LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.' Chap. ___}___. Copyright jS^._ Shelf-_ 3.63. UNITED STATES b>F AMERICA. The Peerless Hose Nipple Cap Side View. Cut shows exact size of Nipple Cap. IS PRACTICALLY ANTI-FRICTION. THE SOFT YIELDING END OF THE CAP IN CONTACT WITH THE LINING OR TUBE OF THE HOSE IS VERY ELASTIC AND YIELDING, OVERCOMING THE SWINGING AND MECHANICAL MOTION, DOUBLING THE LIFE OF 90 PER CENT. OF ANY AIR BRAKE HOSE WHEN THIS LITTLE HOSE NIPPLE CAP IS USED. PUT UP IN BOXES CONTAINING ONE GROSS EACH. PUT THE HOSE NIPPLE CAP ON THE END OF THE IRON NIPPLE OR COUPLING FIRMLY, THEN COAT THE END AND OUTSIDE OF THE NIPPLE CAP FREELY WITH PEERLESS RUBBER CEMENT, AND APPLY HOSE TO C U NG AND NIPPLE AS USUAL. MANUFACTURED, PATENTED, AND GOPYKIGHTED EXCLUSIVELY BY THE PEERLESS RUBBER MANUFACTURING COMPANY, 16 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK. JUST PUBLISHED. A CATECHISM ON THE Combustion of Coal WILLIAM M. BARR, M. E., Author of "Pumping Machinery," "Boilers and Furnaces," etc. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. NEARLY 350 PAGES. Z>XlXO£2 $1.50. Locomotive engineers and firemen will find this booK especially adapted to their needs while preparing for examination for promotion. It is a complete guide to the practical solution of all questions relating to the combustion of anthracite or bituminous coals and the prevention of smoke. This is the only treatise published in America on this important subject. It should, therefore, have a place in the working library of every engineer, fireman and student in engineering. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Pubi^ishbrs, J32 NASSAU ST., NEW YORK. ^ Copies of this book prepaid to any address on receipt of 'price, or a special circular of contents mailed on application. UF'=XO=DAXE Air-Brake Catechism A COMPLETE STUDY OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT, INCLUDING THE LATEST DEVICES AND INVEN- TIONS USED. ALL TROUBLES AND PECU- LIARITIES OF THE AIR BRAKE, AND A PRACTICAL WAY TO FIND AND REMEDY THEM ARE EXPLAINED J Containing nearly 1 ,000 Questions witti their Answers/ intended as Examination Questions for Engineers and Firemen, and for all other Practical Railroad Men ) BY ^ ROBERT H. BLACKALL Air-Brake Instructor and Inspector with Westinghottse Air Brake Co. FULLY ILLUSTRATED By engravings specially made to illustrate the various parts of the Air Brake ; also containing three large folding plates / -' - ' TWELFTH EDITION Revised, Enlarged and brought right up to date NEW YORK NORxMAN W. HENLEY & CO. 1900 _55321_ ■'V.l: COPtU Htt£i/EO OCT 2 1900 Cofy right tntry ££r('f,^t> copy. U»--'Vfr«< to OnOiH DIVISION, OC T 18 iflflfl Copyrighted, NORMAN W. HE)NI,KY & CO. Copyrighted, 1900 BY NORMAN W. HKNI^KY & CO. 6^0' ^ w DeMcatton* THIS BOOK IS RKSPECTFUI.I.Y DEDICATED TO R. C. BI^ACKAIvI,, SUPERINTENDENT OF MACHINERY, D. & H. CO. AS A TOKEN OE APPRECIATION OF HIS EXECUTIVE ABII.ITY AND INTEI,I^-Inch Pump ..... . 121-132 Operation .... 121-125 Peculiarities, Troubles and Care . • 125-132 8-Inch Pump ..... 132-135 Operation ..... . 132-135 Troubles . . » , 135 Sweeney Compressor . o . , 136 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Westinghouse Pump Governors — Operations, Peculiarities and Troubles . . 137-143 Westinghouse Whistle Signal . . . 144-157 Operation ...... 1 44-1 51 Peculiarities and Troubles . . . 152-157 Westinghouse High-Speed Brake . . . 158-162 Train Inspection ..... 163-170 Train Handling ...... 1 71-194 Description of Tests . . . . . 195 Piping ....... 196-197 M. C. B. Rules ..... 198-201 Braking Power and Leverage .... 202-220 Discussion . . , . . 202-220 Classes of Levers ..... 205-209 Application to Hodge System . . 209-214 Application to Stevens System . . . 213-214 Sizes of Cylinders to be used with Different Weights of Cars . . . . 215 American Brake Leverage . . . 216-218 Cam Brake . . . . . 219 Formulae and Rules for Air-Brake Inspectors . 220-223 Increased Brake Efficiency for Heavy Freight Trains . 224-226 Air Brake Recording Gages . . . 227-231 Sansom Bell Ringer . . . . . 232-236 Ochse Bell Ringer ..... 237-240 Sanders . . . . . . . 241-248 Index . . . . o . . 249-254 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Plate A. General Arrangement of the Air-Brake Equipment on the Engine, Tender and Passenger Car. Fig! I. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 3 Fig. 4- Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9- Fig. lO. Fig. II. Fig. 12. Fig. 13- Fig. 14. Fig. 15- Fig. 16. Fig. 17- Fig. 18. Fig. 19- Fig. 20. Plate B. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23 Plain Triple Quick-Action Triple .... Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve Bushing A. Quick- Action Triple Slide Valve . Quick-Action Triple, showing Emergency- Position ....... Plain Triple, showing Service Position . Quick-Action Triple, showing Release Posi tion Freight Equipment . McKee Slack Adjuster . Pressure Retaining Valve F 6 Brake Valve F 6 Brake Valve F 6 Brake Valve A View of the Bottom Side of the Rotary 43 Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor Leak in Train-Line Governor Gasket Little Drum, or Cavity D . . . D 8 Brake Valve D 8 Brake Valve ..... D 8 Brake Valve Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Valve The 9 X -Inch Improved Air Pump. The 8- Inch Pump Improved Pump Governor .... Old Style Pump Governor .... 22 38 39 39 41 42 43 52 64 67 82 84 86 90 94 95 98 106 no III 112 133 138 141 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Fig. 29. Fig. 30 Fig. 31 Fig. 32 Fig. 33- Fig. 34. Fig. 35- Fig. 36. Fig. 37- Fig. 38. Fig. 39- Fig. 40. Plate C. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43- Fig. 44. Fig. 45- Fig. 46. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. Fig. 49. Fig. 50- Fig. 51- Fig. 52. Location of Signal Apparatus on Engine Location of Signal Apparatus on Coach . Car Discharge Valve Signal Valve . Improved Reducing Valve Signal Whistle Old Style Reducing Valve High-Speed Brake Reducing Valve Comparative Efficiency of Different Westing- house Brakes Lever of ist Kind Lever of ist Kind Lever of 2nd Kind Lever of 2nd Kind Lever of 3rd Kind Lever of 3rd Kind Hodge System . American Equalized Brake Showing Increased Brake Efficiency for heavy Freight Trains. Revolving Recording Gage Horizontal Recording Gage Sansom Bell Ringer Sansom Bell Ringer as. applied to a Bell Frame ...... Shows the Application of Bell Ringer Ochse Bell Ringer .... Ochse Bell Ringer .... Leach " D " Double Sander Detail of Leach "D " Double Trap, showing exterior air nozzle. Leach " A " Style Sander Leach " B " Sander . * ' She ' ' Sander Plate A. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE AIR-BRAKE EQUIPMENT ON THE ENGINE, TENDER AND PASSENGER CAR. V F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F p: F F F F Fi Fi Fi BEGINNINGS OF THE AIR BRAKE Q. What is ait air brake f A. A brake worked by compressed air. Q. What was the first form of air brake used ? A. The straight air brake. Q. By whom and when was it invented f A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1869, Q. What forms of brake did it supplant f A. The hand and the spring brakes. Q. What parts were necessary to operate the straight air brake ? A. An air pump, main reservoir, a valve called the three-way cock used to control the application and release of the brakes, a train pipe, and brake cylinders. Q. What parts were on the engine ? A. A main reservoir, pump, and engineer's valve. Q. What parts were on the car ? A. The train pipe and cylinder. Q. Where was the braking power stored with this system ? A. In the main reservoir on the engine. 1 8 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. How were the brakes applied ? A. By changing tlie position of the three- way cock on the engine so as to allow the main reservoir pressure to flow into the train line. The train line, connected directly with the brake cylinder, allowed air to pass into the cylinder, forcing the piston out and applying the brake. Q. Why was this brake tinsatisfactoiy ? A. For several reasons. First, the tendency of the brake was to apply soonest at the head end of the train. If they were applied suddenly the slack running ahead would cause severe shocks and damage. Second, if a hose burst in the train, the brakes could not be set with air, as it would pass out the burst hose to the atmosphere. Third, on a long train the main reservoir pressure would equalize with that in the train line and brake cylinders at a low pressure on account of the large space to be filled ; before the brakes were full set the engineer would have to allow the pump to compress air into the train line and brake cylinders, and before maximum braking power was obtained the train would be stopped. Fourth, the effect of friction on the flow of air from main reservoir through a long train made this brake slower. Q. What was ihe next form after the straight air brake ? A. The automatic. Q. By whom and when was it invented ? A. By George Westinghouse, Jr., in 1873. Q. What gains over the hand brake are made with the air brake ? A. With a train of fifty modern equipped air-brake cars, a full and harder set brake is obtained on the entire train more quickly than a hand brake can be set on one car. Since trains handled on heavy grades have to be Beginnings of the Air Brake. 19 slowed Sown for the purpose of recharging, by this means the wheels are given a chance to cool. With the hand brakes used on heavy grades, the shoes grind against the wheels down nearly, or quite all of the grade so that often the train is wrecked because the wheels are heated to so high a temperature that they break. Air brakes give us an increased speed of trains with greater safety. THE WESTINGHOUSB AUTOMATIC BRAKE. Q. Where was the difference in the equipment between the straight air and atttomatic brake made ? A. Besides the train line and brake cylinder, a plain triple and an auxiliary reservoir were added to the car. Q. With the cars equipped with the automatic brake, what gain was m^ade over the straight air brake ? A. (i) The necessary braking power, regardless of the length of the train, was stored in the auxiliary under each car for that car, so that the brakes could be full set very quickly compared to the action of the straight air brake. (2) If the train broke in two or a hose burst, the triples would automatically apply the brakes, while with the straight air the brakes could not be applied. Q. What was the essential feature of the auto- w.atic brake ? A. The triple valve known as the 'plain triple, Q, Where was it located f A. On the car, at the junction of the train line, auxiliary, and brake cylinder. Q. Did the pump and three-way cock remaifi 07i the engine ? A. Yes ; this was left for later development. PIvAIN TRIPLE. Q, Name the different parts of the plain triple. Fig. I.— P1.AIN Tripi^e. A. 13 and 15 are the cut-out cock and the handle ; 8^ the graduating post; 9, the graduating spring; m and. Plain Triple. 23 n are feed ports; 5 is the triple piston; 6, the slide valve; 7 is the graduating valve which works inside the slide valve; 12, a piston-packing ring; 18, slide- valve spring ; Y, the port leading to the auxiliary ; X leads to brake cylinder ; W leads to train-line pressure. Q. For what are valve ij and handle i ^ ttsed? A. They permit the triple to be used as straight air, automatic or cut out entirely, as illustrated by the cut (Fig. i). O. What three positions has the handle i§ {Fig. I)? A. As shown in the cut, by the different positions of the handle : so that the triple would be cut in, as it is with the handle 15 at right angles to the triple ; pointing straight down, in which case, air coming in at W from the train line would go through port e of the plug cock 13 and out into the brake cylinder through X ; or the handle could stand at an angle of 45°, in which posi- tion ports /, a and d would all be blanked. In the first position the triple is cut in as automatic, in the second for straight air, and in the third the triple is cut out entirely. Q, Can the modern plain triple now sent out be cut into straight air ? A. No. Q. Why not ? K. Because there are lugs cast on the handle 15 which strike and will not allow it to be raised above its position as shown in the cut, or lower than the position marked '' shut off." . Q. Why was it necessary to have it so arra^iged that it co2ild be cut in as straight air f A. When the brakes were gradually being changed 24 Air-Brake Catechism. from straight air to automatic, it sometimes happened that only a few cars in the train had the triple applied. In this case the handle 15 was turned so as to cut the car into straight air to be used with the other straight air cars. Q. Of what use are 8 and g {Fig- i^ ? A. In applying the brakes, when piston 5 moves out and touches the stem 8, held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. i), the piston is stopped, if a gradual reduction is being made on the train line, when the piston has drawn the slide valve down far enough to make a port connection between the auxiliary and cylinder. Q. If a quick reduction is being made on the train liiie, will the spring g stop the triple piston ? A. No; a quick reduction causes the triple piston 5 to move out quickly, and the sudden impact compresses the spring 9, allowing the piston 5 to move out until it strikes gasket 11, to what is known as emergency position. Q. 5 {Fig. I) is called the triple piston. How is it actuated? A. Train-line pressure is on the lower side of the piston and auxiliary pressure on the upper or slide- valve side. It is by changing these pressures that the piston is moved. Q. What are the duties of the piston as it moves f A. To open and close the feed ports m and n (Fig. i ) through which the train -line pressure flows into the auxil- iary, to move the graduating valve 7 and the slide valve 6. Q. What is the duty of the graduating valve 7 {Ftg. /) ? A. It is the small valve inside the slide valve, and its duty as it is moved backward and forward by the triple piston is to open and close the port p through which, in Plain Tripi^k. 25 the service application, auxiliary pressure flows to the brake cylinder. Q. Does the graduatmg valve Tuove every time the triple piston moves? A. Yes, because it is fastened to the stem of the piston by a pin which passes through both the gradu- ating valve and the stem of the triple piston. The pin is represented by the dotted lines running through the lower end of the graduating valve at right angles to it. Q. Could we get along without the graduatiiig valve ? A. Yes, but the sensitiveness of the triple would be destroyed. Q. How does the graduating valve make the ' triple se7isitive ? A. A reduction of train-line pressure causes the triple to assume service position, and after the auxiliary pressure has expanded to a trifle below that in the train line, piston 5 (Fig. i) moves back and closes the graduating valve on its seat. Train-line pressure had simply to overcome the friction on the triple piston-packing ring to do this, but had we no graduating valve the train- line pressure would have had to be strong enough to overcome the additional friction of the slide valve to move it back far enough to close port p. When wishing to apply brakes harder, a heavier reduction would be necessary to again move the slide valve to service position. With the graduating valve, the slide valve is moved to service position with the first reduction, where it remains until the brake is released or in case the emergency is used. Q. What are the duties of the slide valve ? A. In the plain triple, when moved by the triple piston, it serves to make a connection between the 26 Air-Brake Catechism. auxiliary and the brake cylinder or between the brake cylinder and the atmosphere. Q. Does the slide valve ^inove every Hfne the piston moves? A. No ; the slide valve will not move when the piston starts down until it has moved far enough for the lug just above i8 (Fig. i) to strike the valve. The same, if the piston is down full stroke ; when it starts back the slide valve will not move until the piston has gone back far enough to seat the graduating valve. Q. Of what use is the spring 1 8 {Fig. /) f A. Its duty is to hold the slide valve on its seat and to prevent dirt from collecting there when there is no auxiliary pressure to hold the valve on its seat, as when the car is "dry.'* FUNCTIONS OF THE TRIPIvE IN THE OPERATION OF THE BRAKE. 2. Why is this valve called the triple valve ? A. Because it automatically does three things : charges the auxiliary, applies the brake and releases it. Q. If an engine couples to a car that is not charged, how does the triple charge the auxiliary on the car when the hose is coupled and the angle cocks turned so as to allow the compressed air to flow into the train line on this car from the engine? A. A cross-over pipe from the main train line couples to the triple at IT (Fig. i). The pressure from the train line passes into the triple at W, through port c as indicated by the arrow into cavity B; thence through the feed ports m and n into the chamber where the slide valve moves and out into the auxiliary at Y. Q. How long does the air continue to flow into the auxiliary ? A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater than that in the auxiliary, that is, until the pressures are equal on the two sides of the triple piston 5. Q. How are the two sides of the piston referred to? A. The lower side, having train-line pressure on it, is called the train-line side of the piston, and the upper side, having auxiliary pressure on it, the auxiliary or slide-valve side. 28 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What is 7iecessary to cause piston 5 {Fig, /) to move fi^om release position f A. Any reduction of train-line pressure ; a break in tlie hose ; the use of his valve by the engineer to make a train-line reduction. Q. If a reduction of train-line pressure is made, how does the triple respond? A. Auxiliary pressure now being greater forces the triple piston down. Q. What two things does the piston do when it starts to move down ? A. It closes the feed grooves m and n and moves the graduating valve from its seat. Q. Does the slide valve move as soon as the piston ? A. No, not until the lug above 18 (Fig. i) is drawn down far enough to rest against the slide valve. Q. What does the slide valve do as soon as the lug strikes and moves it down f A. It first closes the exhaust port g which in release position connected the brake cylinder with the atmos- phere through X, d, e, /, ^, /i and ^. Q. How far down does the triple piston travel ? A. Until the projecting stem of the piston strikes the stem 8 held by the graduating spring 9 (Fig. i). Q, When these stems touch, how does the slide valve stand ? A. Port p of the slide valve is in front of port /, and, as the graduating valve was pulled from its seat when the piston first moved, the auxiliary pressure is now free to pass into the slide valve through port ^, Functions of the Triple. 29 called the service or graduating port, which leads into port p. The air passes through ports l^ p^ f^ e^ d, and out through X to the brake cylinder. Q. How long does the gradttating valve remain off its seat so as to allow auxiliary pressure to flow to the brake cylinder ? A. We reduced the train-line pressure to allow the greater auxiliary pressure to move the piston down and open the service or graduating port p between the auxil- iary and cylinder. Just as long as the auxiliary pressure is greater, the piston will stay down and the graduating valve remain unseated. As the auxiliary pressure ex- pands into the brake cylinder it gradually becomes less until, when the train-line pressure becomes enough greater than that in the auxiliary to overcome the fric- tion on the packing ring 12 (Fig. i), the piston auto- matically moves back and seats the graduating valve. Q. Does the slide valve move ? A. No, not now. Q. Why not? A, The train-line pressure was just strong enough to overcome the friction on the packing ring 12, move the piston back, and close the graduating valve. With the ports all closed the piston would also have to com- press the air in the auxiliary to go back any farther. Then, too,, the pressure left in the auxiliary acting to force the slide valve on its seat produces a friction, if the valve were moved, that the train-line pressure as it stands is not sufficiently strong to overcome. Q. How do the aiixiliary and train-line press- ures now stand f A. Practically equal, although the auxiliary pressure had to be a trifle less to allow the triple piston to be moved back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. 30 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q, The brake is now partially applied and the triple is on what is termed lap position ; what must be done to apply the brake harder f A. Another reduction of train-line pressure must be made. Q. How does this set the brake tighter ? A. The auxiliary pressure once more being stronger than that on the train line forces the triple piston down until it is again stopped by the graduating post. This movement is just sufficient to unseat the graduating valve, the slide valve remaining where it was with its service port p (Fig. i) in front of the brake cylinder o About the same amount of air pressure passes from the auxiliary to the cylinder that was taken from the train line, and the piston once more having a trifle more pressure on the train line than on the auxiliary side moves back sufficiently to seat the graduating valve. Q, How long can these train-line reductions con- tinue to be made and cause the brake to set harder ? A. Until the pressures have finally equalized be- tween the auxiliary and the brake cylinder. Q. After the auxiliary and brake-cylinder press- tires were equal, would the brake set any harder if all train-line pressure were thrown to the atmos- phere ? A. No ; when the brakes are full set the auxiliar}^ and brake-cylinder pressures are equal, and a further re- duction of train-line pressure would only be a waste of air that the pump would have to replace in order to re- lease the brakes. Q. If a further train-line reduction were made after the brake was full set, would piston 5 {Fig. i) Functions of the Triple. 