouse, for in- 
 stance, has a very large bundle of them attached to each foot, 
 which are very fine and of considerable length. Gold, azure, 
 purple, and green play on their surface in a thousand reflec- 
 tions, and these rainbow colors are in perfect harmony with 
 the changing reflections and rings of the body. The wing 
 of the butterfly has not received a more brilliant dress than 
 these worms, concealed at the bottom of the waters, and 
 sometimes buried in black and fetid mud. They are bril- 
 liant as gold, and changeable to every hue of the rainbow. 
 The colors they present are not surpassed in beauty by the 
 scale-like feathers of the humming-bird nor by the most 
 brilliant gems. These bristles, however, are as useful as 
 they are ornamental. Surrounded on every side by enemies, 
 usually dwelling in the waters where the worms live, they 
 require powerful weapons of offence for resistance or for 
 securing their prey. 
 
 Some species of these worms are armed with a weapon 
 like a harpoon, a lancet, or a knife. Some have an appen- 
 dage, falchion-shaped, and others a bayonet fixed upon a 
 
96 THE NEREIDS. 
 
 musket, while others present the appearance of a barbed 
 arrow. These weapons are used to pierce the bodies of 
 their enemies, and they frequently leave them in the wounds 
 they have made. The tubercles of the feet, from which the 
 barbed arrow-shaped bristles spring, are, in reality, quivers 
 full of arrows, stored there for the use of the animals to pro- 
 tect them from violence ; or, as Gosse fancifully observes, 
 " You may imagine you behold the armory of some bel- 
 ligerent sea-fairy, with stores of arms enough to accouter a 
 numerous host." 
 
 The number of such-like weapons in these worms is im- 
 mense. " Let me ask the naturalist," says Dr. Johnson, " to 
 count the number which may be required to furnish the 
 garniture of a single individual. There are worms which 
 have five hundred feet on each side : each foot has two 
 branches, and each branch has at least one spine and one 
 brush of bristles, some of them simple, some of them com- 
 pound. This individual has therefore two thousand spines 
 at least, and if we reckon ten bristles to each brush, it has 
 also twenty thousand of them! Let us look a little further, 
 not merely to the exquisite finish of each bristle, but to the 
 means by which the host is put in motion. There is a set 
 of muscles to push them forth from their port-holes ; there is 
 another to replace each and all of them within their proper 
 cases ; and the uncounted crowds of these muscles neither 
 twist nor knot together, but play in their courses, regulated 
 by a will that controls them more effectually than any brace ; 
 now spurring them to convulsive energy, now stilling 
 them to rest, and then putting them into action with an ease 
 and grace that charm us into admiration, and fix the belief 
 that even these creeping things participate largely in the 
 happiness diffused throughout creation!" 
 
 The Nereids, which belong to the same class of sea-Avorms, 
 have a long body, narrowed towards the inferior extremity, 
 and divided into numerous segments, with well-developed 
 
"JUMPING johnnies:' 97 
 
 appendages, a head, eyes, horns or i'eelers, and, in general, 
 a large proboscis, armed with a pair of jaws, curved, hooked, 
 and strong, with teeth on the inner margin. The Pearly 
 Nereis, which is one of the finest and commonest of the kind, 
 is thus described : " The upper surface is of a warm fawn 
 brown, but the beautiful flashes of rainbow blue that play 
 on it in the changing light, and the exquisite pearly opales- 
 cence of the delicate pink beneath, are so conspicuous as to 
 have secured for it the title of ' pearly' par excellence." 
 
 Another species of the group of the Nereids, the " White- 
 Bag Worm," a common inhabitant of the shores of Great 
 Britain, varying from six to ten inches in length, is of a beau- 
 tiful pearly lustre, exactly similar to that of mother-of-pearl. 
 The foot, when magnified, resembles a horse's hoof, and is a 
 very marvelous piece of Nature's mechanism. The animal 
 swims rapidly in the sea. Another species is of a rich green- 
 ish color, varied with bluish shades, reflecting a metallic lus- 
 tre, and varying like the hues of the rainbow. 
 
 With the tribe of sea-worms may be also mentioned the 
 Sea-Leach or Skate-sucker, so named because the worm lives 
 on fish, and attaches itself chiefly to the skate, from which 
 it is scarcely ever found free. The mouth of this animal is 
 not provided with jaws, so it sucks up the juices of the body 
 of its host by a kind of pumping process. 
 
 The Leaping- Worms, found on the coasts of Borneo, are 
 curious creatures. Each step in advance to take them 
 causes them to jump in a rapid manner, and in a series of 
 leaps they reach the margin of the water, when it is impos- 
 sible to capture them. When lying at rest, they are scarce- 
 ly distinguishable from the mud in which they lie. They are 
 wedge-shape in form*, about three or four inches long, with 
 flat pointed tails, and broad heads and prominent eyes. The 
 sailors have nicknamed them " Jumping Johnnies." 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CORAL— THE BOCK BUILDERS. 
 
 
 *? 
 
 
 
 I Y ^W '-^ 
 
 g 
 
 ^^fe 
 
 ''^ 
 
 _ I -fc 
 
 
 
 , ? 
 
 E*:._-^ 
 
 
 
 |flO art can imitate the delicate tracery, the rich color, 
 ■^^ and the singular forms that coral assumes. It has been 
 called by some, the " Queen of the Ocean," and no term 
 could be more appropriate. A celebrated naturalist, on 
 viewing the coral-beds of the Red Sea, exclaimed, " Where 
 
BEAUTY OF COliAL. 99 
 
 is tlie Paradise of flowers that can rival such variety and 
 beauty?" 
 
 Mr. J. Beete Jukes, in giving his own vivid impressions 
 on seeing some coral-beds in the Pacific, says: 
 
 " I had hitherto been rather disappointed by the aspect of 
 the coral-reefs, so far as beauty was concerned; and, though 
 very wonderful, I had not seen in them much to admire. 
 One day, however, on the lee side of one of the outer reefs, 
 I had reason to change my opinion. In a small bay of the 
 inner edge of the reef was a sheltered nook, where the ex- 
 treme slope was well exposed, and where every coral was 
 in full life and luxuriance." 
 
 Mr. Jukes describes them as of every shape ; some deli- 
 cate and leaf-like, others Avith large branching stems, and 
 others, again, exhibiting an assemblage of interlacing twigs 
 of the most delicate and exquisite workmanship. Their 
 colors were unrivaled, vivid greens contrasting with more 
 sober browns and yellows, mingled with rich shades of pur- 
 ple, from pale pink to deep blue. Among the branches, cov- 
 ered with their beautiful drapery of ocean vegetation, float- 
 ed fish of various colors, radiant with metallic green or 
 crimson, or fantastically banded with yellow and black 
 stripes. Patches of clear white sand were seen here and 
 there for the floor, with dark hollows and recesses. All 
 these, seen through the clear crystal water, the ripple of 
 which gave motion and quick play of light and shadow to the 
 whole, formed a scene of rarest beauty, and left nothing to 
 be desired by the eye, either in elegance of form, or bril- 
 liancy and harmony of coloring. 
 
 It is only in the ocean, however, that the glorious homes 
 of the rock-builders are to be seen in perfection ; for, im- 
 mediately after drawing the coral from the water, so rapidly 
 does atmospheric exposure aff"ect them, that it would be 
 diflScult to recognize the lovely objects which a moment be- 
 fore were glowing in the still waters. 
 
100 BELIEVED TO BE FLO WEBS. 
 
 Such are the grand and mysterious operations of Provi- 
 dence in the depths of the ocean! We will now attempt to 
 describe the singular animals to whom the accomplishment 
 of these marvels is due, but must first mention that coral was 
 formerly supposed to be a marine plant. This ancient no- 
 tion rested not merely on its shrub-like form, but from the 
 circumstance that its branches are covered with a soft coat- 
 ing while in the water, but which dries up immediately on 
 its extraction. An Italian naturalist perceived small objects 
 in the coral-cells, which he thought were flowers ; but at 
 length a French physician at Marseilles discovered that 
 there was life in the coral, and that these assumed flowers 
 were in reality minute animals. Thus, by the aid of the 
 microscope, an object which might be said to belong to 
 mineralogy, and by its trunk and branches to botany, was 
 now admitted to a rank in the animal world. This discovery, 
 the result of thirty years' studious research into the nature 
 of coral, was laughed at by many persons at the time and 
 treated as absurd, but Linnaeus, the great Swedish naturalist, 
 saw the truth at once, and did not hesitate to place coral at 
 the head of the zoophytes, or animal plants, an appropriate 
 designation, because it indicates at the same time the double 
 nature of the substances. 
 
 A common characteristic of these animals is that their 
 mouths are surrounded by radiating tentacles or feelers, ap- 
 pendages by which they attach themselves to surrounding 
 objects, arranged somewhat like the rays of a flower. By 
 this will be understood the term polypi, by which these ani- 
 mals are also known, signifying "many" and "foot." Of 
 these the individuals of a few families are separate and per- 
 fect in themselves, but the greater number of zoophytes are 
 compound beings, or each zoophyte consists of an indefinite 
 number of individuals, or polyps, connected together. 
 
 This polyp is an extraordinary creature, and has a tenac- 
 ity of life truly remarkable. If one cut off the branch of a 
 
HEPRODUCTIVE tOWER OF THE POLYP. 101 
 
 tree, or sever the limb of un animal, these parts will wither 
 and decompose by passing into other parts of matter. Cut 
 a tree carelessly, and its natural s^^mmetry is disfigured ; or 
 slit it down its centre, it is destroyed. Animals thus treat- 
 ed die, with the exception of the polyp, for it will put 
 forth new limbs, form a new head or tail, and, if divided, be- 
 come two separate existences. 
 
 If a polyp be cut in two, the fore part, which contains 
 the head and mouth and arms, lengthens itself, creeps, and 
 eats on the same day. The tail part forms a new bead and 
 mouth ; at the Avounded end shoot forth arms ; if turned 
 inside out the parts at once accommodate themselves to these 
 new conditions. If the body were cut into ten pieces, every 
 portion would become a new perfect living animal. A polyp 
 has been cut lengthways at seven in the morning, and in 
 eight hours afterwards, each part had devoured a worm as 
 long as itself ! How astonishing it is to see a creature so 
 apparently frail in structure, possessing the actions, sensa- 
 tions, and powers of higher organized beings ! The stomach 
 is without membrane or cell ; the outside surface-cells form 
 a kind of double skin, and the inside consists of a wall of 
 cells running crosswise, with a velvet-like surface, being red 
 or brown grains held together by a sort of gluey substance. 
 
 These minute builders of the ocean rocks make their 
 habitations, and form the wonderful coral groves and islands, 
 sometimes hundreds of miles in extent. 
 
 The various species of these animals appear to be fur- 
 nished with glands containing gluten, converting the carbo- 
 nate of lime which is in the ocean, and other earthy matters, 
 into a fixed and hard substance, twisted — as may be ob- 
 served in coral — in every variety of shape. 
 
 If a piece of coral be examined with the microscope, it 
 will be seen to be covered with a multitude of small pits, which 
 are cells of the most beautiful construction, made with the 
 greatest regularity, and in such a manner that the most ex- 
 
102 NATURE OF CORAL. 
 
 perienced builder would pronounce faultless. How this is 
 effected, and what peculiar instincts the little toilers of the 
 ocean possess that enable them to construct their dwellings 
 with s'lch mathematical nicety, are among those mysteries 
 of Nature we cannot comprehend ; but it is certain that 
 large masses of solid rock are framed by these animals, ever 
 working to the music of the waves. "Verily," observes 
 Baker, " for my own part, the more I look into Nature's 
 works, the sooner I am inclined to believe of her, even those 
 things that seem incredible." But here we have the certainty 
 of Natures operations : we know that islands and continents 
 are constructed for the habitation of man by these minute 
 animals ; that mountains like the Appenines, and regions to 
 which our own country is but trifling in comparison, are the 
 results of their toil. South-west of Malabar, there is a chain 
 of reefs and islets of coral extending four hundred and 
 eighty geographical miles ; on the east side of New Holland 
 are unbroken reefs of three hundred and fifty miles long ; 
 and between that and New Guinea, a coral formation of 
 seven hundred miles in length. 
 
 The process by which these great changes are effected is 
 still going on extensively in the Pacific and Indian Seas, 
 where multitudes of coral islands emerge from the waves, 
 and shoals and reefs, where the rock builders are ever busy, 
 appear at small depths beneath the water. 
 
 How truly wonderful it is to know that the Polynesian 
 Archipelago, now one of the great divisions of the globe, 
 has its foundations formed of coral reefs, the spontaneous 
 growth of once living animals! As one generation of the 
 coral-builders dies and leaves its chalky remains, another 
 succeeds, until the mass of coral appears above the ocean, 
 when the formation ceases, for it is only in that element the 
 laborers can live. 
 
 "Ye build ! ye build ! but ye enter not in, 
 
 Like tbe tribes wliom the desert devoured in their sin ; 
 
WONDERS OF THE CORAL FORMATION. 103 
 
 From the land of promise ye fade and die, 
 Ere its verdure gleams on your wearied eye." 
 
 One marvel ceasea here, and another commences. The 
 vegetation of the sea, cast on its surface, undergoes a chem- 
 ical change ; tlie rains assist in filling up the little cells of 
 the dead animals ; the fowls of the air and the ocean find a 
 resting-place, and assist in clothing the rocks ; mosses car- 
 pet the surface ; seed brought by birds, plants carried by 
 the oceanic current, animaculas floating in the air live, prop- 
 agate and die, and are succeeded through the assistance 
 their remaias bestow by more advanced animal and veg- 
 etable life ; and thus generation after generation exist and 
 perish, until at length the coral island becomes a Paradise, 
 filled with the choicest exotics, the most beautiful birds and 
 delicious fruits. 
 
 Here is a glowing theme for the imagination to dwell 
 upon ! How wonderful to think that the surface of the 
 globe is being changed by these diminutive living agents ; 
 that in tropical climates they are encircling islands with 
 belts of coral, enlarging their coasts, forming stupendous 
 reefs, and working out the plans and the will of the great 
 Architect of the Universe ! 
 
 We feel surprised, when travelers tell us of the vast di- 
 mensions of the Pyramids and other great ruins ; but how 
 utterly insignificant are the greatest of these when com- 
 pared to the mountains of stone accumulated by the agency 
 of various minute and tender animals ! 
 
 How wonderful is the instinct and design of self-preser- 
 vation in insects so exceedingly minute as the coral workers 
 or ocean rock builders! Pope graphically says: 
 
 " Who taught the natives of the field and wood 
 To shun their poison or to choose their food ? 
 Prescient, the tides and tempests to withstand. 
 Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand?" 
 
104 INSTINCT OF THE ROCK BUILDERS. 
 
 To protect their dwellings from the violent storms by 
 which the waters of the deep are frequently agitated, they 
 erect a breastwork^ Avhich effectually shields them from 
 wind and wave. In the early stages of their operations they 
 work perpendicularly, so that the highest part of the coral 
 wall, on reaching the surface, is on the windward side, 
 and affords protection to the busy laborers in their opera- 
 tions. These breastworks, or breakwaters, will resist more 
 powerful seas than if formed of granite, rising as they do fre- 
 quently from a depth of a thousand or fifteen hundred feet, 
 and adapted in a way that no human skill or foresight could 
 equal to the utmost powers of the heavy billows that contin- 
 ually lash against them. 
 
 Another observation we may make on this subject, is, 
 that in one species a remarkable arrangement is found; the 
 upper openings of the cells in which they live, have a vase- 
 like form, shutting Avith a lid: when the animal wishes to 
 expand itself, it opens the lid like a trap-door, and protrudes 
 itself; and when it re-contracts itself and retreats, the lid 
 falls and closes the aperture so exactly that the animal is 
 perfectly protected. 
 
 Coral differs in quality and color. The common Red 
 Coral which is used for many ornamental purposes, and is 
 so much admired for its fine color, is chiefly obtained from 
 the Mediterranean, in some parts of which extensive " fish- 
 eries " are carried on. It is brought up from the depths of 
 the sea by means of a kind of grappling apparatus dragged 
 after a boat, the pieces being broken from the -bottom by 
 beams of wood which are sunk by weights, and then en- 
 tangled among hemp. Great care is necessary to preserve 
 the pieces from being lacerated. Red coral has a shrub-like 
 branching form, and grows to the height of about a foot, with 
 the thickness of a little finger. Much of the coral obtained 
 from the Mediterranean is sent to India, where it is much 
 prized by the natives. Many of the arms and horse-capari- 
 
VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF CORAL. 105 
 
 sons of the Oriental chiefs are studded with this beautiful 
 ornament. 
 
 Red coral is also found in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, 
 Messina, the Dardanelles, and a few other places. The 
 French and the Sicilians are the only people who make coral- 
 fishing a regular source of interest. As the precious sub- 
 stance requires eight or ten years to come to any perfection 
 by the labors of its industrious architects, the spots 
 where it is finished are divided each into ten portions, and 
 only one of these is finished in the year, so that each may 
 remain to " grow " during the time necessary to bring it to 
 maturity. 
 
 Black Coral is most esteemed, but it is scarce : the red, 
 white, and yellow are chiefly used for ornamental purposes. 
 The Pink Coral is esteemed for its scarcity. 
 
 The ingenuity of man continually exerted to imitate na- 
 ture, and frequently with great success, is practised in the 
 fabrication of false coral, made with powdered marble and 
 fish-glue, and colored with vermilion and red lead. 
 
 Coral beads were anciently worn in India, as sacred amu- 
 lets or charms. The Romans tied little branches round chil- 
 dren's necks to keep off" the influence of the "evil eye," a 
 superstition which had also many believers in the middle 
 ages among the inhabitants of England, and which still exists 
 in some foreign countries. 
 
 Coral was said to preserve houses from the effects of 
 thunder storms, and to be of much finer color when worn by 
 men than by women. Even at the present time there are 
 people so credulous as to believe that coral necklaces be- 
 come pale when the wearer is about to be ill. There is no 
 doubt that coral loses its color by time and exposure, and 
 this may have given rise to the superstition. The small 
 pointed branches, mounted with a ring at one end for sus- 
 pension, are extensively manufactured at Naples as " charms ;" 
 and Ferdinand I., King of that country, was a devout be- 
 
106 PERILS OF THE GOBAL BEEFS. 
 
 liever in their efficacy, and used to point the coral towards 
 anyone whom he suspected of having a malicious influence. 
 
 The vast coral reefs are often the source of great dangers 
 to navigators, and numberless instances have occurred of 
 entire or partial destruction of ships, and heavy losses of life 
 in consequence. One case, that happened some years ago 
 in the Indian Seas, nearly proved fatal to the whole crew of 
 a fine large ship called the " Cabalve." The story of this 
 shipwreck, as related in a letter to a friend by one of the 
 surviving officers, is deeply interesting. The vessel was 
 bound for Bombay, and was proceeding on its way at a quick 
 rate, with every feeling of security in those on board, 
 when one morning, between four and five o'clock, the weather 
 being dark and cloudy, an alarm was given of "breakers 
 ahead!" Every effort was instantly made to free the vessel 
 from her dangerous position ; but in vain, for she struck on 
 the coral reef, and the shock was so violent that every per- 
 son was instantly on deck, with horror and amazement de- 
 picted upon every countenance at what appeared to be cer- 
 tain destruction. The vessel soon became fixed upon the 
 coral reef, and the sea struck upon her with tremendous 
 
SHIPWRECK ON THE CORAL REEF. 107 
 
 violence, staving in the exposed side, washing tlirough the 
 hatchways, and tearing up the decks. 
 
 " We were now," observes the officer alluded to, " uncer- 
 tain of our distance from a place of safety: the surf broke 
 over the vessel in a fearful cascade ; the crew despairing 
 and clinging to her sides to avoid its violence, while the ship 
 was breaking up with a rapidity and crashing noise, which, 
 added to the roar of the breakers, drowned the voices of the 
 officers. The masts were cut away to ease the ship, and the 
 cutter cleared and launched in readiness. When the long 
 wished-for dawn at length broke upon us, instead of alleviating 
 it rather added to our distress. We found that the ship had 
 run on the south-east extremity of a coral reef, surrounding 
 on the eastern side those sand-banks or islands in the Indian 
 Ocean, called by the natives Carajos ; the nearest of these 
 was about three miles distant, but not the least appearance 
 of verdure could be discovered, or the slightest trace of any- 
 thing on which we might hope to subsist. In two or three 
 places some rocks in the shape of pyramids appeared above 
 the rest like distant sails, and were repeatedly cheered as 
 such by the crew, until it was perceived that they had no 
 motion, and the delusion vanished. The masts had fallen 
 towards the reef, the ship having fortunately canted in that 
 direction, and the boat was therefore protected in some 
 measure from the surf. Our commander, whom a strong 
 sense of misfortune had entirely deprived of presence of 
 mind, was earnestly requested to get into the boat, but he 
 would not, thinking it unsafe. He maintained his station on 
 the mizzen-topmast that lay along the wreck, the surf which 
 was rushing round the bow and stern continually overwhelm- 
 ing him. I w^as myself close to him on the same spar, and 
 in this situation we saw many of our shipmates meet an un- 
 timely end, being either dashed against the rocks or swept 
 away by the breakers. 
 
 " The large cutter full of officers and men now cleared a 
 
108 BREAKINO-UP OF THE VESSEL. 
 
 passage through the mass of wreck, and bemg furnished 
 with oars, watched the proper moment and pushed off for 
 the coral reef, which she fortunately gained in safety, but 
 they were all washed out of her in an instant by a tremen- 
 dous surf; yet out of more than sixty persons whom she 
 contained, only one man was drowned. Our captain, seeing 
 this, wished he had taken advice which was now of no use. 
 Finding I could no longer maintain myself on the same spar, 
 and seeing the captain in a very exhausted state, I en- 
 treated him to return to the wreck ; but he replied that 
 since we must all inevitably perish, I should not think of 
 him, but seek my own preservation. An enormous breaker 
 now burst on us with tremendous violence, so that I scarce- 
 ly knew what had occurred to him afterwards, being washed 
 down by successive seas. 
 
 " At length, after most desperate efforts, I was thrown 
 on the reef, half drowned and severely cut by the sharp 
 coral, when I silently offered up thanks for my preservation, 
 and crawling up the reef, waved my hand to encourage 
 those who remained behind to make an effort. The cap- 
 tain, however, was not to be seen, and most of the others 
 had returned to the wreck, and were employed in getting 
 the small cutter into the water, Avhich they accomplished, 
 and safely reached the shore. About noon, when we had 
 all left the ship, she was entirely broken up. The whole of 
 the upper works — from the after-part of the forecastle to 
 the break of the poop-deck — had separated, and was driv- 
 ing in towards the reef. Most of the lighter cargo had 
 floated out of her : bales of cloth, cases of wine, puncheons 
 of spirits, barrels of gunpowder, hogsheads of beer, and 
 other articles, lay strewed on the shore, together with a 
 chest of tools. Finding the men beginning to commit the 
 usual excesses, we stove in the heads of the spirit-casks to 
 prevent mischief, and endeavored to direct their attention 
 to the general benefit. The tide was flowing fast and we 
 
ESCAPE TO A DESERT ISLAND. 
 
 109 
 
 saw that the reef must soon be covered; we therefore con- 
 veyed the boats to a phice of safety, and filling them with all 
 tlie provisions that could be collected, proceeded to the 
 highest sand-bank, as the only place which held out the re- 
 motest chance of safety. 
 
 "The people now collected together to ascertain who of 
 the crew had perished, when sixteen were missing: the 
 captain, surgeon's assistant and fourteen seamen. We di- 
 vided our men into parties, each headed by an officer : some 
 were sent to the wreck and along the beach in search of 
 provisions, others to roll up the hogsheads of beer and butts 
 of water that had floated on shore ; but the greater number 
 were employed in hauling the two cutters up, which the 
 carpenters were directed to repair." 
 
 Such is a graphic account of a fearful shipwreck on a 
 barren coral reef, from one of the survivors among the crew. 
 One can thus form an idea of the dangers to wliich seamen 
 are exposed by these colossal works of tiny polyps: 
 
 " For often the dauntless mariner knows 
 
 That he must sink beneath. 
 Where the diamond on trees of coral grows 
 
 In the emerald halls of death." 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PEARLS. 
 
 " Ocean's gems, the purest 
 Of Nature's works ! What days of weary journeyings 
 What sleepless nights, what toils on land and sea, 
 Are borne by men to gain thee ! " 
 
 MONG the rare and beautiful objects of cre- 
 ation may be mentioned Pearls, which rank 
 with the most valuable of precious gems, and 
 are highly prized as ornamental appendages 
 by the rich and the noble in all countries. 
 While admiring these jewels, you may not know, perhaps, 
 at what perils and cost of life they are obtained, for it is neces- 
 sary to seek for them in the depths of the ocean, and al- 
 though the divers employed for this purpose are very strong 
 and expert, still in the Indian Sea and the Eastern Arch- 
 ipelago, where the true pearl-oysters are found, sharks are 
 numerous, and it is necessary to take every precaution 
 against those voracious monsters. This occupation was 
 formerly considered so dangerous that only condemned 
 criminals were thus employed, but many thousand persons 
 now obtain a livelihood by these means in the Persian Gulf 
 and at Ceylon. At one time, when the Dutch had possession 
 of this beautiful island, the number of large pearls obtained 
 there was considerable. 
 
 These pearl-divers are a hardy race of men, singularly 
 adapted to their hazardous occupation, and very super- 
 stitious ; for before commencing operations, they consult 
 
PEARL DIVERS AND SHARK CHARMERS. Ill 
 
 the " shark-charmer," a wise-acre who pretends to have the 
 power of preserving his dupes from tlie angry jaws of the 
 great sea-scourge, and makes a good living by it, the office 
 being handed down from father to son as hereditary. The 
 divers have such confidence in their powers, or spells, that 
 they will not descend to the bottom of the deep without 
 knowing that one of the enchanters is present in the expe- 
 dition. Two of the " charmers " are constantly employed, 
 one going out regularly in the head pilot's boat, while the 
 other performs certain ceremonies on shore, such as consult- 
 ing the auguries, which, if auspicious, ensure the divers in 
 their perilous submarine occupations by closing the mouths 
 of the sharks at the word of command. The " charmer " is 
 shut up in a room where nobody can see him, from the 
 period of the sailing of the boats until their return. He has 
 before him a brass basin filled with water, containing one 
 male and one female fish made of silver. If any accident 
 should happen from a shark at sea, it is believed that one of 
 these fishes is seen to bite the other. The divers also say 
 that if the conjuror is disatisfied, he has the power of mak- 
 ing the sharks attack them, on which account he is sure of 
 receiving liberal presents daily. 
 
 The Gulf of Manaar, where the pearls are found (and 
 which separates Ceylon from the continent of India on the 
 north-west), abounds in sharks ; and, however the divers 
 may consider their lives " charmed," the risks are lessened 
 by the sea-monsters being alarmed at the unusual number of 
 boats, the noise of the crews, and the constant descending 
 of the baskets for the shells. It is not improbable that the 
 dark skins of the divers are also some protection. It seems 
 that the pearl-divers in the Persian Gulf in former times 
 were so conscious of this advantage of color, that they were 
 accustomed to blacken their limbs in order to baffle their 
 powerful enemy. This is related by one of the earliest of 
 Arabian geographers, who adds, " that the divers filled their 
 
112 METHOD PURSUED BY CINGALESE DIVERS. 
 
 ears with cotton steeped in oil, and compressed their nos- 
 trils with a piece of tortoise-shell." 
 
 The pearl fishery of the Bahrem Islands (in the Persian 
 Gulf) produces a most abundant supply of these ocean gems, 
 the produce of a two months' season realizing nearly five 
 hundred thousand dollars of our money. Persians are chief- 
 ly engaged in this pursuit, and the divers belong to that 
 nation. 
 
 The method pursued by the Cingalese divers is very sim- 
 ple. They proceed in boats to the place of operation at 
 the season, which lasts about two months, commencing in 
 February and ending in April. Each boat contains about 
 twenty men, half of whom are divers, while the others row 
 the boats and assist their companions in reaching the sur- 
 face of the water after diving. Five of the divers descend 
 at the time, and when they come up, the other five take 
 their turn ; the fatigue and exhaustion of the body is very 
 great in continuing under water, and a minute — in some 
 cases a minute and a half, or nearly two minutes — is about 
 the utmost time these men can sustain their breath. Many 
 divers suffer severely from overtaxing their powers of endur- 
 ance, and bloodshot eyes and spitting of blood are common 
 to them. It is to be hoped that the modern improvements 
 in diving-bells and suitable apparatus for divers will be 
 much more generally adopted than they have been in a few 
 places, that life may be rendered more secure, and other dis- 
 tressing consequences be obviated. 
 
 To facilitate the descent of the diver into the water, a 
 stone weighing about twenty pounds is suspended over the 
 side of the boat, with a loop attached to it, in which he in- 
 serts his foot; a bag of network is attached to his toes; his 
 right hand grasps the rope, and after inhaling a full breath, 
 he presses his nostrils with his left hand. He now raises 
 his body as high as possible above the water to give force 
 to his descent, and liberating the stone from its fastenings, 
 
114 SEPARATION FROM TEE OYSTER. 
 
 he sinks rapidly below tlie surface. As soon as he reaches 
 the bottom, the stone is drawn up, and the diver, throwing 
 himself on his face, collects into his bag as many oysters as 
 he can. This, on a signal, is hauled to the surface, the diver 
 springing to the rope as it is drawn up. The sea, at the 
 oy-ster-beds, is generally from twenty-four to sixty feet deep. 
 The number of oysters thus collected varies; sometimes 
 several thousand are obtained in one day, and at other times 
 a few hundred only. The oysters are landed from the boats, 
 and are placed underground to putrify, and it is amidst such 
 a mass of corruption that the pearl, 
 
 ' Purest of Nature's works," 
 is obtained. 
 
 The pearl-fishers in ancient times used to place the shells 
 in vessels filled with salt, and leave them until all the fish 
 were dissolved, the gems remaining at the bottom. The or- 
 dinary operation now is, that as soon as putrification is suf- 
 ficiently advanced, the oysters are placed in a trough, and 
 sea-water is thrown over them. They are then shaken and 
 washed. Inspectors stand at each end of the trough, to see 
 that the laborers secrete none of the pearls, and others are 
 in the rear to examine the shells thown out. The workmen 
 are not allowed to raise their hands to their mouths while 
 washing the pearls, lest they might attempt to swallow some. 
 Sometimes the pearls, instead of adhering to the shells as is 
 usually the case, are in the bodies of the oysters, which are 
 boiled before being thrown aside as useless. The number 
 of pearls in a shell differs: one may contain a considerable 
 number, while hundreds are without any. 
 
 To give an idea of the extent to which the pearl fishery 
 in Ceylon has been carried for several ages, the shore in 
 some parts of the island has been raised to the height of 
 many feet by enormous mounds of shells, millions having 
 been flung into heaps that extend to the distance of many 
 miles. 
 
TUE PEARL ISLANDS. 115 
 
 At the Pearl Islands, near the Isthmus of Panama, the 
 divers use a very simple method of obtaining the oysters. 
 They traverse the bay in canoes that hold eight men, all of 
 whom dive in the water to a depth of from fifty to sixty feet, 
 where they remain sometimes nearly two minutes, during 
 which they collect all the oysters they can in their hands, 
 and rise to deposit them in the canoes, repeating the oper- 
 ation for several hours. 
 
 In Sweden the oysters are taken with a pair of long tongs. 
 The fishermen are in small boats, painted white on the bot- 
 tom, which reflects to a great depth, and enables them to 
 see the oysters and seize them. 
 
 The most beautiful and costly pearls are obtained from 
 the East, and are called " Oriental ;"the color of those found 
 in Ceylon is generally a bluish silvery white, but they are 
 met with of several other hues. Those from the Persian 
 Gulf are of great purity and richness. The preparation of 
 the pearls for market occupies a considerable number of 
 the inhabitants of Ceylon. After being thoroughly cleaned, 
 they are rounded and polished with a powder made of the 
 pearls themselves, and arranged into classes according to 
 their various sizes and quality. They are then drilled and 
 strung together, the largest being generally sent to India, 
 where they are highly prized, while the smaller ones are 
 forwarded to Europe. The operation of drilling is a very 
 delicate one, and the black people are very expert in it. It 
 is done with a wooden machine in the form of an inverted 
 cone, in the upper flat surface of which are pits to receive 
 the pearls. The holes are made by spindles of various 
 sizes, which revolve in a wooden head by the action of a 
 bow-handle, to which they are attached. During the oper- 
 ation (which is done by one hand, while the other presses 
 on the machine), the pearls are moistened occasionally, and 
 the whole is done with astonishing rapidity. 
 
 As to how the pearl is formed within the oyster-shell, 
 
116 HOW PEARLS ABE FORMED. 
 
 is a subject that has been much debated in ancient and mod- 
 ern times. The illustrious Pliny (who died in the year 79), 
 as one of the most enlightened of the old philosophers, says 
 that " the pearl was produced by the dews of heaven fall- 
 ing into the open shells at the breeding-time. The quality 
 of the pearl varied according to the amount of the dew 
 imbibed, being lustrous if that were pure, dull if it were 
 foul ; cloudy weather spoilt the color, lightning stopped the 
 growth, and thunder made the shell-fish unproductive, and 
 to eject hollow husks called bubbles." 
 
 The same naturalist also relates a story how the shoals 
 of pearl-oysters had " a king, distinguished by his age and 
 size, exactly as bees have a queen, wonderfully expert in 
 keeping his subject out of harm's way, but if the divers once 
 succeeded in catching him, the rest straying about blindly, 
 fell an easy prey. Although defended by a body-guard of 
 sharks, and dwelling among the rocks of the abyss, they 
 cannot be preserved from ladies' ears." 
 
 These are very pretty and fanciful ideas, as were many 
 fictions of the pagans, and the British poet Moore, has al- 
 luded to them in one of his sweet melodies : — 
 
 "And precious the tear as that rain from the sky 
 Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea." 
 
 Some naturalists have suggested that pearls are the un- 
 fructified eggs of the oyster, others that the jewel is a mor- 
 bid concretion produced by the endeavor of the animal in 
 the shell to fill up cavities ; the general opinion, however, 
 seems to prevail thus : most shelly animals which are 
 aquatic are provided with a fluid secretion with which they 
 line their dwellings to render them smooth and polished for 
 their tenderly-formed bodies. This fine even lining is seen 
 in shells of every description. The fluid is laid in extreme- 
 ly thin semi-transparent threads, which gives the interior of 
 the shell the beautiful play of color, so often observed. As 
 
CHINESE METUOD OF PROCURING PEARLS. 117 
 
 for the pearl in the shell, small rounded portions are formed 
 in the lining, which are supposed to be the result of ac- 
 cident, such as grains of sand or other substances getting 
 into the shell, and, irritating the animal inside, causes it, by 
 an instinct of nature, to cover the cause of offence, not hav- 
 ing the power to remove it. As the fluid goes on regularly 
 to supply the growth and wear of the shell, the prominences 
 continue to increase, and being more brilliant than the rest 
 of the shell, they become a pearl, a composition of carbon- 
 ate of lime and a little animal matter. 
 
 If a pearl is cut tranversely and observed through a mi- 
 croscope, it will be found to consist of minute layers, 
 resembling the rings which denote the ages of certain trees 
 when cut in a similar manner. 
 
 The Chinese, who are never at a loss for expedients, are 
 in the habit of laying a string with five or six small pearls, 
 separated by knots, inside the shells, when the fish are ex- 
 posing themselves to the sun. These, after some years, are 
 taken out, and found to be very large fine pearls. The same 
 ingenious people also introduce into the shell of a mussel 
 different substances such as mother of pearl, the beautiful 
 white enamel which forms the greater part of the substance 
 of most oyster shells, fixed to wires, which thus become 
 coated with a more brilliant material. Another practice 
 among the Chinese is to serve the purpose of a deception 
 upon the credulous. They place small metal images of 
 their god Buddha in the shells, which are soon covered with 
 a pearly secretion, and become united to the shells. These 
 are sold as miraculous proofs of the truth of their worship. 
 The Chinese are also said to employ a means of procuring 
 pearls artificially by the introduction of shot between the 
 mouth of the animal and its shell. 
 
 The pearl-oyster is not the only mollusk which produces 
 pearls : an oyster with a thin transparent shell, which is 
 used in China and elsewhere as a substitute for s'lass win- 
 
IIB 
 
 PEARLS m ANCIENT TIMES. 
 
 dows, produces small pearls, as also the fresh-water mussel 
 of England, pinna, a genus of the same family with the 
 pearl-mussel, and even in limpets. 
 
 PEARL PRODUCING SHELLS. 
 
 The ancients were extravagantly fond of these beautiful 
 jewels: necklaces, bracelets, and earrings were worn in pro- 
 fusion ; a string of pearls was estimated by a Roman writer 
 at about forty thousand dollars of our money; the single 
 pearl which Cleopatra dissolved and swallowed was valued 
 at nearly four hundred thousand dollars ; and a similar act 
 
LARGE PEARLS. 119 
 
 of folly is reported in later times, in the reign of Queen Eliz- 
 abeth, when Sir Thomas Gresham, one of London's merchant 
 princes, reduced a pearl to powder worth seventy-five thou- 
 sand dollars, and drank it in a glass of wine to the health of 
 his sovereign, in consequence of a wager with the Spanish 
 ambassador that he would give a more costly dinner than 
 the other. Quite as absurd was the notion in former times 
 that powdered pearls were unfailing remedies in all stomach 
 complaints. 
 
 Pearls are esteemed according to their size, color, form, 
 and lustre : the largest, usually about the dimensions of a small 
 walnut, are called " paragons" and are very rare ; those the 
 size of a small cherry are next in rarity, and are called "dia- 
 dem" or head pearls. They receive names also according 
 to their form, whether quite round, semicircular, or drum- 
 form, or that of an ear-drop, pear, onion, or as they are 
 otherwise irregularly shaped. The small pearls are termed 
 " ounce pearls," on account of their being sold by weight, 
 and the very smallest " seed pearls." 
 
 The largest pearl on record is one, pear-shaped, brought 
 from India in 1620, by Gongibusde Calais, and sold to Philip 
 IV. of Spain. It weighed four hundred and eighty grains. 
 The merchant, when asked by the monarch how he could 
 venture to risk all his fortune in one little article, replied 
 wnth great tact, "because he knew there was a King of 
 Spain to buy it of him." This pearl was said to be in the 
 possession of the princely family of Yousoppoff, in Russia. 
 
 Runjeet Sing, the former possessor of the famous Koh-i- 
 Noor diamond, had a string of pearls which was considered 
 nearly equal in value to the " Mountain of Light." They 
 were about three hundred in number, and the size of small 
 marbles, all choice pearls, round and perfect both in shape 
 and color. Two hours before he died he sent for all his 
 jewels, and gave the magnificent string of pearls to a Hindoo 
 temple. 
 

 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 SPONGES. 
 
 MONG ancient na- 
 tions the sponge was 
 used as a soft and elastic 
 lining for the brazen hel- 
 mets of their soldiers, and 
 many other purposes. It 
 has long been a matter of 
 debate among naturalists 
 whether sponges should be 
 classed among the vegeta- 
 ble or animal kingdoms; 
 they are now generally 
 placed under the order Zoo- 
 phyte, or plant animals. 
 
 Aristotle, the greatest of 
 ;iii' ii nt philosophers, who 
 w-'- born three hundred 
 md eighty-four years 
 )efore Christ, de- 
 cribed the sponge as 
 stationary or root- 
 ed animal: but 
 
EXPERIMENTS ON SPONGES. 121 
 
 from other statements he made it is certain that he consid- 
 ered its pkice as between the animal and vegetable. Some 
 modern naturalists have placed sponges among marine vege- 
 tables, and their appearance, if one casually looks at them, 
 would seem to justify such an opinion ; but the researches 
 of Mr. Ellis, a merchant of London, who made similar 
 branches of natural history a particular pursuit, gave addi- 
 tional interest to this case. In the course of his microscopic 
 investigations, he was astonished at discovering that sponges 
 possessed a system of pores and vessels, in which sea-water 
 passed with all the appearance of the regular circulation of 
 fluids in animal bodies, and a seeming purpose of conveying 
 small minute animals to itself for food. 
 
 Afterward, Dr. Grant gave the result of his experiments 
 on the same subject. The account is so interesting that we 
 will give it in his own words. " Having placed a portion of 
 sponge in a watch-glass with some sea-water, I beheld for 
 the first time the splendid spectacle of this living fountain 
 vomiting forth from a circular cavity an impetuous torrent 
 of liquid matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque 
 masses, which it strewed everywhere around. The beauty 
 and novelty of such a scene in the animal kingdom long ar- 
 rested my attention ; but after twenty-five minutes of con- 
 stant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye from 
 fatigue, without having seen the torrent for an instant change 
 its direction or diminish the rapidity of its course. In ob- 
 serving another species, I placed two entire portions of this 
 together in a glass of sea-water, with their orifices opposite 
 to each other, at the distance of two inches. They appeared 
 to the naked eye like two living batteries, and soon covered 
 each other with the materials ejected. I placed one of them 
 in a shallow vessel, and just covered its surface and highest 
 orifice with water. On strewing some powdered chalk on 
 the surface of the water, the currents were visible to a great 
 distance - and on placing some pieces of cork or dry paper 
 
122 HOW SPONGES ABE OBTAINED. 
 
 over the orifices, I could perceive them moving by the force 
 of the currents at the distance of ten feet from the table on 
 which the specimens rested." 
 
 So interesting are the sponges, which, although ranked as 
 creatures of very low intelligence, yet are by no means the 
 least curious of those manifestations of the Divine Power 
 
 " That built tlie palace of tlie sky. 
 Formed tlie liglit wings that decorate the fly; 
 The Power that wheels the circling planets round, 
 Rears every infant floweret on the ground; 
 That bounty which the mightest beings share, 
 Feeds the least gnat that gilds the evening air." 
 
 All of our young readers must be conscious of the useful 
 qualities of the sponge, but many are unacquainted with the 
 manner in which and where they are obtained. The finest 
 qualities of sponge come from the Ottoman Archipelago, 
 and form one of the principal articles of commerce with 
 Turkey. The island of Calymnos is the principal station 
 for the sponge fishery, and more than three hundred boats 
 are employed, averaging each about six tons, and carrying 
 six to eight men, of whom two are rowers. It may be 
 readily seen that this business furnishes occupation for 
 a great number of people. One thousand men are em- 
 ployed in the Grecian Archipelago, alone ; and thou- 
 sands besides with the necessary boats and appliances, 
 are busy in the Gulf of Machia, on the Barbary Coast and 
 elsewhere, so that in many hamlets in these latitudes, from 
 May to September — the best diving time — only old men, 
 women and children are to be seen. The finest qualities 
 are sent in large quantities to our own country, and the com- 
 mon and coarser kinds are forwarded to France, Austria 
 and Constantinople. 
 
 The average depth at which the best sponges are found 
 is about one hundred and eighty feet; those of an inferior 
 quality are brought from a lesser depth. The method of 
 
PRErARATION FOE MARKET. 123 
 
 diving is much the same as we have described i-w the coral- 
 fishing. The diver, who goes head-foremost into the water, 
 takes with him a triangidar-shaped stone, to which a strong 
 line is attached to assist him in his descent, and direct him 
 like a rudder to any particular spot. On reaching the bot- 
 tom, the diver tears off a number of sponges, which adhere 
 in masses to rocks and stones, sometimes to large shells, and 
 are either round, flat, or hollow like a funnel ; and then, 
 pulling a line, he is drawn up, with the sponges in his arms, 
 by the rowers. An experienced diver will make from eight 
 to ten dives during the day. The proceeds of the fishery 
 are divided into shares, the divers receiving a whole share, 
 and the rowers two-thirds of a share. Formerly the divers 
 used to sell their sponges by weight, to increase which they 
 put sand into them, a practice still continued, though now 
 sold by quantity. 
 
 The best quality is brought from the Agean Sea. At day- 
 light, in the summer time, when the weather is pleasant — for 
 it requires smooth water — the boats will leave the shore 
 and proceed to where the water is of suitable depth. The 
 divers then descend as before described. After being busy 
 thus until mid-day, they return to some of those pleasant 
 little nooks which abound in this locality to prepare what 
 they have gathered ready for the market. This is done by 
 pressing out the soft part of the animal. Then they beat 
 and trample the animal until no life is left, after which 
 process the remainder is bleached out by the sun. The 
 skeleton part is thoroughly washed and otherwise treated 
 until it is quite clean, and grows to be a dull yellow color; 
 it is then packed in bags, and shipped to various parts of 
 the world. 
 
 The sponge, in its natural state, would not be recognized 
 as that we are accustomed to use daily. In its primitive 
 condition it is covered with a thin dark skin, inside of which 
 there is a liquid like milk, and of the same consistency. If 
 
^ * 
 
 
 ^ifi 
 
 i \ 
 
 ,"<* 
 
 
 
 
 
 SPONGE IN ITS NATURAL STATE. 
 
COMPOSITION OF TlIK SPONGE. 1'25 
 
 we examine a drop of this liquid by the microscope, it would 
 appear entirely composed of very small transparent grains, 
 nearly of the same size, Avith some moisture. This jelly mat- 
 ter connects the different parts of the framework of the 
 spong'e, and lines the various canals or passag-es. The pores, 
 or apertures for perspiration, are minute openings on the 
 surface, protected by the framework, and into which the 
 water enters in currents, and after traversing the interior 
 passages, is ejected by means of openings which are larger 
 than the pores, and in many species are elevated above the 
 surface. To examine closely the framework or skeleton of 
 the sponge, it is necessary to macerate it in hot water, which 
 removes the gelatinous matter, and leaves it in a condition 
 to be examined by the microscope. This framework con- 
 sists principally of two materials, one animal, the other min- 
 eral ; the first of a thready, horny, elastic nature ; the second 
 (the species most commonly used for domestic purposes) of 
 a flinty or chalk material. The thready portion consists of a 
 light pale-colored network, with some few exceptions always 
 solid, and varying considerably in size. The mineral por- 
 tion has little spines, which, if examined with the microscope, 
 show traces of a central cavity or canal, the extremities of 
 which are closed. 
 
 How the growth and increase of the sponge is effected 
 affords matter of the deepest interest, and this, like every- 
 thing else in nature, shows the unerring wisdom of an all- 
 sustaining Providence. 
 
 From the framework or skeleton of the sponge emerge, at 
 certain seasons of the year, a yellow kind of grain, which 
 projects as it increases in size into the cavities of the sponge, 
 and forms the germ or seed of another race ; these are egg- 
 like in appearance ; and a large portion of its surface be- 
 comes covered with little hairs, called eyelashes from their 
 resemblance to such. These hairs act as oars to the little 
 germ, to convey it away as soon as it falls on the water to 
 
126 DIGESTION AND RESriBATION. 
 
 some other spot to which it may attach itself, The hairs, 
 after accomplishing their purpose, fall off, leaving the germ 
 to gradually develop into the sponge. 
 
 This sponge is a natural production, and we have already 
 hinted, has been known from the times of highest antiquity. 
 As is well known, all naturalists are now satisfied of the 
 animal nature of this species of creation, although they were 
 once thought to represent the lowest and most obscure 
 grades of animal existence, and that so close to the confines 
 of the vegetable world, that it was considered difficult in 
 some species to determine whether they were on one side 
 or the other. 
 
 According to a generally accepted view, the channels of 
 the sponge perform the two functions of digestion and respi- 
 ration. The rapid currents of aerated water which traverse 
 them lead into them the substances necessary to the nourish- 
 ment of these strange creatures, and at the same time carry 
 off all excremental matter. At the same time, the walls of 
 these animals present a large absorbing surface which sep- 
 arates the oxygen with which the water is charged, and dis- 
 engages the carbonic acid which results from respiration. 
 But science is far from being settled in its views as to the 
 organization and development of these obscure and complex 
 creatures ; nor is it more advanced in its knowledge of the 
 duration of life and the quickness of growth in sponges. 
 Nor can it be denied, also, that these beings constitute, in 
 spite of the investigations of modern naturalists, a group 
 still somewhat problematical as to their position in the scale 
 of animal life, and that they still are very imperfectly known 
 as regards their internal organization. 
 
 The demand for sponges is increasing annually, and it is 
 only a question of time when the trade must cease. The 
 submarine fields are constantly being cleared, and the de- 
 struction is such that the reproduction will cease to be 
 adequate. 
 
PRESERVATION OF SPONGE FISHERIES. 127 
 
 In order to prevent this result, it has been suggested 
 that attempts should be made to naturalize the several 
 species of sponges, and that their cultivation and reproduc- 
 tion should be protected. The first thing to consider is 
 what waters have the same or nearly the same temperature 
 as that in which the sponges now dwell. This being com- 
 paratively easy, the next and most difiicult part would be to 
 transfer the animals in such a shape as would insure repro- 
 duction in their new homes. Some such submarine boat as 
 has been used recently in making scientific operations con- 
 ducted in deep water, might, probably, give the necessary 
 facility for collecting sponges for the purpose. Such a boat 
 can descend to great depths, and its crew can even dwell 
 there for a considerable time, for it is continually fed with 
 fresh air ; so that the men could readily select such specimens 
 as were suited for acclimatizing, removing whole blocks of 
 rock along with them. 
 
 It might be possible too to collect the very young forms 
 of sponge in the months of April and May, shortly after they 
 have commenced their independent existence*, and to trans- 
 plant them to favorable localities. At the end of a few 
 years, when these true submarine fields would be probably 
 ripe for harvesting, they could be farmed out for methodical 
 collection, which would be effected by means of diving 
 boats. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 SEALS. 
 
 " Man bends the ocean monsters to his sway, 
 No terrors daunt him on his arduous way; 
 Through frozen waters, or in sunlit waves, 
 He seeks the Seal, unnumber'd hardships braves 
 To gain a prize so rich in useful store. " 
 
 fT the approach of the Arctic summer, all is 
 bustle and activity among the natives of the 
 Arctic regions. The materials for the summer 
 huts are prepared, and the whole household, 
 consisting of five or six families, move down to 
 the fishing-place, which is generally an island 
 with a low beach, in a southern aspect, for the convenience 
 of launching their boats or drawing the seals which have 
 been taken ashore. They are not confined to any particular 
 spot in the summer, unless abundance of seals are seen; but 
 they generally shift to some other station, which, in the 
 course of former seasons, they may have observed as more 
 suitable. 
 
 The Esquimaux have their regular divisions of work. 
 The men are the carpenters ; the women are the tailors, 
 shoemakers and cooks, helping their husbands or fathers oc- 
 casionally in their fishing. It is heavy work for these poor 
 females, but Providence has endowed them with a strength 
 of constitution and powers of endurance far greater than 
 women in more genial climates possess. They have to haul 
 the seals that have been taken by the men, ashore, and con- 
 vey them to the huts. They also flay and cut up the spoil. 
 
USES OF TUE BLUBBER OF SEALS. 129 
 
 Seal's flesh forms their chief food, and they employ various 
 methods for preserving it for future use. The most com- 
 mon plan is to cut it into thin strips, and dry them over a 
 line in the interior of the huts. Tlie seal-skins, which the 
 Esquimaux have a mode of rendering waterproof, form tlie 
 chief articles of dress ; when tanned, they make excellent 
 shoes. 
 
 It may be mentioned here that the Romans believed a 
 seal's skin was a preservative against lightning, and they 
 made tents of it to shelter themselves during thunder- 
 storms. The Emperor Augustus is said by Suetonius never 
 to have traveled without one of these skins, having a great 
 dread of lightning. 
 
 The blubber of the seal is most carefully preserved by 
 the Esquimaux, being useful in many ways to their domestic 
 comfort, and more precious to them by far than wine is to 
 others. The oil is the luxury of their meals, and is of a su- 
 perior quality to that of the common whale ; their bread is 
 nothing more than the dried muscular parts of seals or 
 birds. Whatever may be thought of the Esquimaux's par- 
 tiality for seal-flesh, it is well to remember that our English 
 ancestors considered it a delicacy. The seal and the por- 
 poise are mentioned in the bill of fare of a feast given at 
 the enthronization of George Neville, Archbishop of York, 
 in 1465. The meat is described as tender, but it certainly 
 has a look and smell which would not be agreeable to any 
 but very hungry persons. 
 
 The Esquimaux are exceedingly expert in their mode of 
 capturing the seal. This is done either individually or in 
 company, or in winter on the ice. Their kayaks, or skin 
 boats are very curious : they are about eighteen feet in 
 length, pointed at the head, and shaped like a weaver's shut- 
 tle ; they are, at the same time, scarcely a foot and a half 
 wide over the middle, and not more than a foot deep. They 
 are built of a slender skeleton of wood, consisting of a keel 
 
130 MODES OF CAPTURING THE SEAL. 
 
 and long side-laths, with cross-ribs like hoops, but not quite 
 round. The whole is covered with seal-skin. In the mid- 
 dle of this covering is a round aperture, supported with a 
 strong rim of wood or bone ; the Esquimaux slip into this 
 cavity, their feet resting on a board covered with skin. The 
 lance, harpoon and tackle are arranged before the boatman. 
 He uses his oar or paddle with wonderful dexterity, striking 
 the water on either side alternately, by which means he can 
 proceed at the rate of sixty miles or more in a day. In this 
 frail bark, which only those accustomed to such can manage, 
 the Greenlander fears no storm or the roughest breakers, 
 so long as he retains his oar, which enables him to sit up- 
 right ; and if overturned, while the head is downward in the 
 water with one stroke he can recover himself. 
 
 " Train'd with inimitable skill to float, 
 Each balanced in his bubble of a boat, 
 With dexterous paddle steering through the spray, 
 With pois'd harpoon to strike his plunging prey, 
 As though the skill, the seaman, oar and dart 
 Were one compacted body, and one heart. 
 While instinct, motion, pulse, empowered to ride — 
 A human nautilus upon the tide. " 
 
 As the natives are ever on the watch, as soon as they disi- 
 cover a herd of seals — driven usually by stormy weather in- 
 to some creek or inlet — they endeavor to cut oflf their retreat, 
 and frighten them under water by shouting, clapping, and 
 throwing stones. As, however, the seals must speedily come 
 to the surface of the water to breathe, they are surrounded 
 and killed with long or short lances. 
 
 There are various modes of capturing seals on the ice. 
 As the animals make holes in it for breathing, the Esqui- 
 maux seat themselves on stools, watching their appearance at 
 the apertures, and rarely fail to harpoon them, enlarging the 
 holes to withdraw and kill them. Sometimes, on seeing a 
 seal lying on the ice near a hole, the Greenlander slides along 
 
132 EXPERTNESS OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 on his stomach towards it, wagging his head, and making a 
 sound like a seal, thus deceiving the poor animal into a be- 
 lief that it is one of his companions. But the seal is usually 
 wary — that is, the older ones — and takes every opportunity 
 of escaping from its pursuers. When one is seen at sea, a 
 signal is passed to the diiferent boats engaged in the chase, 
 and the animal is surrounded ; a careful watch is kept for 
 the moment of its reappearing, and on this taking place, one 
 of the boats having advanced near enough, a dart is hurled 
 with unerring aim. The seal, terrified and wounded, dives 
 in the greatest hurry; but a float being attached to the dart, 
 it is soon forced up again and dispatched. The Avounds of the 
 seal are then carefully staunched, to save as much of the 
 blood as possible, and the body is distended by blowing into 
 the cellular part, in order to render the animal buoyant, or, 
 otherwise, it would sink to the bottom as soon as dead. 
 
 The chase of the seal, however, is not free from danger, 
 even to the expert fisherman of the Arctic shores. If the 
 animal is not too much exhausted when pursued, it some- 
 times turns on its adversary, seizes his frail skin boat, and 
 with its sharp teeth pierces a hole, when the kayak sinks 
 with its unfortunate owner. Many risks also occur from the 
 lines to which the floats are attached getting foul of the pad- 
 dle or the arms or neck of the fisherman, when the seal dives 
 suddenly on being wounded. The males are very pugna- 
 cious, and have terrible fights among themselves. 
 
 Seal-hunting, or fishing, as it is often called, is the great 
 occupation of the Greenlanders, and is also extensively pur- 
 sued by various nations in other northern parts of the 
 world. 
 
 A great many species of seals are met with on the west- 
 ern coast of Greenland ; but the most higtily prized by the 
 natives is what sailors call the Sea-Cdlf, so named from a 
 supposed resemblance of the voice to that of a calf. These 
 animals live in families, the old male being attended by his 
 
HABITS OF THE SEAL. 183 
 
 progeny for several generations. They are clncfly seen in 
 tiocks, amounting sometimes to hundreds. The teeth are 
 very sharp, and the bite is severe. The habits of the seal 
 are filthy, and singularl}' mischievous. A perpetual tyrant 
 over weaker animals, it is also an object of constant pursuit 
 with others. The white bear — with whom the seal is a great 
 dainty — is constantly on the watch to surprise it when sleep- 
 ing on the ice ; but the cautious animal usually selects a sin- 
 gle piece of ice for a nap, from which it may gain a full view of 
 all around, and the proximity of the water may afford a ready 
 means of escape. They are also said to have a great dread 
 of the toothed whales. If a grampus perceives a seal of any 
 species basking on floating ice, it does its best to upset the 
 ice, or beat the seal off with its fins, when the animal be- 
 comes any easy prey. 
 
 Seals are easily stunned by a blow on the forehead ; but 
 from this state they often recover, and are desperate in their 
 revenge. The sea-calf, in particular, is subject to violent 
 fits of anger. After it has been hoisted on board a ship frona 
 the boat in which it had been carried, apparently dead from 
 the blows it had received, it has been known to recover un- 
 expectedly, and seizing with its teeth the nearest object 
 within reach, tear away such a portion as it could grasp. 
 Even after death this irritation manifests itself, as the mus- 
 cular parts of the animal — though stripped of its outer in- 
 teguments or coverings — still retain the principle of vitality, 
 starting and quivering long after the dismemberment of the 
 body has taken place. 
 
 When seals are observed making their escape in the wa- 
 ter before the boat reaches the ice, the sailors give a loud, 
 prolonged shout, which, causing them to stop in amazement 
 at a sound so uncommon, sometimes delays their retreat until 
 arrested by the fatal blows of their pursuers. 
 
 In the higher latitudes, the Bearded or Great Seals are 
 mostly found. These are usually of an enormous size, some- 
 
134 THE FUR SEAL. 
 
 times ten or twelve feet in length, and of proportionate mag- 
 nitude of bodj. This seal migrates in families, the elder 
 ones leading the van, while the young follow confusedly 
 behind, playing, tumbling, and frisking along in the highest 
 enjoyment, and frequently in the extravagance of their fun, 
 flinging themselves quite out of the water. The sailors call 
 these antics " seals' weddings." 
 
 Though the bearded seal does not yield much oil, yet its 
 fat is esteemed delicious by the northerners. The Harp 
 Seal, so named from a large black crescent-shaped mark on 
 each side of the back, belongs also to the ice regions, though 
 sometimes seen on the British coast. It attains the length 
 of eight, and even nine feet. 
 
 The seal belongs to the Mammalia, or animals that suckle 
 their young, and constitute the family Phocidoe. All the 
 animals of this class are mainly aquatic, but also frequently 
 resort to land, or ice-islands, where they remain for days, and 
 even months, suckling their young, or basking in the sun 
 during the brief summer. The i^-wr /S'ea? seems to possess 
 remarkable powers of agility on land, often escaping when 
 pursued b}'^ the men running fast. They cannot walk, but 
 shuffle along, especially over the ice, very quickly. On land 
 the hind feet are never employed, nor the fore feet unneces- 
 sarily, but in moving forward it bends the hinder part of the 
 spine underneath it, thus making a kind of arch, and then 
 fixing tlie latter end, it suddenly straightens out the whole 
 body in front, and in a repetition of this movement consists 
 the peculiar kind of jerking leap for which these animals are 
 remarkable. When the seal ascends an ice-island or rock, 
 the ease with which it accomplishes its purpose is wonderful 
 It then makes especial use of its fore paws, and those which 
 have claws are implanted into them like so many grap- 
 pling-irons, and, having thus secured a fixed point, they raise 
 their monstrous bodies with the greatest rapidity. The 
 general shape of a seal resembles i its trunk that of a fish 
 
THE COMMON SEAL. 135 
 
 and a common quadruped; the liead is like that of a dog; 
 the arms, which are destitute of collar-bones, are so hid 
 beneath the skin of the body that only the wrists and hands 
 appear, and they are then so short that they can scarcely be 
 advanced forward ut all. But what they lose in extent they 
 gain in power. They are admirably adapted for swimming, 
 and serve also for seizing or holding. The fingers have an 
 intervening membrane, but they can be separated so as to 
 diminish or increase the surface of the paws. In all the 
 species, the fingers can be distinguished through the paw, 
 and inmost the nails appear at the termination; but in one 
 group of seals there is this difference, that the membrane or 
 web extends beyond the nails, not joined, but hanging down 
 in the water like broad leathern strips, which the sailors 
 call " flippers." The face is provided with strong whiskers 
 placed on each side of the mouth and at the corner of the 
 eye, communicating with nerves of considerable size, and the 
 slightest impression produces sensation. 
 
 The ground color of the hair or skin of the common seal, 
 when the animal is alive and dry, is a pale whitish-gray, 
 with a very slight tinge of yellow. When just out of the 
 water and wet, the color is ash ; after death, and as seen in 
 museums, the ground color is pale yellowish-gray, the oil 
 having penetrated the skin and rendered the hair of a more 
 yellow hue. The fur of seals is very smooth, and abun- 
 dantly lubricated with an oily secretion. There is generally 
 an inner coating of rich fur, through which grow long hairs, 
 forming an outer covering. Another adaptation to aquatic 
 life and a cold climate is the layer of fat under the skin, 
 from which the oil is obtained, and serving, as in the case 
 of the Avhale, not only for support when food is scarce, but 
 protection from the cold, besides rendering the whole body 
 lighter. The respiration of the seal differs considerably 
 from what has been observed in most animals: the nostrils 
 are habitually closed, instead of being uniformly opened. 
 
136 SEALS FOND OF MUSIC. 
 
 Bufifon examined a tame seal, and remarked that the period 
 between its several inspirations was very long : the crea- 
 ture opened its nostrils to make a strong expiration, which 
 was immediately followed by an inspiration; after which it 
 closed them, often allowing two minutes to intervene wi-th- 
 out taking another breath. This power of suspension for a 
 considerable time is of great use, enabling the seals to pur- 
 sue their prey under water. Seals are often subjected to 
 enormous pressure under water, which must be resisted, at 
 the respective apertures of the body, by an appropriate 
 mechanism. A similar provision is made for the eyes, as 
 well as the nostrils, in more ways, perhaps, than one. 
 At the inner angle of the eye (which is very large and 
 round) there is a third eyelid, which can be drawn over the 
 whole eye. The ears as well as the eyes, can be closed at 
 will, so as to resist pressure. 
 
 How very w^onderful is the provision thus aiforded to the 
 seal, as, in fact, to all created objects, and how the contem- 
 plation of such subjects should raise our hearts to the 
 Omnipotent God! 
 
 To know and feel His care for all that lives." 
 
 Captain Scoresby, who had numerous opportunities of 
 observing the habits of the seal, states that the animal hears 
 well under water, and that music, and particularly a person 
 Avhistling, draws it to the surface, and induces it to stretch 
 out the neck to the utmost extent, so as to prove a snare, by 
 bringing them within reach of the shooter. Many similar 
 observations of this curious faculty in seals have been re- 
 lated by different writers. One remarks : " In walking along 
 the shore, a few notes of my flute would bring half a score 
 of seals within thirty or forty yards of me ; and there they 
 would swim about, with their heads above water, like so 
 many black dogs, evidently delighted with the sounds. For 
 half an hour, or indeed for any length of time I chose, I 
 
TAME SEALS. 137 
 
 could fix them to the spot ; and when I moved along the 
 water edge, they would follow me with eagerness." 
 
 The food of the seal appears to be chiefly fish, although 
 it does not reject other animal food, and it is said to derive 
 part of its nourishment from marine vegetables. It has been 
 found that seals have a remarkable habit of swallowing 
 large stones, for which no probable reason has been yet as- 
 signed. The keeper of the celebrated " talking seal" in the 
 Zoological Gardens is reported to have given his pet fifty 
 pounds' weight of fish in a day, but this is by no means a 
 limit of appetite, for double the quantity would no doubt 
 have found a ready reception. This will give you an idea 
 of the vast consumption of fish in its native element. A 
 good-sized Spitzbergen seal in good condition is about ten 
 feet in length and six feet in circumference, weighing about 
 six hundred pounds or upwards. The skin and fat amount 
 to about one-half the total weight. The blubber 'yields 
 about one-half of its own weight in oil. 
 
 It has been supposed that seals can be easily tamed, but 
 such cases are exceptional. Some of the common species, 
 however, have shown great attachment to their owners, and 
 exhibited considerable powers of intelligence. An anecdote 
 is related of a seal that performed very cleverly what it was 
 ordered to do, and would raise itself on its hind legs, take a 
 staff in its paws, and act the sentinel. At the word of com- 
 mand it would lie down on its right side or left, and tumble 
 head over heels. It would give either of its paws when de- 
 sired, and was equally ready at a kiss. Another was kept by 
 Cuvier for a considerable time, and became very tame. 
 When teased it resisted, and when much irritated barked 
 very feebly. It was particularly attached to the old woman 
 who had charge of it, and recognized her at a considerable 
 distance, keeping its eyes upon her as long as she was in 
 sight, and running to her as soon as she approached its en- 
 closure. If free when food was brought, it ran and urgently 
 
THE '' MARBLED" SEAL. 139 
 
 solicited it by the motion of its head, and still more by the 
 expression of its countenance. 
 
 Of another species of seal called the Marbled, and found 
 on the coast of France, which was kept for several weeks in the 
 Jardin des Plantes at Paris, Cuvier says: '"I have never 
 known any wild animal Avhich Avas more easily tamed, or 
 attached itself more strongly. When it first came it endeav- 
 ored to escape when I wished to touch it, but in a very few 
 days all its apprehensions vanished ; it had discovered my 
 intentions, and rather desired my caresses than feared them. 
 It was in the same enclosure with two small dogs, which 
 amused themselves by frequently mounting on its back, with 
 barking, and even biting it; and although these sports and 
 the vivacity of the attending movements were little in har- 
 mony with its own actions and habits, yet it appreciated 
 their motive, and seemed pleased with them. It never 
 offered any other retaliation than slight blows with its paws, 
 the object of which was to encourage rather than repress 
 the liberties taken. If the puppies escaped from the enclo- 
 sure, the seal endeavored to follow them, notwithstanding 
 the difficulty it experienced in creeping along the ground 
 covered with stones and rubbish. When the weather was 
 cold, the three animals huddled closely and kindly together, 
 that they might contribute to their mutual warmth." The 
 creature did not exhibit any alarm at the presence of man or 
 animals, and did not get out of the way unless when threat- 
 ened to be trod upon. Though very voracious, it did not 
 show any opposition or anger when robbed of its food. 
 " Often," adds Cuvier, " have I tried him when pressed with 
 hunger, and never opposed my will ; and I have seen the 
 dogs, to whom he was much attached, amuse themselves 
 when he was feeding, by snatching the fish from his mouth, 
 without his exhibiting any rage. On the other hand, when 
 their mess was supplied to the seals (for he had a companion), 
 as they were lying in the same trough, a battle was the usual 
 
140 THE SEALS OF SOUTHERN SEAS. 
 
 result, and blows with their paws followed, and as usually 
 happened, the more feeble and timid gave way to the 
 stronger." 
 
 The seals of the Southern seas are quite different from 
 those of the Northern. The most remarkable of these ani- 
 mals is the Sea Elephant, or Prohoscis Seal, named thus, 
 partly on account of the very peculiar appearance of its 
 short trunk, and also from its being much the largest of its 
 kind, doubling the dimensions of its terrestrial namesake, 
 reaching the enormous length of twenty-five and thirty feet, 
 and being also of a proportionate thickness. Its color is 
 sometimes gray or blue-gray, and more rarely blackish- 
 brown. There is an absence of everything like external 
 ears ; it has great whiskers of strong coarse hairs, very long, 
 and twisted somewhat like a screw, with other similar hairs 
 over each eye, supplying the place of eyebrows; the eyes 
 are very large and prominent ; strong and powerful swim- 
 ming paws, having at their margins five small black nails ; 
 a very short tail, which is almost hid beneath two flat hori- 
 zontal fins: these form the distinguishing peculiarities of 
 this strange animal. When the sea-elephant is in a state of 
 repose, its nostrils, shrunk and hanging down, serve only to 
 make the face appear larger : but whenever he rouses him- 
 self, when he respires violently, or when about to attack or 
 defend himself, the proboscis becomes lengthened in the 
 form of a tube to the length of about a foot ; and then not 
 only is the countenance changed, but the character of the 
 voice is modified in a not less striking manner. Though 
 furnished with large and powerful tusks, the sea-elephant is 
 mild and inoffensive in his habits ,• but when assailed is a 
 formidable adversary. It has been related that a sailor 
 having killed a young one, and skinned it in the presence of 
 its mother, she came up behind him, and seizing his head in 
 her mouth, so injured his skull, that he died in a day or two 
 afterwards. This is not, however, their usual habit, as has 
 
SEA LIONS. 141 
 
 been stated. A young one, petted by an English seaman, 
 became so attached to liis master from kind treatment for a 
 few months, that it would come at his call, allow him to 
 mount upon its back, and put his hands into its mouth. 
 
 The cry of the female and the young is said to be like 
 the lowing of an ox ; but the hoarse, gurgling, singular voice 
 of the male — strengthened by the proboscis — is heard from 
 a great distance, and is wild and frightful. They are found 
 in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans. The great object for 
 which this animal is hunted is for the oil, which is remark- 
 ably pure in quality ; the skin is used extensively for car- 
 riage and horse harness, on account of its thickness and 
 strength. 
 
 The Sea Leopard is a rare species of seal, in length about 
 nine feet ten inches, which has been found in South Shet- 
 land. The 3Ionk Seal frequents the southern shores of 
 Europe. 
 
 The Otaries are a species of seal thus named because 
 their heads are furnished with external ears, of which the 
 others are deprived, and from whom they also differ in other 
 particulars. These include the Sea-Lion of the Northern 
 seas, about fifteen feet in length, and found chiefly on 
 rocky coasts and islet rocks, on the ledges of which it 
 climbs, and its roaring is sometimes useful as warning sailors 
 of danger. The old males have a fierce aspect, but it is 
 only when driven to extremities that they fight furiously. 
 The Sea-Bear, or Ursine Seal, is an inhabitant of the North- 
 ern Pacific, and attains a length of about eight feet. The 
 hinder limbs of this animal being better developed, it can 
 stand and walk almost like a land quadruped. It swims 
 with great swiftness, and is fierce and courageous. The 
 skin is much prized for clothing in the regions where it 
 abounds. 
 
POTWAL. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 WHALES— THE MONABCHS OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 'F all the industrial pursuits which engage the 
 venturous seaman on the wide ocean, those 
 connected with the capture of the Whale, — 
 
 " the mightiest that swims the ocean stream," 
 
 and, it may be said, in point of dimensions 
 the monarch also of creation, — are the most exciting and 
 perilous ; requiring the greatest endurance, hardihood and 
 courage, and at the same time yielding, under favorable cir- 
 cumstances, a substantial return for the dangers encountered. 
 
 Before relating some of the exciting adventures which 
 occur in the pursuit and capture of the unfortunate whales, 
 a few particulars will be given about the animals them- 
 selves. 
 
 There are many peculiarities to be observed in these huge 
 monarchs of the ocean. They comprise a class of animated 
 
PECULIARITIES CONNECTED WITH THE WHALE. 143 
 
 creatures distinct from botli fishes and land animals, though 
 partaking ot" the characters of both. They are chissed in the 
 order of warm-blooded Mammalia, that is to say, they breathe 
 as the land Mammalia, and yet are as completely aquatic as 
 true fish, which are cold-blooded. Fish never breathe, and 
 if removed from the wa'ter into the air, they immediately die ; 
 but whales, if deprived of air, and confined under the water, 
 would be literally drowned. They usually come to the sur- 
 face to breathe at intervals of eight or ten minutes, but they 
 are capable of remaining under water nearly an hour. The 
 whale has no gills, but a heart with two ventricles or cells, 
 and very elastic lungs in a great bony chest, into which the 
 air is freely admitted, not through the mouth; for, although 
 the animal is of such prodigious dimensions (some species at- 
 taining upwards of one hundred feet iu length, and a weight 
 of nearly as many tons), yet the throat is so small that it 
 could not dispose of a morsel which is swallowed by an ox. 
 Through what are popularly called "blowers" or spiracles, 
 huge nostrils which open on the summit of the head, from 
 eight to twelve inches long, but of small breadth, the whale 
 can send a column of moist vapor forty to fifty feet high ; 
 and when this breathing or blowing is performed under the 
 surface of the ocean, a vast quantity of water is also thrown 
 into the air, and the noise made in this operation can, it is 
 said, be heard at the distance of between two and three 
 miles. 
 
 Another peculiarity about these wonderful creatures — 
 which belong to the class Cetacea, and which comprises not 
 only all the varieties of the whale tribe, but likewise the 
 grampus, the porpoise, the dolphin, the dugong, amd some 
 others of comparatively very small size — is the tail, which is 
 not vertical as in most fishes, but level, by which they are 
 able to reach the surface of the water with greater facility 
 for the purposes of respiration ; and such is the strength of 
 this tail that even the largest whales are able, with its as- 
 
144 WONDERFUL POWER IN THE TAIL. 
 
 sistance, to force themselves entirely out of the water ; in 
 the large whales the surface of the tail comprises from eighty 
 to one hundred square feet. In length it is only from five 
 to six feet, but in width it measures from eighteen to twenty- 
 six feet. 
 
 Providence has given this immense power to serve as a de- 
 fense, as well as a means of propulsion, to the huge ani- 
 mal, for the tail is nearly the sole instrument of its protec- 
 tion. With one stroke of it the whale will send a large boat 
 with its crew into the air, and shatter the wood into a thou- 
 sand pieces. The tail enables the animal to rise in the water 
 by striking a few slight blows with it downwards, when the 
 head is naturally carried in an opposite direction, and when 
 the whale wishes to sink, a few similar strokes with the tail 
 upwards at once serve to bury the head beneath the surface. 
 
 Sometimes the animal takes a perpendicular position in 
 the water, with the head downwards, and, rearing the tail on 
 high, beats the waves with fearful violence. On these occa- 
 sions the sea foams for a wide space around, and the lashing 
 is heard at a great distance, like the roar of a tempest. This 
 performance is called by the sailors " lob-tailing." 
 
 The head is of enormous size, being about one-third of the 
 entire bulk of the whale, and the lips, nearly twenty feet 
 long in some species, show a cavity large enough to hold a 
 ship's jolly-boat and crew; but, as I observed before, the 
 throat is very narrow. It is stated to be no more than an 
 inch and a half in diameter even in a large whale, so that only 
 very small animals can pass through it. The basis of the 
 head consists of the crown-bone from each side of which de- 
 scend the immense jaw-bones, from sixteen to twenty feet in 
 length, extending along the mouth in a curved line until 
 they meet and form a kind of crescent. 
 
 In the Arctic seas whales find an abundance of food in the 
 shape of animalculse, several species of marine worms, jelly- 
 fish, crabs, and especially shrimps, which abound in those 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE WHALE. 145 
 
 regions. John Parry relates that joints of meat hung by 
 his crew over the sides of the ship were in a few days picked 
 to the bone by shrimps. 
 
 Some species of whales are entirely destitute of teeth, but 
 Nature has provided them with an apparatus of whalebone, 
 for the purpose of straining out of the water the small ani- 
 mals which form their nourishment. There are several hun- 
 dreds of these plates on each side of the mouth, the whole 
 quantity in that of a large whale sometimes weighing nearly 
 two tons. 
 
 The tongue of the whale is a soft thick mass, not extend- 
 ing beyond the back of the mouth. It was formerl}^ consid- 
 ered a great delicacy of the table, and a right of royalty. 
 The sword-fish, an implacable enemy of the whale, has a sim- 
 ilar relish for the tongue, and, it is said, leaves the rest of 
 the carcass untouched. The skin of the whale is naked and 
 smooth, with the exception of a few bristles about the jaws, 
 and is covered with an oily fluid, which renders it very slip- 
 pery; beneath this is a thick layer, from eight to twenty 
 inches, of a fatty substance, called blubber, the most valuable 
 part of the animal, and which yields on boiling nearly its own 
 bulk of thick coarse glutinous oil. It is by this wrapper that 
 Providence enables the whale, a warm-blooded animal, to 
 defy the utmost extremity of cold, and to retain a sufficient 
 proportion of heat even under the icy Polar seas. It also 
 serves to make the specific gravity of the body much lighter 
 than it otherwise would be, so as to resist the pressure of the 
 water at the great depths to which the whale descends. Yet 
 it is this warm covering, so essential to the animal itself, 
 that has excited the cupidity and deadly pursuit of man, 
 causing him to brave the most appalling dangers, trusting to 
 the resources of art in the instruments of destruction Avhere 
 brute force alone could never prevail. 
 
 To give an idea of the quantity and the value of the oil 
 obtained from a Greenland whale of sixty feet in length, it 
 
146 ESQUIMAUX METHOD OF ATTACKING WHALES. 
 
 has been stated that the weight of the animal being seventy 
 tons would be nearly that of three hundred fat oxen. Of 
 this vast mass the oil of a rich whale comprises about thirty 
 tons, which renders it a valuable capture. 
 
 The whale has no external ear, but, when the skin is re- 
 moved, a small opening is perceived for the admission of 
 sound. This sense may seem imperfect, yet the animal, by 
 a quick perception of all movements made on the water, dis- 
 covers danger at a great distance. The eyes appear small 
 for such a huge animal, being about the size of those of an 
 ox; but the sense of seeing is very acute. Behind them are 
 the fins ; these are about nine feet long and four or five feet 
 broad, and are enclosed by very elastic membranes, also pro- 
 vided with bones, similar in form and number to those of the 
 human hand. 
 
 The -whale does not attain his full growth under twenty- 
 five years, and is said to reach a very great age. The flesh 
 is red, firm, and coarse, and is eaten raw by the Esquimaux, 
 who also drink the oil with much enjoyment. In the bleak 
 Polar regions, where the means for satisfying hunger are very 
 scanty, the capture of a whale by the natives is an occasion 
 for great rejoicing. 
 
 Captain McClure mentions the Esquimaux method of 
 attacking the whale : 
 
 "A woman's boat, is manned by ladies, having as har- 
 pooner a chosen man of the tribe, and a shoal of small fry in 
 the form of hayaks, or single men canoes, are in attendance. 
 The harpooner singles out a whale and drives his weapon 
 into its flesh. To the harpoon an inflated seal-skin is attached 
 by means of a walrus-hide thong. The wounded fish is then 
 incessantly harrassed by men in the kayaks with harpoons, a 
 number of which, when attached to the whale, baflSe its 
 efforts to escape, and wear out its strength, until, in the 
 course of a day, the whale dies from sheer exhaustion and 
 loss of blood. 
 
THE NORTHERN RORQUAL. 147 
 
 " The liarpooner, after a successful day's sport, is a very- 
 great personage, and is invariably decorated with the Esqui- 
 maux order of the blue ribbon, that is, he has a blue line 
 drawn down his face over the bridge of his nose." 
 
 The whale not only serves for food to the hardy Green- 
 landers, but is also valuable in many other ways: some mem- 
 branes of the stomach are used for the upper articles of 
 clothing : the bones are converted into harpoons and spears 
 for striking the seals or darting at sea-birds, and are also 
 employed in the erection of their tents, and some tribes use 
 them in the formation of their boats. 
 
 The preceding remarks have applied to the whale tribe 
 generally, but with a more direct allusion to the "Greenland" 
 or "right" whale, as it is called, from its producing the 
 greatest amount of oil. This animal inhabits the seas of the 
 Northern parts of the world, and abounds chiefly in the Arc- 
 tic regions. The ** Southern," or " Cape " whale is a distinct 
 species, the head being smaller in proportion than its North- 
 ern relative, and its color a uniform black. It attains the 
 length of from fifty to sixty feet. 
 
 The Northern Rorqual, which exists in great numbers in 
 the Northern seas, is the largest of the whale tribe, the 
 mightiest giant among giants, attaining the vast length of 
 from one hundred to one hundred and ten feet, with a bodily 
 circumference of from thirty to forty feet. The amazing 
 speed and activity of this immense animal renders it a dan- 
 gerous object to attack; besides the small quantity of oil it 
 affords does not repay the fisherman for his risk. This whale 
 has no teeth. When struck by a harpoon, it has been known 
 to run off two thousand eight hundred and eighty feet of 
 rope in a minute. An old Arctic navigator mentions an in- 
 stance of a "razor-back," as the great rorqual is called by 
 seamen, dragging a large boat with its crew amongst loose 
 ice, where they all perished. 
 
 The Smaller Rorqual, measuring from fifteen to twenty- 
 
148 CURIOUS PECULIARITIES OF SPERM WHALES, 
 
 five feet, frequents the rocky bays of Greenland, and is con- 
 sidered a tender morsel by the natives. There is also a 
 " Rorqual " of the Southern seas, an animal of great power 
 and a fast swimmer, very difficult to capture. The most 
 valuable whale in the Southern seas is the Cachalot or 
 Sperm whale, which supplies the spermaceti and amber- 
 gris of commerce. This immense animal, which grows to 
 the length of seventy to eighty feet, is found in almost every 
 part of the warm latitudes. It has some curious peculiar- 
 ities : the head has in front a very thick, blunt extremity 
 called the snout or nose, and constitutes one-third of the 
 whole length of the animal ; at its junction with the body, 
 the animal has what the whalers call a " bunch of the neck," 
 a large protuberance on the back, immediately behind which 
 is the thickest part of the body, which from this part grad- 
 ually tapers off to the tail ; and where this commences there 
 is another large prominence called the " hump " after which 
 the body contracts so much as to become finally not thicker 
 than the body of a man. An immense cavity in the head 
 contains cells filled with oil, which is fluid when the animal 
 is alive, and after its death takes a concrete form known as 
 spermaceti. The size of this cavity may be judged from 
 what is said, that in a large whale it sometimes contains a 
 ton, or more than ten barrels of spermaceti. The food of 
 this huge monster consists principally of a species of poly- 
 pus called "squid "by the sailors, and it is supposed that 
 they are attracted by the shining white of the inner part of 
 the whale's mouth. The sperm whale is generally seen in 
 herds, or " schools" as they are called, consisting of several 
 hundreds. With each herd of females, large males or 
 " schoolmasters " are always associated, who are extremely 
 jealous of intruders, and fight fiercely to maintain their 
 rights. The large whale is generally incautious, and if 
 alone is attacked without much difficulty, and is easily 
 killed, as he frequently after receiving the first plunge of the 
 
TUE WHITE WHALE. 149 
 
 harpoon appears hardly to feel it, but continues lying like 
 a li)j^ of wood before he attempts to escape. Large whales, 
 however, are sometimes very cunning and courageous, and 
 commit fearful havoc with their tails and jaws. When 
 alarmed they are said to perform many unusual actions; one 
 of these consists in moving the tail slowly from side to side 
 on the surface of the w ater, as if feeling for any object that 
 may be near. It also rolls over and over on the surface, 
 especially when harpooned, and in this v/ay will coil an 
 amazing length of line around it. One of its most surprising 
 feats is leaping out of the water. Darwin remarks that off 
 Terra del Fuego he saw several spermaceti whales perform- 
 ing this stupendous leap, and as they fell into the water side- 
 ways the sound reverberated like distant thunder. 
 
 The White Whale is described as a very beautiful animal, 
 frequenting chiefly the Arctic seas, varying in length from 
 ten to twenty feet. It is usually of a cream color, though 
 some have been seen of a yellowish color, approaching to 
 orange. In the dreary monotony of the icy regions, a lively 
 herd of these animals, by their gambols and the exhibition 
 of their smooth, slippery white bodies, affords a pleasing 
 relief. The shape of this whale is highly symmetrical, re- 
 sembling a double cone, one end of which is considerably 
 shorter than the other ; the tail is very powerful, and being 
 bent under the body in swimming, is worked with such force 
 as to impel the animal forward with the velocity of an ar- 
 row. The food of this whale is said to be cod, haddock, 
 flounders and smaller fish of this description. They are not 
 at all shy, but often follow ships and tumble about amidst 
 the boats in herds of thirty and forty. Fortunately for 
 them, this fearlessness of danger does not often expose them 
 to the deadly harpoon, their comparative little value being 
 their preservative from the whale-fishers. They do not, how- 
 ever, experience the same immunity from the natives of the 
 Greenland coast, where they arrive in great numbers at the 
 
150 GREAT CAPTURE OF WHALES. 
 
 close of the year in stormy weather. They are then chiefly 
 captured by nets, which are extended across the narrow 
 sounds between the islands, and when thus entangled they 
 are killed with lances. 
 