31 move any fa^^ther than until the piston and graduatins[ post touched ? A. Yes ; the spring 9 could not withstand the auxil- iary pressure, as it is so much in excess of the reduced train-line pressure, and the piston would move down until it seated on gasket 11. In this position there would be a direct connection across the end of the slide valve between the auxiliary and brake cylinder, but the brake would not set any tighter, as the auxiliary and brake- cylinder pressures were already equal. Q. The brake is noiv ficll set. What is neces- sa ry to release it ? A. It is necessary to get the pressure on the train- line side of the triple piston greater than that on its auxiliary side. Q How is this done ? A. By moving the handle of the engineer's valve so as to connect the pressure of ninety pounds, stored in the large main reservoir on the engine, with the train line. Air flowing from the main reservoir into the train line causes the pressure on the train-line side of the triple piston to be sufficiently strong to overcome auxiliary pressure and force the triple piston to release position. Q. When the triple is forced to release position the slide and graduating valves are carried with it. What two port openings are inade in this position ? A. One between the train line and auxiliary through the feed ports m and n (Fig. i) ; and one from the brake cylinder to the atmosphere through ports oJ, e, /, ^, h and Ic. The triple is in release as shown in the cut. Q. We nutice that the feed grooves m and n {Fig. /) are very small. How long wottld it take to charge an a2ixiliaiy fro7n ze7'o to seventy pounds with a 32 Air- Brake Catechism. constant pressure of seventy pounds on the t'^ain liney using the triple now sent out ? A. About seventy seconds ; and occasionally a little longer. Q. Will it charge more quickly than this with a greater pressure than seventy pounds on the train line f A. Yes. Q. Had we a train of fifteen cars, could we charge the fifteen auxiliaries as fast as we could one? A. No, because we now have fifteen feed grooves in the triples drawing air from the train line, and the pump cannot compress air fast enough to keep the train-line pressure at seventy pounds. Q, Why not make these feed grooves larger so as to charge the auxiliaries tnore quickly f A. The purpose is to make the grooves sufficiently small that on a long train the auxiliaries will charge alike. On a long train there is a tendency for the head auxiliaries to charge faster than the rear ones, if the triple feed grooves are larger than those now used. Q. What is likely to happen if some auxiliaries charge faster than others ? A. As the air is fed from the main reservoir back into the train line until those pressures are equal, and as the pump will not, on a long train, supply air as fast as the triple feed grooves take it from the train line, it follows that the auxiliaries which charge the slower will continue to feed from the train line and cause a reduction that will set some of the head brakes. Q, So far we have spoken of the action of the plain triple only in the service application. What Functions of the Triple. 33 is the difference between the service and the emer- gency ? A. In service the brakes set gradually, while in emergency they go on very suddenly. Q. A gradual reduction sets the brakes in ser- vice. What ki7id of a redttction is necessary to set the brakes in emergency f A. A sudden reduction. Q, Describe the einergency action of the plain triple. A. The suddenness of the train-line reduction causes piston 5 (Fig. i) to move down suddenly, striking the stem 8 a quick, sharp blow which the graduating spring 9 is not stiff enough to withstand. The piston travels down full stroke and bottoms on gasket 1 1 . This is emer- gency position, and the slide valve has been drawn down so that air coming through Y from the auxiliary passes across the end of the slide valve directly into the large port / leading to the brake cylinder without first going through the small service port ]) in the slide valve, as it did in the service position. Q. Why does the brake set m^ore qitickly ? A. Because the air goes direct to the cylinder through a larger port than is used in service. Q. Do we gain any more pressure with the plain . triple in emergency than in fill service f A. No ; in both cases the auxiliary pressure equal- izes with that in the brake cylinder, but in emergency these pressures equalize more quickly because of the air reaching the brake cylinder through a larger port. Q, Are plain triples still tLsed ? 34 Air-Brake Catechism. A. Yes, but they are used almost entirely on engines and tenders. Their use on cars is confined principally to those equipments put on before the quick-action triple was introduced. Q, Is there a more modern plain triple than the one showji in Fig, i ? Yes, the one shown in Fig. 5. Q. Why was this designed? A. To use with the larger auxiliaries and brake cylinders that have come into use. Q. What are the main cha?iges f A. This later triple can only be cut in or cut out ; it has no ports that will permit of its being used with straight air ; its ports are larger, in order that it will chaise a large auxiliary in the same time that the ordi- nary plain triple will charge the smaller tender auxiliary ; this valve has no cut-out plug, but, instead, a cut-out cock is placed in the cross-over pipe between it and the train line. THE WESTINGHOUSE QUICK-ACTION TRIPLE. Q, When and by zvkom was the quick-action triple invented f A. In 1887, by George Westinghouse, Jr. Q. We already had the plain triple. Why was the qitick-action triple necessary f A. The plain triple was satisfactory so long as only the service application was used, but not so with the emergency application on a long train. In this latter case the head brakes were full set so much sooner than those on the rear, that the slack of the train ran ahead and often did great damage. Q. What two important advantages are gained hy the quick- action triple f A. We are enabled to set the brakes throughout the train before the slack has a chance to run ahead and do damage, and not only does the brake set more quickly in emergency, but it is also set harder, thus permitting a quicker stop and a higher safe speed for trains. Q. In the use of the service application, what is the difference between the action of the plain and the quick-action triples ? A. None whatever ; their action and the parts em- ployed are identical, excepting the additional ports placed in the slide valve of the quick-action triple, which are used only in emergency. 36 Air-Brakk Catechism^ Q. Will these two kinds of triples scattered through a train work together properly in service ?' A. Perfectly » Q. Name the differ eiit parts of the quick-action triple not found in the plain triple. A, The strainer 16 (Fig. 2). The additional port s in the slide valve and the removed corner of the slide valve shown in Fig. 3 A. 8 is the emergency piston. 10 is the emergency or, as it is more commonly called, the rubber- seated valve. 15 is called the train-line check, also the emergency check. Q Of what use is the strainer ? A. Strainer 16 is to keep dirt from getting into the triple in such a way as to close the small feed ports i and k. Q. Of zvhat use is piston 8 ? A. If the triple is moved so as to allow auxiliary pressure to get into port t on top of piston 8 , this piston, will be forced down, thereby forcing the emergency valve 10 from its seat. Q. What is done when the rubber-seated or emerge^icy valve 10 (f^ig. 2) is forced from its seat f A. All air escapes from cavity y and allows train- line pressure to force the train-line check 15 from its- seat. Q. Of what tcse is the check valve i§ ? A. If a hose breaks in the train line, the brakes would go full set on the whole train and, with no air in the train line, were it not for the check valve 15, brake- cylinder pressure coming in at C would force valve 10 from its seat and pass direct to the train line througk cavity y and out of the broken or parted hose. In such a case the brakes would not stay set. The Westinghouse Quick- Action Triple. ^^ Q, Explam tJie action of the quick-actio7i triple in emergency. A. A quick train-line reduction causes the auxiliary pressure to force the triple piston out the full length of chamber h (Fig. 2), the graduating spring 22 being com- pressed on account of its inability to withstand the sudden IdIow from the triple piston. With the triple piston in the extreme position to the xight, or that of emergency, port s of the slide valve is in front of port r, thus establishing a connection be- tween the auxiliary and brake cylinder. At the same time the removed corner of the slide valve, shown in Fig. 3 A, is in front of port i leading to the top of the emer- gency piston 8. The auxiliary pressure forcing piston -8 down unseats the emergency valve 10. This valve being unseated allows all pressure to escape from cavity ij. With no pressure in cavity y to hold the train-line check to its seat, the train-line pressure under the check raises it and passes into cavity ?/, over seat of valve 10 to cavity x and out at into the brake cylinder ; at the same time the auxiliary pressure is entering the cylinder through port r. As soon as the pressures equalize, piston S, valve 10, and check 15 go to their normal positions. Q. Of what use are Figs, j and jA ? A. Fig. 3 A gives a better idea of the location of the ports in the slide valve ; Fig. 3 , the location of the ports in the bushing inside of which the slide valve works. Q. Name the parts. A. 26 (Fig. 2) is the drain plug ; 16, the train-line strainer; 20, the graduating nut ; 21 , the graduating stem or post ; 22, the graduating spring ; 5, the triple piston ; J, the piston stem ; i and h^ the feed ports ; 6, the slide- valve spring; 3, the slide valve; 7, the graduating valve ; lu^ the service or graduating port ; n, the exhaust 38 Air-Brake Catechism. port; s, the emergency port; 2, a continuation of the service port w ; 15, the train-line or emergency check ; 12, the train-line check spring; 10, the emergency or Fig. 2.— Quick- Action Tripi,e). rubber-seated valve; 8, the emergency piston. The exhaust port p leads around outside the brass bushing to the atmosphere as shown in Fig. 3 by the dotted lines. The Westinghouse Quick-Action Tripi^e. 39 Q, We have seen that with the quick-action triple the brakes are set harder in emergency , Are brakes set in emergency any harder to release f A. Witli quick-action triples, yes ; with plain triples, no. Fig. 3.— Quick- Action Tripi^e Swde Valve Bushing. Fig. 3a.— Quick- Action Tripi^e Swde) Vai,ve. Q, Why ? A. With the quick-action triples air from the train line helps set the brakes in emergency, and the press- ures equalize higher ; therefore the train-line pressure must be made higher to overcome the auxiliary pressure and force the triple piston to release position. With the plain triple the pressures equalize at the same pressure as in service. Q. After a partial service application has been made, can we get the quick action ? A. This depends on the amount of reduction that has been made in service and upon the piston travel. In no case can we gain as much after making even a small service reduction as we could if the sudden 40 Air-Brake Catechism. reduction were made when the auxiliaries were fully charged and the brakes released. After a light reduction a gain over the pressure obtained in full service can be made by going to emergency position if the piston travel is a fair length, but not with short travel. By using the emergency after a partial service application, even we made no gain of pressure, we would get the full service more quickly. Q. How quick must a redicctio7i be made on the train line to throw a triple into quick actio7t ? A. Faster than the auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through the service port in the slide valve. In this case the graduating spring will not hold the triple piston from traveling full stroke. Q. When a triple is thrown into quick action, which pressure^ auxiliary or train line, reaches the bra ke cylin der first f A. Just a flash of auxiliary pressure reaches the cylinder as the service port in the slide valve passes the port leading to the cylinder, but the air from the train line reaches the cylinder first in any considerable volume, as the corner cut off from the slide valve allows the auxiliary pressure to strike piston 8 and force the rubber-seated valve lo from its seat before port s comes in front of port r. Q. Why is port s {Figs. 2 and jA), used in emer- gency, made smaller than port z, used in service, to let auxiliary pressure into the brake cylinder f A. So as to hold the auxiliary pressure back in emergency and allow as much air as possible to enter the brake cylinder from the train line. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE TRIPLE. From what follows it may seem that a triple will get out of order under any slightest provocation. This how- ever is not true ; it is a constant source of wonder to see the fine action of triple valves which have little or poor -TO AUXILIARY -TO CyLI.N.DER VO TRAIN LINE Fig. 4.— Quick- Action TripIvE, showing Emkrgkncy Position. care. A triple needs no more care than any other piece of mechanism to keep it doing first-class work. The aim of what follows is to bring out its possibilities. 43 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What could wholly or partially stop the charging of an auxiliary f A. The strainer in the train line where the cross- over pipe leading to the triple joins the main train line, or the strainer i6 in the triple (Fig. 2) being filled with dirt, scale, cinders or oil. Port i or k might be plugged, the triple might be cut out, or there might be a leak in the auxiliary which let the air out as fast as it came in. Q. If all auxiliaries did not charge equally fast, what would be the effect ? TO AUXILIARY -^TO CYLINiDlER - TO TRAIN LINE Fig. 5.— P1.AIN TRIP1.K, SHOWING Skrvick Position. A. If we wished to apply the brakes very soon, the ones with the auxiliaries not fully charged would not re- spond to the first reduction. Q. Will any other trouble result from the strainers being corroded or dirty f A. Yes ; we might not be able to make a sufficiently quick reduction on the triple piston to get quick action. Q. One triple going into quick action makes a sudden train-line reductioji which starts the next triple, and that one the next, and so on throughout Peculiarities and Troubi.es oi^ the Tripi^e. 43 the train. If five or six cars together in the train were cut out, or had plain triples^ or very dirty strainers, woiild the triples back of these go into quick action when the engineer made a sudden re- ductiofi f A. No, on account of the action of friction in the passage of the sudden reduction through the six car lengths of pipe. The friction gradually destroys the < .JO AUXILIARY »-T0. C.YLLNCEB TO TRAIN LIKE Fig. 6.— Quick- Action Tripi^e, showing Rei^Ease Position. suddenness of the reduction, and there is only a slight and gradual reduction on the train line back of the cars cut out. Q, What bad effect would follow if the engineer did not continue makincr a reduction ? <^ A. The air coming ahead from the back of the train would kick off the head brakes. 44 Air- Brake Catechism. Q. Could these brakes in the back of the train be applied? A. Yes, in service but not in emergency. Q. Water sometimes collects in cavity ij {Fig. 2) of the triple. Where does it come from? A. It works back from the pump. Q. What bad effect will water have in this place ? A. It is likely to freeze in winter and block the flow of air through the triple. Q. What should be do7ie in such a case ? A. Apply burning waste and when thawed remove the drain plug 26 to remove the water or the trouble will recur. Q. What would be the effect of a weak or broken graduating spring ? A. We would have nothing to stop the triple piston when it reached service position, and it would move on to emergency position. Q. If one triple goes into quick action, will the rest go ? A. Yes, as a sudden reduction is made on the train line through the emergency ports of the triple in this case. This sudden reduction starts the next and that the next and so on. Q. Will a weak or broken graduating spring always throzv the triples into qiiick action ? A. No, only on a short train. Q. Why not on a long train ? A. On a short train, with a gradual train-line reduc» tion, air is drawn from the train line faster than the Peculiarities and Troubles of the Triple. 45 auxiliary pressure can get to the brake cylinder through the service port of the slide valve. When the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the train line, it forces the triple piston to emergency position, as there is no graduating spring to stop it. On a long train, it takes longer to make a correspond- ing reduction on account of the larger volume of air in the train line. This gives the auxiliary pressure longer to pass into the cylinder, and as a result the train-line and auxiliary pressures keep about equal and the triple piston will not move to emergency position unless a sudden re- duction is made. Q. How fnany air cars must there be in a train so that a broken or weak graduating spring will not affect the service application ? A. Usually not less than six or seven; with more than this number, if otherwise the triples work properly, the graduating springs could be removed from all triples and no bad effect be noticed. Q. What two things will cause the triples to go into quick action regardless of the length of the train ? A. A sticky triple or a broken graduating pin. (The one which fastens the graduating valve to the piston stem as shown by the dotted lines. Fig. 2.) Q. Why will a sticky triple throw the brakes into eniergency ? A. Because the triple does not respond to a light re- duction. When it does move, it jumps, and the sudden blow compresses the graduating spring and the triple is in the quick-action position. This car starts the rest as before explained. Q, Why will a broken graduating pin throw the brakes into emergency ? 46 Air-Brake Catkchism. A. Because with this pin broken there is nothing to move the graduating valve from its seat when the triple piston moves and the auxiliary pressure is acting to hold it on its seat. When a train-line reduction is made and the triple assumes service position, no air can leave the auxiliary and pass through the graduating or service port of the slide valve, as the graduating valve is on its seat. When sufficient train-line reduction has been made so that the graduating spring cannot withstand the auxiliary pressure acting on the piston, the triple goes to the quick-action position, and we get the quick action on this car and consequently on the rest as before explained. Q. Which of these three troubles — weak gradu- ating spring, broken graduating pin or sticky triple — will usually be found to exist if the brakes go into emergency with a service reduction f A. A sticky triple, and this usually means that the triple causing the trouble has had poor care. Q. Shall we get the same result regardless of the location of the faulty triple in the train f A. Yes ; if one starts, all do. Q. What is the probable trouble with a brake which, when set in service, will sometimes remain set and sometimes release ? A. A dirty slide valve which sometimes seats prop- erly and at others not ; in the latter case auxiliary press- ure escapes to the atmosphere through the exhaust port and allows train- line pressure to force this triple to re- lease position. , Q. How may this defect be remedied ? A. Remove the triple piston and attached parts, clean carefully, loosen the packing ring without remov- ing and rub a little oil on the slide valve with the finger. Peculiarities and Troubi.es of the Tripi^e. 47 Q. Why not pour on the oil ? A. Too mucli oil is bad, as it collects dust, which with the oil forms gum . This causes a triple to stick. Q. What effect will a leak in the train line have if the brakes are not set ? A. It will simply cause the pump to work to sup- ply it. Q. What effect if the brakes are set f A. It will cause them to leak on harder. Q. Will the leak cause only the brake on that car to leak on, or all? A. All, as the train line is continuous through the train. Q. What effect will a leak in an auxiliary have if a brake is released? A. It will keep the pump at work the same as a train-line leak. Q. What effect if the brakes are applied? A. It will leak the brake off on the car where the leak is and then, drawing air from the train line through the feed ports, it will gradually set the other brakes tighter. Q. There are a number of leaks in the triple which will cause a blow at its exhaust port. Maine the two most likely to produce this effect. A. A leaky slide valve or a leaky rubber-seated valve (Fig. 2). Q. How can we tell which of these is causing the trouble ? A. As the exhaust port on the slide valve is always in communication with the atmosphere, whether the 48 Air-Brake Catechism » brakes are applied or released, a leak on the face of the slide valve will cause a constant blow^ Q. How else can we tell if it is the slide valve that cazises the trouble f A. Apply the brake, and if auxiliary pressure is leaking away across the slide valve, the brake will generally release. Q. How can we tell if the troiible is with the rubber-seated valve f A. The rubber-seated valve will cause a blow at the exhaust only when the brake is released. Q. Whyf- A. The rubber-seated valve 10 (Fig. 2) leaking will allow the pressure to leave cavity y. The train-line pressure then raises check 15 and passes through cavity y across the rubber-seated valve, through cavity x, ports C and r, into the exhaust cavity n of the slide valve and out to the atmosphere through port p. When the brake is applied, port n in the slide valve is closed to port r> consequently the blow stops. Q. Where does the air which is leaking across the rtibber-seated valve go . after the brake is ap- plied? A. Direct to the brake cylinder through (7, and this brake continues to set harder, Q, Why is a leaky rubber-seated valve more likely to slide the zuheels on a car in a long train than in a short one f A. After the brakes are applied, this leak allows the train-line and brake- cylinder pressures to equalize. With a long train line there is a much greater volume of air^ and these pressures will equalize higher. Peculiarities and Troubi.es of the Triple. 