 Another whale, called the Deductor, resembles somewhat 
 the white whale, and appears to be the most sociable of all 
 the Cetacean tribe, herding together in innumerable flocks. 
 This leads, however, to a prodigious slaughter of these poor 
 animals when (although frequenting chiefly the Northern 
 Ocean), they wander away from their usual haunts, and get 
 driven on shore by the fishermen, the main body of the 
 drove following the leading whales as a flock of sheep. 
 
 There is an account given of the capture of ninety-eight 
 of these whales, in 1832, on the island of Lewis : 
 
 " An immense shoal of whales was, early in the morning, 
 chased to the mouth of the harbor of Stornoway by two 
 fishing-boats, which had met them in the ofSng. The cir- 
 cumstance was immediately seen from the shore, and a host 
 of boats, about thirty or forty in number, set ofi" to join the 
 others in pursuit, and engage in combat with these giants of 
 the deep. The chase soon became one of bustle and anxiety 
 on the part both of man and xvhale. The boats were ar- 
 ranged by their crews in the form of a crescent, in the fold 
 of which the whales were collected, and where they had to 
 encounter tremendous showers of stones, splashings of oars, 
 frequent gashings with harpoons and spears, whilst the din 
 cieated by the shoutings of the boats' crews and the multi- 
 tude on shore was in itself sufficient to stupefy and stun the 
 bottle-nosed foe into a surrender. On more than one occa- 
 sion, however, the floating phalanx was broken, and it re- 
 quired the greatest activity and tact before the breach could 
 be repaired and the fugitives regained. The shore was 
 neared by degrees, the boats advancing and retreating by 
 turns, till at length they succeeded in driving the captive 
 monsters on the beach opposite the town and within a few 
 
FIGHT BETWEEN A WHALE AND A GRAMPUS. 151 
 
 jards of it. The movements of the whales were now vio- 
 lent, but, except when one became unmanageable and en- 
 raged when harpooned, or his tail fixed in a noose, they were 
 not dangerous to approach. One young sailor, however, re- 
 ceived a stroke from the tail of one of the largest of them, 
 which promised to be fatal. In a few hours the whales were 
 captured, the shore was strewed with the dead carcasses, 
 while the sea presented a troubled and bloody appearance, 
 giving evident proof that it was with no small effort that 
 they were subdued and made the property of man." 
 
 The deductor whale has a very prominent head, short 
 and round, with something like a pad over its mouth, which 
 gives it a peculiar appearance. In length it is from sixteen 
 to twenty-four feet, and in circumference ten or eleven feet. 
 Almost the whole body is black, smooth, and shining like 
 oiled silk. When the mouth is shut, the teeth lock into 
 each other like those of a rat-trap. They are generally very 
 fat, and yield a large quantity of good pale oil. 
 
 It is impossible not to feel an emotion of pity for the 
 whale — timid and inoffensive, with all its immense power for 
 mischief, apparently unconscious of it until roused by dan- 
 ger — subjected to such cruel treatment by the cupidity of 
 man: the deadly harpoons inflict tremendous wounds, and 
 the blood, rushing in torrents from its sides, crimsons the 
 sea for a wide space around. 
 
 The whale has, however, other enemies to contend wath 
 besides man. Commodore Wilkes gives an animated ac- 
 count of a sea-fight between a whale and a grampus, or 
 " killer," as this fish is called. 
 
 "At a distance from the ship a whale was seen floundering 
 in a most extraordinary manner, lashing the smooth sea into 
 a perfect foam, and endeavoring apparently to extricate 
 himself from some annoyance. As he approached the ship, 
 the struggle continuing and becoming more violent, it was 
 perceived that a fish, apparently about twenty feet long, 
 
152 OTHER ENEMIES OF THE WHALE. 
 
 held him by the jaw, his contortions,, spouting, and throes 
 all betokening the agony of the huge monster. The whale 
 now threw himself at full length from the water, with open 
 mouth, his pursuer still hanging to the jaw, the blood is&n 
 ing from the wound and dyeing the sea to a distance around ; 
 but all his flounderings were of no avail, his pertinacious 
 enemy still maintaining his hold and evidently getting the 
 advantage of him. Much alarm seemed to bo felt by the 
 other whales around. These ' killers,' as they are called, are 
 of a brownish color on the back, and white on the belly, with 
 a white dorsal fin. They attack a whale in the same man- 
 ner as dogs bait a bull, and worry him to death. They are 
 armed with strong sharp teeth, and generally seize the whale 
 by the lower jaw. It is said that the only part of the huge 
 monster that they eat is the tongue. The whalers give 
 marvelous accounts of the immense strength of these " kill- 
 ers." They have been known to drag a whale from several 
 boats which were towing it to the ship." 
 
 The saw-fish is also a most formidable assailant of the 
 whale. The upper jaw of this fish is prolonged into a pro- 
 jecting flattened snout, the greatest length of which is six 
 feet, forming a saw, armed at each edge with about twenty 
 large bony spines or teeth. An account is given here of a 
 combat that occurred on the west coast of Scotland, between 
 a whale and some saw-fishes, aided by an auxiliary force of 
 " thrashers " (fox sharks). The sea was dyed in blood from 
 the stabs inflicted by the saw-fishes under the water, while 
 the thrashers, watching their opportunity, struck at the un- 
 wieldy monster as often as it rose to breathe. 
 
 The sword-fish is also said to attack the whale, furnished, 
 also, with a powerful weapon for defensive or aggressive 
 war, in the shape of a bony snout about four or five feet long, 
 not serrated like the saw-fish, but of a much stronger con- 
 sistency — in fact, the hardest material known. 
 
 Beset by powerful enemies, the whale must have a 
 
ATTACUMENT OF WHALES TO Til FAR YOUNG. 153 
 
 troublous existence ; and if one thing can enlist our sympa- 
 thies lor these animals more than another, it is the well- 
 known attachment they have to each other, and particularly 
 for their young. It is said that when a female whale is 
 wounded, her companions will remain around her until the 
 last moment, or when they are themselves wounded. The 
 whalers strike the young cubs, or *' suckers," as they are 
 called, not for their value, for these would hardly produce a 
 barrel of oil, but the men know that the mother will start 
 forth in their defence. She joins her cub at the surface 
 whenever it has occasion to rise for respiration, encourages 
 it to swim off, and seldom deserts it while life remains. She is 
 then dangerous to approach, but affords frequent opportuni- 
 ties of attack. She loses all regard for her own safety in 
 anxiety for the preservation of her young, dashes through 
 the midst of her enemies, and even voluntarily remains with 
 her offspring after various attacks on herself. 
 
 "In 1811," says Scoresby, "one of my harpooners struck a 
 sucker with the hope of leading to the capture of the mother. 
 Presently she arose close to the ' fast boat,' and, seizing the 
 young one, dragged about six hundred feet of line out of the 
 boat, with remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to 
 the surface — darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped 
 short, or suddenly changed her direction, and gave every 
 possible intimation of extreme agony. For a length of time 
 she continued thus to act, though pursued closely by the 
 boats, and, inspired with courage and resolution by her con- 
 cern for her young, seemed regardless of the dangers around 
 her. At length one of the boats approached so near that a 
 harpoon was hove at her : it hit, but did not attach itself. A 
 second harpoon was struck, but this also failed to penetrate ; 
 so that, in a few minutes, three more harpoons were fastened, 
 and in the course of an hour afterwards she was killed." 
 
~- ^^'T' 
 
 '3^o\ 
 
 =_ "--^i^'.^Sr^^, ' ' 
 
 GREENLAND WHALE. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE WHALE FI8REBT AND ITS PERILS. 
 
 HE preparation for a cruise among the whales 
 is very exciting ; not so much as it used to 
 be, because the supply of oil from other 
 sources, the general use of gas, and other 
 circumstances, have diminished the neces- 
 sity which formerly prevailed for a means 
 of illumination. Still there is a considerable demand for the 
 valuable products of the whale — the oil, the whalebone, the 
 spermaceti, and the ambergris, which constitute essential 
 articles of commerce. 
 
 The Arctic regions have for several centuries been the 
 chief haunts of the whale fishery. There has been, how- 
 ever, of late years a great decrease in the number of whales, 
 and the fishery as a speculation has become more preca- 
 rious. 
 
 Within a period of twenty years, no less than twenty 
 
ATTACK ON THE WHALE. 155 
 
 whale-ships were Avrecked or crushed by the ice, and the 
 sutlerings of the crews were fearful. 
 
 The ships employed in the Northern fishery are con- 
 structed expressly for that object, and strengthened so as 
 to encounter exposure in the ice regions. They are gener- 
 ally of from three to four hundred tons, each having a crew 
 of about fifty men — experienced, hardy sailors — accustomed 
 to the dangers of these particular expeditions. Six or seven 
 light swift boats are requisite for each vessel; and another 
 requirement is what is called a " crow's-nest," a kind of 
 watch-tower, placed on the main-topmast to shelter the man 
 on duty, whose ofiice it is to keep a steady look-out with a 
 telescope, for the spout of a whale in the distance, or the 
 approach of drifting ice. 
 
 On reaching the Polar seas, the real hard work com- 
 mences, the men being on watch night and day, and the 
 boats kept ready for instant use whenever a whale is seen. 
 On receiving an indication to that eff"ect from the man in the 
 "crow's-nest," a boat is launched, having a harpooner, a man 
 to steer, one to look after the ropes, together with three or 
 four rowers, and provided Avith an immense quantity of rope 
 ready for use. The boat is steered rapidly and silently 
 towards the whale, and on arriving within a few yards of it, 
 the harpooner hurls his w^eapon so that it may enter under 
 one of the monster's fins — a vulnerable part. The harpoon, 
 in its most simple form, is a spear of about five feet in 
 length, with a much flattened point, having sharp cutting 
 edges, and two large flattened barbs. These are attached 
 to a long line at the opposite end of the barbed joint. The 
 gun-harpoon is a short bar of iron with the barbed spear at 
 the end, and a ring with a chain for the attachment of the 
 line. This is fired from a small swivel cannon attached to 
 the whaler's boat ; but the difficulty in whale fishing is to 
 secure the capture of the animal, who sinks to a great depth 
 on being struck, alternately rising to breathe, and sinking, 
 
156 THE FINAL CAPTURE. 
 
 so that the only chance of success is ,to tire it out. This is 
 a critical moment for the crew in the boat, who are exposed 
 to the most violent blows of the whale's head or fins, and 
 still more of the tail, the tremendous power of which has 
 been mentioned. The moment that the wounded whale dis- 
 appears, a flag is displayed in the boat, at sight of which 
 those who are on watch in the ship give the alarm by stamp- 
 ing on the deck, and those of the crew who are sleeping be- 
 low, hastily throwing on a few clothes, launch the boats, 
 and proceed to the assistance of their companions. 
 
 The greatest care is necessary by the boatman who has 
 charge of the rope, in letting out and guiding the line to 
 which the harpoon is attached. Should it be entangled for 
 a moment, the whale would draw the boat beneath the 
 waves. The time a wounded whale remains under water is 
 generally half an hour, but some stay much longer. The 
 boats take up a position near which it is likely to rise, when 
 each harpooner strikes his weapon into the animal, and long 
 and sharp lances are thrust into its side, until, exhausted 
 with the loss of blood, the whale gives signs of approaching 
 death by discharging blood from the blow-holes or nostrils, 
 sometimes drenching the ice, boats, and men with it. As 
 the huge animal plunges along in agony, its course is 
 marked by a broad line of oil on the sea, issuing from its 
 wounds. 
 
 The final capture is generally preceded by an awful and 
 convulsive struggle ; the tail lashes the water with fury, and 
 the circles formed on the surface of the violently agitated 
 waves extend to a great distance. When dying, the whale 
 turns over on its side or back, a circumstance announced 
 from the boats by loud cries and striking the flags. No 
 time is lost : the tail is pierced and fastened with ropes to 
 the boats, which drag the carcass to the ships with bois- 
 terous cheers. 
 
 A curious instance is related of a Dutch whaling crew. 
 
ANECDOTE OF A DUTCH WHALING CREW. 157 
 
 who had, as they thought, secured their capture to the side 
 of the ship, after towing- it in triumph from the scene of con- 
 flict, missing their prize. The crew were giving vent to 
 their dehght, and the security seemed complete, for they 
 were sailing a long distance from the ice-banks. They Avere 
 having a good dinner to strengthen themselves before pro- 
 ceeding to the nauseous task of cutting up the animal. The 
 feast was prolonged, but at length the men selected for the 
 operation went on deck, with an air of importance, and full 
 confidence. "What was their astonishment to find that the 
 whale was no longer alongside! It seems that the ship, 
 driven before the wind, had dragged at the animal, the cord 
 had broken, and the rich prize, which had caused so much 
 peril and fatigue, had sunk to the bottom of the sea! 
 
 A dead whale, if left in the water, soon putrifies : it swells 
 to an enormous size, until at least a third of the carcass ap- 
 pears above the surface of the water, and sometimes the 
 body bursts by the force of the air generated within. 
 
 After the whale has been secured to the ship's side, "the 
 next operation is what is called " flensing," or securing the 
 blubber and whalebone, which occupies about four hours, 
 and is, as may be well imagined, anything but an agreeable 
 occupation. The harpooners, having spikes on their feet to 
 prevent their falling from the slippery surface, begin with 
 a kind of spade and huge knives to make long parallel cuts 
 from end to end, which are divided by cross-cuts into pieces 
 of about half a ton. These are hoisted on deck, and after 
 being reduced into smaller pieces, are put into casks and 
 stowed away in the hold. When the flensing is proceeding 
 and reaches the lips, which contain much oil, the Avhalebone 
 is exposed and detached by means of bone handspikes and 
 bone knives, and is hoisted upon deck in one mass, where it 
 is split and stowed away. The two jaw-bones, for the quan- 
 tity of oil they contain, are taken on deck, after which the 
 
158 WHALE FISHER Y IN THE SO UTHERN SEAS. 
 
 huge carcass is abandoned to the birds and sharks, which 
 are always waiting for their share, and speedily devour it. 
 
 In the early period of the Northern whale fishery, the 
 animals being numerous and easy of capture, settlements 
 were formed on the ice-coasts for boiling the blubber and 
 extracting the oil, which was sent home in casks ; but when 
 the whales diminished, and the fishermen were obliged to 
 seek them in the open sea, the capture became more diffi- 
 cult and dangerous, the settlements were abandoned, and 
 the blubber was, for economy's sake, sent home to be boiled. 
 In the different parts to which whale-ships are bound, there 
 are establishments for extracting the oil; those at Hull are 
 on the outskirts of the town. The blubber when conveyed 
 to the boiling house is emptied from the casks into large 
 vats, where it undergoes certain processes for extracting 
 the oil. 
 
 The whale fishery in the Southern seas does not present 
 the same amount of dangers which beset the Avhalers of the 
 ice-regions, and differs in some particulars, being specially 
 for the capture of the sperm whale. 
 
 It was well remarked by an old whaling captain that " if 
 the Almighty had gifted the whale with a knowledge of his 
 strength, few indeed would be caught." It is truly so, and 
 there are occasions when the whale, inoffensive in its general 
 habits, displays an amount of power and hostility which 
 forms one of the grandest and most exciting spectacles that 
 could be witnessed. In fact, the dangers which the whalers 
 incur in their hazardous occupation, are most imminent. 
 
 As an instance of the spirit of mischief which sometimes 
 animates the ocean monarch, I will relate what happened to 
 the whale-ship, the Essex, Captain Pollard, in the Pacific 
 Ocean. A number of sperm whales being signalled by the 
 look-out, three boats were manned and sent in pursuit. The 
 mate's boat was struck by one of them, and he was obliged 
 to return to the ship to repair the damage. While he was 
 
THE " ESSEX" ATTACKED BY A WHALE. 159 
 
 thus engaged, a sperm ^vhale, thought to be about eighty- 
 five feet long, broke water about twenty yards from the ship 
 on tlie weather-bow. He was going at the rate of about 
 three knots an hour, and the ship at nearly the same rate, 
 when he struck the bows of the vessel just forward of her 
 chains. At the shock produced by the collision of two such 
 mighty masses of matter in motion, the ship shook like a leaf. 
 The whale passed under the ship, grazing her keel, and then 
 appeared at about the distance of a ship's length, lashing the 
 sea with fins and tail, as if suffering intense agony. He was 
 evidently hurt by the collision, and greatly enraged. In a 
 few minutes he seemed to recover himself, and started with 
 great speed directly across the vessel's course to windward. 
 Meanwhile the hands on board discovered the ship to be 
 gradually settling down at the bows, and the pumps were in- 
 stantly rigged. While working at them, one of the men 
 cried out "God have mercy! he comes again!" 
 
 The whale had turned about one hundred yards from the 
 ship, and was making for her with double his former speed, 
 his pathway wdiite with foam. Rushing head on, he struck 
 her again at the bow, and the tremendous blow stove her in. 
 The whale dived under again and disappeared, and the ship 
 went down in ten minutes from the first collision. 
 
 The crew took to their boats as the vessel was sinking, 
 and after fearful hardships and sufferings, the survivors of 
 this catastrophe reached the low island called Ducies. It was 
 a mere sandbank, nearly barren, and they could only obtain 
 water and some wild-fowl. On this uninhabited island, 
 dreary as it was, three of the men chose to remain, rather 
 than experience again the uncertainties of the sea. The 
 poor fellows were never afterwards heard of. The three 
 boats, with the remainder of the crew, put off for the island 
 of Juan Fernandez, two thousand miles distant. The mate's 
 boat was taken up by the Indian, of London, ninety-three 
 days from the time of the catastrophe, with only three sur- 
 
160 SI]!fG ULAR ANECDOTE OE A D JJTOH SEAMAN. 
 
 vivors. The captain's boat was fallen in with by the Dau- 
 phin^ but with only two men living. Thus, out of a crew of 
 twenty, only five remained to tell the story of the whale's 
 victory. 
 
 If the huge monster, in the exercise of his enormous 
 strength, can shatter a large sailing vessel in such a way 
 as to cause its destruction, you may readily imagine what 
 perils are encountered by the hardy crews of the whaling- 
 boats. A singular story is related of a Dutch harpooner, 
 James Vienkes. A wounded whale had disappeared by 
 diving, and the seamen were preparing to deal it a second 
 stab, when the animal, on returning to the surface, struck 
 its head against the boat and dashed it to atoms. Vienkes 
 was hurled into the air, and fell on the monster's back, but 
 contrived to bury his harpoon, which he had not let go, into 
 it, and by means of this and the line he still held in his hand, 
 he secured himself from slipping off. He called the other 
 fishermen to his assistance, but their efforts to approach 
 the whale were in vain. The captain of the ship, seeing no 
 other way of saving his life, called out to him to cut the 
 rope ; but the harpooner was unable to do this, as his knife 
 was in his trousers pocket, and he could not let go his hold 
 for an instant. The whale was meanwhile advancing along 
 the surface of the water at a swift rate, and it was fortunate 
 for its rider that it did not dive. The sailors were begin- 
 ning to despair of their comrade's life, when the harpoon by 
 which he was supporting himself came out of the animal's 
 body. He profited by the circumstance to cast himself into 
 the sea, and struggling against the waves, regained the 
 boats which had been unable to succor him. He was picked 
 up at the moment his strength was exhausted, and his com- 
 panions, furious at the disaster, pursued the whale, and 
 killed it. 
 
 A writer relates : *' Being myself in the first boat which 
 approached a whale, I struck my harpoon at arm's length, 
 
NAIillOW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW. 161 
 
 by which we fortunately evaded a blow which appeared to 
 be aimed at the boat. Another boat then advanced, and an- 
 other harpoon was struck, but not with the same result, for 
 the stroke was immediately returned by a tremendous blow 
 from the fish's tail. The boat was sunk by the shock, and 
 at the same time Avhirled round with such velocity that the 
 boat-steerer was precipitated into the water on the side next 
 to the fish, and carried down to a considerable depth by its 
 tail. After a minute or so he arose to the surface, and was 
 taken up along with his companions into another boat." 
 
 " In one of my earliest voyages," observes the same 
 writer, "I remarked a circumstance which excited my high- 
 est astonishment. One of the harpooners struck a whale : it 
 dived, and all the assisting boats had collected round the 
 fast boat before it rose to the surface. The first boat that 
 approached it advanced incautiously. It rose with unex- 
 pected violence beneath the boat, and projected it and all 
 the crew to the height of some yards into the air. It fell on 
 its side, and cast all the men into the water ; one was some- 
 what injured, but the rest escaped." 
 
 In the year 1804, the ship Adonis, being in company with 
 several others, struck a large whale off the coast of New 
 Zealand, which became furious, and destroyed nine boats 
 belonging to the different vessels, and then escaped. It was 
 captured afterwards, however. Many harpoons of various 
 vessels were found in its body. 
 
 This whale was extensively known to the fishermen un- 
 der the name of" New Zealand Tom." 
 
 Sometimes the rope to which the harpoon is attached 
 gets carried oiF, at a prodigious rate, by a whale in its efforts 
 to escape, and the boat is carried far out to sea, and exposed 
 to fearful perils. The annals of the whale fishery have 
 many thrilling stories of wonderful escapes in such instances. 
 A very remarkable instance occurred in connection with the 
 ship Independence, Captain Belair. While cruising in thr 
 
162 NARROW ESCAPE OF A WHALING CREW. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, a whale was seen, and two boats were sent to 
 capture it. The harpoon was fixed, and the boats were 
 soon out of sight of the ship. An liour or two passed away, 
 when suddenly another whale rose in the water, only a few 
 yards from the vessel. The temptation to effect its capture 
 was too strong for the captain, who ordered the remaining 
 boat to be lowered, and, leaving but one man and two boys 
 to take care of the ship, sprang into the boat with the rest 
 of the crew. The harpoon was plunged into this whale also, 
 and they were carried with the speed of the wind about 
 fifteen miles from the ship. Then the whale plunged per- 
 pendicularly into the depths of the ocean. It was not long 
 before they saw him, fathoms deep in the crystal waters, 
 rushing up with open jaws to destroy the boat. By skilfully 
 evading the attack, they escaped twice; but the third time, 
 as the monster rose, he struck the boat in the centre of the 
 keel, scattering the fragments and the crew over the waves, 
 and then, plunging into the deep, disappeared. The captain 
 and the men were now in the water, clinging to the pieces 
 of the demolished boat. They were many miles from the 
 ship, and could not be seen from the deck. The other boats 
 were gone they knew not where. The hours passed slowly 
 away, as they were drifting along at the mercy of the waves, 
 until six o'clock in the evening. 
 
 The sun had now disappeared behind the distant waves, 
 and a dreary night was settling down over the ocean. Just 
 then they saw in the distance one of the absent boats re- 
 turning to the ship. It was, however, far off, apparently 
 beyond the reach of their loudest cries, and their hopes 
 again fell. The boat at length drew nearer, and they re- 
 doubled their shouts ; and at length they were heard, taken 
 from the water, and carried almost lifeless to the ship. 
 
 The utmost care is requisite in " paying out'' the rope 
 when the whale is harpooned, so that no impediment occurs. 
 The safet}'- of the boat's crew depends upon the watchful- 
 
FATAL ACCIDENT TO A EARPOONER. 163 
 
 ness of the man entrusted with this important duty. Scores- 
 by, one of the most distinguished whalers that has ever 
 been known on these perilous enterprises, records an in- 
 stance which had a fatal consequence : 
 
 " As soon as the boats came within hailing distance (sent 
 in pursuit of the whales), my anxiety induced me to call out 
 and inquire what had happened. 'We have lost Carr!' 
 This awful intelligence, for which we were altogether unpre- 
 pared, shocked me exceedingly, and it was some time before I 
 was able to inquire into the particulars of the accident 
 which had deprived us of one of our shipmates. As far as 
 could be collected from the confused accounts of the crew of 
 the boat of which he went out in charge, the circumstances 
 were as follow: The two boats that had long been absent on 
 the outset, separated from their companions, and, allured by 
 the chase of a whale and the fineness of the weather, they pro- 
 ceeded until they were far out of sight of the ship. The whale 
 they pursued led them into a vast shoal of the species. They 
 were, indeed, so numerous that their ' blowing' was inces- 
 sant, and there could not have been less than one hundred. 
 Fearful of alarming tliem without striking any, the crews in 
 the boats remained for some time motionless, watching a 
 favorable opportunity for commencing the attack. A whale 
 at length arose so near the boat of which William Carr was 
 harpooner, that he ventured to pull towards it, though it 
 was meeting him, and afforded but an indifferent chance of 
 success. He, however, fatally for himself, succeeded in har- 
 pooning it: the boat and fish, passing each other with great 
 rapidity after the stroke, the line was jerked out of its place, 
 and instead of ' running over' the stern, was thrown over 
 the gunwale. Its pressure in this unfavorable position so 
 careened the boat that the side sank below the water, and it 
 began to fill. In this emergency the harpooner, who was a 
 fine active fellow, seized the bight of the line, and attempted 
 to relieve the boat by restoring it to its place ; but, by some 
 
164 DANOERS TO WHALERS FROM THE IGE. 
 
 singular circmnstance which could not be accounted for, a 
 turn of the line flew over his arm, in an instant dragged him 
 overboard, and plunged him under water to rise no more! 
 So sudden was the accident, that only one man, who had his 
 eye on him at the time, was aware of what had happened ; 
 so that Avhen the boat righted — which it immediately did — 
 though half full of water, they all at once, on looking round 
 at the exclamation of the man who had seen him launched 
 overboard, inquired, ' What has got Carr?' It is scarcely 
 possible to imagine a death more awfully sudden and unex- 
 pected." 
 
 Some boats of the whale-ship Aimwell being in pursuit of 
 these monarchs of the ocean, harpooned one. When struck, 
 the animal only dived for a moment, and then rose again be- 
 neath the boat, struck it in the most vicious manner with 
 its tail and fins, broke and upset it, and then disappeared. 
 The crew, seven in number, got on the bottom of the boat; 
 but the unequal action of the lines, which remained entan- 
 gled with the boat, rolled it over occasionally, and thus 
 plunged the men repeatedly beneath the Avater. Four of 
 them recovered themselves, and clung to the boat; but the 
 other three were drowned before assistance could arrive. 
 
 In the Arctic seas the whalers arc exposed to many dan- 
 gers from the ice. About the year 1856, Captain Deuchars, 
 a most experienced navigator, in command of a fine strong 
 vessel, the Princess Charlotte, lost it in Melville Bay. It 
 was a fine morning, and all on board were anticipating a 
 very successful voyage ; the steward had just reported 
 breakfast ready, when the captain, seeing the floes of ice 
 closing together ahead of the ship, remained on deck to see 
 her pass safely between them ; but they closed too quickly 
 — the vessel was almost through when the points of ice 
 caught her sides abreast of the mizzen-mast, and passing 
 through, held the wreck up for a few minutes, barely allow- 
 ing time enough for the crew to escape and save their boats. 
 
WONDERFUL ESCAPE OF THE TRAFALGAR. 165 
 
 Poor Captain Deuchars thus lost his breakfast and his ship 
 within ten minutes. 
 
 A wonderful case of delivei'ance from apparently certain 
 destruction among tlie ice is recorded of the Trafalgar^ an 
 Arctic Avhale-ship. The account is given by Mr. Gibson, 
 surgeon of the ship : 
 
 " Blowing a fresh gale, Avith rain, the floe to which the 
 vessel Avas made fast set down under the lee ice, so as to 
 render our situation perilous. Towards midnight we became 
 unexpectedly entangled among heavy pieces of ice and floes, 
 when the ship received some severe blows on her beams. 
 Finding it impossible to get out, we lay to, and in half an 
 hour the ship was close beset. Though I retired to bed 
 when the ship was enclosed, I expected every minute to be 
 called to quit it. Soon after, a large piece of ice pressing on 
 the vessel opposite my bed-cabin, broke two or three of the 
 timbers with a dismal noise. Thinking all was over, I sprang 
 out of bed and found to my great consternation that the 
 ship was under an enormous pressure from numerous large 
 masses of ice surrounding her on all sides, without an open- 
 ing of Avater sufficient for about two miles ; and no other 
 ship was in sight, although the Aveather Avas clear. Most of 
 the creAV Avere providing for shipAvreck, and many of the peo- 
 ple Avere supplicating Divine mercy for deliverance. Four 
 days' alloAvance Avere cooked Avith all speed, other provisions 
 Avere taken on deck, and everything of importance placed in 
 readiness to be throAvn on the ice. At noon, the man on the 
 mast-head saAv a ship, on Avhich Ave instantly made signals of 
 distress. At this time a dead silence prevailed throughout 
 the ship, the croAV looking on one another in aAvful suspense. 
 At one time the pressure Avas so strong that the panels of 
 the captain's state-room were forced out of their framing. 
 About half an hour after this the ship Avas suddenly throAvn 
 upon her larboard side, on Avhich all hands sprang upon 
 deck. I shall never forget the confusion of the poor men. 
 
166 APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS. 
 
 nor their wild looks when they gained the deck — for half of 
 them were below at the time of the shock, and from the 
 smallness of the hatch only one could get up at a time. Some 
 leaped upon the ship's side and were going upon the ice, 
 when the captain cried out to them to behave like men, and 
 to stick to the ship so long as she remained above the water. 
 We all stood on that part of the vessel nearest the ice, with 
 our bags of clothing on our shoulders. For about fifteen 
 minutes we had patiently waited our doom, when, by the in- 
 terposition of Divine Providence, the wind changed, the ice 
 began to set off from the ship, and in fifteen minutes more 
 she recovered her upright position. The water now rapidly 
 spread among the surrounding ice, and finally the vessel was 
 warped out and floated safely on the waves." 
 
 A feaful series of calamities befell a small squadron of six 
 very fine whaling vessels in 1830, during a storm in Baffin's 
 Bay. Masses of ice were driven upon them, by which they 
 were completely beset. The ships were ranged under the 
 shelter of a large floe, having water barely sufficient to float 
 them. Here they formed a line, one behind the other, stand- 
 ing close, stern to stem, and being at the same time so pressed 
 against the ice, that in some places a boat-hook could with 
 difficulty be inserted in the space. The sky darkened, the 
 gale increased, the floes began to overlap each other, and 
 closed upon the ships in an alarming manner. The sailors 
 then attempted to saw out a sort of dock, where they hoped 
 to be relieved from this severe pressure ; but soon a huge 
 flow was driven upon them with irresistible violence. The 
 Eliza Swan, of Montrose, received the first shock, and was 
 saved only by the ice raising her up. It next struck the 
 St. Andreiv, of Aberdeen, amidship, breaking about twenty 
 of her timbers, and staving a number of casks ; but it then, 
 fortunately, moved along her side, and went off by the stem. 
 It now reached successively the Baffin, of Leith ; the Achilles, 
 of Dundee; the Ville de Dieppe, a French ship; and the 
 
APPALLING CALAMITIES TO WHALING VESSELS. 167 
 
 Battler, of Leith, and dashed against them with such tre- 
 mendous fury, that these four noble vessels, which had 
 braved for years the tempests of the Polar seas, were in a 
 quarter of an hour shattered into fragments. The scene 
 was awful: the grinding noise of the ice, tearing open their 
 sides, and the masts breaking off and falling in every direc- 
 tion, were added to the cries of two hundred sailors, leaping 
 upon the frozen surface with only such portions of their 
 clothes as they could snatch in a single instant. The Rattler 
 is said to have become the most complete wreck ever known. 
 She was literally turned inside out, and her stem and stern 
 carried to the distance of a gun-shot from each other; and 
 the Achilles had her sides pressed together, and her stern 
 thrust out, and her decks and beams broken into innumerable 
 fragments. 
 
 Such are some of the perils which have been related by 
 the hardy travelers of the ocean Avhose years have been 
 spent in continued struggles, not only with the element, 
 
 ' ' Boundless, endless, and sublime. 
 The image of eternity, — " 
 
 but with the huge monarch of the waters, whose reign has 
 been disputed by a greater power in creation, who " sees all 
 things for his use." 
 
 " Thou little knowest 
 What lie can brave, who, born and nurst 
 In Danger's patbs, has dared her worst!" 
 
CHAPTER XII, 
 
 SHARES— THE PIRATES OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 IMAGINE a Shark seventy feet long, with a 
 tooth four inches and a half in the enamel, or 
 the part visible above the socket, jaws with 
 the bow about thirteen feet, and a mouth 
 capable of stretching more than twenty-six 
 feet around! This was one of the species of 
 fossil sharks, an antediluvian animal, which has been dis- 
 covered in the limestone rocks, the teeth and the vertebree 
 (small bones or joints composing the spine or back-bone) en- 
 abling the geologist to determine the species to which the 
 animal belongs. 
 
 A tooth, the size of that mentioned, was shown to the 
 distinguished French naturalist, Lac6p^de, and, in order to 
 discover the proportions of the animal to which it belonged, 
 he measured first the teeth, and next the stuffed specimens 
 of all the sharks preserved in the Museum of Natural His- 
 tory in Paris, and he found in every instance that the rela- 
 tive proportions they bore to each other was one to two 
 hundred, and he was thus enabled to ascertain the pro- 
 digious size and capacity of this formidable antediluvian 
 animal. 
 
 Although the sharks of our own time are not of the same 
 monstrous proportions, they are, from their immense strength 
 and voracity, the objects of dread to those who behold them 
 in their native element. 
 
 " The type of horror and remorseless hate, 
 Of villainy the worst." 
 
INDISCRIMINATE APPETITE OF THE 8IIARK. 169 
 
 The White Shark in particular, one of the largest of tlie 
 tribe, and frequently weighing as much as a thousand 
 pounds, sometimes measuring from twenty-five to thirty feet 
 in length, abounding in warm latitudes, and attacking every- 
 thing within his reach, deserves the title given to him of 
 " the pirate of the ocean." When we relate that a lady's 
 work-box has been found in the stomach of one of these 
 sharks, and the papers of a ship that had been thrown over- 
 board: that the baskets, shavings, cordage, ducks, hens, and 
 buffalo-hides, etc., which had been thrown into the sea one 
 morning from Captain Hall's ship, the Alceste, were found in 
 the body of a captured monster shortly afterwards ; that in 
 another was discovered a tin canister, which, on being opened, 
 Avas found to be nearly filled with old coins, you Avill have 
 some idea of his indiscriminate appetite. He will devour 
 even those of his own species. An anecdote is related of a 
 Laplander capturing a shark, and fastening it to his canoe ; 
 he soon missed it, however, without an idea of how it had 
 happened. A short time afterwards he took another shark 
 of much larger size, in which, when opened he found the 
 shark he had lost. An officer states tliat when some mid- 
 shipmen had caught a shark, they pulled him into their boat, 
 cut open his stomach, and then sent him back into the water. 
 His body was instantly attacked by the sharks nearest to 
 him, and was torn in pieces. The experiment was repeated 
 with the same result. 
 
 The tenacity of life in the shark family is something ex- 
 traordinary. The fish has been known to be active for 
 many hours in the sea after its head has been taken off. In- 
 stances have been known of a shark having taken a bait in 
 the depth of the sea, after its liver had been taken out for 
 the purpose of extracting oil, and also when the Avhole of 
 the entrails had been removed. 
 
 But a far worse character attaches itself to the shark, 
 which is, his preference for human flesh : of all other food, 
 
170 PREFERENCE FOR HUMAN FOOD. 
 
 it is this which he most prizes, and numbers of persons fall 
 victims to his voracity in the seas he frequents. It is ter- 
 rible to think of such a fate, for the huge monster is not 
 only capable of snapping off a limb in a moment, or biting a 
 person in two, but has been known to swallow a man alive. 
 It is also stated on good authority that a shark was taken off 
 the island of St. Margaret, which weighed fifteen hundred 
 pounds, and the stomach was found to contain the whole 
 body of a horse, which had probably been thrown over- 
 board from some ship. 
 
 The following horrible tragedy is related: "As the ship 
 Kai^nah was leaving the port of Nassau, a pilot fell overboard 
 from her boat, in which he was being towed. The ship was 
 stopped, and the boat instantly left for his rescue, while two 
 life-buoys were thrown from the ship. The boat got close 
 enough to give him the end of an oar, which he took, and 
 cried, 'For God's sake save me!' The men were about to 
 haul him into the boat, when he was carried down by a large 
 shark which came up at the moment, taking the oar with 
 him. 
 
 "A few days after the fatal accident, a shark was captured 
 in Nassau harbor, and on being opened, the pilot's right 
 hand and wrist, with a portion of his shirt (by which the 
 hand was identified), a goat's head, with horns nine inches 
 long, and a turtle's head were found in his stomach." 
 
 The French name this fearful animal the Requin, or Re- 
 quiem (the rest or stillness of death), in allusion to the deadly 
 character of his habits : to add to the horror of his appear- 
 ance, a phosphoric light is emitted from his huge body when 
 near the surface of the water. To get at human flesh, the 
 shark has been known to bound several feet out of the sea, 
 and seize the unwary sailor occupied in the rigging of the 
 vessel, when in full sail, and to leap into fishing-boats, and 
 grapple with the men at their oars. 
 
 " No wonder that every man's hand should be raised 
 
TUI-: VULNERABLE PART OF THE SHARK. 171 
 
 against this ferocious monster; and although of such fearful 
 strengtli and audacity, he is sometimes overcome. The na- 
 tives on the African coast show great courage and dexterity 
 in attacking him. The mouth of the shark being placed in 
 the lower part of the head, he is obliged, in order to seize 
 his prey, to turn round in the water, and the negroes, taking 
 advantage of this, thrust a knife into his stomach, the part 
 where he is most vulnerable, for the skin on the upper por- 
 tion of his body is so hard and rough that it forms a kind of 
 armor, defending him from the bites of any animal he may 
 encounter in the deep. This skin is even made use of by 
 carpenters for polishing hard-grained wood, and it is also 
 employed for other purposes where hardness and strength 
 are required. 
 
 An amusing instance of punishing a shark for his greedi- 
 ness was related some years ago. The author of the article 
 says : 
 
 " Looking over the bulwarks of the schooner, I saw one of 
 these watchful monsters winding lazily backwards and for- 
 wards like a long meteor ; sometimes rising until his nose dis- 
 turbed the surface, and a gushing sound, like a deep breath, 
 rose through the breakers, at others, resting motionless on 
 the water, as if listening to our voices and thirsting for our 
 blood. As Ave were watciiing the motions of this monster, 
 Bruce, a lively little negro and my cook, suggested the pos- 
 sibility of destroying it. This was, briefly, to heat a fire- 
 brick in the stove, wrap it up hastily in some old greasy 
 cloth as a sort of disguise, and then to heave it overboard. 
 This was the work of a few minutes, and the effect was tri- 
 umphant. The monster followed after the hissing prey; we 
 saw it dart at the brick like a flash of lightning, and gorge 
 it instanter. The shark rose to the surface almost immedi- 
 ately, and his uneasy motions soon betrayed the success of 
 the manoeuvre. His agonies became terrible: the waters 
 appeared as if disturbed by a violent squall, and the spray 
 
172 BAITING THE SHARK. 
 
 was driven over the taifrail where we stood, while the gleam- 
 ing body of the fish repeatedly burst through the dark 
 waves, as if writhing with fierce and terrible convulsions. 
 Sometimes, also, we thought we heard a shrill, bellowing 
 cry, as if indicative of anguish and rage, rising through the 
 gurgling waters. His fury was, however, soon exhausted; 
 in a short time the sounds broke away into distance, and the 
 agitation of the sea subsided. The shark had given himself 
 up to the tides, as unable to struggle against the approach 
 of death, and they were carrying his body unresistingly to 
 the beach." 
 
 In the South Sea Islands sharks are caught by means of 
 a log of wood, set afloat with a strong rope attached to it, 
 having a noose at the head. The fish, with his natural im- 
 petuosity, gets his head entangled, and, floundering about in 
 attemps to escape, becomes tired out, and is then easily dis- 
 patched. 
 
 Captain Basil Hall gives an interesting account of the 
 capture of one of these huge monsters. He says : 
 
 " The sharp, curved dorsal (the back) fin of an enormous 
 shark was seen rising about six inches above the water, and 
 cutting the glazed surface of the sea by as fine a line as if a 
 sickle had been drawn along it. ' Messenger, run to the cook 
 for a piece of pork,' cried the captain, taking the command 
 with as much glee as if an enemy's cruiser had been in sight. 
 'Where's your hook, quarter-master?' 'Here, sir, here!' 
 cried the fellow, feeling- the point, and declaring it was as 
 sharp as any lady's needle ; and at the next instant piercing 
 with it a huge junk of pork, weighing four or five pounds. 
 The hook, which is as large as a little finger, has a curvature 
 about as large as a man's hand when half closed, and is six 
 or eight inches in length, while a formidable line, furnished 
 with three or four feet of chain attached to the end of the 
 mizzen-toptail-halyard, is now cast into the ship's wake. 
 
 " Sometimes the very instant the bait is cast over the 
 
SHARK FISHING. 
 
174 EXTBAORDINART STRENGTH OF THE TEETH. 
 
 stern, the shark flies at it with such eagerness that he actu- 
 ally springs partly out of the water. This, however, is rare. 
 On these occasions he gorges the bait, the hook, and a foot 
 or two of the chain, without any mastication, and darts off 
 with the treacherous prize with such prodigious velocity 
 that it makes the rope crack again as soon as the coil is 
 drawn out. Much dexterity is required in the hand which 
 holds the line at this moment. A bungler is apt to be too 
 precipitate, and jerk away the hook before it has got far 
 enough into the shark's maw. The secret of the sport is to 
 let the monster gulp down the whole bait, and then to give 
 the line a violent pull, by which the barbed point buries 
 itself in the coat of the stomach. When the hook is first 
 fixed, it spins out like the log-line of a ship going twelve 
 knots. 
 
 " The suddenness of the jerk with which the poor devil is 
 brought up often turns him quite over. No sailor, however, 
 thinks of hauling a shark on board merely by the rope fas- 
 tened to the hook. To prevent the line breaking, the hook 
 snapping, or the jaw being torn away, a running bowline is 
 adopted. This noose is slipped down the rope, and passed 
 over the monster's head, and is made to join at the point of 
 junction of the tail with the body ; and now the first part of 
 the fun is held to be completed. The vanquished enemy is 
 easily drawn up over the taffrail, and flung on deck, to the 
 delight of the crew." 
 
 A sight of this voracious monster in his own element is 
 never to be forgotten. It has been observed that the word 
 "villain" has never been written in more unmistakable 
 characters on any living creature than the shark. His 
 appearance exhibits every character of ferocity. The head 
 is large ; the mouth wide and grasping ; but the teeth, the 
 most appalling features of the animal, are remarkable for 
 their power of mischief: there are six rows in the upper jaw, 
 and four in the lower. The teeth are triangular, some- 
 
WORSHIP OF SHARKS, 175 
 
 times two inches in breadth, sharp-edged, and notched Hke a 
 saw, and as they are so planted in the jaw that each tooth 
 is capable of independent action, being furnished with its 
 own muscles, and as the strength of the jaws is enormous, 
 they form a most terrific and formidable apparatus of de- 
 struction. 
 
 Although no part of the shark is wholesome for food, the 
 flesh being coarse and leathery, yet it is eaten by the na- 
 tives of Guinea, after being kept a considerable time to 
 render it tender. The fins being gelatinous are used by the 
 Chinese for making a rice soup. The liver yields an abun- 
 dance of oil which is much esteemed. I have already men- 
 tioned the uses to which the skin is applied. 
 
 On some of the African coasts there are human beings so 
 depraved and superstitious as to worship this fearful mon- 
 ster, and who believe that a person swallowed by him is sure 
 to go to heaven. Their mode of adoration is thus : The 
 negroes proceed in their boats to ofi'er sacrifices of goats, 
 poultry, and other things. But far more horrible still is the 
 offering of an infant, reared for the purpose until it reaches 
 the age of ten. The poor child is bound to a post on a 
 sandy point at low water ; as the tide rises the sharks ar- 
 rive, and tho infant is devoured, the parents fully believing 
 that it will enter Paradise. We may ask ourselves if it is 
 possible to find a more atrocious and dismal proof of human 
 depravity! 
 
 The South Sea Islanders had some strange superstitious 
 ideas relative to some of the shark species. Although they 
 would not only kill but eat certain sharks, the large blue 
 ^mdi {Squalus glaucus) were deified by them; and rather 
 than attempt to destroy them, they would endeavor to pro- 
 pitiate their favor by prayers and oflFerings. Temples were 
 erected, in which priests officiated, and offerings were pre- 
 sented to the deified monsters ; while fishermen and others, 
 who were much at sea, sought their favor. Many funny 
 
176 FEARFUL INSTANCES OF SHARKS' RAPACITY. 
 
 legends were formerly in circulation among the people rela- 
 tive to the regard paid by the sharks at sea to priests of 
 their temples, whom they were always said to recognize, and 
 never to injure. But for the sharks, the South Sea Islanders 
 would be in comparatively little danger from casualties in 
 their voyages among the islands ; and^although, when armed, 
 they have been known to attack a shark in the water, yet, 
 when destitute of a knife or other weapon, they become an 
 easy prey, and are consequently much terrified at such mer- 
 ciless antagonists. 
 
 A fearful instance is related of the rapacity of the shark, 
 when a number of chiefs and people — altogether thirty-two 
 ■ — were passing from one island to another in a large double 
 canoe. They were overtaken by a tempest, the violence of 
 which tore their canoes from the horizontal spars by which 
 they were united. It was in vain for them to endeavor to 
 place them upright, or empty out the water, for they could 
 not prevent their incessant overturning. As their only re- 
 source, they collected the scattered spars and boards, and 
 constructed a raft on which they hoped to drift to land. 
 The weight of the whole number who were now collected on 
 the raft was so great as to sink it so far below the surface 
 that they sometimes stood above their kneos in water. 
 They made very little progress, and soon became exhausted 
 by fatigue and hunger. Destitute of a knife or any other 
 weapon of defence, they fell an easy prey to these monsters. 
 One after another was seized and devoured or carried away 
 by them, and the survivors, who with dreadful anguish be- 
 held their companions thus destroyed, saw the number of 
 assailants apparently increasing as each body was carried 
 away, until only two or three remained. The raft, thus 
 lightened of its load, rose to the surface of the water, and 
 placed them beyond the reach of the voracious jaws of their 
 relentless destroyers. The voyage on which they had set 
 out was only from one of the Society Islands to another, con- 
 
HOOKS FOR SHARK FISHING. 177 
 
 seqiicutly they were not very far from land. The tide and 
 the current now carried them to the shore, where they 
 hmded, to tell the melancholy fate of their fellow-voyagers. 
 
 The natives of Tahiti use hooks made of wood, and of the 
 most formidable character, for shark fishing. These are a 
 foot in length and an inch in diameter. They are such 
 frightful implements that no fish loss voracious than a shark 
 would venture to approach them. In some, the marks of the 
 sharks' teeth are numerous and deep, and show the effect 
 with which they have been used. 
 
 One of the most s;ul and thrilling episodes of shark en- 
 counters was published some years since, A small schooner 
 called the Magpie was cruising between the island of Cuba 
 and the Havannah, in search of pirates. One evening the 
 sea and the air were so calm that the vessel lay on the bosom 
 of the water like some huge animal asleep, with her head 
 towards the shore. The crew were engaged in telling those 
 marvelous stories which seamen believe, and never fail to 
 narrate to each other in their hours of idleness, for such oc- 
 casionally visit even the mariner afloat. Lieutenant Smith, 
 the commander, who had been on the look-out for the pirate 
 ship as long as twilight enabled him to do so, laid aside his 
 glass and descended into the cabin. All above, below, and 
 around was now lulled as in slumber, for the laugh and the 
 voice of the story-teller had become silent. Presently the 
 mate of the watch observed a small black cloud resting over 
 the land. The cloud was gradually increasing, and although 
 the n>ate saw no ground to apprehend danger, he thought it 
 right to communicate the fact to his superior officer. Mr. 
 Smith commanded him to keep a sharp look-out, and he would 
 join him on deck immediately. A moment after, a squall, 
 as strong as it was sudden, burst from the cloud, and just as 
 the lieutenant had ascended to the deck, the schooner was 
 upset, and immediately sank. 
 
 Two of the crew were below, and they went down with 
 
178 ATTACK OF SHARKS ON A BOAT. 
 
 her; the others, twenty-two in number, were left struggling 
 with the quiet deep, for the squall had passed, and the sky 
 and the sea were again tranquil. It w^as now discovered 
 that the boat had drifted from the vessel, and floated. A 
 rush was made towards her, and several of the men at- 
 tempted to get into her on the same side. The consequence 
 was that she became half full of water, upset, rolled over and 
 over, and at length lay with her keel upwards. Some got 
 across her keel, others supported themselves by holding on 
 to her with their hands, and thus all were for a time safe. 
 
 Mr. Smith now reminded the crew that it was impossible 
 for them to remain long in this predicament, and exhorted 
 them to right the boat and bale the water from her. He 
 was immediately attended to ; the men on the keel relin- 
 quished their seats, the boat was turned over, and two men 
 were ordered into her to bale out the water. This they 
 commenced doing with their hats, and it seemed probable 
 that by perseverance their task would be accomplished. At 
 this moment a man called out that he saw the fin of a shark. 
 Immediately all was confusion; everyone endeavored to 
 save himself, and in so doing rushed into needless danger. 
 Smith begged them to persevere in attempting to clear the 
 boat of water, and directed those not engaged in baling the 
 water to keep splashing with their legs to frighten away 
 the sharks. Again he was attended to ; four men were in 
 the boat baling, and the water was rapidly decreasing, when 
 a noise was heard, and more than a dozen sharks darted in 
 amongst them. In the panic which ensued the boat was 
 again upset, and the men were at the mercy of the marine 
 monsters. At first the sharks played about among the men, 
 occasionally rubbing against them; but presently a loud 
 shriek arose from one of them — his leg was bitten from his 
 body! The attack was now general; shrieks arose from one 
 and another. Some were torn from the boat, and several sank 
 into the abyss, either through being bitten or from fear. 
 
HORRIBLE FATE OF SOME SEAMEN. 179 
 
 In this critical moment Lieutenant Smith was not dis- 
 mayed. He still gave orders to the crew firmly and coolly, 
 and was still obeyed by them. The boat was again righted, 
 and the baling again commenced, Smith clinging to the 
 stern while he directed and encourged his crew. For a mo- 
 ment he ceased to splash, while he looked into the boat to 
 see what progress his men were making. At this instant a 
 shark bit oil" both his legs above the knees. With fortitude 
 scarcely to be believed, he endeavored to conceal the fact 
 from his remaining crew, but, in spite of all h,is endeavors to 
 suppress it, a deep groan escaped him ; he loosed his hold of 
 the boat and was about to sink, when two of his men caught 
 hold of him and placed him in the stern-sheets. Although 
 bleeding and in agony, he still exerted himself for his crew. 
 He expressed his sorrow for their situation, gave them ad- 
 vice affectionately yet coolly, and ended with these words : 
 " If any of you survive this fearful night and return to 
 Jamaica, tell the admiral that I was in search of the pirate 
 when this lamentable occurrence took place ; tell him that I 
 hope I have always done my duty, and that I " At this mo- 
 ment some of the men endeavored to get into the boat, which 
 was thus drawn on one side, and Lieutenant Smith rolled over- 
 board, and sank to rise no more. The boat was now again 
 upset. Some of the bleeding seamen placed themselves on 
 the keel, but one by one dropped into the ocean. It was at 
 eight o'clock when the Magpie sank, and before nine all on 
 board of her were eaten by the sharks or drowned, with the 
 exception of two, who succeeded in righting the boat and 
 getting into her. They immediately began baling, and 
 worked until they were nearly exhausted. Tlie sharks swam 
 round the boat, and endeavored to upset her, but failing, 
 and perhaps gorged already, at length departed. The men 
 worked at intervals, until the boat was nearly free from 
 water, and then lay down and slept until after daylight. The 
 morning was fine but sultry. The men were hungry, thirsty, 
 
A FRIGHTFUL ENCOUNTER WITH SHARKS. 
 
PERILOUS CONDITION OF THE SURVIVORS. 181 
 
 and fatigued : they looked around them ; an unbroken 
 ocean, a cloudless sky, and a burning sun were all that were 
 within their view. They began to think of the only re- 
 source remaining for either — to kill his comrade and devour 
 his flesh. They were men of equal strength, and both had 
 knives. Each, however, seemed unwilling to resort to this 
 horrible expedient except in the last extremity. The man 
 at the stern (for they had separated from each other, in mu- 
 tual apprehension, by nearly the whole length of the keel) 
 knelt down and prayed, and his comrade followed his ex- 
 ample. 
 
 As the morning w^ent on they suffered intensely from 
 thirst, and aggravated their sufferings by attempting to 
 allay it with salt water. The madness of despair was begin- 
 ning to develop itself in one of them w^hen a sail appeared 
 in sight, which afterwards proved to be a brig steering 
 towards them. One flung his jacket in the air, while the 
 other hailed again and again, and sometimes both hailed 
 together, although the brig was at such a distance that it 
 was not possible their cries would be heard. She approached 
 nearer and nearer, and so riveted were their minds on the 
 brig that hunger and thirst were forgotten in the excite- 
 ment of hope. The people on board the ship appeared to 
 notice them, but just as they had reason to think that such 
 was the case, she changed her course and hoisted additional 
 sail. Still they attempted to gain their attention, and at- 
 tempted to propel the boat with their hands; but all was in 
 vain; the ship was becoming every moment more distant, 
 and their chance of release from such a horrible condition, 
 of course, fainter. 
 
 At this moment one of the sailors conceived the bold 
 project of swimming to the brig, which was by this time 
 two miles and a half from them. His comrade remonstrated 
 with him, so wild and hopeless did the undertaking appear 
 to him, especially as the fins of sharks Avere seen here and 
 
182 THE SHARK FAMILY. 
 
 there above the water. After a little hesitation, caused by 
 the appeal of his shipmate, and a short prayer, he jumped 
 over. The splash occasioned by his doing so caused the 
 sharks to disappear, and the man in the boat well knew that 
 they were in search of his comrade. Immediately after- 
 wards, three of them passed the boat towards him. 
 
 With the greatest anxiety the sailor in the boat watched 
 his messmate : he swam well, kicking and splashing as he 
 went, to frighten the sharks. Once he beheld one of them 
 close to him; but he only swam the faster, and kicked more 
 vigorously. The wind had freshened, the brig was sailing 
 more fleetly, his cries were unheard by the crew, and he began 
 to think he must yield himself a prey to the sharks. At last 
 he saw a man look over the side of the vessel ; he held up 
 both his hands, jumped up in the water, and was at length 
 seen. A boat was got out, the brave swimmer was picked 
 up, and Avas soon joined by his comrade on board the brig. 
 The sharks were defrauded of their prey. The two sur- 
 vivors of the Magpie were tried by a court-martial, and as a 
 reward for their perseverance, industry, and obedience to 
 their commander in circumstances of such peculiar peril, 
 promoted to be warrant officers. 
 
 To this family of the sharks, belongs the blue species, 
 to which we have alluded, and which visits the coasts of 
 England, during the pilchard and herring fishery, but whose 
 chief residence is the Mediterranean. It is about seven feet 
 long. The whole of the upper part is of a slate-blue color, 
 and the under side nearly pure white. 
 
 The Hammer-headed species are distinguished, as the 
 name implies, from each side of the head being extended — 
 hammer-shaped — into a kind of branch, which has the eyes 
 at the outer extremity. Its habits are of the family charac- 
 ter, and it never hesitates to attack man whenever an op- 
 portunity offers. The Smooth Shark is so named from the 
 smoothness and softer nature of its skin than its other rela- 
 
I 
 
 THE GREENLAND SHARE. 183 
 
 tions; it is about four feet in length, and is a frequent visitor 
 to the British seas. The Dog-Fish is the most common of the 
 minor members of the shark family. Tlie Spinous Shark, so 
 named from its " prickles," which resemble those on the 
 stems of a rose-bush, is not, happily, a frequent visitor to 
 British waters, though of inferior size to most of the family, 
 being from four to eight feet. The Angel-Fish, or Monk- 
 Fish, or Shark-Ray, closes our list of the " ocean pirates." 
 The depressed form, rounded head, with the eyes on the up- 
 per surface, and the singularly expansive pectoral fins (which 
 may, under the imaginative form of wings, have originated 
 the designation of " angel ") distinguish this strange, and, on 
 the whole, uncouth fish, which partakes something of tho 
 character of the ray and the shark. It is not unfrequent on 
 British coasts, and attains a considerable size, some weighing 
 a hundred-weight. It is a fierce and dangerous fish to con- 
 tend with, and fishermen tell strange stories of its strength 
 and fury. 
 
 The Greenland Shark which abounds in the Northern 
 seas, although smaller than his powerful relative, being 
 usually about fourteen feet long and six or eight feet in 
 girth, partakes of his ferocity, and is a fearful enemy to the 
 whale, whom he frequently worries to death, and feasts upon 
 afterwards, scooping out pieces from his body as large as a 
 man's head. The blubber appears to be a peculiarly "dainty 
 dish" to this Arctic monster, and, while the crew of a ship 
 are employed in cutting up a whale, he will come in for his 
 share, and is so greedy for his favorite food that the men 
 consider themselves safe from his gripe. Insensible to pain 
 and tenacious of life as are all the larger sharks, the Arctic 
 member of this ferocious tribe has been proved to be so in 
 a remarkable degree. A few ugly wounds do not spoil his 
 appetite, and even Avhen pierced through the body Avith a 
 sailor's knife, he does not desert the whale's carcass until his 
 appetite is fully satisfied. Even when the body is cut into 
 
184: THE BASKING SHARK. 
 
 parts, the separate portions continue to show signs of life 
 for some time, and it is unsafe to put the hand into his 
 mouth a good while after the head has been separated from 
 the trunk. 
 
 The Greenlanders eat the flesh of this fish both fresh and 
 dried, and twist his rough skin into a kind of rope. This 
 shark is known to have seized a canoe covered with seal- 
 skin (which was probably the attraction) in his mouth from 
 beneath, and by closing his jaws, destroyed both th© canoe 
 and its inmate. 
 
 The largest of this terrible tribe, the Basking Shark, visits 
 the British seas occasionally, though most abundant in the 
 tropics. He has been seen off the coast of Scotland, and 
 taken, from his enormous length, for the "sea-serpent," at- 
 taining upwards of fifty feet. One of this size was captured 
 some years ago at Kuraci, at the mouth of the Indus. Hap- 
 pily, however, his voracity is not proportioned to his size, 
 being satisfied chiefly with sea-slugs, small fishes, jelh^-fish, 
 etc. Pennant mentions a basking shark twenty-six feet in 
 length, taken off Anglesea, from which one hundred and 
 fifty-six gallons of oil were obtained. 
 
 It is said that the pilot-fish is a guide and companion to 
 the shark in his pursuit of prey. Whether this pretty fish, 
 which is only about a foot in length, really does befriend and 
 assist the ocean monster is not quite certain, but some ac- 
 counts give an air of probability to the belief. One of the 
 first voyagers to the East Indies, alludes to this circumstance 
 in a fanciful manner. Describing the sharks, he says: 
 " These have waiting on them six or seven small fishes, 
 which never depart, with guards (bands), blue and green, 
 round their bodies, like comely serving-men, and they go 
 two or three before them, and some on every side." We 
 have seen three instances in which the shark was led by the 
 pilot. When the former neared the ship the latter swam 
 close to his snout or near one of his breast-fins ; sometimes it 
 
THE PILOT FISH. 185 
 
 darted rapidly forwards or sideways, as if looking for some- 
 thing, and constantly went back again to the shark. When 
 we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a groat 
 hook, the shark was about twenty paces from the ship, Witli 
 the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the 
 dainty morsel, and instantly swam back again to the shark, 
 swimming many times around his snout and splashing, as if 
 to give him exact information as to the bacon. The shark 
 now began to put himself in motion, the pilot showing him 
 the way, and in a moment he was ftist to the hook." 
 
 Dr. Bennett, a Naturalist, says: " I have observed that if 
 several sharks swim together, the pilot-fishes are generally 
 absent; whereas, on a solitary shark being seen, it is equally 
 rare to find it unaccompanied by one or more of these reputed 
 guides. The only method by which I could procure this 
 fish was, that when capturing a shark, I was aware that 
 these faithful little fishes would not forsake him until he was 
 taken aboard : therefore, by keeping the shark, when hooked, 
 in the water until he was exhausted, or, as the sailors term 
 it, "drowned," the pilot-fish kept close to the surface of the 
 water over the shark, and, by the aid of a dipping-net, fixed 
 to the end of a long stick, I was enabled to secure it with 
 great facility." 
 
 The pilot-fish, like the mackerel in shape, has five con- 
 spicuous transverse bands round the body, and the general 
 color is a silvery grayish-blue. It is common in the Medi- 
 terranean and abounds in the warmer parts of the ocean. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 SEA-HORSES, AND NARWAHL8. 
 
 ^^^^LL the shores and borders of the Arctic zone 
 are crowded with amphibious animals, which 
 
 appear to form an intermediate link between 
 whales and quadrupeds. Among these we 
 will now notice the Morse (derived from the 
 Russian morss) or Walrus (from the Norwegian hval-ros, 
 whale-horse), also called by sailors the Sea-Horse. It is 
 a large, shapeless, unwieldy creature, from twelve to fifteen 
 feet in length, and eight to ten feet in circumference; the 
 head small, the limbs short, and of an intermediate char- 
 acter between fins and legs. The eyes are small and bril- 
 liant; the nostrils are large, somewhat round, and placed on 
 the upper part of the snout or muzzle. The lips are remark- 
 ably thick and covered with bristles. The neck is short. 
 The insides of the paws are protected by a rough horny kind 
 of coating, of a quarter of an inch thick ; the fore-paws, or 
 webbed hands, are from two to three feet in length, and, be- 
 ing expansive, can be stretched to a considerable width. The 
 color varies with age ; the young are black, they then be- 
 come brown, and gradually pale, until in old age the walrus 
 is white. The hairs, thick as a crow-quill, together with the 
 long white tusks and fierce-looking eyes, give the animal a 
 
THE WALRUS. 187 
 
 most diabolic look as it raises its head above the waves. 
 Previous to the development of the tusks in the young wal- 
 rus, the front face, when seen at a little distance, bears a 
 striking resemblance to the human countenance ; and this 
 appearance seems to have given rise to the fanciful reports 
 of mermen, or mermaids, in the Northern seas. Captain 
 Scoresb}' mentions that he has seen a sea-horse in such a 
 position and under such circumstances that it was easy to mis- 
 take it for a human being. The surgeon of his ship actually 
 reported to him that he had seen a man's head just appearing 
 above the water! 
 
 The most remarkable feature of the walrus consists in the 
 two teeth or tusks, which are directed downwards from the 
 upper jaw, and are sometimes nearly two feet in length, di- 
 verging at their points, and weighing from five to ten pounds. 
 They are of beautiful white bone, almost equal to ivory, and 
 are much employed in the fabrication of teeth, chessmen, 
 umbrella-handles, whistles, and other small articles. The 
 Greenlanders and other people of the North make hunting 
 weapons from them, and domestic tools. These tusks not 
 only serve the animal in procuring its food — which is said to 
 be shell-fish and marine vegetables — but are formidable 
 weapons against its foes. They also enable the walrus to 
 raise its unwieldly bulk upon the ice, when its access to 
 shore is prevented. 
 
 The speed of this animal in the water is very great, and 
 a contrast to its sluggish appearance on the ice. Large num- 
 bers of them crowd together on the shore, and present a 
 curious spectacle. The moment the first lands, so as to be dry, 
 it will not stir until another comes, and urges it forward b}' 
 beating it with its great tusks ; this one is served in the 
 same manner by the next, and so on in succession, until 
 the whole are landed, tumbling over one another in the 
 operation. 
 
 In the voyages of the early navigators of the Arctic seas, 
 
188 COOK'S ADVENTURE WITH THE WALRUS. 
 
 they found the walrus, liitherto a partially unmolested ani- 
 mal, easy of capture. Stephen Bennet, the captain of the 
 God-speed, a vessel of sixty tons, writes : " We saw a huge 
 morse putting his head above water, making such a horrible 
 noise and roaring, that they in the boat thought he would 
 have sunk it." In another place they found a multitude of 
 these monsters of the sea lying like hogs upon a heap." 
 They shot at them in vain until their muskets were spoilt 
 and their powder was spent, when " we would blow their 
 eyes out with a little pease-shot, and then come on the blind 
 side of them, and with our carpenter's axe cleave their heads ; 
 but for all that we could do, of about a thousand were killed 
 but fifteen." They filled a hogshead with the loose teeth 
 found on the island. The navigators became more expert in 
 their cruel onslaught upon the poor animals, for in a subse- 
 quent voyage the same captain relates that in six hours they 
 slew from seven hundred to eight hundred, not only for the 
 sake of the teeth, but boiling the blubber into oil. They 
 also contrived to get on board two young walruses, male and 
 female ; the latter died on the passage, but the other reached 
 England, and was taken to Court, " where the King and 
 many honorable personages beheld it with admiration." It 
 soon, however, fell sick and died. 
 
 Captain Cook, who was among the first to give anything 
 like a distinct account of this curious animal, says : 
 
 " We got entangled with the edge of the ice, on which 
 lay an innumerable multitude of sea-horses. They were ly- 
 ing in herds, huddled one over the other, like swine, and 
 were roaring and braying very loud, so that in the night, or 
 in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of the 
 ice before we could see it. They were seldom in a hurry to 
 get away until after they had been fired at, when they would 
 tumble over each other into the sea in the utmost confusion. 
 "Vast numbers of them would follow us, and come close up to 
 the boats, but the flash of a musket in the pan, or even the 
 
< ♦ 
 
190 ENGOUNTEUa WITH THE WALRUS. 
 
 bare pointing of one, would send them down in an instant. 
 We never found the whole herd asleep, one being always on 
 the watch. This, on the approach of a boat, would rouse 
 the next, and the alarm being gradually communicated, the 
 whole herd would speedily awake." 
 
 The walrus is hunted chiefly for its oil and tusks; the na- 
 tives of the northern shores esteem its flesh highly, and it is 
 greedily eaten along with the lard and even the skin.' It has 
 been calculated that about a thousand walruses were cap- 
 tured yearly in the seas about Spitzbergen. 
 
 Though generally of a peaceful and harmless nature, yet 
 when attacked by foes, and especially by man, these huge 
 animals will defend and support each other with remarkable 
 courage and fidelity, fearlessly proceeding to the rescue of 
 an unfortunate associate, and striving even to death for its 
 deliverance. Martens relates having killed some sea-horses 
 on the ice ; " the rest came all about our boat, and beat 
 holes through the sides of it so that we took in abundance 
 of water, and were at length forced to row away because of 
 their great numbers, for they gathered themselves more and 
 more together, and pursued us, as long as we could perceive 
 them, very furiously." 
 
 A similar incident is given, w^here a boat's crew pro- 
 ceeded to attack two hundred of these animals, but they 
 made almost desperate resistance ; some of them with their 
 cubs on their backs; and one of them tore open the planks 
 of the boat in two or three places. 
 
 Captain Phipps relates that two oflScers engaged in an 
 encounter with a walrus, who, on being wounded, plunged 
 into the water, and obtained a reinforcement of its fellows, 
 who made a desperate attack on the boat, wresting an oar 
 from one of the men, and had nearly upset her, when another 
 boat came to her assistance. 
 
 The affection of the mother for its young is remarkable. 
 Captain Cook, in his third voyage, says: 
 
AFFECTION OF THE WALRUS FOR ITS YOUNG. I 91 
 
 " We hoisted out tlio boats, unci sent them in pursuit of 
 the sea-horses that surrounded us. Our people were more 
 successful than they had been before, returning Avith three 
 large ones and a young one. On the approach of our boats 
 towards the ice, they took all their cubs under their fins, and 
 endeavored to escape with them into the sea. Several, 
 whose young ones were killed or wounded, and Avere left float- 
 ing on the surface, rose again, and carried them down, just as 
 our people were going to take them into the boat, and they 
 might be traced bearing them a great distance through the 
 water, which was colored with their blood. We afterwards 
 observed them bringing them up at times above the surface, 
 as if for air, and again diving under it Avith a dreadful bel- 
 loAving. The female in particular whose young had been de- 
 stroyed and taken into the boat, became so enraged that she 
 attacked the cutter, and struck her tusks through the bot- 
 tom of it. 
 
 Another instance is mentioned, where, in the vast sheet 
 of ice Avhich surrounded the ships there Avere occasionally 
 many pools, and Avhen the Aveather Avas clear and Avarm, 
 animals of various kinds Avould frequently rise and sport 
 about in them, or craAvl from thence upon the ice, to bask in 
 the Avarmth of the sun. A Avalrus rose in one of these pools 
 close to the ship, and finding everything quiet, dived doAvn 
 again, and brought up its young, Avhich it held to its breast 
 by pressing it Avith its flipper. In this manner it moved 
 about the pool, keeping in an erect posture, and always di- 
 recting the face of its young toAvards the vessel. On the 
 slightest movement on board the mother released her flip- 
 per, and pushed the young one under Avater; but Avhen 
 everything Avas quiet, again brought it up as before, and 
 for a length of time continued to play about the pool, to the 
 great amusement of the sailors." 
 
 Man is not the only assailant of the sea-horse. On land 
 its especial foe is the great Polar bear, and between these 
 
192 BATTLES OF THE WALRUS AND POLAR BEAR. 
 
 animals there are often terrible battles. On these occasions 
 the tusks of the walrus stand in good service, for they man- 
 age, usually, to beat off the grizly enemy, though at the cost 
 of many severe wounds. 
 
 An amusing instance is given of the cunning displayed 
 by Bruin in his chase after the walrus : 
 
 " One sunshiny day, one of these animals, about ten feet 
 in length, rose in a pool of water not very far from us, and 
 after looking round, drew his greasy carcass upon the ice, 
 where he rolled about for a time, and at length laid himself 
 down to sleep. A bear which had probably been observing 
 his movements crawled carefully upon the ice on the opposite 
 side of the pool, and began to roll about also, but apparently 
 more from design than amusement, as he progressively 
 lessened the distance that intervened between him and 
 his prey. The walrus, suspicious of his advances, drew him. 
 self up preparatory to a precipitous retreat into the water, 
 in case of a nearer acquaintance with his playful but treach- 
 erous visitor. On this the bear became instantly motionless, 
 as if in the act of sleep, but after a time began to lick his 
 paws and clean himself, encroaching occasionally a little 
 more upon his intended prey. But even this artifice did not 
 succeed : the wary walrus was far too cunning to allow him- 
 self to be entrapped, and suddenly plunged into the pool, 
 which the bear no sooner observed than he threw off all 
 disguise, rushed toward the spot, and followed him in an in- 
 stant into the water, where he was as much disappointed in 
 his meal as we were of the pleasure of witnessing a very 
 interesting encounter." 
 
 At sea, the sword-fish is the most nimble and fiercest ene- 
 my of the walrus. We should scarcely imagine from the 
 uncouth and heavy appearance of the animal that it would 
 exhibit any striking traits of intelligence ; but it seems that 
 when young it is not difficult to domesticate. Lament men- 
 tions having seen one about the size of a sheep on board a 
 
THE >SEA UNICORN. 1 93 
 
 Norwegian vessel, and the most comical fac-simih imagin- 
 able of an old walrus. It 1;;h1 been taken alive after the 
 harpooning" of its mother, and was as playful as a kitten. It 
 was a great favorite with all on board, and the only thing 
 annoyed it was pulling its whiskers. 
 
 Another tusky inhabitant of the Arctic seas is the Nar- 
 ivahJ, or Monodon, or what is popularly called the Sea-Uni- 
 corn, also an animal of the Mammalian order, about sixteen 
 feet long and eight feet in circumference. In appearance 
 the narwahl resembles a small whale, but with the addition 
 of two long, straight, and pointed tusks, like spears, spirally 
 twisted, directed forwards, and differing in length, the left 
 one being about seven feet and a few inches, and the right 
 one seven feet. It frequently happens, however, that only 
 one of these tusks grows, and the other, somehow strangled, 
 remains shut up in the bone like a nut. This will account 
 for the appellation given to the narwahl of the "sea-unicorn." 
 These tusks are of a whiter and harder substance than ivory. 
 The Kings of Denmark possess a magnificent throne in the 
 Castle of Rosenberg made of this material. 
 
 In former times, when the origin of the horns of this 
 animal was not well known, they were supposed to possess 
 miraculous powers for healing diseases. The monks, in partic- 
 ular, fostered the delusion, and pretended that every ill under 
 the sun could be removed by their power. The narwahl has 
 no true teeth in either jaw; the mouth is small and the lips 
 are stiff, but it is able to catch and swallow so large a fish as 
 the skate, the breadth of which is nearly three times as much 
 as the width of its own mouth. It seems probable, however, 
 that the horn serves them in this need, the fish being pierced 
 with it, and killed before devoured. It is used, also, in dig- 
 ging sea-plants from the rocks at great depths, in order to 
 drive from their retreats the shrimps and other animals on 
 which the narwahl feeds. The tail is about twenty inches 
 long and four feet broad. It has no dorsal or back fin, but 
 
FIGHT BETWEEN WALRUS AND POLAR BEARS. 
 
HABITS OF TUB SEA UNICORN. 19S 
 
 in place of it there is an irregular, sharp, fatty ridge, two 
 inches in height, extending between two and three feet along 
 the back, nearly midway between the snout and the tail. 
 The prevailing color of the animal is bluish-gray on the back, 
 variegated with numerous dark spots, with paler and more 
 gray marks on a white ground at the sides. In old sea-horses 
 the color is wholly white, or yellowish-white, with dark-gray 
 spots. They are quiet and inoffensive in their habits, and 
 s\yim Avith great rapidity. When respiring on the surface of 
 the water, after blowing repeatedly, they frequently lie 
 motionless for several minutes with the back and head just 
 appearing above water. When harpooned, they dive to a con- 
 siderable depth, and on returning to the surface for respira- 
 tion, are readily killed in a few minutes with the lance. Near 
 the coast they are always seen in flocks in the severest win- 
 ters. The Greenlanders drive them with their sledges to 
 fissures in the ice, where they are dispatched. The blubber, 
 enwrapping the whole body, is from two to four inches in 
 thickness. 
 
 When a number of sea-horses are together, they divert 
 themselves in gambols, when, their horns appearing above 
 the water, as if brandished about like weapons, have a singu- 
 lar effect, and the clattering noise they produce, with a kind 
 of gurgling sound of the animals themselves, would lead one 
 to suppose that some hostile proceedings were going on; but 
 it is merely a playful movement of instruments which, if ag- 
 gressively employed, would be dangerous. The force with 
 which the narwahl urges its speed may be conceived by the 
 circumstance that its tusk has been sometimes found driven 
 through the planks of vessels. 
 
CHAPTER Xiy. 
 
 NA UTILI TEE FLOATING NA VIGAT0R8 OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 " Spread, tiny nautilus, the living sail, « 
 
 Dive at thy choice, or brave the freshening gale 
 If unreprov'd the ambitious eagle inount 
 Sunward, to seek the daylight in its fount. 
 Bays, gulf, and ocean's Indian widths shall be 
 Till the world perishes a field for thee." — Wordsworth. 
 
 MONG the most interesting and poetical illus- 
 trations of the wonders of the ocean are the 
 singular floating animals, of which the Nauti- 
 lus — called by Byron "the ocean Mab," "the 
 Fairy of the Sea " — will be, undoubtedly, 
 familiar to you from the great beauty of its shell, which 
 renders it a favorite ornament in many houses. 
 
 Very interesting stories and verses have been written on 
 the sailing and rowing habits of these curious animals ; and 
 their appearance, when seen skimming the water, would 
 strongly favor such ideas. The Dutch naturalist, Rumphius, 
 in giving an account of the rarities at Amboyna, the princi- 
 pal of the Molucca islands, says : " When the nautilus floats 
 on the water, he puts out his head and all his tentacles, and 
 spreads them upon the water ; but at the bottom he creeps 
 in a reversed position, with his boat above him, and with his 
 head and tentacles (feelers) on the ground, making a toler- 
 ably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on the 
 ground, creeping also, sometimes, into the nets of the fisher- 
 men ; but after a storm, as the weather gets calm, they are 
 seen in troops, floating on the water, being driven up by the 
 
THE NAUTILUS. 
 
198 THE PAPER NAUTILUS. 
 
 agitation of the waves. This sailing is not, however, of long 
 continuance, for having taken in all their tentacles, they 
 upset their boat and so return to the bottom. 
 
 Until a comparatively recent period, very little was 
 known of the nautilus ; for, although shells were plentifully 
 found on the shores of the warm seas it inhabits, the fish 
 itself, living chiefly at the bottom of the sea, creeping like a 
 snail, or lying in wait for runaway crabs or suchlike food, 
 was difficult to obtain. However, a specimen was captured 
 by Mr. Bennett, a naturalist, at the New Hebrides, and the 
 great naturalist, Professor Owen, described the fish in a 
 valuable memoir. The specimen is still preserved in the 
 museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in London. Little 
 could be known from the shell itself; but here was the tiny 
 navigator of the ocean, that would ride out a storm in which 
 the strongest man-of-war might founder, revealed in all its 
 most curious mechanism : the oars and aerial sails — disap- 
 pearing, to give place to its real method of propulsion. 
 
 The Paper Nautilus has eight tentacles, and one pair of 
 these expand at their extremities into broad and thin mem- 
 branes, which compose a Aveb of several sorts of fibres, inter- 
 woven for the wrapping up of some parts, the fibres giving 
 them an elasticity by wliich they can contract and grasp the 
 parts they contain — whence the fable received through so 
 many ages, of its sails ; the membranous arms of the fish are 
 the organs for secreting and repairing the shells. 
 
 The functions of the supposed sails of the paper nautilus 
 were determined by an experiment. One of the " sails " was 
 cut off" in several living specimens, the right sail Tbeing 
 removed in some, the left in others ; and the creatures were 
 then kept in a submarine cage, and supplied with food. 
 Some of them survived the operation for four months, when 
 it was found that the shell had grown only on that side on 
 which the membranous arm had been preserved ; thus show- 
 
A WONDERFUL BUILJJKR. 199 
 
 ing the animal to be the builder of its own liabitation, and 
 that the expanded arms do not serve the purposes of sails. 
 
 The real rower on the ocean is the beautiful little blue 
 and silver shell-fish, the Glaucus, also a tenant of the warm 
 seas, Avho swums with great swiftness by aid of its conical 
 and oar-like appendages. 
 
 A wonderful builder is the nautilus, as may be seen by 
 the chambers it fashions for its own accommodation; for the 
 shell is divided into partitions, and as the animal increases in 
 size it forms another and larger apartment proportionate to 
 its growth, leaving the others empty as it proceeds, until, 
 satisfied with its labors, it becomes the occupant of the 
 highest chamber, though still communicating with the cham- 
 bers it lias abandoned, by means of a membranous tube 
 which passes through the centre of each, enabling the nau- 
 tilus by throwing air or gas into the empty chambers, or by 
 exhausting them of air, to rise or sink into the water at \vill. 
 
 How truly wonderful is the intelligence displayed by 
 the tiny nautilus in its chambered dwelling ! " These beau- 
 tiful arrangements," Dean Buckland once remarked, *' are 
 and ever have been subservient to a common object — the 
 construction of hydraulic instruments, of especial importance 
 in the economy of creatures destined to move sometimes at 
 the bottom, and at other times upon or near the surface of 
 the sea. The delicate adjustments whereby the same prin- 
 ciple is extended through so many grades and modifications 
 of a single t^^pe, show the uniform and constant agency of 
 some controlling intelligence ; and in searching for the origin 
 of so much method and regularity amidst so much variety, 
 the mind can only rest when it has passed back through the 
 subordinate series of second causes to the great First Cause, 
 which is found in the will and power of a great Creator." 
 
 The Pearly Nautilus, thus named from the shell being 
 lined with a layer of the most beautiful pearly gloss, inhabits 
 the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Nothing can exceed the 
 
200 THE ARGONAUT. 
 
 pure loveliness of this "gem of the deep;" the interior 
 being white, like the finest poi'oelain, and streaked with red- 
 dish chestnut. It is highly prized in Eastern countries, 
 where it is made into drinking cups. The Chinese are par- 
 ticularly expert in manuliicturing it into various ornaments. 
 
 There are other floating navigators of the deep ; among 
 others, the Snail-slime-fishes, which frequent the Arctic seas, 
 and are found in immense quantities on the coast of Spitz- 
 bergen. The shell is the boat of this animal, which it rows 
 through the water by a dip of its raised fins. In this act 
 the open extremity of the shell is its prow, the opposite end 
 occupies the place of a poop, and the margin of the body 
 resembles and performs the office of a keel. A writer says : 
 *'l have often seen it with admiration and pleasure. He 
 can move in a retrograde manner. When weary with row- 
 ing, or when touched, the little boatman contracts his oary 
 fins, and drawing \vitliin the shell, sinks to the bottom, 
 where he rests for a short time. Then again he rises up- 
 wards, rowing obliquely until the surface is attained, when 
 his course is held in a straight line over the trackless surge. 
 When taken out of the shell, although without injury and in 
 the water, he immediately dies." 
 
 Before quitting the nautilus, we may add, that the shells 
 of this " ocean navigator" abound in the coral seas, and are 
 cast on shore in such profusion, that many tons' weight are 
 collected at New Caledonia and the Fiji Islands, and are con- 
 veyed to Sydney. The young shells when polished obtain 
 a high price. 
 
 The Argonaut differs from the true nautilus, inasmuch as 
 the shell is not divided into chambers, but has one spiral 
 cavity, into which the animal can entirely withdraw itself. 
 From the disproportionate size of the last whorl (a wreath 
 or turning of the spires of univalves, or shells of one piece 
 only), it has some resemblance to a canoe, the spire repre- 
 senting the poop. If the waves rise or danger threatens, 
 
THE SEA BLADDER. 201 
 
 the iirg-oiiaut withdraws all its arms into the shell, contracts 
 itself there, and descends to the bottom. The body does 
 not penetrate within the spire of the shell, nor does it 
 adhere to it; at least, there is no muscular attachment, 
 which led to the supposition that it occupied a shell belong- 
 ing to some other animal. This freebooting stigma does not 
 belong to the argonaut, for experiments have proved that 
 the animal is its own builder, and consequently a rightful 
 tenant of his mansion. 
 
 There is a curious and highly interesting floating object 
 to which we may call the reader's attention, the Sea-Bladder, 
 called by seamen the "Portuguese man-of-war, and by the 
 French sailors the "galley" or "frigate." This singular 
 zoophyte, or animal plant, for it combines the two natures, is 
 seen floating, sometimes singly, at other times in vast num- 
 bers, in the tropical seas, and attracted the attention of 
 naturalists from a very early period. The notion of its sailing 
 properties may have arisen in consequence of the crest which 
 it has the power of erecting along the ridge of his back, which, 
 Avhen caught by the wind, assumes somewhat the appear- 
 ance of a natural sail, by means of which it seems enabled 
 to glide over the surface of the ocean. This, however, is not 
 the case, as the creature does not move by this means, nor 
 does it appear to possess the power of imparting any special 
 direction to its course, w^hich is entirely at the mercy of the 
 wind and waves. The body itself, upon which the ridge or 
 crest erects itself, is of a slight half-transparent character, 
 and has somewhat the appearance of an unusually solid soap- 
 bubble, glistening with a more than ordinary amount of 
 various colored hues. 
 
 Mr. Bennett describes this body as of delicate crimson 
 tints, as he saw it floating on the waves. There are also 
 veinings of rich purple, and opaline flashes of azure, orange, 
 and green, changing in color at every movement; and its 
 
202 Q-REAT BEAUTY OF SEA BLADDERS. 
 
 long dependant tentacles or feelers are of the deepest 
 purple. 
 
 Dr Collingwood mentions having observed these splendid 
 zoophytes in the Atlantic Ocean, near the equator, sailing 
 by from time to time during the day, and attracting atten- 
 tion by their large size and brilliant color. "They had the 
 appearance of beautiful prismatic shells, standing upright 
 on a rich blue cushion, the cell being radiated from the base 
 or cushion to the circumference, which was fringed with a 
 rich and bright rose color." He captured several specimens, 
 and the largest measured in the bladder eight inches, and 
 the greatest vertical circumference ten inches and a quarter. 
 The long dependant tentacles or feelers are from four to 
 five feet in length, and are capable of being extended much 
 farther when shot off for the capture of prey. 
 
 But the glory of these magnificent objects, so developed 
 in their native element, fades, like sea-weeds, as the zoo- 
 phyte is taken from its watery home, with the exception of 
 the long tentacles, which retain their color (dark purple) 
 until decomposition takes place. " There is no rose without 
 a thorn," is a well-known saying; and this gaily-colored 
 zoophyte has a dangerous stinging property to those who 
 handle it incautiously. An instance is related of a sailor 
 seeing one within reach from a boat, who took it up with 
 his naked hands ; the threads or elastic tentacles clung to 
 his arm, causing the man to yell with agony. He was quickly 
 brought on board, and ran about like a maniac, requiring 
 several men to hold him. When secured, and the proper 
 remedies applied, he rolled about for some time groaning 
 with pain; his arm was red, inflamed, and swollen, and 
 remained so for some hours. 
 