49 Q, How else can we tell if the rubber-seated valve leaks ? A. Turn the cut-out cock in the cross-over pipe from the train line to the triple after everything is charged : if the rubber-seated valve leaks, it will draw air from the train line ; with the cut-out cock closed, this leak is not being supplied, and the reduction will cause the brake on this car to apply. Q. Give another symptom zvhich indicates a leaky rubbei^-seated valve. A. The leak above the check 15 caused the check to rise to supply it, and when the cavity is again charged the check closes. It sometimes rises and closes so fast as to make a loud buzzing sound. Q. What is usually the cause of leaking in a rubber-seated valve f A. Dirt on the seat, a poor seat caused by wear, the use of oil on the quick-action part of the triple, or using too much oil in the brake cylinder, which will work into the triple and cause the rubber to decay. Q. If dirt is the source of the trouble, how may it be rem^oved withottt taking the triple apart? A. Set the brake by opening the angle cock after closing the cock at the other end of the car. If there is dirt on the valve, it may be blown off in this way. Q. What besides the slide and rubber-seated valves will cause a blow at the exhaust port of the triple? A. Gasket 14 (Fig. 2) leaking between e and cavity x, or the gasket leaking between the brake cylinder and auxiliary where the triple is bolted to the cylinder. On freight equipments there is a pipe which runs inside the auxiliary to the brake cylinder ; this pipe leaking will also cause a blow. 50 Air- Brake Catechism. Q, Are these leaks common? A. On the contrary, they are very uncommon. The blow is almost invariably due to a leaky slide or emer- gency valve. Q, What effect would the leaking of graduating valve 7 {Fig. 2) have ? A. The action produced by such a leak is uncertain and depends greatly on the conditions connected with it. When the brake is applied, the triple assumes lap posi- tion after the auxiliary pressure is a trifle less than that in the train line. If the graduating valve leaks, the auxiliary pressure gradually reduces, and the train-line pressure forces the triple piston and slide valve back until the blank on the face of the slide valve between ports z and n is in front of port r. If the graduating valve does leak, no more air can leave port z in this posi- tion, and the slide valve stops. This blank space is only a trifle wider than port r, so if the valve is in good con- dition and works smoothly, the brake should not release ; but if it works hard, it is likely to jump a little when it moves, and open the exhaust port. Q. Give a rule by which to tell how a leaky graduating valve will act. A. If the triple is in proper condition, a leaky grad- uating valve should not release a brake. If the triple is a trifle sticky, a brake is likely to be released. A leaky slide valve or a slight auxiliary leak in combination with a leaking graduating valve will release a brake. WESTINGHOUSK FREIGHT EQUIPMENT. Q. Name the different parts of the equipment, A. 3 (Fig. 7) is the piston sleeve and head , 9 the release spring, 4 the front cylinder head, 2 the cylinder body, A the leakage groove, 7 the packing leather, 8 the expander ring, 6 the follower plate which holds the packing leather 7 to its place, B the pipe connecting the triple valve and brake cylinder, and 15 the gasket which makes a tight joint between the auxiliary, triple 5 and pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. Q. Explain the use of the release spring g {Fig. 7). A. When the brake is applied, air is put into the cylinder 2 through pipe 5, and the piston 3 is forced to the left, compressing the release spring. When the air is released from the brake cylinder, the duty of the release spring is to force the piston to release position as shown in the illustration. Q, What enters the sleeve j {Fig- 7) -^ A. The push rod through which the braking power is transmitted to the brake rigging. Q. Of what tise is the expander ring 8 f A. To keep the flange of the packing leather 7 against the walls of the cylinder. The expander ring is a round spring. Q. Of what use is the packing leather 7 ? Westinghouse Freight Equipment. 53 Ao As air enters the brake cylinder, the flange of the packing leather is forced against the walls of the cylin- der, thus making a tight joint to prevent the passage of the air by the piston and out to the atmosphere through the open end of the cylinder at the left. If the leather leaks, the brake will leak off. Q. Ofzvhat use is the leakage groove A {Fig. f) ? A. The piston as shown in the cut is in release position. If on a long train there should be any leak on the train line that would draw a triple piston out far enough to close the exhaust port in the slide valve, and there were a leak into the brake cylinder, the pressure would gradually accumulate and force the piston out, causing the shoes to drag on the wheels were it not for the leakage groove. This will allow any small leakage into the brake cylinder to pass through the groove and out of the other end of the cylinder to the atmosphere. If the brake connections are taken up so short that the piston will not travel by the leakage groove when the brake is set, the air will blow past the piston through the groove and release the brake on this car. In this case, were it not for the groove, the wheels would be slid. Q. What is the duty of the pipe B f A. When the brake is applied, air passes from the auxiliary through the triple and pipe B to the cylinder. When the brake is released, air passes from the cylin- der through pipe B, the triple exhaust port and out to the atmosphere, or, if a retainer is used, it passes from the triple into the retainer pipe, which is screwed into the triple exhaust, and out of the retainer according to the position of its handle. Q. Of what tcse is the auxiliai^y 10 {Fig. f) f A. This is where the supply of air is stored with which to apply the brake on this one car. 54 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What is the valve on top of the auxiliary ? A. It is called the release valve. By lifting on the handle of this valve the pressure in the auxiliary lo may be released. If this valve leaks, after the brake is applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure thus made will release the brake. Q. What use has the plug ii f A. To drain off any accumulation of water in the auxiliary. Q. What harm will ensiie if gasket i^ leaksS A. The leak may be from the auxiliary to the atmosphere or from the auxiliary into pipe B leading to the brake cylinder. After the brake was applied, the reduction of auxiliary pressure caused by this leak would allow the train-line pressure to force this triple to release position and release this brake. The leak would then draw air from the train line through the triple feed ports, making a train-line reduction that with any other leaks on the train would help to creep on the other brakes. Q. Is the freight-car equipment different from the air-brake eqidpment on the passenger car ? A. It is smaller, but the principle of operation is the same. In a passenger equipment the pipe B does not run through the auxiliary, and the auxiliary and brake cylinder are not fastened together. The appearance is different, but, aside from size, they are alike. PISTON TRAVEL. Q. What determines the amount of travel a piston zuill have ? Ac The slack in the brake rigging and any lost mo- tion in the car brought out by the application of the brake. Q. How is the piston travel ttsually adjusted? A. By changing the position of the dead truck leverSo Q, Which is called the dead lever of a trtick ? A. The one held stationary at the top with a pin. Q. What is the other lever on the iruck called? A. The live lever. Q. What is the lever fastened to the piston usually called ? A. The piston lever. Q. What is the corresponding lever at the other e7id of the cylinder in a passenger equipment called? A. The cylinder lever. O. Are these levers ever spoken of differently ? A. Yes, sometimes both are referred to as cylinder levers. Q. In passenger equipm^ent there is sometimes a lever between the cylinder levers and truck lever s, one end of which is connected to the hand brake and 56 Air-Brake Catechism. the other to the live truck lever. What is this lever usually called? A. The Hodge, or floating, lever ; the latter name is the one more commonly used. Q. We have seen in studying, the triple valve that a five-pound train-line reduction caused the triple to piit five pounds from the auxiliary into the brake cylinder. How much pressure does this give us in the brake cylinder ? A. It depends upon the piston travel. It may be more or less than five pounds ; it might be five pounds. Q. Explain this answer. A. We notice that the auxiliary is much larger than the brake cylinder, and five pounds taken from the larger space and forced into a smaller will give a greater press- ure than that put in ; but it must be remembered that a small part of the air put into the cylinder goes through the leakage groove before the piston gets by and closes it. There is still another point. If no air were put into the brake cylinder and the piston were pulled out when the exhaust port was closed, a vacuum would be formed. When the air enters the cylinder it must first fill this space to atmospheric pressure before a gauge placed on the cylinder would begin to show any pressure. The longer the travel y the more air it would take to fill the space and the less pressure there would be for the five pounds put into it. Q. Which would give a higher pressure for a given reduction, long or short piston travel? A. Short travel. Q. Why ? A. Because with a short travel the same amount of air would be expanded into a smaller space. Piston Travel. 57 Q. With the freight equipment how much brake- cyli^ider pressttre do we get for a seven-pound trai7i-line reduction with a 6 and a g-inch travel? A. Referring to the table we see that we get seventeen and one-half pounds with the 6 inch, and eight pounds with the 9-inch travel. PISTON TRAVEL AND RESULTANT CYLINDER PRESSURE * TRAIN PIPE REDUCTION. 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II j PISTON NOT 7 25 23 i7i 13 loi 8 ( ENTIRELY OUT. 10 49 43 34 29 23i 194 17 14 13 57 5^ 44 37* 33 29 24 20 16 . . 54 47i 412 35 29 24 19 51 47 40 3^i 32 22 50 47i 44 39 25 . . 47 45 *Air Brake Men's 1896 Proceedings. The above table is the result of tests made with a freight equip- ment. Each result is the average of several tests, and the brake was in good condition. There are two spaces where it says "Piston not entirely out," where no brake-cylinder pressure is given for a seven- pound train-line reduction. This does not mean there was no press- \ ure there, as there must have been or the piston could not have gone out and compressed the cylinder release spring. The ordinary air gauge does not register any pressure less than five pounds, and with a seven-pound train-line reduction the pressure gotten in a ten- or eleven-inch piston travel is less than five pounds. Seventy pounds train-line pressure was used in making these tests. Q. With a sixteen-pound reduction ? A. Fifty-four pounds with the 6 inch, and thirty- five pounds with the 9 inch. Q. With a twenty-tzu 0-pound redttction ? 58 Air-Brake Catechism. A. After the sixteen-pound reduction, the brake did not set any harder on the 6-inch travel because the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized at that point, and this brake was full set. With the 9-inch travel the air from the auxiliary had 4 inches more space into which to expand, and the brake was not full set until a twenty- two-pound reduction had been made, giving forty-seven and one-half pounds brake-cylinder pressure. Q. What does this show ? A. That a brake with a short piston travel is more powerful than one with a long travel ; that a brake with the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures equalized can- not be applied any harder by a further reduction of train- line pressure, and that if piston travel varied in a long train, between 4 and 11 inches, there would be no uni- formity in the braking power applied in the different parts of a train. Q. What would be the pressure, with the travel as given in the table^ were the brakes set in emer- gency ? A. 4 in., 5 in., 6 in., 7 in. piston travel. 62 61 59i 58J emergency pressure. 8 in., 9 in., 10 in., 11 in. piston travel. 57i 56i 55J 55 emergency pressure. Q. Why do the brakes set harder with the quick- action triple in emergency than in service ? A. Because in the emergency application the quick- action triples put air from both the auxiliary and train line into the brake cylinder. Q. Ca7i full emergency pressure be obtained after having inade a light train-line reduction in service application ? A. No. Piston Travel. 59 Q. Can any gain be made ? A. Yes, if the reduction has not been too great. By referring to the table we see that a thirteen-pound reduc- tion sets a 4-inch travel brake in full. If emergency were now used this brake would not set any harder, while we might gain a little on the long travel. With a given train-line reduction, we would gain most on the car with the long travel, but on neither would we get full emer- gency pressure. Q. Can a train be handled smoothly with uneven travel throughout the train ? A. Not as smoothly as when the travel is more uni- form. Q. What will be the effect with short travel at the head of the train and long at the rear ? A. Having more braking power at the head would cause the slack to run ahead, causing a jar. Q. What if the short travel were at the rear of the train ? A. The tendency would be for the slack to run back and break the train in two, especially if the train were on a knoll. Q. How else wotild the piston travel affect the s7noothness of the braking? A. In releasing the brakes. Q. Suppose we had a train half of which had 4- inch travel and the other half g inch, which brakes would start releasing first if the engineer had made a ten-pound train-line reduction and then, wishing to release the brakes, increased the train-liiie press- ure ? A. They should all start about the same time, but 6o Air-Brake Catechism. the tendency is always for head brakes to start releasing first if the travel is about alike, as the air enters the train line from the main reservoir at the front of the train, and the pressure is naturally a little higher here when recharging. Q. Is the same true after a thirteen-pound reduction ? A. Yes. Q. After a twenty-two-pound reduction f A. No ; the long travel brakes will start releasing first. Q. Why ? A. Referring to the table we see that the 4-inch travel was not applied any harder after a thirteen- pound reduction had been made ; but the 9-inch travel con- tinued applying harder until a twenty-two-pound reduc- tion of train-line pressure had been made. With the brakes full set we have fifty-seven pounds pressure in the auxiliary and cylinder of the 4-inch travel car and forty-seven and one-half on the long. Train-line press- ure has to overcome auxiliary pressure to force the triple pistons to release position, and it is easier to over- come forty-seven and one-half than fifty-seven pounds ; hence the triple piston on the long travel car will go to release position with less of an increase of train-line pressure than will the triple on the short travel car. Q. State the general rule in regard to this ques- tion. A. If reductions have not been continued after cars with the short piston travel have been full set, all brakes should start releasing about the same time ; but if the reductions of train-line pressure are continued after the short travel brakes are full set, an increase of train-line pressure will start the long travel brakes releasing first. Piston Travel. 6i Q. If a long and a short travel brake are started releasing at the same twie, which will get off first and why ? A. The short travel, because the piston has a shorter distance to go and there is a less volume of air to be gotten rid of through the exhaust port of the triple. Q. We have two cars with the saine piston travel. What is the trouble if both are started releasing at the same time and one gets off quicker than t'he other? A. The release spring in one cylinder is weaker or the cylinder corroded. Q. What harm would it do to take a piston, travel tip to j inches ? A. The piston could not get by the leakage groove, and the brake would not stay set. Q. What harm would it do to let the travel out to I J inches ? A. The piston would strike the head, and we would have no brake on that car. Q. Does having very long piston travel in a train require any 7nore work of a pump in descend- ing grades ? A. Yes; the air has to be used more expansively, and the pump will have to supply more air in recharging. Q. If we try the piston travel on a car when standing, will we find it to be the same as when run- ning? A. No. Q, Why not ? 62 Air-Brakk Catechism. A. For several reasons: the shoes pull down farther on the wheels when running ; the king bolts being loose allow the trucks to be pulled together ; spring in brake beams, loose boxes in jaws, loose brasses on journals, the give in old cars, and any lost motion that will throw slack into the brake rigging ; all these will cause the piston travel while running to be greater than that while standing. Q. If the piston travel is adjusted when a car is loaded, will it remain the same when the car is light? A. It will, if the brakes are hung from the sand plank, but most brakes are hung from the truck bolster or the sill of the car. When the car is loaded, the truck springs are compressed and the shoes set lower on the wheels. When the car is unloaded, the truck springs raise the bolster and car body, thus raising the shoes so that there is less clearance between the brake shoes and wheels. This shortens the piston travel, as the piston . does not have to travel so far to bring the shoes up to the wheels. Q. How could you tell the piston travel on a car if it had no air in it ? A. This can be told on freight cars where the hand brake and air brake move the push rod in the cylinder in the same direction when applying the brake. To tell the travel, shove the push rod into the cylinder until it bottoms. Make a mark on the push rod and set the hand brake. The distance the mark on the push rod has moved will be, approximately, the piston travel when using air. Q. How much variation is permissible ? A. The smaller the amount of variation the better,, but in road service it is the aim to keep piston travel between 5 and 8 inches. Piston Travei.. 65 Q, Is there any device which will keep a constant piston travel on a car without any outside aid? A. Yes, a slack adjuster. Q. What slack adjuster is in most general ttse f A. The McKee Slack Adjuster. Q. How does it work ? A. When the brake is applied, if the piston travels by the hole into which the pipe is screwed into the cylin- der, air flows through the pipe to a small cylinder and forces out a small piston in the cylinder, compressing a strong spring. When the brake is released, the air leaves the small piston and the spring moves it back to its original position, carrying with it the stem connecting to the ratchet. The pawl turns the ratchet wheel, which in turn works the screw and takes up the slack -^^ of an inch at a time. Q. Is this better than a hand adjust^nent ? A. Yes, because it does its work when the car is in motion, and true travel is had because all lost motion is brought out when the car is in motion. Q, What is the most satisfactory travel for gejieral use f A. Between 6 and 7 inches. Q, Where wottld a moderately long travel be considered better than a short ? A. In a practically level country where, with short travel and a large number of air cars in a train, the train might be slowed up or stopped with a light train- line reduction, thus causing too frequent releases. Q. What har'tn would a too short travel do ? A. The piston might not get by the leakage groove, and the shorter the travel the more danger of sliding the p < ft Piston Travel. 65 ■wheels on account of the greater braking power de- veloped. A too short travel does not give sufficient shoe clearance, and causes a train to pull hard if the brake shoes drag. Q. On most passengei"- cars piston travel can be taken ttp by winding up the hand brake a little, as the two brakes work in opposition to each other. Is this a good practice? A. No ; it is the act of a lazy workman, and is dangerous. Q. How is it dangerous ? A. If the brake is set quickly, it is likely to break the brake chain, and if a passenger had hold of a hand brake wheel when the brake was applied, if the dog were not caught, the wheel flying round might break his hand or arm. THE WESTINGHOUSE RETAINING VALVE. Q. With what equipments is the retaining valve used f A. Throughout the country on freight cars, and on engines, tenders, and passenger cars in mountainous country. Q. Why do they not use it on passenger cars in hilly country ? A, It is not necessary, as the higher braking power used in passenger service is sufficient to run moderate hills with safety. Q. Where is it located on cars ? A. Usually at the end, close to the brake standard on freight cars, and -at the end about on the level of the edge of the hood on passenger cars. Q. Why is it placed in inaccessible places such as underneath on some cars ? A. To prevent trainmen from tampering with it in descending mountains if they think the engineer is run- ning the train too slow. Q. To what is it connected ? A. To the exhaust port of the triple by means of a f-inch pipe. Q. What is its use ? A. To retain fifteen pounds pressure in the brake cylinder to steady the train, and keep its speed from in- The Wkstinghouse Retaining Valve. 67 creasing too rapidly while the engineer is recharging the auxiliaries. Q. How does the handle of the valve stand when not in use ? A. Straight down. Q, How does it stand when in use ? A. In the position shown in the cut (Fig. 9). Fig. 9.— Pressure Retaining Vai,ve. Q, If the brake is not applied, can it be set by turning up the retainer haiidle ? A. No; the retainer can be used only to hold air in the brake cylinder that has already been put there. Q. Explain the passage of the air through the retainer when not in tcse. A. With the retainer handle pointing down, as when not in use, any air coming from the cylinder 68 Air-Brakk Catechism. would pass through ports a, 6, and out to the atmosphere through port e. Q. Explain the passage of air through the retainer when in use, as shown by the cut. A. When the engineer increases his train-line pressure the triple assumes release position, and the air passing from the brake cylinder has to pass out to the atmosphere through the retaining valve. With the retainer handle turned up, the air passes through port h until it strikes the weighted valve 20. Any pressure over fifteen pounds forces this valve from its seat and passes through the restricted port opening c to the atmosphere. When the pressure in the cylinder is reduced to fifteen pounds, it is held back by the valve 20. Q. What is the size of the S7nall end of port c ? A. One-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. Q. Why is it made so small f A. To keep the brake cylinder pressure from escaping to the atmosphere too rapidly after valve 20 is lifted. Q. How long will it take the cylinder pressure to reduce from fifty down to fifteen pounds through this retainer ? A. About twenty or twenty-five seconds, during which time the auxiliaries with an average length of train have become pretty well charged. Q. Have all retainers this restricted port c? A. No ; in some old retainers there are two ports of :^-inch diameter each. Q. Will a retainer hold more pressure with a long or a short piston travel on a car ? The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 69 A. It holds the same pressure regardless of the travel. The volume held is greater on the long travel car. Q, How do we test retainers ? A. Have the engineer apply the brakes, and turn up the retainer handles. Then signal the engineer to release, and wait about half a minute, after which walk along and turn down the handles. If a blow accom- panies the turning down of the handles, the retainer is working properly, otherwise the pressure has leaked away. Q, What troubles would make a retainer inoperative ? x\. A leak in the plug valve operated by the retainer handle ; weight 20 (Fig. 9) being gone or dirt on its seat ; a split pipe leading from the triple exhaust to the retainer, or a leak in the packing leather in the brake cylinder which would allow the air to escape to the atmosphere. Q. What could be the trouble with the retainer iff ^fi^^ l^^ brake was applied and the retainer put in tcse, no air escaped from it when the engineer increased the train-line pressure f A. Port c might be blocked. Q. If we wish to use a retainer in descending a grade, should the handle be turned up before or after the brakes are applied? A. It makes no difference, if everything is in proper condition. Q. Explain a case where it would not be proper to turn up the retainer handle until just before we wish to use it. 70 Air-Brake Catkchism. A. If the rubber-seated or the slide valve in the triple leaked, and we turned up the retainer handle, air would accumulate to a pressure of fifteen pounds in the cylinder if the leakage groove were closed, and set the brake on this car. If the train were just pulling over a summit, the brake being on might stall the train. Q. Give a rule to produce best results in using the retainer. A. In testing retainers while standing, turn up the handles at your convenience before or after the brakes are applied ; but when using them on the road, turn them up after the brakes are applied or a short time before wishing to use them. Q. Is a retainer ever used except to steady a train when recharging? A. Yes ; when brakes have been applied too hard, a few are sometimes used to keep the slack bunched after releasing, when drifting along preparatory to mak- ing a stop. Q. Set a brake with the full service application, then turn up the retainer handle, release and recharge. After charging the aitxiliary in full again, make a full service reduction. Will the brake set any harder one time than a7iother ? A. Yes, it will set harder the second time. Q. Why? A. When we started to apply the brakes the first time, we had seventy pounds auxiliary pressure and nothing in the brake cylinder. The second time we had seventy in the auxiliary and fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder. By comparison we see that we had more air the second time with which to do our braking, and the pressures will therefore equalize higher. The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 71 Q. Would we gain nioi^e the second time over that of the first with a long or a short piston travel? A. With the long, because the retaining valve on the long travel car retains the same number of pounds in the cylinder as on the short one, but a larger volume ; having a greater volume the pressures equalize corres- pondingly higher. Q, Do we gain the whole fifteen pounds more the second ti^ne over what is obtained the first ? A. No ; we gain from about three to six pounds pressure, according to the piston travel. Q. About how much pressure do we get in the brake cylinder for a five-pound traiii-line reduction ? A. It varies from seven to eleven pounds with aver- age piston travel. It may be more or less, but this would be a fair average. Q. After getting the use of the fiftee^i pounds that the retainer holds, how much press^ore wotUd we then get in the cylinder for a five-pound train- line reduction with an average piston travel? A. Between thirty and forty pounds. Q. Where a twenty-pound reduction will set a brake in full without the aid of the retainer, how vtuch reduction is necessary with the fifteen pounds it holds to aid? A. From twelve to fifteen pounds with fair travel. Q. Name another gain after obtaining the use of the retainer. A. If we have to apply the brakes in full, it does not take so long to recharge, as the auxiliary and brake- 72 Air-Brakk Catechism. cylinder pressures equalize higher with the retainer to aid. Q. How could we tell if it was safe to turn up a retainer handle before reaching the top of a hill and not have the brakes drag? A. Put the hand over the exhaust port and hold it there a few seconds to see if any air is issuing ; if not, it is safe to turn up the handle. Table. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Piston Emer- Emergency sLbs.Serv.^ Reduc. with Ret. • Full FuUServ. travel gency with Ret. Reduction Service with Ret. Inches Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 4 62 65 23 59 57i 61 5 6l 63 I9J 55 55J 59 6 59i 63 i3i 51 53 58 7 58i 62 Hi 43 52 57 8 57J 62 10 38 5oi 56 9 56i 61J 8 35 48 55 lO 55J 61 + 32 46 54 II 55 60 + 30 45 53 The above figures were obtained by taking an average of four tests for each condition. Each test was made with a train-line and auxiliary pressure of sev- enty pounds. The first column represents the piston travel. The second column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in emergency. The third column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained in emergency after the retainer has been used ; that is, there was al- ready a pressure of fifteen pounds in the brake cylinder held by the retainer when the emergency was used. The Westinghouse Retaining Valve. 73 The fourth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a five-pound service reduction. The fifth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obteined with a five-pound service reduction after once obtaining the use of the air held in the cylinder by the use of the retainer. The sixth column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a full service reduction. The seventh column represents the brake-cylinder pressure obtained with a full service reduction after getting the use of the retainer. + simply means that the gauge used registered no pressure less than five pounds. With a ii-inch travel the air is expanded into so large a space that a very small pressure is obtained. The table should be read from the left to the right. Q. Do the latest retaining valves have the ports in the plug valve as shown in Fig. 9 ? A. No ; grooves are made on the outside of the phig, but they correspond exactly in purpose with the holes as shown. MAIN RESERVOIR. Q. Where does the air go when it leaves the pump f A. To tlie main reservoir. Q. Where does main reservoir pressure begin and where end? A. It begins wliere the air leaves the pump and ends at the engineer's valve. Q. What is the object of the main reservoir ? A. Its object is to act as a storehouse in which to keep a reserve pressure to throw into the train line to release brakes and recharge auxiliaries. It also acts to collect most of the dirt, oil, and moisture that leaves the pump. Q. How m.uch main reservoir pressure is usual- ly carried ? A. Usually ninety pounds, although more is used in mountainous country, or when using the high-speed brake. Q. What size main reservoir is considered proper for freight service ? A. One whose capacity is not less than 20,000 cubic inches. Q, How large should any main reservoir be f A. In releasing brakes in any service the main reservoir must be large enough so that, when the brakes Main Rkservoir. 75 are applied and we wish to release them, the main reservoir pressure will equalize with that in the train line, when connected with it, at a sufficiently high pressure to insure the prompt and certain release of the brakes. Q. Why is a larger main reservoir necessary in freight tha7i in passeitger service ? A. Because there are a greater number of auxiliaries to charge in freight service and a longer train line to supply. Q. When is a large main reservoir with full pressure most essential? A. After an emergency application, and especially after a break in two. Q. What results are likely to follow the use of small main reservoirs on engines pulling long trains ? A. A pump is likely to heat, brakes are likely to stick, and we will have a hard handling rotary. Q. Why is a pU7np more likely to heat with a small main reservoir ? A. Because the smaller the main reservoir, the high- er the pressure has to be carried, and the higher the pressure the more is heat generated in compressing the air ; therefore the pump is more likely to heat and burn out the packing. A second reason is that with a small reservoir, when releasing brakes, the pump has to work faster to charge the auxiliaries before the speed of the train increases too much. The pump working very fast does not have time to take in a full cylinder of air each stroke. The pump then has to make more strokes to compress the same amount of air, than it would were it working more slowly. 76 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. State the gains made by using a large main reservoir. A. Pressure in the main reservoir and train line will equalize higher when releasing, auxiliaries will be charged more quickly, the pump is not so likely to heat, and, not working so rapidly or against so high a pressure, will not wear out so fast, and the brakes are not so likely to stick. Q. What should be the location of a main reser- voir ? A. If possible, at the lowest point in the air-brake system. Q, Why? A. To have all the dirt and oil possible drained into it and drawn off through the bleed cock. Q. Where is the main reservoir usually located? A. Between the frames back of the cylinder saddle. Q. Should it be located there ? A. Yes, when it is possible to place there a main reservoir of the regulation size ; but the size must not be sacrificed for the position. Q. Where else is it sometimes located? A. Under the foot-boards of the cab and sometimes on the tank. Q, Is it right to locate it on the tank ? A. Yes, if the requisite volume can be obtained in no other way ; otherwise, no. Q. Why is it not a desirable position ? A, Oil and dirt will not drain into it as they should, and when it is so located, two lines of hose have to run between the tank and engine, one to carry the air from the pump to the main reservoir, and the other to bring Main Reskrvoir. "]"] the pressure from the reservoir to the engineer's valve. These hose get full of oil and dirt, decay, burst, and in the end prove very expensive. Q. How often sJioidd the main reservoi7^ be drained? A. At the end of each trip. Q, Where does this water found in the main reservoir come from ? A. Most of it is drawn from the atmosphere, and given off when the particles of air are pressed together. Q. Does any of the condensed steam fro7n the steam end of the pump leak by the piston rod and then pass into the main reservoir with the com- pressed air ? A. A trifle ; but this is an inappreciable amount compared with what comes from the atmosphere, especi- ally on rainy days. The following was taken from the '96 Proceedings of the Air Brake Association. There were four reservoirs, each with a capacity of 12,200 cubic inches, and they could all be used together or cut out at will. The test was made on a twenty-five car train, and shows the ad- vantage of having a large volume of air in the main reservoir to equalize with that in the train line. Number of Initial reservoir Initial pressure Pressure reservoirs pressure in train pipe equalized at cut in. in pounds. in pounds. in pounds. 4 100 50 2 100 35 4 100 50 72 4 90 50 67 2 no 50 68 2 100 50 !^ 2 90 50 61 78 Air-Brake Catechism. Main Reservoir Sizes. Inches, outside. Capacity. 22 >^ X 34 about 11,200 cubic inches. 24>^ X 34 26>^ X 34 20>^ X 41 14,000 15,800 12,200 22>^ X 41 14,000 2^% X 41 261^ X 41 17,400 20,000 Note. — Main reservoir capacity for passenger en- gines should not be less than 16,000, and for freight engines not less than 40,000 cubic inches ; however, the best results are obtained on freight engines equipped with a main reservoir having a capacity of from 40,000 to 50,000 cubic inches. With this large capacity reser- voir the pump may be run slower, it is less likely to heat, the brakes can be released more promptly, and a much quicker recharge of the auxiliaries is possible. WBSTINGHOUSB ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVES. Q. What was the first form of valve ttsed ? A. That which was known as the old three-way cock. Q. With what equipment was this ttsed f A. With the straight air, with the plain automatic, and for a time, by a good many roads, with the quick- action brake. Q, What objection was there to it ? A. It was not sufficiently sensitive, and there was great danger of throwing the brakes into emergency. Q, Why ? A. Because reductions of train-line pressure were made by instinct or sense of sound. An engineer hav- ing a short train to-day and a long one to-morrow could scarcely avoid doing poor braking, as his valve was noth- ing much more than a plug valve. A reduction that was a trifle too heavy would throw the triples into quick action, and on a long train the reduction could not be made too slow, or the air would blow through the leak- age grooves in the brake cylinders. If the escape of air from the train line were suddenly checked, the air from the rear rushing ahead had a tendency to kick off some of the head brakes. Q. In changing the valve what was the object ? A. To obtain a valve that would mechanically and 8o Air-Brake Catechism. gradually make the desired reduction of train-line press- ure regardless of the length of the train. Q. Was this done* immediately ? A. No; several forms of valves were made before those now in use. Q. What are the ones now in use ? A. . The D 8 and the D 5, K 6, or F 6 ; the last three are the same, the different letters simply refer to different catalogues issued by the Westinghouse Company. Q. Which is the one most in use and the one sent out with all fnodern equipment ? A. The F 6 valve. Q, What should be the location of an engineer s 'valve f A. Within easy reach of the engineer and far enough from the boiler that the heat will not dry out and crack the gaskets. F 6 ENGINEER'S BRAKE VALVE. Q. Explain the different parts of the ejigiiieers brake valve. A. X, F, T, IF, and R are explained by referring to Fig. lo. 60 and 61 are known respectively as upper and lower body gasket. 43 is the rotary valve. 32 a gasket to keep main reservoir pressure from leak- ing to the atmosphere. The space above piston 47 is known as cavity I) ; this cavity is connected with the little drum by the pipe 50. 47 is the equalizing piston, 51 the train-line exhaust. 33 and 34 are known as the upper and lower valve body. There is a tee in pipe 45 just after it leaves the valve, one branch of which goes to the red hand on the gauge and the other to the pump governor. The other parts need no naming. Q. Of what use is the engineer s valve ? A. To give the engineer complete control of the flow of air. Q. How many positions are there for the en- gineer s valve ? A. Five. Q. Name them. r^ To Pump GoycRwofra Cauce *-REO hand- Main Reservoir Pressure: To Gauge ^ -SLACK hand- Train Ptf»E PlRESS.UFtf H ^~- — lb Small I^eservoir Fig. io,-F 6 Brafe; Vai^ve, F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 8;^ A. Full release, running, lap, service, and emergenc^- positions. 0. Describe the ttse of the different positions, A. Full release is that used for releasing brakes. Running position is the one used when running on the road and when the brakes are inoperative. lyap position is that which blanks all ports in the valve. Service is the position used when the brakes are to be applied gradually. Emergency is the position used when the brakes are to be applied suddenly. Q. What connections do we have with the valve 171 full release ? A. A direct connection between the main reser\^oir and train line through a large port and between the main reservoir and cavity D, or the little drum, through two small ports. Q. Explain the flow of air from the main reservoir throttgh the engineer s valve in this position. A, In this positior .ne main reservoir pressure enters the valve at A", passes through port J., port a of the ro- tary 43, port h of the rotary seat 33 (Figs. 10 and 11) , up into cavity c of the rotary and through port I into the train line at F. As the air passes through cavity c of the rotary on its way to the train line, it is free to pass through port g (Fig. 11) into cavity D. In this position, porty of the rotary (Fig. 12) is over port e in the rotary seat (Fig. 11) also leading to the little drum, or cavity B. Q. Ca7t main reservoir pressure reach the top of the rotary ^j at all tifnes f A. Yes. To Pump Governor a Gauge: ^ -RED HAND- Main Reservoir Pressure To Gauge -BLACK HAND- Train Pipe Pressure Fig. iIo— F 6 Brake Vai^ve:. F 6 Engineer's Brake Vai.ve. 85 Q. How niMch viain reservoii^ pressure is visual- ly carried except iii ve^y moiuttainous co7Lntry ? A. Ninety pounds. Q. Hoiv much pressure would we get on the main reservoir ^ the train line and the little drttm, were the handle of the engineer s valve to be left in full release position until the ptimp stopped ? A. Ninety pounds in eacli, as there is a direct con- nection between the three, Q. What is the small blow we hear if the en- gii'ieers valve is allowed to remain in full release ? A. It is the escape of main reservoir pressure through the warning port of the rotary into the emergency ex- haust (Fig. 11) and out to the atmosphere. Q. What is this port and its purpose f A. It is a port, one end of which is about as large as a pin. When the engineer hears this blow it means to him that he must be careful or he will get ninety pounds pressure on the train line if he leaves the handle of his valve in full release position too long. Q. How much pre ss2tre is usually carried on the train line and little drtt7n in country 7iot moun- tainous ? Ao Seventy pounds. Q. Hoiv does tJie engineer preveiit a ninety- potmd pressure getting on the train line and little drttm ? A. By moving the valve to the second or running position. Q, Why do we get only seventy pou7tds pressure on the train line with the valve in running position ? Feed Valv£ Fig. 12.— F 6 Brake VaIvVE. F 6 Engineer's Brake Vaeve. 