 Its earliest modern name of " sea-nettle" is derived from 
 that conferred upon this class of marine creatures by Aris- 
 totle, in consequence of the burning sting caused by the 
 poisonous tentacles or feelers of several members of this 
 
THE AMMONITE. 203 
 
 group ; a sting which leaves after it a white piinplo, like 
 that caused by a nettle. 
 
 A remarkable interest is attached to the nautilus from 
 the very remote periods of time to Avhich it can be traced ; 
 fossils being found in the most ancient rocks in which shell 
 animals have been discovered, in various parts of the world, 
 living ages before the Flood in temperate and tropical seas. 
 In the London clay, which forms such a large extent of the 
 substratum of the great metropolis, lie buried vast numbers 
 of the pearly shells of the nautilus, which, evidently at a 
 great distance of time, found in that country a congenial 
 climate and home. The largest British specimens of the fos- 
 sil nautilus occur in the carboniferous limestone, and speci- 
 mens of these are preserved in the British Museum more 
 than a yard in length, and thick in proportion. 
 
 In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in 
 London, is a specimen of the entire animal, soft parts and 
 shell, of the pearly nautilus: a portion of the shell has been 
 removed to show some of the chambers, and the membranous 
 tube or syphon which traverses them. There is also a 
 specimen of the paper nautilus suspended as when floating, 
 with the expanded membranous arms in their natural posi- 
 tion spread over the shell which they form and repair. 
 
 Resembling somewhat in appearance the nautilus, the 
 shell being chambered and spiral, but differing otherwise in 
 some respects, was the primitive navigator of the ancient 
 seas, the ammonite, of which the shells now only remain, the 
 most beautiful of all our fossils, and found in almost every 
 country in the world, upwards of two hundred species hav- 
 ing been described. The name is derived from a fancied 
 resemblance of its shell to the ram's horn ornaments on 
 sculptured heads of Jupiter Ammon. They are of very 
 different sizes, varjnng to even three or four feet in diameter. 
 The larger ones were formerly taken for petrified snakes, 
 and were found in great numbers at Whitby in Yorkshire. 
 
204 FLOATING SHELLS. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott alludes to this popular superstition in his 
 poem of "Marmion," where the nuns of Whitby exultingly 
 
 told 
 
 " How of thousand snakes, eacli one 
 Was clianged into a coil of stone 
 When holy Hilda pray'd." 
 
 The visitors to Whitby are still invited to buy a pet- 
 rified snake, and to add to their natural appearance, the 
 mouth of the ammonite is carved into a head, and eyes are 
 introduced made of colored glass. 
 
 . The ammonite, with a shell a yard across, would have been 
 an animal large in proportion to its body-chamber, and 
 requiring a certain amount of water to be displaced by its 
 shell, to move at ease along the bottom of the sea in search 
 of its food. The shell of the ammonite,thoughof the same flat 
 character as that of the nautilus, appears to have been much 
 thinner ; but, to compensate for this, there were flutings 
 which are seen in the surface, occasioned by the transverse 
 ribs. The round knobs or bosses studding some of the am- 
 monites were like gems on a diadem, adding strength as 
 well as beauty to their form. The whorls or wreaths of the 
 shell were rounder and more in number than that of the 
 nautilus, and the tubes — the hydraulic instinct by which the 
 chambers were supplied with air, or exhausted, for the as- 
 cent or descent of the animal — instead of running through 
 the cells like that of the nautilus, went round the chambers 
 of the ammonite. 
 
 How strange are the vicissitudes of all created things ! 
 While some survive the shocks and rents of time, others are 
 known only as fossil memorials of the primitive world. The 
 nautilus still rides on the crest of the ocean waves, but the 
 ammonite — long, long since removed from the element in 
 which it lived — only remains as a petrifaction to tell of its 
 existence in ages before the Flood. 
 
 We also mention the little floating Pteroj)oda or Wing- 
 
GIGANTIC CUTTLE FISH. 
 
206 CUTTLE FISH. 
 
 sliells, the inhabitants of which pass their entire life in the 
 sea far away from any shelter except that afforded by the 
 floating Gulf-weed, and whose organization is peculi- 
 ary adapted to that sphere of existence. In appearance 
 they strikingly resemble the fry of the ordinary sea-snails, 
 swimming, like them, by the vigorous flapping of a pair of 
 fins. To the naturalist on shore they are almost unknown, 
 but the voyager on the great ocean meets them where 
 there is little else to arrest his attention, and marvels at 
 their delicate forms and almost incredible numbers. They 
 swarm in the tropical, and no less the Arctic seas, where by 
 their myriads, the water is discolored by them for leagues. 
 They are seen swimming on the surface in the heat of the 
 day, as well as in the cool of the evening. In high latitudes 
 they are the principal food of the whale and of many sea- 
 birds. 
 
 Another floating inhabitant of the deep is described as the 
 beautiful lantliina or Ocean-Snail, which is quite blind, and 
 has large horny jaws, furnished with sharp, curved, slender 
 teeth. This animal is remarkable for floating shell down- 
 wards in the water, and the anterior part of the foot forms 
 a shallow cup, which embraces the smooth anterior rounded 
 part of the float. Thus the fish can raise or lower itself in 
 the water at pleasure. When it wishes to bring its head to 
 the surface of the water, this part of the foot is made to 
 glide over the back of the float. The floats are made of a 
 raucous film containing air ; and Avhen cut Avith scissors, the 
 animal descended to the bottom of the vessel in which it 
 was consigned, and did not make a new one. 
 
 The nautili belong to a class called Cephalopoda, so 
 named from the singular attachment of the feet to the head 
 — locomotive organs employed as oars or feet when moving 
 along the bottom of the sea, and consisting of a circlet of 
 muscular arms or tentacles, in addition to which many of 
 this class have fins. To this same definition of Linngeus 
 
CUTTLE FISH DESCRIBED. 907 
 
 belong the Cuttle-fish, the bony scale on the back of whicli 
 is employed for making pounce, tooth-powder, for polishing, 
 and other purposes in the arts. 
 
 The common cuttle-fish is abundant on the English coasts. 
 Its skin is smooth, Avhitish, and dotted with red. It attains 
 the length of a foot or more, and is one of the pests of the 
 fishermen, devouring partially the fish which have been 
 caught in their nets. The eggs of the cuttle-fish are 
 frequently cast on shore clustered together. Singularly in- 
 teresting is the study of these creatures, which are 
 provided with means of escaping danger, in their ink-bags, 
 from which they can at will emit a fluid, darkening the water 
 and thus enabling them to get off. This natural ink of the 
 fish is employed in painting ; Cicero tells us that it was 
 anciently used for writing with. 
 
 Another property possessed by this class of animals is, 
 that if any of its tentacles or feelers are bitten off, which is 
 often the case — the conger eel having a special relish for 
 the dainty morsel — others supply their place, the power of 
 reproduction being given to them. The whale also regales 
 on the cuttle-fish, and the plaice tribe have the same 
 partiality. The most common species form the bait with 
 which one-half of the cod taken at Newfoundland are 
 caught. 
 
 The general description of the cuttle-fish may be thus 
 described: the body oblong, or longer than broad, and 
 depressed, sac-like, with two narrow lateral fins of similar 
 substance with the mantle (the outside skin of shell-fish, 
 which covers a great part of the body, like a cloak). There 
 is an internal shell lodged in a sac on the back part of the 
 mantle, somewhat oval and bladed-shaped, being compar- 
 atively thick near the anterior end, where it is terminated 
 by a sharp point, affixed, as it were, to its general outline. 
 The whole shell is light and porous, and is formed of thin 
 plates, with intervening soaces, divided by innumerable 
 
208 STORIES RESPECTING THE GUTTLE FISH. 
 
 partitions, and consists chiefly of carbonate of lime, with a 
 little gelatinous and other animal matter, which is most 
 abundant in the internal harder part of the shell. The eyes 
 are very large, and the head is furnished with eight arms, 
 each of which has four rows of suckers and two long tenta- 
 cles, expanded and furnished with suckers on one side at the 
 extremity. Cuttle-fish are enabled to leap out of the water 
 by the sudden extension, not of their tails, but of their nu- 
 merous arms, or other processes from their bodies. 
 
 In hot climates some of the species of cuttle-fish grow to 
 a prodigious size, and are furnished with a fearful apparatus 
 of arms with suckers, by which they can rigidly fasten upon 
 and convey their prey to the mouth. In the eight-armed 
 species which inhabit the Indian seas these tentacles are 
 said to be no less than nine fathoms in length. 
 
 Extraordinary stories have been related of these animals. 
 Pliny mentions the head of one which was as large as a cask, 
 the arms thirty-six feet long. They are described as first 
 darting from side to side in the pools, and fixing themselves 
 so tenaciously to the surface of the stones that great force 
 was required to remove them. When thrown upon the 
 sand, they progressed rapidly in a sidelong shufiling man- 
 ner, throwing about their long arms, ejecting their inky 
 fluid in sudden violent jets, and staring about with their 
 shining eyes in a grotesque and hideous manner. As food 
 it was highly prized by the ancients, and is still much 
 esteemed in some parts of the world. It is regularly 
 exposed for sale in the markets at Naples, Smyrna, and in 
 the bazaars of India. In a curious Japanese book there is 
 a picture of a man in a boat engaged in catching cuttle-fishes 
 with a spear; and also a fishmonger's shop in Japan, where 
 a number of enormous cuttle-fishes are represented hanging 
 up for sale. 
 
 Columbus describes the mode of fishing with the cuttle- 
 fish pursued in his time by the natives of Santa Marta : 
 
FISHIHG WITH THE CUTTLE FISH. 209 
 
 " They had a small fish, the flat head of which was 
 furnished with numerous suckers, by which it attached it- 
 self so firmly to any object as to be torn in pieces rather than 
 abandon its hold. Tying a line of great length to the tail of 
 this fish, the Indians permitted it to swim at large. It 
 generally kept near the surface of the water until it per- 
 ceived its prey, when, darting down swiftly, it attached 
 itself by its suckers to the throat of a fish, or to the under 
 shell of a tortoise, nor did it relinquish its prey until both 
 were drawn up by the fisherman, and taken out of the 
 water." 
 
 In this way the Spaniards witnessed the taking of a 
 tortoise of immense size, and Fernando Columbus himself 
 afiirms that he saw a shark caught in this manner on the 
 coast of Veragua. 
 
 This account, strange as it may seem, has been corrob- 
 orated by various navigators, and the same mode of fishing 
 is said to be employed on the eastern coast of Africa, at 
 Mozambique, and at Madagascar. 
 
 The South Sea Islanders have a curious contrivance for 
 taking the cuttle-fish, which resort to the holes of the coral 
 rocks, and protrude their arms or tentacles for the bait, but 
 remain themselves firm within the retreat. The instrument 
 employed for taking them consists of a straight piece of hard 
 wood, a foot long, round and polished, and not half an inch 
 in diameter. Near one end of this a number of the most 
 beautiful pieces of the cowry or tiger-shell are fastened, one 
 over the other, like the scales of a fish or the plates of a 
 piece of armour, until it is about the size of a turkey's Qg^^ 
 and resemble the cowry. It ia suspended in an horizontal 
 position by a strong line, and is lowered by the fisherman 
 from a small canoe until it nearly reaches the bottom. The 
 fisherman then gently jerks the line, causing the shell to 
 move as if it were inhabited by a fish. The cuttle-fish, 
 attracted, it is supposed, by the appearance of the cowry 
 
210 BELONGED TO A PERIOD BEFORE THE FLOOD. 
 
 (for no bait is used), darts out one of its arms, which it 
 winds round the shell and fastens among the openings 
 between the plates. The fisherman continues jerking the 
 line, and the fish puts out successively its other arms until 
 it has fastened itself to the shells, when it is drawn up into 
 the canoe and secured. 
 
 
 "" 'til'*" ^^ 
 
 ■^"=5*^ 
 
 \ - 
 
 DEVIL FISH. 
 
 In conclusion, we will mention that the cuttle-fish belongs 
 to a period before the Flood, like the nautili ; their undi- 
 gested fossil remains are frequently noticed within the ribs 
 of the Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri in the limestone rocks, 
 showing that then, as in the present day, to eat and to be 
 eaten was the general law of nature. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MODES OF FISHING IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 
 
 " A thousand names a fisher might rehearse 
 Of nets intractable in smoother verse." — Oppian. 
 
 iTHE space devoted to this subject here must 
 of necessity be brief. It Avill therefore be 
 understood by the reader that many impor- 
 tant and interesting details will have to 
 be omitted. Though, as announced by the 
 heading of this chapter, it is proposed to 
 consider the manner of catching fish ; this cannot be done 
 without treating to some extent of the fish themselves, and 
 tlie implements employed. This at once opens up a subject 
 so extensive and varied, and withal so desirable to know 
 and enjoy, that we have been somewhat embarrassed as to 
 just what it would be desirable to omit in the list of de- 
 scription. 
 
 It will be noticed that the American fisheries have not 
 been given the importance here that their magnitude would 
 seem to demand. Of course, this omission has been pur- 
 posely, and we believe the reader will decide, before he has 
 finished reading this chapter, wisely made. In the first 
 place, it is not proposed to present a compendium of dry, 
 and, to some extent, uninteresting facts ; and, secondly, we 
 have deemed it best not to cumber these pages with descrip- 
 tions of what many of our readers daily see and are therefore 
 familiar with. On the contrary, we have in our illustrations 
 compared primitive modes of fishing in foreign latitudes, 
 
212 USE OF NETS FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS 
 
 with the more modern appliances, and, to some extent, 
 European methods with our own. By this plan our matter 
 must certainly be more picturesque, vivid, and interesting. 
 
 The use of nets for entrapping the finny inhabitants of the 
 deep date from the earliest periods. Besides the frequent 
 mention of them in the Holy Scriptures, we find illustrations 
 in the bas-reliefs of Assyria, Greece, and Rome, and in the 
 mural or wall paintings of Egypt. The latter nation 
 delighted in fishing, and, not contented vfith. the abundance 
 afforded by the Nile, they constructed in their grounds 
 spacious sluices or ponds for fish, like the vivaria of the 
 Eomans, where they fed them for the table, and amused 
 themselves by angling. The fishermen, who composed one 
 of the sub-divisions of the Egyptian castes, generally used 
 the net in preference to the line. The ancients entertained 
 a number of prejudices relative to the wholesomeness or 
 injurious qualities of certain fish. The priests in Egypt 
 were prohibited from eating fish of any kind. For fear 
 of leprosy, the people also were forbidden the use of any 
 fish not covered with scales. Moses adopted the same prin- 
 ciples with the Jews : *' Whatever hath fin or scales in the 
 water in the seas, them shalt thou eat; whatever hath no 
 fins or scales in the waters, that shall be an abomination to 
 you." 
 
 The G-reeks and Romans used nets ; trawling at sea was 
 also a favorite mode of angling, and harpoons were in gen- 
 eral use, by means of which many large fish were secured. 
 Some mosaics discovered at Palestrina represented men 
 engaged in taking fish out of a ready decoy by means of 
 small hand-nets. Arrian, in his '* Indian History," mentions 
 a people on the coasts of the Persian Gulf, who had nets 
 capable of covering a quarter of a mile of sea, not made of 
 twine, for hemp and flax were unknown in the land, but of 
 the inner bark of palm trees, being, in fact, papyrus nets. 
 
 In the dialogues composed by Elfric to instruct the Saxon 
 
VARIOUS DE8VRIPTI0N8 OF NETS. 213 
 
 youths in the Latin hmguage, which are yet preserved in 
 tlie Cottoniau manuscripts, a fisherman is asked how he 
 secures liis prey, and he answers, " I ascend my ship and 
 cast my net into the river; I also throw in a hook, a bait, 
 and a rod ;" which shows that in the earliest periods of the 
 history of that country, nets of various kinds were emplo3"ed 
 for entrapping fish; indeed, although St. Wilfred is said to 
 have taught the people of Sussex the use of the net 
 (probably an improved kind), such means have been em- 
 ployed in different ways from remotest times. Until late 
 years fishing nets have always been made by hand, and 
 generally the thread has been a more or less thick twine of 
 hemp, or flax, the thickness of the twine and the size of the 
 mesh depending upon the kind of fish for which it was made ; 
 recently, however, great improvements have been made in 
 the manufacture of nets, and machinery of the most beautiful 
 minute kind has been invented for the purpose. 
 
 A great variety of nets are in use among fishermen, but the 
 principal are the seine, trawl, and drift nets. The first is a 
 very long but not very wide net, one side of which is loaded 
 with pieces of lead, and consequently sinks; the other, 
 or upper, is buoyed with pieces of cork, and is consequently 
 kept on the surface of the water. Seines are sometimes 
 upwards of a thousand feet in length. When stretched out 
 they constitute walls of network in the water, and are made 
 to enclose vast shoals of fish. The trawl is dragged along 
 the bottom of the sea by the fishing-boat ; and the drift-net 
 is like the seine, but is not loaded with lead, and is usually 
 employed for mackerel fishing. In the two fishery exhibi- 
 tions at Arcachon and Boulogne in France, several years 
 ago, a number of curious implements for the capture of the 
 inhabitants of the deep were shown. In one corner were 
 curious tongs for taking eels. Long stretches of netting for 
 the sardine fishery, woven with thread so fine that it might 
 be used for the manufacture of ladies' hose, were festooned 
 
214 FIBEINQ BY THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 over a division of the buildings. At another place was a 
 leech-lifter, and near it were deadly traps for taking crabs 
 and lobsters. From the roofs hung stretches of Scotch-made 
 herring-nets, by far the best of their kind ; and with such a 
 wall of meshes floating in the sea as these nets present to 
 the fish, each stretch being about a mile long, and with 
 a fleet of a few hundred boats nightly centered on some well 
 known fishing-ground, the wonder is, not that fishes are 
 scarce and dear, but that a single herring could escape. 
 
 In 1864 an attempt was first made to fish by the electric 
 light at Dunkirk, on the coast of France. A magneto-elec- 
 tric machine was afterwards employed. The light was 
 constant at one hundred and eighty feet under water, and 
 it extended over a large surface. As soon as the submarine 
 lantern was immersed, shoals of fish of every description 
 came to sport in the illuminated circle, while the fishermen 
 outside of it spread their nets from the boats.- The light 
 illuminating the deep sea, the fish arriving in shoals, at- 
 tracted by the fictitious sun, the boats at the edge of the 
 lighted circle, the deep silence interrupted only by the 
 grating of the electro-magnetic machine, formed altogether 
 an imposing sight. 
 
 Before leaving this part of our subject, we may notice a 
 curious invention stated in Rymer's *' Foedera," for which 
 Charles I. granted a patent in 1632 to a physician, " for a 
 fish-call or looking-glass for fishes in the sea, very useful for 
 fishermen to call all kinds of fishes to their nets." 
 
 A singular method of getting fish is that in which other 
 animals are employed for the purpose. Birds are thus 
 trained by the Chinese. Falcons are not more sagacious in 
 the pursuit of their prey in the air than in another element. 
 They are called alvoau, and are about the size of a goose, 
 with gray plumage, webbed feet, and have a long and slen- 
 der bill, crooked at the point. Their faculty of diving, or 
 remaining under water, is not more extraordinary than that 
 
BIRDS TRAINED TO FISH. 215 
 
 of many other fowls that prey upon fish, but the wonderful 
 circumstance is the docility of these birds in employing their 
 natural instinctive powers at the command of the fishermen 
 who possess them, in the same manner as the hound, the 
 spaniel, or the pointer submit their respective sagacity to 
 the huntsman or the fowler. The number of these birds in 
 a boat is proportioned to the size of it. At a certain signal 
 they rush into the water and dive after the fish, and the 
 moment they have seized their prey, they fly with it to their 
 boat, and though there may be a hundred of these vessels 
 together, the birds always return to their own masters; and 
 amidst the crowd of fishing-junks which are sometimes 
 assembled on these occasions, they never fail to distinguish 
 that to which they belong. When the fish are in great 
 plenty, these astonishing purveyors will soon fill a boat with 
 them, and will sometimes be seen flying along with a fish of 
 such size as to make the beholder suspect his organs of 
 vision ; and such is their sagacity that when one of them hap- 
 pens to have taken a fish which is too large for a single fal- 
 con, the rest immediately lend their assistance. While they 
 are thus laboring for their masters, they are prevented from 
 paying any attention to themselves by a ring which is passed 
 round their necks, and is so contrived as to frustrate every 
 attempt to swallow the least morsel of what they take. 
 They eat thankfully what is afterwards given them in 
 reward. One of the old domestic sports of the Earls of 
 Monteith, in their island home of Talla, was fishing with 
 geese. A line with a baited hook was tied to the leg of a 
 goose, Avhich was made to swim in water of proper depth. 
 A boat well filled escorted this formidable knight-errant. A 
 marauding fish would take hold of the bait, and put his 
 mettle to the test. A combat ensued, in which, by the dis- 
 play of both contending heroes of much strength and agility 
 the goose always came off victorious, and would drag his 
 prisoner to the boat in triumpli. 
 
216 CLEVER TBIGK8 OF THE CHINESE FISHERMEN. 
 
 No nation on the earth puts in practice a greater variety 
 of modes for catcliing fish than the Chinese. One method 
 is to nail on each side of long narrow boats a plank two feet 
 broad, covered with white shining japan, and placed by a 
 gentle inclination so that its lower edge just touches the 
 surface of the water. This device is used at night, with the 
 intent that the reflection of the moon should increase its de- 
 ceptive influence ; and whether the fish which are sporting 
 around are dazzled by the splendor, or merely mistake the 
 lustrous plank for the sparkling water, it is impossible to 
 say, but in their moonlight gambols great numbers either 
 fall on the plank and are secured, or fairly vault into the 
 body of the boat. 
 
 In some places the Chinese soldiers have acquired the 
 dextrous art of shooting fish with bows and arrows. To the 
 arrow a long piece of packthread is attached, by means of 
 which, when the fish is pierced, it is drawn to hand. In 
 other places the muddy bottom is so replenished with the 
 finny tribes, that men standing up to the waist in the water 
 strike them with sticks. Besides these various devices, 
 another is in general use, and consists in stretching' out a 
 net on four pieces of bamboo suspended by a long pole. 
 
 The South Sea islanders are expert fishermen, and their 
 methods for the capture of the finny tribe are numerous, 
 and some very ingenious. They have a singular mode of 
 taking a remarkably timorous fish, which is called the needle, 
 on account of its long, sharp head. A number of rafts are 
 built, each about fifteen or twenty feet long, and six or eight 
 wide. At one edge a kind of fence or*screen is raised four 
 or five feet by fixing the poles horizontally one above the 
 other, and fastening them to upright sticks placed at short 
 distances along the raft. The men on the raft go out at a 
 distance from each other, enclosing a large space of water, 
 having the raised part or frame on the outside. They 
 gradually approach each other till the rafts join, and form a 
 
MODE OF FISHING OF SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. iilT 
 
 connected circle in some shallow. One or two persons then 
 go in a small canoe towards the centre of the enclosed space, 
 with long white sticks, which they strike in the water with 
 a great noise, and by this means drive the fish towards the 
 rafts. On approaching these the fish dart out of the water, 
 and in attempting to spring over the raft, strike against the 
 raised fence on the outer side, and fall on the surface of the 
 horizontal part, when they are gathered into baskets or 
 canoes on the outside. In this manner great numbers ot 
 these and other kinds offish, that are accustomed to spring 
 out of the water when alarmed or pursued, are taken with 
 facility. Fishing-nets are remarkably well made, and those 
 for casting are used with great dexterity, generally as the 
 islanders walk along the beach. When a shoal of small fish 
 appear, they throw the net with the right hand, and some- 
 times enclose the greater part of them. 
 
 Next to the net the spear is most frequently used. This 
 is darted at the fish, sometimes with one hand, but more 
 frequently with both, and very successfully. When fishing 
 on the reefs, they wear a kind of sandal made of closely- 
 netted cords of the cloth plant, to preserve their feet from 
 the edges of the shells, the spikes of the sea-urchins, etc. 
 
 It would be interesting to gaze upon a group of fishermen 
 standing on a coral reef or rock, amidst the roar of the 
 billows, and the dashing surf and foam that broke in mag- 
 nificent splendor around them. With unwavering glance 
 they have stood, with a little basket in one hand and a 
 pointed spear in the other, striking with unerring aim such 
 fish as the violence of the wave might force within their 
 reach. 
 
 The shell, or shell and bone hooks, are curious and use- 
 ful, answering the purpose of hook and bait, the small ones 
 being made circular, and bent so as to resemble a worm ; 
 but the most common one is that used in catching dolphins, 
 albicores, and bonitos. The shank of the hook is made with 
 
218 INGENIOUS ARTS IN FISHING. 
 
 a piece of the mother-of-pearl shell, five or six inches long 
 and three-quarters of an inch wide, carefully cut and finel)'' 
 polished, so as to resemble the body of a fish. A barb is 
 fastened by a firm bandage of finely twisted flax ; to tJie 
 lower part of this the end of the line is securely fastened. 
 When taken out to sea, the line is attached to a strong bam- 
 boo cane about twelve or fifteen feet long. When a shoal 
 of fish is seen, the natives who angle, sit in the stern of the 
 canoe, and hold the rod at such an elevation as to allow the 
 hook to touch the edge of the water, but not to sink. When 
 the fish approach it, the rowers ply their paddles briskly, 
 and the light bark moves rapidly along. The deception of 
 the hook is increased by a number of hairs or bristles being 
 attached to the end of the shell, so as to resemble the tail of 
 a flying-fish. The victims, darting after and grasping their 
 prey, are at once secured. During the season two men will 
 sometimes take twenty or thirty large fish in this way in the 
 course of the forenoon. 
 
 The most ingenious method, however, of taking these 
 large fish is by means of a mast. A pair of ordinary-sized 
 canoes is usually selected for this purpose, and the lighter 
 and swifter the more suitable they are esteemed. Between 
 the fore part of the canoes a broad, deep, oblong kind of 
 basket is constructed with the stalks of a strong kind of fern, 
 interwoven with tough fibers of a tree : this is to contain the 
 fish that may be taken. To the fore part of the canoes a long 
 curved pole is fastened, branching in opposite directions at 
 the outer end ; the foot of this rests in a kind of socket fixed 
 between the two canoes. From each of the projecting 
 branches lines with pearl-shell hooks are suspended, so ad- 
 justed as to be kept near the surface of the water. To that 
 part of the pole which is divided into two branches strong 
 ropes are attached; these extend to the stern of the canoe, 
 where they are held by persons watching the seizure of the 
 hook. The tira, or mast, projects a considerable distance 
 
TUh' CANDLE FISH. 219 
 
 beyond the stern of the canoe, and bunches of feathers are 
 fastened to its extremities. This is done to resemble the 
 aquatic birds whic-h follow the course of a small fish. As it 
 is supposed that the bonito follows the birds with as much 
 ardor as it does the fishes, when the fishermen perceive the 
 birds they proceed to the place, and usually find the fish. 
 The undulation of the waves occasions the canoe to rise and 
 sink as they proceed, and this produces a corresponding 
 action in the hook suspended from the mast; and so com- 
 plete is the deception that if the fish once perceives the 
 pearl-shell hook, it seldom fails to dart after it, and if it 
 misses the first time is almost sure to be caught the second. 
 As soon as the fish is fast, the men in the canoe, by drawing 
 the cord, hoist up the mast and drag in the fish, suspended 
 as it were from a kind of crane. When the fish is removed, 
 the crane is lowered, and as it projects over the canoe the 
 rowers hasten after the shoal with the greatest speed. 
 
 These and a variety of other methods of fishing are pur- 
 sued by daylight, but many fish are taken by night. Some- 
 times the fishery is carried on by moonlight, occasionally in 
 the dark; but fishing by torchlight is the most picturesque. 
 The torches are bunches of dried reeds firmly tied together. 
 Sometimes the natives pursue their nocturnal sport on the 
 reef, and hunt the hedge-hog-fish. Large parties often go 
 out to the reef and it is a beautiful sight to see a long line 
 of rocks illuminated by the flaring torches. These the 
 fishermen hold in one hand, and stand with the poised spear 
 in the other, ready to strike as soon as the fish appears. 
 
 The Indians on the coasts of the Pacific have also a singu- 
 lar mode of taking the Candle-fish, or Eulachon, a most valu- 
 able acquisition to their domestic comforts. Immense shoals 
 approach the shores in summer, and are caught in moonlight 
 nights, when they come to sport on the surface of the water, 
 which may often be seen glittering with their multitudes. 
 The Indians paddle their canoes noiselessly amongst them, 
 
THE GLOBE FISH. 
 
 HALIBUT. 
 
THE WHITE PORPOISE. 221 
 
 and catch them by means of a monster comb or rake — a 
 piece of pine-wood from six to eight feet long, made round 
 for about two feet of its length at the place of the hand- 
 gripe, the rest flat, thick at the back, but having a sharp 
 edge at the front, where teeth are driven into it, about four 
 inches long and an inch apart. One Indian, sitting in the 
 stern, paddles the canoe ; another, standing with his face to 
 the bow, holds the rake firmly in both hands, the teeth 
 pointing sternwards, sweeps it with all his force through the 
 glittering mass, and brings it to the surface teeth upwards, 
 usually with a fish, and sometimes with three or four, im- 
 paled on each tooth. This process is carried on with wonderful 
 rapidity. This fish, although not larger than a smelt, enjoys 
 the distinction of being probably the fattest of all animals, 
 comparatively speaking : to boil or fry it is impossible, as it 
 melts entirely into oil. Even in a dried state the Indians 
 use it as a lamp, merely drawing through it a piece of rush 
 pith as a wick, and the fish then burns steadily until con- 
 sumed. By a peculiar mode of preparation, these fishes are 
 preserved as a winter food, and notwithstanding their great 
 fatness, they are said to be of an agreeable flavor. Drying 
 is accomplished Avithout any cleaning, the fish being fastened 
 on skewers passed through their eyes, and hung in the thick 
 smoke at the top of sheds in which Avood fires are kept burn- 
 ing. They are then stowed away for winter. 
 
 We will now glance at the White Porpoise fishing in the 
 St. Lawrence River. The animal mentioned is a species of 
 whale, and is chiefly common in those quarters, being valu- 
 able for its oil, which gives a brilliant light only surpassed 
 by gas, and its skin, which is manufactured into leather 
 which has no equal for quality. The fish was formerly taken 
 in enclosures made of light and flexible poles fixed in the 
 beach, within which the porpoise pursued the small mem- 
 bers of the finny tribe during high tide, and Avhere, its 
 appetite once satisfied, it became heavy and almost asleep 
 
222 MODE OF TAKING WHITE PORPOISE. 
 
 from gluttony, and seemed to forget for .several hours the 
 dangers that surrounded it as the tide went out. The 
 fishermen, silent, and on the look-out on the cliff, having seen 
 that the waves had retreated, give the signal: two or three 
 light skiffs (either bark or wooden canoes), manned by three 
 or four expert rowers, appear upon the waves, wdiich they 
 scarcely touch with their oars. Standing in the bow of each 
 of these canoes, a man with bare and muscular arm, a steel 
 spear in his hand, intently follows with his eye the track of 
 the fish, indicating the course to be taken, Avhether to the 
 right or left, and strikes the mortal blows. Often after one 
 of these vigorous strokes, which are enough to kill the 
 largest porpoise, the spearsman may be seen, when he does 
 not strike aright, urging on the pursuit for a new contest 
 of speed between his skiff and the wounded animal : some- 
 times the blood which reddens the surface of the water 
 indicates the course to be followed, and sometimes the sound 
 of the subdued breathing of the porpoise, which comes to the 
 surface of the water to breathe, throwing up a stream which 
 descends in the form of a curve. The porpoise might break 
 through this fence of flexible poles, eighteen or twenty 
 inches apart, but it is afraid, and it returns by the way it 
 came : a new stroke is given, but it is by a harpoon Avhich 
 has a rope attached to it. The struggle becomes more in- 
 tense and exciting. The paddle at the stern of the frail 
 skiff is alone put in requisition. It is now the boatman's 
 turn to display his skill The animal leaps out of the water, 
 stops, dives, and turns about in every way; a white foam 
 rises on each side of the boat, and its progress, hitherto so 
 swift, is suddenly stopped; the animal is fatigued by its 
 w^ound, wants to breathe, but fear keeps it below the water, 
 and immediately the man in the bow rolls up at his knee 
 the line which he had allowed to run out, and the boat is 
 brought silently forward towards the victim. Again he stands 
 up and with one hand brandishes the spear, while with the 
 
PORPOISE SERVED AT ROYAL TABLES. 223 
 
 other he suddenly pulls the rope, inflicting fresh wounds: 
 the fish once more leaps, but this time is the last, for a vigor- 
 ous blow aimed at the spine between the head and the 
 neck is fatal. 
 
 Another plan is to use nets for entrapping the porpoise. 
 The weight of one of these fishes is about two thousand 
 five hundred pounds : the largest are sometimes four thou- 
 sand pounds, and these are about twenty-two feet long and 
 fifteen in circumference. 
 
 We may remark here that the flesh of the common por- 
 poise was formerly much esteemed in England, and was 
 reckoned fit for the royal table. Among the singular direc- 
 tions for the management of the household of King Henry 
 VIII. , we find among the dainty dishes to be *' set before the 
 king" a porpoise, " and if too big for a horse-load, an extra 
 allowance to be given to the purveyor." In the time of 
 Queen Elizabeth it was still used by the nobles of England, 
 and was served up with bread-crumbs and vinegar. 
 
 A curious mode of fishing the Gar-fish or Sea-Pike, in 
 the Ionian Islands, is mentioned by a tourist. A small tri- 
 angular raft is formed of three pieces of bamboo, each a foot 
 and a half long ; a little thwart is inserted, in which a small 
 mast is fixed ; it is then rigged with a sail, etc., in imitation 
 of the boats of the country. The fisherman, taking his 
 station on a projecting rock, with deep water alongside, and 
 an off-shore breeze, commits his little raft to the wind, car- 
 rying with it a line of about two hundred feet in length. A 
 float is fixed at about every six feet, and from each float de- 
 pends a fine hair-line with a baited hook. When the fish 
 bites it draws the bait down violently once, and then seems 
 to resign itself to death. The fisherman waits till ten or 
 twelve are hooked ; he then hauls in his raft, relieves it of 
 its freight, and again launches it for another cruise. Fifty 
 or sixty are sometimes caught in this way during half an 
 hour. 
 
224: CAPTURING THE TUNNY. 
 
 The gar-fish is not uncommon on English coasts, and is 
 abundant in the Baltic. It attains a length of two or three 
 feet. The upper parts of the body are of a dark greenish- 
 blue mackerel tint, and a curious circumstance is that its 
 bones are green. It has been noticed that when this fish is 
 taken by the hook, it mounts to the surface often before the 
 fishermen have felt the bite, and there, with its slender 
 body half out of the water, struggles with the most violent 
 contortions to wrench the hook from its hold. 
 
 In various chapters of this book we have already men- 
 tioned the mode of capturing the large inhabitants of the 
 deep — the whale, the seal, the shark, sea-unicorn, and oth- 
 ers. We must not omit another important fish of large di- 
 mensions, the Tunny, sometimes nine feet in length and up- 
 wards of a thousand pounds in weight, and belonging to the 
 Mackerel family. This fish is found in the Mediterranean 
 and the Atlantic Ocean, but chiefly in the former, where this 
 particular fishery is of great importance, and constitutes 
 one of the greatest branches of Sicilian commerce. The 
 fish appear at the latter end of May, at which time the ton- 
 naire, as they are called, are prepared for their reception. 
 This is a kind of aquatic castle, formed, at a considerable 
 expense, of strong nets fastened to the bottom of the sea 
 by anchors and heavy-laden weights. The tonnaires are 
 fixed in the passages amongst the rocks and islands that are 
 most frequented by the tunny-fish. Care is taken to close 
 with nets the entrance into these passages, except one small 
 opening, which is called the " outer gate." This leads into 
 the next compartment, which we may term the " hall." As 
 soon as the fishes have entered here, the fishermen who 
 stand sentries in their boats during the season shut the 
 outer entrance, which is done by letting down a small piece 
 of net, portcullis-fashion, which effectually prevents the 
 tunnies from returning by the way they came. The inner 
 door of the " hall " is then opened, which leads to another 
 
THE STURGEON. 225 
 
 compartment, and by making a noise on the surface of the 
 water the tunnies are soon driven into it. As soon as the 
 Avhole have been got into this compartment, the inner door 
 of the '"hall" is again ch)sed, and tlie outer entrance is 
 opened to receive more fishes. Tliis hist compartment of 
 network is called the " chamber of death." This is com- 
 posed of stronger nets and heavier anchors than the others. 
 
 As soon as a sufficient number of tunny-fish has been col- 
 lected here, the slaughter begins. The fishermen attack 
 the poor defenceless animals on all sides, who dash the 
 water about in their efforts to escape, but are at length sub- 
 dued, and yield themselves a prey to their conquerors. 
 
 " There is something," says a witness of this fish massa- 
 cre, " extremely exciting in seeing the wholesale capture of 
 a herd of these great black fish, intermixed, as they gener- 
 ally are, with the forms of many of their large congeners, 
 and occasionally Avith a sword-fish or a dolphin besides ; and 
 no one ever left the spot after one of these enormous hauls 
 without feeling that, however superior the whale fishery 
 may be in enterprise, it cannot ^neld its votaries half the 
 pleasures or charms of these scenes." 
 
 A very questionable kind of pleasure, however, we think 
 it must be to many, to see the agonies and the butchery 
 which must necessarily take place on these occasions. 
 
 The Sturgeon fishery is carried on to a very considerable 
 extent in the Russian dominions on the coasts of the Caspian 
 and Aral Seas. They are caught in an enclosure formed by 
 large stakes, representing the letter Z repeated several 
 times. These fisheries are open on the side nearest the sea, 
 and closed on the other, by which means the fish, ascending 
 in its season up the rivers, are caught in these narrow an- 
 gular retreats, and are easily killed. The Hon. Captain 
 Keppell, describing the method of catching sturgeon in the 
 fishery of Karmaizack, says: 
 
 '' Two persons are in each boat ; one (generally a female) 
 
226 THE STURGEON A ROTAL FISH. 
 
 rows, while the other hauls in the fish. The instruments 
 used consist of a mallet and a stick, with a large unbarbed 
 hook at the end. Every fisherman has a certain number of 
 lines. One line contains fifty hooks ; these are placed at 
 regular distances from each other ; they are without barbs, 
 sunk about a foot under water, and are kept in motion by 
 small pieces of wood attached to them. The sturgeon gen- 
 erally swims in a large shoal near the surface of the water, 
 and upon being caught by one hook, he generall}^ gets en- 
 tangled with one or two others in his struggles to escape. 
 Immediately on our arrival the boats pulled from shore. 
 Each fisherman proceeded to take up his lines. On coming 
 to a fish he drew it with his hooked stick to the side of the 
 boat, hit it a violent blow on the head with the mallet, and, 
 after disengaging it from the other hooks, hauled it into the 
 boat. On every side the tremendous splashing of the water 
 announced the capture of some huge inhabitant of the 
 deep." 
 
 The sturgeon belongs to a numerous species inhabiting 
 both sea and fresh water — those of the former, and the 
 largest kind, being especially plentiful in the Caspian and 
 Black Seas, where they attain a length of from twenty to 
 twenty-five feet, and have been known to weigh nearly three 
 thousand pounds. The flesh has the appearance and con- 
 sistency of veal, and was highly esteemed by the ancients. 
 Pliny states that it Avas brought to table with much pomp, 
 and ornamented with flowers, the slaves who carried it be- 
 ing also decorated with garlands and accompanied with 
 music. 
 
 . In England, when caught in the Thames and within ju- 
 risdiction of the city, it is reserved for the Sovereign as a 
 " royal fish." In the Illustrated London News for the 15th 
 of April, 1860, is a notice of a fine sturgeon thus taken, and 
 forwarded to the Queen at Windsor by order of the con- 
 servators of the river. 
 
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SEA CONGERS AND EELS. 227 
 
 The famous caviare of the Russians is made from the roc 
 of the sturgeon, freed from its membranes, washed in vine- 
 gar, and dried in the open air. It is then salted, put into 
 a bag and pressed, and finally packed in small barrels for 
 sale. 
 
 The principal fishery of the Conger Eel in England is 
 upon the Cornish coast. They are chiefly caught by what 
 are termed "bulters," which are strong lines, several hun- 
 dred feet long, with hooks about eight feet apart, baited 
 with sand-launces, pilchards, or mackerel. Tlie bulters are 
 sunk to the ground by a stone fastened to them. Sometimes 
 such a number of these are tied together as to reach to a 
 considerable distance. It is not unusual for a boat with 
 three men to bring on shore from one to two tons as the 
 produce of a night's fishing, the conger being caught most 
 readily at night. 
 
 On some of the French coasts the conger fishery is still 
 more abundant than in Cornwall. 
 
 Tlie great sea-conger has so great a resemblance to the 
 common eel, the inhabitant of our rivers and ponds, that 
 many persons believed the former was merely an eel of 
 larger growth; but the difference may be readily discerned. 
 The conger, whether large or small, has always the snout 
 and upper jaw projecting beyond the lower one; whilst the 
 fresh-water eel is remarkable for its protuberant lower jaw. 
 The tail is also more lengthened and pointed, the dorsal fin 
 commencing much nearer the head, and the teeth of the 
 upper jaw, although slender, placed so close together as to 
 form a cutting edge. The internal structure of these fishes 
 differs more widely, the conger having a great many more 
 bones than the eel, particularly towards the tail, and in pos- 
 sessing a greater number of vertebrte (the spine or back- 
 bone). 
 
 The common conger of the Atlantic coasts is a large fish, 
 sometimes exceeding ten feet in length, and weighing up- 
 
228 THE SAND EEL FISHERY. 
 
 wards of a hundred pounds, but its ordinary dimensions are 
 from five to seven feet. It is entirely a marine species, al- 
 though frequently found in the mouths of rivers, its object 
 being, it is thought, that of feeding on the fish that ascend 
 or descend the stream. Of these it devours large quanti- 
 ties, not objecting to crabs and shell-fish, which the strength 
 of its jaws permits it to masticate without difficulty. The 
 smaller kinds of fish it swallows entire, and thus fortified by 
 good nourishment, it becomes a formidable adversary when 
 hauled into the boat by a fisherman's line, or found among 
 the rocks, where it is sometimes left by the retiring tide. 
 
 This does not seem to be a matter of complaint in our 
 time. The conger, however formidable, also finds a danger- 
 ous adversary in the spiny lobster of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, which is said to enter into a fierce battle with the con- 
 ger, and generally becomes the victor, from the superiority 
 of its weapons of defence, the claws, which lacerate and 
 wound the monstrous eel, proving the death summons. 
 
 The conger, when properly cooked, has a most delicious 
 flavor, but somehow or other there is a great antipathy to this 
 fish, as being, probably, too much of the serpent form; but 
 travelers in Cornwall find a conger-pie delicious, and those 
 persons who have visited the Channel Islands will not 
 easily forget the delicious soup that is made from this fish. 
 Even as far back as the reign of Queen Elizabeth, there was 
 a singular mode of curing congers in Cornwall, which was 
 merely to slit them in half, and without any further prepa- 
 ration to hang them up in a kind of shambles erected for 
 that purpose ; such parts of them as were not gone, were 
 considered fit for use, and exported to Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The Sand-Eel fishery, although of a very primitive char- 
 acter, being mostly carried on with spades, shovels, three- 
 pronged forks, rakes, and in fact any implement of a raking 
 character at hand, is very exciting and amusing. Large 
 shoals are observed frequently swimming near the shore, 
 
THE MACKEREL. 229 
 
 and it often happens that, instead of retiring with the ebb- 
 ing tide, they dig into the sand, and remain tliere until the 
 water covers tliem again. Advantage is taken of this, and 
 hundreds of men, women, and children set to work with the 
 readiest implements they can find, and the scene becomes 
 very animated. When dug from the sand, the fish leap 
 about with singular velocity, and the gathering of tbem af- 
 fords a fine amusement to the younger parties, who are 
 commonly tliemost numerous and eager in this pursuit. It 
 is remarkable with what ease and rapidity these slender and 
 delicate-looking fish penetrate the sand, even when it is of 
 a pretty firm texture. They are a favorite meal with many, 
 and are sometimes salted and dried; but their principal use 
 is as bait for the capture of more valuable fishes, there be- 
 ing scarcely any other found to answer the purpose so effec- 
 tually. This well-known fish scarcely ever exceeds seven 
 or eight inches. 
 
 The Mackerel belongs to the same family as the tunny- 
 fish previously described, but is a comparatively small mem- 
 ber as regards size, being usually about fourteen inches long 
 and about two pounds in weight. This beautiful fish is 
 readily caught by bait, and particularly when the bait — 
 which is usually a piece from one of its own kind — is moved 
 quickly through the water. The boats engaged for this 
 fishing are often under sail. Besides the line, drift-nets and 
 seines are employed. The size of the mesh is one inch and 
 one-sixth from knot to knot when the twine is wet, or in the 
 square, from one corner to another. A row of corks runs 
 along the head-line, and the lower border is left suspended 
 by its own weight. The number of nets in each boat de- 
 pends upon its size. A boat may carry eleven score of nets, 
 and as these are fastened in length to each other, they will 
 extend to a distance of a mile and three-quarters. The 
 boats on the various fishing-grounds are shot across the 
 course of the tide tAvice between evening and morning; for 
 
230 MODE OF CATCHING THE MACKEREL. 
 
 fish avoid the nets during the day, and scarcely less so dur- 
 ing very dark nights. This latter circumstance is caused 
 by the light produced in the sea by luminous animals, which 
 then appears most conspicuous; and hence a hazy atmos- 
 phere is judged beneficial. The use of lights is employed 
 in some countries. Bloch, in speaking of the mackerel fish- 
 ery, says, that at St. Croix, on the approach of night, when 
 the sea is smooth, they prepare their torches, and hold them 
 as close to the water as possible. The fish soon show them- 
 selves, and rise above the surface, when the nets are imme- 
 diately shot, and soon taken in with abundant success. 
 
 When the shoal of mackerel approaches the land the 
 seine comes into operation. This consists of a single net, 
 which is about seven hundred feet in length, and seventy in 
 depth at the middle. The full size of the mesh from corner 
 to corner is two and three-quarter inches at the sides, which 
 is the same dimension allowed to the drift-net ; but for 
 about two hundred feet of the hollow, the size of the mesh 
 is lessened to two and a half inches, to prevent the fish 
 from being hung in the meshes ; for if this should happen, 
 the net would not be raised from the bottom, and fish and 
 net would be lost. Shoals of mackerel are rapid in their 
 motion, and exceedingly uncertain, as well as easily alarmed. 
 They rarely stay long at the surface, and when they sink 
 below it is doubtful in what direction the}^ may again ap- 
 pear. The whole proceedings are, therefore, full of excite- 
 ment, and great haste is employed to enclose them in the 
 circle of the seine. 
 
 The mackerel is a favorite article of food, but its flesh . 
 soon changes; and a capture that might have proved valu- 
 able, may be rendered worthless if the fishes are not at once 
 sent to the market. A principal object of the French fishery 
 is to prepare the mackerel salted for use at home, for which 
 purpose they are immediately stored in bulk on board the 
 boats. In the west of Cornwall, also considerable numbers 
 
THE HERRING FISHERY. 231 
 
 are palted, chiefly for the use of miners, who seem to prefer 
 salted fish to even the fresh that abound in the finest con- 
 dition in their markets. 
 
 It was formerly supposed that great migrations of mack- 
 erel took place, but it is now believed, as in regard to the 
 herring, that they merely leave the deep water and approach 
 the coast for the purpose of spawning. The mackerel is of 
 less importance than the herring fishery. It is a restless, 
 ever-wandering rover, and unlike the herring in its habits 
 in that respect. It is found in large numbers in the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 The Herring fishery affords one of the best illustrations 
 of British enterprize. We must now proceed to the Nor- 
 folk coast, for it is there that this most valuable fish is found 
 in the greatest abundance, perhaps more so than in any other 
 part of the world. The name of the fish is derived from the 
 German Acer, "an army," in reference to the vast shoals in 
 which they arrive. The herrings appear on the Norfolk 
 coast in the last week of September for the purpose of 
 spawning, and are then in the best condition to become the 
 food of man. Having fulfilled this obligation of nature, they 
 return to their former haunts about the commencement of 
 December. A few, however, may be found at other periods 
 of the year, particularly about midsummer; and, although 
 small, they are much esteemed for their delicate flavor. 
 The Yarmouth herring has less oil than the Scotch herring, 
 but is unrivalled in point of quality. It seldom measures 
 more than fourteen inches in length, in girth six inches and 
 a half, and it weighs about nine ounces. The vessels em- 
 ployed by Yarmouth in this fishery are usually decked boats, 
 of from forty to fifty tons burthen, and carrying a crew of 
 ten men. Besides the boats belonging to the town, there 
 are many others called " cobles," which come from Scar- 
 borough, Filey, and other northern ports. Each fishing- 
 boat is provided with from sixty to one hundred nets, each 
 
232 THE ENORMOUS QUANTITY TAKEN. 
 
 net about fifteen yards long upon the rope, fastened by small 
 cords called "seizings." These nets are floated by corks 
 placed at intervals of a few feet- from each other; the warp 
 which supports the whole is frequently a mile in length, and 
 is borne up by small buoys. The nets themselves are 
 usually made in four parts or Avidths, called " lints," one be- 
 ing placed above another, and so forming a wall in the sea, 
 against which the fish are invited to drive their heads. 
 
 This fishing is carried on during the night only, it being- 
 supposed that the stretching of the nets in the daytime 
 would drive away the shoal. In the dusk of the evening 
 the nets are thrown over the side, and the boat is then 
 steered under an easy sail, or allowed to drift with the tide 
 until daylight, when the nets are hauled in. A single boat 
 has sometimes, in one night, taken twelve or fourteen lasts 
 of hearings, each " last" numbering ten thousand fish, or, by 
 the fisherman's calculation, thirteen thousand two hundred; 
 but it often happens that a boat does not obtain more than 
 this quantity during the season. The average catch for each 
 boat is about thirty " lasts" (three hundred thousand) ; but 
 a boat has been known to bring in the enormous quantity 
 of two hundred and sixty -four thousand herring at one time. 
 Like all fisheries, the result is very uncertain. It is a curious 
 and bountiful provision of nature that forces the herring, 
 and other fish usually distributed through the deep, to congre- 
 gate together, and visit the shores in such immense abun- 
 dance, at a time ^vhen they are in the highest perfection, 
 and when most fitted for human food. 
 
 The herring dies as soon as it leaves the water, hence 
 the phrase *' as dead as a herring." The fishes are therefore 
 salted as soon as caught, and when the boat has reached 
 land they are brought to shore, and carried to the fish-house 
 in " SAvills," which are open coarse wicker baskets. Arrived 
 at the fish "office," the herrings, after being sufficiently 
 salted, remain on the floor for twenty-four hours if intended 
 
WANDERINfi CHAETODON. 
 
 LUMP FISH. 
 
234 CURING HEBBINQ. 
 
 to be slightly cured, or for ten days if intended for the 
 foreign market; they are then washed in large vats filled 
 with fresh water ; " spits," (pieces of wood about four feet 
 long and of the thickness of a man's thumb) are passed 
 through their heads or gills, and they are then hung up in 
 rows to the top of the building. Wood fires are then kindled 
 under them, and are continued day and night, M'ith slight 
 intermissions to allow the fat and oil to drop, until the fish 
 are sufficiently cured, which, if they are intended for the 
 foreign market, is at the end of fourteen days, but if for 
 home consumption, three or four days suffice. The first 
 are called " red" herrings, from the deep color which they 
 acquire, and the others are known as " bloaters." When 
 cured, the herrings are taken down and placed in bar- 
 rels which contain each about seven hundred fish. From 
 thirty to forty thousand barrels are sent yearly from Yar- 
 mouth to the towns on the Mediterranean coasts. The 
 annual supply of herrings at Billingsgate Market is estimated 
 at one hundred and twenty thousand tons, valued at one 
 million two hundred pounds sterling! The greatest enemy 
 to the herring fishermen is the dog-fish, which, in pursuit of 
 the herring, frequently becomes entangled in the nets, and 
 does great damage to them in endeavoring to escape. 
 
 The herring fisheries sometimes suffer very considerably 
 from the ravages of this fish, the popular name of some of 
 the smaller species of shark, owing this designation to their 
 habit of following their prey like dogs hunting in packs. 
 These predaceous fishes are seldom abundant when the her- 
 rings are in a compact body; but sometimes they commit 
 great destruction when a shoal is first drawn in near land. 
 They have been known to consume as many herrings as 
 would fill a dozen barrels out of one boat's nets in the 
 course of an hour. They are also very destructive to the 
 nets when the}' get entangled, their hard fins tearing them 
 to pieces. In like manner they make sad havoc with other 
 
THE DOG-FISH AND THE HAKE. 235 
 
 fishes. Occasionally only a few escape with their heads, the 
 tails of others are snapped off, and pieces bitten out of the 
 belly. A cod-fish sometimes comes up a mere skeleton, 
 stripped to the bone on both sides. 
 
 The Dog-fish attains a length of three or four feet, and is 
 found in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, and the South seas. 
 One of the most abundant species on English coasts is the 
 common dog-fish, which sometimes appears in prodigious 
 numbers, twenty thousand having been taken at Cornwall 
 at one time in a net, and the fishermen of the Orkneys and 
 Hebrides, where they are much used for food, sometimes 
 load their boats to the water's edge with them. 
 
 Another voracious enemy of the herring (and the pil- 
 chard) is the Hake, a member of the Cod family, with the 
 same predatory instincts. It is sometimes three or four feet 
 in length, coarse in quality, but valuable as a " stock" fish. 
 It is generally taken by lines, like cod and ling, but in the 
 spawning season, when it keeps near the bottom, it is some- 
 times caught by trawl-nets. 
 
 Allied to the herring, but difi'ering in some respects, 
 being nearly equal in size, but rather thicker, and the lines 
 of the back and belly being straighter, the scales also being 
 larger and fewer, is the Pilchard, a fish also of immense im- 
 portance in the British fisheries, and plentiful on the coasts 
 of Devonshire and Cornwall. These fish congregate in deep 
 waters, within limits extending from the Scilly Isles, as far, 
 sometimes, as the Irish, Welsh and Cornish coasts. A por- 
 tion strikes the land north of Cape Cornwall, and turns in a 
 north-easterly direction toward St. Ives, constituting its 
 summer fishery. The great bulk passes between the Scilly 
 Islands and the mainland. " To look from Cape Cornwall," 
 says an eye-witness, "or from any of the high lands of St. 
 Just, and see this immense mass of fishes, extending as far 
 as the eye can reach, approaching the shores and reddening 
 
236 THE ST. IVES PILCHARD FISHERY. 
 
 the waters, is a sight of great interest and beauty, and such 
 as would repay any exertion to see." 
 
 The seine or net used in St. Ives Bay for capturing pil- 
 chards ia nearly twelve hundred feet long, and nearly sixty 
 feet in depth. More than two hundred and fifty of such 
 nets are kept at St. Ives, each having its own boat to carry 
 it. Every seine or net-boat, when its turn arrives, is attended 
 by one or two tow-boats with stop-nets, and also by a smaller 
 boat called the " follower," used principally for carrying the 
 men to and from the larger boats. When the huers or sen- 
 tinels stationed on the hills perceive a shoal of pilchards, 
 they immediately signal to their respective boats, and by 
 signs give the necessary directions for their capture. They 
 are enabled to do this by observing on the water a reddish 
 hue, like that of sea-weed (very different from their color 
 out of water), and the denser the shoal of fish, the deeper 
 is this hue. As soon as the seine-boat and tow-boat are 
 within reach of the shoal, they start for the same point in 
 opposite directions, and are rowed rapidly round the fish, 
 while the nets which they carry are being shot or cast into 
 the sea. When the seine and the stop-net meet, they are 
 immediately joined, and form a complete circular wall round 
 the pilchards about eighteen hundred feet in circumference, 
 and reaching from the surface to the bottom, the nets being 
 kept in a vertical position by corks strung on their head- 
 ropes and leads on their foot-ropes. This net-work enclo- 
 sure, with all its contents, is then warped towards the shore 
 into the securest part of the bay, out of the reach of the 
 strong tidal current, and there moored with anchors so 
 placed as to keep it as open or as nearly circular as possi- 
 ble. Within this large net a small one, called the tuck-net, 
 is introduced at low water, so that the fish are raised to the 
 surface, dipped up in baskets into the boats, taken to shore, 
 and carried in barrows to be cured and salted. The St. Ives 
 seine fishery does not differ materially from that in Mount's 
 
CURING THE PILCHARD. i>37 
 
 Buy, except that in the hitter phxce, owing to the greater 
 depth of water, the nets are about thirty feet deeper, and 
 they are also longer. Besides the method of capturing pil- 
 chards with deep nets in shallow Avater in the day-time, 
 there is a far more common mode in Cornwall of taking them 
 in shallow nets, in deep water, by night. As these drift- 
 nets are always spread in the open sea, where they might 
 be destroyed by vessels sailing over them, their head-ropes 
 are sunk about eighteen feet below the surface, and kept 
 suspended at that depth by cork buoys fixed at regular in- 
 tervals. By this contrivance, not only are the nets pre- 
 served, but larger quantities of fish are taken. These nets, 
 each with a driving-boat attached, are left to go with the 
 wind or tide all the time the net remains in the water. 
 
 As soon as the pilchards caught by the seine or drift- 
 nets are landed, some are sold in the neighboring towns and 
 villages, and the rest, when cured and placed in barrels, are 
 exported to the Mediterranean, where, during Lent, they 
 are much sought after. 
 
 The method of curing the pilchards is very simple. They 
 are placed in cellars, and women are employed in arranging 
 them in layers, with salt between. After remaining in bulk 
 about five weeks, during which oil and other matters drain 
 from them, they are put into troughs of water, washed quite 
 clean, and then carefully laid in casks, where they are sub- 
 jected to heavy pressure for about a week. The oil thus 
 expressed flows out from holes at the bottom or crevices in 
 the sides of the untightened casks, and as this reduces their 
 contents, more fish are added, until each cask, when the 
 pressure is removed, weighs at least four hundredweight. 
 The capital employed in the Cornish pilchard fishery 
 amounts to at least two hundred and fifty thousand pounds, 
 and affords employment to about ten thousand persons. 
 
 The Sprat was formerly considered by naturalists to be 
 the young of the herring, as well as that of the pilchard ; it 
 
238 SPRATS, WHITEBAIT, AND SARDINES. 
 
 is now generally admitted to be a distinct species. This fish 
 comes into season in November, and continues so all the 
 winter months, during which the sale, especially in London, 
 is immense. About five hundred boats are annually em- 
 ployed in the sprat fishery. So great is the abundance 
 sometimes, that thousands of tons are sold to farmers for 
 manure. Most fish are caught on dark and foggy nights. 
 
 The Whitebait, little fishes from three to six inches in 
 length, the delicious flavor of which the reader may have 
 often enjoyed, are caught by means of bag-nets, sunk four 
 or five feet below the water. They are very abundant in 
 many parts of the British coasts, particularly in the estuary 
 of the Thames in spring and summer, when they arrive in 
 shoals to deposit their spaAvn. For several months they 
 continue to ascend the river with the flood tide, and descend 
 with the ebb tide, not being able to live in fresh water. It 
 was formerly supposed that this fish was the young of the 
 shad, or sprat, but is now regarded as a distinct species. 
 
 The Sardine, a fish of the same genus with the herring 
 and pilchard, smaller than the latter, abounds in the Medi- 
 terranean, and is found also in the Atlantic Ocean. The 
 sardines of the west coast of France, which are largely im- 
 ported into other countries, are generally young sprats, and 
 sometimes young herrings. This " sardine " fishery is a 
 great business in France, and especially at Concarneau, 
 where as many as thirteen thousand men aid in the fishery. 
 This is conducted in a way remarkable for the extravagance 
 it involves. The sprat fisheries on the British coast — in- 
 deed, all other net fisheries — are carried on in the most 
 primitive way ; but the French have made it a " bait " fish- 
 ery, and use the roe of the cod, which is brought at a con- 
 siderable expense from the North seas for the purpose. The 
 fish are gutted, beheaded, sorted into sizes, and washed in 
 sea-water, then dried on nets or willows ; they are then 
 placed in a pan, kept over a furnace, and filled with boiling 
 
THE COD FISHERY. 239 
 
 oil. The fish are plunged into the cauldron, two rows deep, 
 arranged on wire gratings. They are afterwards placed to 
 drip, the oil being carefully collected, after which they are 
 packed in the tin boxes with which Ave are so familiar. It 
 is said that, besides the qiiantity exported, as many as four 
 millions are annually prepared for the home market. 
 
 We need not enter into any particulars about the Cod 
 fishery on the banks of New^foundland, which presents noth- 
 ing new or very interesting except in the value attached to 
 every part of this valuable fish. The tongue of the cod, 
 whether fresh or salted, is a great delicacy ; the gills are 
 used as baits in fishing; the liver, which is large and good 
 for eating, also furnishes an enormous quantity of oil, now 
 much esteemed for consumptive patients; the swimming- 
 bladder furnishes an isinglass; the head is eaten, and the 
 Norwegians give it, with marine plants, to their cows, to 
 produce a greater quantity of milk; the vertebree, the ribs, 
 and the bones are given by the Icelanders to their cattle ; 
 even the intestines and eggs are eaten. The coast of Ice- 
 land abounds in fish, especially of the cod tribe, and this 
 abundance has not only from a very early time supplied the 
 inhabitants with their chief food, but enabled them to pro- 
 cure other necessaries. As the principal fishings begin on 
 the Newfoundland coast, at the Feroe Islands, in Norway, 
 and in Iceland at the same time, it seems evident that the 
 cod is not a migratory fish, but a dweller where it finds its 
 food. The Icelanders fish chiefly from open boats, and 
 sometimes from decked ones. Only the largest boats, with 
 six or twelve oars, are used in the cod fishery, and in these 
 the natives often go out many miles to sea in the depth of 
 winter to fish. They are a most hardy set of mariners. 
 Their mode of capturing the cod is either by small drift- 
 nets, deep-sea or hand lines, and the ordinary long line. 
 The fish caught by the net are different from those taken 
 by the line, being more plump, with smaller heads. The 
 
240 MODE OF TAKING CODFISH. 
 
 number of Iceland boats employed in the cod fisheries aver- 
 age nearly five thousand, and the number of persons em- 
 ployed exceeds ten thousand. 
 
 The modern cod-smack usually carries from nine to eleven 
 men and boys, including- the captain. The line is chiefly 
 used for the purpose of taking cod or haddock. Bach man 
 has a line of three hundred feet in length, and attached to 
 each of these lines are one hundred " snoods," with hooks 
 already baited with mussels, pieces of herring, or whiting. 
 Each line is laid " clear " in a shallow basket or " skull ;" that 
 is, it is so arranged as to run freely as the boat shoots ahead. 
 The three hundred feet line, with one hundred hooks, is 
 called in Scotland a " taes." If there are eight men in a boat, 
 tlie length of the line will be two thousand four hundred 
 feet, with eight hundred hooks (the lines being tied to each 
 other before setting). On arriving at the fishing-ground, 
 the fishermen heave overboard a cork buoy with a flag-staff 
 affixed to it, about six feet in height. The buoy is kept 
 fixed by a line reaching to the bottom of the water, and 
 having a stone or small anchor fastened to the lower end. 
 To this line, called the "pow-end," is also fastened the fish- 
 ing-line, Avhich is then " paid " out as fast as the boat sails. 
 Should the wind be unfavorable, the oars are used. When 
 the line is all out the end is dropped, and the boat returns 
 to the buoy. The pow-end is hauled up, with the anchor 
 and fishing-line attached to it. The fishermen then haul in 
 the line with whatever fish may be on it. Eight hundred 
 fish might be taken by eight men in a few hours by this 
 operation. Many a time the fish are eaten off" the line by 
 the dog-fish and other enemies, so that a few fragments and 
 a skeleton or two remain to show that fish have been caught. 
 The fishermen of " deck-welled cod-bangers " use both hand- 
 lines and long lines. The cod-bangers' tackling is, of course, 
 stronger than that used in open boats. The long lines are 
 called " grut lines " or great lines. Every deck-welled cod- 
 
THE HADDOCK AND COAL-FISH. 241 
 
 banger carries a small boat on dock, for woi'king the great 
 lilies in inodorute weather. This boat is also provided with 
 a well, ill which the fish are kept alive till they arrive at the 
 banger, when they are transferred from the small boat's well 
 to that of the larger vessel. 
 
 The Haddock, which has a striking family resemblance to 
 the cod, is taken both by trawl-nets and lines, and being in 
 great esteem by fish-eaters for the excellence of its flavor, 
 we ought to be pleased that the fish is so partial to our own 
 coasts, where it appears in vast shoals at particular seasons. 
 Fishermen sometimes find haddocks and other fishes caught 
 in their lines reduced to mere skin and skeleton by the Hag, 
 one of the species allied to the Lamprey family, resembling 
 an eel or worm, and a perfect anatomist in its way. It is 
 believed to enter by the mouth of the haddock, and thus 
 prey upon it: the fish thus treated is called a " robbed " fish. 
 As many as six hags have been taken out of a single had- 
 dock, and they are also said to make their way into fishes 
 through the skin, and are hence sometimes called " borers." 
 It is supposed, however, that the hags are swallowed by 
 fishes, and, in retaliation, work out their insides. 
 
 The Coal-fish — a relative of the cod, with a very vulgar 
 name, derived from its black coat, but a fish of really hand- 
 some form, and about two or three feet in length — takes a 
 bait with extraordinary eagerness: when a boat falls in with 
 a shoal, they may be kept beside it by being thus attracted 
 till the whole are captured. It is abundant in all Northern 
 seas, and is taken on the British coasts. In many parts of 
 Scotland they are well known to juvenile anglers, who take 
 them in plenty from the end of piers, often with a rude 
 tackle and almost any kind of bait. In the winter-time, 
 while the fry of this fish is in the harbor of Orkney, it is 
 common to see five or six hundred people, of all ages, fishing 
 for them with small angling-rods about six feet long, and a 
 
TRK LING AND TUIIDOT. 243 
 
 line a little longer; but with this simple apparatus they kill 
 vast numbers. The whole harbor is covered with boats. 
 
 Other members of the cod family are caught much in the 
 same manner as their representative, and are very valuable 
 as food, especially the Ling. The sounds (air-bladders), are 
 pickled, and the roes are preserved in brine, and eaten as 
 food, or used as a means of attracting fish by throwing it 
 about the nets, as is often done by French fishermen. The 
 Common Hake, a fish sometimes measuring three feet, is also 
 plentiful on the English and Irish coasts, and very voracious. 
 When enclosed in a net with pilchards — as frequently hap- 
 pens on the Cornish coast — it gorges itself with them : It 
 is to this species, and the common cod when dried and salted 
 for exportation, to which the name of " stock " fish is usually 
 applied. Forty thousand hakes have been landed on the 
 shores of Mount's Bay in Cornwall in a single day, and the 
 quantity captured on the Irish coast is immense. Galway 
 Bay is sometimes called the "Bay of Hakes" from the numbers 
 of that fish taken. 
 
 The Turbot, an especial delight of fish epicures in all 
 times, is taken, with other flat fish, by lines and hooks, the 
 fishermen going out in parties of three to a "coble," each 
 man carrying his long line, the united ends of which are a 
 league in length, and draw after them fifteen hundred baited 
 hooks; these lines, as they are to lie across the current, can 
 only be shot twice in twenty-four hours, when the rush of the 
 water slackens as the tide is about to change. The Italians 
 christen the turbot the "sea pheasant," from its flavor. The 
 Romans were particularly fond of this dainty, and frequent 
 allusion to its size occur in their writers; thus : 
 
 " Great turbots and late suppers lead 
 To debt, disgrace, and abject need." 
 
 " The border of broadest disb. 
 
 Lay bid beneatli the monster fisb." 
 
244 CAPTURING THE TURTLE. 
 
 But the size mentioned by the ancient writers is of a fabu- 
 lous character. However, it sometimes attains a weight of 
 between seventy and ninety pounds. It is now chiefly 
 obtained by beam-trawling, a triangular purse-shaped net 
 about seventy feet long, usually having a breadth of about 
 forty feet at the mouth, and gradually diminishing to the 
 end of the net, which is about ten feet long, and of nearly 
 uniform breadth. The turbot is of all the flat fishes the most 
 valuable. The Brill belongs to the same tribe, as well as 
 other less important fishes. The turbot is shorter, broader, 
 and deeper than almost any other kind of flat fish. It gen- 
 erally keeps close to the bottom of the sea, and is found 
 chiefly on banks where there is a considerable depth of 
 water. Some of the banks in the German Ocean abound in 
 turbots, as the Doggerbank, and yield great quantities to the 
 London market. 
 
 In proportion to the benefits derived from the spoils of 
 the Turtle, the shell of which is so ornamental and useful in 
 the arts, the ingenuity of man has been sharpened by his 
 eagerness to acquire them. The modes by which the peo- 
 ple of Celebes take them are by the harpoon and the net, or 
 by falling on the females when they resort to the strand to 
 lay their eggs. The turtle is turned on its back, when, 
 unable to turn again, it lies helpless. It sometimes also falls 
 into the hands of the dwellers on the coast through means 
 of their fishing-stakes, into which it enters like the fish, and 
 from which it can find no outlet. It is then killed and 
 robbed of its upper shield ; but, as the shells adhere fast to 
 each other, and would be injured by being torn off, the usual 
 plan is to wait a few days, by which time the soft parts 
 become decomposed, and the shells are removed with little 
 trouble. When the turtles lie floating on the sea either for 
 the purpose of sleep or respiration, the fishermen approach 
 them quietly with a sharp harpoon, carrying a ring at the 
 butt-end, to which a cord is attached. The harpooner strikes. 
 
8ING ULAli METHODS OF CUINESE FISHERMEN. 245 
 
 and the -wounded animal divos. but is at last secured by the 
 cord. In the South Seas skiltul divers watch them when so 
 floating, and getting under the animals, suddenly rise, and so 
 seize them. Mr. Darwin describes a curious method of 
 capturing turtles which he witnessed at Keeling Island in 
 1836: 
 
 '■I accompanied," he remarks, "Captain Pitzroy to an 
 island at the head of the lagoon : the channel was exceed- 
 ingly intricate, winding through fields of delicately-branched 
 corals. We saw several turtles, and two boats were then 
 employed in catching them. The water is so clear and 
 shallow, that although at first a turtle quickly dives out of 
 siglit, yet, in a canoe or boat under sail, the pursuers, after 
 no very long chase, come up to it. A man standing ready in 
 the bows at this moment dashes through the water upon the 
 turtle's hack] then clinging with both hands by the shell of 
 the neck, he is carried away until the animal becomes 
 exhausted, and is secured. It was quite an interesting sight 
 to see the two boats thus doubling about, and the men dash- 
 ing into the water to secure their prey." 
 
 But the most singular mode of capturing turtles is that 
 practised on the coasts of China and the Mozambique, by 
 the aid of living fishes trained for the purpose, and thence 
 named "fisher-fishes." This fish is a species of remora 
 (sucking-fish), and the islanders who use it are said to pro- 
 ceed in the following manner : 
 
 They have, in their little boat, tubs containing many of 
 these little fishes, the top of Avhose head is covered with an 
 oval plate, soft and fleshy at its circumference. In the mid- 
 dle of this plate is a very complicated apparatus of bony 
 pieces disposed across fn two regular rows, like the laths of 
 Persienne blinds. The number of these plates varies from 
 fifteen to thirty-six, according to the species : they can be 
 moved on their axis by means of particular muscles, and 
 their free edires are furnished with small hooks, which are 
 
246 THE HERMIT CRAB. 
 
 all raised at once like the points of a wool-card. The tail of 
 each of the trained fishes in the tubs is furnished with a 
 ring for the attachment of a fine but long and strong cord. 
 When the fishermen perceive the basking turtles on tlie 
 surface of the sea, knowing that the slightest noise would 
 disturb the intended victims, they slip overboard one of 
 their fish tied to the long cord, and pay out line according 
 to their distance from the turtles. As soon as the fish per- 
 ceives the floating reptile, he makes towards it, and fixes 
 himself so firmly to it that the fishermen pull both fish and 
 and turtle into the boat, where the fish is very easily de- 
 tached from its prey, and the turtle is secured. 
 
 Crabs, which belong to the highest order ot Crustaceans, 
 (a hard covering) are taken by traps — baskets which readily 
 permit an entrance, but not their escape, and which are 
 baited with meat or animal garbage of some kind — or pots, 
 or are caught in the holes of the rocks at low tide with a rod 
 and hook. These animals require very careful handling 
 when found on the rocks or the sea-shore. Their fighting 
 propensities are not confined to other prey, but they have 
 fierce encounters among themselves, by means of their for- 
 midable claws, with which they lay hold of their adversary's 
 legs, and dexterously amputate them. 
 
 The Hermit Crab is one of the most curious of this 
 numerous family. A more daring little burglar could not 
 be found than this animal, appropriating to its own use the 
 shells of whelks and periwinkles, after basely dislodging and 
 killing their lawful owners. It is curious to see this crab 
 busil}^ parading the sea-shore, dragging its old incommodious 
 habitation behind it, unwilling to part with it until another 
 and more convenient one is found. It stops first at one shell, 
 turns it, pssses by, then goes to another, looks at it atten- 
 tively for a time, and then tries it. Not being found suit- 
 able, it resumes the old one, and in this manner frequently 
 changes, until at length it finds one light, roomy, and com- 
 
ITS PliEDACEOUS HABITS. 
 
 247 
 
 modious ; into this it enters, and takes up its abode. Fre- 
 quently two of them will have a severe contest for possession, 
 and a fierce fight ensues. With such very bad instincts 
 and unscrupulous habits, it is not surprising that the 
 
 HEUR1X(; FISHING. 
 
 hermit crab should be a very suspicious animal. On the 
 slightest alarm it retires into its shell, guarding the entrance 
 to it with its largest claw. The structure of the animal 
 renders it equal to most emergencies. The part which in 
 the lobster becomes a fan-like expansion at the end of the 
 tail, is an appendage to the hermit crab for firmly holding 
 on by the shell, and so tenacious is the hold that it may be 
 torn to pieces, but cannot be pulled out. As they increase 
 
248 KING CUAB8 AND PILL-MAKER CRABS. 
 
 in size, the hermit crabs are compelled to enter on a fresh 
 career of crime. The ancients were well acquainted with 
 the predaceous habits of this little marauder. 
 
 Crabs are inhabitants of almost all seas. The different 
 kinds vary much in the form of the carapace, or back, which 
 in some is round or nearly so : in others longer than broad ; 
 in some prolonged in front into a kind of beak, etc. ; also in 
 smoothness or roughness, with hairs, excrescences, or spines; 
 in the length of the legs, etc. The King Crab, an inhabitant 
 of tropical seas, is a remarkable species, having a tail which 
 forms a long and powerful dagger-like spine, sometimes 
 exceeding in length the whole body. Some of these crabs 
 exceed two feet in length, and in the Asiatic islands the 
 spine is often used for pointing arrows; in tropical America 
 the shell is used as a ladle. At Labuan and Singapore Dr. 
 Collingwood met with a new species of crab, the " Pill- 
 maker." It is a small creature of its kind, many being the 
 size of large peas. Its habit is to take up particles of sand 
 in its claws, deposit them in a groove beneath the thorax, 
 and afterwards eject them as pellets or pills from its mouth, 
 after having extracted what nutriment they may contain. 
 
 The crab (as also the prawn) may be quoted as exercising 
 the virtue of conjugal affection to the highest degree, for 
 the male takes hold of his mate, and never quits her side, 
 swimming wdth her, crawling about with her ; and if she is 
 forcibly taken away, the faithful animal will seize hold of 
 and endeavor to retain her. 
 
 A traveler mentions a curious example of instinctive 
 stratagem in a crab on the shores of the Pacific, about six 
 inches in circumference, w^iich covers itself with decaying 
 vegetable rubbish, mud, sand, etc., and thus lies in ambush 
 for its passing prey. It maintains a sluggish character until 
 taken into the hand, or otherwise alarmed, when it becomes 
 very active. The spines upon its body to retain the rub- 
 bish, the short but strong claws easily concealed, the eyes 
 
PliAWXS AXB SHRIMPS. 249 
 
 placed at the end of long foot-stalks, curving upwards and 
 thus raised above tlie mass, show the beautiful adapation of 
 its structure to its liabits. 
 
 Prawns in general form resemble lobsters, cray-fish, and 
 shrimps, but belong to a family remarkable for a long saw- 
 like beak projecting from the carapace or back. There are 
 many species, and some of those inhabiting the warm seas 
 attain a large size. Many of them are semi-transparent, and 
 have very fine colors. The common prawn is from three to 
 four inches in length, is generally taken in the vicinity of 
 rocks at a little distance from 'he shore, and osier baskets — 
 similar to those employed for catching lobsters — are em- 
 ployed for their capture, and nets. 
 
 Shrimps are generally taken by nets in the form of a 
 wide-mouthed bag, stretched by means of a short cross-beam 
 at the end of a pole, and pushed along by the shrimper, wad- 
 ing to the knees in water. Sometimes a net of larger size is 
 dragged along bv two boats. The common shrimp is about 
 two inches long, and the short beak readily distinguishes it 
 from the prawn. When alarmed, it buries itself in the sand 
 by a peculiar movement of its fan-like tail. 
 
 Dr. Collingwood mentions a new species of shrimp, which 
 he discovered in the warm seas, of a deep violet color (those 
 on the Atlantic coast are of a greenish-gray color, dotted 
 with brown), and with the cla^v of remarkable construction. 
 
 " I placed it," he says, *' in a basin of water with a small 
 crab, Avhose appearance appeared violently to offend it. 
 "Whenever the crab came in contact with the shrimp, the lat- 
 ter produced a loud sound, the explanation of which is as 
 follows: the shrimp possessed two claws — one large and 
 stout, and the other long and slender. When irritated, it 
 opened the pincers of the large claw very wide, and then 
 suddenly closed them with a startling jerk. When the claw 
 was in contact with the bottom of the basin, a sound was 
 produced as if the basin were struck; but when the claw 
 
250 PERIWINKLES AND MUSSELS. 
 
 was elevated in the water, the sound was like the snap of a 
 finger, and the water was splashed in my face." 
 
 The same authority called this animal the " trigger " 
 shrimp, from the action of this claw resembling that of a 
 pistol trigger. If only put upon half-cock, this trigger closed 
 without noise. 
 
 How wonderful are the means that the Omnipotent Cre- 
 ator has provided (as in all things) for the protection of the 
 shelly inhabitants ! The hard covering accommodates itself 
 to their growth, and at the same time is sufficiently light as 
 not to interfere with the movements and functions of the 
 interesting tenant. All the various tribes of shell-bearing 
 animals are thus defended from the injuries and attacks to 
 which their situation exposes them. Thus, some are pro- 
 tected by multivalve, or more than two formed tubular shells, 
 the tenant protruding its organs at the summit, Avhich is 
 defended by the lid, consisting of more than a single piece ; 
 in the univalve, or one shell, the animal protrudes itself at 
 the sides, and has no valve, as in the common barnacle. The 
 bivalves, or animals of two shells, bury themselves in the 
 sand, perforate rocks, or suspend themselves by the byssus, 
 or thready filaments ; others, again, as the oyster, fix them- 
 selves to any convenient substance. 
 
 In the common Periwinkle (a molluscous, or soft-shelled 
 animal), the mouth of its shell is closed by a horn}'- cover- 
 ing; this is called the "patch," Avhich is attached to the foot, 
 or rather neck, by its convex or lower surface : this is the 
 lid. 
 
 The Mussel, belonging to the molluscous animals, and the 
 common species of which are very abundant on our own 
 and English coasts, are much used as bait by fishermen. 
 As an article of food it is much consumed in our own country, 
 but especially so in Europe. The French people are remark- 
 ably clever in their method of cultivating this shell-fish by 
 artificial means. About four miles from Rochelle there may 
 
A WONDERFUL .VUSSEL FARM. 251 
 
 be seen a ■wonderful mussel " farm," wliich has been a 
 source of considerable profit for hundreds of years. The 
 mussels are grown on frames of basket-work carefully made, 
 and are larger and of finer flavor than the natural fish. In 
 the year 1035, an Irish bark loaded with sheep was thrown 
 in a heavy storm on the rocks near Esnande, on the coasts 
 of Saintonge, and the only person on board who was saved 
 was the captain, named Walton, Avho amply repaid the ser- 
 vices which had been rendered him, for having saved some 
 of the sheep from the wreck, he crossed them with the ani- 
 mals of the country, and this produced a fine race, Avhicli is 
 still known under the name of the " marsh sheep." He next 
 devised a kind of net, which was stretched a little above 
 the level of the open sea, where it caught large flocks of 
 shore-birds which skim the surface of the water at twilight 
 or after dark. In order to render these nets thoroughly 
 efiective, it w^as necessary to go to the very centre of the 
 immense bed of mud where these birds seek their nourish- 
 ment. Walton discovered on examining the poles which 
 supported his nets that they were covered with mussel- 
 spawn. He then increased the number of the poles, and, 
 after various attempts, constructed his first artificial mussel- 
 bed. At the level of the lowest tides, he drove into the 
 mud stakes that were strong enough to resist the force of 
 the waves, and placed them in two rows about a yard dis- 
 tant from one another. This double line of poles formed an 
 angle whose base was directed toward the shore and whose 
 apex pointed to the open sea. This palisade was roughly 
 fenced in with long branches, and a narrow opening having 
 been left at the extremity of the angle, wicker-work cases 
 were arranged in such a manner as to stop any fishes that 
 were being carried back by the retreating tide. Walton 
 had thus combined in one a sort of fish preserve, with a bed 
 for the breeding of mussels. The plan soon became very 
 popular, and the beds were extended in every direction. 
 
252 GREAT UTILITY OF THE MUSSEL. 
 
 The little mussels that appear in the spring are called 
 seeds, and are scarcely larger than small beans till toward 
 the end of May ; but at this time they rapidly increase, and 
 in July they attain the size of a full-grown bean. They are 
 then fit for transplanting and are placed in bags made of 
 old nets, which are set upon the fences that are not quite so 
 far advanced into the sea. The young mussels spread them- 
 selves all round the bags, fixing themselves by means of 
 those silky filaments or threads, called byssus, by which the 
 little animals attach themselves to rocks or other substances. 
 In proportion as they grow or become crowded together 
 within the bags, they are cleared out and distributed over 
 poles lying somewhat nearer the shore, while the full-grown 
 mussels, which are fit for sale, are planted on the beds near- 
 est the shore. It is from this part of the mussel-beds that 
 the fishermen reap their harvests, and every day enormous 
 quantities of freshly gathered mussels are transported in 
 carts or on the backs of horses to La Rochelle, whence they 
 are sent to all parts of France. 
 
 As an instance of utility, the common mussel maintains 
 the long bridge across the Torridge River, near its junction 
 with the Taw, at the town of Bideford in North Devon. At 
 this bridge the tide runs so rapidly that it cannot be kept 
 with mortar. The corporation therefore keep boats em- 
 ployed to bring mussels to it, and the interstices of the 
 bridge are kept filled with them. The bridge is supported 
 against the violence of the tide by the strong threads of the 
 byssus which these mussels fix to the stonework. 
 
 Closely connected with this subject is that of Oyster farm- 
 ing, which is practiced quite extensively in England and 
 France as well as in our own country. A single visit to the 
 shores of Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, Long Island 
 and Connecticut would amaze one who had not given this 
 subject much thought, and convince them that it was a 
 
PUNT OR PIROGUE OF THE MARSH. 
 
 PILES, WITH BASKET WORK COVERED WITH MUSSELS. 
 
254 OYSTER FABMING. 
 
 thriving business in more senses than one, and ever}' year 
 becoming more important and extensive. 
 
 Farming, as a term descriptive of this calling or industry, 
 may at first seem a misnomer ; but the word is significant 
 as used in this sense : Anyone engaging in this undertaking 
 bu3's or secures a plot of tvater, and proceeds to stake it out 
 in a direct line from the shore ; a neighbor secures a plot 
 adjoining, surveys and bounds it in a similar manner. These 
 fenced-in water fields present a novel and picturesque scene 
 to one who beholds it for the first time. 
 
 To the oyster farmer the times and the seasons are dis- 
 tinctly worked and rigidly observed. If he sow and cultivate 
 not, neither can he reap. There are comparatively few 
 places on our inland Atlantic shores where oyster culture is 
 not carried on in some one of its various methods ; there are 
 places for keeping them alive until wanted, places for breed- 
 ing them in. and places in which they are fattened. Most 
 oysters cast their spawn in the months of April or May. 
 The spawn is by the fishermen called " spat," and in size and 
 figure each resembles the drop of a candle. As soon as it 
 is cast, or thrown off, these embryo disks adhers to stones, 
 old oyster shells, pieces of wood, or whatever substance 
 comes in their way ; a limy secretion issues from the surface 
 of their bodies, and in the course of a day begins to be con- 
 verted into a shelly substance. It is about two years, how- 
 ever, before oysters acquire their full size, and are ready for 
 the table. 
 
 Many curious discussions have arisen as to whether 
 oysters possess the faculty of locomotion. It is well known 
 that, in general, they are firmly attached to stones, to any 
 submarine substance, or to each other, and it is generally 
 believed that they are not endowed with any power of 
 changing their position. It is certain that they are the 
 most inanimate of the mollusca, remaining adhered to the 
 substance under the waves that they have fixed upon, enjoy- 
 
THE ENEMIES OF TUE OYSTER. 255 
 
 ing only the nourishment brought it by the waves, and giv- 
 ing scarcely any sign of life, except the opening and shut- 
 ting of its valves. 
 
 The oyster, particularly when eaten raw, is easy of diges- 
 tion, and very nutritous. Its best qualities become impaired, 
 however, by cooking, and, though very piquant culinary 
 preparations are made from it, such as sauces, ragouts, etc., 
 these tempting effects are produced by the sacrifice of the 
 best quality of the fish, and should be carefully shunned by 
 the invalid. 
 
 The enemies of the oyster are many. The sea-crab seats 
 itself upon the shell, and drills a little hole in his back, and 
 so kills him. On the sea-shore bushels of shells are found 
 quite riddled with holes by this crab. The star-fish was 
 known in ancient times to prey upon the oyster. Oppian 
 
 fsays: 
 
 ' The prickly star-fish creeps on with fell deceit. 
 To force the oyster from his close retreat. 
 When gaping lids their widen'd void display. 
 The watchful star thrusts in a pointed ray 
 Of all its treasures spoils the rifled case, 
 And empty shells the sandy hillocks grace. 
 
 The drum-fish — in weight about thirty pounds, and about 
 two feet long — swallows oyster and shell; sometimes two or 
 three pounds of shells are found in the stomach of this fisli. 
 The star-fishes hug the oyster, and wrap their five rays about 
 him, but the embrace is one of death to the poor victim. 
 
 It is not surprising that the inhabitants of the ocean 
 should feed partly on shell fish; but it is curious to find 
 animals strictly terrestrial preying upon them. Monkeys 
 are said to descend to the sea to devour what shell-fish they 
 may find on the shore. The ourang-outangs are said to feed 
 in particular on a large species of oyster ; and, fearful of 
 inserting their paws between the open valves lest the 
 animal should close and crush them, they first place a toler- 
 ably large stone in the shell, and then drag out their victim 
 
256 IMMENSE QUANTITIES OF OYSTERS TAKEN. 
 
 with safety. Monkeys are no less ingenious. Dampier saw 
 several of them take up oysters from the beach, lay them on 
 a stone, and beat them with another until they had demol- 
 ished the shells. Even the fox, when pressed by hunger, 
 will eat mussels and other bivalves; and the raccoon when 
 near the shore subsists on them largely, particularly on 
 oysters. 
 
 A curious anecdote appeared in " Bell's Weekly Messen- 
 ger," of 7tli Januar}^ 1821. A tradesman at Plymouth, 
 having placed some oysters in a cupboard, was surprised on 
 finding in the morning a mouse caught by the tail by the 
 sudden snapping of the shell. At Ashburton, a Mrs. All- 
 ridge had placed a dish of oysters in a cellar. A large 
 oyster soon expanded its shell, and at the instant two mice 
 pounced upon the '' living luxury," and were at once crushed 
 between the valves. The oyster, w4th the two mice dang- 
 ling from its shell, was for some time exhibited as a curiosity. 
 A better natural mouse-trap could not be imagined. 
 
 Among birds the mollusks have many enemies. Several 
 of the duck and gull tribes derive a portion of their subsis- 
 tence from them. The pied oyster-catcher derives its name 
 from this habit. Several kinds of crows likewise feed upon 
 shell-fish. Vultures and aquatic birds detach shell-fish 
 from the rocks. 
 
 The consumption of oysters is recorded in earliest his- 
 tory, but their cultivation in the manner just described is a 
 modern invention. This may account in some sense for the 
 excessive and greatly superior production of this country. 
 Though England and France have made lately rapid strides 
 in this direction, their production combined could hardly 
 equal that of our own land. The quantity taken from our 
 waters is far greater than is generally supposed by those 
 not familiar with this important business. The best statis- 
 tics are necessarily very incomplete, and also uninteresting 
 reading, though much might be said respecting the number 
 
PECULIARITIES OF THE LOBSTER. 257 
 
 of men and boats employed, the packing and pickling estab- 
 lishments with the force employed, the quantity of oysters 
 consumed here and exported, wo will merely say in conclu- 
 sion that the value of the trade in 1877 amounted to over 
 twenty-five million dollars in this country alone. 
 
 The Lobsters (which belong to the Crustacea or hard- 
 shelled animals), tlie common species of Avhich is so plentiful 
 on the rocky coasts of our own country, and most parts of 
 Europe, are generally taken in traps, sometimes made of 
 osier twigs, also by nets, sometimes pots, always baited with 
 animal garbage, and in some countries by torchlight, Avitli 
 the aid of a wooden instrument which acts like a forceps or 
 a pair of tongs. They are also taken by the hand, but this 
 requires dexterity, for the claws are powerful weapons of 
 defence: one is always larger than the other, and the pincers 
 of one claw are knobbed on the inner edge, those of the 
 other are serrated. It is more dangerous to be seized by the 
 serrated than by the knobbed claw. A great authority on 
 fish matters says : 
 
 " I once heard a clergyman at a lecture describe a lob- 
 ster as a standing romance of the sea; an animal whose 
 clothing is a shell, which it casts away once a year, in order 
 that it may put on a larger suit; an animal whose flesh is in 
 its tail and legs, and whose hair is on the inside of its breast ; 
 whose stomach is in its head, and which is changed every 
 year for a new one, and which new one begins its life by 
 devouring the old. An animal which carries its eggs within 
 its body until they become fruitful, and then carries them 
 outwardly under its tail; an animal which can throw off its 
 legs when they become troublesome, and can in a brief time 
 replace them. Lastly, an animal with very sharp eyes 
 placed in movable horns." 
 
 The London market alone requires two millions and a 
 half of crabs and lobsters annually. Large numbers are sent 
 from the Scottish coasts. The west and north-west coasts of 
 
258 LOBSTERS CHANGE THEIR COLOR. 
 
 Ireland abound with fine lobsters, and welled vessels bring 
 from them supplies for the London market of ten thousand 
 weekly. A large number of lobsters is brought from Norway, 
 as many as thirty thousand arriving from that country in a 
 single day, conveyed in wells on board steam vessels, and 
 kept in wooden reservoirs, some of which may be seen on 
 the Essex side of the Thames. In order that the great mass 
 of lobsters may be kept on their best behavior in these 
 reservoirs, the great claw is rendered paralytic by means of 
 a wooden peg driven into a lower joint: however cruel this 
 may seem, it prevents them from tearing each other to 
 pieces, so pugnacious are the animals. A good-sized lobster, 
 we are informed, will yield about twenty thousand eggs; 
 and these are hatched (being so nearly ripe before they are 
 abandoned by the mother) with great rapidity, it is said in 
 forty-eight hours, and grow quickly, although the young lob- 
 ster passes through many changes before it is fit to be pre- 
 sented at table. During the early period of growth it casts 
 its shell frequently. This wonderful provision for an increase 
 of size in the lobster is perfectly surprising. It is indeed 
 astonishing to see the complete covering of the animal cast 
 off like a suit of old clothes, Avhen it hides, naked and soft. 
 in a convenient hole, awaiting the growth of its new" crust 
 or coat. Lobsters and crabs change their shell about every 
 six weeks during the first year of their age ; every two 
 months during the second year ; and afterward the changing 
 of the shell becomes less frequent, being reduced to four times 
 a year. Previously to putting off their old shell, they appear 
 sick, languid, and restless. They acquire an entirely new 
 covering in a few days; but during the time they remain 
 defenseless they seek some lonely place, lest they should be 
 attacked and devoured by such of their brethren as are not 
 in the same weak condition. In casting their shells, it is 
 difficult to conceive how the lobsters are able to draw the 
 flesh of their large claws out, leaving the shells of these 
 
VORACITY OF THE LOBSTER. '259 
 
 entire and attached to the shell of the body. The fishermen 
 say that previous to this operation the lobster pines away 
 till the flesh in its claw is no thicker than the quill of a 
 goose, which enables it to draw its parts through the joints 
 and narrow passage near the trunk. The new shell hardens 
 by degrees. 
 
 It is supposed that the lobster becomes reproductive at 
 the age of five years. Lobsters are very voracious; they 
 are also full of fighting propensities, and have frequent 
 combats among themselves, in which limbs are often lost; 
 but the limb is soon replaced by the growth of a new one, 
 rather smaller than the oUl one. In the water lobsters can 
 run nimbly on their legs or small claws, and if alarmed, can 
 spring tail foremost to a surprising distance as swift as a 
 bird can fly. Fishermen can see them pass about thirty 
 feet, and, by the swiftness of their motion, suppose they may 
 go much farther. When frightened, they will spring from 
 a considerable distance to their hold in the rocks, and will 
 force their way into an entrance barely sufficient for their 
 bodies to pass. 
 
 Like some of the crabs, lobsters are said to be attached 
 to particular parts of the sea. 
 
 " In shelly armor wrapt, the lobsters seek 
 Safe shelter in some bay or winding creek ; 
 To rocky chasms the dusky natives cleave, 
 Tenacious hold, nor will the dwelling leave. 
 Nought like their home the constant lobsters prize, 
 And foreign shores and seas unknown despise. 
 Though cruel bands the banished wretch expel, 
 And force the captive from his native cell, 
 He will, if freed, return with anxious care, 
 Find the known rock, and to his home repair." 
 
 In some parts of Europe the fishermen endeavor, by mak- 
 ing violent noises, to drive the fish into their nets ; but these 
 are so cunning, that when surrounded by the net, the whole 
 
260 DOGS TRAINED FOB FISHING. 
 
 shoal will sometimes escape, for if one of them springs over 
 it, the rest will follow like sheep. 
 
 The Danish fishermen have a similar mode of taking the 
 horn-fishes, called " green-bone " from the color of their 
 bones. They are timid, and afraid of the nets, and when 
 the shoals approach, the fishermen commence a regular 
 bombardment with stones, and so frighten them into their 
 meshes. 
 
 A writer mentions a similar practice in Wales : 
 " The fishermen," he observes, " commenced their opera- 
 tions at every ebbing of the tide, by stretching a seine 
 across the river, several hundred paces above the coast; 
 and whilst drawing it towards the sea, they incessantly dis- 
 turbed the water by beating the surface, as well as hurling 
 into it the heaviest stones they could poise. The affrighted 
 fish made at once for the sea, Avhich, however, they could 
 not reach except by passing through the intervening shal- 
 lows. Here they were pursued by dogs trained for the 
 purpose, and clubbed or speared b}^ the men. I have 
 frequently seen from one to two hundred fine fish, weighing 
 from ten to twenty pounds each, taken in this extraordinary 
 way." 
 
GURNARD. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 ODDS AND ENDS ABO UT FISHES 
 
 I^HE description we have quoted of fishes in- 
 habiting the Mediterranean Sea corresponds 
 entirely with the strange and varied charac- 
 ter ascribed to them by ancient and mod- 
 ern writers. We will, however, before al- 
 luding to any particular species of fishes, 
 give a brief outline of their nature generally. From the 
 earliest ages fishes were most extensively used as articles of 
 diet, and at the present time they form a considerable por- 
 tion of the food of mankind generally. In some countries 
 they were the only money of commerce, and dried fish were 
 paid as current coin. Mythological honors were rendered 
 to them by the ancients ; and in the case of sharks, as men- 
 tioned in the chapter on " The Pirates of the Ocean," they 
 are deified on the African coasts. Fish have been perpetu- 
 ated in coins and sculptures, from which many of the spe- 
 cies in ancient use can still be traced. 
 
262 VARIETY IN FORMS OF FISHES. 
 
 Fishes people the ocean with their shoals, and serve to 
 keep in check the innumerable creatures of still lower con- 
 struction, Avhile they themselves are held in check, and af- 
 ford sustenance to millions which have been placed in our 
 system above them. In form they are the most varied be- 
 ings in creation, and the most inventive fancy could scarcely 
 imagine a shape or appearance to Avhich a resemblance would 
 not be found. They are of hideous or loathsome bulk or the 
 most graceful form, and of gorgeous and resplendent colors; 
 all wondrously adapted to the different modes of obtaining 
 their food, whether by stealth or deceit, strength or swift- 
 ness. The general form of a fish is admirably adapted to 
 its native element. In all fishes which require swiftness to 
 secure their prey, the tail is the great organ of motion. The 
 absence of any neck gives the advantage of a more exten- 
 sive and resisting attachment of the head to the body, the 
 greater proportion of which is left free for the play of the 
 muscular masses which move the tail. Besides serving as 
 the rudder or paddle, it is the tail of the fish that enables 
 many of them to make those leaps out of the water to which 
 we have frequently alluded to in these pages. From the 
 enormous whales and sharks to the small stickleback, this 
 power seems to belong to the greater number of fishes. 
 
 The fins on the upper surface of the fish serve to balance 
 the body; those on the lower surface to turn it, to move it 
 slowly, and to keep it suspended in strong currents ; but in 
 all these movements the assistance of the tail is observable. 
 
 Some of the fins of fishes are vertical, constituting a kind 
 of keel or rudder. They differ in number, size, and the na- 
 ture of the rays which support them, being sometimes spiny, 
 and in other cases soft and articulated. Those correspond- 
 ing to arms or wings are the pectorals (the chest), invariably 
 fixed behind the gills. 
 
 Paley, in his " Natural Theology," thus sums up the actions 
 of the fins of fishes: "The pectoral, and more particularly 
 
^WIMMI^'a BLADDERS IN FISHES. 263 
 
 the ventral (belonging to the stomach) fins serve to raise 
 and depress the fish : when the fish desires to have a retro- 
 grade motion, a stroke forward with the pectoral fin effectu- 
 ally produces it; if the fish desires to turn either way, a 
 single blow with the tail the opposite way sends it round at 
 once; if the tail strike both ways, the motion produced by 
 the double lash is progressive, and enables the fish to dart 
 forwards with an astonishing velocity. The result is not only 
 in some cases the most rapid, but in all cases the most 
 gentle, pliant, easy, animal motion with which we are 
 acquainted. In their mechanical use, the anal fin may be 
 reckoned the keel; the ventral fins, the outriggers; the pec- 
 toral fins, the oars [and, we may now add, the caudal fin, 
 the screw-propeller]. And, if there be any similitudes 
 between those parts of a boat and a fish, observe," adds 
 Paley, " it is not the resemblance of imitation, but the like- 
 ness which arises from applying similar mechanical means 
 to the same purpose." 
 
 Another powerful aid to the buoyancy of fishes is the air 
 or swimming-bladder, which is described as a philosophical 
 apparatus in the body of an animal. It is easy to see at the 
 back-bone of the herring and other fishes a shining pearly- 
 looking membrane, almost enveloped by the roe or milt of 
 the fisli. This is the air or swimming-bladder; and it is of 
 this, as found in the sturgeon, the carp, the ling, and many 
 other fishes, when dried and prepared by certain processes, 
 that the substance called isinglass is manufactured. 
 
 It is the swimming-bladder that serves the fish for rising 
 or sinking in the waters; but in such fishes as reside at the 
 bottom of the sea or never come to the surface, this bladder 
 is almost always wanting. How truly wonderful is this pro- 
 vision of nature! It would be very worthy of inquiry to 
 know by what method an animal which lives constantly in 
 water is able to supply a repository of air. 
 
 The bodies of fishes are nearly the same specific gravity as 
 
2b4: RESPIRATION, SMELL, AND TASTE OF FISHES. 
 
 the water in which they live, owing to the great quantity 
 of fat they contain, so that very little effort is required to 
 keep them at any given height, and their ascent or descent 
 in the water. 
 
 The circulation of blood is peculiar. There is but a 
 single heart in fishes, that is, a heart consisting of only two 
 cavities; and these correspond not to the left heart of mam- 
 mals or birds, but to their right or pulmonic heart. 
 
 Respiration is carried on by means of the gills, which 
 take the place of lungs, and consist of a large number of 
 blood vessels, placed near the forward extremity of the ani- 
 mal, and protected by a bony case or covering, often 
 defended by strong spines. The gills are placed in imme- 
 diate communication with the heart. Water, which is 
 impregnated with atmospheric air, entering at the mouth, is 
 forced out again by the apertures at each side of the neck, 
 and thus maintains almost a constant stream or rush through 
 them, entering and again expelled at intervals. When 
 fishes are taken from the water, the delicate thready 
 structure of the gills immediately collapses; when exposed 
 to the air a kind of suffocation ensues, and death is the 
 result. This is the general principle of respiration in fishes, 
 but in some cases the structure varies. 
 
 The smell of fishes in some species is remarkable: 
 they scent their prey at a great distance, and the very per- 
 fection of this function is often fatal to them. Some fishes 
 are so allured by scents, that by smearing the hand over 
 with them, and immersing it in water, fishes (not sharks, 
 let us hope) will often fiock toward the fingers, and may 
 easily be taken. Fishermen have the habit of making their 
 bait more attractive by steeping it in some strong-smelling 
 ingredient. On the American shores, the fishermen use 
 putrid or damaged fish as bait for mackerel. They are 
 thrown in a box hopper, in which a cylinder studded with 
 knives is made to revolve by a crank. This is called the 
 
TOUCH AND SIGHT OF FISHES. 266 
 
 " bait-mill," and by its aid the contents are reduced to a 
 kind of paste, which is thrown into the sea to attract the 
 fish, which are then caught by lines with hooks, having a piece 
 of polished pewter attached as a lure. In all fishes, nostrils 
 or external openings are very apparent, and in these the 
 nerves of smell are distributed. 
 
 Taste in fishes (as in animals who almost invariably 
 swallow their food without mastication) cannot be very 
 acute, since their tongue is in great part bony, and is often 
 furnished with teeth and other hard coverings. 
 
 The organ of touch is in general as imperfect as that of 
 taste: without prolonged members, and flexible fingers 
 capable of grasping, they can scarcely explore the forms of 
 objects by any other means than by their lips. Certain little 
 fleshy tendrils Avhich some fishes possess may supply the im- 
 perfections of touch in the other organs. 
 
 The bodies of most fishes are covered with small brilliant 
 plates of a horny nature called scales, but in some kinds 
 these are wanting, as in the turbot and others, in place of 
 which are found bony protuberances in some species, and in 
 others a very smooth skin without scales, and covered with 
 a thick gelatinous secretion from the body. The scales con- 
 sist of a substance chemically resembling the composition of 
 bones and teeth. They usually overlap each other like tiles. 
 Some are very thick forming a kind of armor. 
 
 In general, fish have large eyes, and in particular the 
 pupil is very broad and open, as might be expected in crea- 
 tures who require great powers of vision in the deep, where 
 light penetrates but scantily. The eyes have no real eye- 
 lids, the skin passing over them mostly in a transparent form, 
 to admit light; and they are sometimes opaque or dense. 
 Some varieties of fish, whose eyes are fixed on the upper 
 surface of their bodies, cannot see what prey they swallow : 
 others have no outward indication of an eye. " No tear 
 moistens, no eyelid shelters or wipes the surface ; the eyes 
 
266 TEETH. HEARING, AND BRAIN OF FISHES. 
 
 of fish are only representations of that beautiful and ani- 
 mated organ which is found in the superior class of animals." 
 
 "The teeth of fishes," says Professor Owen, "whether we 
 study them in regard to their number, form, substance, 
 structure, situation, or mode of attachment, offer a greater 
 and more striking series of varieties than do those of any 
 other class of animals. In number they range from zero to 
 countless quantities. In the sharks and rays the teeth are 
 supported by the upper or lower jaws, as in most quadrupeds ; 
 but many other fishes have teeth growing from the roof of 
 the mouth, from the surface of the tongue, from the bony 
 hoop or arches supporting the gills, and some have them 
 developed from the bone of the nose and the base of the 
 skull." In all fishes the teeth are shed and renewed not 
 once only as in mammals, but frequently during the whole 
 course of their lives. 
 
 Fishes have but small occasion for the sense of hearing, 
 being condemned to reside in the empire of silence, where 
 all around is mute. In most fishes the auditory parts are 
 buried in the skull, and send no process to the surface. 
 
 Singular stories, however, are told of fishes being sensible 
 to the sound of music. Ancient writers — -^lian and Aris- 
 totle — mention some fishes, and particularly skates, who are 
 attracted in this manner. Two men embark in a boat, one 
 with a musical instrument and the other with a net, and by 
 this music the fishes become so entranced as to be taken 
 easily. A somewhat similar mode is said to be practised by 
 the boatmen of the Danube, who use bells for the purpose. 
 Carp have been known to distinguish the sound of a bell, 
 and the voice of their keeper when called to be fed. 
 
 The brain of fishes is remarkably small in proportion to 
 the size of the animal, the quantity of nerves arising out of 
 it,-and the size of the cavity which contains it. The space 
 thus left vacant is often filled with oil or fat. 
 
 Some fishes are not altoo-ether indifferent to the fate of 
 
VARIED USES OF FISH. 267 
 
 their brood. We have ah-eady alhided to the attachment 
 of the mammalian order for their young. Some fishes leave 
 the depths of the ocean, and deposit their spawn in the 
 shallows, where the young fry are comparatively safe from 
 the voracity of their numerous enemies. Some build nests 
 for their young, as we will further explain in this chapter. 
 
 The eggs of fishes are generally deposited on the surface 
 of the water, Avhere they float during the period of their 
 development. 
 
 It is in the Northern seas that fishes display their most 
 astonishing fecundity — not so much in the variety of species 
 as in the multitude of individuals of a species; and the 
 ocean nowhere else produces an abundance of fish approach- 
 ing to the myriads of herring and cod in that quarter. 
 
 The uses to which fish are applied are numerous. They 
 afford a valuable manure when they are to be had in plenty. 
 Fishery-salt is also a great fertilizer. Pretty ornaments are 
 made from fish-scales, as brooches, bracelets, &c.; the eyes 
 of fishes are also employed by the makers of shell flowers for 
 imitating buds. Mock pearls are made from an essence 
 obtained by scraping the scales off" the bleak (a fresh-water 
 fish) and the whitebait. The natives of the north-west 
 coast of this country make from the entrails of fishes brace- 
 lets, fishing-lines, thread, Avork-bags, head-dresses, and 
 needle-cases; fish-hooks and needles are made of the bones. 
 
 We have already alluded to isinglass, which is made from 
 the dense membrane which forms the air-bladder of the 
 sturgeon and other fishes. Oil forms a staple article of 
 commerce. The dog-fish is caught principally for the oil 
 from its liver — a large fish yielding about a barrel-full. The 
 skin of this fish is used to refine liquors, clear coffee, &c. 
 
 Our English ancestors were firm believers in the curative 
 properties of certain fish. Pickled herrings Avere applied 
 to the soles of the feet in fevers ; pilchards Avere in great 
 request for the sAvellings of the gums and legs; the flesh of 
 
268 
 
 ELECTBIG FI8HE8. 
 
 the tunny was considered an antidote to poison; the teeth 
 of thornbacks, bruised in a mortar, were used for sore eyes; 
 the gall for complaints of the ear ; the bones of the sturgeon 
 were reduced to powder and applied in rheumatic cases; 
 oyster and mussel-shells ground to powder were also em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Wonderful is the property of several species of fish of 
 inflicting electric shocks so severe as to produce exhaustion 
 and numbness of the nerves exposed to its action. That 
 God should arm certain fishes, in some sense, with the light- 
 ning of the clouds, and enable them thus to employ an 
 element so potent and irresistible as we do gunpowder, to 
 astound, and smite, and stupefy, and kill the inhabitants of 
 the water, is one of those wonders of an Almighty arm 
 which no terrestrial animal is gifted to exhibit. 
 
 ELECTRIC EEL. 
 
 The Torpedo, popularly named by fishermen " numb-fish " 
 and " cramp-fish," a genus of fishes of the Ray order, is aliving 
 electrical machine, which has the power of striking its enemies 
 even at a very considerable distance. Fishermen constantly 
 witness evidences of the singular faculty of this fish. As 
 soon as it enters their net they are made aware of the fact 
 bv the shocks which are transmitted through the tackle by 
 
ELECTRIC APPARATUS OF THE TORPEDO. 26y 
 
 which it is suspended. These have been known to be suffi- 
 ciently violent to compel the men to let ^o when they are 
 drawing their nets, and thus allow the whole haul to fall 
 back into the sea. 
 
 The Torpenididoe, as this family is termed, has been 
 divided into a number of genera. They have a short and 
 not very thick tail, cylindrical towards the end, and in out- 
 ward appearance somewhat resemble a skate, and have 
 nearly the same habits. Two species of the torpedo are 
 occasionally found on the southern coasts of England, the 
 common, or 3Iarmorata, which sometimes attains a large 
 size, weighing a hundred pounds; and the Nohiliana, M'hich 
 is more rare. They are readily distinguished by the spira- 
 cles behind the eyes, which are round and fringed at the 
 edges in the former and perfectly smooth in the latter. 
 These and other species are found more plentifully in the 
 Mediterranean. When the torpedo is disposed to " astonish " 
 any one, she furnishes to a careful observer the following 
 premonitory indications other intentions: the back — which, 
 unlike that of the cat — is gibbous and raised when she is in 
 good humor, flattens as she waxes angry, till the convex 
 surface, gradually drawn in, becomes at length slightly con- 
 cave ; and at the same time the eyes, remarkably prominent 
 during the repose of the creature, are retracted far back in 
 the orbits. These are the precursory signals that the phials 
 of her Avrath are to be poured forth ; the shock then 
 instantly follows, and the fish as suddenly swells out again, 
 recovering its usual form, generally to prepare for a new 
 attack. These shocks follow in rapid succession: she some- 
 times inflicts forty or fifty broadsides in the course of one 
 minute, and they are sufficiently powerful to destroy, as by 
 lightning, small animals exposed to their infiuence. 
 
 Cuvier describes the electric apparatus of this fish to 
 consist of a series of honevcombed-looking cells, filled with 
 
270 INCIDENTS BELATED. 
 
 a thickish gelatinous fluid, and abundantly supplied with 
 nerves, situated between the gills and the head of the fish. 
 
 The electrical organs are two in number. The number 
 of cells varies according to the size of the fish ; thus, in 
 each organ of one fish were counted four hundred and sev- 
 enty, and in another large fish one thousand one hundred 
 and eighty-two. This natural electricity can be drawn from 
 the fish by means of a conductor, and a shock is felt through 
 a circuit formed by several persons joining hands. 
 
 The electrical effects produced on the fisherman who 
 seize them were noted from early times ; but Redi, the Ital- 
 ian naturalist of the seventeenth century, was the first who 
 studied them scientifically. He caught and landed one of them 
 with every precaution. " I had scarcely touched and pressed 
 it Avith my hand," says the Italian artist, " than I experi- 
 enced a tingling sensation, which extended to my arms and 
 shoulders, which was followed by a disagreeable trembling, 
 with a painful and acute sensation in the elbow joint, which 
 made me withdraw my arm immediately." 
 
 Reaumur also made some observations upon the Torpedo. 
 "The benumbing influence," he says, "is very different from 
 any similar sensation. All over the arm there is a commo- 
 tion which it is impossible to describe, but which, so far as 
 comparison can be made, resembles the sensation produced 
 by striking the tender part of the elbow against a hard sub- 
 stance." Redi remarks, besides, that the pain and trembling 
 sensation resulting from the touch diminishes as the death 
 of the Torpedo approaches, and that it ceases altogether 
 when the animal dies. 
 
 In the seventeenth century the fishermen affirmed that 
 the sensation was even communicated through the line by 
 which it was caught, and even by the water. Redi does 
 not deny this phenomenon, neither does he confirm it. He 
 states that the action of the animal is never more energetic 
 than when it is strongly pressed by the hand, and makes 
 
ELECTRIC EEL. 271 
 
 violent efforts to escape. Neither Redi nor Reaumur, how- 
 ever, could explain the cause of the strange phenomenon. 
 It was reserved for Dr. Walsli, a Fellow of the Royal Soci- 
 ety of London, to demonstrate the fact that the power was 
 electrical in its nature. Tliis he did by numerous experi- 
 ments which he made in the Isle of R6. The following are 
 some of the experiments: 
 
 He placed a living torpedo upon a clean wet towel ; from 
 a plate he suspended two pieces of brass wire by means of 
 silken cord, which served to isolate them. Round the tor- 
 pedo were eight persons, standing on isolating substances. 
 One end of the brass wire was supported by the wet towel, 
 the other end being placed in a basin full of water. The 
 first person had a finger of one hand in this basin, and a 
 finger of the other in a second basin, also full of water. 
 The second person placed a finger of one hand in this sec- 
 ond basin, and a finger of the other hand in a third basin. 
 The third person did the same, and so on, until a complete 
 chain was established between the eight persons and nine 
 basins. Into the ninth basin the end of the second brass 
 wire was plunged, while Dr. Walsh applied the other end 
 to the back of the torpedo, thus establishing a complete 
 conducting circle. At the moment when the experimenter 
 touched the torpedo, the eight actors in the experiment felt 
 a sudden shock, similar in all respects to that communicated 
 by a shock of a Leyden jar, only less intense. 
 
 Another fish little inferior to the torpedo in its " shock- 
 ing " properties is the electric eel. Its ph^^sical properties 
 enable it to arrest suddenly the pursuit of an enemy or the 
 flight of its prey, to suspend on the instant every movement 
 of its victim, and subdue it by an invisible power. Even 
 the fishermen themselves are suddenly struck and rendered 
 torpid at the moment of seeing it, while nothing external 
 betrays the mysterious power possessed by the animal. 
 At Calabozo on the Orinoco, the electric eel abound in 
 
272 MODE OF TAKING THEM. 
 
 great numbers. The natives have a unique and most curious 
 mode of securing these formidable eels; the Indians them- 
 selves would describe it as " intoxicating by means of 
 horses." From the neighboring savannahs a score or more of 
 half-wild horses and mules are encircled by tlie natives and 
 gradually driven to some adjacent marsh or stagnant basin 
 surrounded by luxuriant vegetation and known to abound 
 with the Gymnotis. The animals being forced from all sides 
 are surel}' forced into tlie water, when a grand battle com- 
 mences and a wonderful spectacle may be witnessed. The 
 Indians,, armed with long canes and harpoons, place them- 
 selves around the basin, some of them mounting the trees, 
 the branches of which hang over the water, and by their 
 cries, and still more by their canes, prevent tlie animals 
 from landing again. The eels stunned by the noise, defend 
 themselves by repeated discharges of their batteries. To one 
 witnessing such a scene for the first time, it would probably 
 seem that the eels must come off victorious. Such a picture 
 is truly indescribable: groups of Indians surrounding the 
 basin; the horses with bristling manes, terror and grief in 
 their eyes, trying to escape from the storm which had 
 surprised them ; the eels yellow and livid, looking like 
 great aquatic serpents swimming on the surface of the 
 water, and chasing their enemies, are objects at once appal- 
 ling and picturesque. In a few moments, many of the horses, 
 benumbed by the repeated shocks of the eels are drowned. 
 But gradually the eels themselves become bewildered or 
 intoxicated, shun in place of attacking, and are slowly 
 driven toward the banks, where they are easily taken by 
 means of the little harpoon thrown at them. Being landed, 
 the eels are transported to little pools dug in the soil and 
 filled with fresh water ; such is the terror inspired that 
 the natives are very reluctant to take them from the har- 
 poons, until life has expired, for fear of receiving the terri- 
 ble shock. 
 
STINOm^'G FISHES. 273 
 
 A remarkable power of sting-ing is possessed by some of 
 the inhabitants of the deep. What is called the Trygon, or 
 Sting-Ray, is able to inflict severe wounds by its muscular 
 and flexible tail, which it winds around the object of attack, 
 and with the sword or spine at its base, pierces and lascer 
 ates. This weapon is armed Avith rows of serrated teeth at 
 each side, every tooth of which is a small saw. The worst 
 and most dangerous wound, however, is when the elastic 
 tail dashes the apparatus, saws and all, into an unfortunate 
 fisherman's thigh (as has frequently happened, in sj)ite of 
 the ordinary precautions), dragging it out again to make a 
 new lunge before the unhappy victim has had time to escape ; 
 and so expert is this fish in this small-sword exercise, and 
 so swiftly does stroke follow stroke, that persons Avho have 
 seen it in operation report that, but for the spouting of 
 fresh blood, and the larger display of raw surface, they 
 would have declared the weapon motionless all the time. 
 The terrible suffering inflicted by this atrocious caudine 
 weapon — which is borne by four other colossal skates, as 
 well as by the sea-eagle — has caused it to be regarded with 
 as much superstitous reverence by fishermen as was the tail 
 of his music-master, Chiron, by the youthful Achilles. 
 
 The Sting-Ray fish attains a colossal size in the Mediter- 
 ranean. He possesses an enormous pair of fins, which, 
 stretching out from either side of the body, offer a striking 
 resemblance to a pair of wide-spread wings ; and he has, 
 moreover, a detached head, terminating in a porrect (ex- 
 tended) process, like a beak, and a large pair of piercing 
 bright eyes, whence the origin of its appellation of " sea- 
 eagle." 
 
 The Great Weever or Sting-Bull, and the Little or Viper 
 Weever, possess the same formidable properties as the 
 stinging ray. Both are found on English coasts, the former 
 being about a foot long, and the other about four or five 
 inches. Though of such small dimensions, these fishes are 
 
274 TROPICAL DOCTOR FISHES. 
 
 troublesome to encounter. The fins are spiny, and the gill- 
 cover is furnished with a strong and sharp spine, which is 
 directed backward, but is capable of being made erect to 
 meet an enemy. This they use by a sudden bending of the 
 body. The little weever buries itself in the sand, watching 
 for its prey, leaving only its snout exposed, and if trod upon, 
 it immediately uses its weapon with great force. 
 
 We have, in the chapter on " The Floating Navigators of 
 the Ocean," alluded to the stinging powers of the Physalis, 
 or "Portuguese man-of-war." It is a common trick with 
 sailors to make a novice pick up one of these beautiful crea- 
 tures, and then enjoy his discomfiture. 
 
 The Acanthuri (signifying " a spine " and " tail"), tropical 
 fishes, some of which are remarkable for beauty of form and 
 variety of colors, possess also a power of inflicting dangerous 
 stings or wounds, which has obtained for them the name of 
 " doctors " from our sailors, on account of the severe wounds 
 they inflict on such as handle them unwarily. They have 
 teeth trenchant and notched, and a strong spine at each 
 side of the tail as sharp as a lancet, whence they are also 
 called lancet-fishes. With these weapons they defend them- 
 selves with courage and success against the largest of their 
 assailants. Many other fishes possess the same power of 
 inflicting stings and wounds: living a life of constant warfare 
 in the deep. Nature has bestowed upon them means of de- 
 fence and for procuring their prey. 
 
 It is worthy of observation that, with very few excep- 
 tions, the immense population of the ocean is carnivorous. 
 The principal circumstance that regulates the choice of diet 
 among fishes seems to be the power of mastery. Of terres- 
 trial creatures, a very large number are peaceful, never, un- 
 der ordinary circumstances, willingly taking the life of even 
 the most helpless around them ; but the sea is a vast slaugh- 
 ter-house, where nearly every inhabitant dies a violent death, 
 and finds a grave in the maw of his fellow. Yet let us not 
 
THE REMOBA OR SUCKING FISH. 275 
 
 arraign the providence of God, as if it were cruel and un- 
 kind : a sudden termination of existence is the most merci- 
 ful mode, as far as we can conceive, by which the overflow 
 of animal life could be checked. 
 As James Montgomery says: 
 
 " 'Twas wisdom, mercy, goodness that ordain'd 
 Life in such infinite profusion — Death 
 So sure, so prompt, so multiform to those 
 That never sinn'd, that know not guilt, that fear 
 No wrath to come, and have no heaven to lose." 
 
 A very interesting family of fishes, for the peculiar prop- 
 erties which they possess, are the Sucking-fishes — remarka- 
 ble for having the ventral fins united under the surface of 
 the body to form the apparatus which distinguishes them. 
 To this family belong the Sea-Owl Snail, and one or two 
 British species, including the Lump-sucker. This animal 
 has a grotesque and clumsy form, but the colors which orna- 
 ment it are very fine, combining various shades of blue, pur- 
 ple, and orange. It attains a tolerably large size — about 
 nineteen inches — weighing sometimes seven or eight pounds. 
 Its sucker is so powerful that a pail, containing some gallons 
 of water, has been lifted, when one of these fishes contained 
 in it was taken by the tail. 
 
 To this family Cuvier also referred the far-famed Remora ; 
 noticing, however, the different position of the sucking disc, 
 and other important distinctions, on account of which a very 
 different place is now assigned to it. The use of the suck- 
 ing apparatus is, however, much the same — that of attaching 
 the animal to fixed substances, so that it may remain and 
 obtain its food, where otherwise it would be swept away by 
 the current. 
 
 The remora was the subject of much imaginative terror 
 to the ancients, who believed that it had the power to im- 
 pede or stop the course of a ship. Oppian says: 
 
THE SEA LAMPREY. 277 
 
 " The seamen run confiis'd, no labor spared, 
 Let tiy the slieets, and hoist the topmast yard; 
 The master bids them give her all the sails, 
 To court the winds and catch the coming gales; 
 But though the canvas bellies with the blast, 
 And boisterous winds bend down the cracking mast. 
 The bark stands firmly rooted on the sea, 
 And all unmov'd as tower or towering tree." 
 
 Pliny writes : " Wli>^ should our fleets and armadas at 
 sea make such turrets on the walls and forecastles, when one 
 little fish (see the vanity of man!) is able to arrest and stay^ 
 perforce, our goodly and tall ships?" 
 
 These are droll fancies ; but, tested by the fact, the adhe- 
 sive powers of this fish are very remarkable, great weights 
 being dragged by it, and retaining its hold with a bull-dog 
 tenacity, even submitting to be torn to pieces before it will 
 relinquish its hold. It is frequently seen among other fishes 
 in the Atlantic, attaching itself to some one or other by its 
 sucker, and often, also, to the rudder or bottom of a ship. 
 
 The length of the Mediterranean remora is about eight- 
 een inches, and the length of the head is nearly one-fifth of 
 the proportion of the whole fish. Feeding principally on 
 the small animals diffused throughout the waters of the 
 ocean, it probably receives a sufficiency of food even when 
 attached to a moving object, as a ship or large fish, merely 
 by opening its mouth, which has a very large gape. 
 
 Belonging to a distinct family, but employing its mouth 
 as a powerful sucker, is the Sea-Lamprey, a species resem- 
 bling eels in the rounded shape of the body and a certain 
 similarity of habits. The mouth is circular, armed with 
 hard tooth-like processes, and provided with a flexible lip. 
 So great is the power of suction which it possesses, that a 
 stone has been raised by it out of the water, weighing ten 
 or twelve pounds, and yet the fish measures but from two 
 to three feet. 
 
 The historical renown of the lamprey is very great. It 
 
278 FED ON HUMAN FLESH. 
 
 was the fixvorite dish of the Romans, who kept the fishes in 
 ponds at a great expense. The best lampreys were pro- 
 cured from Sicily as presents to the reigning emperors and 
 high officials. A hundred pieces of gold were sometimes 
 paid for them. 
 
 A horrible story is told of Pollio, a friend of Augustus 
 Ccesar, who, on the supposition that lampreys fed on human 
 flesh were more delicate, ordered his slaves, when accused 
 of the slightest fault, to be thrown into his fish-pond. This 
 cruelty was discovered when one of his servants broke a glass 
 in the presence of the Emperor, who had been invited to a 
 feast. The master ordered the slave to be seized, but he 
 threw himself at the feet of the Emperor, and begged him 
 to interfere, and not suffer him to be devoured by the lam- 
 preys. On examining into the matter, the Emperor, aston- 
 ished at the barbarity of his favorite, caused the fish-ponds 
 to be filled up. 
 
 Respecting this fish, there is another use to Avhich the 
 mouth or sucker is applied. The whole of its interior arch 
 is studded with rows of teeth, each one of which, on a broad 
 base, is furnished with one or two apparently reversed 
 points, and these teeth which are most remote and con- 
 cealed are larger than others, and more effectually crowded 
 with these points. For simply biting they are useless, but 
 when the breadth of the mouth is brought into contact with 
 the surface of a fish on which the lamprey has laid hold, by 
 producing a vacuum these roughly-pointed teeth are brought 
 forward so as to be able to act on it by a circular motion ; 
 and the limited space of the captive prey is thus rasped into 
 a pulp and swallowed, until a hole is made which may, per- 
 haps, penetrate to the bones, and from the torture of which 
 the most strenuous exertion of the victim cannot deliver it. 
 This is frequent on the mackerel and on other fishes, as the 
 gurnard, coal-fish, cod and haddock. 
 
 The "Mail-Cheeked or Gurnard group of fishes offer 
 
THE MAlL-rilKHKED GROUP OF FISUES. 279 
 
 some very interesting subjeets for notice, including a con- 
 siderable number of species, all characterized by sharp 
 projecting cheeks, and heads cased in armor of bony plates, 
 among which we may mention the Flying Gurnard, the Sea- 
 Scorpion, and the Father-Lasher. 
 
 The name " gurnard" is derived from the growling, grunt 
 ing noise which these fishes make, by means of the throat 
 and gills, when taken out of the water, and which has 
 obtained for one species the name of "piper." The Romans 
 used to call the latter " lyres," rather, perhaps, on account 
 of their fancied resemblance to an ancient lyre, than to 
 the very unmusical sound they emit. Many of the gurnards 
 are distinguished by beauty of color. 
 
 The New Zealand Gurnard, about eighteen inches in 
 length, is a splendid fish : the upper part is brownish-red, 
 the fins are very large and of an emerald green, broadly 
 bordered with azure blue, and having an oval patch of vel- 
 vety black beautifully relieved with snow-white spots. 
 
 The Sea-Scorpion differs from its land namesake, the 
 possessor of one solitary but dangerous tail-sting, the head 
 of the fish being surrounded with goads and prickles, which 
 render it a formidable enemy to contend with, by swelling 
 out its cheeks and gill-covers to a large size, realizing Ovid's 
 description of it, — 
 
 " ScorpcEua's poison'd head, beset with spines;" 
 
 excepting that the stings, beyond inflicting a sharp pain, 
 are not venomous. Some of these animals are remarkable 
 for their ugliness, and others exhibit very fine colors. They 
 abound in the warm seas, and are often taken on the Atlan- 
 tic shores, sometimes exceeding a foot in length. 
 
 The Marine Sticklebacks, which are thus named from the 
 spines which arm their back, ventral fins, and other parts, 
 are inhabitants of the seas in cold and temperate regions, 
 and are curious little animals, a kind of Liliputian warriors 
 
280 PUGNACITY OF THE MARINE STICKLEBACKS. 
 
 armed at all points for warfare, protected at the sides by 
 shell-like plates, and with spears that play terrible havoc 
 among the Crustacea and small animals on which they feed. 
 They are objects of peculiar interest from the beauty of 
 their colors, which they change in a remarkable manner. 
 They are excessively pugnacious and predatory in their 
 habits, the larger species eating the smaller, and destroying 
 the eggs and fry of fishes to a prodigious extent. An 
 observer relates of the fifteen-spined stickleback, about six 
 inches in length, — sometimes called the " sea-adder," — " that 
 it keeps near rocks and stones clothed with sea-weeds, 
 among which it takes refuge upon any alarm. Though less 
 active than its brethern of the fresh water, it is scarcely less 
 rapacious. On one occasion I noticed a specimen engaged 
 in taking its prey from a clump of sea-weed, in doing which 
 it assumed every posture between the horizontal and 
 perpendicular, with the head downwards and upwards, 
 thrusting its projecting snout into the crevices of the stems, 
 and seizing its prey with a spring. Having taken this fish 
 with a net, and transferred it to a vessel of water, in company 
 with an eel three inches long, the latter was attacked and 
 devoured head foremost ; not, indeed, altogether, for the eel 
 was too large a morsel, so that the tail remained hanging out 
 of the mouth, and it was obliged to disgorge the eel partly 
 digested." 
 
 A writer relates some interesting observations on the 
 fighting propensities of these animals when confined in a tub 
 of water : 
 
 "A few at first are turned in, and swim about in a shoal, 
 apparently examining their new habitation. Suddenly one 
 will take possession of a corner of a tub, or, as it will 
 sometimes happen, of the bottom, and will instantly com- 
 mence an attack on its companions; and if any of these 
 venture to oppose its rule, a regular and most furious battle 
 ensues. The two combatants swim round and round each 
 
THE STICKLEBACKS— NEST-BUILDING FISHES. 
 
282 THE STICKLEBACKS NEST-BUILDING FISHES. 
 
 other with the greatest rapidity, biting and endeavoring to 
 pierce each other with their spines, which on these occa- 
 sions are projected. I have witnessed a battle of this sort 
 which lasted several minutes before the other would give 
 way; and when one does submit, imagination can hardly 
 conceive the vindictive fury of the conqueror, who, in the 
 most persevering and unrelenting way, chases its rival from 
 one part of the tub to another until fairly exhausted with 
 fatigue. They also use their spines with such fatal effect 
 that, incredible as it may appear, I have seen one, during 
 a battle, absolutely rip an opponent quite open, so that it 
 sank to the bottom and died. I have known three or four 
 parts of the tub taken possession of by as many other 
 little tyrants, who guard their territories with the strictest 
 vigilance, and the slightest invasion invariably brings on 
 a battle." 
 
 It is pleasing to add for the honor of the sex that the 
 females take no part in these ferocious proceedings; a 
 redeeming feature in the belligerents, however, is the care 
 which they take in building their nests and watching over 
 the welfare of the females and their eggs. The reader may 
 not have heard of nest-building fishes, and, indeed, although 
 the ancients were acquainted with this instinct in some 
 fishes, it was not until 1838 that modern naturalists proved 
 this by the discovery of a stickleback nest. These ani- 
 mals collect small pieces of straw or stick, with which the 
 bottom of the nest is laid among water-plants, and these 
 they cement together by a transpiration from their own 
 bodies, which forms a thread through and round them in 
 every conceivable direction. The thread is whitish, fine, 
 and silken. The sides of the nest are made after the 
 bottom. 
 
 Not many fishes are yet known as nest-builders. The 
 Goramy, a native of the China seas, forms at the breeding- 
 season a nest by interlacing the stems and leaves of aquatic 
 
OTHER NEtST-BUILBINQ FISHES. 283 
 
 grapes. Both male and female watch tliese nests for a 
 month or more with great vigilance, violently driving away 
 every other fish until the spaAvn is hatched. The Gobies or 
 Sea-Gudgeons, have similar instincts. Many, however, are 
 known not to construct nests. Salmon and others exhibit 
 an approach to the nest-building habit, in making a place 
 for their eggs in the sand or gravel. 
 
 We must now notice the Fh^ng Gurnard, remarkably dis- 
 tinguished from the others of the family to which it is allied 
 by the great size of its pectoral fins, which are long enough, 
 and their webs sufficiently broad, to sustain the fish in the 
 air during its long flying leaps out of the water. These fins, 
 however, are very diS"erent in appearance from those of the 
 flying-fish {Exocetus, " fishes out of the water "), which be- 
 longs to another family. The flying gurnard is an inhabi- 
 tant of the warm seas ; one species is common in the Medi- 
 teranean, and is sometimes fifteen inches in length. Its 
 flight is said not to extend more than about forty yards, but 
 it sometimes rises high enough to fall on the decks of large 
 ships. At particular times, and especially on the approach 
 of rough Aveather in the night, numbers of them may be 
 seen by the phosporic light which they emit, making their 
 passages in apparent streams of fire. 
 
 Flying-fishes have the power of raising themselves out 
 of the water, and continuing suspended in the air until their 
 fins become dry, by which means they escape some of their 
 marine enemies, such as the dolphin and many others. 
 
 " So fishes rising from tlie main, 
 
 Can soar with, moisten'd wings on bigb; 
 The moisture dried, they sink again, 
 And dip their wings again to fly." 
 
 But they run the gauntlet of the long-winged sea birds, 
 which seize them in the air; and between themselves and 
 their swimming and flying enemies, they furnish one of 
 
284 
 
 FLYING FISHES. 
 
 the most singular sights in the warm seas of the tropics. 
 One species of the Exocetus sometimes visits the English 
 coasts, and are said to leap more than two hundred yards 
 in distance, and upwards of twenty feet in height. 
 Although these fishes are called " flying," their 
 action has more resemblance to a long and vigorous leap 
 tlian the flight of birds. Birds have an elegant, fearless, 
 and independent motion ; while that of the fish is hurried, 
 stiff, and awkward, more like a creature requiring support 
 for a short period. 
 
 THE FLYING FISH. 
 
STRA^^GE SOUNDS A T SEA 
 
 2S5 
 
 Very curious are the statements regarding what have 
 been called "musical" fish, but how far such a title is war- 
 ranted is doubtful. It is known that many fishes, notwith- 
 standing their being characterized as mute, are remarkable 
 for giving utterance to a peculiar sound called *' drumming." 
 This is very perceptible in the famous Maigre of the Medi- 
 terranean, the Umhrina of the Romans, a fish which swims in 
 groups, and often utters a low bellowing sound beneath the 
 water, Avhich is heard from a depth of one hundred and 
 twenty feet, and is rendered stronger by placing the ear 
 upon the gunwale of the boat. 
 
 Lieutenant White of the U. S. Navy, in his " Voyage to 
 the China Seas," published in 1824, relates that being at the 
 mouth of the Cambodia, his crew and himself were ex- 
 tremely astonished by hearing certain unaccountable sounds 
 from beneath and around the vessel. These were various, 
 like the bass notes of an organ, the sound of bells, the croak- 
 ing of frogs, and a pervading twang which the imagination 
 might have attributed to the vibrations of some enormous 
 harp. For a time the mysterious music swelled upon them, 
 and finally formed a universal chorus all around ; but as the 
 vessel ascended the river, the sounds diminished in strength, 
 and soon altogether ceased. 
 
 Humboldt was witness to a similar fact in the South Sea, 
 but without suspecting the cause. Towards seven in the 
 evening the whole crew were astounded by an extraordinary 
 noise, which resembled that of drums which were beating in 
 the air. It was at first attributed to the breakers. Speedily 
 it was heard in the vessel, and especially towards the poop. 
 It was like a boiling, the noise of the air which escapes 
 
286 MUSICAL FISHES. 
 
 from fluid in ebullition. The sailors began to fear there 
 was some leak in the vessel. It was heard unceasingly in 
 all parts of the vessel, and finally, about nine o'clock, it 
 ceased altogether. 
 
 It would form a curious matter of research to ascertain 
 by what organs these sounds are produced at so great a depth, 
 and without communication with the exterior air. The 
 illustrious naturalist further remarks that such of the Scicen- 
 idce (the Maigre family) as are the most remarkable for the 
 faculty in question, having the swimming-bladder very large 
 and thick, furnished with extremely strong muscles, and are, 
 in several species, provided with more or less complicated 
 prolongations, which penetrate between the intervals of the 
 ribs. But what renders the phenomenon more unaccounta- 
 ble is that these swimming-bladders have no communication 
 with the intestinal canal, nor, in general, with any part of 
 the exterior. 
 
 The interpreter belonging to Lieutenant "White's ship 
 stated that the marine music which had so much surprised 
 the crew was produced by fishes of a flattened oval form, 
 and which possess the faculty of adhering to various bodies 
 by their mouths. This fish might have been the Pogonia, 
 which produces much more sound than any of the other 
 Maigre tribe to which it belongs, on which account it is 
 sometimes called the " drum-fish." Schoefif reports of them 
 that they will assemble round the keel of a vessel at anchor, 
 and serenade the crew. Some of the species attain a large 
 size — one hundred pounds or more — and are excellent for 
 the table. 
 
 Sir James Emerson Tennant, in his account of Ceylon, 
 states : " In the evening, when the moon had risen, I took a 
 boat and accompanied the fishermen to the spot where mu- 
 sical sounds were said to be heard issuing from the bottom 
 of a lake, and which the natives supposed to proceed from 
 some fish peculiar to the locality. I distinctly heard the 
 
MUSICAL FL'SIIES. 
 
 287 
 
 sounds in question. They came up from the water like the 
 gentle thrills of a musical chord, or the faint vibrations of a 
 wine-glass when its rim is rubbed by a wet finger. It was 
 not one sustained note, but a multitude of tiny sounds, each 
 clear and distinct in itself, the sweetest treble mingling with 
 the deepest bass. They came evidently and sensibly from 
 the depths of the lake, and appeared to be produced by 
 mollusca, and not by fish." 
 
 Sounds somewhat similar are heard under water at some 
 places on the western coast of India, especially in the har- 
 bor of Bombay. 
 
 Among the foremost of queer fish is the Sea-Devil, a 
 most inharmonious name, but which seems to have been given 
 to it on account of its hideous, strange, and uncouth appear- 
 ance. A species of this extraordinary fish of the Skate fam- 
 ily frequents Kingston harbor in Jamaica, where they are 
 seen floating on the surface, or swimming just beneath the 
 water. An interesting account is given by Lieutenant La- 
 
288 THE SEA-DEVIL. 
 
 mont of the escape of a devil-fish and the capture of an- 
 other at Port Royal. The lieutenant had been called to the 
 beach by seeing a multitude assembled to look at one of 
 these fishes floating past. His curiosity turned to surprise 
 when he saw, flapping on the water, about twenty yards 
 from the shore, a large dark-colored mass, whose shape 
 and size he could not immediately determine, but which 
 seemed prodigiously big beyond anything he could conceive, 
 since it so much exceeded all he had ever seen or heard of 
 fishes. The boats were started off to pursue it, and it was 
 harpooned, but no sooner was the monster struck than it 
 made off with amazing velocity, towing the boat of the har- 
 pooner after him. A succession of boats now came up. 
 These strung themselves on to the harpooner one after an- 
 other, striking each a harpoon as the boats came up. They 
 consecutively formed a long line, but such was the force of 
 the fish that all the boats were drawn out ten miles to sea. 
 Night was drawing on. To bring the chase to a close, an- 
 other harpoon was struck into the monster, when it made one 
 convulsive effort to get awaj^ and broke loose, carrying 
 away eight or ten harpoons and pikes, leaving every one as- 
 tonished at the success of its escape. 
 
 Another devil-fish was not so fortunate, and Lieutenant 
 Lamont gives the history of its capture Avithin the harbor, 
 which the animal traversed up and down, dragging with 
 such velocity the boat from which it had been struck, that 
 the other boats following could not overtake the fish. Its 
 struggles were tremendous, plunging into the midst of the 
 boats that at length surrounded it, darting from the surface 
 to the bottom of the water, and then rising swiftly, dashing 
 the foam about on every side and rolling round and round to 
 extricate itself from the poles and lines. Unable to get 
 away, it swam off, towing all the boats after it, and then 
 laid itself at the bottom of the water. From this position 
 the stretch and strain of all the boats' crews could not move 
 
CAPTURE OF A SEA-DEVIL. 289 
 
 it. Slackening their eftbrts gradually, the monster rose 
 again to the surface, when a shower of musket-balls and 
 pikes riddled it through. Until this capture was effected, 
 it was believed that a sea-devil -was beyond the might of 
 human art and strengh. The dimensions of this fish were 
 not more than half that of the common size, being only 
 fifteen feet in Avidth. A man, however, entered the mouth 
 with ease, the space being two feet and a half. The weight 
 of the fish was so great, that, with difficulty, forty men with 
 two lines attached to it dragged it along the ground. 
 
 A devil-fish taken at Barbadoes required seven yoke of 
 oxen to draw it. 
 
 In the account of the fish taken in Delaware Bay (remarks 
 the Hon. Richard Hill in an interesting article on the subject 
 of the devil-fish), it was stated that drawing a boat after it 
 with the celerity of a whale when harpooned, it caused a 
 wave to be raised on each side the trough of the sea, several 
 feet higher than the boat ; that during the scuffle the vast 
 fins of the fish lashed the sea with such vehemence that the 
 spray rose to the height of thirty feet, and rained dropping 
 water around to the distance of fifty feet, and yet the meas- 
 urement of this fish was only half of those generally seen, 
 being only eighteen feet in breadth. Three pairs of oxen, one 
 horse, and twenty-two men, all pulling together, with the 
 surges of the Atlantic to help, could barely convey the mon- 
 ster to the dry beach. 
 
 The monstrous skate said by Pdre Labat to have been 
 observed by the natives of Guadaloupe, and described as 
 fourteen feet broad, and ten feet from the head to the com- 
 mencement of the tail, with the tail fifteen feet more, alto- 
 gether twenty-five feet long, was no doubt a kindred species 
 of the devil-fish ; and the monster spoken of by the early 
 voyagers as suffocating the pearl-divers in the water, and 
 known by the name of Manta, was a similar animal. 
 
 Surprising stories are related of these fishes. Le Vaillant 
 
290 THE FISHING FROQ. 
 
 speaks of three that he saw in the Atlantic — one so large 
 that it seemed fifty or sixty feet wide ; they all three carried 
 each on his horns a white fish about half a yard long, which 
 appeared to be stationed there on duty as sentinels, to keep 
 watch for the safety of the " devils," and to guide their 
 movements: that these sentinels passed over their backs 
 when they rose too high, and repassed under them until 
 they descended deeper, disappearing and being seen no 
 more for a time, but reappearing and resuming their post as 
 sentinels when the fish again ascended to the surface. 
 
 Among other "queer " fish, is the Fishing Frog, or Ang- 
 ler, belonging to the " Wristed " family (so named from the 
 prolongation of the wrist-bones, forming a kind of arm, sup- 
 porting the pectoral fin on a kind of hand), and one of the 
 most extraordinary and repulsive-looking animals that 
 inhabit the deep. 
 
 Let the reader imagine a gigantic tadpole blown out to 
 the size of a porpoise, with an immense head, and a mouth 
 extending on either side far beyond the width of the body, 
 opening to view a capacious den, shagged throughout with 
 hooked and mobile teeth, a triple tier in the upper, and 
 an equal number in the lower jaw, the palate, tongue 
 fauces, pharynx, and far down the throat, glistening with a 
 like display of ivory fangs ; unfishy orbs, resembling those 
 of the " star-gazer " (the " priest-fish," so named from the 
 whites of its eyes, looking constantly heavenward), planted 
 high in the forehead; a scaleless skin, which is reeking 
 cold, and clammy ; its surface, from near the tail to the cor- 
 ners of the mouth, as crawling with long wriggling caruncu- 
 lated (fleshy) appendages, like so many worms in agony ; 
 the flesh " boggy " to the touch, save where it is padded out 
 with an enormously extended liver, or just over the branchial 
 (apertures for the passage of water from the gills) cavity; 
 a pantry constantly replenished with provisions ; add to all 
 these a large pair of Caliban-hand-like fins, planted close 
 
VORACITY OF THE FISHING FROG. 291 
 
 under the throat; a fierce, malevolent aspect, and an 
 ungainly mode of wallowing, rather than swimming, through 
 the brine, and it will be apparent, even from this very im- 
 perfect sketch, that such a fish scarecrow could not fail to 
 arrest attention, even had their been no other claim to 
 regard than his portentous ugliness. 
 
 Of its boldness and voracity many anecdotes are related. 
 A fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and whilst drawing it up 
 he felt a heavier weight attach itself to his line. This 
 appeared to be a frog-fish of a large size, which he com- 
 pelled to quit its hold by a heavy blow on the head, leaving 
 its prey still attached to the hook. In another instance one 
 of these fishes had seized a conger eel which had taken the 
 hook ; but after the latter had been engulfed in the enor- 
 mous jaws, and perhaps in the stomach, it struggled 
 through the gill-aperture of its captor, and in that situation 
 both were drawn up together. 
 
 An incident is related of its swallowing a large ball of 
 cork employed as a buoy to a butler or deep-sea line. 
 
 It has also been stated that when this fish is captured in 
 a net, its rapacious appetite is not in the least diminished, 
 but it generally devours some of its fellow-prisoners. 
 
 The sea-frog, as it can live longer out of water than most 
 other fish, is said to pass some of its time on shore. The 
 naturalist, Rondolet, tells a curious story of one being found 
 on land, holding a fox fast by the leg. The cunning quad- 
 ruped, outreached for once by a fish, had put his foot into 
 the mouth of the sea-frog, who, instantly closing upon it, 
 held it fast as in a trap till next morning, when Rondolet 
 surprised them in this strange position. 
 
 The name of " angler " given to this singular fish is 
 derived from its habit of crouching close to the ground, and 
 stirring up with its fins the sand or mud. In the obscurity 
 thus produced the animal moves its appendages, tentacles 
 or feelers, in various directions, by way of attracting as a 
 
292 THE SAW-FISH. 
 
 bait, and the small fishes approaching to examine or seize 
 them are soon conveyed to the capacious jaws of the angler. 
 Nature has added to this provivsion for obtaining food, inas- 
 much as a filament shooting up close to the upper lip of the 
 fish carries upon its extremity a little membrane or flag, of 
 brilliant metallic lustre, which, it is supposed, the angler 
 uses as a means of alluring its prey; and the relative posi- 
 tion of the flag, the eye, and the mouth, favor such a pur- 
 pose. The upper part of the body is brown, inclining to 
 dusky, and the lower parts are white. The sea-frog is com- 
 mon in the Northern Ocean and the Mediterranean ; it is 
 also taken sometimes on the British coasts. 
 
 In the chapter on the " Monarchs of the Ocean." we 
 have alluded to the Saw-fish and the Sword-fish as formid- 
 able enemies to the whale ; but is not merely on their fel- 
 low-inhabitants of the deep that these powerful fishes exer- 
 cise their aggressive propensities. Some singular instances 
 are related of their attacking even the "wooden walls" that 
 glide tranquilly through their watery domain. 
 Captain Wilson, of the Halifax packet, states: 
 " Being in the Gulf of Paria, in the ship's cutter, I fell 
 in with a Spanish canoe, manned by two men, then in great 
 distress, who requested me to save their lines and canoe, 
 with which request I immediately complied, and going 
 alongside for that purpose, I discovered that they had got 
 a large saw-fish entangled in their turtle-net, which was 
 towing them out to sea, and but for my assistance they must 
 have lost either their canoe or their net, or perhaps both, 
 which were their only means of subsistence. Having only 
 two boys with me at the time in the boat, I desired them 
 to cut the fish awa}^, which they refused to do. I then took 
 the bight of the net from them, and with the joint endeav- 
 ors of themselves and my boat's crew, we succeeded in 
 hauling up the net, and to our astonishment, after great 
 exertions, we raised the "saw " of the fish about eight feet 
 
VIOLENCE OF TUE SA W-FISE. . 293 
 
 above the surface of the sea. It was a fortunate circum- 
 stance that the fish came up with the belly towards the 
 bout, or it would have cut the boat in two. 
 
 "I had abandoned all idea of taking the fish, until, by- 
 great good luck, it made towards the land, when 1 made 
 another attempt, and having about three hundred feet of 
 rope in the boat, we succeeded in making a running bowline- 
 knot round the saw of the fish, and this we fortunately made 
 fast on shore. When the fish found itself secured, it plunged 
 so violently that I could not prevail on anyone to go near it ; 
 the appearance it presented was truly awful. I immediately 
 went alongside the Lima packet, Captain Singleton, and got 
 the assistance of all his ship's crew. By the time they 
 arrived, the fish was less violent. We hauled upon the net 
 again, in which it was still entangled, and got another three 
 hundred feet of line made fast to the saw, and attempted to 
 haul it toward the shore ; but although mustering thirty 
 Jiands, we could not move it an inch. By this time the ne- 
 groes belonging to Mr. Danglad's estate came flocking to our 
 assistance, making together about one hundred in number, 
 with the Spaniards. We then hauled on both ropes for 
 nearly the day, before the fish became exhausted. On 
 endeavoring to raise the fish it became most desperate, 
 sweeping with its sword from side to side, so that we were 
 compelled to get strong ropes to prevent it from cutting us 
 to pieces. After that, one of the Spaniards got on its back, 
 and at great risk cut through the joint of the tail, when ani- 
 mation was completely suspended. It was then measured, 
 and found to be twenty-two feet long and eight feet broad, 
 and weighed nearly five tons." 
 
 An East Indiaman was attacked by a sword-fish with such 
 prodigious force as to drive its "snout" completely through 
 the bottom of the ship, and must have been destroyed by tlie 
 leak had not the animal been killed by the violence of its 
 own exertions, and the sword remaining imbedded in the 
 
294 PRODIGIOUS STRENQTH OF THE SWORD-FISH. 
 
 wood. A fragment of this vessel, witli the sword fixed 
 firmly in it, is preserved as a curiosity in the British 
 Museum. 
 
 Several instances of a similar character have occurred, 
 and one formed the subject of an action in the courts of law 
 so recently as 1868, brought against an insurance company 
 for damages sustained by a vessel from the attack of one of 
 these fishes. It seems the Dreadnought, a first-class mercan- 
 tile ship, left a foreign port in perfect repair, and on the 
 afternoon of the third day a " monstrous creature" was seen 
 sporting among the waves, and lines and hooks were thrown 
 overboard to capture it. All efforts to this effect, however, 
 failed : the fish got away, and in the night-time the vessel 
 was reported to be dangerously leaking. The captain was 
 compelled to return to the harbor he had left, and the dam- 
 age Avas attributed to a sword-fish, twelve feet long, which 
 had assailed the ship below water-line, perforated her 
 planks and timbers, and thus imperilled her existence on 
 the ocean. 
 
 Professor Owen, the distinguished naturalist, was called 
 to give evidence on this trial as to the probability of such 
 an occurrence, and he related several instances of the pro- 
 digious strength of the " sword." It strikes with the ac- 
 cumulated force of fifteen double-handed hammers; its 
 velocity is equal to that of a swivel shot, and it is as dan- 
 gerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile would be. 
 
 Oppian describes the sword-fish when attacked : 
 
 " He summons to his instant aid 
 The oft-tried prowess of liis trusty blade ; 
 Selects some boat, and runs his puissant sword 
 Full many an incli within the fatal board." 
 
 In remarking upon beautiful fishes, it would be quite out 
 of the limits of a small publication like the present to 
 attempt more than a bare mention of a few species of the 
 
BEAUTIFUL FISHES. 
 
 295 
 
 ocean inhabitants which possess, in a special degree, the 
 attributes to which this term may be applied. Among the 
 most prominent of beautiful fishes is the Dolphin, wdiich, 
 however, belongs to an extensive family, including the por- 
 poise, grampus, &c., and animals which, on account of their 
 ^arge size, are commonly called whales. 
 
 SKATES. 
 
 There are, however, many other fish that change color 
 before they die. We have seen species of the cat-fish 
 change from a warm and glowing smalt durin<:r the last 
 
296 G HANGING COLORS OF THE DOLPHIN. 
 
 pangs to a dull leaden hue, losing at the same time the deli- 
 cate pinky tinge of the sides and abdomen. The common 
 sucking-fish, from a brown, bright, shining, blackish color, 
 changes even in the water to a leaden hue, and as it dies 
 assumes a tan-color, which grows paler by degrees and turns 
 to a dingy white. 
 
 When swimming near the surface of the water, and glit- 
 tering beneath the light of a cloudless sky, the dolphins 
 appear clothed in the richest gold, and to have the starry 
 lustre of the topaz and sapphire. Two species have been 
 named, from the variety and vividness of their tints, the 
 ^ sea-peacock " and the " blue-fish." 
 
 The true dolphin has the snout prolonged into a rather 
 slender beak, whence the French have applied to it the 
 name of " the goose of the sea." It was very differently 
 regarded and designated by the ancients, who looked upon 
 it as a sacred fish, and dedicated it to Appollo, who was 
 worshipped at Delphi with dolphins for his symbols. The 
 name is given to one of the fairest provinces of France — 
 Dauphiny, from which the heir-apparent of the throne form- 
 erly derived his title of " Dauphin." 
 
 Wondrously beautiful, indeed, are these gay inhabitants 
 of the seas, especially when seen playing and springing from 
 the water, when they assume the curved shape that is not 
 natural to them, but which old painters and sculptors have 
 always given them. 
 
 "Upon tlie swelling waves the dolphins show 
 Their bending backs, then swiftly darting go, 
 And in a thousand wreaths their bodies throw." 
 
 They are, however, very voracious animals, and are said 
 to prey not only on other fishes, but their own species. The 
 flying-fish in particular comes in for a share of their pursuit. 
 Captain Basil Hall gives a vivid discription of their opera- 
 tions : 
 
DOLPHINS IN PURSUIT OF FLYING FISHES. 297 
 
 " Shortly after observing a cluster of flying-fish rise out 
 of the water, we discoyered two or three dolphins ranging 
 past the ship in all their beauty, and watched with some 
 anxiety to see one of those aquatic chases of which our 
 friends, the Indiamen, had been telling such wonderful 
 stories. We had not long to wait, for the ship, in her pro- 
 gress through the water, soon put up another shoal of these 
 little things, which, as the others had done, took their 
 flight directly to windward. A large dolphin, which had 
 been keeping company with us abresst of the weather gang- 
 way, at the depth of two or three fathoms, and, as usual, 
 glistening most beautifully in the sun, no sooner detected 
 our poor dear little friends take wing than he turned his 
 head towards them and, darting to the surface, leaped from 
 the water with a velocity little short, as it seemed, of a can- 
 non-ball. But, although the impetus with which he shot 
 himself into the air gave him an initial velocity greatly 
 exceeding that of the flying-fish, the start which his fated 
 prey had got enabled them to keep ahead of him for a con- 
 siderable time. 
 
 " The length of the dolphin's first spring could not be 
 less than ten yards, and after he fell we could see him glid- 
 ing like lightning through the water for a moment, when he 
 again arose and shot forwards with considerably greater 
 velocity than at first, and, of course, to a still greater dis- 
 tance. In this manner the merciless pursuer seemed to 
 stride along with fearful rapidity, while his brilliant coat 
 sparkled and flashed in the sun quite splendidly. As he fell 
 headlong on the water at the end of each huge leap, a series 
 of circles were sent far over the still surface, which lay as 
 smooth as a mirror. 
 
 " The group of wretched flying-fish, thus hotly pursued, 
 at length dropped into the sea ; but we were rejoiced to 
 observe that they merely touched the top of the swell, and 
 scarcely sank in it ; at least, they instantly set off again in a 
 
298 THE DOLPHIN A SEA-SPORTSMAN. 
 
 fresh and more vigorous flight. It waj particularly inter- 
 esting to observe that the direction they now took was 
 quite different from the one in which they had set out, im- 
 plying but too obviously that they had detected their fierce 
 enemy, who was following them with giant steps on the 
 waves, and now gaining rapidly upon them. His terrific 
 pace was, indeed, two or three times as swift as theirs, poor 
 little things! 
 
 " The greedy dolphin, however, was fully as quick-sighted 
 as the flying-fish which were trying to elude him, for when- 
 ever they varied their flight in the smallest degree, he lost 
 not the tenth part of a second in shaping a new course, so 
 as to cut off the chase ; whilst they, in a manner really not 
 unlike that of the hare, doubled more than once on their 
 pursuer. But it was soon too plainly to be seen that the 
 strength and confidence of the flying-fish were fast ebbing. 
 Their flights became shorter and shorter, and their course 
 more fluttering and uncertain, while the enormous leaps of 
 the dolphin appeared to grow more vigorous at each bound. 
 Eventually, indeed, we could see, or fancied that we could 
 see, that this skilful sea-sportsman arranged all his springs 
 with such an assurance of success that he contrived to fall 
 at the end of each just under the very spot on which the 
 exhausted flying-fish were about to drop. Sometimes this 
 catastrophe took place at too great a distance for us 
 to see from the deck exactly what happened; but on 
 our mounting high into the rigging, we may be said to have 
 been in at the death, for then we could discover that the 
 unfortunate little creatures, one after another, either popped 
 right into the dolphin's jaws as they lighted on the water, or 
 were snapped up instantly afterwards. 
 
 " It was impossible not to take an active part with our 
 pretty little friends of the weaker side, and accordingly we 
 very speedily had our revenge. The middies and the sailors, 
 delighted with the chance, rigged out a dozen or twenty 
 
TUK MACKEREL. 299 
 
 lilies from the jibbooin-end and spritsail-yard-arms, with 
 hooks baited merely with bits of tin, the glitter of which 
 resembles so much that of the body and wings of the flying- 
 fish that many a proud dolphin, making sure of a delicious 
 morsel, leaped in rapture at the glittering prize." 
 
 The dolphin, however, in turn becomes the prey of other 
 fishes, and especially of the Fox-Shark, or Sea-Fox as it is 
 sometimes called, a genus of sharks containing only one 
 known species, belonging to the Mediterranean Sea, and the 
 Atlantic, and occasionally seen on English coasts. This 
 powerful fish attains a length of thirteen feet, including the 
 tail-fin, which is remarkably long, nearly half the dimensions 
 of the animal, and which, as a weapon of offence, is very for- 
 midable. The furious lashing of this appendage has obtained 
 for this fish the popular name of " thresher." A whole herd 
 of dolphins wall take flight at the first splash of this tail, 
 and even the grampus, the largest of the dolphin family, 
 and, it is said, a formidable adversary of the whale, comes 
 off badly in an encounter with the fox-shark. 
 
 The numerous and interesting Mackerel family include 
 many species remarkable for rich coloring. The common 
 Mackerel itself, which is described in the chapter on " Meth- 
 ods of Fishing," is a very beautiful fish, with its brilliant 
 blue and green tints, besides its elegant form. The Dory, 
 or John Dory as it is popularly called, is said to derive its 
 name from the golden tint that prevails over it when taken 
 from the water; jaune in French being "yellow," and (/ore, 
 "golden." Along the shores of the Mediterranean, where 
 this fish abounds, it is called among other names "St. Peter's 
 Fish," from a legend that the apostle obtained from it the 
 coin to pay the tribute mone}^ and that the impression of 
 his two fingers marks the species to the present day ; a dis- 
 tinction, however, which is claimed also for the haddock. 
 The dory is very common on some parts of the Atlantic 
 coasts. The prevailing color of the body (which is oval) is 
 
300 THE GLOBT OF THE MACKEREL FAMILY. 
 
 an olive-brown tinged with yellow, reflecting in difi'erent 
 lights blue, gold, and white. When the fish is taken, the 
 varying tints of these beautiful colors pass in rapid succes- 
 sion over the body. Though flat in form, the fish SAvims 
 erect, and both surfaces being thus equally exposed to the 
 light, are alike of a coppery hue. 
 
 The Boar-fish, a relative of the dory, is of inferior preten- 
 sions as regards shape and color, the mouth having some 
 resemblance to the snout of a hog, which doubtless originated 
 the name. The eyes are very large and prominent, and the 
 body of a pale carmine color, with orange bands on the 
 back. 
 
 But the glory of the Mackerel famil}'-, at least for splen- 
 dor of appearance, is the Opah, or King-fish, an inhabitant 
 of the seas of high northern latitudes, and occasionally found 
 on the British coasts, sometimes five feet long and one hun- 
 dred and fifty pounds in weight. The colors are, indeed, 
 magnificent. The whole back is of a steel blue, which, on 
 the flanks, becomes rich green, reflecting in different lights 
 purple and gold, and a lovely rose-color on the abdomen. 
 Numerous oval spots, some milk-white, others of a beautiful 
 silvery lustre, adorn this groundwork, while small ones orna- 
 ment the head. The gill-covers are very brilliant, and the 
 iris of its large eye is of a beautiful golden color : all the fins 
 are vermilion. 
 
 Among marine members of the perch family, we may 
 mention the Red Mullet as very beautiful in its delicate rose- 
 color, striped with yellow; which colors, however, soon fade 
 after death. 
 
 "On fish a different fate attends, nor reach they long the shore 
 Ere fade their hues like rainbow tints, and soon their beauty's o'er." 
 
 It was one of these mullets which was so celebrated among 
 the Romans for the excellency of its flesh, its great beauty, 
 and the extravagant prices it brought. In the days of 
 
MULLE2\S AND 8EA-P I'JIiCIIES. 301 
 
 Horace this fish was valued in proportion to its size, not bo- 
 cause the hirger were better, but (as happens in the fashion- 
 able world frequently in our own time) because they were 
 procured with greater difficulty. Enormous sums were paid 
 for these fishes. Juvenal tells us, 
 
 " The lavish 
 Six tliousand pieces for a mullet gave, 
 A sesterce for eacli pound." 
 
 amounting altogether to a sum of nearly two hundred and 
 fifty dollars of our money, while, according to Pliny, a con- 
 sul named Asinius Celer gave a sum equal to nearly four hun- 
 dred dollars of our currency for a single fish of this kind; 
 an infatuation we can only feel paralleled by the " tulip 
 mania " of former days. Neither did the extravagance of 
 these people end even here, for Senaca informs us they were 
 so exceedingly fastidious about the freshness of this fish 
 that, according to the luxurious habits of those days, rich 
 epicures kept aquariums in their dining-rooms, so that the 
 fish could be taken out alive under the table: one reason 
 besides the freshness of the fish, being, that the guests 
 might see them change their colors when they were dying. 
 In these feasts they revelled over the expiring mullet, while 
 the bright red color of health passed through various 
 shades of purple, violet, blue, and white, as life gradually 
 ebbed and convulsions put an end to the revolting specta- 
 cle. They also put these devoted fishes into crystal vessels 
 filled with water, over a slow fire upon their tables, a refine- 
 ment of cruelty which required an " imperial " Humane Soci- 
 ety to see after. 
 
 The Basse or Sea-Perch is an elegant fish, with chaste 
 and pleasing colors, the upper parts gray with bluish tints 
 shading into silvery white ; tolerably common on our coasts 
 during the summer. The armed Enoplessiis, another mem- 
 ber of the Perch family, very abundant in the New Holland 
 
302 BEA UTIFUL MEMBERS OF THE PERCH FAMIL Y. 
 
 seas, is remarkable for its chaste coloring, the ground-shade 
 being of a silvery gray, relieved by eight narrow black 
 bands, which either entirely or in part surround the body. 
 The fins have a yellowish tint. It is about eight or ten 
 inches in length. The Two-banded Diploprion, an inhabi- 
 tant of the coast of Java, also claims the same relationship ; 
 the colors are a fine reddish-yellow, relieved by two cross- 
 ing bands of black; length of the fish about six inches. 
 Another genus is the Mediteranean Apogon, about the same 
 length as the last-named fish, but of far more brilliant colors. 
 The prevailing color is of a crimson-red, paler on the lower 
 parts, with three deep black markings. The whole surface 
 of the body is covered over with small black spots or dots. 
 
 To the same extensive family belong the Lettered Sera- 
 nus, a beautifully-marked fish, found on the coasts of the 
 Mediterranean. The general ground-tint of the skin is a 
 reddish-orange, sometimes inclining to olive, and shading 
 to a pale tint on the lower parts. The back is banded, as 
 in the Perch, with dull brown bands, but the most showy 
 marks are the narrow irregular lines of rich blue which run 
 On the nose below the eyes and on the cheeks, which assume 
 the form of written characters (hence the name "lettered"). 
 The ground color of the fins is gray, spotted sometimes 
 with reddish-orange, and sometimes with purple. The 
 Spined Seranus, belonging also to the same warm seas, is of a 
 brilliant red or scarlet, which on the sides assumes a golden 
 tint, and on the belly becomes pale or almost silvery. Upon the 
 sides of the head are three bands of golden yellow, and on 
 the forehead are bands of bronzed green: the fins are 
 tinted with red and yellow. This fish in length is generally 
 from five to seven inches. 
 
 The Beautiful Plectropoma, also of the Perch family, mer- 
 its its name from the lovely colors it exhibits. This fish in- 
 habits the tropical seas, and some species are unusually 
 lovely. The ground-tint of the body is olive, crossed by six 
 
CURIOUS lySTINCT OF THE ARCHER FI61IES. 303 
 
 bands of olive black. A line of blue surrounds the orbit; 
 the fins are tinted with olive and yellow, the pectorals 
 sometimes with a delicate rose-color. This fish is about 
 four or five inches in length. A formidable rival in point of 
 beauty, however, is the the One-spotted 3Iesoprion, of the 
 same family, a native of our seas, and as remarkable for the 
 eleg"ance of its form (length about fourteen inches) as the 
 richness and lustre of the coloring. The back, upper part 
 of the head, and cheeks are of a rich steel blue, the lower 
 part of the cheeks and sides of a rich rose-color, and the 
 belly silvery; the whole body is striped with seven or eight 
 bands on a rose-colored ground, and the others are gamboge 
 yellow. The coloring is subject to a considerable variety 
 in tint, from golden orange to silvery. The Golden-tailed 
 3Iesoprioii is of similar richness. 
 
 What is called the " Scaly-finned " family of fishes is a 
 large one, containing about one hundred and fifty species, 
 most of which, however, frequent the Indian and Polynesian 
 seas, and are conspicuous for their splendid coloring. It 
 has been observed that if the " feathered tribes of the warm 
 regions are bedecked with the most brilliant and gorgeous 
 hues, the neighboring oceans contain myriads of the finny 
 race which in this respect excel them. Upon the'first of 
 three groups of this family especially, nature has most pro- 
 fusely lavished these splendid ornaments. The purple of 
 the iris, the richness of the rose, the azure blue of the sky. 
 the darkest velvet black, and many other hues are seen com- 
 mingled with metallic lustre over the pearly surface of the 
 resplendent group, which, habitually frequenting the rocky 
 shores at no great depth of water, are seen to sport in the 
 sunbeams as if to exhibit to advantage their gorgeous 
 dress. 
 
 In the chapter on "Submarine Scenery," we have described 
 the Ghoetodon (signifying I contain a tooth), one of the most 
 beautiful of this family of fishes. Another animal ranged 
 

THE RIBAND-SHAPED FISH. 305 
 
 Aviththe " scaly-iiiis," is the Archer, a fish about six or eight 
 inches in length, wliich, when it perceives a fly or otlier 
 winged insect hovering over the surface or settled on a 
 twig, propels against it with considerable force a drop of 
 liquid from its mouth, so as to drive it into the water ; in 
 attacking an insect at rest, it usually approaches cautiously, 
 and very deliberately takes its aim. It is said to be an amuse- 
 ment with the Chinese in Java to keep this fish in confinement 
 in a large vessel of water, in order that they may witness its 
 dexterity. They fasten a fly or other insect to the side of 
 the vessel, when the fish aims at it with such precision 
 that it rarely misses its mark. This Japanese fish is called 
 the Chelmon rostratus. Another genus — the Toxotus jacu- 
 lata — shoots its watery deluge to the height of three or four 
 feet, and strikes Avith unerring aim the insect attacked. 
 
 The family of " Riband-shaped Fish " includes the most 
 singular and extraordinary fishes ir. creation. The form of 
 the bod}' when compared to fishes better known is much 
 like that of the eel, the length being in the same propor- 
 tion as the breadth; but then it is so much compressed 
 that these creatures have obtained the popular name of 
 "riband-fish," "lath" or "deal-fish.' The body, indeed, is 
 often not thicker, except in its middle, than is a sword ; 
 and being covered with the richest silver, and of great 
 length, the undulating motion of these fishes in the sea 
 must be resplendent and beautiful beyound measure. But 
 these wonders of the mighty deep are almost hidden from 
 the eye of man. These metoric fishes appear to live in 
 the greatest depths, and it is only at long intervals, and 
 after a succession of tempests, that a solitary individual 
 is cast on the shore, with its delicate body torn and mu- 
 tilated by the elements on the rocks. 
 
 The family of the " Wrasses," or " Old Wives of the Sea" 
 — as they are commonly called — include some very beautiful 
 species, and are distinguished by their elegant, regular, and 
 
306 THE OLD WIVES OF THE SEA. 
 
 oval form. The Rainbow is remarkable for the beauty of 
 its coloring", as the name would imply: it is the ornament of 
 the markets on the coast of the Mediterranean, for the 
 various colors of the fish do not yield in their brilliancy and 
 beauty to the most lovely fishes of tropical seas. The sum- 
 mit of the head and back is of a rich brown, mixed with blue 
 and red; beneath this brilliant tint there is a broad band, 
 with a denticulated margin of orange red; below this band, 
 and at the origin of the gill-ray, the middle portion of the 
 side is colored by a deep blue band. This marking extends 
 to near the tail in a band of ultramarine blue. An ultra- 
 marine streak of the lovliest hue arises at the angle of the 
 mouth, crosses the cheek, and is prolonged in fainter hues 
 along the inferior border of the deep blue marking of the 
 side. The dorsal fin is of an olive-color, mixed with red, 
 having the margin light blue. 
 