87 A. Because in this position all air passing into the train line from the main reservoir has to pass through the feed valve (Fig. 12), and this is adjusted to close as soon as there is a seventy-pound pressure on the train line. Q, In ritnning position we have the position of the rotary as showii in Fig. 12. Explain tJie pas- sage of air in this position. A. The main reservoir pressure passes through th^ ports y, / and / ^ (Figs. 11 and 12) into the feed valve, o^ train-line governor as it is more commonly called ; thence through port i (Fig. 11) into port I (Figs. 10 and 11) and out into the train line at F. As the pressure passes through port I into the train line it is also free to pass up into cavity c of the rotary which is still over port I as seen in Fig. 10. Port g is still exposed under cavity c, and at the same time the air passes through the train- line governor into the train line, it also passes into cavity c of the rotary, port g of the rotary seat (Fig. 11) and into cavity D, or the little drum. Q. The train-line governor closes when there are seventy pounds on the train line with the valve in running position. How much pressure do we get in the main reservoir with the valve in this position f A= Ninety pounds. Q, What stops the pump when there are ninety pounds on the m.ain reservoir ? A. The pump governor, which is connected with main reservoir pressure at 45 (Fig. 10). Q. Is the pump governor always set at ninety pounds f A. No ; only in level and hilly country. In moun- tainous country, it is set much higher, also in level country where exceptionally long trains are handled. 88. Air-Brake Catechism. Q. The red hand on the gauge represents i7iai7i reservoir pressure, and the black hand is said to represent that on the train line. Is the pipe lead- ing to the black hand connected directly to the trai^i liite ? A. No ; it is connected to little drum pressure. (See 46, Fig. 10.) Q. Why is it called train-line pressure if not coniiected to it f A. Because in full release or running position port g furnishes a direct connection between the little drum and train line, and the pressures must be equal. Q. What is the next positio7i to the right of running position ? ' A. Lap position. Q. How does the air flow with the valve in this position ? A. There is no passage of the air as all ports are blanked. The rotary is moved around sufficiently to shut oflf port j in the rotary from port / in the rotary seat, and a small lug on the inside rim of the rotary also covers port ^, thus separating the train line from the little drum. In this position the main reservoir, train-line and little drum pressures are each by them- selves. Q. What is the dividing line betweeit the train- line and little drum pressures in this position? A. The equalizing piston 47 (Fig. 10). Q. Do we still refer to the black hand as repre- senting train-line pressure on lap, knowing the ports are closed between the little drtim and train line ? A. Yes. F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 89 Q. If there zuere a leak on the train line, W02ild the black hand fall back if the valve is on lap ? A. Yes, but slowly. Q, Why ? A. Because in order to have piston 47 work smoothly the packing ring 48 (Fig. 10) must not be absolutely tight. If the train line leaks, the little drum pressure will gradually leak by the packing ring into the train line and equalize with it. Q, What would happen if this packing ring were tight? A. With the valve on lap all train-line pressure could leak away and the black hand on the gauge would not show it. Q. What is the next position to the ^Hght of lap f A. Service position. Q, What is this position used for ? A. To make a gradual application of the brakes. Q. Explain this position. A. In this position, a groove p (Fig. 13) of the rotary connects port e (Fig. 11) leading to the little drum through rotary seat with a groove /i (Fig. 11) also in the rotary seat ; h leads into the emergency exhaust h (Fig. 11), which is directly connected with the atmosphere as shown by the dotted lines. We then have a direct con- nection from the little drum to the atmosphere through small ports. Q. What is port e called? A, The preliminary exhaust port. This hole is bushed, and the bushing has a small taper hole through it. 90 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. What effect does taking air f 7^ otn the little drum have ? ^ A. It reduces the pressure on top of piston 47. Tlie pressures were the same on both sides of it, but when the reduction is made from the little drum in service position, it leaves piston 47 with the greater pressure underneath on the train-line side of the piston. Fig. 13. — A ViKw of the Bottom Sidk of thk Rotary 43. Q. What effect has this? A. The train-line pressure being greater forces piston 47 from its seat and allows train-line pressure to escape to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust 51 (Fig. 10). Q. How long does piston ^/ remain off its seat f A. Just as long as the train-line pressure is greater than that in the little drum. When the little drum F 6 Engineer's Brake Valve. 91 pressure is a trifle greater than tlie train line, piston 47 is forced to its seat. Q. Do zue still speak of the black hand as 7'cpre- senting train-lme pressure ? A. Yes. Q. How do we know it is the same as that in the littU dmm to which the ga?ige pipe leading to the black hand is connected ? A. Because tlie equalizing piston will take the same amount of pressure from the train line before it closes that the engineer took from the little drum. Q. If the e7igineer wishes to apply brakes gra ally, does he take air from the trai^i line ? A. No ; he takes it from the little drum, and piston 47 takes care of the train line. Q. To what else in the brake system is the piston 4y similar in its zuork ? A. The triple piston (Fig. 2)0 Q. What is the next position to the right of service ? A. Emergency position. Q. Explain this positioji. A. The rotary is moved around so that the large cavity c (Fig. 13) is directly over the large ports / and h of the rotary seat (Fig. 11). Air passes from the train line at I into cavity c and out to the atmosphere through port h. Q, What is the object of using the large ports ? A. To get a very sudden reduction on the train line to cause the triple valves to go into quick action. 92 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. Is the reduction necessarily heavy to obtain quick action ? A. No ; it is quick. Q, . Does the little drum pressure or the equaliz- i7ig piston play any part in the emergency dpplica- tion ? A. None whatever. Q. In rimning position when the pump stops we have ninety pounds in the main reservoir and seventy on the train line. What is the difference between the pressure in the main reservoir and the train line called? A. Excess pressure. Q. What is the use of excess pressure ? A. It is a reserve power to throw into the train line, when the valve is placed in release position, to force the triple pistons to release position and help recharge the auxiliary reservoirs. Q, If the pitmp were started with the handle of the valve on lap, how much pressure would we get in the main reservoir and how much in the traiii line f A. Ninety pounds in the main reservoir and noth- ing in the train lineo FEED VALVE OR TRAIN-LINE GOVERNOR. Q. What is the duty of the train-lme governor f A. To keep any desired pressure on the train line with the handle of the engineer's valve in running position. Q. Does it play a part in any other than run- ning position ? A. No. Q. Explain the action of the governor with the engineer s valve in running positio7i. A. The spring 68 (Fig. 14) supports piston 74, and the piston holds the valve 63 from its seat. As long as the air pressure on top of the piston is less than the tension of the spring 68, valve 63 is held from its seat, and main reservoir pressure coming in through port / feedj into port i as indicated by the arrow, and on into the traiu line. When the pressure above the piston is greater than the tension of the spring 68, the piston is forced down, allowing valve 63 to seat. Q. How is the train-line pressure regulated f A. By screwing up on the nut 70 to strengthen the spring and hold valve 63 from its seat longer to gain train-line pressure, and lowering nut 70 to weaken train- line pressure. Q. Of what ^cse are the rubber gaskets 7^ and tJie packi^ig ring 6j? 94 Air-Brakk Catechism. A. To keep train-line pressure from leaking down through the governor and out to the atmosphere. Q. What gover7ior troubles will allow full maifi reservoir pressure to go through the governor to train line? Fig. 14.— Fkkd Vai,v^ or Train-Line Governor. A. (i) Dirt or scale on the seat of the valve 63 (Fig. 14). ^ ( 2 ) Spring 68 being screwed up too stiff. (3) A leak between the holes of the gasket ^(y where the governor is bolted to the body of the engineer's valve. Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 95 (4) The lower body of the governor 69 being screwed up too tight. Q. Explain why the above troubles would pre- vent the governor fr 0771 shutti7tg off the mai7i reser- voir pressure when the desired a77iou7it of trai7i- lijie pressure had bee7i reached. A. (i) Dirt or scale would not allow valve 63 to seat. (2) Spring 68 being too stiff would hold valve 63 from its seat too long. (3) The following sketch showing the gasket between the train-line governor and the engineer's valve will explain the third trouble and its effect. The dotted line represents the leak^ O G>--© O Fig. 15. (4) The bottom casing 69 being screwed up too tight would crush the rubber gasket 72 at the outer edge. The inside of the gasket, not being injured, would lift the piston so high that valve 63 could not get low enough to seat. In this case the spring 68 could be taken entirely out, and still we could get no excess as our train-line and main reservoir pressures would equal- ize. Q, If we wish to re7nove valve 6j to clea7i it when there is a train coupled to the e7igine, how should it be done ? 96 Air-Brake Catechism. A. Turn the cut-out cock in the train line under the engineer's valve and place the handle in service position to remove the train-line pressure between the engineer's valve and the cut-out cock. Then remove nut 65 and valve 63. Q, How should valve 6j be cleaned? A. With oil. The seat should never be scraped to re- move any gum, as it is a lead seat and a scratch would ruin it. O. What should be done before replacing valve 63? A. The valve should be moved to running position to blow out any loose dirt or scale. Q. Does the valve 6j begin to close before full train- line pressure is reached? A. Yes ; the spring 68 begins to be compressed a little before full train pressure is reached so that the last few pounds feed more slowly into the train line. Q. How zvouldyou remove piston y/j. if it stuck ? A. First remove valve 63 as just described, and then replace the cap nut 65. Next remove the lower body 68. Grasp the stem of the piston 66 with the right hand and move the handle of the engineer's valve to running position with the left. The main reservoir pressure coming in will blow out the piston, after which lap the valve. Never drive the piston out by putting a punch on the stem unless the punch is at least as large as the stem. Q. In replacing piston 7^, what care sho7ild be exercised ? A. To carefully enter the packing ring of the piston into the brass bushing. Never pound it in as some- thing would be broken or sprung. Feed Valve or Train-Line Governor. 97 Q. With the handle of the engineer'' s valve oji lap, could the tram-line governor be re^noved e^ttirely without losing main reservoir pressure ? A. Yes ; all ports are blocked, and main reservoir pressure could not get through the rotary in this position. Q. What harm zuould a leak by the packing ring 6y and throngh the rubber gaskets y2 do ? A. No harm, except what any small leakage of train-line pressure would do. THE IvlTTIvK DRUM, OR CAVITY D. Fig. i6.— Thk Litti^e: Drum, or Cavity D. Q. How else is the little drum^ or cavity D, some- times spoken of ? A. As the engineer's equalizing auxiliary. Q, Where is the little drum ttsually located? A. Under the foot-boards of the cab, on either the fireman's or engineer's side, according to which has the most free space. Q, What is the object of the little drum ? A. To furnish a volume of air on top of the equaliz- ing piston in the engineer's valve. Q. Would not the air in the small cavity over The Little Drum, or Cavity D. 99 tJie equalizing pisto7i hold air enougJi to keep the piston on its seat ? A. Yes ; but there is not a sufficient volume there to draw from in making service reductions to make them sufficiently gradual. Q. What would happen when the engineei^ put the handle of the engineer's valve ifi service position^ if there were no little drum to furnish a vohime of air on top of the equalizi^ig pisto7i 9 A. The air would leave the top of the piston in a flash on account of the small volume, the black hand on the gauge would fall to the pin, the equalizing piston rise full stroke, all train-line pressure would rush to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust, and the en- gineer would have lost control of the brakes. Q. Hozu would the brakes on the train act ? A. If a long train were coupled to the engine, the brakes would go full set in a service application ; but if a train of less than about six or seven cars, the brakes would go into quick action. Q. Why f till service on a long train and quick action on a short one ? A. On a short train, w^hen the equalizing piston flew up, air from the train line would go to the atmosphere through the train-line exhaust faster than the auxiliary pressure could get from the auxiliary to the brake cylinder through the service port of the triple slide valve. When the auxiliary pressures were enough stronger than that on the train line, they would force out the triple pistons and compress the graduating springs, causing the triples to go into quick action. On a train of any length the train-line pressure, due to the greater volume on the train line, could not get out of the train-line exhaust any faster than the auxiliary loo Air-Bra KE CaT£:chism. pressure could feed through the slide valves to the brake cylinders, and the auxiliary pressures would not be strong enough to compress the graduating springs, but, losing all train-line pressure, would apply the brakes in full service application. Q. The three-way cock was done away with to get a valve that would ^^nechanically 77take a gi'-adital desired train-line reduction regardless of the length of the train. What is it about the valve now used that allows this to be done? A. The little drum in conjunction with the equaliz- ing piston. Q. Does an e^igineer have to leave the handle of the engineer s valve in service position any longer to make a train-line reduction of five pounds on a lono- train tha1^ on a short one? o A. No; all little drums are of the same size. If a five-pound train-line reduction is desired, the engineer releases five pounds from the little drum to the atmos- phere, and the equalizing piston takes care of the train- line pressure regardless of the length of the train. Q. If by any chance the pipe leadi^ig to the little driim were broken off, could we still handle the brakes? A. Yes, O. How ? A. Plug the broken pipe and also the train-line ex- haust. When wishing to apply the brakes in service, our service position would be of no use as the train- line exhaust is plugged ; so move the valve part way into emergency position, being careful not to get it too far into emergency position so as to make too sudden a re- duction, and when putting the valve back on lap do not The lyiTTLE Drum, or Cavity D. ioi stop the train-line reduction too quickly or the surge of air forward may release some of the head brakes. Q. In such a case, into what have we traiis- fo7^med 02Lr efficient valve ? A. Practically into an old three-way cock. Q. How do we tell if the preliminary exhattst port e is free from gum and corrosion? A. Flace the engineer's valve in service position and watch the black hand on the gauge. It should take about five or six seconds to reduce the pressure in the little drum from seventy to fifty pounds through the preliminary exhaust port. Q. What, besides the fact that the preliminary exhaust port is partially closed, would cause it to take longer than six seconds to make this reduction ? A. See the engineer's valve (Fig. lo). If the gasket 6 1 leaked between the main reservoir and little drum, or between the train line and little drum, or if the packing ring 48 were sufficiently loose to allow train-line press- ure to feed by too quickly. • Q. If it takes less than five seconds to 7nake this reduction, what is probably the matter ? A. There is a leak somewhere in the connection to the little drum, which helps make the reduction. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE F 6 VALVE. Q. What two troubles in the engineer s valve aside from those in the trai?i-line governor woiild not permit any excess pressure with the handle of the engineer s valve in running position ? A. A leak in the lower gasket 6i (Fig. lo) between the main reservoir and the little drum and a leaky rotary. Q. Why does air leaking from the main reser- voir to the little drum in running position not per- mit any excess pressttre ? A. Because in this position the little drum and train line are directly connected. Q. Does gasket 6i leak very often ? A. No ; this is a trouble seldom encountered. Q. What indications are given by such a leak ? A. In service position it would take longer to make a given reduction on the little drum, as air is feeding in slowly at the same time it is being taken out through the preliminary exhaust. As soon as the valve was placed on lap the black hand would quickly feed up to main reservoir pressure. Q. If the air were leaking into the little drum by gasket 6i as fast as it was being removed throttgh the preliminary exhaust port, zuhat would happen? Peculiarities and Troubles of the F 6 Valve. 103 A. The equalizing piston could not be raised and the only way the brakes could be applied would be by using the emergency position. Q, How does the leaking of the rotary do away with excess? A. The air from the main reservoir leaks under the rotary seat directly into the train line. Q. What harm besides that of destroying excess zuill result from a leaky rotary ? A. We get main reservoir pressure on the train line and consequently in the auxiliaries, and the use of ninety instead of seventy pounds for braking purposes would slide the wheels. After the brakes were applied and the valve was on lap, air leaking into the train line from the main reservoir would gradually increase train-line pressure and force triples to release position. Without the proper excess it would also be hard to release brakes. Q. How would you test for a leaky rotary? A. Start the pump with the valve handle on lap. If the black hand starts, the rotary leaks. Gasket 61 leak- ing would also cause this, but this leak so seldom hap- pens, it may be disregarded in practice^ Q. Give a7iother way of testing for a leaky rotary. A. Put the valve on lap and drain everything but the main reservoir ; open the angle coqk at the rear of the tender and put the hose in a pail of water. If bubbles rise to the surface the rotary is leaking. Q. Which is the better test ? A. The second is the more delicate test, but the first is sufficiently practical and is easier. I04 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Why should everything be drained in making the water test ? A, Because with all air taken from the train line by opening the angle cock at the rear of the tender, air leaking by the packing ring 48 in the piston 47 into the train line would cause bubbles to rise to the surface of the water. The same thing would result if air from the tender and driver brake auxiliaries leaked by the triple piston-packing rings. The bubbles would seem to indi- cate a leaky rotary, while it was merely an improperly conducted test. - Q. Why can we someti^nes get no excess with the valve in running position when the engine is alone, although the hands will stand properly at ninety and seventy when the engine is cotpled to a train ? A. It simply means that when coupled to a train the leaks on the train compensate for the leak through the engineer's valve. Q. What will cause a constant leak out of the . train-line exhaust 5/ (Fig. 10 ) , whether the valve is on full release, running, or lap position ? A. Dirt on the seat of the valve at the end of the stem of piston 47. Q. What is the trotible if this leak does not exist in fell release or running position, but begins as soon as the valve is placed on lap ? A. A leakage of little drum pressure causes piston 47 to rise. Q. Where could this leak be ? A. In the little drum itself ; in the pipe leading to it ; in the pipe leading to the black hand on the gauge ; gasket 61 leaking so as to allow little drum pressure to escape to the atmosphere ; a scratch on the rotary seat Peculiarities and Troubles of the F 6 Valve. 105 between the preliminary exhaust port e and the groove h leading to the atmosphere. O. Jf7iy does it leak on lap and not on running or /nil release position ? A. Because the leak is not fed on lap, as all ports are closed, but it is in the other two positions. Q. If the tiuo hands on the gange do not shozu the same pressure luhen the valve is left in fill re- lease position, what is the trouble? A. The gauge is incorrect. The main reservoir and train line being directly connected in this position both gauge hands should show the same pressure. Q. What C02ild be the trouble if in running positio7i the 7^ed hand showed seventy a7id the black ninety pounds ? A. The gauge pipes have been connected to the wrong hands. Q. What should be done if piston ^/ does not respond readily to redtictions and seems to stick f A. The piston should be removed and cleaned ; but never remove the packing ring 48, as it may be sprung or broken. Get the ring to work free by using kerosene oil to clean it. Q. How would you apply the brakes if the pre- liminary exhaust port were closed and no redicction could be made in service position ? A. Go carefully toward the emergency position. It might be done by lapping the valve and unscrewing the nut a little that connects the pipe leading to. the little drum to the brake valve. OPERATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE D 8 VAIvVE. .TO GOVERNOR 1 >TRAIN PIPE PRESSURE j26 Fig. 17.