 The Parrot-fish belongs to this numerous family, deriving 
 its name partly from a fancied resemblance in their jaws to 
 a parrot's bill. These fishes are remarkable for their bril- 
 liant colors, some of them being of wonderful splendor. One 
 species, found in the Mediterranean, is supposed to be the 
 famous Scarus of the ancients, of whose ruminating powers 
 extraordinary accounts have been related. 
 
 To the family of the pipe-fishes belong the Hippocampus, 
 or Sea-horse, which is, perhaps, more remarkable for the 
 singularity of its form — the upper parts having some resem- 
 blance to the head and neck of a horse in miniture — than 
 for any ornament or color, although these are not wanting. 
 The singularity of this fish is in the shape and disposition 
 of the plates on the tail, which are such as to admit of its 
 being easily curved inwards, and by the aid of which the 
 animal twists itself around the stems of marine plants, wait- 
 ing in that position with its head free, ready to dart at any 
 passing object which it desires to make its prey. 
 
TUB GOLD AND SILVER FISH OF NORWA Y. 307 
 
 For beauty of coloring, irrespective of shape and other 
 repulsive peculiarities, we may mention the Ckimoera, or 
 Rabbit-fish, an animal little known, as it frequents the deep 
 recesses of the ocean, and is only an occasional visitant of 
 our coasts. In Norway, however, it is more common, and 
 receives the name of " gold and silver fish," from the 
 resplendent colors which form the ground of the body, set 
 off by dark spots. It is also called by the Norwegians the 
 " sea-rat," from the form of the tail, and " king-fish," from a 
 thready filament, terminating in a tuft, which is found on 
 the head of the male. The colors are very beautiful : the 
 upper parts dark brown, varied with yellowish-brown 
 and silvery; the lower parts bright silver ; the eyes large, 
 green, and brilliantly lustrous, so much so, that the Medi- 
 terranean fishermen called this fish the "cat." The form of 
 the fish does not correspond with the vivid colors we have 
 mentioned, the repulsive shape of the head, and the rat-like 
 tail, giving it an appearance somewhat allied to sea- 
 monsters. 
 
 In concluding these brief notices of a few out of the mul- 
 titude of beautiful fishes which give a charm and lovliness 
 to the element in which they live, we would have the 
 reader remember that these works of a beneficent Creator 
 are intended to raise our thoughts in reverent admiration 
 to that Holy Being, who made all things for our comfort and 
 delight : 
 
 *' The inhabitant of the waters, generally speaking, knows 
 no attachments, has no language, no affections ; feelings of 
 conjugality or paternity are not acknowledged by him; 
 ignorant of the art of constructing an asylum, in danger he 
 seeks shelter beneath the rocks or in the darkness of the 
 deep ; his life is silent and monotonous. The cravings of 
 Toracity alone influence his instinct sufiiciently to teach him 
 some kind of obedience in his movements to external signs. 
 A.lthough so small a share of enjoyment and intelligence is 
 
308 
 
 SPLENDOR OF CERTAIN FItiHEti. 
 
 their lot, fish are, nevertheless, adorned by the hand of 
 Nature with every kind of beauty : variety in their forms, 
 elegance in their proportions, diversity and vivacity in their 
 colors — nothing is wanted to attract the attention of man, 
 and indeed it seems as if that attention was the principal 
 object Nature wished to excite. The splendor of every metal, 
 the blaze of every gem, glitter on their surface; iridescent 
 colors, breaking and reflecting in bands, in spots, in angles, 
 or in undulating lines, ahvays regular, symmetrical, gradua- 
 ting or contrasting, but always with admirable effect and 
 harmony, flashing over their sides : for whom else have they 
 received such gifts, they who at most can barely perceive 
 each other in the twilight of the deep ; and if they could see 
 distinctly, what species of pleasure could they receive from 
 such combinations?" 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 MONG the many wonderful productions of na- 
 ture are the sea shells. How beautifully is 
 the wisdom of God manifested in shaping out 
 and moulding them, and especially in the par- 
 ticular angle which the spiral of each species 
 of shell effects, a valve connected by necessary relation with 
 the material of each, and with its stability, and the condi- 
 ditions of its buovancv. 
 
310 WOMBERFUL STRUCTURE OF SHELLS. 
 
 This is shown in many ways; for in, the structure of 
 Shells there is a general adaptation of the wants of the 
 animal to which they belong. Thus, there are light shells 
 for the floaters and swimmers, strength for the limpets and 
 periwinkles, and other adjustments as needed for others. 
 What can be more wonderful than the apparatus essential 
 to what are commonly called bivalves, or molluscous ani- 
 mals protected by two shells? The hinge which connects 
 them shows a singular contrivance for the necessities of the 
 animal. It is formed entirely of the inner layer of shell, 
 and consists of either a simple cardinal (a hinge) process, or 
 of serrated projections, or teeth as they are called, with cor- 
 responding cavities or sockets into which they are inserted. 
 To this hinge is superadded a ligament, the external sub- 
 stance by which the shells are united, which binds the two 
 parts together, and keeps those composing the hinge in 
 their places. This ligament is highly elastic, being com- 
 posed of a number of fibres, parallel to each other and per- 
 pendicular to the valves which they connect. When the 
 animal is undisturbed, the elastic ligament keeps the valves 
 open, and the functions are carried on without any effort. 
 When danger is apprehended, or circumstances require it, 
 the adductor muscle or muscles contract, overcome the re- 
 sistance of the hinge, and shut the valves close until they 
 may be opened with safety. 
 
 Conchology, is the science which teaches the arrangement 
 of shells into classes, species, etc. Formerly, these beauti- 
 ful productions of Nature were looked upon as merely pleas- 
 ing toys and objects of curiosity, but gradually this inno- 
 cent trifling came to be viewed in its true light, by some 
 collectors worthy of better employment, who put off childish 
 things and went deeper into the subject. In anticipation 
 of this, shell-collectors began to look upon their treasures as 
 an assemblage of gems, and, indeed, the enormous prices 
 given for fine and scarce shells, joined with the surpassing 
 
GREAT VALu-Cj of some ailELLS. 311 
 
 beautv of the objects themselves, almost justified the view 
 which the possessor took of his cabinet of treasures. But 
 after all, these were mere trinkets, and the study of shells 
 and their inhabitants at length became a science of the 
 utmost importance, not only to naturalists generaly, but to 
 the geologist, to whom it is of the greatest value in indicat- 
 ing the difference of strata and their comparative ages. 
 
 In Southern Europe some very beautiful shells are found, 
 especially in the Italian seas. Tarento is singularly rich in 
 shells. The Indian seas, more than any other part of the 
 world, abound with the greatest variety of shell-tish, which 
 exhibit a remarkable contrast, comparatively speaking, to 
 the few species found under the parallel latitudes of Africa 
 and America. It is also a singular fact that nearly three- 
 fourths of these shells belong to the animals entirely carnivo- 
 rous, who, to support life, must be continually carrying on a 
 destructiv^e warfare against the weaker animals of their own 
 class. 
 
 Many beautiful shells are brought from the coasts of 
 Chili and Panama in tropical America. From the western 
 coast of Africa are obtained many attractive shells, such as 
 the blood-spotted Harp, the sharp-ribbed Cockle, etc. The 
 small Cowry, well-known as a substitute for coin among the 
 barbarous nations of Western Africa, is the same species as 
 that so abundant in the Indian seas. 
 
 Passing to Australia, there are found on the coasts many 
 of the most beautiful and rare rolled shells known: the 
 Snow-spotted kind being most valued. They have two dark 
 bands on a flesh-colored ground, the surface being entirely 
 covered with white dots. 
 
 Many deep-sea shells are so firm in their structures, that 
 they are brought to the beaches, especially of the tropical 
 seas, in an entire state, and are eagerly sought after by col- 
 lectors. Independent of their shape, color and lustre, many 
 
312 IMMENSE QUANTITIES OF SHELLS. 
 
 of them are valuable, inasmuch as they inhabit the seas at 
 such depths as not to be known in the living state. 
 
 The number of shells is far, very far beyond human cal- 
 culation. An examination of the rocks on the English sea- 
 shore during the summer will prove this in a slight degree. 
 These are so covered with shells that scarcely a pin's point 
 could be introduced between them. Many apparent grains 
 of chalk are in reality microscopic shells and fragments of 
 marine coral, of which upwards of a thousand have been ob- 
 tained from one pound of chalk. 
 
 The most level and lowest parts of the earth, when pene- 
 trated to a very great depth, exhibit nothing but horizontal 
 strata, composed of various substances, and containing, 
 almost all of them, innumerable marine productions. Similar 
 strata, with the same kind of productions, compose the hills 
 even to a great height. Sometimes the shells are so numer- 
 ous as to compose the entire body of the stratum. They 
 are almost in such a perfect state of preservation, that even 
 the smallest of them retain their most delicate parts, their 
 sharpest ridges, and their finest and most tender processes. 
 They are found in elevations, far above the level of every 
 part of the ocean, and in places to which the sea could not 
 be conveyed by any existing cause. The summits of the 
 Pyrenees and the Andes, at the height of thirteen or four- 
 teen thousand feet above the level of the sea, present them 
 to our notice. 
 
 The sea-banks and coasts are covered with broken shells, 
 of which lime is the ingredient. This generally exists in 
 the state of carbonate, the same as in chalk, common lime- 
 stone, and marble. Many of the more tender shells and 
 shelly matters are broken by the agitation of the waters, 
 and form a variety of sand which is truly a product of the 
 sea, and forms a valuable manure on land. G-reat deposits of 
 this article are found on the coasts of Devonshire and Corn- 
 wall, and in many other parts of the British coast. 
 
ORGANIC SIR UCTURE OF SHELLS. 313 
 
 A spcciea of shell, the Ceritlilum felescopium, is so abundant 
 near Calcutta as to be used for burning into lime. Great 
 heaps of it are first exposed to the sun, to kill the animals, 
 and then burnt. In some places they are so plentiful as to 
 be used in road making. Mobile, Ala., is built on a shell- 
 bank. 
 
 It was formerly believed that shells were not only devoid 
 of vessels, but completely without organs, being composed 
 of the transpiration of particles, chiefly carbonate of lime, 
 cemented together by a kind of animal glue. It is now 
 known that shells possess a more or less distinct organic 
 structure, which in some cases resembles that of the external 
 skin of the higher animals, while in others it approaches to 
 that of the true skin. 
 
 In the limited space to which our remarks on the subject 
 of this chapter is necessarily confined, we cannot give more 
 than a brief outline of this exceedingly interesting depart- 
 ment of science. We may briefly observe that what are 
 called the Testacea (a shell), comprise animals surrounded 
 with a shelly covering, and may be generally described as of 
 three kinds : those that possess a single shell, of whatever 
 form or character, and hence called univalves ; those which 
 have two shells, the bivalves, or Conchce; and others having 
 more than two shells, or multivalves. Of these, the uni- 
 valves are the most numerous and exhibit the greatest 
 variety of forms, being for the most part regularly or irreg- 
 ularly spiral. Among the most common may be mentioned 
 the ^eKa?, or snail genus ; the Paletta^ or limpet; and the 
 Turbo, or wreath genus, of which the periwinkle is a species. 
 
 The shell of the Clam, or Bear's Paw, is described as, 
 perhaps, the most ornamental of bivalves, in regard to form, 
 texture and color. It comes from the South Seas, and is 
 much used for decorative purposes. 
 
 Among the most curious shells is the 3Iurex, or Purple- 
 shell, so highly valued by the ancients for the exquisite dye 
 
314 VARIETIES OF SHELLS. 
 
 it is capable of producing ; the Volute, or Mitre-shell, includ- 
 ing the fine polished spiral shells, without lips or perforation, 
 which are often exhibited on chimney-pieces as ornaments, 
 sometimes embellished with dots and with colored bands. 
 The Strombus comprise larger shells, spiral like the volute, 
 but with a large expanding lip, spreading into a groove on 
 the leftside, and often still farther projecting into lobes or 
 claws, the back frequently covered with large excrescences, 
 in some species called Cormorant's foot. 
 
 And now for a few observations on the use and value of 
 shells. Even as niere objects of attraction they tend to 
 raise the thoughts to that great and glorious Being, 
 
 "Our God, omnific, sole original, 
 Wise, wonder-working wielder of tke whole: 
 Infinite, inconceivable, immense." 
 
 who has shaped and adapted them to the wants of number- 
 less creatures, of which science at the most can have but a 
 feeble comprehension. Beautiful, since more exquisite sam- 
 ples of elegance of form and brilliancy of color cannot be 
 found through the wide range of natural objects, whether 
 organized or unorganized ; surprising, when we consider that 
 all these durable relics were constructed by soft and fragile 
 animals, among the most perishable of living creatures. 
 Still more surprising is an assemblage of shells, when we re- 
 flect upon the endless variation of pattern and sculpture 
 which it displays ; for there are known to naturalists more 
 than fifteen thousand perfectly distinct kinds of shells. 
 Every one of these kinds has a rule of its own, a law which 
 every individual of each kind, through all its generations, 
 implicitly obeys. 
 
 The formation of the shell itself is but an example of a 
 process at work equally in the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms. A shell, whether simple or complicated in the con- 
 tour or color, is the aggregate result of the function opera- 
 
OCEAN SHELLS. 
 
316 IMPORTANCE OF SHELLS. 
 
 tion of numberless minute membranous cells, the largest of 
 Avhich does not exceed one hundredth of an inch in diameter, 
 and in the majority of instances is less than one thousandth 
 of an inch. In the cavities of these microscopic chambers is 
 deposited a crystalline carbonate of lime, which gives com- 
 pactness to the beautiful dwelling-house, or rather coat-of- 
 mail, that protects the tender mollusk. How astonishing is 
 the reflection, that myriads of exactly similar and exceedingly 
 minute organs should so work in combination that the result 
 of their labors should present an edifice rivalling, nay, 
 exceeding in complexity, yet order of detail and perfection 
 of elaborate finish, the finest palaces ever constructed by 
 man ! 
 
 Sea-shells perform also an important part in the econ- 
 omy of the universe. Maury remarks on this subject, that 
 shell-fish and various other tribes that dwell far down in the 
 depths of the ocean, although regarded as being so low in 
 the scale of creation, spread over certain parts of the waters 
 "those benign mantles of warmth which temper the winds, 
 and modify more or less all the marine climates of the earth. 
 The sea-breezes and the sea-shells perform their appointed 
 offices, acting so as to give rise to a reciprocating motion in 
 the waters, and thus imparting to the ocean forces also for 
 its circulation. Sea-shells and sea-insects are the conser- 
 vators of the ocean. As the salts are emptied into the sea, 
 these creatures secrete them again, and pile them up in 
 solid masses, to serve as the bases of islands and continents, 
 to be in the course of ages upheaved into dry land, and then 
 again dissolved by the dews and rains, and washed by the 
 rivers into the seas." 
 
 The use of shells is multifarious : in China, some descrip- 
 tions are prepared as medicines; as articles of ornament 
 they were employed in the eaidiest times. Several per- 
 forated shells found in Aquitaine, in France, show that they 
 must have been worn as decorations or charms by primitive 
 
TUB USE OF SHELLS. 317 
 
 races. The custom of using shells as necklaces is common 
 not only among savages, but among civilized people at the 
 present day. Nacreous or pearl-like shells are employed for 
 making buttons and other articles; colored and pearl ones 
 form the ornaments of papier-mache work, card-cases, etc. 
 Various small shells are made into flowers and decorations 
 for head-dresses; very beautiful cameos are carved upon 
 some description of shells for brooches, bracelets, ear-rings, 
 and other attractive objects. The Fountain-shell of the West 
 Indies is one of the largest known univalve shells, weighing 
 sometimes four or five pounds. Immense quantities are im- 
 ported from the Bahamas for the manufacture of cameos. 
 The secret of cameo-cutting consists simply in knowing that 
 the inner stratum of porcellanous shells is differently colored 
 from the exterior. Some shells are manufactured into 
 spoons, handles for knives, cups, lamps, etc. The purest 
 kind of lime is made from calcined shells, and their use as a 
 manure has already been mentioned. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl is the beautiful white enamel, or pearly 
 lining, which forms the greater part of most oyster-shells, 
 but especially the larger ones found in the seas of the Pacific 
 and Indian Oceans. 
 
 In the cathedral and some of the churches in Panama the 
 upper portions are studded wntli pearl shells, which give 
 them a strange and not unpleasing appearance. 
 
 It has been stated that in many of the houses in the capi- 
 tal, the outer side of the verandah or corridor is composed 
 of coarse and dark-colored mother-of-pearl shells, of little 
 value, set in a wooden framework of small squares, forming 
 Avindows, w'hich move on slides. Although the light ad- 
 mitted through this sort of window is much inferior to what 
 glass would give, it has the advantage of being strong. 
 
 The use of spiral shells as trumpets or horns is traced 
 back to the Romans, and they are thus employed by the 
 Africans, the natives of the Eastern Archipelago and New 
 
318 THE TRUMPET SHELL. 
 
 Zealand, and also in Japan. The fine Trumpet-sliellis found 
 in most warm climates, in the African, the American, and 
 Asiatic seas, also on the coasts of the islands of the South 
 Pacific. 
 
 An eminent writer, in speaking of the Tahitians, observes, 
 " The sound of the trumpet or shell used in war to stimulate 
 in action by the priests of the temple, and also by the herald, 
 and others on board their fleets, was more horrific than that 
 of the drum. The largest shells were usually selected for 
 this purpose, and were sometimes above a foot in length, 
 and seven or eight inches in diameter at the mouth. In 
 order to facilitate the blowing of this trumpet they made a 
 perforation, about an inch in diameter, near the apex of the 
 shell. Into this they inserted a bamboo cane about three 
 feet in length which was secured by binding it to the shell 
 with fine braid ; the aperture was rendered air-tight by 
 cementing the outside of it with a resinous gum from the 
 bread-fruit tree. These shells were blown when a proces- 
 sion walked to the temple, or their warriors marched to 
 battle, at the inauguration of the king, during the worship 
 at the temple, or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in 
 the name of the gods. The sound is extremely loud, but the 
 most monotonous and dismal that it is possible to imagine." 
 
 This is the shell generally represented by painters in the 
 hands of the "Tritons "or sea-monsters. 
 
 In Ceylon shells of a certain kind are used to contain the 
 sacred oil for anointing the priests. On the western coasts 
 of South America there is a species of limpet which attains 
 the diameter of a foot, and the shell of which is employed 
 by the natives as a basin. 
 
 Another general application of shells is as weights to nets 
 and barbs for harpoons and hooks. 
 
 To shell-fish, as articles of food, we have already alluded 
 with regard to the lobster, crab, oyster, mussel, etc. The 
 
PORCELAIN AND COWRY SHELLS. 319 
 
 scallops are now almost as much eaten as oysters, but re- 
 quire cooking first. « 
 
 The giant clam of the Indian Ocean, the shell of which 
 often weighs upwards of five hundred pounds, contains an 
 animal sometimes weighing twenty pounds, which has been 
 found to be very good eating. The rock-limpet is much used 
 by fishermen for bait. In the north of Ireland they are eaten. 
 The whelk is also employed for bait, and many tons' weight 
 of these, cockles, and winkles, are consumed by shell-fish 
 amateurs. 
 
 The mention of cockles remindes me of a statement in 
 Drake's " Voyage round the World, the quaint style of 
 which is amusing : 
 
 " Our stay being longer than we purposed (in Patagonia) 
 our diet began to wax short, and small musselg were good 
 meat, yea, the sea-weeds were dainty dishes. By reason 
 whereof we were driven to seek corners very narrowly 
 for some refreshing, but the best we could find was shells 
 instead of meat. We found the nests, but the birds were 
 gone — that is, the shells of the cockles on the sea-shore, 
 where the giants had banqueted, but could never chance 
 with the cockles themselves in the sea. The shells were so 
 extraordinary that it would be incredible to the most part ; 
 for a pair of shells did weigh four pounds, and what the 
 meat of two such shells might be may be easily con- 
 jectured." 
 
 The shells called Porcelain-shells by the French and 
 Germans are almost entirely composed of lime, are richly 
 enamelled, and are often very beautiful. They are most 
 abundant and attain their largest size in the seas of warm 
 climates. Only a few species are found on the British 
 coasts. The Cowry-shell, to which we have alluded as a 
 substitute for money, is not of great beauty, being yellow or 
 white, often with a yellow ring about an inch long, and 
 nearly as broad as long. In Bengal three thousand two 
 
320 THE VOICE OF A SHELL. 
 
 hunderd cowries are reckoned equal to a rupee, so that a 
 cowry is equal to one-thirty-sixth of a farthing. Yet cow- 
 ries to the value of two hundred thousand rupees are said to 
 have been imported annually into Bengal. Many tons of cow- 
 ries are annually imported into England to be used in trade 
 with Western Africa. Of the cowries a very remarkable 
 fact has been stated, that when the animals find their shells 
 too small for the increased dimensions of their body, they 
 quit them and proceed to the formation of new ones of lar- 
 ger size, and, consequently, more adapted to their wants. 
 As soon as the cowry has abandoned its covering, the hinder 
 part of its body begins to furnish anew the shelly matter 
 which is afterwards condensed on its surface. This secre- 
 tion is continued until at length the shell appears of the 
 consistence of paper; and the mouth or opening of the shell, 
 which at this period is very wide, soon afterwards contracts 
 to its proper form and dimensions. The edges are thickened, 
 and form into those beautiful folds or teeth which are so 
 remarkable on each side of the opening of these shells. 
 The porcelain and cowry-shells belong to a family which in- 
 cludes also the shells called Poached Eggs, and the Weaver's 
 Shuttle, remarkable for its prolongation at both ends. 
 
 A well-known shell, distributed over the whole world, is 
 the Fusus (a spindle), so named from its shape. In Scotland 
 it is called the "roaring buckie," from the continuous sound, 
 as of waves breaking on the shore, heard when the empty 
 shell is applied to the ear. Wadsworth alludes to this 
 " voice " of a shell in some sweet lines : 
 
 " I have seen 
 A curious child, who dwelt upon a tract 
 Of inland ground, applying to his ear 
 The convolutions of a smooth-tipp'd shell, 
 To which, in silence hush'd, his very soul 
 Listen'd intensely, and his countenance soon 
 Brighten'd with joy; for murmurings from within 
 
ORNAMENTAL SHELLS. 321 
 
 Were heard — sonorous cadence, whereby. 
 To his belief, the monitor express'd 
 Mysterious union witli his native sea." 
 
 In the cottages of Zetland, this shell, general!}^ about six 
 inches long, is used for a lamp, being suspended horizontally 
 by a cord, its cavity containing the oil, and the wick passing 
 through the canal. 
 
 The shell of the Haliotis (the sea, the ear), is very orna- 
 mental, and valued, on account of its pearly lining, for 
 adorning papier wache articles. These shells, which are 
 very numerous, and some of splendid appearance, come from 
 the tropical seas, and are commonly called, from their shape, 
 " ear-shells," or " sea-ears." One species, however, is found 
 on the Southern European coasts, and on those of the Chan* 
 nel Islands. From the warm regions are obtained the beau- 
 tiful Harp-shells, the delicate and brilliant colors of which 
 render them highly prized; also the Fountain-shells to 
 which has already been alluded as used for cameos, and are 
 much esteemed as garden ornaments for their solid and deli- 
 cately-tinted substance. One of these shells sometimes 
 weighs four or five pounds. 
 
 A shell called the Razor, a common species of which is 
 often picked up on the English coasts — some straight, about 
 an inch long and eight inches broad ; and another curved 
 like a sword — attain a large size in tropical seas, and are of 
 great beauty. They are found in the sands of all seas, 
 except in the cold regions, the solen, the name of the inhabitant 
 of this shell, burrowing in the sands, and ascending from its 
 holes by means of the foot, which can be lengthened or con- 
 tracted at will. 
 
 What are called Top-shells, from their spiral and very 
 generally top-shape, are frequently found on the English 
 coasts, and many of them are very ornamental, but not equal 
 in this respect to the tropical specimens. 
 
 From Australia we obtain a large number of the richly deco- 
 
322 
 
 VALUE OF BABE SHELLS. 
 
 rated Pheasant-shells, formerly of great rarity, and expen- 
 sive, but now comparatively cheap. 
 
 The Wentletrap-shells, the common kinds of which are 
 found on our own coasts and those of Europe, are very 
 pretty: they are spiral, with many whorls or wreaths, 
 deeply divided, and crossed by remarkably elevated ribs. 
 The triLe shells of this species come from the warm seas, and 
 are generally very beautiful. One kind, called the Precious 
 Wentletrap, is of such rarity and richness, that it is said to 
 have been sold to shell collectors at the price of two hun- 
 dred guineas, but it may now be had for a few shillings. It 
 is nearly two inches in length, snow-white or pale flesh-col- 
 ored, with eight separated wreaths. Trough-shells, several 
 small species of which are very abundant on British sea- 
 shores, are triangular, broader than long, and the valves equal. 
 Some of them have a very attractive appearance. 
 
PENOUIXS. 
 
 CHAPTER XYIII. 
 
 SEA BIRDS. 
 
 -^^^ the chapter on " Superstitions Connected 
 with the Ocean," we have alluded to a few 
 marine birds Avhich are considered by sea- 
 ^ men as good or evil portents in their pas- 
 ]^g5i|tJt(t|S^I^ sage over the ocean. We will now briefly 
 describe some of the more prominent sea-birds ■which per- 
 form their part in the economy of nature, and derive their 
 chief sustenance from the finny inhabitants of the ocean. 
 They constitute a very extensive family all over the world, 
 ever on the alert to indulge in their fishing propensities, 
 and voracious in their appetites; so that the poor fishes, 
 what with numberless foes in their own element, Avith sea- 
 birds continuall}' on the watch to prey upon them, together 
 with all the ingenious arts practiced by man to ensnare 
 them, cannot lead the happy and peaceful life which some 
 fanciful writers have imagined them to enjoy. 
 
 Many, many miles out at sea the oceanic birds are seen 
 pursuing their predatory instincts, ever restless and untiring. 
 
324 EXCITING SCENES AT THE BREEDING SEASON. 
 
 while, nearer shore, thousands in summer seek precipitous 
 coasts and headlands as breeding stations. 
 
 In winter, others, scarcely less numerous, flock from their 
 more nortliern homes, and fill our bays and marine inlets. 
 
 A writer describes an interesting spectacle which met 
 his gaze after mounting a rock at Saldanha Bay, near the 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 " All of a sudden there rose from the whole surface of the 
 island an impenetrable cloud, which formed, at the distance 
 of forty feet above our heads, an immense canopy, or rather 
 sky, composed of birds of every species and all colors : cor- 
 morants, sea-gulls, sea-swallows, pelicans, and, I believe the 
 whole winged tribe of that part of Africa, were here assem- 
 bled. All their voices, mingled together and modified 
 according to their different kinds, formed such a horrid noise 
 that I was obliged every moment to cover my head to give 
 a little relief to my ears. The alarm that we spread was so 
 much the more general among the innumerable legions of 
 birds as we principally distured the females, Avhich were 
 then sitting. They had nests, eggs, and young to defend. 
 They were like furious harpies let loose against us, and their 
 cries rendered us almost deaf. They often flew so near us 
 that they flapped their wings in our faces, and, though we 
 fired our pieces repeatedly, we were not able to frighten 
 them ; it seemed almost impossible to disperse the cloud." 
 
 Many of the precipitous rocks and islands of our own 
 country present greatly exciting spectacles at the breeding 
 season. Myriads of ocean birds, 
 
 "Ranged in figures, wedge their way, 
 Intelligent of season, and set forth 
 Their airy caravan. High over seas 
 Flying, and over lands, with mutual wing 
 Easing their flight. The air 
 Floats as they pass, fanned by unnumbered plumes." 
 
 Certainly not the least interesting of marine birds is the 
 
^YMMETEY AND BE A UTY OF SEA GULLS. 325 
 
 Gull, belonging to a very numerous family, which includes 
 also the squas, terns, petrels, shearwaters, albatrosses, nod- 
 dies, skimmers, and others, all preying chiefly on fishes and 
 mollusca, together with animal garbage of every kind. 
 From the latter circumstance Buffon calls the gulls "the 
 vultures of the ocean ." Several of this family are the most 
 oceanic of all birds, being seen hundreds of miles out at sea, 
 apparently unwearied and restless. The gulls have very 
 powerful wings, flying with ease against the roughest 
 storms. In fine weather they fly high in the air, descend- 
 ing with great rapidity to seize the fishes on the surface 
 of the water, or diving slightly for herrings and small fish 
 within reach. Their plumage being close and thick, they 
 are good swimmers. They have a close resemblance to the 
 terns, or " sea-swallows," as they are sometimes called, but 
 the bill is stronger, and tlie upper mandible much more 
 curved towards the end. The symmetry and strength of 
 gulls are remarkable, showing how Nature has adapted 
 them in every particular for all the purposes of their preda- 
 tory instincts. 
 
 " Let the reader," remarks Mr. Frank Buckland, " examine 
 the pectoral or breast muscles of the next gull he kills : he 
 will find them one solid mass of firm, hard muscle, admirably 
 adapted to sustain and work the wings. What models of 
 beauty and lightness are those wings! The bones are com- 
 posed of the hardest possible kind of bone material, arranged 
 in a tubular form, combining the greatest possible strength 
 with the greatest possible lightness. If we make a section 
 of the wing-bone of a gull, or, better still, of that of an alba- 
 tross, we shall find that it is a hollow cylinder, like a wheat- 
 straw; but, in order to give it still further strength, we see 
 many little pillars of bone about the thickness of a needle 
 extending across from side to side ; these buttress-like 
 pillars are in themselves very strong, and do not break 
 easily under the finger. Again, at the top of the bone 'we 
 
326 RAPACITY OF THE LARGE GULLS. 
 
 find two or three holes, which communicate with the interior ; 
 through these, when the bird is alive, pass tubes, which are 
 connected with the lungs ; so that, when the bird starts for 
 flight, he fills his wings and other bones with air, causing 
 them to act something like a balloon on each side of him. 
 This explains one of the chief reasons why man will never be 
 able to fly: his arm-bones are filled with marroAv, which he 
 cannot by any means get rid of, should he be ever so anxious 
 to fly like a bird." 
 
 Some of the larger gulls are very expert in breaking the 
 shells of the mullusks on which they feed, by taking them 
 up to a suflScient height in the air, and dropping them on a 
 rock. Audubon, our famous naturalist, mentions an instance 
 in which the gull, finding the shell not broken by the fall, 
 carried it up a second and a third time, and dropped it from 
 a loftier height, by which its purpose was effected. Gulls 
 are able to endure hunger for a long time. An instance is 
 related of one being kept without food for nine days, and 
 yet retained a considerable degree of strength. When their 
 prey is before them, they dart at it with such violence that 
 they will swallow both bait and hook, and split themselves 
 on the point placed by the fisherman under the fish which 
 he presents to them. 
 
 The selfishness and rapacity exhibited by some larger 
 members of the gull family has often been observed ; the 
 Glaucous is a notable instance, and is called by the Dutch 
 sailors the " Burgomaster," from the tyranny ■which in virtue 
 of its size and strength it exerts over most of the smaller 
 birds of the Northern seas, compelling them to relinquish 
 the fish they have taken ; bad qualities, shared in a like 
 degree by the Parasiticus Gull. Mr. Lamont describes these 
 marine bashaws very amusingly : 
 
 " None of these birds ever seemed to take the trouble of 
 picking up anything for themselves, but as soon as they 
 observe any other gull in possession of a morsel which he is 
 
SAILORS' I^RICKS OX THE GULL. 307 
 
 not able to swallow outright, they dash at him and hunt him 
 through the air until the victim is obliged to drop what- 
 ever he has secured, and the ravenous burgomaster appro- 
 priates and swallows it himself. I have watched many of 
 these nefarious transactions, and the result is always the 
 same: the small gull turns, and twists, and doubles, and 
 dodges, screaming all the time so pitifully that one would 
 think he expected to lose his life instead of his dinner, but 
 at last he is compelled to give up possession, and the burgo- 
 master then ceases to molest him.'' 
 
 Sailors are very fond of playing off a joke upon the gulls, 
 which are always hovering about ships. They take three 
 or four pieces of sail-twine about six feet in length; these 
 are tied together in the middle, and to the end of each a 
 small piece of blubber or fat is attached tightly, and then 
 thrown into the sea. A gull comes and swallows one piece, 
 another then sees there is plenty to spare, and swallows the 
 next; perhaps a third gull takes possession of another; but 
 as they are all attached by the sail-yarns, whenever they try 
 to fly away one or the other is compelled to disgorge his 
 share ; and this is continued, to the tantalizing suspense of 
 the poor gulls, and the great fun of the sailors. This may 
 be a confirmation of the old popular term applied to persons 
 easily duped, but in most cases the gull shows great wari- 
 ness and cleverness, especially in escaping from its insatiable 
 enemy the heron. 
 
 The glaucous gull is an occasional visitor to English 
 shores from its habitat in Northern Europe. One was shot 
 at Galway during the " famine" year in Ireland, 184Q. A 
 soup kitchen had been established within some distance of 
 the coast, and each day the stately-looking fellow left its 
 maritime domain, and attracted by tlie smell, sailed about 
 the vicinity of the soup. Many of the poor famished peas- 
 ants regarded it Avitli an unfavorable eye, not being accus- 
 tomed to observe a white bird of such dimensions floatins: in 
 
328 THE FEATHERED DERVISHES OF THE AIR. 
 
 the air, and uttering its hoarse cries overhead, as if laughing 
 at their misery. 
 
 Another inhabitant of the cold regions is the Iceland 
 Grull, smaller in size, and elegant in shape. Some species of 
 this family are remakably beautiful: one of the smallest, the 
 " Little Gull," from the Arctic shores, has a lovely roseate 
 tint overspreading the white under-plumage. The Black- 
 headed Gull abounds on English shores during autumn and 
 winter, and is a fine bird, familiar and unsuspicious in his hab- 
 its, and additionally interesting from the circumstance that 
 this species was protected by the Druids, and was figur- 
 atively adopted as an emblem connected with the Deluge, 
 and formed an important feature in their ceremonies. 
 
 The Great Black-backed Gull, distinguished also by the 
 appellations of the Goose Gull, Gray Gull, and Parson Gull, 
 the latter name arising from the contrast between the black 
 back with the snow-white of the under-plumage, is a large 
 and handsome bird. To every frequenter of the coast the 
 stately and graceful form of this bird is well known, and 
 whether observed in summer, when quietly sunning itself 
 on the strand, or in winter amidst the conflicting war of ele- 
 ments steadying itself in the eddying blast, it cannot fail to 
 excite admiration. At no time more attractive than when 
 observed during hazy, foggy weather, a black-backed gull, 
 looming through a cloud, with its immense sweep of wing 
 (often exceeding five feet), increased by the state of the 
 atmosphere to a giant size, almost reminds us of the al- 
 batross. 
 
 The Herring or Silvery Gull, is distinguished by the 
 spotless purity of its plumage, and ranks among the most 
 beautiful of the gulls that frequent our shores, and has been 
 called the feathered dervish of the air from its rapid 
 and gyratory mode of flying. 
 
 The Kittiwake is, with the exception of the " black- 
 headed," the smallest of our common gulls, and during the 
 
liEMARKABLE PUONACITY OF THE SKUA. 329 
 
 summer the most frequent visitor on our coasts. Almost 
 exclusively maritime in its habits, it never ventures inland 
 like the other species, but contents itself with the food that 
 it obtains on the sea. 
 
 The Skuas are ranked by naturalists in successive order 
 after the gulls, who find in them determined antagonists. 
 Armed with a powerful bill, the skua is capable of doing 
 much mischief. It is related that one of these birds, which 
 had received a slight injury in the wing-joint, was taken, 
 and sent by the captain of a vessel on shore, in charge of a 
 sailor, with instructions that the bird should be killed and 
 stuffed. The sailor opening the basket in which it was 
 confined rather hastily, the skua dashed ferociously at him, 
 striking with its bill and buffeting with its wings, drawing 
 blood with every successive stroke it made, until at last the 
 sailor drew out his clasp-knife in self-defence, but so deter- 
 mined was the bird, that had not a table-cloth been thrown 
 over it, the contest would have been of long duration. 
 
 The pugnacity of the skua is remarkable. No sooner 
 does a skua observe an eagle within its domains than it 
 makes a violent attack upon him. Mr. Drosier relates a 
 very interesting anecdote on this subject. He was stand- 
 ing at the foot of the loftiest hill in Foula, Shetland: "an 
 eagle was returing to his eyrie, situated on the face of the 
 western crags, in appearance perfectly unconscious of ap- 
 proaching so near to his inveterate foe, as, in general, the 
 eagle returns to the rocks from the sea without even cross- 
 ing the smallest portion of the island. As I was intently 
 observing the majestic flight of the bird, on a sudden he 
 altered his direction and descended hurriedly, as if in the 
 act of pouncing. In a moment five or six skuas passed over 
 my head with astonishing rapidity, their wings partly 
 closed and perfectly steady, without the slighest waver or 
 irregularity. The gulls soon came up with the eagle, as 
 their descent was very rapid, and a desperate engagement 
 
330 THE STORM PETREL. 
 
 ensued. The short bark of the eagle- was clearly discerna- 
 ble above the scarcely distinguishable cry of the skuas, who 
 never ventured to attack their enemy in front, but taking a 
 short circle around him, one made a desperate sweep or 
 stoop, and striking the eagle on the back, darted up again 
 almost perpendicularly. This cowardly attack was imitated 
 by each of the other gulls, and continued some time, the 
 eagle wheeling and turning as well as his ponderous winga 
 would allow, and evidently harassed unmercifully, until I 
 lost sight of the combatants among the rocks." 
 
 The Petrels are among the most interesting of marine birds. 
 The name is said to be derived from the circumstance that 
 besides the faculty of swimming, they possess that of sup- 
 porting themselves on the water by striking very rapidly 
 with their feet, which has caused them to be compared 
 to St. Peter walking upon the water. These birds are 
 to be seen in all seas of the globe from one pole to the other, 
 and are the inseparable companions of mariners during 
 their long navigations, following the vessels in great flocks 
 to pick up any garbage thrown into the Avater. Their flight 
 is almost always performed by hovering, and without pre- 
 senting apparent vibrations. They drop promptly on their 
 prey, which seems to consist chiefly of the blubber or fat 
 of whales, mollusca, marine worms, and the spawn of fish» 
 Neither the habits of the petrels, nor the structure of the bill 
 adapt them for fishing. They have the faculty of spouting 
 oil, as a means of defense, in the face of any one who may 
 attempt to take them. Persons not aware of this fact have 
 lost their lives by falling into the sea or down precipices. 
 
 The Storm-Petrel, the bird of ill omen among mariners, 
 as has been already mentioned in another chapter, is about 
 the size of a house-swallow, in length six inches, and the 
 extent of the wings thirteen inches. The whole body is 
 black except near the tail, some feathers of which are white. 
 The ancients believed that the petrel hatched its eggs be- 
 
TUE TERNS OR SEA-SWALLOWS. 331 
 
 neath its wing, as at all seasons and in every sea they bad 
 been remarked flying, while there appearance on land was 
 
 never noticed : 
 
 "The bird of Thrace, 
 Whose pinion knows no resting-place." 
 
 It is true that the petrels do not quit the sea except at the 
 time of laying, and for the purpose of making their nests 
 upon ver}^ precipitous rocks, where they feed their young 
 on half-digested animals. They retire there during the 
 night, and utter a most disagreeable cry, resembling the 
 croaking of a reptile. 
 
 The Terns or " Sea-swallows " have remarkably long 
 wings and slender bills; the tail is forked, and the plum- 
 age generally is of a delicate pearl-white, with more or 
 less black upon the head. The terns are continually on the 
 wing, and although web-footed, are not seen to swim; they 
 rest but seldom, and only on the land, feeding for the most 
 part on small fish and mollusca, which they seize upon the 
 surface of the water, but they also catch aerial insects. In 
 flying they send forth sharp and piercing cries. The most 
 elegantly formed of the terns is that called the "Roseate," 
 the mantle of which is a pale tint, the under-parts of a 
 rosy hue. Mr. Selby tells us that on the Fame Islands it 
 breeds abundantly. " When intruding on the nest, the 
 bird showed great anxiety, approaching so near that we 
 knocked one or two down with a fishing-rod used by the 
 keeper of the lighthouse for fishing from the rocks. All the 
 terns are very light, the body being comparatively small, 
 and the expanse of wings and tail so buoys thera up that 
 when shot in the air they are sustained, their wings fold 
 above them, and they whirl gently down like a shuttlecock." 
 The species are numerous and occur in both hemispheres. 
 
 The Skimmers, although possessing much of the general 
 habits of the terns, are distinguished by the singular form 
 of the bill, the upper mandible of which is considerably 
 
832 THE ALBATROSS. 
 
 shorter than the other. They skim over the surface of the 
 ocean with great swiftness, and scoop up small marine insects. 
 The Albatross, whose habitual dwelling is the Austral 
 Ocean, from the Cape of Good Hope as far as New Holland, 
 belongs to tLe genus Diomedia, and is the most powerful 
 and bulky of the whole family. The extent of their out- 
 spread wings is enormous, yet their flight, except in 
 stormy weather, is by no means lofty: like all the rapacious 
 birds of the ocean, they are most voracious. They devour 
 fish with so much gluttony that often one-half of the body 
 remains outside of the bill until the part which is swal- 
 lowed, being dissolved b}^ digestion, leaves a passage for 
 the rest. They are often gorged to such a degree as to 
 be unable to fly, or escape the boats which pursue them. 
 Although the flesh of the Albatross is hard and rank, yet 
 sailors contrive to render it eatable, when they are in want 
 of fresh provisions, by taking off the skin, and soaking the 
 body in salt for twenty-four hours, then boiling it, and eat- 
 ing it with some strong sauce. 
 
 In spite of the strength and powerful bill of the alba- 
 tross, it is by no means warlike, and will remain on the de- 
 fensive against some of the gull tribe which harass them, 
 and to escape such attacks they plunge their body into the 
 water. They experience some difficulty in rising to their flight, 
 and then strike the water rapidly with their feet and clap 
 with their wings ; but after this impulsion the wings remain de- 
 veloped, and they do nothing but balance themselves alter- 
 nately from right to left, shaving the surface of the water 
 with rapidity, and plunging in their heads now and then in 
 search of food to a certain depth. 
 
 The divers are great destroj^ers of fish, and expert in 
 their method of getting supplies, as their name would sug- 
 gest. Indeed, they are said to dive with such celerity that 
 they often evade a shot directed against them, sinking at 
 the very moment the fiash appears. These birds cannot 
 
THE DIVERS GREAT DESTROYERS OF FISH. 333 
 
 support themselves on laud except in a position nearly ver- 
 tical, and b}' the assistance of their wings, which thus act as 
 oars. Sometimes they fall with their stomach flat on the 
 ground, and have some difficulty in raising themselves up. 
 They are seen in our climates only when the rivers and 
 ponds of cold countries are frozen, and they return to their 
 homes in the north after the thaw. They undergo a peri- 
 odical change of plumage in one form or another. The Red- 
 throated Diver is tolerably common around the coasts, enter- 
 ing the mouths of rivers after shoals of sprats, etc. The 
 Great Northern Diver, a remarkably handsome bird, occurs 
 on our shores during winter, frequenting the vicinity of the 
 oyster-scalps, and is there well known to the fisherman from 
 its loud and monotonous call. lieemius remarks of the Lap- 
 landers, that if a person hears the cry of any of the divers 
 in spring, and while fasting, the milk from his flocks will not 
 curdle for the whole year. Vigilant and shy, if pursued, it 
 exerts its admirable locomotive powers, and advances with 
 immense speed. Nature has provided means of escape and 
 safety to the divers in the flattened form of the body and 
 the wonderful mechanism of the foot, the membrane of 
 which can be closed preparatory to each stroke. 
 
 From the divers we are easily led to the family of the 
 Auks, by means of the Guillemots, ocean birds to which the 
 attribute of stupidity has been applied, but probably with- 
 out sufficient reflection on their peculiar conformation, the 
 wings being short and narrow so that the bird can scarcely 
 flutter; the legs also from their position are quite unfit for 
 the purpose of walking; and the natural element of the 
 bird is only on the bosom of the sea, where it swims with 
 the greatest swiftness, and even dives below the ice. 
 
 The common is the only one of the British guillemots 
 that can be called abundant, the others being comparatively 
 rare, and some only straggling visitants. It is found around 
 English coasts, to the Shetland and Orkney islands, and also 
 
I 
 
 334 THB GKJi]AT AUK. 
 
 around the shores of temperate Europe. When near their 
 breeding-places at the proper season, they assemble in thou- 
 sands, at times blackening the sea. 
 
 Sitting closely along a ledge of rock, no matter how elevated 
 above the sea, they impart all the appearance of being 
 ranged in file, or, as they have been compared by the Manx- 
 men, resembling an apothecary's shop — the even ledges of 
 the rock, the shelves, and the birds the pots; while on the 
 least alarm the entire range of the birds sweep downward 
 in a line to the sea. Such successful divers are they, and 
 rapacious feeders, that twenty-five herring fry have been 
 counted in the stomach of a single bird. Congregated in 
 parties of from eight to thirty, they evince the umost amia- 
 bility towards each other, fishing and winging their way in 
 small flocks to and from their breeding haunts. 
 
 The Great Auk is an inhabitant of Northern Europe, and 
 has been rarely captured on our coasts. Of considerable 
 size, its power of progression is limited only to the water, the 
 shortness of its wings rendering it incapable of flight, and 
 from the backward position of its legs, it stands erect and 
 stately. Breeding in remote northern latitudes, the eggs 
 are obtained with great difficulty. The length of the bird 
 is said to be from thirty inches to three feet; the bill four 
 inches long, is black with transverse furrow^s, the grooves 
 white. In the dress of winter the chin, throat, and sides 
 of the neck are white. The Razor-bill Auk is nearly equally 
 abundant -with the guillemot on all our coasts, breeding in 
 the same manner together on rocks, and appearing off our 
 shores durin the wanter in small parties. 
 
 The Puffin, or "Sea-Parrot," so named from the bill, 
 which, in comparison wdth the size of the bird, is strongly 
 developed, is a summer visitant to English shores, repairing 
 to them for the purpose of incubation. It sometimes breeds 
 in fissures of the rocks; but its most general resort is in 
 holes and burrows, either formed by itself or supplied by 
 
SINGULAR HABITS OF THE PENGUINS. 335 
 
 rabbits, if tliey happen to be inhabitants of the same local- 
 ity. On the Bass Rock, the holes in tlie ruins of the old 
 fortifications afford a retreat. The Puffin is used as an arti- 
 cle of food by various islands and northern tribes in whose 
 vicinity they breed. They are caught by stretching a 
 piece of cord along the stony places where they chiefly as- 
 semble, to which nooses are attached. 
 
 The Penguins occupy habitually the most northern 
 points and islands of Europe, of Asia, and of America ; but 
 they cannot remain at sea, except in calm weather. When 
 the tempest surprises them far from shore, great numbers 
 of them perish. Though they usually only shave the surface 
 of the Avater in flying, they can elevate themselves to a certain 
 height. By night they retire into the clefts of rocks and cav- 
 erns. In their tottering walk they seem to rock from one 
 side to the other. Their food consists in crustaceous ani- 
 mals, and they also live on shell mollusca and small fish, 
 which they take in diving. They make their nests in holes 
 on the sea coasts, -which they enlarge with their bills and 
 feet. These birds are singular in their habits. Darwin 
 relates : 
 
 "One day, having placed myself between a penguin and 
 the water, I was much amused by watching its habits. It 
 was a brave bird, and until reaching the sea it regularly 
 fought and drove me backwards. Nothing less than heavy 
 blows would have stopped him : every inch gained he 
 firmly kept, standing close before me erect and determined. 
 When thus opposed he continually rolled his head from side 
 to side in a very odd manner, as if the power of vision lay 
 only in the anterior and bassel part of each eye. This bird 
 is commonly called the ' jackass penguin,' from its habit 
 while on shore, of throwing its head backwards, and making 
 a loud, strange noise, very much like the braying of that 
 animal ; but while at sea and undisturbed, its note is very 
 deep and solemn, and is often heard in the night time. In 
 
COEMORANT. 
 
 ALBATROSS. 
 
 GREAT AUK. 
 
CORMORANTS TRAINED TO FISH. 337 
 
 diving, its little plumeless wings are used as fins, but on 
 land as front legs. When crawling (it may be said on four 
 legs) through the tassocks, or on the side of a grassy clilf, it 
 moved so very quickly that it might readily have been mis- 
 taken for a quadruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes 
 to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a 
 spring, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy any- 
 one at first sight to be sure that it is not a fish leaping for 
 sport." 
 
 One of the greatest distroyers of fish is the Cormorant, 
 belonging to the family of Pelicans, and the common species 
 of which is widely distributed, extending around the whole 
 coasts of our mainlands and islands, constructing their nests, 
 on the summits of rocks most generally, of sea-weeds or 
 materials collected on the waters. The bird is not easily 
 approached at sea, but gets out of harm's way by flight, not 
 by having recourse to diving, like so many of the true 
 aquatic tribes: the flight, powerful and overland, is per- 
 formed at a great height. When swimming it is easily dis- 
 tinguished by its long upright neck. So keen in fishing is 
 the cormorant that advantage has been taken of the circum- 
 stance to train it for that purpose in the manner hawks are 
 trained for fowling, a tight collar being put around the 
 throat to prevent the swallowing of the prey. A bird of 
 this species kept by a Colonel Montague was extremely 
 docile, of a grateful disposition, and by no means vindictive. 
 He received it by coach after it had been twenty-four hours 
 on the road; yet, though it must have been hungry, it 
 rejected every sort of food he could offer to it, even raw- 
 flesh ; but as he could not procure fish at the time, he was 
 compelled to cram it with meat, which it swallowed with 
 evident reluctance, though it did not attempt to strike him 
 with its formidable beak. After seeing it fed he withdrew 
 to the library, but was surprised in a few minutes to see the 
 stranger walk boldly into the room, and join him at the fire- 
 
338 VORACITY OF THE CORMORANT. 
 
 side with the greatest familiarity, where it continued, 
 dressing its feathers, until it was removed to the aquatic 
 menagerie. It became restless at the sight of water, and 
 when set at liberty, plunged and dived without intermission 
 for a considerable time, not capturing, or even discovering, 
 a single fish; and, apparently convinced there were none to 
 be found, it made no further attempt for three days. 
 
 The dexterity with which the cormorant seizes his prey 
 is incredible. Knowing its own powers, if a fish is thrown 
 into the water at a distance, it will dive immediately, pur- 
 suing its course underwater in a direct line toward the spot, 
 never failing to take the fish, and that frequently before it falls 
 to the bottom. The quantity it will swallow at a meal is aston- 
 ishing : three or four pounds twice a day are readily devoured, 
 the digestion being excessively rapid. If, by accident, a 
 large fish sticks in the gullet, it has the power of inflating 
 that part to the utmost, and while in that state the head and 
 neck are violently shaken, in order to promote its passage. 
 In the act of fishing it always carries its head under water, 
 in order that it may discover its prey at a greater distance 
 and with more certainty than could be effected by keeping 
 its eyes above the surface, which is agitated by the air, and 
 rendered unfit for visional purposes. If the fish is of the 
 :flat kind, it will turn it in the bill, so as to reverse its natu- 
 Tal position, and by this means only could such be got with- 
 in the bill. If it succeeds in capturing an eel — which is its 
 favorite food — in an unfavorable position for gorging, it will 
 throw the fish up some height, dexterously catching it in a 
 more favorable position as it descends. The cormorant 
 lives in perfect harmony with the wild swan, goose, various 
 sorts of duck, and other birds ; but to a gull with a piece of 
 fish it will instantly give chase. 
 
 A writer relates : " Several years ago I took a pair of 
 these birds from a nest among the rocks of Howth (Ireland), 
 and kept them for nearly two years, by which time they had 
 
FISHING PELICANS. 339 
 
 attained their full growtli. Tliey were pleasant pets enough, 
 unless ■when pressed by hunger, when they became out- 
 rageous and screamed most violently ; when satisfied with 
 food, they slept, roosting on a large trough placed for hold- 
 ing water. But woe to the man or beast attempting to ap- 
 proach them when hungry. It happened once that agentle- 
 Tuan's servant went to look at them wdiile in this state : he 
 wore a pair of red plush breeches that immediately attracted 
 the attention of the birds, which I had been in the habit of 
 feeding with livers and lights ; the consequence was they 
 made such a furious attack that I had to run to his assistance 
 with a stick, and could not beat them off without the great- 
 est difficulty. Their attack on cats, dogs, and poultry, if 
 unprotected, was always fatal. They fought at once with 
 their bills, wings, and claws, screaming frightfully all the 
 time. In fact, the cause of my parting with them was their 
 having destroyed a fine Spanish pointer: he had incautiously 
 strayed into the place where I kept them, and they imme- 
 diately flew at and attacked him in front and rear. His 
 loud howling brought me to his aid, when I was astonished 
 to find they had got him down, and before I could rescue 
 him from their fury, they had greatly injured him in one of 
 his shoulders, so much so that he afterwards died of the 
 "\vound." 
 
 The Druids believed the appearance of a cormorant during 
 the celebration of their mysteries was an evil omen. Milton 
 describes the arch-fiend, avIio — 
 
 " On the Tree of Life— 
 The middle tree, the highest there that grew — 
 Sat like a cormorant. 
 
 The Pelican, being furnished with a peculiar organ for 
 storing up its prey, would seem to be still better adapted 
 than the cormorant for being trained to fish. Labat men- 
 tions that the Indians adopt this practice, and dispatch a 
 
340 GREAT STRENGTH OF THE PELICAN'S WING. 
 
 pelican in the morning, after having stained it red, and that 
 it returned in the evening with its bag full of fish, which it 
 was made to disgorge. 
 
 The sac or bag of the pelican is an elastic flesh-colored 
 membrane, which hangs from the lower edges of the under 
 mandible, reaching the whole length of the bill to the neck, 
 said to be capacious enough to hold about four gallons of 
 water. The bird has the power of contracting the bag by- 
 wrinkling it up under the mandible, so that it is scarcely 
 visible ; but after a successful fishing, it is incredible to 
 what extent it is frequently distended. It preys chiefly on 
 the larger fish, with which it fills its capacious pouch in or- 
 der to digest them at leisure. 
 
 The great stretch of wing in the pelican, extending to 
 eleven or twelve feet, and consequently double that of the 
 swan or the eagle, enables it to support itself a long time in 
 the air, where it balances itself with great steadiness, and 
 only changes its place to dart directly downwards on its 
 prey, which rarely escapes ; for the violence of the dash, and 
 its wide-spread wings, by striking and covering the surface 
 of the water, make it boil and whirl, and at the same time 
 stun the fish, and deprive it of the power of escape. When 
 the pelicans are in flocks they act in concert, and, forming a 
 great circle which they diminish by degrees, they thus en- 
 close the fish, and all, at a certain signal, strike the water at 
 the same moment, and amidst the disorder thus occasioned 
 they plump in and seize their prey. These birds spend in 
 fishing the hours of the morning and evening, when the finny 
 tribe are most in motion, and they choose the places where 
 they are most plentiful. 
 
 The pelican belongs more to warm than cold climates. 
 It is very common in Africa and in some parts of Asia ; it is 
 met with also in this country and in the southern parts of 
 Australia. It perches on trees, but does not nestle there, 
 
SINGULAR METHOD OF CATCHING GANNETS. 341 
 
 constructing on the ground a nest a foot and a half in diam- 
 eter, furnished with soft sea-plants. 
 
 The flesh of the pelican was forbidden to the Jews as 
 unclean. It has an ill taste, and in our country is used for 
 its oil. The pouches of these birds have also been used to 
 hold tobacco, and this skin, when dressed, is very soft. 
 
 To the pelican tribe also belongs the Gannet, Solan 
 Goose, much larger than the gulls, from which they may be 
 distinguished at a distance by a greater length of neck, the 
 intense whiteness of the plumage, and the black tip of their 
 wide-spread wings. The mode in which the Gannet fishes 
 is peculiar. " In flight," remarks the Rev. C. A. Johns, *' it 
 circles round and round, and describes again and again the fig- 
 ure of eight, at a varying elevation above the water, in quest 
 of herrings, pilchards, and other fishes, whose habit it is to 
 swim near the surface. When it has discovered a prey, it 
 suddenly arrests its flight, probably closes its wings, and 
 descends with a force sufficient to make a jet of water visi- 
 ble two or three miles off", and carry it many feet down- 
 wards. When successful it brings its prize to the surface, 
 and devours it without troubling itself about mastication. 
 If unsuccessful, it rises immediately and resumes its hunt- 
 ing. It is sometimes seen swimming, perhaps to rest itself, 
 for I did not observe that it ever dived on these occasions. 
 My companion told me that the fishermen on the coasts of 
 Ireland say that if this bird be chased by a boat when seen 
 swimming, it becomes so terrified as to be unable to rise. 
 The real reason may be that it is gorged with food. He 
 was once in a boat on the Lough, when a gannet being seen 
 a long way off", it was determined to give chase, and ascer- 
 tain whether the statement was true. As the boat drew 
 near, the gannet endeavored to escape by swimming, but 
 made no attempt to use its wings. After a pretty long 
 chase the boatmen secured it, in spite of a very severe bite 
 which it inflicted on his hand. It did not appear to have 
 
342 FISHING EXPLOITS OF THE GANNET. 
 
 received any injury, and when released on the evening of 
 the same day, swam out to sea with great composure. A 
 fisherman at Islay told me that in some parts of Scotland a 
 singular method of catching these birds is adopted. A her^ 
 ring is fastened to a board, and sunk a few feet deep in the 
 sea. The sharp eye of the gannet detects its prey, and the 
 bird, first raising itself to an elevation sufficient to carry it 
 down to the requisite depth, pounces on the fish, and in tlie 
 effort penetrates the board to which it is attached. Being 
 thus held fast by the beak, it is unable to extricate itself. 
 Frequently also gannets are caught in the herring-nets at 
 various depths below the surface. Diving after the fish, 
 they become entangled in the nets, and are thus captured 
 in a trap not intended for them. They perform good ser- 
 vice to fishermen by indicating at a great distance the exact 
 position of the shoals of fish." 
 
 Some idea may be formed of the fishing exploits of the 
 gannet from what Buchanan states, that one hundred and 
 five millions of herrings are destroyed annually by these 
 birds at St. Kilda. They are summer visitants to the Eng- 
 lish coasts, and although from their power of flight they 
 seem to be widely scattered, yet their real stations or 
 breeding-places are few and local. The Bass Rock, St. 
 Kilda, and Ailsa Craig have long existed as Scotch locali- 
 ties; while Lundy Island on the coast of Devon, and the 
 Skelig Isles in Ireland, are less-known English and Irish 
 stations. 
 
 It is on the Bass Rock, in the Firth of Forth, that they 
 assemble in countless multitudes, and present an extraor- 
 dinary sight to the beholder, nestling upon their eggs, greet- 
 ing their mates on their arrival from the sea, or quarrel- 
 ling if one happens to intrude a little to near another. 
 Troops of birds in adult, changing, and first year's plum- 
 age, pass and repass, sailing in a smooth, noisless flight. 
 The great proportion build on the ledges of the precipi- 
 
Am CELLS OF THE GANNET. 343 
 
 tons iace of the rock, but a considerable number also place 
 their nests — generally made carelessly of a few dried stalks 
 of seaweed, rudely put together — on the summit near the 
 edge, where they can be walked among; there the birds 
 are very tame, allowing a person to approach them, but 
 when a foot is held out aggressively they will bite at it. 
 
 Most, if not all, of these breeding stations are rented from 
 the proprietors, the rent being paid chiefly by the feathers. 
 The young geese are killed and cured. The inhabitants of 
 St. Kilda, the most western of the Hebrides, are said to 
 consume twenty-two thousand of the young birds every 
 year, besides eggs. The gannet is easily kept in confine- 
 ment, though the required supply of fish renders its keep- 
 ing expensive. It is indifferent alike to cold or stormy 
 weather ; the air-cells which give lightness to the body are 
 developed in an extraordinary degree. Montague remarks 
 " the gannet is capable of containing about three full inspir- 
 ations of my lungs, divided into nearly three equal portions, 
 the cellular parts under the skin on each side holding nearly 
 as much as the cavity of the body. In the act of respiration 
 there appears to be always some air propelled between the 
 skin and the body, as a visible expansion and contraction is 
 observed about the breast, and this singular conformation 
 makes the bird so buoyant that it floats high on the water, 
 and does not sink beneath the surface, as observed in the 
 cormorant and shag." 
 
 The Hooper or Wild Swan is the most common of its 
 species in England and America, being a general Avinter 
 visitant. The length to the end of the toes is five feet; to 
 that of the tail, four feet ten inches ; extent of wings, 
 seven feet three inches; and weight from thirteen to 
 sixteen pounds. The lower part of the bill is black; the 
 base of it, and the space between that and the eyes, is 
 covered with a naked yellow skin ; the whole plumage in 
 the old birds is of a pure white, the down being very short and 
 
344 THE OBEAT SEA-EAGLE. 
 
 thick. Theory of the wild swan is very loud, and may be 
 heard at a great distance, from which the name of " Hooper " 
 is derived. When they fly high, and numbers of different 
 ages and sexes are mingled together, their notes are far from 
 disagreeble. 
 
 Belonging to the family of the Fulconidce are birds of the 
 eagle kind, which fish on their own account, robbing others 
 of their prey Avhen they can, and pursuing nearly the same 
 method of dashing from a height upon the fish in the water. 
 The Great Sea-Eagle is a distinguished member of this pre- 
 datory family, measuring in length three feet, and in extent 
 of wings six feet six inches. This bird often presents a 
 fine feature in the wild and desolate landscape. Its most 
 favorite haunts in Britain are the northern coasts of Scot- 
 land, where the headlands reach a stupendous height, are 
 perpendicular on the face, and where the shelvej and ledges 
 selected for breeding or roosting-places are secure from 
 aggression either from above or beneath. Here the sea- 
 eagle resides constantly at one season, or he finds a safe 
 shelter during the night, after his more extended hunting 
 excursions. Here he is monarch of all he surveys ; amidst 
 the numerous sea-fowl, his companions, his pale gray-tinted 
 plumage and outspread tail being conspicuous when opposed 
 to the dark green sea or the deep and rich shades of many 
 of these splendid precipices. Although of great size and 
 imposing aspect, it is less elegant than the golden eagle, 
 and inferior in courage and activity to many of the smaller 
 species of the tribe. When standing, its postures are by no 
 means graceful, but the keenness of its bright and fierce eye 
 enlivens its appearance, and under excitement it throws 
 itself into beautiful and picturesque attitudes, drawing back 
 its head, and erecting the narrow and pointed feathers of 
 the neck. 
 
 Besides a fondness for fish — in capturing which, however, 
 the sea-eagle is not half so dexterous as the osprey — the bird 
 
BURNING THE NESTS OF THE SEA- EAGLE. 345 
 
 is such a predaceous intruder on the farm-yard, tliat in tlie 
 Hebrides a fierce war is waged against him. , 
 
 The farmers of tlie isles of St. Kikhx proceed to their 
 extermination, some carrying coils of rope, others bundles 
 of dry heath and burning peat, and ascend to the brow of 
 the mountains, where the fissured and shelved precipice 
 hangs over the foamy margin of the Atlantic. Strings of 
 gannets, cormorants, and guillemots are seen winding 
 round the promontories, while here and there over the curl- 
 ing waves is seen hovering a solitary gull. They have 
 reached the brink of the clifi"s, over which the more timid 
 scarce dare venture to cast a glance, for almost directly 
 under their feet is the unfathomed sea, heaving its heavy 
 billows some hundred feet below the place to which they 
 cling. The eagles are abroad, sailing at a cautious distance 
 in circles, uttering wild and harsh screams, and as they 
 sweep past displaying their powerful talons. One of them 
 fastens the rope to his body, passing it under his arms, and 
 securing it under upon his breast by a firm knot. The rest 
 dig holes Avith their heels in the turf, and sitting down in a 
 row, take firm hold of the cord. The adventurer looks over 
 the edge of the cliff, marks the projecting shelf which over- 
 hangs the eagle's nest, and is gradually lowered towards 
 it, bearing in one hand the bundle of heath with the cord 
 attached to it, and the peat burning in the middle, and with 
 the other pushing himself from the angular projection of the 
 rock. At length he arrives on the shelf, and calls to those 
 above to slacken the rope, but keep fast hold of it. Then 
 creeping forwards and clinging to unstable tufts of vegeta- 
 tion, on the sides of the rock, he looks downwards and ascer- 
 tains the precise position of the nest, in -which are two 
 eagles covered with down, skeletons of fishes, birds, and 
 lambs heaped around them. At sight of the human face — 
 which to their imagination is anything but divine — the 
 young eagles shrink back in terror, cowering beneath the 
 
346 THE 08PRET OR FISHING-EAGLE. 
 
 projecting angle that partly roofs the nest. Their enemy 
 now retreats, disposes the bundle of heath in a loose manner, 
 blows the peat into a flame, and partially encloses it. Once 
 more he approaches the brink, casting an anxious eye 
 towards the old eagles which are wheeling in short circles 
 and uttering confused and piercing cries ; then blowing the 
 flame, kindles the bundle of combustibles, and rapidly lowers 
 it right into the nest. The young birds scream and hiss, 
 throwing themselves into attitudes of defence. The heath 
 smokes and crackles, and at length blazes into full flame ; 
 then the sticks, sea-weeds, wool, and feathers of the nest 
 catch fire, and the ascending column of smoke indicates to 
 the ropemen above that the deed is doing. Flames and 
 smoke conceal the young birds from the avenger's gaze, but 
 he stirs not until they have abated, and he sees the huge 
 eyrie and its contents reduced to ashes. He then calls to 
 his friends, who tighten the rope, and preparing himself 
 for the ascent, is hauled up, encountering no small danger 
 from the fragments which are loosened from the rock, and 
 the dijfficulty of keeping his face and breast from the ragged 
 points which project from the cliff. Birds have feelings 
 as well as men, and those of the eagle are doubtless acute, 
 for the old birds Avheeland scream along the face of the rock 
 for many days in succession, and as by this time the summer 
 is far advanced, they form no new nest. 
 
 But the king of winged fishers is the famous Osprey, the 
 Fishing Eagle 'par excellence, or Fishing Hawk, as it has been 
 variously named, a bird remarkable among the rapacious 
 kind for the peculiar adaption it enjoys for fishing. The 
 wings of the male osprey are sixty inches in length, the 
 body being twenty-three ; the female, however, is larger, 
 but does not differ much in color, which is generally in the 
 upper parts a deep brown, beautifully glossed with light 
 purple, the margins and tips of the feathers being pale 
 
FISHING HABITS OF THE OSPREY. 347 
 
 brown or brownish-white. Tiie osprey finds a worthy an- 
 tagonist in the white-headed eagle. 
 
 Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic tree that 
 commands a wide view of the neighboring shore and ocean, 
 the white-headed eagle seems calmly to contemplate the 
 motions of the various feathered tribes that pursue their 
 busy avocations below: the snow-white gulls slowly winnow- 
 ing the air; the busy sand-pipers coursing along the sands; 
 trains of ducks streaming over the surface ; silent and 
 watchful cranes, intent and wading : clamorous crows ; and 
 all the winged multitude that subsist by the bounty of this 
 vast liquid magazine of Nature. High over all these hovers 
 one whose actions instantly arrest all the attention of the 
 observer. By his Avide curvature of wing and sudden sus- 
 pension in air he knows him to be the osprey, the "fish-hawk," 
 settling over some devoted victim of the ocean. His eye 
 kindles at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened 
 wungs on the branch, he watches the result. Down — rapid 
 as an arrow from heaven — descends the distant object of his 
 attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disap- 
 pears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At 
 this moment the eager looks of the eagle are all ardor; and 
 levelling his neck for flight, he sees the osprey once more 
 emerge struggling with his prey, and mounting in the air 
 Avith screams of exultation. These are the signals for our 
 hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase, soon 
 gains on the fish-hawk ; each exerts its utmost to mount 
 above the other, displaying in the struggle the most elegant 
 and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencumbered sea-eagle 
 rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his 
 opponent, when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair 
 and honest execration, the osprey drops his fish ; the eagle, 
 poising himself for a moment, as if to take a more certain 
 aim, descends like a wdiirlwind, snatches it in his grasp 
 
348 OSPRETS' CAPACITY FOE CATCHING PRET. 
 
 before it reaches the water, and bears his ill-gotten booty 
 to the woods. 
 
 The osprej on leaving its nest, usually flies direct until it 
 reaches the sea, then sails round in easy curving lines, turn- 
 ing sometimes in the air as on a pivot, apparently without 
 the least exertion, rarely moving its wings. Suddenly it 
 checks its course as if struck by a particular object, which 
 it seems to survey for a few moments with such steadiness 
 that it appears fixed in the air, flapping its wings. This ob- 
 ject, however, it abandons, and is again seen sailing round 
 as before. Now its attention is again arrested, and it 
 descends with great rapidity, but before it reaches the sur- 
 face shoots oif on another course, as if ashamed that a second 
 victim had escaped. It now sails at a short distance above 
 the surface, and by a zig-zag descent, and without seeming 
 to dip its feet in the water, seizes a fish, which, after carry- 
 ing a short distance, it drops and probably yields up to the 
 bald eagle, and again ascends by easy spiral circles to the 
 higher regions, where it glides about with all the ease and 
 majesty of its species. From hence it descends like a per- 
 pendicular torrent, plunging into the sea with a low rushing 
 sound, and with the certainty of a rifle. In a few moments 
 it emerges, bearing in its claws the struggling prey, which 
 is always carried head-foremost, and having risen a few feet 
 above the surface, shakes itself as a water-spaniel Avould do, 
 and then seeks land. If the wind blows hard, and its nest 
 be in a quarter from which it comes, it is amusing to see 
 ■with what judgment the osprey beats up to windward ; not 
 in a direct line, but like an experienced navigator, making 
 several successive tacks to accomplish its purpose. 
 
 The ospreys watch and pursue fish with as much avidity 
 as the true eagles hunt their game on land ; and Nature, as 
 we have remarked, has provided them with the means for so 
 doing. Fish are slippery, and therefore its claws are long 
 
THE TROPIC SEA BIRDS. 349 
 
 and much curved, its toes nearly of equal length, and capa- 
 ble of being applied in the most effectual manner, in pairs, 
 two and two opposite each other. It must also possess con- 
 siderable power, and therefore its legs are strong and mus- 
 cular, and to prevent its being inextricably entangled the 
 claws are smooth and rounded, so that they can, if necessary, 
 be readily withdrawn. The animals on which it feeds live 
 in the water, ordinarily beyond its reach, coming occasionally 
 to the surface; the bird, therefore, has a comparatively 
 slender form, with very long wings, so as to enable it to 
 remain without fatigue sailing or hovering over the water 
 until an opportunity of pouncing occurs. To prevent its 
 plumage from being injured by its sudden immersion into 
 the water, the feathers of the lower surface are rather more 
 compact and considerably shorter than in eagles and most 
 other birds of the family, and those of the leg are short all 
 round, while most other species have a large tuft of short 
 feathers. The structure of the wings is also curious : in the 
 osprey they are very long, yet length is not of itself an 
 indication of great speed so much as the power of easy sus- 
 pension in the air and of continued flight. The osprey re- 
 quires to hover long over the waters, often over the open 
 sea at some distance from land, sometimes for hours together 
 before an opportunity for pouncing on its prey occurs. Its 
 form, therefore, is as light as is compatible with strength. 
 
 "True to the season, o'er our sea-beat shore. 
 The sailing osprey high is seen to soar. 
 With broad unmoving wing, and circling slow, 
 Marks each loose straggler in the deep below — 
 Sweeps down like lightning, plunges with a roar. 
 And bears his struggling victim to the shore." 
 
 We have now to notice another family, the Phaeton or 
 Tropic Birds, so named because, from their habitual residence 
 under the burning zone, bounded by the tropics, they seem 
 
350 THE FRIGATE BIRD AND THE BOOBY. 
 
 attached to the chariot of the sun, to use a classical meta- 
 phor. From this climate they remove but little, and their 
 appearance indicates to seamen their approaching passage 
 under this zone, from whatever side they may arrive. Still, 
 they advance seaward many hundreds of miles. 
 
 The Frigate-Bird is the representative of this species, 
 the swiftest ranger of the ocean, whose extended wings 
 measure a width of seven feet. How this bird treats the 
 unfortunate "booby" (also a fish-hunter) is described by a 
 writer, who says: 
 
 " Every one who has read the romantic naratives of the 
 old voyagers is familiar with the name of the booby, so 
 termed by seamen from its apparent stupidity and familiar- 
 ity, suffering itself to be knocked down by a stick, or taken 
 by the hand when it alights, as it often does, on the spars or 
 shrouds of a vessel. This habit seems quite unaccountable. 
 Many birds have manifested a similar fearlessness of man 
 when first discovered, but have soon learned the necessity 
 of precaution; but the booby will manifest the same unnat- 
 ural tameness after being long accustomed to the cruelty o\ 
 man. It does not arise from helplessness, as it is a bird of 
 powerful wing, like its relative the common gannet ; neither 
 is it a sufficient explanation to affirm, as is sometimes done, 
 that it arises from a peculiar difficulty in rising to flight 
 after alighting, because it is not unfrequently caught in the 
 air by the hand, so incautiously does it approach man. Not- 
 withstanding this apparent stupidity, the booby is a dexter- 
 ous fisher. Hovering over a shoal of fishes, he eagerly 
 watches their motions, turning his head from side to side in 
 a very ludricous manner. He presently sees one of the un- 
 wary group approach the surface : down he pounces like a 
 stone, plunging into the waves, which boil into foam with 
 the shock. Nor fails he to seize the scaly victim, with 
 which he emerges into the air, and soon it is lodged whole 
 
THE FRIGATE SLEEPS ON THE M'ING. 
 
 351 
 
 in his capacious stomach. But the frigate-bird has watched 
 the proceeding", and instantly betakes himself" to the pursuit. 
 Sweeping down upon the unfortunate booby, he compels 
 him to disgorge the fish which he has just swallowed, and 
 which, long before it can reach the water, is seized and again 
 devoured by the oppressor. 
 
 " The frigate-bird neither swims nor dives : the seamen 
 even believe that it sleeps on the wing: whether this be so 
 or not, there is good evidence that the same individuals will 
 remain in the air for several successive days; they are never 
 known to alight on a vessel. Though the chase of the booby 
 is so usual as to be considered one of its constant means of 
 dependence, yet it also fishes for itself; precluded, however, 
 from plunging into the sea, it can only take such as, like the 
 fi^^ng-fish, leap into another element. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 SUPERSTITIONS CONNECTED WITH THE OCEAN. 
 
 " I saw the new moon late yestreen 
 With the old moon in her arm; 
 And if we go to sea master, 
 
 I fear we'll come to harm." — Old Ballad. 
 
 :T is not surprising that men accustomed to the 
 monotony of a seafaring life, remote from 
 the educational influences afforded to those on 
 land, Avith the many wonders of the vast ocean 
 around them, full of strange mystery, which 
 science only can partially unveil; with minds thus generally 
 untutored, and consequently more susceptible to supersti- 
 tious fancies, it is not astonishing that such persons should 
 be among the most credulous of mankind. It is true that 
 the spread of knowledge in modern times has removed 
 many of the absurd notions peculiar to seamen ; but, as a 
 class, they may still be considered among the foremost be- 
 lievers in the supernatural. 
 
 Prom the earliest times the sea has been regarded as the 
 region of fabulous marvels. The ancient mariners per- 
 formed their voyages in a vague mist of capricious doubts 
 and fancies, omens and prognostics, which excited terror or 
 inspired confidence. Every object that met their gaze was 
 endowed by them with some miraculous agency for good or 
 for evih Their course over unknown waters, peopled by 
 their mythology w^ith imaginary creatures, would naturally 
 create awe and suspicion. 
 
PRODIGIES AT SEA IN ANCIENT TIMES. 353 
 
 Horace, luinentiiig at Virg-il's departure for Athens, rebukes 
 the impiety of the first mariner, who ventured, in tlie auda- 
 city of his heart, to go afloat, and cross the briny barrier 
 between nations. He esteems a merchant favored specially 
 by the gods should he twice or thrice return in safety from 
 a distant cruise. He tells us he himself had known the ter- 
 rors of the dark gulf of the Adriatic and had experienced 
 the treachery of the western gale. 
 
 Ancient writers are diffuse in the description of prodi- 
 gies witnessed by mariners at sea, many of which, doubtless 
 originating from simple causes, received the addition of a 
 divine interposition. The sudden breaking up of a dense 
 fog, and the sun shining in undimed splendor, was attributed 
 to the appearance of Apollo himself, as the saints in later 
 ages were supposed to miraculously intervene for the pro- 
 tection of seamen. Apollonius of Rhodes, the Greek poet, 
 describes the Argonauts (Greek heroes who, under the com- 
 mand of Jason, went in search of the Golden Fleece) as sud- 
 denly benighted at sea in broad daylight by a dense black 
 fog. They pray to Apollo, and he descends from heaven, 
 and alighting on a rock, holds up his illustrious bow, which 
 shoots a guiding light farther to an island. The delusions 
 of these pagan times continued through succeeding ages, 
 modified only by the change of religion and a better knowl- 
 edge of navigation. These notions, under various forms, 
 still prevail in some foreign countries, where the divine 
 light of evangelical truth has not pierced, while other 
 phases of superstition still linger among our own sailors as 
 regards omens, gook luck, and a number of other senseless 
 notions. 
 
 Legends of a ridiculous character abound in most all of the 
 old writings, but we will now pass on to later superstitions. 
 You have no doubt heard of the " Phantom Ship," which 
 was supposed, when seen by sailors — or rather present in 
 their imaginations only — to foretell disaster. This story 
 
354 TEE PHANTOM SHIP. 
 
 originated with the Dutch, and found believers among sea- 
 men of all countries. Sir Walter Scott alludes to this 
 spectral illusion as a harbinger of woe : 
 
 " Tlie phantom ship whose form 
 Shoots like a meteor through the storm, 
 Wlien the dark scud comes driving hard. 
 And lower'd is every topsail-yard. 
 And canvas wove in earthly looms 
 No more the brave the storm presumes 
 Then 'mid the roar of sea and sky, 
 Top and top-gallant hoisted high, 
 Full spread and crowded every sail. 
 The demon frigate braves the gale, 
 And well the doom'd spectators know 
 The harbinger of wreck and woe." 
 
 Water-spouts at sea were regarded in olden times with 
 great terror. Sailors were accustomed to discharge artil- 
 lery at these moving columns to accelerate their fall, from a 
 fear lest the vessel should be sunk by them. The principal 
 danger, however, arises from the wind blowing in sudden 
 gusts in the vicinity of the spout from all points of the com- 
 pass, sufficient to capsize small vessels carrying much sail. 
 Another practice was to cut the air with a knife, while 
 reciting some prayers, by which simple enchantment it was 
 supposed the water-spouts would be reduced to submission. 
 If it happened, however, to be in an obstinate mood, two 
 sailors would draw their swords, and strike at each other, in 
 true gladiator style, taking care between each blov^ to make 
 the sign of the cross. 
 
 It is a cheering instance of human progress that, by the 
 introduction of lightning-conductors into ships, the fearful 
 electric currents which destroyed many noble vessels is now 
 placed under control and rendered powerless. 
 
 Among the ancients it was believed that certain persons 
 had the power of raising tempests at sea. In the " Odys- 
 sey," ^olus is described as possessing these attributes, and 
 
STORMS RAISED BY WITCHES, ETC. 355 
 
 Calypso, in the same work, is said to have been able to con- 
 trol the winds. 
 
 The belief in human agency to influence the ocean was 
 prevalent in the fifteenth century. A curious confession was 
 made in Scotland about the year 1469, by one Agnes Samp- 
 son, a reputed sorceress, who avowed that " at the time His 
 Majesty (James VI.) was in Denmark, she took a cat and 
 christened it, and afterwards bound to each part of that cat 
 the chiefest parts of a dead man, and several joints of his 
 body; and that in the night following, the said cat was con- 
 veyed into the midst of the sea, by herself and other 
 witches, sailing in their baskets, and so left the said cat right 
 before the town of Leith in Scotland. This done, there 
 arose such a tempest in the sea as a greater hath not been 
 seen, which tempest was the cause of the perishing of a 
 boat or vessel wherein were sundry jewels and rich gifts, 
 which should have been presented to the new Queen of 
 Scotland at Her Majesty's coming to Leith." 
 
 Such was the language of a silly old Avoman, probably 
 extorted by torture from a weak imagination. 
 
 King James, in his " Demonology," states " that witches 
 can raise stormes and tempestes in the aire, either on sea or 
 land," which Avas in answer to Reginald Scot, who in his 
 " Discoverie of Witchcraft " ridiculed the " black art " 
 severely, and he had the advantage of his royal master, the 
 " British Solomon," as he had been equivocally termed, in 
 this and many other statements. 
 
 The Evil One was supposed to have a direct influence on 
 the winds and waves. 
 
 Some sailors have a strange opinion of satanic power and 
 agency in stirring up winds, and that is the reason they so 
 seldom whistle on shipboard, esteeming it to be a mockery, 
 and consequently an enraging of the devil. 
 
 We should scarcely expect that the mere turning of a 
 stone was supposed to have had an effect in procuring favor- 
 
356 CUSTOMS ON SAINTS' DATS BT FISHERMEN. 
 
 able breezes, yet we read that, the inhabitants of some 
 parts of the Western Islands had implicit faith in this charm. 
 In the chapel of Fladda Chuan there was a blue stone fixed 
 in the altar, of a round form, which was always moist. It 
 was the custom of any fishermen who were detained on the 
 island by contrary winds to wash this blue stone with 
 water, expecting by this to obtain a favorable wind. So 
 great was the regard paid to this stone, that any oath sworn 
 before it could never be broken. Another mode of these 
 primitive islanders to secure auspicious winds was of a 
 bucolic character, and consisted in hanging a he-goat to the 
 mast-head. 
 
 A similar feeling with regard to the efficacy of stones, 
 though for another object, existed among the fishermen of lona 
 This took the shape of a pillar, and the sailor who stretched 
 his arm along it three times in the name of the Trinity 
 could never err in steering the helm of a vessel. The Fin- 
 landers are said to have used a cord, tied with three knots, 
 for raising the wind: when the first was loosed, they could 
 expect a good wind ; if the second, a stronger ; and if the 
 third, such a storm would arise that the sailors would not be 
 able to direct the ship, or avoid rocks, or stand upon the 
 decks. The French seaman in former days had a comical 
 notion that the spirit of the storm was propitiated by flog- 
 ging unfortunate midshipmen at the mainmast. 
 
 Particular seasons of the year and saints' days were held 
 in superstitious regard among mariners, and peculiar cus- 
 toms were attached to them. The old practice of setting 
 the nets at Christmas Eve was general among Swedish fish- 
 ermen. The sailors at Folkestone, in Kent, chose eight of 
 the largest and best whitings out of every boat, when they 
 came home from the fishery. Out of the profit arising 
 from these they made a feast every Christmas Eve. On 
 Allhallow's Even, or the vigil of All Saints' Day, the fisher- 
 men of Orkney sprinkled what was called fore-spoken water 
 
BLESSING TUE WATERS. 357 
 
 over their boats when they had not been successful. They 
 also made the sign of the cross on their boats with tar. The 
 sailors in the Island of St. Lewis had an ancient custom of 
 sacrificing- to a sea-god called Shony, at Hallow-tide. They 
 came to the church of St. Malv^ay, each seaman having his 
 provisions with him. Every family furnished a peck of 
 malt, and this was brewed into ale. A fisherman was se- 
 lected to wade into the sea, carrying a cup of ale in his hand 
 and crying, " Shony, I give you this, hoping you will send 
 us plenty through the year." 
 
 The fishermen of Finland believed that any among them 
 who created a disturbance on St. George's Day would pro- 
 voke storms and tempests. At Dieppe, in Normandy, even 
 to a late period, All Saints' Day was religiously observed by the 
 sailors of that port. Those who ventured out to sea on that 
 anniversary were supposed to have the "double sight;" that 
 is, each one beheld a living likeness of himself seated in 
 close contact, or when engaged in any work, doing the same. 
 If the nets were cast out, they ■were found, on drawing them 
 in, to contain nothing but bones. On the same day to- 
 ward midnight, a funeral car was heard driven slowly by 
 a team of eight wdiite horses, preceded by dogs of the same 
 color. Those who listened might hear the voices of those 
 sailors who had died in the course of the 3^ear, Those per- 
 sons w^ho dared to look at this fearful scene were doomed to 
 die shortly afterwards ; so, as the hour approached, every 
 house was barred and windows closed. 
 
 The Russian Twelfth day (18th of January) is devoted to 
 the singular custom of blessing the waters of the Neva, 
 there being no parallel ceremony in any other country, ex- 
 cept the practice once observed at Venice, of the Doge es- 
 pousing the sea. On the same day at Constantinople, the 
 Greek Patriarch performs a similar custom by throwing a 
 cross into the sea, and it is said that skillful divers gener- 
 ally succeed in obtaining it before reaching the bottom. 
 
358 APPARITIONS AT SEA. 
 
 The fishermen who dwell on the coasts of the Baltic never 
 used their nets between All Staints' Day and St. Martin's 
 Day, believing that any infraction of this rule would pre- 
 vent them from getting fish through the whole year. A 
 similar observance, for the same reason, was held on St. 
 Blaise's Day. They also considered sneezing on Christmas 
 Day a favorable omen for the ensuing year. 
 
 The fishermen of Hartlepool preserve many old customs, 
 such as Carling and Palm Sundays, and Easter Day. At 
 Christmas the children sing carols, and sword-dancers go 
 about the streets; and on the first Monday after the Epiph- 
 any, the stot or fool-plough (a small anchor) is dragged 
 through the town, and donations requested. 
 
 Sailors have always had their prejudices with regard to 
 certain days of the week. That ominous da}", Friday, so 
 dark-lined to so many weak-headed individuals — not only at 
 sea but on shore — was and is still considered by many mariners 
 a blank day for sailing. A Cornish saying places Candlemas 
 Day as ill omened for sailing. Bishop Hall, speaking of a 
 superstitious man, observes, " he will never set to sea except 
 on Sunday." At Preston-Pans, it seems, that holy day was 
 usually selected for sailing to the fishing grounds : a clergy- 
 man of the town preached against this Sabbath-breaking, 
 and the sailors, to prevent any ill befalling them in conse- 
 quence, made a small image of rags, and burnt it on the top 
 of their chimneys. 
 
 Apparitions have always been a fruitful source of terror 
 to seamen. A few years ago half a dozen sailors on board a 
 man-of-war took it into their heads that there was a ghost in 
 the ship, and declared they smelt him. The captain laughed 
 at them, and called them a parcel of lubbers. A few nights 
 afterwards they were in great terror, saying the ghost was 
 behind the beer-barrels. The captain, annoyed at their 
 folly, ordered a dozen lashes to each of them, which effectu- 
 ally stopped all talk about the spirit. When the barrels 
 
BELIEF IN THE VIRTUES OF A " CA UL." 359 
 
 were removed some time afterwards, a dead rat was found, 
 wliich had given rise to the story. Brand mentions that the 
 cook of a vessel belonging to Newcastle died on a homeward 
 passage. One of his legs was sliorter than the other, which 
 had given him an odd appearance when he walked. A few 
 nights after the body had been committed to the deep, the 
 captain was alarmed by his mate assuring him that the man 
 was walking on the sea before the ship. The captain cer- 
 tainly saw something that seemed to move as the cook had 
 walked, and ordered the ship to be moved towards the 
 object. The seamen were greatly terrified ; but it was 
 soon found that the cause of all the commotion was part of 
 a main-top, the remains of some wreck, floating before them. 
 In the campaigns of the French fleet at Mitylene, the crew 
 of a brigantine are said to have seen the figure of a mon- 
 trous and hideous seaman descend in the waters at Zante, 
 with one of the crew who had defied the Virgin while play- 
 ing at dice on board. 
 
 A belief is still widely entertained in the virtues of a 
 child's caul as a preservative against drowning and ship- 
 wrecks. In a Plymouth (England) paper, the Western Morn- 
 ing News, of the 9th of February, 1867, there was a notice 
 to mariners: " For safeguard at sea: a child's caul for sale, 
 price five guineas." The pretended virtues of this object 
 reminds us of what is told of Augustus Caesar, that he 
 carried a seal's skin about him as a preservative against 
 lightning. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 MARINE PRODIGIES. 
 
 ' God quickened in the seas and in the rivers 
 So many fishes of so many features, 
 That in the waters we may all see creatures, 
 Even all that on the earth are to be found, 
 As if the world were in deep waters drown'd." — Du Bartas. 
 
 ■•* 
 jNTIL the commencement of the seventeenth 
 ; century, nothing like a dawn of true light 
 i with regard to natural history seemed to 
 strike upon the popular mind. A labori- 
 ^ ous but very credulous professor at Bolog- 
 na, Aldrovandus, wa-ote no less than fourteen folio volumes 
 on the subject, published in 1640; but the true and the false, 
 fable and nonsense, are strangely intermixed. Some of the 
 engravings in these books are very curious, and give an idea 
 of the exaggerative style of their contents. These we have, 
 magnified in every extent, by succeeding writers. 
 
 The Kraken, described by Pontoppidan in his " Natural 
 History of Norway," is one of the most extraordinary of 
 these wonderful sea- monsters, and claims the peculiar privi- 
 lege of the wide domain of the Norwegian waters. 
 
 "Our fishermen usually affirm," says this writer, "that, 
 when they row out several miles to sea, particularly in hot 
 summer days, they are informed by various circumstances 
 that the kraken is at the bottom of the sea. Sometimes 
 twenty boats get together over him, and when, from well- 
 
THE KRAKEN DESCRIBED. 361 
 
 known indications, they perceive it is rising, they get away 
 as fast as they can. When they find themselves out of dan- 
 ger, they lie upon their oars, and in a few minutes they see 
 the monster come to the surface. He there shows himself 
 sufficiently, though only a small part of his body appears. 
 Its back, which appears to be a mile and a half in circum- 
 ference, looks at first like a number of small islands, sur- 
 rounded with something which floats like sea-weeds ; here 
 and there a large rising is observed like sand-banks ; at last, 
 several bright points or horns appear, which grow thicker 
 the higher they rise, and sometimes they stand up as 
 high and as large as the masts of middle-sized vessels. It 
 seems these are the creature's arms, and it is said, if they 
 were to lay hold of the largest man-of-war, they would pull 
 it down to the bottom. After the monster has been a short 
 time on the water, he begins slowly to sink again ; and then 
 the danger is as great as before, because the motion of the 
 sinking causes such a swell and such an eddy or whirlpool 
 that he carries everything before it." 
 
 Such is the description of the fabulous kraken. Divested 
 of its supernatural powers and dimensions, there may be 
 some foundations for these exaggerations in the occasional 
 appearances of huge cephalopods (molluscous animals having 
 the head covered with tentacula or feelers, serving as feet), 
 to the general characters of which the description given of 
 its form and monstrous arms sufficiently agrees. Many such 
 animals are known to exist in some seas, and there are rea- 
 sons for believing that much larger creatures of the same 
 species exist. 
 
 It is a favorite notion of Pontoppidan that from the ap- 
 pearance of the kraken originate those dim traditions of 
 floating islands being observed in the North seas. It has been 
 sought to identify the cuttle-fish of enormous size with the 
 kraken, and stories are told of men having been drawn over 
 the sides of vessels by their enormous arms. In 1834, Cap- 
 
362 THE GREAT SEA-SERPENT. 
 
 taiiiNeill, of the ship Robertson, of Greenock, saw the head 
 and snout of a great sea-monster, of which a sketch was 
 taken at the time. It appeared like a vessel lying- on her 
 beam-ends. The ^oier^sow was hauled up so as to near it, 
 and it was discovered to be the head and snout of a great 
 fish swimming to windward: immediately above the water, 
 its eye was seen like a large deep hole. The part of the 
 head which was above the water measured about twelve 
 feet, and its width twenty-five feet. The snout was about 
 fifty feet long, and the sea occasionally rippled over one 
 part, leaving other parts dry and uncovered. Several 
 records exist in Scotland of the appearance of similar ani- 
 mals to that which have been noticed, but the result appeaTs 
 to infer the existence of some enormous cuttle-fish, possessed 
 of characters which distinguish it essentially from every 
 other creature with which we are familiar. Pliny's vast 
 animal, Mnth prodigious arms, which impeded the navigation 
 of the Straits of Gibraltar, would seem to have had a family 
 likeness to the kraken. 
 
 The great Sea-Serpent appears to have some analogy to 
 the same monster as we have described, and here again the 
 sapient Pontoppidian raises our eyes in astonishment at his 
 description of this marine prodigy, which he describes as 
 six hundred feet in length, lying in the water in many folds, 
 and appearing like many hogsheads floating in a line at a 
 considerable distance from each other. Such a creature is 
 said to have been seen on the coast of Norway, in 1819, for 
 a whole month, seeming to doze in the sunbeams. In 1822 
 and 1837, it is said to have reappeared in the same waters. 
 Our sailors, not to be outdone by the Norwegians, relate 
 several cases in which prodigious sea-serpents have been 
 seen in the Atlantic, opinions varying as to the length of the 
 animal, averaging from eighty feet to two hundred and fifty 
 yards, making curves "perpendicular to the water, and with 
 eyes brilliant and glistening." 
 
THE DRAGON IN THE SEA. 363 
 
 British sailors have also their account in the prodigy 
 ■witnessed in IS-IS, in the South Atlantic Ocean, not far from 
 the coast of Africa, by the officers and crew of H.M.S. 
 " Dredalus." 
 
 According to the account forwarded to the Admiralty, 
 the animal was seen not in bright and fine weatliei', but with 
 a murky atmosphere, and with a long ocean swell. It was 
 swimming rapidly, and with its head and neck above water, 
 and appeared an enormous serpent, with head and shoulders 
 kept about four feet constantly above the surface of the sea. 
 It passed so close under the lee-quarter of the vessel, that 
 its features were easily recognized. The diametre of the 
 serpent was about fifteen or sixteen inches behind the head, 
 and the animal was never, during the twenty minutes that 
 it continued in sight, once below the surface of the water. 
 The color was dark brown, with yellowish-white about the 
 throat. It had no fins but something like the mane of a 
 horse, or rather a bunch of sea-weed, washed about its neck. 
 
 England's great anatomist, Dr. Owen, has expressed much 
 doubt as to the existence of a great sea-serpent, on the 
 ground that no bones or other remains of such recent animal 
 have been found. Notwithstanding this high authority, it 
 may be, however, that many animals in the ocean depths, of 
 this character, are still unknown to us. 
 
 It has been supposed that large fishes of the Ribbon 
 family may have given rise to some of these stories about 
 the great sea-serpent. One was lately captured at the Ber- 
 mudas, apparently an immature fish, but more than sixteen 
 feet in length, and with a long row of flexible filaments, or 
 slender threads on the back of the head and anterior parts 
 of the back, which might well represent the mane alluded 
 to as an appendage of the serpent prodigy. The fishes of 
 this kind are inhabitants of great depths in the ocean, and 
 this may account for the rarity of their appearance. One 
 species belongs to the Northern Seas, where the appearance 
 
364 MERMAIDS AND MERMEN. 
 
 of the sea-serpent has been particularly recorded; others 
 belong to the warmer regions. It may be that these fishes 
 attain to a length that would corroborate the assertions of 
 those who have seen the sea-serpent, making a due allowance 
 for exaggeration under such novel circumstances. 
 
 Mr. Adams, naturalist of the English ship " Samarang," 
 writing of Sooloo and the molucca Archipelagoes, remarks: 
 " I have often witnessed the phenomenon which first gave 
 origin to the marvelous stories of the great sea-serpent, 
 namely, lines of rolling porpoises, resembling a long string 
 of buoys often extending a hundred yards. These account 
 for the so-named protuberances of the serpent's back. They 
 keep in close single file, progressing rapidly along the sur- 
 face of the water by a succession of leaps, part only of their 
 uncoutli forms appearing to the eye." 
 
 The belief in Mermaids and Mermen, prevalent through 
 the remotest ages, was also especially strong in the Scandi- 
 navian countries, and some traces of the delusions still 
 linger on some of the out-of-way coasts of the Northern seas. 
 A very high antiquity is claimed for these mythic creatures. 
 Ancient history abounds with notices of them. One was 
 called by the Babalonians Odakooi, and is regarded as identi- 
 cal with Dagon, the national god of the Philistines, so fre- 
 quently mentioned in the Scriptures. It is always repre- 
 sented on medals as half fish and half woman, but the 
 Hebrew Avriters speak of it as a masculine being. In the 
 excavations of Khorsabad, M. Botta found a figure of Odunes, 
 a creature half man and half fish. At the excavations at 
 Nimroud, Mr. Layard discovered a gigantic figure with a 
 fish's head as a cap, and the body of the fish depending over 
 the shoulders. On the coins of Ascalon is figured a goddess, 
 above whose head is a half-raoon, and at her feet a woman 
 with her lower extremities like a fish. It is singular how 
 the prevalence of the tales of mermaids exists among Celtic 
 nations, indicating these water-nymphs as having been 
 
A MERMAID DESCRIBED. 365 
 
 originally deities of the people. The Peruvians had also 
 their semi-fish gods. These form the types of those imagin- 
 ary creatures, the subjects of ancient poetry, the Tritons, 
 who were represented as half men and half fish, having 
 power to calm tempests; and probably, too, of the Syrens, 
 whose songs were said to lure the unhappy seamen to 
 destruction. 
 
 Innumerable are the stories that are told of mermaids 
 and mermen: they have been made the subject of number- 
 less songs by ancient and modern bards. Shakespere 
 alludes to the vocal poAvers of these mythic creatures: 
 
 " I heard a memiaid on a dolpliia's back 
 Uttering such dulcet and harmonious breath 
 That the rude sea grew civil at her ~ong." 
 
 Laureate inquires: 
 
 " Who would be 
 
 A mermaid fair? 
 Singing alone. 
 Combing her hair 
 Under the sea, 
 In a golden curl, 
 With a comb of pearl, 
 On a throne ?" 
 
 In the " Speculum Regale," an Icelandic work of the 
 twelfth century, is the following description of a mermaid: 
 " A monster is seen also near Greenland, like a woman as far 
 down as the waist ; long hands and soft hair, the neck and 
 head in all respects like that of a human being. The hands 
 seem to people to be long, and the fingers not to be parted, 
 but united by a web like that on the feet of water-birds. 
 From the waist downwards this monster resembles a fish, 
 with scales, tail, and fin. This prodigy is supposed to show 
 itself more especially before heavy storms. The habit of 
 this creature is to dive frequently, and rise again to the 
 surface with fishes in its hands. When sailors see it plav- 
 
366 PBOBABLE ORIGIN OF STORIES OF MERMAIDS. 
 
 ing with the fish, or throwing them toward the ship, they 
 fear they are doomed to lose several of the crew; but when 
 it casts the fish, or, turning from the vessel, flings them 
 away from her, the sailors take it as a good omen that they 
 will not suffer loss in an impending storm, The monster has 
 a very horrible face, with broad brow and piercing eyes, a 
 wide mouth, and double chin." 
 
 Many of the so-called mermaids exhibited in a stuffed 
 condition from time to time have proved sometimes clever, 
 but more frequently bungling " shams." Among the latter 
 may be classed the exhibition of the famous P. T. Barnum, 
 a few years since, which proved to be the combination of 
 the head of a monkey with the tail of a fish! The probi- 
 bility is that all the stories about these prodigies have 
 originated in the appearance of seals, walruses, to which we 
 have already alluded, and to what are called the herbivorous 
 cetacea, from their living on sea-plants, and which consists 
 among others of the manatee of the West Indies, the dugong 
 of the Eastern seas, and the stellerus, an inhabitant of the 
 Polar regions. 
 
 The best-known species of the Manatee, or Sea-Cow, is 
 found in the West Indies and on the western coasts of tropi- 
 cal America. These sometimes attain a length of twenty 
 feet, and a weight of three or four tons, and they live chiefly 
 in shallow bays and creeks, and in the estuaries of rivers. 
 The skin is very thick and strong, and is almost destitute of 
 hair. The fingers can be readily felt in the swimming paws, 
 and, connected together as they are, possess considerable 
 power of motion, whence the name manatee (from the Latin 
 manus, " a hand"). This animal is usually found in herds, 
 which combine for mutual protection when attacked, placing 
 the young in the centre. When one is struck with a har- 
 poon, the others try to tear it out. The females show great 
 affection for their young. 
 
 The Dugong — numbers of which frequent the coasts of 
 
P0ETUGEU8E BELIEF IN MERMAIDS. 367 
 
 Ceylon, allured by the still waters and the abundance of 
 sea-weeds — is, perhaps, one of the most likely representatives 
 of what is considered a "mermaid" that could be found. 
 There is a rude approach to the human outline in the shape 
 and attitude of the mother dugong while suckling her young, 
 holding it to her breast by one flipper while swimming 
 with the other, the heads of both being above water ; and 
 when suddenly disturbed, diving and displaying her fish-like 
 tail. These, together with her habitual demonstrations of 
 strong natural affection, might readily give rise to the fable 
 of the mermaid. 
 
 Megasthenes records the existence of a creature in the 
 ocean near Taprobane (Ceylon), with the aspect of a woman ; 
 and ^lian, adopting and enlarging on his information, peoples 
 the seas of Ceylon with fishes having the heads of lions, 
 panthers, and rams; and stranger still, in the form of satyrs! 
 Statements such as these must have had their origin in the 
 hairs which are set round the mouth of the dugong, somewhat 
 resembling a beard. The Portuguese cherished for a long 
 time their belief in the mermaid ; and the historian of the 
 proceedings of the Jesuits in India gravely records that seven 
 of these monsters, male and female, were captured at Cey- 
 lon and carried to Goa, where they were dissected by the 
 physician to the Viceroy, and "their internal structure 
 found to be in all respects similar to the human!" A du- 
 gong, killed at Ceylon in 1847, measured upwards of seven 
 feet in length, but specimens considerably larger have been 
 taken. 
 
 The female dugong, or sea-cow of Sumatra, will follow 
 her young to the death, and is usually taken with them. 
 The sea-calves have a short, sharp, pitiable cry, which they 
 frequently repeat, and, like the stricken deer, are also said 
 to shed tears, which, according to Sir Stamford Rafiies, were 
 carefully bottled by the common people, and preserved as 
 charms to secure affection. 
 
368 CURIO US NOTICES OF MONSTBO US FISH. 
 
 Only one species of the Stellerus — of the same genus as 
 the two mentioned — has been known, about twenty-five feet 
 in length, a native of the polar seas, and never observed since 
 the middle of last century, so that it is supposed to be ex- 
 tinct. The characteristic features of this animal would lead 
 one to suppose, also, that it may have contributed to the 
 misconceptions about the mermaid. 
 
 An eminent writer remarks that the exhibition of 
 strange fishes appears to have been at its height in the 
 reign of Elizabeth. Shakespere twice alludes to it: once in 
 the "Winter's Tale" (Act IV., Scene 3), where Autolycus says : 
 "Here's another ballad of a fish that appeared upon the 
 coast on Wednesday, the fourscore of April, forty thousand 
 fathoms above water, and sung this ballad against the hard 
 hearts of maids. It was thought she was a woman, and was 
 turned into a cold fish, for she would not exchange flesh with 
 one that loved her. The ballad is very pitifuL and as 
 true;" and again, in the "Tempest" (Act II., Scene 2). A 
 printed notice, dated 1566, has for its title " The Description 
 of a Rare or rather Most Monstrous Fishe, taken on the 
 East Coast of Holland, the 17th November, Anno 1566," 
 with a woodcut of the fish, and underneath the following 
 lines : 
 
 " The workes of God, how great and strange they be ! 
 A picture plaine, behold, heare you may see." 
 
 Two years later there is another printed notice of a 
 "moste true and marvellous strange wonder, the lyke hathe 
 seldom been seene, of xvii monstrous fishes, taken in sufifulke, 
 at Downam Brydge, within a myle of Ipswiche, the xi daye 
 of October, in the yeare of our Lorde God, 1568." StoWj in 
 his " Annales," gives a particular description of this " won- 
 drous draught of fishes," some of them being " eight and 
 twentie foote in length at least." 
 
CHAPTER XXL 
 
 MONSTERS OF THE DEEP.— SEA DRAGONS. 
 
 "A world of wonders, where creation seems 
 No more the works of Nature, but her dreams." 
 
 Montgomery. 
 
 ITE have chosen for the present chapter a sub- 
 ject of the deepest interest, for it carries our 
 thoughts to ages beyond the human mind to 
 conceive, when the ocean, covering an im- 
 mense expanse of our globe, swarmed with 
 gigantic reptiles in the highest state of development, living 
 in the open sea, and seeking the shore occasionally, crawl- 
 ing along the beach in search of prey. These reptiles Avere 
 inhabitants of the ocean thousands of ages past, and from 
 their strength and voracity must have been fearful scourges 
 in that element. 
 
 Lyme Regis, a seaport in Dorsetshire, became remarkable 
 at the commencement of the present century for the number 
 of fossils embedded in the limestone cliffs, and a native of 
 the place, Mary Anning, who had been engaged from her 
 childhood in searching for what were then popularly called 
 " curiosities," saw in 1811 an immense bone projecting from 
 the ledges of the rocks, and having traced the remains of 
 what she considered an enormous crocodile, she employed 
 some laborers to dig out the blocks of stone in which they were 
 petrified. These remains, placed together, proved to be 
 the skeleton of a marine monster about thirty feet in length, 
 with jaws nearly six feet feet long. This was a "fish-lizard," 
 
370 HUGE SEA-LIZARDS. 
 
 of which seven or eight different species may be seen in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 Many have, no doubt, often been amused and perhaps 
 frightened in their childhood, by the descriptions of dragons 
 and other fearful monsters, which found their way, we are 
 sorry to say, much too frequently in story-books ; but one 
 could not imagine a more dreadful-looking creature than 
 this huge sea-lizard, with a head like a crocodile, and the 
 jaws provided with a great number of immense teeth (in 
 some cases one hundred and eighty) ; the eyes in volume 
 exceeding the size of a human head, and so constructed as 
 to afford a wonderful magnifying power in tracing their 
 prey through the darkness and depth of the ocean. 
 
 The body was like that of a fish, with a broad and long 
 tail, and four paddles (instead of feet, like those of the lizard 
 or crocodile), similar to those of the whale tribe, enabling 
 the animal to move, as they do, with rapidity through the 
 water; and with such a construction of the breast-arch as 
 enabled it to descend to the bottom of the sea in search of 
 food, which consisted of fishes and reptiles, the remains of 
 which have been discovered with the bones of the animal, 
 thus shoMdng upon what it subsisted. When we discover in 
 the body of a fish-lizard the food which it has engulfed an 
 instant before its death — when the intervals between its 
 sides present themselves still filled with the remains of fishes 
 which it had swallowed some ten thousand years ago, or at 
 a time even twice as great — all these immense intervals 
 vanish, and we find ourselves, so to speak, thrown into im- 
 mediate contact with events which took place in epochs 
 immeasurably distant, as if we occupied ourselves with the 
 affairs of the previous day. 
 
 Another huge fossil marine animal, the Plesiosaurus, a 
 species of the fish-lizard, somewhat allied in its structure to 
 the animal just mentioned, was first discovered at Lyme 
 Regis, about the year 1823. This was a most extraordinary 
 
372 HABITS OF THE PLEBI08A UBU8. 
 
 creature, with the head of a lizard, the teetli of a crocodile, 
 a neck of enormous length, resembling, on a very enlarged 
 scale, that of a swan, the ribs of a chameleon, a body rounded 
 like that of a great marine turtle, a tail shorter, in compari- 
 son with the length of the body, than the fish-lizard," acting 
 the part of a rudder in directing the course of the animal 
 through the water. 
 
 That the habits of this huge reptile were aquatic, is evi- 
 dent from the form of its paddles ; that it was marine is 
 equally so from the remains with which it is universally 
 associated ; that it may have occasionally visited the shore, 
 the resemblance of its extremities to those of the turtle may 
 lead us to conjecture : its motion, however, must have been 
 awkward on land, and its long neck may have impeded its 
 progress through the water. May it not, therefore, be con- 
 cluded that it swam upon or near the surface, arching back 
 its long neck like the swan, and occasionally darting it down 
 on the fish which happened to float Avithin its reach? It 
 may perhaps have lurked in shoal water along the coast, 
 concealed among the sea-weed, and raising its nostrils to a 
 level with the surface from a considerable depth, may have 
 found a secure retreat from the assaults of dangerous 
 enemies. 
 
 The Plesiosaurus was scarcely as large as the '' sea- 
 lizard;" some of the species, however, measure from eigh- 
 teen to twenty feet. 
 
 The two animals just described do not seem to have had, 
 as far as can be judged, a scaly covering; but another mon- 
 strous reptile of the primitive seas, the Teleosaurus — a kind 
 of fossil crocodile inhabiting the seas and rivers of the Old 
 World, the great pirate of the ocean — was armed to the 
 teeth, and clothed with an impenetrable coat of mail both 
 on the back and stomach. This fearful animal was thirty 
 feet in length, the head measuring from three to four feet, 
 with enormous jaws, well defended beyond the ears, some- 
 
TUE MCESAtiA UB UlS. 373 
 
 times with an opening of six feet, through which they conld 
 swallow animals tlie size of an ox. 
 
 These animals were, from their enormous size and vora- 
 city, the terror of the primitive seas. After them we have 
 the Mcesascmrus, a creature whose remains were first discov- 
 ered at Maestricht, on the banks of the Meuse, in 1780. 
 This occurred when the knowledge of these ancient prodi- 
 gies was still in its infancy. One saw in it the head of a 
 crocodile, another that of a whale. Among those interested 
 in the discovery of these ancient vestiges of creation was 
 an officer of the garrison at Maestricht, named Drouin. He 
 purchased the bones of the animal as the workmen disen- 
 gaged them from the rock, and formed a collection of fossil 
 rarities at Maestricht, which excited great curiosity. The 
 head, which exceeded six feet in length, was sent to France 
 and placed in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. 
 
 To show the wonderful anatomical knowledge of scientific 
 men in modern times, we may mention that Cuvier was able 
 to ascertain the character of the entire skeleton of this huge 
 animal from the examination of the jaws and teeth alone, 
 and even from a single tooth ! Tliis told a history in itself: 
 being without a root, not hollow, as in the crocodile, but 
 solid throughout, and joined to the sockets by a broad bony 
 basis, it became an instrument of enormous strength, and 
 proved how formidable the animal must have been. It had 
 sufficient velocity to overtake and capture fishes of immense 
 size, with which the ancient seas abounded. In length it 
 was about twenty-five feet ; the tail was flattened on each 
 side, but high and deep, forming a straight oar of great 
 strength to propel the body. 
 
CHAPTER XXU. 
 
 8UBMAEINE SCENERY. 
 
 O the eye of the experienced naturalist, how 
 many, varied and beautiful, are the forms 
 which meet his gaze in the transparent 
 depths of the ocean! Dr. Collingwood 
 describes a magnificent spectacle which he 
 witnessed and declares to be truly a wonder of the deep. 
 This consisted of five or six large gelatinous bodies, forming 
 an oblique line, each one of a bright and delicate green color, 
 and with a large rich ruby spot, which shone in the water 
 hke carbuncles. Another consisted of a long and delicate 
 chain, which might be compared to a necklace of diamonds 
 set with brilliant rubies, the whole waving gracefully in the 
 currents of the water. 
 
 Among these marine gems of the "purest water," which 
 add such splendor to the submarine scenery of the tropics, 
 we may mention, also, the ruby-colored J^telis, a fish allied 
 to the perch tribe — though differing, from possessing strong 
 and long teeth — so named from its color, which Cuvier com- 
 pared to the tints of the ruby. The eye of this splendid 
 fish is a conspicuous object, and of a golden orange. The 
 color of the etelis is bright ruby-red, relieved by stripes of 
 bright golden yellow, which run along the ridges of the 
 scales. But there are numbers of such glorious fishes — 
 shoals 
 
 " Of fish that with their fins and shinina; scales 
 
■^rJ^'^' 
 
 J "II TT»|T rip' tLXJi - T f^ 
 
 \ 
 
 4- 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 SUBMARINE SCENERY IN INDIAN OCEAN. 
 
376 SUBMARINE GLORIES OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. 
 
 Glide under the green wave, in sculls that oft 
 Bank the mid-sea ; 
 
 Or, sporting with quick glance. 
 Show to the sun their waved coats dropp'd with gold. 
 Or in the pearly shells at ease attend 
 Moist nutriment, or under rocks their food 
 In painted armor watch." 
 
 The Indian Ocean, one of the five grand divisions of the 
 universal ocean, is especially rich in its submarine scenery. 
 We dive into the liquid crystal of its waters, and it opens 
 to us the most wondrous enchantments of the fairy tales of 
 our childhood's dreams. The strangely branching thickets 
 bear living flowers. Dense masses of Meandrinus (a genus 
 of polyps), and Astreas (" a star ;" animalculse which form 
 coral), contrast with the leafy cup-shaped expansions of the 
 Explanarius, the variously ramified Madrepores, which are 
 now spread out like fingers, now rise in trunk-like branches, 
 and now display the most elegant array of interlacing 
 branches. The coloring surpasses everything: vivid green 
 alternates with brown or yellow; rich tints of purple, from 
 pale red-brown to the deepest blue. Brilliant rosy, yellow, 
 or peach-colored NuUipores overgrow the decaying masses, 
 and are themselves interwoven with the pearl-colored plates 
 of the Betipores, resembling the most delicate ivory carvings. 
 Close by wave tlie yellow and lilac fans, perforated like 
 trellis-work, of the Gorgonius. The clear sand of the bottom 
 is covered with the thousand strange forms and tints of the 
 sea-urchins and star-fishes. The leaf-like Flustras and Escha- 
 ras adhere like mosses and lichens to the branches of the 
 corals; the yellow, green, and purple-striped limpets cling 
 like monstrous cochineal insects upon their trunks. Like 
 gigantic cactus-blossoms, sparkling in the most ardent colors, 
 the Sea- Anemones expand their crowns of tentacles upon the 
 broken rocks, or more modestly embelish the flat bottom, 
 looking like beds of variegated ranunculuses. Around the 
 
SUBMARINE GARDENS AT NIOHT. 377 
 
 blossoms of the coral shrubs play the liumniiiig-birds of the 
 ocean — little fish sparkling with red or blue metallic 
 lustre, or gleaming in golden green, or in the brightest 
 silvery tints. 
 
 Softly, like spirits of the deep, the delicate milk-white or 
 bluish bells of the jelly-fishes float through this charmed 
 world. Here the gleaming violet and gold-green Isabelle, 
 and the flaming yellow, black, and vermilion-striped coquette 
 chase their prey ; there the band-fish shoots snake-like 
 through the thicket, like a long silver ribbon, glittering with 
 rosy and azure hues. Then comes the fabulous cuttle-fish, 
 decked in all colors of tlie rainbow, but marked by no defi- 
 nite outline ; appearing and disappearing, inter-crossing, 
 joining company and parting again, in most fantastic ways ; 
 and all this in the most rapid change, and amidst the most 
 wonderful play of light and shade, altered by every breath 
 Df wind and every slight curling of the surface of the ocean. 
 When day declines, and the shades of night lay hold upon 
 he deep, the fantastic garden is lighted up with new splen- 
 dor. Millions of glowing sparks, little microscopic medusas 
 and crustaceans, dance like glowworms through the gloom. 
 The sea-feather, which by daylight is vermilion-colored, 
 ;vaves in a greenish phosphorescent light. Every corner of 
 it is lustrous. Parts which by day were dull and brown, 
 and retreated from the sight amidst the universal brilliancy 
 Df color, are now radiant in the most wonderful play of 
 green, yellow, and red light; and to complete the wonders 
 Df the enchanted night, the silver disc, six feet across, of 
 the moon-fish, moves, slightly luminous, among the crowd of 
 little sparkling stars. 
 
 How like a dream of romance and fairy beauty is this 
 t^ivid description of submarine scenery in the tropics ! 
 What exquisite loveliness exists in those still, transparent 
 waters ! far exceeding in richness and coloring the most 
 attractive objects that meet the eye on land. And while 
 
378 THE A8TEBIA8, OB STAB-FIBH. 
 
 only a very small portion of these ocean wonders are un- 
 folded to human gaze, what vast and countless glories are 
 hidden in the great ocean depths to all save Him. 
 
 The most luxuriant vegetation of a tropical landscape 
 cannot unfold as great wealth of form, while in the variety 
 and splendor of color it would stand far behind this garden 
 landscape, which is strangely composed exclusively of ani- 
 mals, and not of plants ; for, characteristic as the luxuriant 
 development of vegetation of the temperate zones is of the 
 sea bottom, the fullness and multiplicity of the marine Fauna 
 is just as prominent in the regions of the tropics. What- 
 ever is beautiful, wondrous, or uncommon in the great classes 
 of fish and Ecliinoderus (animals which include the sea-urchin 
 and star-flsh), jelly-fishes and polyps, and the mollusks of all 
 kinds, is crowded into the warm and crystal waters of the 
 tropical ocean — rests in the white sands, clothes the rough 
 cliffs, clings, Avhere the room is already occupied, like a 
 parasite, upon the first comers, or swims through the shal- 
 lows and depths of the elements; while the mass of the 
 vegetation is of a far inferior magnitude. 
 
 The Asterias, or star-fishes, so frequently alluded to in 
 the description of submarine scenery by naturalists, belong 
 to a genus of molluscous worms, and some species that have 
 been often observed on the sea-shore. The most curious of the 
 sea-stars, perhaps, is that called Caput Medusee, or basket-fish, 
 which inhabits most seas, and consists of five central rays, 
 each of which divides into two smaller ones, and these 
 are again divided into two others ; the same kind of division 
 and subdivision being continued to a vast extent, and every 
 ray regularly decreasing in size, until at length the ramifica- 
 tions amount to many thousands, forming a beautiful net- 
 work spread over the water. The color of the worm varies, 
 being sometimes pale, sometimes reddish, white and brown. 
 The arms of the star-fishes are furnished on their lower sur- 
 
THE FLOWERS OF THE OCEAN. 379 
 
 faces witli suckers, wliich enable them to crawl along the 
 smoothest rocks. 
 
 The madrepores, millipores, and nullipores are polypi, 
 classed in the third family of the Coralliferi, including all 
 the numerous species which were for a long time regarded 
 as marine plants, and in which numerous individuals are so 
 united as to form compound animals, for the most part 
 fixed, like plants, by a branched stem, or by simple expan- 
 sions of a solid substance at the base or in the middle of the 
 group. 
 
 No more lovely ornaments of submarine gardens could 
 be imagined than the Anemones, a name thus applied about 
 a century ago by the indefatigable naturalist, Ellis, who 
 made them the subject of some remarkable investigations, 
 and who remarks that " their tentacles being disposed of in 
 regular circles, and tinged with a variety of bright lively 
 colors, very nearly represent the beautiful petals of some of 
 our most elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the 
 carnation, marigold, and anemone," reminding us of what 
 Du Bartas says, in his quaint poem on the birth of the 
 world, that seas have 
 
 " Pinks, gilliflowers, muslirooms, and many millions 
 Of other plants." 
 
 The reader may have seen some of the smaller species of 
 anemones on the rocks of our sea-coast and in aquariums, 
 but to observe these animals in their full bloom of loveliness, 
 we must gaze into the transparent waters of the tropical 
 seas, where they attain their greatest size and beauty, 
 spreading out their delicate tentacles or " feelers," and dis- 
 playing all the vivid colors which render them so remarkable. 
 The similarity of some of these animal " flowers " to the 
 flora of the earth is very singular. Hughes describes some 
 of them as found in a submarine rock-basin: 
 
380 riVIB COLORS OF THE ANEMONES. 
 
 " In the middle of it there is a fixed stone or rock which 
 is always under water. Round its sides, at different depths, 
 seldom exceeding eighteen inches, are seen at all times of 
 the year, issuing out of little holes, certain substances that 
 have the appearance of fine radiated flowers, of a pale yel- 
 low or a bright straw-color, slightly tinged with green, hav- 
 ing a circular border of thick-set petals, about the size of, 
 and much resembling, those of a single garden marigold, ex- 
 cept that the whole of this seeming flower is narrower at 
 the setting on of the leaves than any flower of that kind." 
 
 " Each following billow lifted the last foam 
 That trembled on the sand with rainbow hues; 
 The living flower that, rooted to the rock, 
 Late from the thinner element. 
 Shrank down within its purple stem to sleep, 
 Now feels the water, and again 
 Awakening, blossoms out 
 All its green anther necks." 
 
 This reads like a gardener's description of some new and 
 rare plants. 
 
 But the elegance and beauty of the anemones belong only 
 to their native element; when left dry by the receding tide, 
 they contract into a jelly-like mass, and the glorious hues 
 that shone through the clear waters of the ocean fade 
 away. 
 
 '• I once cut off," adds Mr. Hughes, " with a knife which 
 I held for a long time out of sight near the mouth of a hole 
 out of which one of these animals appeared, two of the 
 seeming leaves. These, when out of the water, retained 
 their shape and color ; but being composed of a membrane- 
 like substance, surprisingly thin, it soon shrivelled up and 
 decayed." 
 
 Each species generally selects a peculiar haunt, but they 
 are found in every sea. Some appear suspended from the 
 vaults of submarine reefs; others cover the more exposed 
 sides of rocks with a sort of flower-like tapestry. 
 
PO WER OF REP ROD UCING ORGANS. 381 
 
 One species commonly found on the English coasts, and 
 a gem of the aquarium, is named Mesemhryanthemum, 
 after the fig-marigold, an annual of English flower gardens. 
 If you look attentively at one of these animals, you will be 
 struck with its remarkable beauty. Around the margin of 
 the mouth there is a circle of little azure knobs or knots, like 
 turquoise beads. Another British anemone, called the 
 (7rass/co7*n/s, exhibits the most attractive colors — red, varied 
 with white, orange, green and yellow. 
 
 The term applied by naturalists to these A^ery interest- 
 ing " animal flowers" is Actinia ("' a ray"), subdivided into a 
 number of genera, and is now the type of a family called 
 Adiniadce. 
 
 The sea-anemones are a hungry class, preying especially 
 on small crabs, which they clasp in a fond embrace, and 
 eventually devour. Another peculiarity in tliese strange 
 and beautiful marine animals is their power of reproducing 
 organs of their own bodies that may have been broken oft". 
 Mr. Bennett relates : 
 
 " I had once brought to me a specimen of the crassicornis, 
 that might have been originally two inches in diameter, and 
 that had, somehoAv, contrived to swallow a valve of Pecten 
 Blaximus (a genus of two-shelled mollusks) of the size of an 
 ordinary saucer. The shell, fixed within the stomach, was 
 so placed as to divide it completely into two halves, so that 
 the body, stretched tightly over, had become thin and flat- 
 tened like a pancake. All communication between the 
 interior portion of the stomach and the mouth was of course 
 prevented ; yet, instead of emaciating and dying of an atro- 
 phy, the animal had availed itself of what had undoubtedly 
 been a very untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments 
 and its chances of double fare. A new mouth furnished with 
 two rows of numerous tentacula, was opened up at what had 
 been the base, and led to the under-stomach : the individual 
 
382 CLEARNESS OF THE WATER OF THE RED SEA. 
 
 had become a sort of Siamese twin, but with greater inti- 
 macy and extent in its unions." 
 
 The anemones I need scarcely further describe to you 
 except as soft fleshy bodies, with mouths surrounded by 
 several rows of tentacles or feelers, which they expand 
 contract, and move at will with wonderful ease, shrinking 
 when touched into a solid round mass with a slippery sur- 
 face, which renders it difficult to remove them without 
 injury-. 
 
 The singular clearness of the waters of the Red Sea has 
 often been noticed by travelers, as presenting views of sub- 
 marine scenery of the greatest beauty. 
 
 It has been said that, when leaning over the edge of a 
 boat on the smooth surface of the sea, the pebbles and the 
 pure Avliite sand can be seen very distinctly at the depth of 
 even one hundred and eighty feet. Through the body of 
 the water can be discerned the minutest objects at an im- 
 mense depth. The secrets of the deep thus laid open afford 
 the most magnificent spectacle that can be conceived. In one 
 part the whole forests of pale pink and red coral spread forth 
 their luxuriant branches, and impart a blush to the element 
 in which they grow. How varied, how beautiful is their color- 
 ing! a brilliant red or blue, or gorgeous with orange or the 
 deepest black. In one spot they are of a dead white or 
 living purple, in another a bright yellow or crimson, and 
 everywhere fancifully diversified. 
 
 It is in the Red Sea also that the strange family to which 
 the Sea-Slug and the Sea-Cucumber belong are found in 
 great abundance — many of the species exhibiting splendid 
 colors, and making the bottom of the sea, particularly among 
 coral formations, gay and lovely as a garden. Here also are 
 seen the zoophyte Gorgonias, the stem of which is usually 
 brown or black, while the fleshy parts often exhibit colors of 
 great brilliancy. One species, the Sea-Fan, is brought to us 
 as a curiosity. Here are also the Serpula a species oi 
 
SUBMARINE BEAUTIES IN THE NORTH SEA. 
 
 383 
 
 ringed animals, like worms, inhabiting a limy tube like 
 that of moUusks, which they attach to rocks and shells in 
 the sea. The wide end of the tube is open, and from this 
 the animal protrudes its head and gills, wdiich expand as 
 beautiful fan-like tufts. They are generally most splendidly 
 colored. And here also are the Sertularia, a genus of zoo- 
 phytes attached to stones, shells, and sea-weeds, and very 
 beautiful. 
 
 DRAG NET. 
 
 The waters of the North Sea, along the west coast of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula, have been remarked by all ob- 
 servers for being of an extraordinary transparency. " As 
 we passed " (says a writer) " slowly over the surface, the 
 bottom, wdiich here was in general a white sand, was clearly 
 visible with its minutest objects, where the depth was from 
 one hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty feet. 
 During the whole course of the tour I made, nothing- 
 appeared to me so extraordinary as the inmost recesses of 
 the deep thus unveiled to the eye. The surface of the 
 ocean was unruffled by the slightest breeze, and the gentle 
 
384 SUBMARINE FORESTS AND MEADOWS. 
 
 splashing of the oars scarcely disturbed it. Hanging over 
 the gunwale of the boat, with wonder and delight I gazed 
 on the slowly moving scene below. Where the bottom was 
 sandy, the diiferent kinds of asteriee, echini, and even the 
 smallest shells, appeared at that great depth conspicuous to 
 the eye, and the water seemed in some measure to have the 
 effect of a magnifier, by enlarging the objects like a tele- 
 scope, and bringing them seemingly nearer. Now, creeping 
 along, we saw, far beneath, the rugged sides of a mountain, 
 rising toward our boat, the base of which, perhaps, was 
 hidden some miles in the great deep below. Though moving 
 on a level surface, it seemed almost as if we were ascending 
 the height under us ; and when we passed over its summit, 
 which rose in appearance to within a few feet of our boat, 
 and came again to the descent, which on this side was sud- 
 denly perpendicular, and overlooking a watery gulf, as we 
 pushed gently over the last point of it, it seemed almost as 
 if we had thrown ourselves down this precipice, the illu- 
 sion, from the crystal clearness of the deep, actually pro- 
 ducing a sudden start. Now we came again to a plain, and 
 passed slowly over the submarine forests and meadows 
 which appeared in the expanse below; inhabited, doubtless, 
 by thousands of animals, to which they afford both food and 
 shelter — animals unknown to man; and I could sometimes 
 observe large fishes of singular shape gliding softly through 
 the watery thickets, unconscious of what was moving above 
 them. As we proceeded the bottom became no longer 
 visible ; its fairy scenes gradually faded to the view, and 
 were lost in the dark green depths of the ocean." 
 
 Having briefly described some of the beautiful fishes and 
 animals of the transparent tropic waters, let us consider the 
 vegetation and submarine forests of the arctic waters. 
 
 Columbus, in his search for a new world, encountered one 
 of the greatest marvels of ocean vegetation — a garden of 
 enormous extent in the waste of waters, which perplexed 
 
THE GRASSY SEA. 385 
 
 and terrified his timid seamen, " When," as Robertson 
 rehites, " about four hundred leagues to the west of the 
 Canaries, he found the sea so covered witli weeds, that it 
 resembled a meadow of vast extent, and in some places they 
 Avere so thick as to retard the motions of the vessel. This 
 strange appearance occasioned new alarm and disquiet to 
 the sailors." They imagined that they had now arrived at 
 the utmost boundary of the navigable ocean; that these 
 floating weeds would obstruct their further progress, and 
 concealed dangerous rocks, or some large tract of land that 
 had sunk, they knew not how, in that place. Columbus 
 endeavored to persuade them that what alarmed ought 
 rather to encourage them, as it was a sign of their approach- 
 ing land. At the same time a brisk gale arose, and carried 
 them forward ; several land-birds were seen hovering about 
 the ship, and directed their flight towards the west ; a 
 whale, also, was seen heaving up his huge form in the dis- 
 tance, which Columbus afiirmed was a favorable indication 
 of the neighborhood of land. The desponding crew resumed 
 some degree of spirit, and began to entertain fresh hopes. 
 
 The marine vegetation that threatened to impede the 
 course of the adventurous Columbus was the Gulf-weed, so 
 termed from its great abundance in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 The Portuguese called the waters thus covered the Grassy 
 Sea, for the surface, during several days' sailing, is literally 
 carpeted with the Aveed. Here the beautiful fishes of the 
 warmer latitudes, 
 
 " with fry innumerable, swarm," 
 
 and find a refuge from their relentless pursuers in the 
 ocean ; and the whole mass, extending many miles in space, 
 affords food and shelter to an infinity of small marine ani- 
 mals. 
 
 In the Atlantic Ocean these sea-weeds cover an expanse 
 of tAvo hundred and sixty thousand square miles, a vast mass 
 
386 VAST AMO UNT OF SEA - WEEDS. 
 
 of vegetable matter that no other similarly furnished tract 
 of open water is known to produce. 
 
 These sea-weeds are occasionally thrown up by currents 
 on our own shores, and may be known by the cluster of air- 
 vessels that the Gulf-weed bears, and Avhich, from their ap- 
 pearance, have given them the name of tropical grapes. 
 
 How marvelous is this vast provision of Nature in the 
 ocean depths for the wants and nourishment of animal life, 
 all created for wise purposes by the Great Being 
 
 " Who sleeps not — is not weary; in wliose designs 
 No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts, 
 And whose beneficence no change exhausts ! " 
 
 Innumerable animalculse (visible or invisible to the naked 
 eye), the chief food of the whale and also of many species 
 offish eaten by man, derive their sustenance from sea-weeds. 
 Myriads upon myriads of eggs of fishes find security in this 
 tangled mass of sea-plants, and the young fish are sheltered 
 there until they acquire strength to commit themselves to 
 the water. It has been remarked that " the vegetable king- 
 dom in the sea is no barren spot in the garden of Nature, 
 but in usefulness and abundance it is not inferior to the 
 most favored spots on land." But the character of sea-weeds 
 is very different to land-plants : the former, supported in a 
 liquid of greater specific gravity than themselves, do not 
 require the woody fibres which are necessary for land- 
 plants, except such as support themselves by climbing; and, 
 ::as they derive their nourishment from the water which 
 •covers them, they do not need the continuous vessels which 
 ;are so necessary to land-plants for their growth and life. 
 'This is explained by the simple experiment of placing one 
 portion of sea-weed in water, and exposing the other part 
 to the air, when the latter will speedily dry and wither, 
 while the former retains its freshness. 
 
 A-gain, the trees, and flowers, and shrubs which adorn 
 
VAST SUBMARINE FORESTS. 3S7 
 
 our gardens require tlie bright beams of the sun to warm 
 them into life and beauty; but the phuits that thrive in the 
 depths of the ocean are not dependent for their existence on 
 light, for only a feeble ray can reach many of them in their 
 rocky homes far beneath the surface. 
 
 Humboldt mentions the fact of a sea-weed of a fine grass- 
 green color being brought up from a depth of one hundred 
 and ninety-two feet, where it had vegetated, though the 
 light that had reached it could not have been more than that 
 aftbrded by half the light of an ordinary candle. 
 
 Who can conceive the mighty operations of the All- 
 Powerful Creator in the depths of the ocean? What transcen- 
 dent wonders lie hidden in the waste waters! Let us imagine 
 to ourselves vast submarine forests, which we know to exist 
 — an almost boundless extent of vegetation, which lives, 
 thrives, and decays, unseen by mortal eyes — how insignifi- 
 cant is human comprehension! 
 
 Viewing these tribes of sea-weed in the most careless 
 way, as a system of subaqueous vegetation, we see the 
 depths of ocean shadowed with submarine groves, often 
 of vast extent, intermixed with meadows, as it were, of the 
 most livelj hues, while the trunks of the larger species, like 
 the great trees of the tropics, are loaded with innumerable 
 minute kinds, as fine as silk, or transparent as a membrane. 
 
 How singular the contrast, also, between the gigantic 
 weeds that line the ocean depths, and spread forth their 
 knotted shoots upon the surface of the water, and the small, 
 beautifully colored, delicate plants that cling to the rocks, 
 and rival in lovliness the choicest flowers of our gardens! 
 
 On the shores of the North Pacific may be seen the Nereo- 
 cystus, with a slender stem, upwards of three hundred feet 
 long, bearing at its extremity a large air-vessel six or seven 
 feet in length, shaped as a barrel, and crowned with a tuft 
 of upwards of fifty forked leaves, each thirty to forty feet 
 long, forming the fishing-grounds of the sea-otter, who can 
 
388 EN0BM0U8 GROWTH OF 8EA-WEED8. 
 
 seek his prey with greater certainty amidst the shade of the 
 enormous leaves. 
 
 IntheAntartic regions the growth of sea-weeds is remark- 
 able. The Tree sea-weed rises from the ocean with a huge 
 stem or trunk eight or ten feet in height, and the thickness 
 of a human thigh. The ends of the branches give out 
 leaves tAVO or three inches broad, which, when in the water, 
 hang down like the boughs of a willow. Thousands of these 
 aquatic trees, uprooted by the currents, are often mistaken 
 for driftwood, and are collected for fuel. Darwin mentions 
 some sea-weeds that grow on the rocks in the Arctic seas, 
 which, though of prodigious length, instead of being spread 
 along the bottom of the ocean, are in part floated on the 
 surface by means of the numerous air-vessels they contain. 
 These gigantic sea-plants are sometimes fifteen hundred 
 feet in length. So full of air-vessels are they, that they look 
 like a honeycomb. 
 
 One species of sea-weed in the Antarctic regions, in its 
 horizontal growth at the surface of the ocean, ranges be- 
 tween two hundred and seven hundred feet in length; and 
 that at the Falkland Islands the beach is lined for miles 
 with en tangled cables of this weed, much thicker than the 
 human body. 
 
 Opposed to these gigantic marine plants we have multi- 
 tudes of smaller groAvth, combining the most delicate, beau- 
 tiful, and curious characteristics of form and color, among 
 which we may mention the Water Flannel, which waves 
 backwards and forwards like the pendulum of a clock ; and 
 some of us no doubt have often, when at the sea-side, en- 
 joyed the fun of cracking the air-vessels of the Bladder- 
 weed, and pulled to pieces the thready weeds that children 
 call sea-silk. The sea-coasts present an exhaustless variety 
 of pleasure derived from sea-weeds. There one may find 
 the Whip-lash, which grows from thirty to forty feet in 
 length, and is used for fish-lines in Scotland; the Net-weed, 
 
TUE COLORS OF SEA-PLANTS 3S9 
 
 which spreads its delicate intcrhiced threads like a web in the 
 water ; the leathery CallitJiamnion, one of the most lovely of 
 sea-weeds, of a bright, fine, rosy-red color; the branches di- 
 vided like the teeth of a comb. Then there is the Fern-leaf sea- 
 weed, another attractive plant, and the splendid Fan-weed, 
 representing a collection of hundreds of beautiful little fans, 
 every one of which, if minutely examined, is of exquisite 
 workmanship. On the southern coast of England is found a 
 common shore-plant of the tropical seas, the Peacock's Tail, 
 another lovely sea-weed. When growing, the fronds are 
 rolled up into cups, while the delicate fibres with which they 
 are bordered reflect the most glorious tints. Then there are 
 the curious Sea-thongs or Girdles, Avliich are often seen on 
 the coast, and which, when taken out of the water and held 
 by the stem, resemble a flag-staff and streamers. 
 
 The varieties of form and substance in sea-plants are also 
 highly interesting subjects for comtemplation : some are like 
 masses of jelly, others are elastic like India-rubber; many 
 are tough as leather, others firm as wood ; some have deli- 
 cate transparent leaves, others have thick, finely-veined, or 
 nerveless leaves. 
 
 The plants of the ocean gardens can vie also in glowing 
 tints with many of our most attractive land-flowers. 
 
 The natural colors of many sea-plants are exceedingly 
 beautiful when viewed in their native element; but expos- 
 ure to the sun and air — unless they are preserved with the 
 greatest care and delicacy — causes them to fade. Those of 
 the red species, Avhich abound chiefly in the temperate 
 zone, acquire their richest tints in the deepest water. The 
 plants of an olive color are mostly found in the neighbor- 
 hood of the tropics, while the green species principally in- 
 habit the polar seas. But, besides the colors mentioned, 
 there are countless of other shades. 
 
 Having alluded to the beauty and richness of ocean vege- 
 tation, we Avill now mention its usefulness, in addition to the 
 
390 USE OF SEA-WEEDS FOR FOOD. 
 
 shelter and nourishment it affords to the inhabitants of the 
 
 deep. 
 
 They soften the currents of rolling waters, and lessen the 
 
 violence with which the waves would, otherwise, break 
 
 upon the shores of the land. 
 
 Darwin alludes to the value of sea-weeds to those who 
 traverse the ocean : " I believe, during the voyage of the 
 Beagle and Adventure not one rock near the surface was 
 discovered which was not buoyed by this floating weed. 
 The good services it thus affoads to vessels navigating near 
 this stormy land (Terre del Fuego) is evident, and has cer- 
 tainly saved many from being wrecked." 
 
 And now let us consider the use of sea-weeds for food. 
 The value of these in many parts of the world is very great ; 
 the Chinese, especially are the largest consumers of any 
 nation, and have various ingenious methods of preparing 
 them for the table. Ceylon Moss, formerly much esteemed, is 
 the product of an esculent sea-Aveed gathered on the Avest- 
 ern coast of Ceylon, and possesed many nutritious quali- 
 ties. Carrageen Moss is a sea-weed much used for food in 
 Ireland; it is also frequently employed instead of isinglass 
 for making soups and jellies. In Bavaria it serves for clari- 
 fying beer. The young stalks of the Tangle-weeds, when 
 well-boiled and served up with pepper and vinegar, are 
 very wholesome. One species grows to the length of twenty 
 feet. 
 
 There may be found on the sea-shore a pretty weed re- 
 sembling in shape the palm of a hand, with leaves, like 
 fingers growing around it. This is properly called Dulse, 
 and is eaten both raw and roasted, the taste resembling that 
 of cooked oysters. This is also a favorite food of lobsters, 
 crabs, and other shell fish. The Icelanders have a particu- 
 lar relish for this sea-weed, and prepare it by drjang, when 
 it gives out a white powdery substance, which is sweet and 
 ralatable. Cattle are also very fond of dulse, especially 
 
THE VALUE OF KELP. 391 
 
 sheep, for which reason it is often called sheep's dulse. 
 These animals seek it eagerly on the sea-shore, and are 
 sometimes carried away by the tide in their eagerness to 
 obtain it. In Kamtchatka it is used for making a fermented 
 beverage. 
 
 The marine vegetable called Laver, so much esteemed in 
 v^arious parts of England as a relish for the table, is a 
 epecies of sea-weed, stewed and served as a sauce. 
 
 The uses to which sea-Aveeds are applied are, indeed, nu- 
 merous and important. We will merely mention a few. 
 The ashes of marine plants afford a large quantity of soda 
 «alts, and especially the carbonate, such as Kelp which is 
 prepared by merely burning certain species of weeds suita- 
 ble for the purpose, and this was formerly in great demand 
 for the manufacture of glass, but now there is a better and 
 cheaper means of getting soda from salt. 
 
 According to Pliny, the value of soda in making glass 
 was discovered by a mere accident. A vessel loaded with 
 soda was once driven ashore on the coast of Palestine. 
 The crew landed, and made a fire upon the sands to boil 
 their kettle. They took some lumps of the soda for the kettle 
 to rest upon, without the least idea of what would result. 
 The soda was melted, and, uniting with the sand, formed a 
 rough kind of glass. 
 
 But kelp, although superseded in this respect, is valuable 
 from the circumstance that iodine (discovered in 1811, by 
 Courtois, in the waste liquors produced in the manufac- 
 ture of carbonate of soda from the ashes of sea-weeds), 
 which is so necessary in medicine, in photography, and 
 various processes connected with the arts, is chiefly derived 
 from it. Iodine exists in the waters of the ocean and 
 mineral springs, marine shelly animals, and sea-vegetation 
 generally, but not to the same extent as in kelp. When 
 heated, iodine rises in a vapor of a violet color and this is 
 condensed and solidified by a chemical process. 
 
the deviations of submarine currents 
 
 CHAPTEE XXni. 
 
 THE BED OF THE OCEAN.— BEEP SEA SOUNDINGS. 
 
 HAT is the average depths of the sea ? Tlie 
 time lias been when it was difficult to 
 answer this question with any degree of 
 certainty, because of the difficulty met 
 with in taking soundings, caused chiefly by 
 The existence of these 
 currents being unknown, many marvelous soundings were for- 
 merly reported ; indeed it was supposed by some that the sea 
 in many places was without bottom, as apparently the longest 
 line could not reach it. But when it was definitely deter- 
 mined that there were many and deflecting under-currents 
 running through the ocean, it was seen why the line would 
 keep paying out indeflnitely, long after the weight attached 
 might have reached the bottom. Many and ingenious plans 
 were tried to obviate this difficulty. It remained for the 
 United States Navy to solve the problem, and that, too, by a 
 very simple contrivance, which will be best described by 
 noting its operation. We will suppose a ship in the mid 
 Atlantic. A small boat is put off from the vessel, con- 
 taining the necessary crew and implements with which 
 to take the soundings. As the little boat cannot be 
 readily anchored, it is kept stationary by the use of the 
 oars. In a convenient place in the boat lies coiled per- 
 haps three miles of good stout rope. Attached to this 
 rope is a sinker weighing sixty-four pounds. All is made 
 ready, and it is finally cast overboard. It is carefully 
 watched. By the shock felt it is decided that the weight 
 has just reached the bottom. At this moment tlie line is 
 
DEPTHS OF THE SEA. 393 
 
 cut. Now, how much of this line remains on the reel ? 
 One halt" a mile, Ave will say, by way of" illustration. Since 
 tiiere were three miles of rope on tlie reel at first, and there 
 remains one-lialf of a mile, the remainder, two and onedialf 
 miles, is in the water — the sea is two and one-half miles 
 deep here. 
 
 By this simple method the depths of the sea can be de- 
 termined. The plan may seem an easy and novel one, but it 
 has been far-reaching in its results. It opened the way for 
 a series of successful experiments that have been of great 
 practical benefit, and the end is not yet. It will be our 
 purpose to describe as fully as the limited space will allow, 
 the various steps of discovery, dependent upon this first 
 step, and the controversies to which they gave rise. 
 
 " If the waters of the Atlantic were drawn off, what a 
 sight would be exposed to our view. The very ribs of the 
 earth, with the foundations of the sea, would be brought to 
 light, and we should have presented to us in one view, in 
 the empty cradle of the ocean, a thousand fearful wrecks 
 with that array of dead men's skulls, great anchors, heaps of 
 pearls, and inestimable stones, which, in the poet's eye, lie 
 scattered in the bottom of the sea, making it hideous with 
 the sight of ugly death." 
 
 To lay down on our maps the mountains of the earth is 
 regarded as an important thing. May it not be equally of 
 as much importance to bring regularly within the domain of 
 science the physical geography of the sea ? By the aid of 
 the deep sea soundings previously described, the greater part 
 of the bed of the Atlantic has been carefully mapped out by 
 the late Capt. Maury; it is to his persevering and Avell 
 directed labors in this new field of discovery that we owe 
 some of the conclusions recorded in this chapter. 
 
 We had now arrived at a period of anxiety and expecta- 
 tion, especially on the part of mariners and scientists. Sim- 
 ply to know that tlie sea was just so deep in this or that 
 
394 BROOKS' SOUNDING APPARATUS. 
 
 place was of but little importance standing alone. Explora- 
 tion was investing the subject with an ever increasing 
 interest. Better directed attempts began to be put forth. 
 The question agitating thoughtful minds was, "of what is 
 the bottom of the ocean composed ?" And again, " Can we 
 determine this, and if we do, of what importance will it be 
 to the world ?" The outcome of this agitation was the 
 sounding apparatus invented by midshipman J. M. Brooks, 
 U. S. N. With the aid of this instrument, specimens of the 
 bottom of the ocean were brought up from a depth of four 
 miles. One of the questions was now answered, and now 
 succeeded another period of anxious expectation. The 
 thoughtless might have asked : " Of what use is all this 
 trouble just to procure a handful or two of mud, clay, sand, 
 or of something else from the bottom of the sea ?" 
 
 The law of gravitation has existed since time began. 
 Was the discovery of it of any importance ? What impor- 
 tant impulses of activity and utility came into existence 
 with this discovery ? Every natural law discovered, at once 
 becomes the basis of great reorganization and new inven- 
 tion. The philosophers asked: "Where should this dis- 
 covery be ranked," or in other Avords, "what was to be the 
 use of these deep-sea soundings ?" These questions were 
 difficult of answer categorically, but every physical fact, 
 every expression of nature, the work of any and all of those 
 agents which make the face of the world what it is, and as 
 we see it, is interesting and instructive. Until a group of 
 these facts are grasped, it cannot be determined what 
 practical bearings they may have, though the thoughtful 
 know that they contain many precious jewels which the 
 experts of philosophy will not fail to bring out, polished 
 and bright, and beautifully adapted to man's purposes. 
 
 The first practical answer to the question concerning the 
 use of deep sea soundings was in an attempt to utilize the 
 
Tin-: TEL EG It A PII PL A TEA U. 395 
 
 knowledge in the laying of the submarine cable across the 
 Atlantic. 
 
 There is, at the bottom of this sea, between Cape Race, 
 in Newfoundland, and Cape Clear, in Ireland, a remarkable 
 steppe, now known as the telegraph plateau. In August, 
 1858, a cable was laid upon it from Valencia in Ireland, to 
 Trinity Bay in Newfoundland, and a few messages were 
 passed through it when it ceased to work. This cable has 
 since become a perfect success, and many others have been 
 constructed, as we shall have occasion to notice in another 
 chapter. Probably the first, or 1858 cable would have been 
 an immediate success, had its projectors better availed 
 themselves of the light which the deep sea soundings cast 
 upon the bed of the ocean. This will be better understood 
 as WG get further along in this subject. 
 
 It was upon this very plateau that Brooks' sounding ap- 
 paratus brought up its first trophies from the bottom of the 
 sea. These specimens Avere judged to be clay. . They were 
 carefully preserved and labeled and eventually sent to tlie 
 proper bureau for microscopic examination. It was ascer- 
 tained that all these specimens contained microscopic shells, 
 calcareous and silicious, and that, too, unmixed with sand 
 or gravel. Of all the specimens brought up, all were animal, 
 and not one of the mineral or vegetable kingdom. The 
 ocean teems with life we know, and of the four elements, 
 fire, earth, air, or water, the sea most of all abounds Avith 
 living creatures. These little mites of shells had not a par- 
 ticle of gravel or sand among them, and it may be inferred 
 from this fact that the sea there at least is at rest. There 
 was not motion enough to abrade these very delicate organ- 
 isms, nor currents enough to sweep them about and mix up 
 with them a grain of the finest sand, nor the smallest par- 
 ticle of gravel torn from the loose beds of debris that here 
 and there strew the bottom of the sea. 
 
 This plateau is not too deep for the wire to sink down 
 
396 EN0R3I0US WEIGHT OF WATER. 
 
 and rest upon, yet is not so shallow that currents, or ice- 
 bergs, or any abrading force can derange the wire after it is 
 once lodged in its bed. 
 
 The analysis of the treasures recovered from the rich 
 bottom of the sea show us that the roaring waves and the 
 mightiest billows repose upon cushions of still waters; that 
 in the " blue water " the skeleton of the earth is protected, 
 as with a soft garment, from the abrading action of its cur- 
 rents, and that the lower stratum of its waters is so nearly 
 at rest that it can neither disturb nor move the lightest bit 
 of drift once lodged there. 
 
 " The tooth of running water is very sharp. See how the 
 Hudson has eaten through the Highlands, and the Niagara 
 cut its way through layer after layer of solid rock. But 
 what are the Hudson and Niagara, with all the fresh water 
 courses of the world, by the side of the Gulf Stream, and 
 other great rivers in the ocean? And what is the pressure 
 of fresh water upon river-beds in comparison with the pres- 
 sure of ocean water upon the bed of the deep sea? It is not 
 so great in contrast as the gutters in the street are to the 
 cataracts. Then why have not the currents of the sea worn 
 its bottom away? Simply because they are not permitted 
 to get down to it." 
 
 A very simple calculation would show us the enormous 
 weight of a simple foot square of water from the surface to 
 the bottom. In round numbers such a quantity of water 
 would weigh over one million pounds. Now let us multiply 
 the number of solid feet indefinitely, and then take into con- 
 sideration the fact that some of the ocean currents run at the 
 rate of four miles an hour. Of what would the bottom of the sea 
 have to be composed to stand such abrasion? The hardest 
 adamant could stand no such friction. Why then has not 
 the bottom of the sea been worn away? Why have not the 
 currents cut through the solid crust in which its bottom is 
 rocked, and ripped out from the bowels of the earth the 
 
CHANNEL OB' THE GULF STLtEAM. 397 
 
 masses of incandescent, molten matter which geologists tell 
 us lie pent up and boiling there? If the currents of the sea, 
 with their four-mile velocity at the surface, and this immense 
 pressure in its depths, were permitted to chafe against its 
 bed, the Atlantic, instead of being two miles deep and three 
 thousand miles broad, would, we may imagine, have been 
 long ago cut down into a narrow channel that might have 
 been as the same ocean turned up on edge, and measuring 
 two miles broad, and three thousand miles deep; but had it 
 been so cut, the proportion of land water-surface would 
 have been destroyed, and the winds, for lack of area to play 
 upon, could not have sucked up from the sea vapors for the 
 rains, and the face of the earth would have become as a 
 desert without water. 
 
 Now there is a reason why such change should not 
 take place, why the currents should not uproot nor 
 scour the deep bed of the ocean, wdiy they should not throw 
 out of adjustment any physical arrangement whatever in the 
 ocean ; it is because that in the presence of everlasting wis- 
 dom a compass was set upon the face of the deep ; because 
 the waters were measured in the hollow of the Almighty 
 hand ; because bars and doors w^ere set to stay the proud 
 waves ; and because, when He gave to the sea His decree 
 that its waters should not pass. He laid the foundations of 
 the world so fast that they should not be removed forever." 
 
 No indications of running water have been found beyond 
 the depths of about three thousand feet. The various cable 
 companies, in determining their routes, select such as will 
 enable them to lay their cables below the lower of the dual 
 currents, where they will be as free from disturbance as 
 though they were resting upon dry land. Another interest- 
 ing fact developed that may be noticed here, is that beyond 
 a certain depth neither animal decomposition nor vegetable 
 decay takes place. The most frail and delicate organisms 
 of the sea can remain in its depths for an indefinite length 
 
398 IMPORTANT DISCO VEBIE8. 
 
 of time without showing a single trace of decay. The en- 
 tertainment of this fact suggests many beautiful fancies, 
 some touching thoughts, and a few useful ideas ; and among 
 these last are found reasons for the conjecture that the gut- 
 ta-percha or other insulating material in which the cables 
 are encased, become, when lodged beyond a certain depth, 
 impervious to the power of decay ; that with the weight of 
 the sea upon them, the destructive agents which are so 
 busy in the air cannot here find room for play. Very curious 
 it is that destruction and decay should be imprisoned and 
 rendered inoperative- at the bosom of the great deep! 
 
 How inadequately can we, with the limited space neces- 
 sarily allotted to this chapter give with that detail which 
 might be expected to interest the general reader, the many 
 facts and fancies that ought to be recorded in dealing with 
 so important a subject. 
 
 TIius far in our treatment of the subject we have de- 
 scribed with some minuteness the successful determinations 
 of the actual depths of the sea with the mapping of its bot- 
 tom; the fact that below certain depths the sea was at rest, 
 and the other important fact, that in the deepest ocean de- 
 cay does not take place. It has also been pointed out that 
 so soon as these discoveries were made known they were at 
 once seized and practically utilized in the laying of subma- 
 rine cables for telegraphic communication to all important 
 parts of the hospitable globe accessible by water communica- 
 tion. Deep sea soundings are still being prosecuted in various 
 parts of the world of waters, and of the laying of cables 
 there seems no end. But, notwithstanding the prompt 
 utilization of the discoveries already unfolded, 'there re- 
 mained another important consideration in the successive 
 order of the new determinations and that was whether or 
 not there was life in the depths of the sea. 
 
 Astronomers had measured the volumes and weighed the 
 masses of the most distant planets. The " ooze " and bottom 
 
THE SEA, A GREAT NURSERY. 399 
 
 of the ocean had remained a sealed volume, rich with ancient 
 and eloquent legends, and suggestions of many an instruc- 
 tive lesson that might, when rightly read, be useful and 
 profitable to mankind. 
 
 The sea, with its myths, has suggested attractive themes 
 to all people and all ages. The human mind longed to know 
 more of its wonders and understand its mysteries. There 
 were, in its bosom, untold wonders ; therefore the contem- 
 plative mariner, as in mid ocean he gazed upon its mirrored 
 surface, continued to experience sentiments akin to those 
 that fill the mind of the devout astronomer, when, in the 
 stilly night, he looks at the stars, and wonders. 
 
 The specimens from the bottom of the sea brought up by 
 Brooks' sounding apparatus, were carefully labeled, and a 
 part was sent to Professor Ehrenberg, of Berlin, and the 
 remainder to the late Professor Baily, of West Point, for 
 microscopic examination. After such examination the latter 
 decided that the animalculte, whose remains Brooks had 
 brought up from the bottom, probably did not live or die 
 there. " They would have had no light there, and, had they 
 lived there, their frail little texture would have been sub- 
 jected, in its growth, to the pressure of a column of water 
 twelve thousand feet high. They probably lived near the 
 surface, where they could feel the genial influences of botii 
 light and heat, and were buried in the lichen coves below 
 after death." Maury says, in this same connection: 
 " Brooks' lead and the microscope, therefore, it would seem, 
 are about to teach us to regard the ocean in a new light. 
 Its bosom, which so teems with animal life, its face, upon 
 which time writes no wrinkles, makes no impression, are, it 
 would now seem, as obedient to the great law of change as 
 is any department whatever, either of the animal or vegeta- 
 ble kingdom. It is now suggested that henceforward we 
 should view the surface of the sea as a nursery teeming with 
 nascent organisms, its depths as the cemetery for families of 
 
400 ITS BOSOM A GREAT BURIAL PLACE. 
 
 living- creatures that outnumber the sands on the sea shore 
 for multitude. Where there is a nursery, hard by there 
 will also be found a grave-j-ard — such is the condition of 
 the animal world. But it has never occurred to us before 
 to consider the surface of the sea as one wide nursery, its 
 every ripple a cradle, and its bosom one vast burial place." 
 
 Several years ago the French Academy sent out bottles, 
 and caused specimens of air from various parts of the world 
 to be collected and brought home to be analyzed. The 
 nicest tests which the most skillful chemists could apply 
 were incapable of detecting any, the slightest, difference as 
 to ingredients in the specimens from either side of the equa- 
 tor, so thorough in the performance of their office are these 
 agents. Nevertheless, there are a great many more demands 
 on the atmosphere by the organic world in one hemisphere 
 than in the other, and consequently a great many more in- 
 equalities for these agents to restore in one than in the 
 other. Of the two, the land of our abiding place most 
 abounds with life, and consequently here there is a heavier 
 burden on the air. Here the hearthstone of the human 
 family has been fixed. Here, with our fires in winter and 
 our crops in summer, with our work-shops, steam engines, 
 and fiery furnaces going night and day, with the limitless 
 demands which the animal and vegetable kingdoms are 
 making upon the air above us, Ave cannot detect any dif- 
 ference in the make-up of the atmosphere in different parts 
 of the world; and yet, notwithstanding the perfect balances 
 between the kingdoms of the organic world, there are causes 
 at work in every hamlet which would produce a difference 
 of adjustment were it not for these rising and falling columns 
 of air ; for the obedient wind ; this ground system of circu- 
 lation, these little cogs and ratchets which have been pro- 
 vided for its perfect working. 
 
 " On those parts of the solid portions of the earth's crust 
 which are at the bottom of the atmosphere, various agents 
 
DIVER AT WORK. 
 
402 MYBIABS THAT MAKE THE SEA SPARKLE. 
 
 are at work, leveling both upward and downward. Heat 
 and cold, rain and sunshine, the wind and the streams, all, 
 assisted by the forces of gravitation, are unceasingly wasting 
 away the high places on the land, and as perpetually filling 
 up the low. But it would seem that these same leveling 
 agents are powerless in the deep sea. There are no abrad- 
 ing processes at work there ; neither frost nor rains are felt, 
 and the force of gravitation there is so paralyzed that it 
 cannot use half its power, as on dry land, in tearing the 
 overhanging rock from the precipice and casting it down 
 ink) the valley below. Though the same agencies are not at 
 work in leveling off the floor of the sea, as are changing the 
 face and form of the earth, let us not forget the myriads of 
 anamalculse that make the surface of the sea sparkle and 
 glow with life : they are secreting from its surface solid 
 matter for the seeming purpose of filling up these cavities 
 below. These little marine insects build their habitations 
 at the surface, and when they die, their remains, in vast 
 multitudes, sink down and settle upon the bottom. . They 
 are the atoms of which the mountains are formed — plains 
 spread out. Our marl-beds, the clay in our river bottoms, 
 large portions of many of the great basins of the earth, are 
 composed of the remains of just such little creatures as these, 
 which the ingenuity of Brooks has enabled us to fish up from 
 the depth of nearly four miles below the sea-level. These 
 J^oramini/era, therefore, when living, may have been pre- 
 paring the ingredients for the fruitful soil of a land that 
 ■..some earthquake or upheaval, in ages far away in the future, 
 may be sent to cast up from the bottom of the sea for man's 
 (Qse." 
 
 By bringing up specimens from the depths of the ocean, 
 and studying them through the microscope, it has been 
 ascertained that the bed of the ocean is lined Avith the 
 remains of its own dead: with marine feculences which lie 
 
PRE8ER VA TION OF MARINE LIFE. 403 
 
 on the bottom as lightly as rests the gossamer in a cahn at 
 the bottom of the atmospheric ocean. 
 
 The streams of running water in the oceanic machinery 
 pla}' rather about its surface than in its depths; tlie causes 
 that produce currents reside at and near the surface. These 
 causes are changing heat and alternating cold with their 
 powers of contraction and expansion — wind and sea-shells with 
 evaporation and precipitation ; and it would appear that 
 none of these agents seem capable of reaching very far down 
 into the depths of the great sea with their influences — 
 apparently not much farther down than the light can 
 reach. 
 
 "Does," says Maury, "any portion of the shells which 
 Brooks' sounding-rod brings up from the bottom of the 
 ocean live there, or are they all the remains of those that 
 lived near the surface in the light and heat of the sun, and 
 were buried in the bottom of the sea after death? Philoso- 
 phers were divided in opinion upon this subject. The 
 facts, as far as they went, seemed at first to favor the 
 one conjecture nearly as well as the other. Under these 
 circumstances, I inclined to the anti-biotic hypothesis, and 
 chiefly because it would seem to conform better with the 
 Mosaic account of creation. The sun and moon were set in 
 the firmament before the waters were commanded to bring 
 forth the living creature ; and hence we infer that light and 
 heat are necessary to the creation and preservation of 
 marine life : and since the light and heat of the sun cannot 
 reach to the bottom of the deep sea, my own conclusion, in 
 the absence of positive evidence upon the subject, has been 
 that the habitat of these mites of things hauled up from 
 the bottom of the great deep is at and near the surface. 
 On the contrary, others maintained, and perhaps with equal 
 reason, the biotic side of the question. Professor Ehren- 
 burg, of Berlin, is of this latter class." We refer to and 
 quote thus extensively from Maury, as at the time this 
 
404 CONCL U8I0N8 OF ' THE NA TUBALIST 
 
 interesting and important discussion began, he was the great 
 authority on all matters connected with the physical geogra- 
 phy of the sea, having done as much, and perhaps more, 
 than any other one person, in clearing up or elucidating the 
 mysteries of the sea. Many of his conclusions, as novel and 
 strange as they may have seemed, were at once accepted as 
 indisputable facts, and passing time has proved their cor- 
 rectness. Additional research and investigation has shed 
 new light upon some subjects that at that time (1858) may 
 have been supposed to be settled, and this subject of life 
 in the deep sea may be one of tho«e questions. We shall 
 present briefly both sides of the question, with the evidence 
 adduced, and leave tlie reader to form his own conclusion. 
 
 As soon as the deep-sea specimens were mounted on the 
 slides of the microscope, the two great masters of that in- 
 strument — Baily, of West Point, and Ehrenburg, of Berlin, 
 discovered the greater part of the small calcareous carapaces 
 to be filled with a soft pulp, which both admitted to be 
 fleshy matter. From this fact the German argued that there 
 is life at the bottom of the deep sea. Ehrenburg further 
 contended that, owing to the great quantity of peculiar 
 forms and of soft bodies existing in the innumerable cara- 
 paces, and also the large number of unknowns, increasing 
 with the depth, he was firmly of the opinion that stationary 
 life existed in the deep sea. 
 
 The anti-biotics, considering the number of unknowns 
 increasing with the depths, contended that the tides, the 
 currents, and the agitation of the waves all reach to the 
 bottom in shallow water; that they sweep and scour from it 
 the insects, and bear them ofl" into the deep water; that 
 after reaching a certain depth, this sediment passes into the 
 stratum of quiet waters that underlie the roaring waves and 
 tossing currents of the surface, and through this layer of 
 quiet waters these organic remains slowly find their way to 
 the final place of repose as ooze at the bottom of the deep 
 
A^^I^lAL LIFE AY TJIF DEPTHS OF TlIK SEA. 405 
 
 sea; that, thronii-h sncli ag;encies, this same deposit ought 
 to be richer than that of the shaUow water witli iui'usorial 
 remains. « 
 
 Concerning the soft, pulp or fleshy matter contained in 
 these calcareous remains, the anti-biotics held that the 
 little creatures were preserved for a while after death, and 
 until they reached a certain depth, by salt and afterward 
 by pressure. We have already referred to the fact estab- 
 lished that, beyond a certain depth, animal decomposition 
 or vegetable decay does not take place. This fact was 
 brought forward as evidence. The point claimed for it was 
 that the little animals need not have lived in the depths 
 of the sea, in order that their remains might be brought 
 up from the bottom, still containing the fleshy matter, but 
 that owing to the antiseptic properties of sea water, this 
 same fleshy matter might be preserved for a long time 
 after death, almost in a perfect state of preservation. 
 Another argument, as regards the necessity of light and 
 heat in the preservation of animal life, we referred to in the 
 beginning. Finally, many of the forms brought up from the 
 deep sea, were recognized as coming from fresh water 
 sources, forced down by the rivers into the sea where they 
 were carried along by the ocean rivers and finally deposited 
 into the sea. 
 
 The unabraded appearance of these shells, and the al- 
 most total absence among them of any debris from the sea 
 or foreign matter, suggests most forcibly the idea of perfect 
 repose at the bottom of the deep sea. Some of the speci- 
 mens are as pure and as free from the sand of the sea, as 
 the snow flake that ftills, when it is calm, upon the lea, is 
 from the dust of the earth. Indeed, these soundings suggest 
 the idea that the sea, like the snow-cloud with its flakes 
 in a calm, is always letting fall upon its bed showers of 
 these microscopic shells ; and we may readily imagine that 
 the "sunless wrecks," which strew its bottom, are, in the pro- 
 
406 DISCOVERIES AND ASCERTAINMENTS. 
 
 cess of ages, hid under this fleecy covering, presenting the 
 rounded appearance which is seen over the body of the 
 traveler who has perished in the snow storm. The ocean, 
 especially within and near the tropics, swarms Avith life. 
 The remains of its myriads of moving things are conveyed 
 by currents, and scattered and lodged in the course of 
 time all over its bottom. This process, continued for 
 ages, has covered the depths of the ocean as with a man- 
 tle, consisting of organisms as delicate as the macled frost, 
 and as light in the water as is down in the air. 
 
 But whence came the little silicious and calcareous shells 
 which Brooks' lead has brought up, in proof of its sound- 
 ing, from the depth of over two miles .^" Did they live in 
 the surface water immediately above? or is there a habitat 
 in some remote part of the sea, whence, at their death, the 
 currents were sent forth as pall-bearers, with the command 
 to deposit the dead corpses where the plummet found them. 
 
 It will be remembered that these discoveries and ascer- 
 tainments were made in the period from 1850 to 1860. 
 Much was crowded in this brief span of time. Philosophers 
 and scientists were startled and invigorated ; all were in a 
 state of earnest looking-forward-to and " What next?" and 
 " What next?" was continually being asked by the thinkers. 
 The period immediately succeeding this and continuing to 
 the present time, has been one of remarkable activity in this 
 field of research. Brooks' sounding rod and Maury's dis- 
 coveries only opened the way. Later mechanical appliances 
 have made that way much easier, and the results ascertained 
 by the means of better conducted contrivances are more 
 satisfactory. It was very confidently believed for a con- 
 siderable length of time by most of those who thought at 
 all on the subject, that Baily and the anti-biotics were right 
 indisputably in their opinion that there was no life in the 
 depths of the ocean. This conclusion is now seriously ques- 
 tioned, and perhaps with reason. 
 
DEEP SEA DREDGING EXPEDITIONS. 407 
 
 Follcnvinjj," Maury's researches under the auspices of the 
 American navy, were several "Deep Sea Dredging Expedi- 
 tions," sent out by various governments. While a detaded 
 account of all these expeditions would be instructive and 
 interesting, we shall have to content ourselves with but a brief 
 glance at one or two only, and those sent out by the British 
 government. We may refer especially to the cruises of the 
 lAgJitning and Porcwpine, and the "Voyage of the Challenger ^ 
 For an account of these cruises and their important deter- 
 minations we are particularly indebted to Dr. C. Wyville 
 Thomson, Director of the Civilian Scientific Staff of the 
 Challenger Exploring Expedition. 
 
 We shall only be able at this time to refer to so much of 
 the work of these expeditious as treats of " Life in the 
 Depths of the Sea." The dredging operations of the Light- 
 ning and Porcupine were done during the years 1868, 1869, 
 and 1870. Preceding these years this question of " life in 
 the depths" had remained an open one, the majority of the 
 naturalists and scientists probably inclining toward the anti- 
 biotic theory. We have given at some length the opposite 
 opinions of Ehrenburg and Baily. The next high authority 
 who expressed an opinion was Professor Huxley, and he 
 was very guarded. He says, in his report to the British 
 admiralty concerning an examination he had made of sam- 
 ples procured by Captain Dayman in the Cyclops in 1857: 
 " How can animal life be conceived to exist under such con- 
 ditions of light, temperature, pressure, and aeration as must 
 obtain at these vast depths? To this one can only reply 
 that we know for a certainty that even very highly orga- 
 nized animals do contrive to live at a depth of three hundred 
 or four hundred fathoms, inasmuch as they have been 
 brought up thence, and that the difference in light and heat 
 at four hundred and at two thousand fathoms is probably, so 
 to speak, very far less than the difference in complexity of 
 organization between these animals and the humble proto- 
 
408 A BRITISH SOUNDING EXPEDITION. 
 
 zoii and Protopbyta of the deep-sea soundings. I confess, 
 though, as yet, far from regarding it proved that the 
 Glohigerince live at these depths, the bahmce of probability 
 seems to me to incline in that direction." 
 
 In 1860, the celebrated naturalist. Dr. Wallich, took 
 part in a British sounding expedition to Iceland, G-reen- 
 land and Newfoundland. During the cruise soundings 
 were taken, and specimens of the bottom were brought 
 up from depths from six hundred to two thousand 
 fathoms ; many of these were the now well-known gray 
 " Globigerina ooze." On the return voyage, about midway 
 between Cape Farewell and Rockall, thirteen star-fishes came 
 up from a sounding of one thousand two hundred and sixty 
 fathoms, " convulsively embracing a portion of the sounding 
 line which had been payed out in excess of the already as- 
 certained depth, and rested for a sufficient period at the 
 bottom to permit of their attaching themselves to it." Dr. 
 Wallich warmly advocated the view that the conditions of the 
 bottom of sea were not such as to preclude the possibility of 
 the existence of even the higher forms of animal life, and dis- 
 cussed fully the arguments advanced by the other side. How- 
 ever, his was the expression only of an individual opinion, and 
 it was thought that no new fact had been elicited. Star-fishes 
 had come up on several previous occasions adhering to 
 sounding lines, but the certain proof was still wanting that 
 they had lived upon the ground at the depth of the sound- 
 ing. 
 