— D 8 Brake Vai,vk. Q, Which valve is most tised, the F 6 or the D 8? A. The V 6, but the D 8 is also used to quite an extento Operation and Description of the D 8 Vai.ve. 107 Q. Hozv do the two valves compare with each otJicr in the general principle of operation ? A. They are alike in principle, but the same results are reached by differently constructed valves. Q. Do they have the saine positions ? A. Yes. Q. Is there any difference in the pipe connec- tions of the two valves^ A. Yes, with the F 6 valve the pipe carrying air to the pump governor is connected to main reservoir press- ure, while with the D 8 valve it is connected to the train line. This will be seen by comparing the cuts of the two valves. Q. Explain the ftdl release position of the D 8 valve. A. With the handle 8 of the valve (Fig. 17) in full release position, the air coming from the main reservoir enters the engineer's valve at X, passes on top of the rotary, through port a of the rotary 13, port h of the rotary seat and into cavity c of the rotary, thence through port I and into the train line at Y. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) leads to chamber B and is exposed to cavity c of the rotary in this position of the valve so that air passing from the main reservoir into the train line through cavity c is also free to go to the little drum through port g. In this position Fig. 18 shows porty open to port e, and main reservoir pressure passes directly to the little drum through these ports. Q. Hozv many ports lead to the little drum in fttll release ? A. Two ; the same as with the F 6 valve. io8 Air-Brakb Catechism. Q. How ma7ty to the train line ? A. One large one, as with the F 6 valve. Q. In fttll release _ the main reservoir, train line, and little drum are connected. Hoiv mnch pressure will we get 07t each if the ptimp is started with the valve in this position? A Seventy pounds. O. Why seventy ? A. Because with this valve, the train-line pressure governs the pump, and the train line usually carries seventy pounds. Q. Do we still have a connection betzveen the main reservoir and train line when the handle is moved to i^unning position ? A. No, not a direct connection as in full release. Q. Do zue have a connection between the traiii line and little dritm ? A. Yes. O, Explain the run7iing position of this valve. A. In this position port j (Fig. i8) is moved around directly over port / in the rotary seat. The main reservoir pressure coming from the top of the rotary feeds through ports j and / and strikes the valve 21, which is held to its seat by the excess pressure spring 20. This spring has a tension of twenty pounds so that when the main reservoir pressure is twenty pounds greater than that back of the valve, or train-line pressure, the valve is forced from its seat and the air coming from the main reservoir passes through port/ (Fig. 19) into port I and into the train line at Y. At the same time it feeds into the train line through port /, it feeds up under the rotary into cavity c which, as in full release, is ex- posed to port I. Port g in the rotary seat (Fig. 19) is still Op:ERAtion and Description of the D 8 Valve. 109 exposed to cavity r, and as air passes into tKe train line it also passes up into cavity c and through port g (See Figs. 17 and 19) into cavity D, or the little drum. Q. IViik this valve in rujinzn<^ position, hoz^> much prcss2Lre do we gel on the main i^escrvoir aiid train lijie? A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and seventy on the train line. Q. What stops the pnnip zuhen we have the ninety and seventy pounds ? A. The pump governor, which is actuated by train- line pressure. (See 16, Fig. 17.) O. What gives its the excess pi^essni^e of tzuenty pounds in the main 7^eservoir ? A. The excess pressure spring 20. Q. Moving the valve to lap, what is done? A. All ports are blanked. O. What shuts the little drum off from the train-line pressure on lap? A. A lug on the inside of the rotary rim covers port g (Fig. iq) in this position. (9. Where is air drawn from in sei^vice posi- tion ? A. From cavity D, or the little drum. Q. Explain this position. A. In this position, the slot i) on the under side of the rotary (Fig. 20) connects port e, which leads through the rotary seat to the little drum, with port h in the rotary seat (Figs. 18 and 19) leading to the atmosphere. ^—20 Fig. i8.— D 8 Brake Vai^ve. Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve, hi TO QUAGE N PIPE PRSBSURe Fig. 19.— D 8 Brake Vai^ve. Q. How does the i^eduction of little drtnn p^^ess- ure affect the equalizing piston // ? A. The same as with the F 6 valve. 112 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Is there any difference between the emergency position of this and the F 6 valve f A. No. Q. What is the object of the small slot in the rotary seat {Fig. ig) leading from port e, which leads to cavity Z), towards port f? A. This port comes into use wlien moving tlie rotary into full release position. It is to allow m.ain reservoir Fig. 20.— Showing Bottom Side of Rotary of D 8 Vai^ve. pressure to reacli cavity D on top of the equalizing pis- ton through port 7 a trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure underneath the piston 17. Just as soon as the rotary is moved past running position toward full release, port j in the rotary is connected with the slot in the rotary seat leading to port e, thus allowing main reservoir pressure to reach the top of piston 17 a trifle sooner than it reaches the train-line pressure underneath the piston. B Plate B. the nine and one-half inch improved air pump. Operation and Description of the D 8 Valve. 113 Q. What luould happen if the air from the main reservoir reached the U7ider side of the piston ly {Fig. 18) first f A. The piston would be forced from its seat, espe- cially on a short train, and there would be an unneces- sary waste of air before the piston would seat. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE D 8 VALVE. Q. Why is the equalizing piston // raised nearly every time the handle is throzvn to full release, on an engine alone, while if the engine is coupled to a train of four or more cars this does not happen f A. In full release two small ports charge tlie little drum and one large one charges the train line. On an engine alone the volume of air in the train line and the little drum are so nearly equal that charging the train line so much faster through a large port than the little drum is charged through two small ones makes the press- ure greater underneath piston 17 than that above it. The piston is consequently forced from its seat and enough train- line pressure is lost through the train-line exhaust to allow little drum pressure to force piston 17 to its seat. Q. Does this happen with both valves f A. Yes. Q. Why does this not happen when the engine is coupled to some air cars ? A. Because in this case the large port used to charge the train line in full release has a large space to supply with air, and the little drum is charged faster than the train line. Q. Which hand should start first if the pump is started with the valve in full release position ? Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 3 Valve. 115 A. They should start together and stop at seventy pounds. Q. Which hand should stai^t first in running position ? A. The red should go up twenty pounds before the black hand moves. They should then proceed twenty pounds apart and stop when ninety pounds is registered by the red hand and seventy by the black. Q. What is the trouble if both hands start and re7nai7i together with the valve in running position f A. The rotary leaks or there is dirt on the excess pressure valve 21 (Fig. 18). Q. How do zve tell which it is f A. Try the rotary on lap as described with the F 6 valve, to see if it leaks. If it is tight the trouble is with the excess pressure valve. The trouble will be found to be dirt on the seat of the excess pressure valve nine- teen times out of twenty. Q, How call you remove the excess pressure valve when everything is charged? A. Turn the cut-out cock under the engineer's valve, place the rotary on service position and remove the cap nut 19. Q. After zue remove the excess pressure valve, clean it and the chamber in which it works, what should be done ? A. The rotary should be placed in running position to blow out any loose dirt or scale before replacing the valve. Q. What causes this g2 cm to collect here? A. The too free use of oil or a poor kind on the air end of the pump. ii6 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. If the red hand stands at eighty and the black ha7td at seventy when the pump stops and the rotary is i7i r^tn7^ing position^ what is wrong? A. The excess pressure spring 20 (Fig. 18) is weak. Q. What if the red stands at one hundred and the black at seventy ? A. The excess pressure spring is too stiff. Q. What if the red stands at eighty and the black at sixty, or the red at one htindred and the black at eighty ? A. The pump governor needs adjusting. Q. What is the tro^tble if no air will pass into the train line with the valve in r tinning position ? A. The excess pressure valve is stuck to its seat. Q. What has to be done f A. The handle of the valve has to be run in full re- lease until the excess pressure valve chamber can be cleaned. Q, How much pressure will we get on the main reservoir a7td how m^uch on the train line if the pump is started with the valve 07i lap f A. No pressure in the train line, and boiler pressure in the main reservoir. Q. Why boiler pressure in the main reservoir f A. Because the pump continues to work as long as the steam is strong enough to compress the air higher, there being no air in the train line to work the governor and stop the pump. Q. Does the main reservoir pressure run up this way when the brakes are applied and the valve is on lap f A. Yes. Peculiarities and Troubles of the D 8 Valve. 117 Q. Hozu 2S this overcome ? A. The engineer watches the gauge and partially closes the pump throttle, or, on some roads, two governors are used, one connected to the main reservoir pressure and the other, as in the cut (Fig. 19), with the train line, Q. What is likely to happen if this high press- tire gets into the train line ? A. The wheels are likely to be slid and the hose burst. Q. If the rotary or excess pressure valves leak with the D 8 valve, how will the pump work ? A. After stopping, the pump will not start working again until both train-line and main reservoir pressures have leaked below seventy pounds or that at which the governor is set. Q. Why is it that with the valve midzuay be- tween the service and f till emergeiicy positions the black hand shows main reservoir pressure, when we know by the position of the valve that there is 7io air in the train line ? A. This is a peculiarity of the valve. In this posi- tion port j of the rotary stands over port g of the rotary seat that leads to the little drum. In this case the press- ure represented is what is in the little drum but not in the train line, as the train line is connected to the at- mosphere by a large port. Q. Are the troubles with the equalizing piston described in the explanation of the F 6 valve ap- plicable to the equalizing piston of the D 8 valve ? A. Yes. A COMPARISON OF THE F 6 AND D 8 BRAKE VALVES. Q. How much pressure do we get in the main reservoir, train line and little drum with the F 6 and D 8 brake valves, if the pump is started with the valves in full release aitd left there until it stops ? A. Ninety pounds in each with the F 6 valve, and seventy in each with the D 8 valve. Q. How do the hands on the gauge go up with the F 6 and D 8 valves, if the pumps are started with the valves iii rtiitning position f A. With the F 6 valve both hands go together to seventy pounds, when the black hand stops, and the red hand continues until ninety pounds is reached in the main reservoir. With the D 8 valve the red hand goes up twenty pounds before the black moves. They continue to rise twenty pounds apart and stop with ninety on the red and seventy pounds on the black hand. Q. Why is a leak on the train line m^ore likely to creep the brakes on with the D 8 than with the F 6 valve, with the valves in running position ? A. Because in this position air will feed into the train line if the pressure there is less than seventy pounds with the F 6 valve, while with the D 8 no air will feed into the train line unless there is twenty A Comparison of the F 6 and D 8 Brake Valves. 119 pounds more pressure in the main reservoir than in the train line. Q. What is the difference between the two valves in the stopping of the pump ? A. With the F 6 valve, the pump stops when the desired pressure is compressed into the main reservoir, regardless of the pressure in the train line, while with the D 8 valve it is exactly the reverse. Q. Hozv much pressure will we get on the main reservoir and trai7i line with these valves, if the ptcmp is started with the valves 07i lap f A. Ninety pounds on the main reservoir and nothing on the train line with the F 6 valve ; boiler pressure on the main reservoir and nothing on the train line with the D 8 valve. WESTINGHOUSE PUMPS. Q. What three sizes of pumps are there? A. The 6, 8, and gj-incli pumps. Q. Is the 6-inch ptimp still in use ? A. Yes, but very few are ever seen. Q. What is the use of the pump in the air-brake system ? A. To compress the air used in applying and re- leasing the brakes. Q. Which pump is gradually becoming the standard, and why f A. The 9J-inch pump, because the number of air cars n6w used in trains requires a pump of greater capacity to insure recharging the train more quickly in descending grades. Q. How is dry steam obtained for the pmnp f A. A pipe is screwed into the dome near its top and a pump throttle conveniently located in the pipe, or a dry pipe is run from the top of the dome back through the boiler and coupled to a pump throttle screwed into the top of the boiler inside of the cab. Q. What would happen if this dry pipe leaked inside the boiler ? A. Water would work into the pump and wash out the oil; causing the pump to groan and cut. 9i-lNCH Pump. 121 Q. What is placed betzueen the pump throttle a7id the p2inip ? A. The lubricator and pump governor. Q. Hozu ai^e they located? A. The pump governor next to the pump, and the lubricator between the governor and pump throttle. Q. What zvould happen if the lubincator zvere placed next the pnmp f A. When the pump governor shut oflf the steam, with the lubricator ordinarily used, the steam between the lubricator and pump governor condensing would form a vacuum that would draw all the oil from the lubricator, and there would be a great waste of oil. Q. What is the capacity of a gy2-inch pump in good condition ? A= With one hundred and forty pounds of steam pressure, a gj-inch pump will compress air from zero to seventy pounds in thirty- eight seconds in a reservoir 26 J X 34 inches, and from twenty to seventy pounds in twenty-seven seconds. Q. What is the capacity of an 8-inch pump in good condition f Ao With one hundred and forty pounds of steam pressure, the 8-inch pump will compress air from zero to seventy pounds in a main reservoir 26 J x 34 inches long (outside measurement) in sixty-eight seconds, and from twenty to seventy pounds in fifty seconds. The reservoir contains about 8| cubic feet, 9J-INCH Pump. Q. What is the office of the parts in the top head of the gY^-inch pump \Plate B) ? 122 Air-Be AKK Catechism. A. They with the reversing rod 71 form the valve motion of the pump. Q. What is Fig. 3 {Plate B) ? A. It is a cut of the bushing inside of which the slide valve 83 moves when actuated by the movement of the pistons "]"] and 79, because fastened to their connect- ing stemo Q. What are ports b, d, and c' {Fig. j, Plate B) f A. They correspond exactly to the ports in the valve seat of a locomotive. In Fig. I (Plate B) we see that h leads to the bottom of the steam cylinder, d to the top, and d leads to the exhaust pipe at F. Q. Of what use is port t {Fig. j, Plate E) ? A= It is a port by means of which chamber E at the left of the small piston 79 is connected with the atmos- phere through port d. Q. If this port were not there ^ would the pump reverse ? A. No ; when the main valve pistons "]"] and 79 moved to the left, a back pressure would be formed in chamber E that would stop the reversing movement of the pistons "]"] and 79 and stop the pump. Q. Explaiit the passage of steam after it enters the pump at X, and its effect. A. Steam coming from the boiler through the pump governor enters the pump at X, thence passes through ports a, a' and a' (Figs, i and 2, Plate B), into chamber A between the main valve pistons. The area of piston ^'] being so much greater than that of 79, the steam moves these pistons to the right, carrying the slide valve 83 (Figs, i and 2) with them to the position shown 9J-INCH Pump. 123 in Fig. lo Steam in cliamber A is now free to pass through ports b^ U and If underneath the main piston 65. Q. What zuotdd become of any steam above piston 6^? A. Any steam above this piston is free to pass to the atmosphere through ports c^ c\ the exhaust cavity B of the slide valve, d, d\ (F^ and through the exhaust pipe from Y. Q. How is the pum^p reversed? A. The main piston 65 is now being forced up by the steam pressure, and just before it reaches the top of its stroke the reversing plate 69 strikes the lug / on the reversing rod 71, lifting the rod. As this rod is lifted the reversing slide valve 72 (Fig. 2) is carried up with it, and the pump is reversed. O. What is the duty of the reversing slide valve 72 {Fig. 2)? A. The duty of this valve is to admit and exhaust steam from chamber D (Fig. i) between the piston 77 and head 84, and, as now shown, it exhausts steam from cavity D through ports h and li' (Figs. 3 and 2), port H of the reversing slide valve, and through ports/, /, (i, d\ d% and out at F. Q. How does raising the reversing slide valve reverse the motion of the pitmp f A. As the reversing valve is lifted by the rod 7~i, port g in the bushing (Figs. 2 and 3) is exposed to the steam pressure which is always in chamber C, which is in constant communication with chamber A by means of ports e and e' (Fig. 2). When valve 72 is raised, steam passes through port g (Figs. 2 and 3) into cavity J). We now have equal steam pressure on both sides of piston '-j^^ and it is balanced ; but the pressure acting on the right of piston 124 Air-Brakk Catechism. 79 moves the pistons and tlie slide valve to the left, connecting the steam pressure in chamber A with the top of piston 65 through ports c' and c, and the under side of piston 65 is connected with the atmosphere through ports b\ b' ^ h, cavity B of the slide valve 83, d, d\ d% and out at F, Q, The piston 6^ is now on its down stroke ; what brings the stroke to the point from which we started ? A. The reversing plate 69 strikes the button at the bottom of the reversing rod 71 and pulls the reversing slide valve 72 down to its position as shown in Fig. 2. We have now completed one entire stroke of the pump. Q. Which are the receiving valves f A. Those marked 86 at the left of Fig. i. Q. Which are the discharge valves ? A. Those marked 86 at the right of the pump. Q. Describe the action of the air end of the pump. A. As piston 66 is raised, the air above the piston is compressed and a vacuum would be formed underneath if air from the atmosphere did not enter through the lower receiving valve 86. The ports are so arranged that the pressure above the piston will strike the receiving valve from above, forcing it to its seat, and the discharge valve underneath, forcing it from its seat, allowing the compressed air to pass down and out into the main reservoir at Z. The suction underneath the piston allows atmospheric pressure entering at W to force the lower receiving valve from its seat and fill the cylinder underneath the piston with air. The lower discharge valve 86 is held to its seat by main reservoir pressure. When the pump is 9i-lNCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care= 125 reversed, the opposite valves from those just described are affected in the same way. Q. Of what use is the port in the cap /^ ij^'^g- 2, Plate B) zuhich leads to the top of the stem yi ? A. This port is connected with the top end of the steam cylinder. Were it not for this port there would be a back pressure on top of stem 71 which would not allow the reversing slide valve to be raised to reverse the pump. This port is connected with the atmosphere through the top end of the steam cylinder, as shown in Fig. 2 , each time this end of the cylinder is connected with the atmosphere. 