 In 1857, a cable was laid between Sardinia and Bona. In 
 1858, it became necessary to repair it, and a length of about 
 thirty miles was picked up and successfully replaced. In 
 1860, it completely failed. In picking up a portion of this 
 cable from a depth of about one thousand two hundred 
 fathoms, a great many specimens of animal forms were found 
 adhering to it. The condition of these forms was such as to 
 indicate pretty clearl}^ that they had become attached to 
 
ANIMAL LIFE AT EXTREME DEPTHS. 409 
 
 the cable while it was at rest at the bottom. " Up to this 
 time," says Dr. Thomson, "all observations with reference to 
 the existence of living animals in extreme depths had been 
 liable to error, or at all events to doubt, from two sources. 
 The appliance and methods of deep sea soundings were im- 
 perfect, and there was always a possibility, from the action 
 of deep currents upon the sounding-line, or from other 
 causes, of a greater depth being indicated than really ex- 
 isted ; and again, although there was a strong probability, 
 there was no absolute certainty that the animals adhering to 
 the line or entangled on the sounding instrument had actu- 
 ally come up from the bottom. They might have been 
 caught on the way." The animal forms upon which these 
 conclusions Avere based were not sticking loosely to the 
 cable, under circumstances which might be accounted for 
 by their having been entangled upon it during its passage 
 through the water, but they were moulded upon its outer 
 surface or cemented to it by calcareous or horny excretions, 
 and some of them from what is known of their history and 
 life, must have become attached to it as minute germs, and 
 have grown to maturity in the position in which they were 
 found. This may be regarded as the best proof yet fur- 
 nished of the existence of highly organized beings living at 
 a depth of more than one thousand fathoms. 
 
 During the cruises of the Lightning and Porcupine^ 
 already referred to, fifty-seven hauls of the dredge were 
 taken in the Atlantic at depths beyond five hundred 
 fathoms, and sixteen at depths beyond one thousand fathoms ; 
 and in all cases life was found in abundance. Two casts 
 were taken in depths greater than two thousand fathoms. 
 In both of these cases life was abundant; and with the 
 deepest cast, two thousand four hundred and thirty-five 
 fathoms, off tlie mouth of the Bay of Biscay, living, well- 
 marked, and characteristic examples of all the five inverte- 
 brate sub-kingdoms, were taken. And thus the question of 
 
410 GREAT PRESSURE AT TWO THOUSAND FATHOMS. 
 
 the existence of abundant animal life at the bottom of the 
 sea may be considered finally settled for all depths, for there 
 is no reason to suppose that the depths anywhere exceeds 
 four thousand fathoms ; and if there be nothing in the con- 
 dition of a depth of two thousand five hundred fathoms to 
 prevent the full development of a varied fauna, it is reason- 
 able to suppose that even an additional thousand fathoms 
 would not make any great difference. 
 
 With Brooks' sounding-lead only about a handful of the 
 bottom could be brought up at a time. With the dredg- 
 ing appliances used in later expeditions as much as two 
 hundred pounds would sometimes be brought up from the 
 depths at a single haul. The operation of casting the 
 dredge, and bringing it up again with its specimens from the 
 bottom, is a delicate and protracted one : it sometimes re- 
 quires from eight to ten hours to make a single haul. 
 
 The conditions which might be expected to effect animal 
 life at great depths of the sea are pressure, temperature, and 
 the absence of light which apparently involves the absence 
 of vegetable food. The conditions of pressure are certainly 
 very extraoi'dinary. At two thousand fathoms a man would 
 bear upon his body a weight equal to twenty locomotive 
 engines, each with a good long train loaded Avith pig iron. 
 We sometimes find when we get up in the morning, by arise 
 of an inch in the barometer, that nearly half a ton has 
 been quietly piled on us during the night; but we ex- 
 perience no inconvenience, rather a feeling of exhilaration 
 and buo3"ancy, since it requires a little less exertion to move 
 our bodies in the denser medium. Water, we know, is very 
 incompressible, and, together with this fact, we may con- 
 clude that these animals in the depths are so constituted 
 that they can bear whatever pressure there is, though it is 
 by no means certain that these same highly organized beings 
 could survive the change of condition involved in the sud- 
 den removal of this pressure. 
 
FOOD OF BE KP WATER AXIMALS. 411 
 
 As yet we have very little exact knowledge as to the 
 distance to which the sun's light penetrates into the waters 
 of tlie sea. It is certain that beyond the first filty fathoms 
 plants are barely represented, and after two hundred 
 fathoms they are entirely absent. The question of the 
 mode of nutrition of animals at great depths becomes, there- 
 fore, a very singular one. The practical distinction between 
 plants and animals is, that plants prepare the food of animals 
 by decomposing certain inorganic substances which animals 
 cannot use as food, and recombining their elements into 
 organic compounds, upon which animals can feed. This 
 process is, however, so far as we are at present aware, con- 
 stantly affected under the influence of light. There seems 
 to be no light at the bottom of the sea, and there are cer- 
 tainly no plants there except such as may sink from the 
 surface, and yet the bottom of the sea is a mass of animal 
 life. 
 
 The only practical explanation relative to the mainte- 
 nance of this life is, that all sea-water contains a certain 
 quantity of organic matter, in solution and suspension. Its 
 sources are obvious. The rivers bring in a considerable 
 quantity. Every shore is surrounded by a fringe which 
 averages nearh" a mile in width, of olive and red sea-weed. 
 Then there is the " Sargasso-sea " or marine prairie, in the 
 middle of the Atlantic, covering over three million square 
 miles. The sea is full of animals which are constantly 
 dying and decaying. Nearly all the animals at extreme 
 depths belong to one sub-kingdom, the Protozoa; whose 
 distinctive character is that they have no special organs of 
 nutrition, but absorb nourishment through the whole of 
 their jelly-like bodies. Most of these animals secrete 
 exquisitely formed skeletons, some of silicia, some of car- 
 bonate of lime. There is no doubt that they extract both 
 of these substances from the sea-water ; and it seems more 
 than probable that the organic matter which forms their 
 
412 
 
 GREAT BANDS OF LIMESTONE FOUND. 
 
 soft parts is derived from the same source. It is thus quite 
 intelligible that a world of animals may live in these dark 
 abysses, but it is a necessary condition that they must 
 chiefly belong to a class capable of being supported by 
 absorption through the surface of their bodies of matter in 
 solution, developing but little heat, and incurring a very 
 small amount of waste by any manifestation of vital activity. 
 
 SECTIONS OP OCEAN CABLE. 
 
 According to this view, it seems probable that in all periods 
 of the earth's history some form of the Protozoa-rhizopods, 
 sponges, or both, predominated greatly over all other forms 
 of animal life in the depths of the warmer regions of the 
 sea. The rhizopods, like the corals of a shallower zone, 
 form huge accumulations of carbonate of lime, and it is 
 probable to their agency that we must refer those great 
 bands of limestone which have resisted time and change, 
 and come in here and there with their rich imbedded letter- 
 ing to mark like milestones the progress of passing ages. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PHENOMENA OF THE OCEAN. 
 
 f AVIGATORS in the Northern seas have the 
 opportunity of witnessing to perfection some 
 curious phenomena, among which may be 
 mentioned the Mirage, a name given by the 
 French to an optical deception in the at- 
 mosphere by wliich a ship appears as if transferred to the 
 sky. Tliese appearances were regarded by the credulous, 
 in former times, as supernatural; but they are referred to 
 the refractive and reflective properties of the atmosphere. 
 Not only is there an increase in the vertical dimensions of 
 the objects affected, so that low coasts frequently assume a 
 bold and precipitous outline, but objects sunk below the 
 horizon are brought into view with their natural position 
 changed and distorted. 
 
 Dr. Hayes gives the following vivid description of tlie 
 optical delusion: 
 
 " These Arctic skies do sometimes play fantastic tricks, 
 and on no occasion have I witnessed the exhibition to such 
 perfection. The atmosphere had a rare softness, and 
 throughout almost the whole day there Avas visible a most 
 remarkable mirage, or refraction, an event of very frequent 
 occurrence during the calm days of the Arctic summer. 
 The entire horizon was lifting and doubling itself continu- 
 ally, and objects at a great distance beyond it rose, as if by 
 strange enchantment, and stood suspended in the air, chang- 
 ing shape with each changing moment. Distant icebergs 
 

 ;Mij''S 
 
 WATER-SPOUT. 
 
 MIRAGE. 
 
MIRAGE AS WITNESSED IN ARCTIC SEAS. 415 
 
 and floating" ice-fields, and coast-lines and mountains, were 
 thus brought into view — sometimes preserving for a mo- 
 ment their natural shapes, then Avidening and lengthening, 
 rising and falling, as the wind fluttered or fell calm over the 
 sea. The changes were as various as the dissolving images 
 of a kaleidoscope, and every form the imagination could con- 
 ceive stood out against the sky. At one moment a sharp 
 spire, the prolonged image of a distant mountain-peak, 
 would shoot up, and this would fashion itself into a cross, 
 or a spear, or a human form, and would then die away, to be 
 replaced by an iceberg, which appeared as a castle standing 
 upon the summit of a hill, and the ice-fields coming up with 
 it, flanked it on either side, seeming at one moment like a 
 plain, dotted with trees and animals: again, as rugged 
 mountains, and then breaking up after awhile, disclosed a 
 long line of bears, and dogs, and birds, men dancing in the 
 air and skipping from the sea to the sky. There was no 
 end to the forms which appeared every instant, melting into 
 other shapes as suddenly. For hours we watched the 'un- 
 substantial pageant,' until a wind from the north ruffled the 
 sea, when, with its first breath, the whole scene melted away 
 as quickly as the ' baseless fabric ' of Prosperous vision." 
 
 Another writer, during a voyage to the eastern coast of 
 Greenland, was amused by the singular refractive power of 
 the Polar atmosphere. The rugged surface of the coast 
 assumed the form of castles, obelisks, and spires, which here 
 and their were linked together, so as to present the appear- 
 ance of an extensive city. At other times it resembled a 
 forest of naked trees, and it was easy to conceive colossal 
 statues, porticoes of rich and regular architecture, shapes of 
 lions, bears, horses, etc. Ships were seen inverted, and sus- 
 pended high in the air, and their hulls often so magnified as 
 to resemble huge edifices. Objects really beneath the hori- 
 zon Avere raised into view in a most extraordinary manner. 
 It seems positively ascertained, that points on the Green- 
 
416 MOST BEMARKABLE ON BECOBD. 
 
 land shore, not above three or four thousand feet high, were 
 seen at the distance of one hundred and sixty miles. The 
 extensive evaporation of the melting ice, with the unequal 
 condensation produced by streams of cold air, are considered 
 as the chief sources of this extraordinary refraction. 
 
 The same navigator relates that when in the Polar Sea, 
 his ship had been separated for some time from that of his 
 father, which he had been looking out for with great 
 anxiety. At length, one evening, to his astonishment, he 
 beheld the vessel suspended in the air in an inverted posi- 
 tion, with the most distinct and perfect representation. 
 Sailing in the direction of this visionary appearance, he met 
 with the real ship by this indication. It was found that the 
 vessel had been thirty miles distant, and seventeen beyond 
 the horizon, where her appearance was thus elevated into 
 the air by this extraordinary refraction. 
 
 Sometimes two images of a vessel are seen, the one erect 
 and the other inverted, with their topmasts and their hulls 
 meeting, according as the inverted image is above or below 
 the other. 
 
 The most remarkable instance of mirage that has been 
 seen was that in Avhich a vessel, with all sails set, at one 
 moment looked like an immense black chest, no sails or 
 masts being visible. On observing her for a time, the black 
 body seemed to separate horizontally into two parts, and 
 two sets of mingled sails occupied the intervening spaces, 
 with one set of very small sails above. The figures after- 
 wards became more distinct, and three images were clearly 
 discerned. Another vessel changed, also, from the form of a 
 great square flat-topped chest, to five distinct images, the 
 upper with the sails erect, and the two lower double images 
 with their sails rather confusedly intermingled. 
 
 Another phenomenon which is seen in its highest perfec- 
 tion in the Polar seas is the Aurora Borealis, or the " North- 
 ern Daybreak," so named from its appearance in that part 
 
AURORA BOR KALIS, OR NORTHERN BAT-BREAK. 417 
 
 of the heavens, and its close resemblance to the aspect of 
 the 8kv before sunrise. 
 
 AURORA BOREALI> IX ARCTIC REfJIONS. 
 
 During the winter of the Northern Hemisphere, the 
 inhabitants of the Arctic zone are without the light of the 
 sun for months together, and their long dreary night is re- 
 lieved by the light of this meteor, Avhich occurs with great 
 frequency in those regions, and the exceeding beauty of 
 which those who have seen it only in our latitudes can 
 hardly conceive. It is generally described as an immense 
 curtain, waving its folds like the canopy of an ample tent 
 agitated by the wind, and fringed with a border of light of 
 +he richest colors and most vivid brilliancy. It is sometimes 
 
il8 OBIOIN SUPPOSED TO BE ELECTRICAL. 
 
 seen for a few minutes only, or an hour, or through the 
 whole night, and through several nights in succession. 
 
 A dingy aspect of the sky in the direction of the north 
 is generally the precursor of the Aurora, and this gradually 
 becomes darker in color, and assumes the form of a circular 
 segment, surrounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each 
 end on the horizon. Sometimes the blue sky is seen between 
 the cloud and the horizon. After shooting a number of rays 
 or streamers, the dark part of the cloud generally changes 
 and becomes very luminous. The rays continue to be shot 
 from the upper edge, sometimes at some distance, or very 
 close to each other. Their light is very dazzling ; bright 
 columns slowly issue upwards from openiugs in the main 
 cloud, becoming broader as they proceed. When the Aurora 
 attains its full brightness and activity, rays are projected 
 from every part of the arch, and if they do not rise too high, 
 it presents the appearance of a comb furnished with teeth. 
 When the rays are very bright, they assume a green, violet, 
 purple or rose color, giving to the whole a variegated and 
 brilliant effect. The height of the Aurora has been dif- 
 ferently estimated, but it has been seldom found to exceed 
 ninety miles ; but its geographical extent is enormous. The 
 origin of the phenomenon is yet unexplained, but it is gene- 
 rally supposed to be electrical. Franklin regarded it as the 
 result of a slow and continual discharge of electric fluid 
 from the atmosphere about the poles to the air above ; and 
 Sir Humphrey Davy and other electricians noticed the 
 striking similarity between the Northern Lights and elec- 
 tricity discharged through rarefied air. 
 
 The Aurora has been observed in almost every part of 
 the world. The 'ancients regarded its appearance with 
 great terror, as the precursor of dire events; and there is 
 no doubt that the fiery meteors, representing to their imagi- 
 nations armies fighting in the heavens, and described by 
 many writers as having preceded remarkable occurrences, 
 
PARHELIA, OR MOCK tiUNS. 419 
 
 must have been this phenomenon. The Indians also re- 
 garded these lights as the spirits of their fathers roaming 
 through the land of souls. This idea may have originated 
 from the long streaks of light which spread out with incon- 
 ceivable swiftness, but always appearing to move to and 
 from a fixed point, somewhat like a ribbon held in the hand 
 and shaken. 
 
 Other luminous meteors are seen by the navigators of the 
 Northern Ocean to perfection, arising, apparently, from the 
 refraction caused by the minute and highly crystalized par- 
 ticles of ice floating in the atmosphere. The sun and moon 
 are often surrounded by Halos, circles of vapor, tinted Avith 
 the brightest hues of the rainbow. Arctic voyagers fre- 
 quently mention the fall of icy particles during a clear sky 
 and a bright sun, so small as to be scarcely visible to the 
 naked eye, and detected by their melting on the skin; 
 and others larger, presenting a remarkably interesting ap- 
 pearance. M'Clintock, in his " Voyage of the Fox," ob- 
 serves: "Tlie snow crystals of last night are extremely beau- 
 tiful ; the largest kind is an inch in length, and its form ex- 
 actly resembles the end of a pointed feather. Stellar crys- 
 tals, two-tenths of an inch in diameter, have also fallen; 
 these have six points, and are the most exquisite things 
 when seen under a microscope. In the sun, or even the moon- 
 light, all these crystals glisten most brilliantly, and as our 
 masts and rigging are abundantly covered with them, the 
 'Fox ' was never so gorgeously arrayed as she now appears." 
 
 Parhelia, or mock suns, in the vicinity of the real orb, 
 shine at once in different quarters of the firmament. They 
 are most brilliant at daybreak, diminish in lustre as the sun 
 ascends, but again brighten at his setting. Edward Parry 
 describes a parhelion of remarkably gorgeous appearance 
 Tvhich he saw during a winter's sojourn at Melville Island. 
 It continued from noon until six in the evening. It con- 
 sisted of one complete halo, with segments of several others, 
 
420 THE ICE BLINK. 
 
 displaying in parts the colors of the rainbow. Besides these, 
 there was another perfect ring, of a pale white color, which 
 went right around the sky parallel with the horizon, and at 
 a distance from it equal to the sun's altitude, and a horizon- 
 tal band of white light appeared passing through the sun. 
 Where the band and the inner halo cut each other, there were 
 two parhelia, and another close to the horizon, directly 
 under the sun, which formed the most brilliant part of the 
 spectacle, being exactly like the sun slightly obscured by a 
 thin cloud at his rising or setting. 
 
 A singular phenomenon observed on the Arctic seas by 
 Mr. O'Reilly is mentioned in his account of Greenland. 
 The atmosphere had been obscured by a fog, and the sun- 
 light, falling on the mist, formed an ellipsis, strongly illumi- 
 nated, apparently rising from the surface of the ocean to the 
 upper edge of the mist. The inner edge was pearly white, 
 with the faintest tinge of blue; the middle yellow, deepen- 
 ing into brown and purple ; the outer edge a blackish blue. 
 In the centre of this oval, Mr. O'Reilly, who had ascended 
 into the hurricane house, saw reflected his whole figure, of a 
 colossal size, the head surrounded by a circle of the bright- 
 est rainbow colors. 
 
 The sun, for some time before it finally departs for the 
 Arctic winter, and also after its reappearance in spring, 
 tinges the sky with hues of matchless splendor, which far 
 outvie even the glory of an Italian sky. The edges of the 
 clouds, near the sun, ( ften present a fiery or burnished 
 appearance, whilst the opposite horizon glows with a deep 
 purple, gradually softening into a delicate rose color of 
 inconceivable beauty. 
 
 Another phenomenon which meets the eye of the Arctic 
 navigator is the Ice-blink; a peculiar brightness in the 
 atmosphere which is almost always perceptiblo on approach- 
 ing ice. It is a stratum of clear whiteness, occasioned evi- 
 dently by the glare of light reflected obliquely from the 
 
TIDE RIP AND SEA DRIFT. 
 
 421 
 
 surface of the ice against the opposite atmosphere. This 
 shining streak, which looks always brightest in clear 
 weather, indicates to the experienced navigator, twenty or 
 thirty miles beyond the limit of direct vision, not only to the 
 extent and f^^■^re, but evoTi the quality, of the ice. 
 
 ICE BLINK. 
 
 Another phenomenon remarked by voyagers is the Tide 
 Rip and Sea Drift. The first may be described as a commo- 
 tion in the waters not unlike that produced by a conflict of 
 tides or other powerful currents. These sometimes move 
 along with a roaring noise, and the inexperienced navigator 
 expects to find his vessel drifted by them a long way out of 
 his course. But he generally finds after the commotion has 
 subsided that his ship's course has not been really affected. 
 This may be accounted for on the supposition of an equili- 
 brium of opposing forces. The Drift is certainly a move- 
 ment of the waters, though not of sufficient dignity to be 
 denominated a current. If a bottle or other object be cast 
 into the ocean near the equator, it will eventually bring up 
 at the icy regions about the poles, and in time find its way 
 back again to the tropical waters from whence it started, 
 unless caught up by some of the known currents. This may 
 be regarded as another evidence of the complete circulation 
 of the ocean as affected by beat and cold. 
 
422 EVAPORATION AND PRECIPITATION. 
 
 If a river of comparatively warm water be found in a 
 cold latitude, it must have been heated in a tropical region. 
 This phenomenon is a fact, and not only this, but the cold 
 sea rivers may be found near the equator. The effect upon 
 climate we know, and, in some sense, the cause. What a 
 beautiful compensation is this regulator of marine climate! 
 This Drift is irrespective and in addition to the known cur- 
 rents. Its rate is nearly four knots a day. Though having 
 some influence upon navigation, its effect is mainly climatic. 
 
 As we have already said, these currents, drifts, or floes 
 are well defined as to their extent, direction and effect; and 
 and it will probably not be uninteresting to examine to 
 some little extent the causes that bring about these phenom- 
 ena, phenominal in themselves. In other chapters we have 
 referred to the tiny polyps and other marine animals as 
 agents in disturbing the equilibrium of the ocean — each one 
 producing a ripple, the total of which amounts to a current. 
 
 Evaporation and precipitation are other agencies we will 
 now discuss. The better to understand their operation, let 
 us imagine a district in the tropical waters set apart. We 
 will now suppose that we have a machine large and power- 
 ful enough to pump up the water one mile in depth in this 
 district. It must not only force up this quantity of water 
 but it must bear it away and discharge it elsewhere. We 
 have, limited this comparison to arrest the attention, for 
 one hundred times and vastly more than this quantity is 
 pumped up daily and discharged. It can readily be imag- 
 ined that this cannot be done without greatly disturbing the 
 equipoise of the waters ; but it must also be remembered 
 that every disturbance is compensated, and every force 
 equally disturbed. Again having recourse to Maury, to 
 whom we are indebted for many valuable hints relative to 
 these matters, let us compute how much the fall of a single 
 inch of rain over an extensive region in the sea, or how 
 much the change even of two or three degrees of tempera- 
 
COMPAR'ISONS WITH RAIN-FALLS. 423 
 
 ture over a few thousand square miles of its surface, tends 
 to disturb its equilibrium, and, consequently, to cause an 
 aqueous palpitation that is felt from the equator to the 
 poles. As an example in illustration: the surface of the 
 Atlantic Ocean covers an area of about twenty-five millions 
 of square miles. 
 
 Taking one-fifth of this area, Ave will suppose a fall of 
 rain one inch deep to take place over it. This rain would 
 weigh three hundred and sixty thousand millions of tons; 
 and the salt which, as water, is held in solution in the sea, 
 and which, when that water was taken up as vapor, was left 
 behind to disturb equilibrium, weighed sixteen millions 
 more of tons, or nearly twice as much as all the ships' in the 
 world could carry at a cargo each. This rain might fall in 
 an hour, or it might fall in a day ; but, occupying what time 
 it might in falling, this rain is calculated to exert so much 
 force — which is inconceivably great — in disturbing the 
 balance of the ocean. If all the water discharged by the 
 Mississippi River during the year were taken up in one 
 mighty measure, and cast into the ocean at one effort, it 
 would not make a greater disturbance of the sea than would 
 the supposed rain-fall. Now this is but for one-fifth of the 
 Atlantic, and the area of the Atlantic is about one-fifth of 
 the sea-area of the world ; and the estimated fall of rain was 
 but one inch, whereas the average for the year is sixty 
 inches ; but we will assume it for the sea to be no more than 
 thirty inches. In the aggregate, and on an average, then, 
 such a disturbance in the equilibrium of the whole ocean 
 as is here supposed occurs seven hundred and fifty times a 
 year, or at the rate of once in twelve hours. Moreover, 
 when it is recollected that these rains take place now here, 
 now there ; that the vapor of which they were formed was 
 taken up at still other places, we shall be enabled to appre- 
 ciate the better the force and eff"ect of these irregular move- 
 ments in the sea. 
 
\'o./.. 
 
 FIRST STAGE OF WATER-SPOUT. 
 
 SECOND STAGE OP WATER- SPOUT. 
 
PERILOUS ESCAPE FROM A WATER-SPOUT 425 
 
 The Greeks applied the term "prester^^ to the water- 
 spout, which signifies a fiery fluid, from its appearance be- 
 ing- generally accompanied with flashss of lightning and a 
 sulphureous smell, showing the activity of the electrical 
 principle in the air. 
 
 A few minutes suffices in general for the duration of this 
 phenomenon, but several have been known to continue for 
 nearly an hour. In the Mediterranean as many as sixteen 
 water-spouts have been observed at the same time. The 
 principal danger seems to be from the wind blowing in sud- 
 den gusts in their vicinity from all point of the compass, 
 sufficient to overwhelm small vessels carrying much sail. 
 
 Mr. Ellis, in a cruise amongst the islands of the Pacific 
 Ocean, had, on more than one occasion, a perilous escape 
 from these phenomena. At one time the weather seemed 
 clearing from a previous storm, when one of the native 
 boatmen pointed to a large cylindrical water-spout, extend- 
 ing like a massive column from the ocean to the dark im- 
 pending clouds: 
 
 " It was not very distant, and seemed moving toward 
 our apparently devoted boat. The roughness of the sea 
 forbade our attempting to hoist a sail in order to avoid it; 
 and as we had no other means of safety at command, we 
 endeavored to calmly await its approach. The natives 
 abandoned themselves to despair, and either threw them- 
 selves along at the bottom of the boat, or sat crouching on the 
 keel, with their faces downward and their eyes covered 
 with their hands. The sailor kept at the helm. Mr. Barff 
 sat on one side of the stern, and I on the other, watching 
 the alarming object before us. While thus employed we 
 saw two other water-spouts, and subsequently a third, if not 
 more, so that we seemed almost surrounded with them. 
 Some were well defined, extending in an unbroken line from 
 the sea to the sky, like pillars resting on the ocean as their 
 basis, and supporting the clouds; others assuming the shape 
 
426 PERILOUS ESCAPE FROM A WATER-SPOUT. 
 
 of a funnel or inverted cone, attached to the clouds, and ex- 
 tending toward the waters beneath. From the distinct- 
 ness with which we saw them, notwithstanding the density 
 of the atmosphere, the farthest could not be many miles dis- 
 tant. In some we could imagine to have traced the spiral 
 motion of the water as it was drawn into the clouds, which 
 were every moment augumenting their portentous darkness. 
 The sense, however, of personal danger and immediate 
 destruction if brought within the vortex of their influence, 
 restrained in a great degree all curious, and what, in other 
 circumstances, would have been interesting observation on 
 the wonderful phenomena around us, the mighty agitation 
 of the elements, and the terrific sublimity of these wonders 
 of the deep. 
 
 " The roaring of the tempest, and the hollow sounds that 
 murmured on the ear as the heavy billows rolled in foam or 
 broke in contact with opposing billows, seemed as if deep 
 called unto deep, and the noise of the water-spouts might 
 almost be heard, while we were momentarily expecting that 
 the mighty waves would sweep over us. Our prayers were 
 offered to Him who is a very present help in every time of 
 danger, for ourselves and those who sailed with us; and 
 under these or similar exercises several hours passed away. 
 The storm continued during the day. At intervals we 
 beheld, through the clouds and rain, one or other of the 
 water-spouts, the whole of which appeared almost stationary, 
 until at length we lost sight of them altogether, when the 
 spirits of our native voyagers evidently revived." 
 
 The natives of the South Sea Islands, although scarcely 
 alarmed at thunder and lightning are at sea greatly terrified 
 by the appearance of water-spouts. They occur more fre- 
 quently in the South than in the North Pacific, and although 
 often seen among the Society Islands, are more rarely met 
 with in the Sandwich group. But throughout the Pacific, 
 water-spouts of varied form and size are among the most fre- 
 
TORNADOES AND TYPHOONS. ^11 
 
 quent of the splendid phenomena and mighty works of tlie 
 Lord which those behold who go down to the sea in ships, and 
 do business upon the great waters. They are sublime objects 
 of unusual interest when viewed from the shore; but when 
 beheld at sea, especially if near, and from a small and fragile 
 bark, it is almost impossible so to divest the mind of a sense 
 of personal danger as to contemplate with composure their 
 stately movement, or the rapid internal circular eddy of the 
 waters. 
 
 The Tornado — which, however is a general term em- 
 ployed to designate what is called a hurricane or whirlwind 
 — is a sudden and violent storm of wind, accompanied b}^ 
 lightning and heavy torrents of rain, occurring frequently 
 in -the Indian Ocean, on the coasts of Africa, and other 
 places in the tropics. While the tornado is passing over a 
 ship, a loud creaking noise, occasioned by the electric fluid 
 descending along the masts, is distinctly heard amongst the 
 rigging. After the squall has passed beyond the ship, the 
 lightning again appears to descend in sheets, as they did on 
 its approach. Typhoons have their origin in the ocean to 
 the east of China immediately about Formosa, Luzon, and 
 the islands immediately to the south, and their course is 
 generally along the coast of China. The body of the storm 
 advances at the rate of twelve miles an hour. It is very 
 probable that typhoons arise from opposing aerial currents, 
 each highly charged with moisture which they have taken 
 up from the oceans they have traversed; and their intensity 
 is aggravated by the large quantity of heat disengaged in 
 the condensation of the vapor of the atmosphere into the 
 deluges of rain which fall during the storm. 
 
 The Trade-Winds, which are classed under the designa- 
 tion of " constant" winds, probably owe the origin of their 
 name to the facilities afforded to trade and commerce by 
 their constant prevalence and uniform course. They ar» 
 perpetual in the torrid zone, blowing from the eastward with 
 
428 THE TRADE -WINDS. 
 
 little variation. They were not known to the ancients, and 
 seem to have been unknown even to modern seamen up to 
 the time of Cohnnbus, who had passed some time at the 
 Canaries, to which the trade-winds extend in summer, and 
 who seems to have conceived a just idea of their extent. 
 On his first voyage, after leaving the Canaries, his crew 
 were greatly alarmed at finding that the wind always blew 
 from the north-east or east, and feared they would be pre- 
 vented by it from returning to their native country. Colum- 
 bus, however knew otherwise, and on his return from the 
 newly discovered islands his tack was north of the trade- 
 winds, in the region of the changeable winds. After the 
 time of Columbus, European navigation extended rapidly in 
 the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and the trade-winds became 
 gradually known. 
 
 Seamen dwell with delight in the region of the trade- 
 winds, not only on account of the favoring gale, but its 
 genial influence, the transparent atmosphere, the splendid 
 sunsets, and the brilliancy of the unclouded heavens day and 
 night. The origin of the trade-winds is ascribed to the rare- 
 faction produced in our atmosphere by the apparent diurnal 
 progress of the sun. It appears that the heat caused by the 
 sun in the air is strong enough to produce this rarefaction 
 to an extent of about sixty degrees of latitude, as the trade- 
 winds, including what is termed the '' region of calms,", ex- 
 tend over such a portion of the globe. In this immense 
 space the rarefied air is replaced by the colder and denser 
 air which rests over the region contiguous to that of the 
 trade-Avinds, and this transportation of air is the trade-wind. 
 
 It may not be entirely out of place here to say a few 
 words respecting Atmospheric Currents, and to hazard a few 
 conjectures respecting other causes than those mentioned 
 that are among the agents producing the trade-winds and 
 their ''eastings." 
 
Mil 
 
430 CUBRE.NT8 OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 The physical laws of the sea were created by God. To 
 the devout even so simple a statement would be sufficient 
 to awaken holy and reverential feelings; but the skeptic, in 
 whom is no faith, wants to see. The more closely we exam- 
 ine the works of creation the more we must revere the 
 Creator. It is impossible to escape the conviction that 
 nothing in this admirable system is the result of accident, 
 but on the contrary we are forced to admit that all is the re- 
 sult of wonderful and perfect design, and what is of still more 
 consequence, this perfectly adjusted mechanism is arranged 
 for the happiness and comfort of unthankful humanity. 
 
 The circulation of the currents of atmosphere is as well 
 defined as are the currents in the seas. The wind strata 
 constantly flow from the poles to the equator, and of course 
 they must return there ; therefore wo may conclude that 
 each current is dual. These direct and opposite currents 
 are forced to move in a sort of a curve, turning to the west 
 as they leave the poles for the equator, and in the opposite 
 direction when they return — this turning being caused by 
 the rotation of the earth on its axis. " Thus, in substance," 
 says Maury, " the laws of motion, the force of gravity, and 
 the shape of our planet all work together in compelling 
 every wind either to force air up from the surface into the 
 higher regions, or to draw it down to us from the azure or 
 starry expanse above." By this everlasting agitation, or 
 mixing up, the surface of the globe is kept in that condition 
 so necessary and requisite to our well-being. Every ex- 
 haled breathj kindled blaze, and every atom of vegetation 
 . that grows and decays, adds something that is poisonous or 
 takes away something that is healthful from the air around. 
 
 The agents of the air, appointed to maintain its chemical 
 status, preserve its proportions, and adjust its ingredients 
 to keep them in that state best calculated for the purpose 
 intended, do not dally in the performance of their various 
 offices. 
 
LIFE-GIVING EFFECTS OF CIRCULATION. 431 
 
 If the air that is inhaled were not taken from us and re- 
 newed, warm-blooded life would cease to be ; if the con- 
 stituents of the air, carbon, oxyg'on, hydrogen, and water, 
 were not in proper quantities given on'^ by the ever-moving 
 air to the flora of the world, all vogctation would perish. 
 But we are saved from this calamity by this wind that 
 brings down fresh supplies of life from above, and takes up 
 from the earth that which has become stale. In the labora- 
 tory aloft the noxious gases are deflagrated among the 
 clouds, purified and made over by ways known only to Him 
 whom they obey. The cry going up from the crowded 
 cities for fresh air from the mountains or the ocean, is a 
 constant reminder of the life-giving virtues of circulation. 
 
 The study of its mechanism is good and wholesome in its 
 influences, and the contemplation of it is well calculated to 
 excite in the bosom of right-minded philosophers the deep- 
 est and best of emotions. 
 
 " How minute, pervading and general, sure, and perfect 
 must be that system of circulation w^hich invests the atmos- 
 phere and makes the ' whole world kin.' " We can imagine 
 the lither sky filled with crystal vessels continually ascend- 
 ing and descending between the bottom and the top of the 
 atmospheric ocean full of life-giving air; these little buckets 
 are let down by invisible hands from above, and as they are 
 taken up again, they carry off from the surface, to be puri- 
 fied in the work-shop of the heavens, phials of mephitic 
 vapors and noxious gases, with the dark and deadly air of 
 marshes, ponds and rivers. 
 
 Among the many offices assigned by their Creator to the 
 ocean and air currents, two may be particularly noticed in 
 this connection : first, to act and react upon each other, and 
 second, to distribute moisture over the surface of the earth, 
 thus tempering the climate of different latitudes. When the 
 northeast and southeast trades meet and produce the calms 
 at the equator, the air, by the time it reaches this belt, is 
 
432 MIGHTY RIVERS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 full of moisture, for in each part of the world it has traveled 
 obliquely over a vast extent of ocean. In one sense these 
 air currents may be said to terminate here — it is the end of 
 their lateral direction. They have but one way to escape, 
 and that is in an upward direction. As they turn about and 
 go up, they expand and become cooler; a portion of the 
 vapor that they have carried in their clasp is thus pressed 
 together and comes down in the shape of rain. Therefore it 
 is that it rains here almost continually. Old sailors tell us 
 that the precipitation is so great and constant here, that 
 they can frequently scoop up fresh water from the sea to 
 drink. All the moisture that the air has taken up in its ap- 
 pointed journey across the waters, is not deposited in the 
 calm belts: Let us enquire as to what becomes of the rest; 
 for it must be understood that nature takes nothing from 
 the earth that she does not give back again in some form or 
 other. We see the great rivers constantly discharging 
 great bodies of water into the ocean, and yet "the sea is not 
 full." Whence do these waters come and whither go? That 
 they come from their sources we know, but how are these 
 beginnings supplied? The fountains must be renewed con- 
 stantly or they would soon be exhausted. "The springs of 
 these rivers are supplied from the rains of heaven, and these 
 rains are form of vapors which are taken up from the sea, 
 that "it be not full," and carried up to the mountains 
 through the air. Note the place whence the rivers come, 
 thither they return again. Picture now the mighty rivers 
 of America, Europe and Asia, drawn up by the atmosphere, 
 and rushing along in visible st"eams back through the air 
 to their beginnings in the mountains, and that, too, by the 
 way of channels so regular, sure, and well-defined, that the 
 amount thus carried year by year is nearly the same. 
 
 This apparently capricious atmosphere is a mighty ma- 
 chine. It performs its office with regularity and certainty, 
 and is as obedient to law as is the steam engine to the will 
 
Moxsooys. 433 
 
 of its builder. " It, too, is ;m engine," — the South seas be- 
 ing the boiler, and the northern hemisphere the condenser. 
 
 How admirable is the system of terrestrial adaptations! 
 A little study of this system would show us why the pro- 
 portions between the land and the water were arranged as 
 we find them. With more water and less land we should 
 have had more rain than we now have ; with more land and 
 less water we would have less rain; then, indeed, the climate 
 would have been different over the whole face of the earth, 
 and the inhabitants could not have existed as the}^ are. 
 The unthinking may marvel that God should number the very 
 hairs of your head and note the sparrows fall ; but what 
 shall we say when we contemplate the earth as a Avhole, 
 and from such points of view as we have presented? The 
 sea, the air and the land, together with the mechanism of 
 each, prove the most simple that each and all "have their 
 origin in one " Omniscient idea." 
 
 The Monsoon is a term applied to periodical winds which 
 prevail almost entireh' in the northern part of the Indian 
 Ocean. The force with which these winds blow is much 
 greater than that of the trade-winds. It is frequently im- 
 possible to stem their violence in any way. Many vessels 
 which have endeavored to force their way against them have 
 been compelled to give in and to enter the nearest harbor. 
 Other vessels are obliged to change their course, and to 
 reach their destination by following a different track, wide 
 of the straight route, and thus avoiding the monsoon. But 
 although these winds, to vessels which miss the right season, 
 render their voyages long and laborious, yet they greatly 
 favor those of ships that arrive at the right period. It is 
 chiefly by the assistance of the north-east and north-west 
 monsoons that the voyages of merchant vessels bound from 
 Canton to England are accomplished in short periods. 
 
 Monsoons, when compared with the trade-winds, exercise 
 a most beneficial and important oiSce in nature, especially 
 
434 BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MONSOONS. 
 
 ill their relation to rain-fall, the fertility of the greater part 
 of Southern Asia being entirely due to them. The shift- 
 ings of the monsoons is not all at once, and in some places 
 the time of the changes is attended with calms, in others 
 Avith variable winds; and particularly those of China, at 
 ceasing to be westerly, are frequently very tempestuous, 
 and such is their violence that they seem to be of the nature 
 of the West India hurricanes. 
 
 The monsoon commences with great severity and pre- 
 sents an awful spectacle ; the inclement weather continues, 
 with more or less violence, from May to October. During 
 that period the tempestuous ocean rolls from a black hori- 
 zon, literally of " darkness visible," a series of floating- 
 mountains, heaving under heavy summits, until they ap- 
 proach the shore, when their stupendous accumulations flow 
 in successive surges, and break upon the beach. Every 
 ninth wave is observed to be generally more tremendous 
 than the rest, and threatens to overwhelm the settlement. 
 The noise of these billows equals that of the loudest cannon, 
 and, with the thunder and lightning so frequent in the rainy 
 season, is truly awful. 
 
 It is not easy to explain the origin of the monsoons; 
 they appear to be only a modification of the trade-winds, 
 produced by the peculiar form of the countries lying within 
 and around the Indian Ocean. 
 
 The lightning attending these phenomena is described 
 as fearfully vivid, realizing the description of a storm b;* 
 Shakespeare : 
 
 " I have seen 
 The ambitious ocean swell, and rage, and foam. 
 To be exalted with the threat'ning clouds; 
 But never till to-night, never till now, 
 Did I go through a tempest dropping fire. 
 Either there is a civil strife in heaven, 
 Or else the world, too saucy with the gods. 
 Incenses them to send destruction. 
 
HURRICANES AND CYCLONES. 435 
 
 Such sheets of fire, such bursts of horrid thunder, 
 Such groaus of roaring wind and rain." 
 
 Other appalling phenomena that we may mention are 
 Hurricanes or Cyclones; revolving- winds, which appear to 
 originate not far from the west coast of Africa, Avhere they 
 move in a more or less north-westerly course, until they 
 reach our coast, where they begin to turn, and continue to 
 the north-east, the vortex gradually widening, until they 
 are lost in the ocean between Iceland and the British isles. 
 These do not follow a straight line, but adopt a whirling 
 course. The cyclones vary in breadth from fifty to five 
 hundred miles, sometimes contracting, and in that case in- 
 creasing fearfully in violence. 
 
 The direct causes of these terrible atmospheric distur- 
 bances are not precisely determined ; they may arise from 
 an electric condition of a portion of the atmosphere (in- 
 deed, atmospheric changes of every kind seem to be con- 
 nected Avith electricity), or the sudden heating of the air 
 over some insulated portion of the African mainland, 
 although there is ground for believing that they are not 
 occasioned by heat alone. 
 
 Hurricanes have been more terribly destructive than 
 even earthquakes. The '"Great" hurricane which com- 
 menced at Barbadoes in 1780, was so termed from its terri- 
 Tjle results. The verv bottom and depths of the sea seemed 
 to be uprooted, and the waves rose to such a height that 
 forts were washed away, and their guns carried about in the 
 air like chaff; houses were raised and ships were wrecked, 
 l»odies of men and beasts were lifted up in the air and 
 dashed to pieces. At the different islands not less than 
 twenty thousand persons lost their lives on shore; while, 
 farther to the north, the "Stirling Castle" and the '"Dover 
 Castle," men-of-war, went down at sea, and fifty vessels were 
 driven on shore at the Bermudas. During a hurricane at 
 
HUREICANE. 
 
THE BORE. 437 
 
 Guadaloiipe, in January, 1825, a brig was whirled out of the 
 water, and actually blown to pieces in the air. At St. Yin- 
 cent's, in 1831, the water of the sea was raised to such a 
 height as to flood the streets. The waves broke over cliffs 
 seventy feet high. A very remarkable cyclone, or spiral 
 hurricane, passed over a portion of England and the British 
 and St. George's Channels during the autumn of 1859, de- 
 stroying an enormous amount of shipping. The cyclone in 
 Calcutta, in 1864, was one of the most awful events on 
 record, of which there is no parallel except that in 1832; 
 but even the latter was not so disastrous in its effects. Up- 
 wards of three hundred ships were wrecked or irreparably 
 damaged, and the results on shore were appalling. 
 
 The noise of the wind in hurricanes is described by a 
 seaman " as the most tremendous unearthly screech he had 
 ever heard." The electric phenomena that sometimes 
 attend hurricanes are very curious. One captain of a vessel 
 states: "For nearly an hour we could not observe each 
 other, but merely the lightning; and most astonishing, every 
 one of our finger-nails turned quite black, and remained so 
 nearly five weeks afterwards." 
 
 The Bore, a sudden and impetuous flow of the tide, is one 
 of the most astonishing sights that can be witnessed on the 
 sea-coast. At stated periods this tremendous tidal-wave 
 comes rolling from the sea, threatening to everwhelm every- 
 thing that moves on the beach. In certain parts of the Bay 
 of Fundy the bore is more impetuous and higher — some- 
 times exceeding eighteen feet — than, perhaps, in any other 
 part of the world. It comes in with such force and rapid- 
 ity, with a noise resembling distant thunder, as sometimes 
 to dash vessels on the shore. It is said also to overtake 
 deer, swine and other beasts that feed on the beach, and 
 swallow them up before the swiftest feet among them have 
 time to escape. The swine, as they feed on mussels at low 
 water, are said to sniff the bore, either by sound or smell, 
 
438 THE EAGRE DESCRIBED. 
 
 and generally dasli tip the cliffs before it rolls in. The bore 
 is caused by the compression of the mass of advancing 
 waters into a gradually narrowing channel. We quote from 
 Maury's "Physical Geography of the Sea," the following 
 incident: 
 
 "Dr. McGowan, an eye-witness, describes the bore or 
 eagre of the Tsien-Tang River, as follows: At the upper 
 part of the Bay, and about the mouth of the river, the eagre 
 is scarcely observable ; but, owing to the gradually descent 
 of the shore, and the rapidity of the great flood and ebb, 
 the tidal phenomena even here present a remarkable ap- 
 pearance. Vessels, which a moment before were afloat, are 
 suddenly left high and dry on a strand nearly two miles in 
 width, which the returning wave as quickly floods. It is 
 not until the tide rushes beyond the mouth of the river that 
 it becomes elevated to a lofty wave constituting the eagre, 
 which attains its greatest magnitude opposite the City of 
 Hang-Chow. 
 
 Generally there is nothing in its aspect, except on the 
 third day of the second month and on the eighteenth of the 
 eighth, or at the spring tide about the period of the vernal 
 and autumnal equinoxes, its great intensity being at the 
 later season. Sometimes, however, during the prevelance 
 of easterly winds, on the third day after the sun and moon 
 are in conjunction or in opposition, the eagre courses up 
 the river with hardly less majesty than when paying its 
 ordinary periodical visit. Between the river and the city 
 walls, which are a mile distant, dense suburbs extend sev- 
 eral miles along the bank. As the hour of flood tide ap- 
 proached, crowds gathered in the streets running at right 
 angles with the Tsien-Tang, but at safe distances. My 
 position was on a terrace in the front of the Tri-Wave Tem- 
 ple, which afforded a good view of the entire scene. On 
 a sudden all trafiic in the thronged mart was suspended: 
 porters cleared the front street of every description of 
 
ITS IMMENSE HEIGHT. 439 
 
 merchandise, boatmen ceased lading and unlading their 
 vessels, and put out into the middle of the stream, so that a 
 few moments sufficed to give a deserted appearance to tlie 
 busiest part of one of the busiest cities of Asia. The centre 
 of the river teemed Avith craft, from small boats to large 
 barges, including the gay flower-boats. Loud shouting from 
 the fleet announced the appearance of the flood, which 
 seemed like a glittering white cable, stretched athwart the 
 river at its mouth, as far down as the eye could reach. Its 
 noise, compared by Chinese poets to that of thunder, 
 speedily drowned that of the boatmen; and as it advanced 
 with prodigious velocity — at the rate, I sliould judge, of 
 twenty -five miles an hour — it assumed the appearance of an 
 alabaster wall, or, rather, of a cataract four miles across and 
 about thirty feet high, moving bodily onward. Soon it 
 reached the advanced guard of the immense assemblage of 
 vessels awaiting its approach. As the foaming wall of 
 water dashed impetuously onward, the vast multitude were 
 silenced, all being intensely occupied in keeping their prows 
 toward the wave, which threatened to submerge everything 
 afloat ; but they all vaulted, as it were, to the summit with 
 perfect safety. The spectacle was of great interest when 
 the eagre had passed about one half Avay among the craft. 
 On one side they were quietly reposing on the surface of 
 the unruffled stream, while those on the nether portion were 
 pitching and heaving in tumultuous confusion on the flood •, 
 others were scaling with the agility of salmon the formidable 
 cascade. This grand and exciting scene was but of a 
 moment's duration ; it passed up the river in an instant, but 
 from this point, with gradually diminishing force, size, and 
 velocity, until it ceased to be perceptible, which Chinese 
 accounts represent to be eighty miles distant from the 
 city. From ebb to flood tide the change was almost instan- 
 taneous; a slight flood continued after the passage of the 
 wave, but it soon began to ebb. 
 
440 SUBMARINE EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES. 
 
 A very short period elapsed between the passage of the 
 Eagre and the resumption of traffic. Tiie vessels were soon 
 attached to the shore again ; women and children were oc- 
 cupied in gathering articles which the careless and un- 
 skillful had lost in the a.quatic melee. The streets were 
 drenched with spray, and a considerable volume of water 
 splashed over the banks into the head of the grand canal, a 
 few feet distant. 
 
 Among the most extraordinary phenomena in the universe 
 is the volcanic action at the bottom of seas, by the upheaval 
 of wdiich islands are produced, the form, magnitude and 
 character of which depend on that of the upheaved mass. 
 In general these islands rise suddenly, and their appearance 
 is attended with all the phenomena that accompany erup- 
 tions: they are seen for some time, and then gradually dis- 
 appear. When the dome, upheaved from the bottom of the 
 3ea, breaks at the summit so as to form a crater, a part of 
 the circular rampart is sometimes destroyed, so that the sea 
 enters, and an enclosed bay is formed, where innumerable 
 tribes of coral animals build their cells. 
 
 Within the Atlantic Ocean no less than five great, and 
 probably connected, centres of volcanic action exist. Iceland, 
 the Azores, the Canaries, the Cape de Verd, and the West 
 Indian Islands, besides many other points (Ascension, St, 
 Helena, St. Paul's, etc.) at which extinct volcanic phenomena 
 are visible. A remarkable submarine volcanic tract has 
 been added to them, forming a belt about seventy miles 
 from the equator on the south side. In the middle of the 
 seventeenth century there were great and disastrous shocks 
 in the Mediterranean basin. 
 
 A series of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, appa- 
 rently connected with each other, occurred in 1811 and 
 1812 in the countries surrounding the Columbian sea. The 
 subterranean force first tried to open a vent by means of 
 a submarine eruption in the Atlantic. Shocks of earthquake 
 
jsLAyjjs jiisiXG FitOM Tin: SEA. 441 
 
 were for several Jays felt in the island of St. Miguel, one of 
 the Azores, and on the 30th of January, 1811, large volumes 
 of smoke, with which flames were observed to mingle, were 
 seen issuing from the surface of tlie sea, at a distance of a 
 few miles from the western coast of the island. They threw 
 np mud, stones and other matter, which in a short time ac- 
 cumulated, so as to form a small island, which was called 
 Sabrina; this disappeared after a few months in the sea. 
 In 1831 an island rose out of the sea between the town of 
 Sciacca, in Sicily, and the volcanic island of Pantellaria. Be- 
 fore any appearance of a change was observed in the sea, 
 the inhabitants of Sciacca were alarmed by a number of 
 very smart shocks of earthquake, of which two might be 
 called severe. An Italian vessel passing near the place 
 where, afterwards, the island rose out of the sea, observed 
 a great disturbance of the waters at that spot. According 
 to his statement a considerable space of the surface of the 
 sea was seen rising to an elevation of from eighty to ninety 
 feet above its level ; the water appeared to bubble as if 
 boiling, and the phenomenon was attended by a noise like 
 thunder. After this agitation had lasted about teu minutes, 
 the watery mass sank to the sea level, but after some time 
 rose again. These risings of the water were repeated at 
 irregular intervals of ten, fifteen and twenty minutes. A 
 thick cloud of smoke, which enveloped the whole horizon 
 issued from the raised mass of water. The surface of the sea 
 surrounding the raised mass was also considerably agitated, 
 and a number of dead fish were floating about. For several 
 days the atmosphere surrounding the town of Sciacca was 
 dim and foggy, so that it was impossible to see what was 
 going on at sea. On the 12th of July, in the morning, peo- 
 ple Avere surprised at finding on the surface of the sea, in 
 front of the town, a quantity of small porous ashes, which 
 had been carried there by a fresh breeze from the south- 
 west. At the same time a very unpleasant'smell of sulphu- 
 
442 THE CA USE OF UP-HEA VING. 
 
 ric hydrogen gas incommoded .the inhabitants of the town 
 and the country near. Dead fish, recently killed, were 
 floating in all directions. 
 
 Captain Senhouse effected a landing on the island thus 
 formed, took possession of it, and called it Graham Island. 
 He found the form of the crater to approach that of a per- 
 fect circle, and to be complete along its whole circumfer- 
 ence, excepting for about two hundred and fifty yards on 
 the south-east side, which was broken and low, apparently 
 not above three feet high. The whole circuit of the island 
 he conceived to be from a mile and a quarter to a mile and 
 one-third. In the month of December following the whole 
 island had disappeared. 
 
 The island of Santorin, one of the Greek islands called 
 the Cyclades, is one of the most extraordinary instances of 
 submarine volcanic action. During the last two thousand 
 years several new islands have been formed in this locality, 
 and singular phenomena have been exhibited even of late 
 years. 
 
 Earthquakes are very closely related to volcanoes, 
 although by no means confined to volcanic districts. In- 
 stances of this phenomenon at sea are frequently recorded 
 b}^ navigators. In most cases the motion felt on board is 
 compared with that experienced when a ship strikes on a 
 rock under water. During the earthquake at Lisbon, an 
 English vessel, sailing at a distance of about fifty miles from 
 the coast of Portugal, experienced a shock of such violence 
 that a part of the deck was damaged. The captain, much 
 surprised, thought that a great mistake must have crept 
 into his reckoning, and that his vessel had got on a rock. 
 He gave orders to put out the long boat, to save the crew, 
 but he was soon convinced there was no danger. The 
 source whence earthquakes originate, the power by which 
 the ground is convulsed, is withdrawn from our investiga- 
 tion. The eye of the most inquisitive naturalist cannot 
 
RED FOG OR SllO WKR-D UST. 443 
 
 reach it. The substances whicli arc brought up by earth- 
 quakes bear evident signs of having endured the action of 
 fire. It is supposed that these phenomena are produced by 
 the efforts of accuniuhited elastic vapors to escape from the 
 bowels of the earth. 
 
 Another phenomenon we may allude to is the Red-Fog or 
 Shower-Dust, encountered by vessels at sea occasionally, 
 and especially in the vicinity of the Cape de Verd Islands. 
 What these showers precipitate in the Mediterranean is 
 called " sirocco-dust," and in other parts " African dust," 
 because the winds which accompany them are supposed to 
 come from the Sirocco desert, or some other parched land of 
 the continent of Africa. The dust is of a brick-red or cin- 
 namon color, and it sometimes comes down in such quanti- 
 ties as to cover the sails and rigging, though the vessel may 
 be hundreds of miles from the land. This dust, when sub- 
 jected to the microscope, is found to consist for the most 
 part of exceedingly minute animal and vegetable organisms, 
 probably derived from some of the great river valleys of 
 South America, being lifted up in vast clouds of impalpable 
 sands by the fierce gales of the equinox. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 OCEAN STEAMSHIPS. 
 
 E assume that there is much interest felt by all 
 classes respecting these " ocean palaces." 
 One cannot take up a daily paper of any 
 pretensions without noticing the arrival or 
 departure of many vessels of this class ; 
 and yet, though we become so familiar with their names and 
 destinations, and so many of our friends are making them 
 their homes for a time, we may, notwithstanding this, have 
 but little conception of their magnitude or conveniences. 
 
 Every school-boy in the land is familiar with the name 
 of Fulton. No school history would be complete without a 
 mention of the Clermont, the first steamship, of 140 feet 
 keel, IGJ feet beam, and rate of speed five miles an hour. 
 A writer, in speaking of her first trip from New York to 
 Albany in 1807, sa3's: 
 
 " The vessel presented the most terrific appearance. The 
 dry pine wood fuel sent up many feet above the flue a col- 
 umn of ignited vapor, and when the fire was stirred, tre- 
 mendous showers of sparks. The wind and the tide were 
 adverse to them, but the crowds saw with astonishment the 
 vessel rapidly approaching them; and when it came so near 
 that the noise of its machinery and paddles was heard, 
 the crews of other vessels, in some instances, shrunk 
 beneath their decks from the terrific sight ; while others 
 prostrated themselves, and besought Providence to protect 
 them from the approach of the horrible monster which was 
 
,irri,ii]iiiiu''in;ii'i|ii)iii::i!:i!i!(l[iii!li 
 
446 STEAMSHIP CITY OF ROME. 
 
 marcliing on the tide, and lighting its path by the fire it 
 vomited." 
 
 The Anchor Line of Steamships, one of the largest and 
 best equipped that sails the ocean, comprising forty-three 
 first-class vessels, ranging from 1,000 to 8,400 tons burthen 
 each, has lately added to her fleet of steamships, so well and 
 favorably known to the traveling public, a new vessel, the 
 City of Borne ^ to ply between New York and Liverpool. 
 
 Perhaps no better evidence of our material progress dur- 
 ing the last few decades could be suggested than that 
 offered by a comparison of the two steamships we have 
 mentioned. As for the Clermont, and other vessels of a 
 similar character that have folloAved her advent by succes- 
 sive stages of improvement, nothing with which the reader 
 is not already familiar could probably be said. 
 
 We submit a brief description of the City of Rome: 
 
 This magnificent steamer was built at Barrow, in Furness, 
 by the Barrow Shipbuilding Company, and is the largest 
 passenger steamer afloat. Her gross register tonnage is 
 8,415 tons; length being 560 feet, breadth of beam 37, and 
 depth of hold 52.3 feet. And, notwithstanding her immense 
 size, she is on all hands acknowledged to be unsurpassed for 
 her beauty and symmetry even by the finest yachts. The 
 vessel is rigged with four masts and has three funnels. A 
 point calling for special notice is the large number of sepa- 
 rate compartments formed by water-tight bulkheads, each 
 extending to the main deck. The largest of these com- 
 partments is only about 60 feet long; and supposing that, 
 from collision or other cause, one of these was filled with 
 water, the trim of the vessel would not be materially 
 affected. "With a view of giving still further safety in the 
 event of collision or stranding, the boilers are arranged in 
 two boiler rooms, entirely separated from each other by 
 means of a water-tight bulkhead. This reduces what in 
 nearly all full powered steamships is a vast single compart- 
 
ITS DL^fJ1JNSI0^''S. 447 
 
 ment into two of moderate size, 60 feet in length ; and in the 
 event of either boiler room being- flooded, it still leaves the 
 vessel Avilh lialf her boiler power available. There is also 
 the usual water-tight bulkhead separating the engine room 
 from the after boiler room. 
 
 Bteani is supplied by twelve cylindrical tubular boilers. It 
 is difiicult to convey in "words an adequate idea of the engine 
 room, which is a compartment fifty feet square ; but some 
 idea as to what her engines are may be had by considera- 
 tion of their dimensions: they are 47 feet, 8 inches in height 
 from bottom of the frames to top of high-pressure cylinders, 
 or as high as an ordinary four-story house ; the engines are of 
 8,000 indicated horse power and capable of being worked up 
 to 15,000 horse power. 
 
 The passenger accomodations of this floating palace are 
 of the most complete description, yffbrding all the comforts 
 and luxury of a first-class New York hotel — than which 
 there are no finer in the world. The captain and chief offi- 
 cers' cabins are on the promenade deck close to the ship's 
 bridge, and immediately aft of them is the upper saloon, or 
 drawing room, 100 feet in length, handsomely finished in 
 white and golf), and furnished with lounges round the sides, 
 and a grand piano. At the after end is the grand staircase 
 to the dining saloon on main deck, a spacious apartment, 72 
 feet in length, 52 feet wide, 9 feet high ; and in the rectangu- 
 lar opening to the drawing room above, the height is 17 
 feet, and which, being surmounted by a richly ornamented 
 skylight, forms an effective and elegant relief to the usually 
 heavy appearance of the ceiling. The paneling and deco- 
 rations are artistic and unique, a paneled dado three feet 
 high is carried entirely round the saloon, and the intervening 
 space to the ceiling is filled up with rich panels of carved 
 mahogany bordered with a margin of satinwood. The tables, 
 of which there are three long ones in the centre, and a row 
 of small ones along each side of the saloon, as also the 
 
448 
 
 ITS ELEGANT APPOINTMENTS. 
 
 revolving cliairs, are of carved teakwoocl. At night the 
 saloon is liglited by 32 electric lamps pendant from the ceil- 
 ing, giving the whole a most brilliant appearance. 
 
 On each side of the vessel, extending aft from the 
 saloon, are state-rooms for nearly four hundred first-class 
 passengers, fitted in an elegant and substantial manner with 
 everything necessary for their comfort. 
 
 The ladies' boudoir on main deck has paneled walls of 
 figured brocaded silk, with tapestry curtains and furniture 
 upholstered in blue velvet; there is also a magnificent 
 ladies' cabin on the promenade deck, finished in black and 
 gold, with furniture covered in amber-colored plush velvet 
 and curtains of Roman cloth. There is also a comfortable 
 reading room. Gentlenien can have their choice of two 
 smoking-rooms ; one on the upper deck is lined with cedar- 
 wood with paneling of Japanese water-color sketches ; the 
 other, on main deck, is lined with a combination of ma- 
 hogany, oak, and walnut, the floors of both being laid with 
 parquetry. 
 
 The steamer throughout is lighted by electricity and 
 fitted with electric call bells ; then there are hot, cold, and 
 salt water baths, lavatories, barber shops, etc., etc., con- 
 veniently situated. On the hurricane deck are twelve large 
 life-boats, one of which is fitted as a steam launch. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 
 
 ITHE Signal Service of the Array of the United 
 States is organized and equipped for the 
 purpose of maintaining communication at 
 all hours of the day and night primarily in 
 war, but equally so in peace ; such com- 
 munication is effected by means of signals 
 of any description. The modes of signalling most frequently 
 employed by this service are by means of flags, torches, 
 heliostats, telegraph, and telephones, by codes or ciphers. 
 
 The field-telegraph trains of the Signal Service are organ- 
 ized for use with armies. They are managed by soldiers 
 who are drilled to march, manoeuvre, work, and protect 
 them. The train carries light or field-telegraph lines, 
 which can be very quickly erected or run out at the rate 
 of two or three miles per hour. They can be put in use 
 for any distance, and be as rapidly taken down, repacked, 
 and marched off with the detachment to be used elsewhere. 
 The Signal Service also transmits intelligence in refer- 
 ence to storms or approaching weather changes by the 
 display of signals of warnings, and by reports posted in 
 the different cities and ports of the United States. Maps 
 showing the state of the weather over the United States 
 are exhibited at board of trade rooms, chambers of com- 
 merce, and other places of public resort. » Bulletins of data 
 for all the stations are also prominently displayed and dis- 
 tributed without expense to the leading newspapers. 
 
450 BRANCHES OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Signal-stations are also established in connection with 
 the life-saving stations. These stations are connected by 
 telegraph, and the former in addition to displaying storm- 
 warning signals and making the usual meteorological reports, 
 make special reports upon the temperature of the water, 
 tempests at sea, the swells, etc. They also summon assist- 
 ance to vessels in distress from the nearest life-saving sta- 
 tions or from the nearest port. 
 
 Stations for river-reports, to give notice of the conditions 
 of the rivers affecting navigation and floods, are also estab 
 lished on the principal interior rivers and their tributaries 
 
 The officers and men of the Signal Service are instructed 
 for the different branches of the service at Fort Myer, Vir- 
 ginia, and at the Central Signal office, in Washington, D. C. 
 They are taught signalling in all its branches, telegraphy, 
 the use of the various meteorological instruments, the modes 
 of observing, and the forms and duties required at stations 
 of observation ; the force is also drilled with arms, with the 
 field-telegraph train, the construction of permanent tele- 
 graph lines, and in the usual duties of soldiers. For the 
 duties of the observation of storms and for the display of 
 Avarning signals, all stations communicate directly with the 
 signal office in Washington over telegraphic circuits ar- 
 ranged with the different telegraph companies, and connect- 
 ing with the office at fixed hours, each day and night. Each 
 station is equipped with the necessary instruments. 
 
 The reading of these instruments is made five times a 
 day at fixed hours, and the three taken at 7 A. m., 3 p. m., 
 and 11 P. M., Washington time, are regularly telegraphed to 
 the Central office in cipher. 
 
 The network of the Signal Service stations now extends over 
 the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts, and 
 the intervening territory from the Gulf (including the West 
 Indies), to the Canadian frontier, and is in receipt, by com- 
 ity of exchange, of daily telegraphic intelligence of the 
 
IN A UG UBA TION OF TEE ' ' WE A TMEB B UREA U. " 451 
 
 weather from the Canadian Dominion and its outlying posts. 
 Tiie office work is still hampered for want of more stations 
 in the interior and Northwest; but it is thought provision 
 will ere long be made for supplying them, as a new trans- 
 continental telegraph-line is carried from Manitoba to Brit- 
 ish Columbia. Tliese reports from one hundred and thirty- 
 eight stations of observation are not unfrequently concen- 
 trated at the Central Office in the space oi forty -Jive minutes. 
 The stations at which cautionary signals are displayed are 
 equipped with flags and apparatus for exhibiting the cau- 
 tionary day or night signals, and also for communicating 
 with vessels of any nationalit3\ 
 
 The meteorological division of the United States Signal 
 service was established in 1870, and was an additional duty 
 imposed upon it. Tlie progress of modern inquiry into the 
 changes taking place in the weather, and especially into the 
 phenomena of storms, had for many years previous, strength- 
 ened the conviction that they are not capricious, but follow 
 certain laws. To provide, therefore, for meteorological ob- 
 servations, with a view to " giving notice by telegraph and 
 signals of the approach and force of storms," was the end 
 originally contemplated by the joint resolution of Congress, 
 which passed February 9th of that year, authorizing the 
 Secretary of War to carry this scheme into effect. 
 
 This was the first legislation of the United States Gov- 
 ernment inaugurating a national weather service. The 
 great and peculiar extension of country afforded exceptional 
 advantages for investigating and predicting storms which 
 cross its broad area; for experience and observation had 
 shown that they generally were more from west to east, and 
 not frequently along the meridians. But the vast extent of 
 the storm field, coupled with the fact that the "law of 
 storms " was then but roughly outlined, made the execution 
 of this task a very difficult and tedious work, calling for 
 great caution and the most accurate observations. 
 
452 GO-OP EBATION OF VARIOUS SOCIETIES. 
 
 At first the number of stations and the area covered by 
 the predictions was limited.' But when once the fact had 
 been established that at any hour of the day or night, the 
 Central Office could almost instantly call for reports from all 
 parts of the country, and receive them from all its stations, 
 taken at the same moment of time and revealing the actual 
 status of the atmosphere over its whole field of inquiry, the 
 sense of security in its scientific processes, and the confi- 
 dence that the results were built upon '" the solid ground of 
 nature," gave it a powerful forward impulse. 
 
 A comparison of the simultaneous tri-daily forecasts from 
 November 1st, 1871, to October 1st, 1872, gave an average 
 of verification of 76.8 percent; and during this time 354 
 cautionary signals were issued, with a percentage of correct- 
 ness amounting to 70. 
 
 The results also offered the most complete demonstration 
 of the laws of storms and the movements of cyclones that 
 had ever been obtained in any country. 
 
 By act of Congress approved June 10, 1872, the Signal 
 Service was charged with the duty of providing such 
 stations, signals, and reports as might be found necessary 
 for extending its research in the interests of agriculture. 
 The agricultural societies over the land earnestly entered 
 into and co-operated with the Service in this new develop- 
 ment of its inquiries and reports. Eighty-nine such soci- 
 eties, thirty-eight boards of trades or chambers of com- 
 merce, numerous scientific institutions, colleges, and leading 
 professional men put themselves in communication with the 
 Chief Signal Officer, with a view to facilitate this branch of 
 his work. The scientific societies at home and abroad began 
 to take the liveliest interest in the general labors of the office, 
 and to express the highest approval of the results attained. 
 And, beyond the limits of the United States, numerous 
 marine observations, which G-eneral Myer had previously 
 desired, with the purpose of studying the atmosphere as a 
 
IMPRO VEMENT OF INSTlt UMENTS. 453 
 
 unit both on the ocean and the land, were forwarded regu- 
 larly to his office. 
 
 The expansion of the work in 1873, under the stimulus 
 of a world-wide favorable notice, was even more rapid than 
 in the previous year. On March 3d, Congress authorized 
 the establishment of Signal Service stations at the light- 
 houses and life-saving stations on the lakes and sea-coast, 
 and made provision for connecting the same with telegraph- 
 lines or cables " to be constructed, maintained, and worked 
 under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army, 
 or the Secretary of War, and the Secretary of the 
 Treasury." Early in this year the office also began the 
 regular publication of a Monthly Weather Revieio, sum- 
 marizing in a popular way all its data and showing the 
 results of its investigations, as well as presenting these in 
 graphic weather-charts adapted to the comprehension of 
 communities it was destined to reach. The library of the 
 Signal Office was increased to some 2,500 volumes bearing 
 on the special scientific duties imposed upon it. The tests 
 of meteorological instruments previously instituted enabled 
 it to greatly improve and simplify its instrumental appa- 
 ratus. The percentage of verification of its predictions for 
 the year ending June 30th, 1873, Avas for each geographical 
 division as follows : 
 
 New England 81.50 
 
 Middle States 81.17 
 
 South Atlantic States 79.92 
 
 Lower Lake region 78.90 
 
 Upper Lake region 75.25 
 
 Eastern Gulf States 77.16 
 
 Western Gulf States 74.40 
 
 Northwest 74.00 
 
 In organizing this service, the first problem that pre- 
 sented itself was to devise a S3^stem of observations which 
 would, when mapped, accurately represent the aerial pheno- 
 
454 SUPERIOR TO EUROPEAN SYSTEMS. 
 
 mena at the same instant of time, and in their actual rela- 
 tions to each other, and thus enable the investigator to 
 discover the laws of storms and their rates of movement 
 over the earth's surface. " The history of science," says one 
 of its foremost representatives, "proves that unconnected, 
 unsystematic, inaccurate observations are worth nothing." 
 Certainly, in the domain of meteorology, no solid foundation 
 for the science of the weather could have been laid in 1870, 
 upon any of the then existing observational systems. The 
 European weather-stations at that date, and long after, were 
 engaged in making non-simultaneous reports; no two of 
 them, unless they happened to be on the same meridian, 
 read off their instruments at the same time. 
 
 The perfectly simple scheme of simultaneous observa- 
 tions aimed at the rescue of weather-research from the 
 chaos in which for ages it had lain. Its cardinal principle 
 of observation is to gain frequent views of the atmospheric 
 conditions and movements over the country as they actually 
 are, and as they would be seen, could they, so to speak, be 
 photographed. In no other way can the bearings of the 
 various storm-winds and their connected phenomena be 
 detected, or the rates of their transition determined. All 
 the predictions of the Signal Office, therefore, have from its 
 beginning until now, been based on reports taken simulta- 
 neously. 
 
 The operations of the meteorological division of the Sig- 
 nal Service, popularly known as the " Weather Bureau," 
 have been, every year since its creation, somewhat enlarged 
 by congress, until they have become numerous and varied. 
 The first to be specially mentioned is the daily Avork of 
 weather-prediction, including storm warnings. These are 
 issued from the Office of the Chief Signal Officer three 
 times every day, under the title of " Indications " and 
 *' Cautionary Signals," and are based upon three series of 
 simultaneous weather reports telegraphed to Washington 
 
MAN.NER OF ARRIVING AT RESULTS. 455 
 
 from all parts of tlie United States and Canada; also at in- 
 termediate hours if necessary, based upon special reports. 
 The tri-daily telegraphic observations are taken simultane- 
 ously at all stations at 7 a, m., 3 P. M., and 11 P. M., and 
 at once put upon the wires. The number of stations from 
 which tri-daily telegraphic reports are received at the Cen- 
 tral Office is 138. Telegraphic reports have been also 
 regularly received from one West-India station, and during 
 the hurricane season from five. 
 
 Having taken their instrumental and other observations 
 at either of the hours specified, the observers prepare their 
 report in ciphers. These cipher-telegrams condensed by 
 means of the cipher-code into five or ten words for each re- 
 port, as soon as received in the Washington office, are 
 translated from cipher, and entered on the bulletin blanks, 
 and at the same time in their proper places on the weather- 
 maps. This is done under the supervision of the assistant 
 charged with the preparation of the weather predictions 
 and the announcement of the storm warnings. 
 
 To arrive at the desired result, weather-maps are charted 
 from the reports thus received by telegraph, this daily 
 weather-map is one on which all the signal service stations 
 are entered in their appropriate geographical places, and 
 having annexed to each station the figures expressing the 
 readings of the barometer and thermometer, the velocity of 
 the wind, the amount of rainfall within the previous eight 
 hours, etc.; and also symbols indicating the direction of the 
 wind, and the form and amount of cloud, at the given time 
 observation. The observations taken at each station are all 
 put down on the map, and the relations between them are 
 thus made sensible to the eye of the signal officer, by the 
 figures and symbols, and also by lines drawn to group the 
 geographical areas over which like conditions prevail. The 
 weather-map is, therefore, to the meteorologist an indispen- 
 sible means of obtaining a survey, and prosecuting a careful 
 
456 THE DAILY WEATHER MAP. 
 
 and connected study of the phenomenon he seeks to under- 
 stand. 
 
 By preparing a graphic weather-map embodying the 
 telegrahic data furnished to the Chief Signal Officer every 
 eight hours of the day, the officer charged with formulating 
 the storm predictions gains and retains a clear idea and 
 mental image of the atmosphere. A great soldier has said: 
 "There is nothing ideal in war;" and it may be said with 
 equal force, there is no work which for its intelligent execu- 
 tion demands greater precision of method, more copious and 
 circumstantial details, and closer attention to the develop- 
 ments of the hour, than weather-forecasting over a continent. 
 The weather-map brings all these minutia Avithin view, and 
 makes the meteorologist master of the whole mass of obser- 
 vations, as hours consumed in the study of the numerical 
 data could not do. Every weather-map is, therefore, a gene- 
 ralization in itself, as well as a record of the data. A series 
 of weather-maps is a history of the ebb and flow, the fluctu- 
 ations and tossings of the aerial ocean, and of the more 
 subtile yet influential processes concerned in producing 
 the weather and determining the climate of the country. 
 
 From reading in the morning newspapers the " Synopsis 
 and Indications" for the day, no one not initiated in the 
 method of preparing them would suspect the magnitude of 
 the work involved in their preparation. The study p re-requi- 
 site for each of the tri-daily press-reports issued includes 
 the draughting of seven graphic charts exhibiting the data 
 furnished by the simultaneous reports telegraphed from all 
 the stations. 
 
 We will not attempt to give hero any formal descrip- 
 tion of these charts as such description would necessarily 
 abound in technical terms which would not be likely to 
 interest the general reader. 
 
 Armed with this charted material, the officer preparing 
 the predictions proceeds first to compile the " Synopsis" and 
 
A VERA GE PERCENT A GE OF A CC URA V7. 457 
 
 then to deduce tlie "Indications," and issue the necessary 
 storm-warnings. The "Synopsis," "Indications," and cau- 
 tionary signals constitute the "Press-Report" which when 
 finished is telegraphed direct from the ofllice of the Cliief 
 Signal Officer to all parts of the country. The average time 
 elapsing between the simultaneous reading of the instru- 
 ments at the separate stations scattered over tlie United 
 States, and the issue of the " Synopsis" and " Indications" 
 based on these readings, has been calculated at one hour and 
 forty minutes. 
 
 An analysis of the predictions, made for the year ending 
 June 30th, 1879, and a comparison with the weather-condi- 
 tions Avhich actually occurred within the twenty-four hours 
 next ensuing, give the following percentages of verifica- 
 tions: 
 
 Percentage of verifications for the year (forecasts of 
 barometric pressures, temperatures, wind-direction and 
 state of weather) : 86.6. 
 
 Percentage of verifications for the year (forecasts of the 
 state of the weather only) : 90.7. 
 
 These percentages of accuracy refer to predictions of 
 barometric, thermometric, wind-direction, and general 
 weather-changes. The average percentage of accuracy of 
 the forecasts of the weather alone (including the state of 
 the skies, whether clear, fair, or cloudy, and whether with 
 or without rain) for all of the difl:erent districts is 90.7. 
 The percentage for the Pacific Coast region is 89.3. In 
 other words out of a hundred preannouncements of the 
 single element of the " weather " for all parts of the country, 
 ninety have been fulfilled by the event. 
 
 The important work of observing and reporting the 
 fluctuations and floods of the great Western rivers was at 
 an early period of its history undertaken by the Signal 
 Service. The interstate commerce being necessarily much 
 affected by the oscillations of the rivers, timely warnings of 
 
458 IMPORTANCE OF BAIL T 0B8ER VA TI0N8. 
 
 their rise and fall, and daily reports of the exact depth of 
 water at numerous points, Avere eagerly asked for. These 
 observations were found of so much importance that they 
 have been extended over the Western, Southern, and Cali- 
 fornia rivers, and deductions made from them, indicating 
 impending changes, are daily published in the Washington 
 weather-reports. All measurements at each river-station 
 are made from the " benchmark/' as known to the river-men 
 of the vicinity, and the reading of the gauge is daily tele- 
 graphed to the Central Office, and all other interested 
 stations. Knowing from such telegrams the height of the 
 river at each station, as well as the total amount of reported 
 rainfall higher up the river-valley, the office is thus enabled 
 to calculate and announce the time and degree of coming 
 changes. Thus timely premonitions of the great flood- 
 waves that pass down the Mississippi, and also its fluctua- 
 tions, are issued from this office. 
 
 The gauge used is very simple. In most cases it is a 
 plank of pine or oak timber, two inches thick, ten inches 
 wide, and long enough, when placed obliquely on the slope 
 of the river-bank, to cover the extreme lowwater and high- 
 water marks. When firmly imbedded in the earth, the 
 " benchmark," which is generally the extreme lowwater 
 known, is taken as the zero of the gauge, which is there care- 
 fully graduated, its subdivisions exactly corresponding to 
 the vertical foot and subdivisions of which they are intended 
 to be indices. A " danger-line " is marked on the gauge, 
 showing how far the water may rise, but no farther, without 
 danger of a flood. The reports telegraphed to the press, 
 showing how near each stream has risen to or fallen below 
 the " danger-line," enable the public to predetermine dan- 
 gerous inundations, and furnish steamboat-men and mer- 
 chants the daily information requisite for intelligently 
 directing the movements of their craft. During the flood- 
 months the telegraphic river-reports are especially valuable 
 
' ' <S' YiYOPSI^ AND INDICA riON8." 459 
 
 to all river-shipping, and to all interested in the travelinj^ 
 and transportation facilities which depend upon it, as well 
 as giving timely warnings of ice-floods or sudden rises and 
 falls. The levee systems of the Mississippi and other great 
 rivers are thus guarded, and the immense agricultural inter- 
 ests secured, as the flood-warning comes in time to summon 
 the State force to strengthen the imperiled works. 
 
 In connection with this service, surface and bottom 
 water-temperatures at points upon the rivers, lakes, and 
 sea-coasts are observed and reported for the United States 
 Commissioner of Fisli and Fisheries, with a view to ascer- 
 tain the proper waters in which to plant the various food- 
 fishes and furnish statistics desired for the development of 
 the national system of pisciculture. 
 
 There is also to be mentioned the attention given by the 
 office to the changes of temperature by Avliich the canals are 
 closed by freezing or opened by thaws for transportation. 
 During the months when the market-rates and freight- 
 schedules are affected by the probabilities of the canals 
 closing, and when these w^ater-ways are thronged with hun- 
 dreds of laden barges, the dailv predictions indicate thermo- 
 metric conditions likely to ensue along tlieir lines of transit. 
 Such information protects the public from the imposition of 
 excessive railway-rates in the shipments of grain-crops, es- 
 pecially in any autumn season of protracted mildness, and 
 effects a large saving to the mercantile world. 
 
 The distribution of the tri-daily " Synopsis and Indica- 
 tions" over the whole Country may be understood from the 
 following official facts. The total number of these forecasts 
 — 1,095 issued every year — are telegraphed at the moment 
 of issue to the principal cities, and are published in some 
 form in almost every newspaper in the country. In many 
 public and conspicuous places, they are also bulletined for 
 popular inspection. In order that they may reach the 
 farming populations, an arrangement is effected with the 
 
460 THE OA UTIONAB T STORM SIGNALS. 
 
 Post-Office Department, by which special " Farmer's Bulle- 
 tins " may be distributed at an early morning hour of each 
 day, except Sunday, along the railroads radiating from the 
 chief cities of the Union. Tlrese bulletins contain proper 
 selections from the matter of the " midnight " report made 
 up in the Washington office at 1 a, m. of each day, which 
 when it reaches the outlying stations by telegraph, is 
 printed before daylight, and copies of it mailed to the rural 
 postmasters for many miles around, and by them displayed 
 in their offices. The intelligence of weatlier changes, with 
 predictions and other data useful to the farmer in secur- 
 ing his crops or in other ways, on an average, reaches the 
 different railway-stations, hamlets and villages throughout 
 the country in the forenoon. As the predictions cover 
 twenty-four hours, and often hold good for twice that period, 
 they, therefore, reach the rural populations twelve or four- 
 teen hours before the period to which they apply expires, 
 and not unfrequently a day and a half or more. 
 
 The Cautionary Storm Signals, which accompany the 
 " Synopsis and Indications " issued to the press three times 
 each day, constitute a very important part of the Signal 
 service work; and it Avas the possibilit}^ of preparing 
 such storm-warnings for the benefit of navigation that orig- 
 inally gave the chief stimulus to the establishment of a 
 Weather Bureau. The United States has a double front 
 with over 7000 miles of sea-beaten coast, exclusive of the 
 shore-line of its great lakes, ravaged by destructive tem- 
 pests; and this vast stretch of marginal territory needs 
 to be environed with stations from which observations 
 can be taken, and premonitory intelligence of cyclone and 
 anticyclone signaled by day and by night to storm-men- 
 aced shipping. If no other duty devolved upon the Service, 
 this alone would more than justify its whole cost, and 
 warrant its extension. It is one of the most difficult and 
 responsible tasks which can fall to the meteorologist, to put 
 
TWO XmDS OF STORM SIGNALS. 461 
 
 his science to its utmost stretch of accurate prevision (aud 
 often it must be done with a very few minutes for deliberation) 
 to decide at what points on the coast the storm-wind will 
 strike with dangerous effect. It is practically fatal to the value 
 of his warnings if they are found to be superfluous, since in 
 that case they cease to command the attention of seamen. 
 Nor, for like reason, must they be displayed too late; nor 
 yet too early, lest they should interfere with the move- 
 ments of vessels which might run out of the dangerous vi- 
 cinity before the storm can reach them. Thus the per- 
 plexing questions which spring up at every display of the 
 signals lend to this part of the service intense interest. No 
 such work had ever been undertaken in this country when the 
 Signal Service was organized, and maritime storm-signaling 
 in other countries had only been as yet rewarded by very 
 moderate success. 
 
 On the organization of the United States Weather Service 
 in 1870, General Myer began with great caution to prepare 
 for this difficult and delicate part of his arduous task; and 
 on the 21111 of October, 1871, the display of signals on the 
 sea-coasts and lakes commenced. The order regulating this 
 display contemplated that the Avarning should be sent only 
 to stations at which a wind having a velocity of twenty-five 
 miles or more per hour would occur. As the anemometer at 
 every station registers the wind's velocity for every hour, it 
 is easy to ascertain whether any signal has been justified. 
 Every such display is carefully followed up by the office, 
 and the result — '"justified " or " not justified " — is recorded, 
 as reported by the observers hoisting the signals by tele- 
 graphic order from the Chief Signal Officer. 
 
 The cautionary signals are of two kinds: 1. Those pre- 
 monishing dangerous winds to blow from any direction ; 2, 
 Those premonishing off-shore winds likely to drive vessels 
 out to sea. Both kinds are needed by mariners as the 
 storm-centers approach or depart from a maritime station. 
 
STORM SIGNALS DESCRIBED. 463 
 
 The first, distinctively termed the " Cautionary Signal,^^ 
 consists of a red flag with a black square in the center, for 
 warning in the day-time, and a red light by night. The 
 second, or " Cautionary Off-shore Signal," consists of a 
 white /lag with a black square in the center, shown above a 
 red fiag with square black center by day, or a tvJiife light 
 shown above a red light by night, indicating that, while the 
 storm has not yet passed the station, and dangerous winds 
 may yet be felt there, they Avill probably be from a north- 
 erly or westerly direction; this second signal, when dis- 
 played in the lake region in anticipation of high north to 
 west Avinds, is designated the " Cautionary North-west 
 Signal." The display of either signal, however, is always 
 intended to be cautionary, and calls for great vigilance on 
 the part of vessels within sight of it. 
 
 The total number of sea-ports and points on the lake and 
 sea-coasts where the storm-signals are hoisted now is one 
 hundred and eleven. The points whence storm-signals are 
 displayed, however, are only those of the maritime margins 
 of the field of research. 
 