9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. Q. What should be done in packing the pump f A. It should be packed loosely and the gland nuts 96 screwed up only sufficient to prevent a blow. Do not use a wrench if no blow exists when the gland is screwed up by hand. Q. Should asbestos or anything containing mtich rtibber be ttsed in packing a pump f A. No ; asbestos hardens and is hard to remove, and rubber is likely to wear the stem too much. Q. How often shotdd the air end of the pump be oihd? A. If a pump groans occasionally, it should be oiled just often enough so that no groan will occur. If a pump never groans, it is not necessary to oil it more than once a month. Q. Some pumps have been run without ever 126 Air-Brakb Catechism. oiling the air end; how did the lower cylinder receive its lubrication f A. From the swab which should always be placed on the piston rod, and from the oily condensation that follows down the rod. Q. What kind of oil shoitld be used in the air end of the pump ? A. A good quality of West Virginia oil gives the best results. If other oils are used, it must be those that do not gum. Q. What care should be taken in starting a pttmp f A. It should be started slowly so as to get a pressure of twenty or thirty pounds for the air piston to cushion upon, and the condensed steam should be gotten rid of before the pump attains any speed. Get the lubricator at work as soon as the pump is started. Q. Does any harm res7ilt from oiling the air end of the pump through the suction ? A. Yes ; the suction holes are stopped up, the air valves gummed, and a generally dirty and ineffective pump results. Q. What trouble will cause the pump to blow ? A. Packing rings in the main steam and reversing pistons leaking, slide valve 83, or a leaky reversing slide valve 72 are the main troubles. Q. What will cause a pump to pound f A. It will pound if it is not fastened firmly, if the air valves are stuck, or if there is too great a lift of air valves. Sometimes it will pound if the reversing plate is worn too much to reverse the pump quickly enough, or if the nuts on the pistons are loose. 9J-InchPump — Pecuuarities, Troubles, Care. 127 Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge valve were sticck open ? A. Main reservoir pressure would always be on top of the air piston ; this would cause a slow up-stroke and a quick down-stroke of the pump. No air would be drawn into the pump on the down-stroke. If the oil cock were opened on the pump, there would be a constant blow at that point as long as there was any pressure in the main reservoir, and no oil could be put into the air cylinder, as it would be blown out by the escaping air. Q. What woidd be the effect if the bottom dis- charge valve were stuck open ? A. The same effect as above described, only on the opposite stroke of the pump. In this case the oil cock would not tell us anything. Q. What would be the effect if the top discharge valve were stuck shtit ? A. The pump would have a slow up-stroke, and unless the valve were forced from its seat, would stop or go slow enough to allow the pressure above the air piston to leak by the packing rings when the air press- ure above the piston became as high as the steam pressure. Q. What would be the effect if the bottom dis- charge valve were stuck shut ? A. The same effect as just described, but on the opposite stroke. Q. What effect would follow if the top receiv- ing valve were stuck open ? A. Air would be drawn into the pump on the down- stroke and blown back to the atmosphere on the up- stroke. By placing the hand on the air inlet and 128 Air-Brakb Catechism. watching tlie piston this trouble may be easily located. The pump would have a tendency to work faster on the up-stroke. Q. What effect would follow if the bottom receiving valve were stuck open ? A. The same as just described, but on the opposite stroke. Q. What would be the effect were the top re- ceiving valve stuck shut ? A. No air would be drawn into the pump on its down-stroke, and a partial vacuum being formed above the piston would cause the pump to have a slower down- stroke, as the vacuum would be working against the steam, and a faster up-stroke, as the vacuum would be working with the steam. Q. What would be the effect if the bottom receiving valve were stuck to its seat ? A. The same as with the top receiving valve stuck shut, but on the opposite stroke. Q, How may a stuck valve usually be loosened? A. By tapping the valve cage lightly. Q. How will a pump work with dirt on the seat of a discharge valve ? A. The same as with a stuck receiving valve. The dirt on the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into the pump and aid the steam on half the stroke, causing one stroke to be quick, and work against the steam on the other stroke, causing the pump to work slow. Q. How could we tell that a receiving valve was stuck shttt, 01'' a dischai^ge valve open, besides by the erratic action of the pump ? 9J-InchPump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 129 A. The hand placed on the strainer would feel no air drawn in on one-half of the stroke. Q. How can we tell if the top discharge valve has a poor seat f A. Open the cock 98 (Fig. i, Plate B) and air will issue thence constantly if the dirt on the seat of the valve allows main reservoir pressure to feed back into the cylinder. Q. What caused some of the first ()y2-inch pumps to stop ? A. The port g (Fig. 3, Plate B) did not extend quite far enough, and the wear of piston 77 (Fig. i, Plate B) would sometimes allow it to travel far enough to close port g entirely, and the pump could not be reversed. Q. How may a pump often be started if it stops f A. By jarring lightly on the top head. Q. At what speed are good restUts obtained from a pump ? A. At about forty-five or fifty strokes a minute on a level, but in handling air trains on a grade this speed should be increased. Q. Why is it best not to rtin a pump too slow f A. A pump running too slow will allow the air that is being compressed to leak by the packing rings 67 (Fig. 2, Plate B), and air will not be drawn in at the other end of the cylinder as it should. With sixty strokes to the minute, a pump will make more air than with the same number of strokes spread over three minutes. In the latter case the compressed air has too much time to leak by the air piston-packing rings. 130 Air-Brake Catkchism. Q, How can we tell if the packing rings in a. pump are loose ? A. Have tlie pump working at fair speed and put the hand on the air inlet to see if the air is drawn in full stroke. Try this on both strokes, and if air is drawn in only during a part of each stroke, the rings are loose. Q. What lift should the receiving and discharge valves have ? A. -i^ of an inch. Q. What will cause a pump to heat ? A. Too small lift of air valves, racing a pump, loose air piston-packing rings, using a small main reservoir on long trains, packing the piston rod too tight, or using so much oil on the air end of the pump that the pipe leading from the pump to the main reservoir is partly closed by the oil being baked to it. The pipe gradually becomes so small, that the friction caused by the air being forced through it causes the air to heat. This heat spreads to the pump. Q. What should be done to cool a hot pump ? A. Ease up on the speed if running fast, remove cap 74, and pour a small amount of good oil into the pump. Q. If the packing burns out of a pum.p, can it still compress air f A. Yes ; the lower half of the air cylinder will not be affected. Q. Does compressing air cause it to heat ? A. Yes; the higher the pressure the greater the degree of heat, because of the friction due to forcing the air particles closer together. Q* What is likely to be the trouble if a pump dances f 9J-INCH Pump — Peculiarities, Troubles, Care. 131 A. A leak on the seat of the reversing slide valve or a bent reversing stem ; also a burr being worn on the reversing plate, thus allowing the button on the stem to catch. Q, How should a pump be located? A. It should be where the engineer will notice it if it stops. Under no consideration should it be located lower than the main reservoir, as dirt and water would stay in the pump. Q. How may a pump be cleaned f A. By allowing a solution of lye in hot water to work through the pump. The pump should be worked slowly and the water caught in a pail before it enters the main reservoir. Run the solution through several times ; then run clean hot water through to wash out the lye, or it will eat the leather gaskets throughout the brake system. Q. Where does the exhaust pipe connected to the pump at Y lead ? A. Usually to the smoke box in the engine, but this practice is gradually giving way to the better one of running the exhaust pipe into the exhaust passage from the main cylinder to the stack. This latter method almost does away with the draught on the fire caused by the pump exhaust thus saving fuel, and the pump makes very little noise in working. Some engines are piped to carry the pump exhaust up over the cab', but this is awkward, noisy, and keeps the cab dirty. Q. What effect would be produced if the gasket under the top head leaked? A. If the leak were between the two ports, one leading to the top and the other to the bottom of the main piston, the pump would stop. 132 Air-Brakb Catkchism. 60° 90 177° 212 255° 317° 369° 416° 294' 362^ 417^ 465' 455° 507' 490° 524° 545' 580^ The accompanying table shows heat due to compres- sion. This heat depends upon the initial temperature. The rise in temperature is due to the heat of compres- sion. Temperature of air before compression compressed to 15 lbs. 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 8-Inch Pump. Q. State the principal diffei^ence, aside from that of size, between the 8 and the g\-inch pumps. A. It is in the valve motion ; that of the 9J-inch pump is simpler, easier to get at for repair, and less likely to get out of order. Piston 23 (Fig. 21), called the reversing piston, is not found in the 9J-inch pump (Plate B). Q. Are the air ends of the pumps alike ? A. In principle, yes ; but the location of the air valves and their size are somewhat different, although the operation is the same. Q. What lift do the air valves of the 8-inch pump have? A. The receiving should have \ and the discharge y\-inch lift. Q. As the steam enters the pump at X {Fig. 21), where is it free to pass f A. Into chamber m and also through port h into a port not shown which leads to cavity e, the reversing slide-valve chamber. BOILER,, !>'''' ^ 54lLj 52 52 AiR iNLET Fig. 21.— 8-Inch Pump. 134 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, Does this chamber always contain the same pressure as chamber m ? A. Always. Q. The pistons 7 {Fig- 21) are of uneqiial size, and the upper piston 7 and piston 2j are the same size. What happens when steam enters chambers m and e with the reversing slide valve in its pres- ent position ? A. Steam is admitted through port a on top of piston 23 ; this pressure balances the upward pressure on the top piston 7, and the pressure acting down on the small piston 7 causes all three pistons to travel down to the positions shown in the cut. Q. Explain the passage of steam with the valve motion in this position. A. Steam passes through small ports in bushing 26 (Fig. 21), just above the small piston 7, underneath piston 10, forcing it up. At the same time the top end of the steam cylinder is connected with the atmosphere through the upper ports of bushing 25, the port /, as shown by the dotted lines, down through g and out at Y. Q. When the piston moves up so that the re- versing plate 18 strikes the lug n, the reversing slide valve 16 is forced up. What is done by rais- ing this valve ? A. The exhaust port in the slide valve connects port h leading to chamber d with port c which leads into the exhaust port /, and we have no pressure left on top of piston 23. Q. With no pressure acting down on piston 2^ {Fig. 21)^ what happens? A. On account of the greater area of the upper piston 7, both pistons 7 are raised. 8-Inch Pump. 135 Q. Explain the passage of steam with pisto7is y moved tip. A. Steam from chamber m now passes through the lower ports of bushing 25 on top of the main piston 10, forcing it down, and the steam on the under side of piston 10 passes out of the lower holes of bushing 26 into port/', and out through the exhaust port F. Q. When piston 10 reaches the bottom of its stroke, how is the pump reversed? - A. The reversing plate 18 strikes the button at the end of the reversing stem 17 and moves the reversing slide valve 16 down to the position as shown in the cut. Q. What will cause blows in this pump f A. Loose packing rings in the main steam piston 10, piston 23, or pistons 7, a bad seat on the reversing slide valve, or the top of stem 17 being a loose fit in the cap nut 20 (Fig. 21). Q. What are the other troubles of the pum^p ? A. They are in principle so nearly allied to those of the 9J-inch pump that a study of them would be prac- tically a review of the work discussed in the study of that pump. In all cases of pump trouble, if one keeps in mind the principle of the operation of the pump, a little thought will sufiice to locate the defects. THE SWEENEY COMPRESSOR. Q. What is the object of the Sweeney device? A. To recharge a main reservoir quickly in descend- ing very heavy grades when the air pressure is low. Q. Explain the parts. A. It consists of a pipe running from the steam chest to the main reservoir. In the pipe there is a cut- out cock, a safety valve, and a non-return check. Q. How is it operated f A. By turning the cut-out cock and reversing the engine when steam is shut off. The main cylinders and pistons act as compressors, and compressed air is forced into the steam chest and thence through the pipe connection to the main reservoir. Q. What is the objection to this device? "A. It is extremely handy in case of emergency, such as low pressure or the refusal of a pump to work. The objection to it is, that smoke, gas, and heat forced into the main reservoir burn out gaskets and get the brake system very dirty. WBSTINGHOUSK PUMP GOVERNORS. The accompanying pump governor cuts represent the new and the old style of governors. Q. Explain the duty of spring ^i {Fig. 22), A. The tension of the spring 41 is regulated by the cap nut 40 and holds down the piston 43, which in turn holds the small pin valve on its seat. The fitting 45 is connected to main reservoir pressure if used with the F 6 brake valve, and with the train line if used with the D 8 brake valve. When the pressure entering at 45 and acting oh the under side of the piston 43 is greater than the tension of the spring 41, the piston is forced up, thus lifting the pin valve, to which arrow 42 points, from its seat. Q. What effect does unseating this pin valve have ? A. It allows air pressure to reach the top of piston 28 (Fig. 22), forcing it down and closing valve 26. Q. What effect does closing valve 26 have ? A. It shuts off the steam supply and stops the pump. Q. At the same time that air forces piston 28 down, where else does it go and with what effect f A. It passes out of the small relief port, at which the arrow 37 points, to the atmosphere. This leakage is sufficient to keep the pump working slowly, so that steam will not condense and be thrown out of the stack when the pump starts again. 138 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. What is effected by any reduction of the main reservoir pressure ? TO MATr«. BESERVOTR CONNECTION 26 ON EN'GlNEE.RiS BR^KE VAQVE' Fig. 22.— Improved Pump Governor. Westinghouse Pump Governors. 139 A. Any reduction of main reservoir pressure allows the spring 41 to force the pin valve to its seat, and what air still remains on top of piston 28 escapes through the relief port 37, and, with no pressure on top of piston 28, the spring 31 raises the piston 28 and valve 26, allowing steam from the boiler to reach the pump. Q. Of what use is the spring under the head of the pin valve? A. To hold the valve up when piston 43 is raised. Were it not for the spring, the pin valve would remain seated. Q. If any air should leak by piston 28, or any stea7n should leak by the stem of the valve 26 into the cavity tinder piston 28, how would it escape ? K. There is a port in the casing 32 connected to a drip pipe which leads to the atmosphere. Q. What effect wotdd be noticed if this drip pipe became clogged with dirt or were frozen shut^ when there was a leakage of steam tip under the governor piston f A. Piston 28 could not be forced down, and the pump would not stop working until the main reservoir pressure was about equal to boiler pressure. Q. What wotdd be the effect if the release port jy {Fig. 22) were closed by dirt f A. The pump would be very slow in starting to work after once stopping. Q. Why ? A. Because, when the pin valve closed, the cavity above piston 28 would be filled with main reservoir pressure, which could escape only by leaking by the packing ring 29 and out to the atmosphere through the drip pipe. 140 . Air-Brakb Catechism. Q. What effect would dirt on the seat of the pin valve have ? A. It would make a constant blow out of tlie relief port, and if air could leak in faster than it could get out of the relief port, the pump would either stop or work very slowly, even if the pump throttle were wide open. Q. Why would it work slowly f A. Because the pressure on piston 28 may force the valve 26 partly shut and allow only a small amount of steam to reach the pump. If the leak were bad enough^ the pump would be stopped entirely. Q. What effect would be noticed if the pin valve became gummed so that it would not seat centrally ? A. Air would pass down on piston 28, and the action of the pump would be the same as just described, with dirt on the seat of this valve. Q. What would be the effect if the casing in which the governor piston works should become badly worn, and a woi^n ring 2 g were replaced with a new one without truing the casing ? A. When piston 28 was forced down a little farther than usual, it might stick, causing the pump to stop. A jar on the governor might start the pump. Q. What is the difference between the improved f and the i -inch governors f A. Their operation is identical, but there is a dif- ference in size, as one is used with the 8 and the other with the 9|-inch pump. Q. Explain the operation of the old ptimp governor. A. It is the same as that of the improved governor, excepting that, after the pin valve is closed, the air in Westinghouse Pump Governors. 141 tlie cliamber above the piston, instead of escaping to the atmosphere through a relief port, passes by the packing- ring 24 and out to the atmosphere through a drip pipe connected to the port, shown by the dotted lines in the chamber under the piston. Fig. 23.— O1.D StyIvE Pump Governor. Q. Are the troubles about the same with the two governors ? A. Yes; but there was much trouble with the 142 Air- Brake Catechism. diaphragm 19 of the old governor which is unknown with the new. Q. Why was this f A. Because this governor was used chiefly with the D 8 valve, and train-line pressure operated the governor. With this valve on lap, boiler pressure would be com- pressed in the main reservoir, and when this high press- ure was thrown into the train line to release brakes, the diaphragm 19 would be forced up so high it would buckle. Q. What effect would this have f A. It would destroy the sensitiveness of the gover- nor, and the pump would be stopped in a very erratic manner. The train-line pressure would somefimes be too high and at others too low. Q, How was this defect remedied in the im- proved governor ? A. By inspecting the cut of the new governor it will be seen that the diaphragm can raise only a very little distance when it seats against a brass ring, thus doing away with the chance of its buckling. Q. Is the new governor fnore sensitive than the old? A. Yes, because instead of one diaphragm, like 19 (Fig. 23) in the old governor, there are two thin dia- phragms in the new. Q. How m.uch reduction will cause a governor of the improved type to start the pump ? A. About half a pound. Q. Why was the long slot placed in the stem 16 of the old governor f A. The governor used to make a buzzing sound, and slotting the stem remedied this trouble. Westinghouse Pump Governors. 143 Q, Does this governor keep the pump working slowly after full pressure is obtained? A. No, as there is no relief port. WESTINGHOUSE WHISTEB SIGNAI.. Q. What form of signal was used before the compressed air signaling apparatus was invented ? A. The old bell rope and gong signal, such as is now used on freight trains. Fig. 24.— Location of Signal, Apparatus on Kngins. Q. Do all roads use the air signal in passenger service f A. Not all, but most roads do. Q. What parts of the sig7taling apparatus are found on the engine ? Westinghousr Whistle Signal. 145 A. The reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 30), the whistle -valve (Fig. 27), the whistle (Fig. 29), and the pipe con- nections as shown in Fig. 24. Q. What parts are fcnmd on the car ? A. The discharge valve (Fig. 26), the signal cord running the length of the car, and the signal-pipe con- nections as shown in Fig. 25. Q. Where is the discharge valve {Fig. 26) usual- ly located ? A. As shown in Fig. 25, although it is sometimes found inside the car over the door. Q. Why is it better placed outside ? A. When it is so placed the noise of the discharge will not affect nervous people. Q. How does the car discharge valve work ? A. The signal cord is attached to the valve in the liole of 5 (Fig. 26) ; when the cord is pulled, valve 3 is forced from its seat, allowing whistle-line pressure to escape to the atmosphere. Q. What is the trouble when there is a constant leak fro7n the discharge valve? A. There is dirt on the seat of valve 3 (Fig. 26). Q. Where is the signal valve {Fig. 2f) located ? A. Under the foot-boards of the cab. Convenience determines whether it will be on the fireman's or engineer's side. Q. Where are the reducing valves {Figs. 28 and jo) Visually placed? A. It was formerly customary to locate them outside, next to the main reservoir, as in Fig. 24, but now good practice locates them inside the cab where they cannot freeze in winter. 146 Air-Brake Catechism. Q, Which valve is now being sent out with all new equipment? A. The valve represented by Fig. 28, as this is the latest, although there are still many like Fig. 30 in use. Q. What is the duty of these valves ? A. To maintain a constant pressure on the whistle line. Fig. 25. — IvOCATiON of Signai, Apparatus on Coach. Q, Explain the action of the reducing valve {Fig. 28). A. It works exactly like the train-line governor of the F 6 valve already explained. Q. Of what use is the plug valve in the upper left-hand corner f A. To cut out main reservoir pressure in case we wish to take the reducer apart. Westinghouse Whistle Signai,. 