 When this Weather Bureau was first proposed, the high- 
 est end thought attainable, by the most sanguine, was to 
 give Avarnings of the great storms that traverse the lakes 
 and sea-coast of the United States. This, however, is but 
 a small part of the public interests it subserves. The num- 
 ber of persons who find that the reports and the forecasts of 
 the Service may be utilized for every-day life is constantly 
 increasing. Signal-observers are not unfrequently subpoe- 
 naed to bring the records of the weather into the courts, as 
 legal evidence in cases upon which they bear. Grain and 
 cotton merchants find the reports of value in calculations 
 of the forthcoming crops. Emigrants consult them in the 
 selection of favorable climatic conditions for a new abode. 
 Physicians, sanitarians and boards of health employ the 
 data to detect dangerous conditions of the atmosphere 
 
464 THE USE MADE OF THE SIGNAL SERVICE. 
 
 of the cities, and for investigating the origin and spread of 
 diseases and epidemics, as in the case of recent yellow- 
 fever visitations of the South. The pork-packers, fruit- 
 importers, and fish and oyster dealers keep an eye on them 
 to secure themselves against exposure of perishable goods 
 to extremes of temperature or other vicissitudes of weather. 
 They are of use to specialists in manufacturing and in hygi- 
 enic interests, and are consulted by thousands planning 
 journeys or excursions for health or pleasure. River boat- 
 men, farmers, sugar-planters, fruit-growers, and ice-dealers 
 find occasion to utilize them. Mechanics judge from the 
 prognostics whether they can work outside on the morrow. 
 The meteorological data supply engineers with information 
 indispensable for planning economical and storm-proof archi- 
 tecture. Railroad ofiicials, during snow-blockades, are kept 
 advised by the reports, so that they are enabled to make 
 provision for clearing the tracks ; and railroad-freight ofiicers 
 find them useful for facilitating transportation. These are 
 some of the daily applications made of the Signal Service 
 work in the interior and central, not less than in the sea- 
 board sections of the country. In every branch of agricul- 
 ture and trade the deductions made from the published 
 synopsis and indications of the weather have acknowledged 
 value to the public when obtainable. In military operations 
 over the vast West, the intelligence of approaching storms 
 is highly prized, in timing movements so as to avoid heavy 
 roads and dangerous delays. "Had we, a quarter of a cen- 
 tury ago," says a British meteorologist, " known the rigor 
 of the Crimean climate, who would have dared to send out 
 an army unprepared to meet the hardships of a Black Sea 
 winter ? Ask the physician at what price he would value 
 the power of giving timely warning of a * cold snap ' to his 
 patients. Ask the builders of London what they have lost 
 in the last ten years by sudden frosts or unexpected down- 
 pours of rain. Above all things, go to the farmer and ask 
 
'i<IMULTAXEOUti" WEATHER REPORTS. 4G5 
 
 •vvliat he would freely pay to know at seed-time what weather 
 he might really expect in harvest. The fact is, there is not 
 a profession, not a handicraft, not a process in animal or 
 vegetable life, which is not influenced by meteorological 
 changes." 
 
 We have said that this system of " simultaneous " 
 weather reports practically began in 1870. The plan so 
 skillfully Avrought out by General Myer and his successor 
 has become in a certain sense international. The old world 
 has again had to take a lesson from her younger rival. Other 
 nations have put in operation the system so successfully 
 developed here, and not only so, but the same plan has be- 
 come general all over the world, each nation as a factor con- 
 tributing daily her quota of information, and the knowledge 
 thus conveyed of the " probabilities " of so many specific 
 localities is for the benefit of every nation. This country 
 may justly feel proud of having been instrumental in bring- 
 ing about such a desirable result. 
 
 It can be readily understood that this extension of the 
 theatre of observation affords us much greater security by 
 giving us a longer time for preparation, enabling us, so to 
 speak, to erect timely barriers with which, in some sense, 
 we may better resist the mighty forces of nature. 
 
 As perfect and desirable as this system of " international 
 simultaneous weather reports " has become, our " wise men " 
 are constantly improving it. 
 
 The Sea-coast Telegraph Lines are another important 
 portion of the organization. By act of Congress, the Secre- 
 tary of War was authorized to establish signal-stations at 
 the light-houses and life-saving stations on the lakes and 
 sea-coasts, and to connect these signal-stations with tele- 
 graph-lines, to be constructed, maintained, and worked 
 under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer of the Army; 
 and the use made of the life-saving stations is subject to 
 such regulations as are fixed upon by the Chief Signal 
 
466 THE SEA-COAST TELEGEAPH. 
 
 Officer, the Secretary of War,- and the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. By this co-operative arrangement, the Signal 
 Service has become a valuable if not an indispensible 
 auxiliary to the sister services with which it connects, and 
 shares very materially in the labors and responsibilities, 
 especially of the Life-Saving Service. 
 
 The coast signal-stations aim to warn vessels within sig- 
 naling distance of the approach of the storms, and to give 
 life-saving stations quick notice of marine disasters calling 
 for rescue, as also to furnish any intelligence to the latter, 
 or to the light-houses, which may insure their more efficient 
 "working. Connected by wire or submarine cable, as all the 
 signal-stations on the coast are, from Sandy Hook, N. J., to 
 Smithville, N. C, and connected similarly with the office of 
 the Chief Signal Officer at Washington, whence they are 
 kept advised of any change in the meteorological status, 
 they are thus enabled, from their full ocean view, to commu- 
 nicate directly any warnings from the Chief Signal Officer 
 to passing ships, or to convey to him any facts which may be 
 of use to the Washington office. The telegraphic wires 
 connect each station with the Central Signal Office. The 
 weather-reports and observations on the indications of the 
 sea thus obtained are often of the greatest value to the 
 Washington office in its work of preannouncing the force, 
 direction, and velocity of the great hurricanes from the 
 West Indies, which traverse our Atlantic seaboard. 
 
 As an illustration of this, it may suffice to note that in the 
 summer of 1873, when the great August hurricane which so 
 furiously assailed and wrecked seven hundred sail, was still 
 passing over the Bermudas, its long dead swell was outrun- 
 ning its centre by 600 miles, driving in the bathers at Long 
 Branch and pouring into New York Bay. The steamer 
 Albemarle encountered its fore-running wave on her voyage 
 from Halifax to the Bermudas; and, though the morning 
 was fair, suspecting danger, the vessel was hove to for a few 
 
niPOIirANCE TO LIFE-SAVING STATIONS. 4G7 
 
 hours to examine the swell. Concluding that the hurricane 
 was advancing directly upon him, her captain changed his 
 couise from southerly to westerly, and by a slight detour 
 eluded the gale. 
 
 As one by one, yet all independently, the coast-signal ob- 
 servers on any day telegraph to the Central Office the 
 same significant tidings of the ocean — indications of an At- 
 lantic gale, the intensity and direction of the swell — their 
 concurrent observations often present unmistakable proofs of 
 the presence, course, and progressive rate of these mena- 
 cing meteors. The intelligence thus afforded is indispensa- 
 ble to the storm-warning and weather-prediction work of 
 the Washington authorities. But, apart from the meteor- 
 ological value of such a Coast Signal Service, its incidental 
 contributions to the life-saving stations have already 
 proved of the greatest assistance. 
 
 On the 20th of March, 1877, after a severe storm on the 
 middle Atlantic coast. Sergeant William Stein of the Signal 
 Service, in charge of the Cape Henry Station, discovered 
 before dawn a large vessel stranded on a shoal off that sta- 
 tion, and summoned the wreckers at Norfolk to come to the 
 rescue. With the earliest light the sergeant displayed the 
 " attention-flags" of the international code, with which every 
 sea-coast signal station is supplied ; and, receiving answer 
 that she was the Winchester of Liverpool, with request for 
 two steam-tugs to be sent to the vessel, he telegraphed at 
 once to Norfolk for wrecking-steamers. Before sundown 
 active efforts were made to save the stranded vessel. She 
 was gotten off the sboal after some days' labor ; but mean- 
 time three other vessels, in a second storm (of the 25th), 
 were stranded within a mile of her. Sergeant Stein again 
 telegraphed the wreckers at Norfolk for aid. He ascertained 
 the name of the bark in greatest peril to be the Pantzer, a 
 Norwegian vessel, and the crew of the Life-Saving Service 
 a little later succeeded in firincr a life-line over her deck. 
 
468 mCIDENT OF THE "METROPOLIS." 
 
 The Norwegians did not comprehend its use, but after some 
 effort, the Signal Service officer, by means of international 
 signals, instructed her crew to "haul in on the line," and "by 
 nine o'clock all the crew of the Pantzer were safely landed. 
 In the wrecks of the steamships L'Amerique, Rusland, and 
 Huron (of the United States Navy), the first tidings were 
 conveyed by the Signal Service wires, and through them 
 succor was speedily summoned. In the case of the Huron, 
 drifted ashore near Kitty Hawk, a private of the Signal 
 Service, A. T. Sherwood, stationed at that place, received 
 the first intelligence November 23d, and, after telegraphing 
 to Washington, hastened to the awful scene, walking sixteen 
 miles through the sand, and brought full reports of the sit- 
 uation to his station, which were instantly telegraphed to the 
 Chief Signal Officer. The War and Navy Departments and 
 the Life-Saving Service were thus notified, and by them 
 steamers of the navy and wrecking companies were started to 
 the fatal point of the shore on which the Huron had gone to 
 pieces. The Kitty Hawk observer, immediately on receiving 
 orders from the Chief Signal Officer, opened a " wreck 
 station" abreast of the foundered vessel before daylight of 
 the 25th, connecting it by a temporary telegraph wire with 
 his station ; and, working this improvised station on the 
 open beach while the gale was 5^et raging, drcAv toward 
 the spot the whole organized relief force of the government. 
 A similar service was performed on the stormy night of 
 ..January 31st, 1878, by another private soldier, of the Sig- 
 nal Corps, William Davis, when the steamship Bfetropolis, 
 with 248 souls on board, became a total wreck, twenty miles 
 •from Kitty Hawk station. At 6.55 P. M. on that night, 
 intelligence of the disaster reached Kitty Hawk, and in less 
 than fifteen minutes, Private Davis, carrying telegraphic 
 and signal apparatus, was riding through the night and 
 storm to the scene. By 4 a. m. he had reached the vessel, 
 established his telegraph-station abreast of her, opened 
 
THE COAST tilGXAL SERVICE. 4G9 
 
 communication, and forwarded a report to the Ciiief Signal' 
 Officer at Washington, and was putting in motion all the 
 machinery of relief and succor which the country could com- 
 mand. The observers of the coast signal stations, whenever 
 it is practicable, board vessels that have gone ashore, and 
 open communication with the land. An instance of this 
 may be cited from the action of private Harrison of the 
 Signal Corps, at Cape Henry, when the bark Guiseppe 
 Masson was wrecked near that station, February 10th, 1878. 
 His presence prevented the crew from deserting their ship, 
 which, by the aid of powerful wrecking steamers, was sub- 
 sequently saved. Other instances of boarding vessels could 
 be cited, as those of the Italian bark Francesco Bellagamhe 
 and the British steamship Antonio, both boarded by Signal 
 Service men who afterwards kept up signal conversations 
 with the shore until the ships were saved. But these cases 
 will suffice to show the intimate alliance existing between 
 the Coast Signal Service and the results announced b}^ the 
 Life-Saving Service. Without the Signal Service co-opera- 
 tion, the latter would often, in emergencies that arise, be 
 powerless to command the needed help, as well as to com- 
 municate with stranded vessels. For the Signal Service, 
 only men drilled in signaling can avail. 
 
 So arranged is the Coast Signal Service, that not only 
 are its storm-flags and danger-warnings visible by vessels 
 moving off the coast, but even a vessel en voyage (say one 
 which is bound from the equator to New York), as she passes 
 Cape Henlopen, may inquire by signals whether any hurri- 
 cane is impending: if so, Avhether she has time to reach 
 Sandy Hook before its arrival, or must take shelter behind 
 the Delaware breakwater. Or, a vessel bound from New 
 York or any northern port southward, on reaching the Capes 
 of the Delaware, can make inquiry as to whether any storm 
 is likely to strike her before she can pass Cape Hatteras, 
 and receive full advice by telegraph from the Chief Signal 
 
470 INTERNATIONAL CODE OF FLAG-SIGNALS. 
 
 Office at Washington, in a very brief time. With adequate 
 appropriations, this Coast Signal Service could easily be made 
 of far greater value to all the shipping and mercantile in- 
 terests. 
 
 On February 4, 1878, an order was issued by which are 
 announced the stations of the service prepared to hold com- 
 munication by the international code of flag-signals with 
 vessels of any nation at sea coming within the proper signal 
 distance. It is so arranged that any question as to weather 
 changes anticipated so signaled from the vessel to the shore- 
 station is immediately transmitted by telegraph to the cen- 
 tral office, whence prompt reply is ordered. 
 
 This reply, on reaching the coast stations, is signaled by 
 flags, if need be, to the inquiring vessel. It is possible thus 
 to gain any needed information without landing a boat. It 
 does not appear how a system of storm-warning or coast- 
 signaling can be given a greater scope than is arrived at 
 loj this process. The instance may be imagined, for illus- 
 tration, of a vessel sailing from New York for a southern 
 port and making inquiries off the Capes of the Delaware 
 whether it will be safe to pass Cape Hatteras, and advised 
 from this office in reply to the inquiry transmitted to this 
 office that a storm at the time is moving near Hatteras, and 
 to take shelter at the Delaware Breakwater until the dis- 
 turbance shall have passed northward. In the occurrences 
 of each year there have been instances in which steamers 
 moving along the coast have conducted their voyages from 
 port to port upon the answers to special inquiries addressed 
 from the ports in which they might be to the office. There 
 have been instances in which such special inquiries have 
 been signaled from the vessel to the station, telegraphed 
 thence to the office, and the telegraphic answer signaled 
 again to the vessel. With proper appliances such plans of 
 communication might be established along the extent of the 
 coasts of the United States. 
 
INCIDENTS IL L US TRA TTNG THE SER VICE. 471 
 
 In the annual report of the Cliiof Sig-nal Officer lor 1877 
 several disasters were described us having occurred u[)on the 
 Atlantic coast, and the action of" those of the Signal Corps 
 occupying the stations upon the coast, was related at sonio 
 length to illustrate by the different incidents the character 
 of the especial service it was expected to render. Since the 
 date of that report several severe storms have swept the 
 same coasts. It is since that report that the systems of 
 display-stations established by the general office has ren- 
 dered it possible to exhibit warning signals at almost every 
 navigable inlet. There have been no disasters o. magnitude 
 to record. The hope may be indulged that this decrease in 
 the number of disasters has been in part due to the more 
 extensive display of warning signals referred to, and in part 
 to the greater attention paid by shippers and seafaring men 
 to the warnings. 
 
 The following instances having occurred during the year, 
 are given as illustrations of the varied uses to which the sea- 
 coast service can be applied: 
 
 The Haytien brig Tropic, Captain Potter, from Marigone, 
 Hayti, for New York, with logwood, 15 days out, came ashore 
 near Barnegat, N. J., at 3:30 a. m., March 16, at a point 14 
 miles south of station, during a dense fog. Private Burrows, 
 the repairman from the Central station, was on his way 
 south, and, upon his arrival at the scene of wreck he imme- 
 diately cut the wire and made telegraphic report to the 
 Chief Signal Officer, via Sandy Hook. The line being down 
 south, he then proceeded and repaired it, then returned to 
 the wreck and reopened wreck station at 5 p. M., March 18, 
 reporting direct to the Chief Signal Officer. 
 
 January 26, Captain Fitzgerald wrote to this office and 
 stated that he intended taking the H. B. Plant, a small river 
 steamer, from Wilmington, Del., to Jacksonville, Fla., by sea, 
 and that before leaving Delaware Bay he would telegraph 
 for the " Indications " for the next twenty-four hours ; on 
 
472 rOYAOB OF THE "H. B. PLANT." 
 
 the same date he was informed, by letter from this office, 
 that any telegram received from him relative to the weather, 
 would be promptly answered ; at the same time he was fur- 
 nished with a list of the stations of the Signal Service on 
 the Atlantic coast from Delaware Breakwater, Del., to Jack- 
 sonville, Fla., and with the circular on the coast signal ser- 
 vice, giving danger or distress signals. On February 9, 
 Captain Fitzgerald telegraphed this office that steamer 
 Plant would be at Lewis, Del., at midnight, and requested a 
 special report as to wind and sea from Cape Henlopen to 
 Savannah. The required information was telegraphed him 
 at the Signal Service station at Delaware Breakwater. On 
 the same date (February 9), Captain Fitzgerald wrote to 
 this office from Wilmington, Del,, stating that he intended 
 to leave port at 3 p. M., and would stop at Delaware Break- 
 water for midnight Indications, and that in going down the 
 coast, if he passed near enough the shore for the observers 
 in charge of the stations of the Signal Service to see him, 
 he would request that if bad weather bo expected the 
 "Union Jack" Avould be hoisted; if good weather the Amer- 
 ican flag be hoisted. Instructions were immediately tele- 
 graphed, from this office, to the observers in charge of the 
 stations at Cape Henry, Va., Cape Hatteras, Cape Lookout, 
 und Smithville, N. C, to look out for tlie steamer Plant, 
 ^ive all possible information, and ask for information from 
 this office; also to signal him as desired. On the mornings 
 of February 10 and 11, the Indications were telegraphed to 
 Captain Fitzgerald at Delaware Breakwater. The Plant ar- 
 rived off Cape Heniy, Va., on the 11th. The Captain sent a 
 boat ashore and telegraph to this office for a special report of 
 weather. He was telegraphed in reply as follows : " Severe 
 storm approaching from the west ; it will not be safe to 
 leave Norfolk to-night or to-morrow." Upon the receipt of 
 this telegram the captain ran his vessel into the Hampton 
 Roads and came to anchor. Captain Fitzgerald states in 
 
UK II SA Fl<: AUlll 1 A /.. 47:i 
 
 regard to this waruiug- that it certainly saved his life and 
 his vessel, as she could not have lived outside that night. 
 He was telegraphed again from this ollice on the morning of 
 the 12th, " Telegram of last night holds good to-day; no 
 change in indications; if any favorable change to-day will 
 notify you at six o'clock." And again at 6 p. m., " Remain 
 at Norfolk until notified of safety; second storm coming 
 from southwest," At 12:4:2 A. M., February 15, the ob- 
 server at Cape Henry was ordered to signal Captain Fitz- 
 gerald the following message and to prevent his leaving 
 that station: " Will not be safe for you to leave Norfolk to- 
 night." The Plant arrived at Beaufort Harbor on the 
 17th and telegraphed to this office for Indications, and re- 
 ceived the following answer: '" Light southerly winds and a 
 quiet sea expected." She then proceeded on her way and 
 reached Jacksonville in safety. 
 
 As the Chief Signal Officer has said : "The time is not 
 far distant when the possession of a coast not covered by 
 sea-coast storm-signal and signal service stations, watching 
 as sentinels each his own beat of sea and shore, and ready 
 to summon aid by electric wires, will be held as much an 
 evidence of semi-barbarism, as is now among civilized 
 nations the holding of any national coast without a system 
 of lightliouse lights." In the event of war, with a completed 
 chain of coast signal stations, no part of our exposed sea- 
 front could be threatened witiiout immediate intelligence of 
 the fact being flashed to the Washington office and all along 
 the coast, and the defensive power of the Government con- 
 centrated at the point endangered. 
 
 In this brief description of an important subject much 
 has necessarily been omitted that might make the chapter 
 more readable ; but the Signal Service renders such prac- 
 tical aid to every class and condition of man in respect to 
 his varied employment, that a fair statement of its scope 
 and operation will likely be deemed sufficient. 
 
474 FLOATING STATIONS. 
 
 The very wise critic may tell us that this subject is 
 hardly within the domain of the " Water World." It might 
 seem at the first thought that this is so, but Ave venture to 
 believe that a little consideration will show that there is no 
 impropriety in treating it in this place and in this manner. 
 Our storms come from the sea. We have some protection 
 from phenomenal forces in nature and sudden changes of 
 climate, if we have timely notice of the same. 
 
 Fortunately for our best interests, we generally receive 
 such notice, and are learning day by day to pay more heed 
 to it when received. 
 
 The "Service" is not yet perfect, but improvements are 
 constantly being made. The Signal Stations are mainly on 
 the coasts, and in the most likely track of the storms, and 
 yet so situated, they are a long distance from the sources of 
 the most destructive storms and agencies. They can tell 
 us pretty certainly when a storm is coming, its force, and 
 what direction it is likely to take. But this may not always 
 be done in time, as the storm may have begun far out at 
 sea, and notice of its exact force and direction may not be 
 received soon enough to properly guard against its destruc- 
 tive tendencies. 
 
 It has been recommended that " Floating Stations " be 
 established in mid sea and connected with the shore stations 
 by cable. The advantages sure to result from the inaugura- 
 tion of such a plan are obvious, and we presume it will soon 
 be adopted. 
 
 The " Wiggins Prophecies," concerning which there was 
 so much ado recently, revealed two things: first, the great 
 interest felt by all classes in this subject, and that, too, out- 
 side of and beyond any mere selfish or personal considera- 
 tion ; and secondly, the fact that we may safely and with 
 entire confidence trust i\iQ "Weather Bureau "of the Sig- 
 nal Service. 
 
CHAPTER XXYII. 
 
 THE LIFE-8A VING SEE VICE. 
 
 |AS the reader spent his life within sound of 
 the sea? Has he ever or frequently visited 
 its coasts? Tliere are but few more stirring 
 and picturesque sights than some large body 
 of water dotted here and there as far as the 
 eye can reach, with almost unnumbered sails. Here are 
 vessels, variously rigged and of all sizes. Whence have 
 they come, and whither are they bound? Let us think a 
 moment of only those the vision may take in at a single 
 glance: what a history Avould a record of each of their sin- 
 gle voyages be! The log-books of many of them could only 
 be opened and read on the other side of the " Jasper Sea!" 
 What would a man give in exchange for his life? And 
 again : " Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay 
 down his life for his friends." These last two sentences be- 
 come appropriate texts for the theme under consideration. 
 First, the organization of the service is an expression and 
 evidence of what a nation will give to save its life; the 
 second sentence finds its heroic embodiment in the labor 
 performed by the noble-hearted officers and men of the Life- 
 Saving Service. 
 
 We purpose in the following pages to give some portion 
 of the history and progress of this branch of the public ser- 
 vice, together with some of the stirring incidents illustrating 
 its practical and far-reaching labor. 
 
 The lake and sea-coast of the United States exceeds ten 
 
476 NUMBER OF LIFE-SAVINQ STATIONS. 
 
 thousand miles, reaching through all varieties of climate, 
 and containing untold features of coast danger to those sail- 
 ing in its neighborhood. Probably the most dangerous of 
 this immense stretch of coast is the long portion of barren 
 sandy beaches lying between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras. 
 
 To be more specific still, that portion almost within sight 
 of the great Metropolis, the coast of New Jersey, is consid- 
 ered by far the worst. It was in this notoriously dangerous 
 place, the G-overnment, in 1848, placed a few rude huts that 
 became the begining of what has since become the United 
 States Life-saving Service. These little dwellings were ex- 
 pected to afford a shelter to the distressed sailors cast upon 
 friendly shore, and to contain the clumsy boats and such 
 other appliances as were then in use. These were used on 
 occasions of shipwreck by volunteers from among the brave 
 beachmen. Small and inadequate appropriations were occa- 
 sionally made by Congress. The huts were extended to 
 other coasts, but after all it amounted to but little, for lack 
 of a head and coherent organization. This difficulty was 
 finally overcome by the appointment of Mr. Sumner L. Kim- 
 ball as General Superintendent in 1871, under whose able 
 management the present excellent system was developed 
 and perfected. 
 
 The Service now numbers about two hundred life-saving 
 stations. Pleasant and commodious buildings have taken the 
 place of the rude huts ; here are kept ready for instant 
 use, the surf boat and self-righting boat, the mortar-cart, 
 loaded with wreck ordinance, lines, and appliances. Kitchen 
 and sleeping apartments are set off. There is also a store- 
 room and medicine chest; and here lives the keeper and his 
 crew of six surfmen. 
 
 This band of men are chosen from among the sturdy 
 fishermen brought up on the coast. The sea in all its 
 moods is a familiar and not a terrible object to them. For- 
 tunate it is, that it is into their brave and skillful hands that 
 
GUARDS ON DUTY. 477 
 
 human life is entrusted in the many direful emergencies of 
 those who go down into the sea in ships. From earliest 
 youth up these surfraen become familiar with the breakers 
 on their coasts, every eddy, bar, and current; also, though 
 not sailors, they yet become familiar Avith every part and 
 line of a ship, gained in the operation of stripping wrecks. 
 Notwithstanding this practical apprenticeship, there must 
 yet remain much for the surfman to learn before he can be 
 considered as a life-saving man ; his education or training is 
 completed by officers of the Revenue Marine, who are 
 especially qualified for this important duty. 
 
 It will be understood that these men are living apart 
 from their families, friends, and associations, and therefore 
 their life is sometimes monotonous, though a very busy one. 
 Their hours of drill and practice is as regular as is that of 
 the soldier on duty. The}' have their beats between stations 
 which must be regularly and constantly patrolled. This 
 duty is particularly severe and tedious at night-time. It is 
 divided into three watches. Two guards set out at the 
 commencement of each watch, one going to the right and 
 the other to the left, ultimately meeting patrolmen from ad- 
 jacent stations, with whom they exchange tokens of some 
 character to prove to the officer in the morning that they 
 have performed their duty faithfully. Nothing is left undone 
 to insure the certain and perfect watching of the beach. 
 The length of each beat is from four to five miles. It can 
 be easily imagined that this guard or patrol duty is no light 
 matter, especially upon a stormy night. And yet, no matter 
 what the storm may be, it must be faced. There is no such 
 thing as turning back. This is the very time when his duty 
 is most imperative. Hundreds of lives may be depending 
 upon his watchful care, and too devoted is he to duty to 
 neglect anything of its faithful performance now. 
 
 The patrolman, discovering a vessel being driven ashore 
 in a storm, takes the initial step in the operation of rescue. 
 
478 WRECK OF THE "J. R. HAMTZELL." 
 
 In addition to bis lantern, he carries at night a signal which 
 when ignited gives out a brilliant red light. His senses are 
 keenly awake, and the slightest unusual thing instantly 
 attracts his attention. Perhaps it is a faint light in the 
 distance, the shadowy outline of a sail or spar, or something 
 cast at his feet that he determines must have come from 
 some ship. Now he is all expectation, ready either for warn- 
 ing or rescue. But we can best convey to the reader a true 
 picture by presenting a few incidents of actual occurrence, 
 as follows: 
 
 The schooner J. H. Hartzell was wrecked about a mile 
 south of the harbor of Frankfort, Lake Michigan, on the 
 16th of October, 1880. The scene on this occasion was in 
 every respect extraordinary, and few narratives could sur- 
 pass in interest the soberest recital of what took place that 
 day abreast of, and upon the wooded steeps in the neighbor- 
 hood of one of our Western towns. 
 
 The schooner was commanded by Captain William A. 
 Jones. Her crew consisted of six men. There was also a 
 woman on board, who acted as cook. The vessel, having 
 made a good run, arrived off Frankfort about 3 o'clock on 
 Saturday morning, October 16. Captain Jones concluded 
 to wait until daylight before entering the harbor. But 
 before daylight came a terrible storm arose. Being rather 
 close to the shore, an attempt was made to wear ship, 
 but in the fury of the gale the vessel would not obey her 
 helm, and began to drift in; seeing which, her master 
 let go both anchors and set his signal of distress. In 
 spite of all efforts she finally went ashore on a precipitous 
 bluff known as Little Bald Hills. The seas soon began 
 to rush over her, and the awful staving and crashing usual 
 in such cases began. The boats were soon carried away, 
 the ship began to founder, and the crew had to take to the 
 rigging. The cook was very weak from serious illness, 
 and it took the united labor of four men to get her aloft 
 
THE LIFE BOAT COMING. 479 
 
 into the cross-trees of the foremast, across \vhic4i phiiiks 
 ha<l been nailed. A little while after the men liad ^ot 
 aloft, the vessel sank in sixteen feet of water, the stern 
 resting upon the bar and the forward part in deeper water. 
 Later the mainmast gave way and went over, remaining 
 attached to the foundered hulk by some of the cordage, and 
 thrashing and plunging alongside with every rush of the 
 seas. The foremast, with the men upon it — one of them, 
 the captain, clinging to the ratlines, about ten feet above 
 the water; the remainder fifty feet aloft in the cross-trees, 
 with the recumbent woman — swayed and creaked ominously, 
 some of the wedges having become loosened, and seemed 
 likely to go over at any moment. It was a horrible feature 
 of this shipwreck that the vessel, now an utter ruin, had a 
 short time before been loitering to and fro in the fresh 
 breeze, with no anticipation of disaster, w^aiting only for 
 daylight to drop into her harbor, near at hand. So suddenly 
 and fiercely had the tempest risen that within an hour de- 
 stroyed her, and placed in deadly jeopardy the lives of the 
 wretched company that clung to her one tottering spar. 
 
 The vessel was seen from the town shortly after she 
 struck. One of the earliest to observe her was a little boy, 
 the son of a fisherman, who, looking through the sheeting- 
 rain and hail saw her plunging in the breakers. The lad 
 at once told his father, who ran without delay to the village 
 of South Frankfort with the alarm, and, accompanied by 
 some fifteen or twenty citizens, cut across the hills and got 
 abreast of the wreck near 8 o'clock. Other persons continued 
 to arrive, and at length the crowd built a fire and laid pieces 
 of driftw^ood along so as to form in huge rude letters, black 
 against the white ground of the blufi", the words "life-boat 
 COMING." Eager signals from the sailors announced that 
 they could read this gigantic telegram. Meanw^hile, a gal- 
 lant young citizen named Woodward had started on horse- 
 back for the nearest life-saving station, (No. 4, Eleventh 
 
A TERRIBLE JOURNEY. 481 
 
 District,) ten miles distant, by a sandy and hilly road, 
 mostly lying through woods. Tiie young man galloped 
 furiously through the tempest, which was constantly increas- 
 ing in violence, tearing along the difficult highway to such 
 good purpose that by half-past 8 o'clock he dashed up to 
 the station with the news of the wreck. The keeper, Cap- 
 tain Thomas E. Matthews, at once ordered out the mortar-cart 
 and beach apparatus. In a few minutes, the cart, loaded 
 ■with the Lyle gun, the breeches buoy, hawser and hauling 
 lines, and other appurtenances, left the station, dragged by 
 the horse, which young Woodward hitched on, the hauling 
 being also aided by himself and the station-men. One of 
 the surfmen, was away on the south patrol when the start 
 was made, and followed his comrades to the scene of the 
 wreck subsequently. 
 
 The expedition had set out upon a terrible journey. 
 The station is upon the lake shore, north of Frankfort, south 
 of which town the wreck lay, and the intervening river 
 and the harbor-piers making out into the lake from the town 
 made it impossible, in any case to arrive at the wreck by fol- 
 lowing the line of the coast. The shortest route, not less 
 than seven or eight miles long, was by a road which led off 
 the beach to an intersecting road leading to the town, but 
 to gain this it was necessary to travel two miles along the 
 beach, which was now submerged by a swashing flood con- 
 stantly bursting against and washing away the steep banks of 
 the lake shore, battering the escarpment with intertangled 
 masses of logs, stumps, and trees, and, of course, rendering 
 the way impassable. The expedition was therefore com- 
 pelled to lengthen the detour by taking an old trail or 
 cart track. This road wandered through the woods, along 
 Avinding ravines and up steep, soggy hills. Across these 
 acclivities the way was so difficult that the men and the 
 horse, tugging and straining at the cart together, could only 
 make ten or fifteen yards at a ]nill without pausing. This 
 
482 BEL lEF A T HAND. 
 
 violent toil was pursued amidst the roaring of the gale, 
 which now blew almost a hurricane, until about a mile's dis- 
 tance from the station had been accomplished. By this time 
 the men, despite the bitter cold, were hot and wet with 
 their efforts, and the horse, steaming, trembled on his limbs, 
 and could hardly draw. There were at least nine miles 
 more of their disheartening journey before them, and the 
 part}^ were already sorely spent. 
 
 Fortunately some relief was at hand. Tiie state road had 
 been gained, and a light buggy came hurrying along with 
 Mr. Rennie Averill, who, at the solicitation of Mr. Burmeis- 
 ter, the marine correspondent of the Chicago Inter-Ocean^ 
 had nobly undertaken the task, from which several persons 
 had recoiled on account of the severity of the storm and the 
 dreadful condition of the roads, of bearing the wreck alarm 
 to the station, not knowing that this had already been done 
 by Mr. Woodward. With the aim of getting help for the 
 hauling, the keeper jumped into the buggy and rode on with 
 Mr. Averill, ahead of the crew. Before long they met 
 another brave citizen, who was also hastening to the station 
 with a double team to give the alarm. He reported another 
 team behind him, on the road, and, at Captain Matthews' re- 
 quest, which showed wise forethought, he pushed on to the 
 station to bring up the life-car and Merriman suit, taking 
 with him, by the keeper's order, Surfman La Cour, as he 
 passed the cart on the way. The keeper also requested 
 Mr. Benson to bring back Surfman La Rue, whom he judged 
 to have reached the station by this time from his patrol. 
 It is noticeable, and it is due to Captain Matthews, to say 
 that his conduct of operations, from the beginning to the 
 end of this laborious and difficult enterprise, was in the 
 highest degree praiseworthy, no step being omitted or for. 
 gotten which could facilitate the rescue. 
 
 The life-saving creAV had got on with their load some 
 half a mile further, when they were met by another citizen 
 
THE "SHORT CUT" 483 
 
 witli a team of stout horses, sent on by the keeper to aid 
 the hauling. A more rapid progress was now assured. The 
 State road upon whicli they were traveling was a great im- 
 provement on the trail they had left, although fearfully 
 rough. It lay for four or live miles straight to Frankfort 
 through dense timber, broken as it neared that place by an 
 occasional farm clearing. The lower part of the town tra- 
 versed, the road continued along the inner basin which forms 
 the harbor, leading to a bridge spanning the river which 
 feeds this place of anchorage. The bridge crossed, the 
 track went on for some miles further through a dense growth 
 of woods to the neighborhood of the wreck. Nearly the 
 whole way was a series of steep up-grades, plentifully strown 
 with pitch-holes. Along such a course the expedition vali- 
 antly struggled, arrived at and rushed through Frankfort, 
 emerged again upon the rugged country road, crossed the 
 river, plunged into the woods, and finally, about half past 
 ten o'clock, reached the rear base of the bastion of hiirh 
 hills which separated them from the lake where the wreck 
 lay. The ardor of the rushing march of this train of men 
 and horses is shown by the fact that they conquered the 
 rough stretch of ten miles in about two hours. 
 
 The keeper had driven on to an elevated farm, known as 
 Greenwood's, from whence he couid overlook the lake, and 
 saw, about a quarter of a mile to the north, the wreck with 
 the stormy water fl^^ing over her. He was returning toward 
 the cart of apparatus, with the idea that the road to Green- 
 wood's must be taken, when a citizen mounted on horse- 
 back, rode up to him, crying out, " Follow me and I will 
 show you a short cut." The party followed him through 
 a ravine about a quarter of a mile. The way then led up 
 the overhanging hillside through the brush, and the tug 
 with the loaded cart was terrible. So steep was the ascent 
 that man and beast had fairly to climb, and almost to hoist 
 the cart after them. Nothing could have been done but for 
 
484 OBSTACLES TO OVERCOME. 
 
 the aid of a crowd of sturdy towns-folk, who had assembled 
 there, and, anticipating- tiie arrival of the life-saving- jjarty 
 had cleared away with axes and hand-spikes a great deal of 
 the undergrowth and fallen trees. Even with these impedi- 
 ments removed, so precipitous was tiie acclivity that it took 
 the united efforts of twenty-seven brawny men, by actual 
 count, and a span of stout horses, to gain the summit, only 
 about twenty feet being- made at a time. By these efforts, 
 worthy of giants, the top of the hill was reached ; but the 
 crowd were now brought up all standing by a belt of woods? 
 as yet unpierced, which bristled along the crest of the emi- 
 nence, and in which lay fallen trees half buried in the 
 brush and dense undergrowth. The obstacle seemed to 
 inspire all present Avith sudden electric energy. In an in- 
 stant, all hands, citizens and crew, flung themselves upon 
 the wood with axes, and a work began which resembled a 
 combat. The wood seemed tumbling asunder, and its 
 rapidly-opening depths were alive with rude figures in every 
 variety of fiery action. In an incredibly short space of time 
 the way through the Avood was cleared, and the mortar cart, 
 loaded with apparatus, was dragged forward to the brow of 
 the hill. The gap cloven by this heroic onset disclosed a 
 strange and dreadful diorama. The concourse of life-savers, 
 fifty or sixty in number, were upon the summit of a precipi- 
 tous bluff nearly three hundred feet above the sea. This 
 bluff was composed of sand, covered near the top with a 
 yellow sandy loam, with here and there a patch of clay upon 
 its slanted surface. The mass not being compact, owing to 
 the nature of its substance, yielded readily to any force 
 brought to bear upon it, and the gale, which Avas now bloAA^- 
 ing Avith fury, beating- upon the acclivity like a simoon, flung 
 up the sand for ten or tAvelve feet high upon the face of the 
 slope, so that, to the gazer looking doAvn, the Avhole surface 
 appeared in rapid and violent motion. Above the dusky 
 layer of this sand-storm Avas an air thick and blurred Avith 
 
THE FRIGHTFUL SPECTACLE. 485 
 
 the snow and rain, and the crowd lookini^ through, saw far 
 below, looming with a sort of misty distinctness from the 
 terrific confusion of the waters, the nearly sunken wreck, 
 its two masts still standing, resembling grotesque dishevelled 
 steeples made up of spar and cordage. This object had the 
 effect of rendering all things subsidiary to itself — the im- 
 mensity of livid and lowering atmosphere in which it was 
 central — the ragged undulations of surf, bursting into foam, 
 which flung themselves around it with furious celerity, and 
 seemed racing toward it from the furthest sea. The hull 
 was well smothered up in the breakers, but at intervals be- 
 tween seas it appeared for a moment black and streaming as 
 the surf on the bar fell away. Standing in the spreading 
 ladders of the lower rigging, a few feet above the water, 
 was a diminished figure Avith upturned face, watching the 
 people on the summit of the bluff. This was the captain, 
 The monstrous waves curled and broke below his feet, and 
 covered him with their spray. Forty feet above him could 
 be seen, lessened by distance, a huddle of faces, peering at 
 the crowd on shore from the swaying cross-trees. These 
 were the faces of the crew. The foretop-mast rose above 
 them, and the gaff-topsail, partially unfurled, bulged and 
 flapped over them in the tempest. This frightful specta- 
 cle, seen by the crowd on the heights through the weird 
 curtain of the tempest, amidst the uproar of the wind and 
 sea, had something of the vivid unreality of the scenery of 
 a vision. 
 
 What tho crowd could not see, owing to the distance, 
 was fraught wdtli deeper elements of pity and terror. The 
 captain of the vessel, who had but recently recovered from 
 a fever, stood covered with frozen snow and rain in the rat- 
 lines, stiffened and discolored with exposure to the storm. 
 High above him on their giddy and unstable perch, the six 
 men crouched, blue in the face with cold. The fur}' of the 
 wind in this tottering eyrie was such, that when one of the 
 
486 THE PERILOUS DESCENT. 
 
 group had occasion to communicate witli another, he could 
 only do so by shouting through hollowed hands into his ear. 
 Amidst all the din of the gale and sea, the unhappy men 
 could hear the harsh creaking of the mast as the vessel 
 swayed too and fro. They expected every moment to go 
 over. The poor woman, carefully swathed in canvass cut 
 from one of the sails, lay delirious and numb with the cold, 
 and finally yielded to a state of unconsciousness in spite of 
 the best efforts of the kind-hearted sailors. 
 
 No time was lost by the life-saving crew and citizens in 
 commencing operations for the rescue. The prospect was 
 discouraging in almost the last degree. Anxiously survey- 
 ing the ground, Captain Matthews descried about two hun- 
 dred and fifty feet beneath him, a narrow ledge or plateau, 
 some ten or twelve feet wide, and at once determined that 
 the cart must be lowered to this foothold as the place of 
 operation. A portion of the whip-line was unwound from 
 the reel and fastened to the body of the lowered vehicle as 
 a dragrope, the other end being taken to a fallen tree as a 
 loggerhead or snubbing-post. Surfmen Barney and Stokes 
 and Citizen Woodward in the shafts to guide the cart, the 
 rest of the crew and citizens seized the rope to lower away, 
 and the perilous descent of the almost perpendicular cliff 
 began. The descent continued steadily, without accident, 
 to a point, when it was found that the line employed was 
 too short to enable the cart to gain the plateau. The line 
 was then cast off from the tree and held by the crowd, each 
 man sitting and laying back with his feet braced in the 
 sand, and clinging as a drag upon the burden. In this way 
 the men slid down the bluff behind the cart. In a few 
 minutes, panting and sweating with their effort, and looking 
 like the dirtiest of brick-makers, they stood around the cart 
 on the narrow ledge, the tremendous surf, thick with flood- 
 wood, bursting in foam and spray a few feet below them. 
 
 The cart was at once unloaded, the lines made readv- and 
 
OPERATIONS FOR TUE RESCUE. 487 
 
 the Lvle gun planted and fired. It was then a little before 
 11 o'clock. The charge was seven ounces, and at the first 
 fire the shot, directed with great judgment on the part of 
 the keeper, flew almost directly across the wind about two 
 hundred yards beyond the vessel, carrying the line along 
 her starboard broadside as she lay nearly head on to the 
 shore, and letting it fall right upon her weather-rigging, 
 fore and aft, where it was instantly caught by the captain. 
 Unfortunately, the slack of the line was immediately swept 
 by the wind and current under the head-gear of the wreck, 
 where it fouled and could not be cleared by the people on 
 board. The first effort to establish line communication Avith 
 the wreck therefore proved a failure, and the shot-line was 
 hauled in and faked for another trial. This time, with the 
 view of overcoming the added weight of the line, Avhich 
 was wet and clogged with sand, the keeper used an 
 eight-ounce charge. He also trained the gun a little nearer 
 the vessel, aiming to make the line fall higher against the 
 rigging and to prevent, if possible, its fouling with the 
 wreckage. His calculations were superbly accurate. Before 
 the echoes of the report of the gun had ceased along the 
 bluff, the line, flying aloft its full length, had fallen directly 
 across the fore-rigging, where it was caught by the men in 
 the cross-trees. 
 
 It Avanted at this time a few minutes of noon, and the 
 shipwrecked sailors were in possession of a line from the 
 shore. The anxious question now was, whether this line 
 would stand the strain of hauling out the double rope, or 
 whip, running through a tail-block, which was at once bent 
 on to it. As allowance had to be made for the slack caused 
 by the distance and the tremendous current, there was a 
 vast length of this double line to be paid out between ship 
 and shore. It was manned by at least fifty men, Avho strung 
 themselves along up the face of the bluff with the aim of 
 keeping the line as much as po>;s;ible out of the sea, where it 
 
488 A TERRIBLE DISCOURAGEMENT. 
 
 was endangered by the drift-stuff and wreckage. At times 
 the force of the current would carr}^ both parts of the whip 
 far to leeward, and the sailors Avould fail to haul in an inch, 
 and could only take a turn with the shot-line around the heel 
 of the foretopmast. Then the men upon the slope of the bluff 
 would raise and straighten out the whip as much as possible 
 and at a signal from the keeper below, suddenly slack, giv- 
 ing the sailors in the cross-trees, working in concert with 
 them, a chance to haul in a few feet at a time. These ma- 
 noeuvres were regulated by the keeper solely in pantomime, 
 for such Avas the uproar of the gale that the voice could not 
 have been heard beyond the distance of a few feet, even 
 through a speaking trumpet. The strain on the slender 
 shot-line increased as it took out more and more of the whip 
 line, and every moment the toilers on the slant of the ac- 
 clivity, timing their labors to the gestures of the grimy 
 figure below them, felt with him the dread that the strands 
 would part ; but the tough, braided linen held, and, after 
 more than two hours of such exertions as make the muscles 
 tremble, they had the satisfaction of seeing the whip arrive, 
 and the tail-block properly fastened around the lower mast- 
 head and heel of the topmast, the block hanging forward off 
 the cross-trees. 
 
 A new obstacle, involving a terrible discouragement, had 
 gradually been developed as the further end of the whip- 
 line rose from the water up to the mast. The whole length 
 of the double rope was seen to be twisted and full of turns. 
 Every effort had been made to prevent this result ; the files 
 of men that paid out the rope had been kept widely apart., 
 with the members of the life-saving crew judiciously sta- 
 tioned at certain parts among them, and two experienced 
 surfmen had tended the reel on the cart which gave off the 
 whip to the sea. 
 
 The ardent throng of citizens, co-workers with the life- 
 saving crew, were reasonably enough struck with consterna* 
 
THE BREEVIIE8-B UO Y 489 
 
 tion at this incident. A volley of excited questions bejynn 
 to shower upon the keeper in regard to what he was going' 
 to do to save the men. Every other second anxious ques- 
 tions or expressions of dejection Avere shouted at hiin through 
 the uproar of the storm, and for a few moments his position 
 was exceedingly trying. The croAvd, however, were good- 
 natured and obedient in the highest degree, and presently 
 every man rushed to his place under the keeper's orders, and 
 all fell to work clearing the line. This was done by fastening 
 one end to a tree on the brow of the hill and hauling it taut 
 then untwisting or dipping the other part around it, tauten- 
 ing up both parts from time to time while maintaining the 
 operation. Finally, after fully an hour's work the last of the 
 turns were out, and the line was clear. 
 
 The breeches-buoy Avas at once rigged on. As the slope 
 was constantly giving way, several small land-slides half- 
 burying the men below, having already occurred, no sand 
 anchor was planted, the keeper relying on the force he had 
 under command to hold and handle the line. Surfman La 
 Cour Avas stationed at the summit to tend the slack, Avhich 
 he did by taking a turn with the line around a fallen tree. 
 The buoy then Avent out toAvard the Avreck, urged by the 
 ^ager arms of the haulers. 
 
 As the men avIio Avorked the line Avere compelled by the 
 steepness of the bank to stand in constrained positions, half 
 upright, half reclining, upon ground constantly giving Avay, 
 and Averc also greatly hindered by the blinding sand and 
 buffeting Avind, theoutAA^ard progress Avas sIoav, but at length 
 it arrived at the mast. After some little delay, as though 
 the people in the cross-trees hesitated, a man Avas seen 
 through the dim atmosphere to get into the buoy, Avhich 
 was at once hauled back to the shore. The hauling Avas 
 done under such difficulties that the passage of the buoy to 
 the shore occupied seventeen minutes by the watch of one 
 of the bystanders. As it approached, several persons 
 
490 THE LIFE-CAB ATTACHED. 
 
 rushed down the bank into the surf, and the man was pulled 
 out and helped up to the little plateau. It was the first 
 mate. His jaws were set, his eyes vacantly fixed, and the 
 expression of his face dazed and frightened. A citizen 
 gave him a draught of brandy. This seemed to revive 
 him, and presently he said "Save the others." Two or three 
 questions were asked him in regard to the vessel and per- 
 sons on board, which he answered faintly, and he was 
 then led away toward the town, supported on either side 
 by two citizens. 
 
 In reply to one interrogation, he had been understood by 
 the keeper to say that the woman in the cross-trees did not 
 want to come ashore in the buoy, and as he left, the keeper 
 was notified by Surfman La Cour that the tree to which the 
 whip-line Avas secured was slowly giving away, and the 
 bank coming down under the strain. This circumstance 
 and the mate's declaration, decided the keeper to substitute 
 the life-car for the buoy, partly because the car could be 
 towed out like a boat until it reached the mast, thus re- 
 lieving the latter of a certain amount of tension upon it, 
 while its use also dispensed Avith the fallen tree and spared 
 the pull upon the bank; partly, also, because its employ- 
 ment might facilitate the rescue by landing a greater num- 
 ber of the ship-wrecked at each trip. The car was accord- 
 ingly ordered forward, and the keeper, with his own hands, 
 attached it to the lines. Every face blazed with excitement 
 as the hauling began. The life-car, as soon as it entered 
 the surf, was dashed about like a cockle shell. After pro- 
 tracted efforts on the part of the haulers, it had at length 
 reached the wreck, when, all at once, the jagged main- 
 mast, which had fallen some time before, and was swing- 
 ing along the side with other wreckage, rose on the sum- 
 mit of a Yiugo breaker, and lunging like a battering-ram, 
 struck the car such a blow that it tossed it a dozen feet 
 springing into the air. Although every heart throbbed with 
 
THE CREW SAFE. 491 
 
 painful anxiety, the life-savers took swift advantage of the 
 momentary lightening of the line to haul in the slack, and 
 raise the car up, where it hung almost straight up and down 
 some twelve feet below the masthead. Without the least delay 
 three of the men were successively lowered from the cross- 
 trees by ropes around their bodies, and got in. The door 
 of the car was closed. All hands on the hillside then fell 
 to work and the car approached the shore. As it drew 
 near, floundering in the surf, the keeper and several men 
 rushed down waist-deep into the foaming flood, siezed and 
 dragged in tiie car, unclasped the door and liberated the 
 sailors. They were tended by kindly ministrations and 
 conveyed to a place of shelter and succor which they so 
 sorely needed. 
 
 The life-car had received some damage around the hatch- 
 way and cover from the blow of the mast and the battering 
 wreckage. It was speedily hammered into shape and again 
 sent out on the lines. The haulers had learned by their 
 first experience how to handle the ropes, and the car pur- 
 sued its course tnrough the broken water Avithout capsizing. 
 From time to time during the strenuous hauling bursts of 
 sand on the slope indicated the moments when the ground 
 gave way under the feet of the files of devoted men 
 toiling in the heart of the gale, and who could be seen on 
 these occasions to slide and stagger as they pulled, strug- 
 gling to preserve their foothold or escape engulfment. The 
 tempest continued to scourge the escarpment with unabated 
 violence, and the air of the waning afternoon was thicker 
 than ever witl? tlie wind-blown rain, snow, and hail, driven 
 in alternate gusts, and interblent with the driving substance 
 of the hills. Amidst this continued fury the car slowly 
 worked on toward the wreck. 
 
 It will perhaps be unnecessary for us to give further de- 
 tails of this thrilling example of the work of the crew of 
 one life-saving station. All were finally brought to shore 
 
492 WBEGE OF THE SCHOONER "A. B. GOODMAN." 
 
 alive, except, unfortunately, the woman, and she had ceased 
 to live long before the first car reached the vessel. It be- 
 came impossible even to bring her body ashore, to the 
 great disappointment of the anxious ones on shore. 
 
 We have detailed this incident thus minutely because of 
 its thrilling interest, and also because it has exhibited the 
 variety of ways in which the service employ themselves and 
 their implements. 
 
 Imagine many similar incidents taking place annually, and 
 it will give some idea of the immense and heroic service 
 rendered by these crews and their keepers. Surely it is a 
 noble and practical service to sustain liberally. Looking at 
 it from a selfish point of view, we cannot tell but it may be 
 our turn to need just such assistance some day. 
 
 Another fatal wreck, within life-saving limits, was that of 
 the schooner A. B. Goodman, of Seaford, Delaware, bound 
 from Baltimore, Marjdand, to New Berne, North Carolina, 
 with a cargo of guano, and having on board five men, in- 
 cluding the captain. The wreck took place on April 4, 1881, 
 at about half-past 6 o'clock in the evening, the vessel stiik- 
 ing during a northwest gale, upon the outer edge of the 
 inner shoal off Cape Hatteras, and being at once boarded 
 by the sea, there was only time in the overwhelming rush 
 of waters for the men to fly to the rigging ; in the effort to 
 gain which, one of them, Louis Beck, was swept overboard, 
 and drowned. 
 
 The point at which the disaster took place was about 
 three miles from shore, and six miles east of Life-Saving 
 Station No. 22, Sixth District, North Carolina. This station 
 is built upon tlie rise of an eminence known as Creed's Hill, 
 and its north patrol reaches for six miles around the edge of 
 the dreaded cape. Looking from the station, the vieAv 
 toward the cape presents to the eye the aspect of an im- 
 mense desert of sand, strangely and fantastically sprinkled 
 all over Avith gnarled and twisted trunks of black, dead 
 
THE VESSEL SIGHTED. 493 
 
 trees. In winter, or during tlie inclement season, nothing 
 more dismal could well be imagined than this Sahara, with 
 its thin remnant of a former vegetation killed by the salt 
 tides. The level is only diversified by occasional mounds of 
 sand, and, here and there, pools of sea-water, left by some 
 overflow in the hollows. Behind, or to the west, a forest of 
 pines and live oaks, dense and almost impenetrable, stretches 
 away northward to Hatteras light-house. All around the 
 cape for two miles, in storms at flood-tides, a heavy sea 
 swings across the low and somewhat shelving beach, in 
 among its bordering hummocks, and back again with violence, 
 ploughing gullies as it runs. The surf makes the sand a 
 quag, quicksands form in the gullies, and the solitary pa- 
 trolman, making his way along the top of the beach in the 
 darkness by the dim light of his lantern, faces the chances 
 of destruction, being liable to be swept off his feet by the 
 rush or refluence of the surf, sucked down in the gullies by 
 the quicksands, or struck by some fragment of wreck-stuff 
 shot forth by the breakers. Yet his dreadful watch is made 
 necessary by the presence off shore by a nest of shoals, 
 range after range, which are the terror of navigators. The 
 first, a mile wide, stretches from the point of the cape be- 
 iween two and three miles seaward, covered with a depth 
 of only seven feet of water, which in storms are miles of 
 raging foam. This formation is, in fact, a submarine pro- 
 longation of the cape. Beyond it, separated by half a mile 
 of channel, is another formidable shoal, the Diamond, two 
 miles long; and beyond this again, another range of shallows, 
 the outer shoals. For six or seven miles out from shore, 
 these terrible bottoms spread their ambush for shipping, 
 and hence the watch in this locality for vessels in danger 
 requires to be particularly kept around the point of the 
 cape, no matter at what toil or hazard to the sentinel. On 
 the evening of the disaster to the A. B. Goodman, the pa- 
 trol-nan, pursuing his journey through the floods sheeting 
 
494 TO THE RESCUE. 
 
 across his way, in the midst of a squall of rain and snow, 
 saw far off, despite the distance and thick weather, the dim 
 outlines of a vessel, and knew by this indication that there 
 was some sort of a craft in the neighborhood of the shoals, 
 though exactly where, or whether in danger, it was impos- 
 sible to determine. The fact was reported by 10 o'clock to 
 the keeper, B. B. Daily, who was up at dawn, and saw the 
 schooner evidently aground, and, in fact, sunk, on the outer 
 edge of the first range of shoals. He at once ordered out 
 the surf-boat to the rescue. 
 
 The storm of the evening before had been brief, and the 
 wind, blowing freshly from the north-northwest, had beaten 
 down the surf upon the beach, the sea, therefore, was 
 smooth for launching, but beyond, it was very heavy. 
 Heaps of water incessantly tumbling, and thickets of burst- 
 ing foam filling the offing, and the current running one way, 
 while the wind was the other, made an ugly cross-sea. The 
 little group of surfmen about to enter upon this stormy field 
 had still a more serious peril before them than the chance 
 of being overswept or capsized by the colliding waters. 
 Their boat being light and flat-bottomed, the breeze, which 
 was strong and off shore, might make return impossible, 
 and force them out to sea, where they would almost cer- 
 tainly be lost. Nevertheless, as the stout keeper said, in 
 his testimony, " they knew it was their duty to do what 
 they could, so they did it." The group consisted of the 
 keeper and six surfmen. One of the crew was left in charge 
 at the station. It is certain none of the crew expected to 
 return alive. The disposition of their slender effects was a 
 part of the charge, given to the remaining surfman by his 
 companions in case they perished. Having made this sim- 
 ple will as men facing the issues of life and death, they en- 
 tered the boat and gave way. For some distance out the 
 surf-boat kept the lee of the cape, where the surf was com- 
 paratively smooth. They ultimately rounded the cape, and 
 
TO THE RESCUE. 495 
 
 entered the terribly roug-li water where the greatest cir- 
 cumspection was necessary in the management of the boat. 
 Finally, at about half-past 7 o'clock, two hours after starting 
 the life-saving crew arrived near the wrecked schooner. 
 
 She was completely sunk, her hull all under. Only her 
 two masts stuck up from the swirling water, and perched up 
 in the main cross-trees, wrapped in the main-gaff topsail, 
 were huddled the four wretched survivors of her crew of 
 five. After three or four daring and dangerous attempts to 
 get near, baffled by the strong current and the vast commo- 
 tion of the sea above the sunken hull, keeper Daily hailed 
 the despairing group upon the mast, telling them to keep 
 good heart and that they would be rescued as soon as possi- 
 ble ; then dropped astern about three hundred j^ards and 
 let go the anchor, having decided tliat it was necessary to a 
 successful effort to wait. The efforts already made had con- 
 sumed much time, and the boat anchored within an hour of 
 noon. An hour afterward, the flood-tide somewhat smoothed 
 the break of the sea over the sunken hull, and the life-sav- 
 ing crew got up their anchor, worked up to the windward 
 of the vessel, where they again moored, and then slowly and 
 cautiously, by slacking on the anchor line, let the boat veer 
 down toward the mainmast of the wreck. Once Avithin 
 range, the keeper hove his boat-hook, by a line attached, 
 into the rigging and held on. The fateful moment had ar- 
 rived, the boat was slacked in, so that the keeper could get 
 hold of the first man that came down from aloft, and the 
 first mate slowly descended the rigging. As he came with- 
 in reach, the keeper, standing in the stern of the boat, 
 seized him, but the man terrified at the frightful rush and 
 roar of waters beneath him, and doubtless unmanned by 
 cold and hunger, and the many hours of horror he had un- 
 dergone, broke from the keeper's hold and clambered up 
 the rigging again. The boat was hauled back a little, and 
 the keeper spoke up cheerily, encouraging the men in the 
 
496 THE CREW 8A VED. 
 
 cross-trees, and declaring they would all be saved. Pres- 
 ently, the line was again slacked, the boat veered down, 
 and the mate once more descended. His fright again 
 seized him, but the keeper, forwarned, got a mighty hold, 
 and by sheer force, jerked him out of the rigging and 
 landed him in the boat. The captain then came down, was 
 seized by the keeper the moment he came within reach, and 
 torn from the shrouds. The other two men, emboldened by 
 this energetic succession of deliverance, slid down the rig- 
 ging and jumped into the boat without aid. Quickly the 
 keeper then let slack his warp, recovered his boat-hook, 
 and gave the word to haul back to the anchor. Three of 
 the rescued men were seated on the thwarts, the captain 
 in the stern-sheets, the anchor was got up, and the hard 
 work of the return was began. 
 
 By this time the wind had changed to west-southwest, 
 blowing freshly, and so roughening the Avater on the south 
 side of the shoals — which was the side on which the approach 
 to the wreck had been made — that the keeper decided it 
 would be safer to attempt the landing on the north side, or 
 near Hatteras light-house. The men gave way with a will, 
 wind and sea against them. The light keepers watching 
 them as they toiled upon the running swells, had some time 
 before made up their minds that they would not be able to 
 get to land that night if they ever did. But the strenuous 
 effort conquered, and somewhere about two o'clock the life- 
 saving crew, dripping and exhausted, gained the beach, near 
 the light-house tower, with the sailors they had saved. 
 
 These sailors were at once taken up to the light-house by 
 the keepers, where a meal was set before them. No food 
 had passed their lips since about eleven o'clock of the day 
 previous, and they were nearly perished with cold and hun- 
 ger. Their rescuers were in little better condition, having 
 eaten nothing since four o'clock the day before. Neverthe- 
 less, without waiting to share in the repast of the sailors, 
 
THE RETURN. 
 
 497 
 
 they set off to their own quarters, a tramp of nearly five 
 miles. They reached the station greatly exhausted, all of 
 them had been out on the tempestuous patrol for some part 
 of the night before. From this uight of broken rest, they 
 had passed abruptly to eight hours of tragic labor under 
 the shadow of death upon the sea. Their valiant rescue 
 achieved, there still remained this long trudge, which left 
 them finally at the station, a group of haggard, worn-out 
 men. 
 
 Descant is unnecessary on the feat they performed in 
 saving the four sailors. Such deeds attest themselves; and 
 there are few scenes in human life more deeply affecting 
 than the spectacle of this crew of poor men making their 
 wills upon the beach, and leaving their small store of effects 
 in charge of a comrade for the benefit of their families before 
 entering upon a struggle of deadly peril for the lives of four 
 unhappy creatures, who, in their d}ing misery, must have 
 thought themselves abandoned forever by man. To have 
 done this — to have quietly resigned the certainties for the 
 chances of existence in such a case and under such circum- 
 stances — was more than noble ; and there can be no hearts, 
 however cold, that will not feel that in this action the unas- 
 suming surfmen of an obscure coast reached again, as many 
 low-down and almost nameless men have reached, the full 
 stature of heroism. 
 
EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES AND BEACONS. 
 
 object can be more suggestive of pleasant 
 thoughts, of home, of peace, and security 
 than a lighthouse. Whether placed upon 
 a headland overlooking a wide expanse of 
 ocean, or on a rock lashed by the foaming 
 billows, it is a welcome sight to the traveler returning to 
 his native country after a long absence, and it is a grateful 
 object to those Avho are leaving -home for distant regions, 
 who, after leaving port, can trace for many miles the 
 friendly light, the last visible connection that unites their 
 thoughts to those who are left behind. 
 
 The absence of the lights that stream over the heaving 
 waters would indeed be a calamity ; indicative, probably, of 
 war's fatal struggles, when a nation dreading hostile inva- 
 
TUK "PUAROSr THE OLDEST LIGHTHOUSE. 499 
 
 sion would seek to foil their enemies by extinguishing these 
 lights, and thus leaving them to the perils of shoals and 
 quicksands, of breakers and the rocks. Witliout these 
 glimmering lights it would be impossible to guide a ship 
 throiigh the perilous ocean ; commerce would languish, and 
 all the civilizing influences encouraged by trade would be 
 lost. 
 
 The earliest allusion to lighthouses or " beacons " to 
 guide the mariner on his sea-journey, date from a remote 
 period. Homer, alluding to the shield of Achilles, beauti- 
 fully describes the flash of a beacon-light in some solitary 
 place, as seen by seamen leaving their friends, m verses 
 wdiich contain ample proof of the existence of such a 
 provision for the marinei-'s safety in the poet's time. 
 
 The oldest lighthouse on record is the celebrated Pharos, 
 erected on the Egyptian coast, which, being very low land, 
 and exposed almost entirely to the west winds coming up 
 the Mediterranean from the vast Atlantic, must of necessity 
 have made the port of Alexandria very dangerous. This 
 lighthouse was erected 300 years' B. C. for the convenience of 
 the Phoenician merchants who constantly traded with Egypt. 
 
 The island of Pharos, upon which the lighthouse Avas 
 erected, was said, in the time of Homer, to be one day's sail 
 from the Delta (a triangular portion of Lower Egypt com- 
 prised between the two main branches of the Nile, and so 
 called from its resemblance to the Greek letter D, a) • where- 
 as, since the foundation of Alexandria, it was only a mile in 
 distance, and was even joined to the mainland by a mole or 
 artificial embankment having a bridge at each end. 
 
 This tower, if statements are true, Avas justly entitled to 
 the honor claimed for it as one of the seven wonders of the 
 w^orld. It is stated to have been five hundred and fifty feet 
 in height, and the cost of erection was equivalent, in our 
 money, to nearly $700,000. The architect was Sostratus, 
 the constructor of many public buildings in Alexandria. 
 
500 THE COLOSSAL STATUE OF APOLLO AT BH0DE8. 
 
 The lighthouse consisted of several stories, one raised above 
 the other, each decorated with columns, balustrades, and 
 galleries made of the finest marble and of the most exquisite 
 workmanship. It has been said that Sostratus furnished the 
 galleries with large mirrors, by which shipping could be 
 seen at a considerable distance. A fire was kept constantly 
 burning on the summit, and, according to Josephus, the 
 Jewish historian, the light was seen at the distance of three 
 hundred stadii (about forty-two miles). 
 
 In more modern times the Turks erected two forts on the 
 points occupied by this Pharos, one of which was the site 
 of the far-famed lighthouse. 
 
 The celebrated colossal statue of Apollo at Rhodes is 
 said to have supplied the purpose of a lighthouse. This 
 figure was of bronze, and a period of twelve years is stated 
 to have been employed in constructing it, three hundred 
 years before the Christian era. Tlie expenses of erection 
 amounted to a sum estimated in our money at nearly 
 $300,000. The gigantic size of this figure may be conceived 
 from the account given, that few men were able to encom- 
 pass one of its thumbs with their arms. The Rhodians 
 placed this brazen sentinel at the entrance of their port. 
 The heathen deity was represented wearing a radiant crown, 
 holding in one hand an arrow, and in the other a brazier 
 containing fire. This stupendous statue was overthrown by 
 an earthquake about eighty years after its erection; and 
 when the Saracens took Rhodes in 667, they loaded one hun- 
 dred camels with the bronze that remained, and the rest 
 was sold afterwards to a Jewish merchant for a sum equiv- 
 alent to $144,000. 
 
 An edifice, called by the inhabitants of the Archipelago 
 the " Lamp of Diogenes," stood on the shores of the ^gean 
 sea. It was a tomb erected in memory of Diogenes, who 
 had such a knowledge of the art of navigation that no 
 ancient mariner would undertake a voyage without consult- 
 
LIGHTHOUSE ON THE EDDTSTONE ROCKS. 501 
 
 ing him. At the angles of this building were columns, on 
 which tires were placed for the service of vessels navigating 
 those dangerous seas. 
 
 One of the greatest achievements of modern science in 
 in connexion with lighthouses is that effected by the famous 
 engineer Smeaton on the dangerous Eddystone rocks, about 
 fourteen miles distance from Plymouth, England, which are 
 so exposed to the heavy swells from the Bay of Biscay 
 and the Atlantic that the waves beat upon them at times 
 with fearful violence. In 1696, notwithstanding the many 
 difficulties which seemed tc interfere with the erection of a 
 lighthouse on rocks so situated, Henry Winstanley suc- 
 ceeded in accomplishing (for a time) the desired object. 
 
 The lighthouse on the Eddystone rocks was commenced 
 in 1696, and the first light appeared on the 14th of Novem- 
 ber, 1698. Finding that the tower was greatly exposed 
 during the storms of winter — the waves covering the lantern 
 at times, although at a height of sixty feet — Winstanley 
 encompassed the building with a new work of four feet in 
 thickness from the foundation, making all solid to the height 
 of twenty feet ; he also took down the upper part of the 
 first building, and enlarging every part in its proportion, 
 raised it forty feet higher than it was originall}', and yet 
 the sea in stormy weather rose one hundred feet above the 
 vane, and at times covered half the side of the house and 
 the lantern, as if they were under water. The building was 
 so fantastically constructed and seemed so slight, that gene- 
 ral opinion was against its security, but the architect himself 
 w^as so firmly convinced of its stability that he frequently 
 Avished he might be there in the greatest storm that could 
 happen. This desire was fatally gratified. In November, 
 1703, Winstanley went out to the rocks to superintend some 
 repairs, and that very night a fearful tempest arose, which 
 so increased the following day, that the lighthouse and all 
 its inmates were swept in the foaming waters. 
 
502 B UD YARD'S LIGHTHO USE BESTBO TED. 
 
 Nearly three years elapsed after this sad event before 
 another attempt was made to replace the lighthouse on the 
 Eddystone rocks. The building was commenced in 1706, 
 and was lighted two years afterwards. 
 
 Rudyard's lighthouse enjoyed an immunity from serious 
 accidents for a space of thirty-eight years, when, at the 
 close of 1744, a fearful storm occurred, in which the ship 
 Victory was lost close to the building, which was considera- 
 bly damaged in consequence, and an opening made into the 
 store-room. In 1755 the catastrophe occurred which de- 
 stroyed the lighthouse. On the 2d December, in that year, 
 the lighthouse keeper then on watch, about two o'clock in 
 the morning, went into the lantern to snuff the candles. He 
 found the whole place in a smoke, and upon opening the 
 door of the lantern into the balcony, a flame instantly burst 
 from the inside of the cupola. He endeavored to alarm his 
 companions, but they being fast asleep were not able to 
 come to his assistance so readily as the occasion required. 
 He attempted to extinguish the flames with some water 
 kept in a tub in the lantern, but the fire increasing, the poor 
 fellow found himself unable to stop its progress. As he was 
 looking upwards, a quantity of molten lead suddenly rushed 
 like a torrent from the roof, and falling upon his head, face, 
 and shoulders, burnt him fearfully. His companions, dis- 
 mayed at the extent of the conflagration, descended to the 
 rock, with little hope of being saved. It seems that at an 
 early hour the flames were seen by some of the Cawsand 
 fishermen ; and on intelligence being given, a fishing-boat, 
 manned with a strong crew, was dispatched at once. The 
 boat arrived about eight hours after the fire had broken out, 
 during which time the three keepers of the lighthouse had 
 not only been driven from all the rooms and the staircase, 
 but to avoid the fall of the timber and red-hot bolts, they 
 were found sitting in a hole or cave, on the east side of the 
 
SMEATON'S ERECTION ON THE EDDYHTONE. 503 
 
 rock, almost in a state of stupefaction. They were conveyed 
 safely to Plymouth. 
 
 This fire occurred in 1753, and it was then determined 
 that the lighthouse should be constructed of stone, and that 
 no expense should be spared to render it the most perfect 
 of its kind. The architect chosen was the famous John 
 Smeaton, one of the most extraordinary men of the age. 
 The first stone of the edifice was laid the 12th June, 1757, 
 and the whole undertaking of constructing the lighthouse 
 was accomplished within a space of little more than three 
 years, without the loss of life or limb to those engaged in 
 the perilous undertaking. It was an anxious time for Smea- 
 ton and those who were engaged witli him. When the 
 weather was tempestuous the lighthouse was inaccessible. 
 One of the keepers, Henry Edwards, after a heavy storm 
 had prevented any boat from approaching the rocks, sent a 
 note to the manager of the works, stating " that the sea ran 
 over the house in such a manner that for twelve days to- 
 gethey they could not open the door of the lantern, nor any 
 other. The house shook as if a man had been up in a great 
 tree. The old men were almost frightened out of their 
 lives, wishing they had never seen the place. The fear 
 occasioned pains in the back, but rubbing them with oil of 
 turpentine gave them relief." The lighthouse itself bore 
 the storm admirably, and suffered nothing from it. 
 
 The present edifice is a circular tower sweeping up with 
 a gentle curve from the base, and gradually diminishing 
 to the top. The upper extremity is furnished with a kind 
 of cornice, and is surmounted b}' a lantern, having a gallery 
 around it with an iron balustrade. The tower is furnished 
 with a door, and windows, and staircase. Round the upper 
 storeroom is the inscription: " Except tlie Lord build the 
 house, they labor in vain that build it. — Psalm cxxvii." 
 Over each side of the lantern are the words and date: 
 "August 24th, 1759. Laus Deo." 
 
504 THE BELL-ROCK LIGHTHOUSE. 
 
 A very great achievement in the erection of lighthouses 
 since the daj^s of Smeaton, is that of the "Bell-Rock" tower in 
 Scotland, built upon a dangerous sunken reef, about eleven 
 miles from Arbroath, on the northern side of the entrance 
 of the great estuary or arm of the sea, called the Firth of 
 Forth, and, as such, directly affecting the safety of all ves- 
 sels entering the Firth of Tay. The *' Inchcape," or Bell- 
 Rock, had always been a perilous point to navigators, and 
 in former times a bell was placed there by the Abbot of 
 Aberbrothock, or Arbroath, which was put in movement by 
 the waves. This was the only expedient that could then be 
 devised. According to tradition, some pirates having car- 
 ried off this bell, were, on a subsequent voyage, lost on the 
 same rock. Southey's thrilling ballad of the " Inchcape 
 Bell " is founded on this legend. 
 
 The building was commenced in 1807 (17th August), under 
 the control of Mr. Robert Stephenson, the engineer to the 
 Lighthouse Board, and whose plan — a tower of masonry, on 
 the principle of the Eddystone Lighthouse — was adopted. 
 From an account of these operations, written by that emi- 
 nent engineer, we learn how severe and perilous Avas the 
 undertaking, the rock being only dry for a few hours at 
 spring-tides, and affording but little time for laying the 
 foundations of the building with requisite security. This, 
 however, under many difficulties, was effected, and the first 
 stone of the lighthouse laid 10th July, 1808, at the depth 
 of sixteen feet below high water at spring-tide. The whole 
 of the masomy to the height of thirty feet, was completed 
 in 1810, the light being exhibited for the first time 1st Feb- 
 ruary, 1811. 
 
 Another celebrated stone lighthouse on the Scottish 
 coast, is that placed on the " Skerryvore " rocks, which lie 
 about twelve miles off the Isle of Tyree, in Argyllshire. 
 These rocks were for a long period the terror of mariners, 
 and numerous shipwrecks had occurred in their vicinity. 
 
506 THE ' ' SKEBBTVOBE " LIGHTHO USE. 
 
 Owing to the great difficulty of landing upon these rocks, 
 which are worn smootli by the continual beating of the 
 Atlantic waves, it was not until 1834 that the idea of erect- 
 ing a lighthouse was seriously entertained. In such a sit- 
 uation as that of Skerryvore everything had to be pro- 
 vided before hand, and transported from a distance. The 
 design for the building was made by Mr. Alan Stephenson, 
 son of the celebrated architect of the Bell-Rock Lighthouse, 
 and was an adaptation of Smeaton's Eddystone tower. 
 Many were the vicissitudes and privations experienced in 
 this undertaking, but this stately and noble building re- 
 mains a boon to seamen, the signal of trust and confidence 
 to the sea-bound mariner. 
 
 Other important lighthouses of stone might be men- 
 tioned, such as the " Bishop Rock," the " Needles," the 
 " Smalls," etc. Iron lighthouses have of late been erected, 
 and appear to be admirably suited to the purpose, and com- 
 paratively inexpensive. The "Northfleet" is built of this 
 material, and is in open skeleton work. Iron lighthouses 
 have been adopted in several of the British colonies. 
 
 The list so far mentioned does not include all, nor indeed 
 any, considerable portion of the lighthouses of the world. 
 However, these few so briefly described, with a few others 
 to follow, that are situated on our own coasts, will probably 
 serve to illustrate their general use and tlie improvements 
 made from time to time in the different styles of architec- 
 ture together with the erection of more durable structure 
 and methods of lighting. 
 
 The earlier history of lighthouses in this country ante- 
 dating the Revolution is somewhat obscure. Previous to 
 1789 the expense of keeping up the few then standing ;ivas 
 borne by the commonwealths in which they were situated ; 
 after that time they were turned over by the respective 
 States of Colonies to the General Government, and the im- 
 provement following has been commensurate with the pro- 
 
MINOT'S LEDOE LIGHTHOUSE. 507 
 
 gress of the country in other matters pertiiining- to its well- 
 fare. 
 
 The first light-house built by the United States was 
 lighted in 1791. Tliere were then but a total of nine lights 
 on the whole North American coast. They have since mul- 
 tiplied in an astonishing ratio. In 1822, there were 70 ; in 
 1838, 238, and in 1875 there were 925 lighthouses and 23 
 lightships or beacons. 
 
 Before 1852 this matter of sea-coast illumination was 
 under the control of a single subordinate officer of the 
 Treasury. Since that time the Service has been reorgan- 
 ized and placed in the hands of the United States Light- 
 house Board, consisting of eight persons, viz.: two officers 
 of the corps of engineers, and two civilians of high scienti- 
 fic attainments and others. The Board is attached to the 
 office of the Secretary of the Treasury, who is ex officio 
 president of it. A chairman is chosen from among the 
 Board who presides in the absence of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. 
 
 The labors of this Board have become very heavy. They 
 now have charge of nearly 1,000 lighthouses, lightships, and 
 beacons, and about 3,000 buoys and a great number of fog- 
 signals and fog-bells situated all along the immense coast- 
 line of this country. They meet in session very frequently 
 and are continually trying difficult experiments for the 
 betterment of the system. 
 
 Out of this great number of lighthouses on our coasts, 
 there is, probably, none more famous than the Minot's 
 Ledge lighthouse. The Minot's rocks are situated just east 
 of Boston Bay, and for years they had been the terror of 
 sailors, probably being the cause of a greater number of 
 wrecks than any other reefs on our extensive coasts. 
 
 Captain W. H. Swift, U. S. Engineer, in 1848 began the 
 difficult labor of putting up an iron structure on the outer 
 or most seaward of the Minot group. Notwithstanding the 
 
508 MODES OF SIGNALLING IN TIMES OF FOGS. 
 
 many obstacles to be overcome, the work was completed in 
 about a year. In 1851 a terrific storm arose, completely 
 destroying this structure and all who were in it. 
 
 Every commercial and human consideration required that 
 there should be a beacon on this ledge. Congress promptly 
 took the matter in hand, making the necessary appropria- 
 tions, and the erection of a new tower was immediately 
 begun under the charge of the newly created Lighthouse 
 Board. The work began in July, 1855, and was completed 
 in September, 1860, and cost nearly $300,000. The struc- 
 ture is of stone and over 114 feet high. It has so far with- 
 stood all the power of the elements, and is a grand monu- 
 ment of modern engineering skill. 
 
 Bells, as a warning to mariners, have been and are still 
 generally employed at light-houses as one of the best modes 
 of signalling in times of fogs. We have already alluded to 
 the Inchcape Bell, and to Mr. Stephenson's lighthouse on 
 that dangerous rock. The machinery which causes the 
 reflectors to revolve every half-minute is made to ring two 
 large bells, each weighing about twelve hundred-weight, to 
 warn the seaman of his danger when too near this rock. 
 
 In some lighthouses guns are fired during fogs : at those 
 in Nova Scotia, horns are sounded during fogs, and these are 
 heard at a distance of three miles. In a lighthouse near 
 Holyhead, England, built on the middle of an island under 
 a cliff, and connected with the mainland by a bridge, tamed 
 sea-birds are employed as signals. The gulls perch on the 
 walls of the lighthouse, and utter cries that warn the sailor. 
 This lighthouse has a bell and a gun, but the natural signal 
 has been judged so superior that the cannon has been re- 
 moved some distance from the rock for fear lest the noise 
 should startle the birds. In this island the young gulls run 
 about among the white rabbits, with whom they live on the 
 most intimate terms. 
 
COAL Oli WOOD FIRES FORMER Y USED. 509 
 
 Gongs are used in some lighthouses, and are found of 
 great use. 
 
 A steam trumpet is used, the sound of which can be heard 
 at a considerable distance. The instrument can be tuned at 
 will, and thus produces different notes. A small quantity 
 of steam suffices. 
 
 In Scotland whistles are placed in the lanterns of the 
 lighthouses, and these communicate by tubes with the 
 rooms below, in order to summon assistance if required, and 
 thus avoid the necessity of the keeper in charge leaving his 
 post until relieved. 
 
 In the absence of any authority respecting the material 
 with which the earliest lighthouses were illuminated, we 
 may naturally conclude that wood furnished the means, with 
 any other substance which would give intensity to the flame, 
 or contribute to its duration. 
 
 In England, lighthouses from an early period appear to 
 have been illuminated by coal or wood fires contained in 
 pans. At the close of the seventeenth century an iron grate 
 on the top of the North Foreland Lighthouse, in Kent, Eng- 
 land, contained a coal fire open to the air; and later, in 1732, 
 the top of the tower was covered with a sort of lantern 
 with large sash windows, and the light of the fire was kept 
 up by bellows, which were moved during the night by at- 
 tendants. The last coal-light — that of St. Bee's in Cumber- 
 land — ^^was only extinguished in 1822. To coal fires suc- 
 ceeded tallow candles, and these were fastened in wooden 
 rods, as they are sometimes seen arranged before booths in 
 fairs. These were in use for forty years at the Eddystone 
 Lighthouse after it was completed by Smeaton. 
 
 The use of oil does not seem to date back beyond 1730: 
 lamps with twisted cotton wicks were used, but these were 
 always attended with smoke and a bad smell. The iirst 
 decided improvement was made by M. Argand, a native of 
 Geneva, who, in 1784, invented a lamp with a circular wick. 
 
510 LATER ADAPTATIONS. 
 
 The flame thus became a hollow cylinder, with a current of 
 air ascending through the inside, so that the burning surface 
 was doubled. To make these lamps more effective for 
 lighthouses, and to prevent the rays of light from escaping 
 on all sides, a reflector was added by M. Lenoir. This 
 threw the light forward in parallel rays toward such points 
 of the horizon as would be useful to mariners ; but M. 
 Augustin Fresnel was the first to introduce lenticular action 
 into lighthouse illumination by tlie adoption of the annular 
 or built lens. Along Avith Arago he investigated the action 
 exercised by polarized rays of light on each other, and the 
 practical application of his theory to the improvement of 
 the lighthouse system was of immense value, and quite 
 abolished the old method of illuminating the " sea 
 sentinels." 
 
 Among the later adaptations for this object are the intro- 
 duction of gas, but this is attended by the uncertainty and 
 other objections connected with its manufacture and use in 
 remote and inaccessible places. It is, however, of great 
 convenience and use in harbor lights. 
 
 The attention of scientific men, so far as lighthouses are 
 concerned, is now almost confined to the discovery of the 
 best modes of producing the light. That in ordinary use 
 leaves little to be desired when the weather is tolerably 
 clear ; since a first-class oil light, at the height on which it 
 is usually elevated, is visible from the masthead when the 
 vessel comes above the horizon of the lighthouse. It is in 
 hazy weather that a more intense light becomes desirable. 
 There is the " Drummond" light, which consists in substitut- 
 ing for the Argand burner a small ball of lime ignited by the 
 combustion of oxygen and hydrogen; but the difficulty of 
 obtaining a continuous combustion has hitherto prevented the 
 adoption of this means of illumination in lighthouses. The 
 " electric" light has undergone careful trials by the govern- 
 ment authorities. It possesses an advantage from its not 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHT. 511 
 
 being a mere spark of very snuiU size, as compared with an 
 oil lamp of the same power ; for this enables much smallei 
 optical apparatus to be used, occasioning not only a saving 
 of cost, but a saving of light — tlie loss of light being less 
 when the glass is thinner. The electro-magnetic light has 
 been seen thirty minutes after losing sight of the lower 
 lights — that is, at the rate of a steamer's progress — a distance 
 of about seven miles. Taking all things into consideration, it 
 seems likely that the electric light is destined to supersede 
 all kinds of oil for lighthouse illumination : its far-reaching 
 property, and its power to penetrate fogs, must in the end 
 obtain for it the victory over all other sources of light. 
 
 To these notices of the structures raised for the guidance 
 and security of mariners, we will now add some observations 
 on the mmna^ec? sentinels of the seas: those men to whose 
 care these all-important buildings are intrusted. Life in a 
 lighthouse would seem to us a terrible hardship. Perhaps 
 one of the worst of criminals, who might be indifferent to 
 most kinds of penal punishment, would be terrified if he 
 were condemned to pass the remainder of his life on a soli- 
 tary rock amidst the wide ocean. It would appear, indeed, 
 diflScult to reconcile the mind to a service so lonely and 
 peculiar, not unfrequently attended at some places with 
 risks and privations, and requiring an amount of vigilance 
 and responsibilty not very tempting to most men in search 
 of employment. Yet it appears that these situations are 
 frequently sought after, and by persons who have been en- 
 gaged in far different occupations. Some of these applicants 
 have been carpenters, blacksmiths, domestic servants, but- 
 chers, bricklayers, painters, bakers, coopers, tailors, etc. 
 Among these individuals there are doubtless some whose 
 taste for solitude may have induced them to forsake their 
 occupations among the busy haunts of society, and others, 
 perhaps, to whom the novelty of the employment might 
 offer some attraction ; but it is a very singular circumstance 
 
512 
 
 THE "ANIMATED" SENTINELS OF THE SEA. 
 
 viidbi, almost all who have adopted a lighthouse for their 
 home seem to have been satisfied with their choice, and 
 some even have boasted that they would not change their 
 solitary lot for any other. 
 
 Appointments to positions in either of these branches of 
 the national service depends entirely upon personal and 
 superior fitness and not upon political preferment. And we 
 venture to say that the labor performed by the servants 
 and the supervision of that labor by the proper Govern- 
 ment officers is as pains-taking and conscientious as any- 
 thing well can be. If the battle-scarred veteran who has 
 fought his country's battles, be so fortunate as to return 
 from the scenes of conflict to his home and fireside, we, 
 from motives of gratitude and warm, patriotic sentiments 
 tugging at our hearts, Avelcome him with loud plaudits 
 and crown him with laurels. It is right and becoming that 
 we should do this, but at the same time let us not forget 
 these other heroes who are equally deserving, though their 
 noble and unselfish deeds of daring are not trumpeted 
 abroad with marshal accessories and emblazonment. 
 
 In concluding these brief notices, we trust the reader 
 will often think of the lonely watchers to whose faithful 
 care they are entrusted, with feelings of the deepest in- 
 terest, for the lives of so many brave men, and the secu- 
 rity of valuable vessels, depend upon their vigilance and 
 unceasing attention.