147 Q. Explain the action of the old reducing valve {Fig. 36). A. The top spring has a tension determined by the pressure to be carried on the whistle line. This spring holds piston 6 down as long as the tension of the spring is greater than the pressure underneath the rubber diaphragm 7. Fig. 26.— Car Dischargk Vai^vk. As long as the piston is down, valve 5 is held from its seat, allowing main reservoir pressure to feed in as indicated. It passes by valve 5, up under the piston, and into the signal line as indicated, until the pressure on the whistle line and underneath the diaphragm 7 is greater than the tension of the spring over the piston 6, when the spring is compressed, allowing piston 6 to travel up, and spring 10 raises valve 5 to its seat, shutting off the further passage of air from the main reservoir to the whistle line. Q. Where is the whistle {Fig. 2g) located ? A. In the cab, as near the engineer as convenient. O. To what is it connected ? 148 Air- Brake Catechism. A. To a pipe which leads from the signal valve as indicated (Fig. 27). Q. What is its use ? A. As the signal or whistle valve (Fig. 27) operates, the air leaving this valve escapes through the whistle (Fig. 29). The blast signals the engineer. Q, Where does the air come from that supplies the signal system f A. From the main reservoir on the engine. Q. Explain the passage of the air from the main reservoir through the signal system. A. It first passes from the main reservoir (Fig. 24) through the reducing valve. After leaving the reducing valve there is a tee in the pipe, one branch of which leads to the signal valve (Fig. 27) and the other back into the train. Under each car (Fig. 25) there is a strainer in a tee, and a branch of the whistle line goes to the discharge valve (Fig. 26). Q. Explain the operatio7t of the signal valve {Eig. 2f) in charging, A. After the air passes from the main reservoir and through the reducing valve, it is free to go back into the train and also enter the signal valve at Y. It then passes through the contracted port d into cavity A on top of the rubber diaphragm 12, and around through port c. The lower half of the stem 10 is three sided, so that the air can pass up to where the stem looks to be tight in the bushing 9. This joint is not tight, but sufficiently so to allow the air to feed by into chamber B very slowly. The reducing valve is adjusted to forty pounds, and if we wait a short time the forty pounds will equal- ize on both sides of the diaphragm 12, that is, there will be forty pounds in each chamber A and B, as there is also throughout the whistle line on the train. Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 149 Q. What does the conductor do if Jie wishes to signal the engineer ? A. He pulls the signal cord in the car. Q. What is effected by this 9 K. It makes a sudden reduction of whistle-line press- ure through the car discharge valve (Fig. 26). Q. What is the effect ? >■ TO WHISTLE Fig. 27. — SiGNAi. Vai^vk. A. This starts a reduction wave throughout the whistle line, and in the signal valve it is first felt in chamber A, on top of diaphragm 12. The pressure in chamber 5, being unable to equalize quickly with that in chamber A^ on account of the snug fit of the stem 10 in bushing 9, is now greater than the pressure in cham- ber A. The diaphragm 12 and the stem 10 attached to it are lifted, uncovering the port in the bushing 7. The stem is lifted sufficiently to allow air from chamber B and the air coming through port c to pass out at e and I50 Air-Brakk Catkchism. through the pipe to the whistle (Fig. 29), causing a blast as long as the stem 10 is off its seat. The same wave reduction that started the signal valve into operation also opened the reducing valve (Fig. 28 or 30) to allow main reservoir pressure to supply the whistle line. -Improved Reducing Vai^ve. A wave of increased pressure now takes the place of the reduction wave, and air passing into chamber A of the signal valve forces the diaphragm 12 down, causing the whistle to cease blowing. Q. How long must we wait before again trying to put the signal valve in operation f A. Until the pressures have had time to equalize in chambers A and B (Fig. 27). Westinghouse Whistle Signal. 151 Q, How many seconds should we wait f- A. Usually two at least, and three is better. Q. Give a ride by which we can pull the whistle signal cord in the car and gain the best results. Fig. 29.— Signai. Whisti^b. A. When pulling the cord, make an exhaust of one second, and then wait three seconds to allow the whistle to cease blowing and the pressures to equalize through- out the signal system before making another reduction. Q, In pulling the signal cord, what should ai- rways be borne in mind ? A. That it is not the amount of reduction but the suddenness that causes the whistle to blow. PECULIARITIES AND TROUBLES OF THE SIGNAL SYSTEM. Q. If no air gets into the zv his tie line when an engine is coupled to a train^ and we know that the TO MAIN RESERVOIR Fig. 30.— O1.D STYI.B Reducing Vai,vk. cocks in the signal line stand properly and the hose are in order, what should we look at first ? A. The plug cock in the reducing valve (Fig. 28) ; Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 153 or, if the weather is cold and the reducer is outside, it may be frozen. Q. What else might cause this trouble zuith the new reducer {Fig. 28) ? A. It may be that the small taper port in the re- ducer (Fig. 28), where the main reservoir pressure enters, is plugged shut. Q. What will close this port ? A. Oil from the air end of the pump and the corro- sion from the inside of the pipes. Q. What is the trouble if the signal cord is pulled in the car and no air issites from the car dis- charge valve ? A. The cut-out cock (Fig. 25) in the saloon has very likely been closed. Q. Give conditions that would result in the air whistle not responding. A. A dirty strainer in the tee under the car where the branch pipe to the car discharge valve couples to the main signal line ; the strainer in the car discharge valve, as used in the old equipment, being dirty ; port d (Fig. 27) being stopped up ; a too loose fit of stem 10 (Fig. 27) in bushing 9 ; a baggy diaphragm 12 (Fig. 27), or a hole in it ; the bowl of the whistle (Fig. 29) being closed with scouring material, or the bell of the whistle being im- properly adjusted ; a reduction that took enough air from the whistle line but did not take it fast enough, or, as explained before, the reducer might be frozen, Q. Why would the whistle not respond if port d {Fig. 2f) were closed? A. No air could reach the whistle. Q. Why, with a loose fit to stem 10 {Fig. 2f) in bushing g, would the whistle not respond ? 154 Air-Brakk Catechism. A. If the reduction were not made sufficiently quick with the car discharge valve, especially on a long train, the friction of the air passing through the pipe would tend to decrease the suddenness of the reduction, so that, when the wave reached the signal valve, the reduction might be so weak that, if stem lo were a loose fit in hushing 9, the air in chambers A and B might equalize without raising diaphragm 12 (Fig. 27). Q. Why would a baggy or stretched diaphragm 12 {Fig. 2f) catise the whistle not to respond? A. When the reduction is made on the signal line, a reduction is made in chamber A of the signal valve, leaving the pressure in chamber B greater. If the diaphragm is bagged, the pressure in chamber B lifts the diaphragm, but the stem 10 is not moved. Q. What causes this diaphragm to bag ? A. The use of poor rubber, or oil from the pump working through on the rubber, causing it to decay. A diaphragm is occasionally found with a hole rotted through it, allowing chambers A and B to be directly connected. Q. What may cause a whistle to respond only once when the conductor pulls the cord twice ? A. He may have pulled the cord the second time before the whistle stopped blowing the first, thus getting one long blow, or he may have made the second dis- charge before the pressures in chambers A and B had become equalized. Q. What will happen if dirt gets on the seat of valve ^ (Fig- 28), or the corresponding valve in Fig. 30 ? A. The valves cannot close, and we will get main reservoir pressure of ninety pounds on the whistle line. Q, What effect has this f SiGNAi^ System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 155 A. The whistle is likely to blow, especially on a short train, when the brakes are released ; the air whistle on the engine will screech when used ; and, if the stem 10 in the signal valve is a little loose in bushing 9 (Fig. 27), the whistle is likely to blow two or three times for one reduction at the car discharge valve ; there will be a stronger exhaust from the car discharge valve than usual, and hose are more likely to burst. Q. Why is the whistle likely to blow when the brakes are released^ if there is main reservoir press- ure on the whistle line f A. Because to release brakes the main reservoir pressure is thrown into the train line. This makes the pressure in the main reservoir less than that in the whistle line, and, on account of the dirt on the seat of the valve 4 (Fig. 28), the whistle-line pressure feeds back into the main reservoir, and the reduction thus made on the signal line causes the air whistle to blow. Q. Why^ with this trouble , . is the whistle more likely to sound on an engine alone than with a traiii, when the brakes are released? A. With an engine alone there is but a small volume of air on the signal line, and the signal-line pressure feeding back into the main reservoir would cause a more sudden reduction than if the signal line were longer and the volume greater, as on a train. Q. Why will the air whistle on the engine screech when used f A. Because the bell is adjusted to be used with only a forty-pound pressure instead of ninety. Q, Why is the whistle likely to blow two or three times with one reduction from the car discharge valve, if main reservoir pi^essure is on the whistle 156 Air-Brake Catechism. line and the stem 10 is loose in bushing g {Fig. 2f) of the signal valve f A. Because a reduction at the car discharge valve starts the signal valve in operation, and the reducer can- not feed air into the whistle line properly to cause the signal valve to close until the signal-line pressure is below forty pounds. The tendency for the pressure to fluctuate in chambers A and 5, due to the loose fit of the stem 10, causes the diaphragm to bounce and the whistle to respond two or three times. • Q. If an engineer wishes to know how much pressure he has on his signal line, and he has no gauge with which to test it, how can he determine it? A. Shut off the pump and open the bleed cock on the main reservoir, then get up in the cab and watch the red hand. When the whistle blows, the red hand represents a trifle less pressure than is being carried on the whistle line. Q, Why does the whistle blow f A. Because, when the main reservoir pressure is drained below the pressure on the whistle line, the press- ure feeds from the whistle line back into the main reservoir, causing a reduction ofthe whistle-line pressure, and this usually causes the whistle to blow. Q. What is likely to make a whistle give one long blast f A. A tight fit in bushing 9 of stem 10 (Fig. 27). Q. Why was the new reducer gotten 2ip ? A. To have one that would be more sensitive than the old one and would feed leaks more promptly, thus doing away with the chance of the whistle being blown by a small leak. Signal System — Peculiarities and Troubles. 157 Q, What will cause a luhistle to sing co7istantly ? A. Dirt on the seat of stem 10 in bushing 7 (Fig. 27). Q. Why may jars cause a whistle to blow ? A. Oil baking upon diaphragm 12 of the signal valve makes it rigid, and ajar will sometimes shake the stem 10 (Fig. 27) from its seat. Q. What would we do to increase or decrease the pressiire on the whistle line with the new reducer ? A. Screw up on the bottom nut to increase it, and down to decrease it. Q. What with the old redttcer ? A. Put in a stiffer spring or put a washer under the old one. Q What are the two holes for in the upper part of the old reducer ? A. To allow any air to escape to the atmosphere that gets by the diaphragm 7. WBSTINGHOUSE HIGH-SPEED BRAKE. Q. Why was the introduction of the high-speed brake necessary ? A. The call by the traveling public for higher train speed rendered it necessary to insure safety of lives and property. Q. How much more efficient is it than the ordinary quick- action brake ? A. About thirty per cent. Q. What class of trains tcses^this brake ? A. The Empire State, Black Diamond, and Con- gressional Limited. Q. What percentage of braking power to the light weight of a passenger car is generally used with the ordinary quick-action brake ? A. Ninety per cent. Q. What percentage is used with the high-speed brZke ? A. One hundred and twenty-five per cent. Q. How can such a high braking power be used without flattening wheels f A. Because it is only used when the train is moving at very fast speed, and an automatic reducing valve gradu- ally reduces the brake-cylinder pressure so that, when the speed of the train has been slackened, the brake- cylinder pressure has also been gradually reduced to the Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. 159 sixty-pound pressure limit as used with the ordinary quick-action brake. Q, Why is it safe to use a higher braking power on wheels when the train is runnifig fast ? A. Because the faster the wheels turn, the greater is the inertia of the wheels, which the friction of the brake shoes has to overcome before the wheels will cease revolving. The Westinghouse- Galton tests, made in England in 1878, proved that the faster the tread of the wheel moved against the brake shoe, the less the friction between the two. As the speed decreases the friction increases, the friction between the wheel and the rail remaining about constant, regardless of the speed of the train. Q. What train-line and auxiliary pressures are carried with the high-speed brake f A. About one hundred and ten pounds. Q, At what pressure do the atixiliary and brake cylinder eq^Lalize when the brake is full set in emergency y using one htmdred and te7i pounds auxiliary presstcre ? A. About eighty-five pounds. Q. What reduces this eighty-five pounds to sixty pounds, the safe pressure for slow speed? A. The automatic reducing valve shown in the ac- companying cut (Fig. 31). Q. Explain the action of the reducing valve. A. When air is in the brake cylinder, it is free to reach the top of piston 6 of the reducing valve. As long as the tension of the spring 1 1 is greater than the brake-cylinder pressure on top of the piston, the slide valve 8 is as shown. When the brake is full set, the pressure in the cylin- i6o Air-Brake Catechism-. der being greater than the tension of the spring, the piston 6 is forced down and carries the slide valve with Fig. 31.— High-Spk^d Brake Reducing Vai.ve. it, thus opening port b into port a, allowing brake- cylinder pressure to escape to the atmosphere. Westinghouse High-Speed Brake. IDI 1 62 Air-Brakk Catechism. The apex of the triangular port b points up. If the slide valve 8 is drawn down a little, in a service applica- tion, port b has a wide opening into port a, allowing cylinder pressure to escape quickly. The high cylinder pressure in emergency forces piston 4 down full stroke ^ and cylinder pressure escapes slowly through the small end of port b. As cylinder pressure lessens, spring 11 raises piston 4 and slide valve 8, opening port b wider, thus releasing air faster ; and the slow exhaust ensues with a high, and quick exhaust with low train speeds. Spring 1 1 is adjusted to sixty pounds on passenger cars and fifty on engines and tenders. Q. What is necessary to make a high-speed brake out of the present quick-action equipment f A. Simply the addition of the reducing valve. Q. What cha7ige has to be made on engines f A. A duplex pump governor is added, two train-- line governors are used, and reducing valves are con- nected to the tender and driver brake cylinders. Q. Why are two train-line and a d^tplex p^tmp governor tcsed f A. Only two governors are used at a time. They are so arranged with cut-out cocks that the engine may be used with the ' ' high-speed ' ' brake or with the ordinary quick-action brake. The cut (Fig. 32) gives an idea of the advancement in air-brake appliances. The three figures (page 161) represent, by scale, stops made by the same train going at the same rate of speed, but equipped as indicated. It takes about twice as far to stop a train going at forty, three times going at fifty, and about five times going at sixty miles an hour, as it does if the speed of the train is thirty miles an hour. TRAIN INSPECTION. Q. Why is train i^ispection necessary ? A. To find and remedy, before trying to handle the train on a grade, any defects that would render its handling unsafe ; part of the pistons may be out against the cylinder heads when the brakes are applied, the re- taining valves may be poor, some brakes may not ap- ply, auxiliaries may not charge, leaks may exist, the brakes may go into emergency when trying to make a service application, and many other defects may exist. Q. Where should we begin to get a train ready ? A. At the rear. Q. Is it wrong to start at the head end ? A. It would not be were the cocks not opened be- tween the tender and cars. If the cocks were opened, the air would blow through and out of a chance open cock, and a loss of time and air would result. Q. Commencing at the rear, what should be done first f A. The rear angle cock must be closed and the hose hung up. Q. What harm, is there in allowing the hose to drag ? A. It collects dirt and cinders, which are blown into the train and help to close strainers, and which work into the triples and cause them to wear faster. Ic winter, ice getting into the hose may block it. 164 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What should we do as we go towards the engine ? A. See tliat tlie retainer handles are turned down, hand brakes released, hose coupled, and cocks turned so that the cars are cut in. Q, How does the cock in the cross-over pipe, connectiiig the train line to the triple, usually stand when the car is cut in ? A. At right angles to the pipe. See Plate A. Q. How should the angle cocks stand at the end of the car when C2it in f A. Parallel with the pipe. Q. Do the angle cocks and cut-out cocks always stand as just described ? A. No ; sometimes in just the reverse positions. Q. Why is this 9 A. These are cocks used with very old equipment and may be readily recognized, as they differ in shape from those now employed. If in doubt, look at the crease in the top of the plug, which always stands parallel to the opening in the valve. Q. What should we always do before co2tpling the hose between the engine and cars ? A. Blow out the train line on the engine to get rid of dirt and water. Q. After coupling the hose and turning the a7tgle cocks, are we ready to look over the brakes f A. No, not until the pump has charged the train. Q. With a constant pressure of seventy pounds 071 the train line^ how long should it take to charge one auxiliary from zero to seventy pounds with the modern equipment f Train Inspection. 165 A. About seventy seconds. Q. How long does it take to charge a traiii of twenty cars f A. This depends on the condition of the pump and the leaks in the train. If the capacity of the pump were sufficient to keep a constant train-line pressure of seventy pounds, twenty cars could be charged as quickly as one. This cannot be done, as twenty feed grooves take air from the train line faster than the pump will supply it. Q. Who should tell when it is time for the test ? A. The engineer. He should wait until full press- ure is obtained and then make a twenty-pound service reduction. Q. What should then be done ? A. One brakeman should go over the train turning up the retainer handles, while the other examines piston travel and looks for leaks. Q. What should the piston travel be ? A. If no rule exists on your road in regard to this, a piston travel between 5 and 8 inches will be found to give good satisfaction on ordinary grades. Q, What should be done after the retainer handles are raised and the piston travel adjusted ? A. The engineer should be signaled to release, and then there should be a wait of fifteen or twenty seconds, to allow the brake- cylinder pressure to reduce to what the retainer holds. Q. What should then be done ? A. The man on deck should turn down the retainer handles. If a blow issues from the retainer when the handle is turned down, the retainer is working properly. 1 66 Air-Brake Catechism. A strict count of those working should be kept. The man on the ground should walk along and see that the brakes release when the retainer handles are turned down. Q. What should be done after the inspection is completed? A. A report should be made to the engineer and conductor, giving them a knowledge of the piston travel, the number of retainers in working order, the number of cars, the number of air cars in working order, and any general information concerning the con- dition of the train. Q. In testing, would it do for a brakeman to open the angle cock at the rear of the train to set the brakes f A. This is decidedly a poor practice ; brakes that cannot be worked from an engine will sometimes work by opening an angle cock. If a hose lining were loose, a brakeman might apply the brakes and an engineer re- lease them all right, while, in making the reduction from the engine, the train-line reduction going ahead might roll up the lining and close the hose. We want to know just how the brakes will work from the engine. Q. If there is a leak in the hose couplings, what should be done f A. Turn angle cocks, break the coupling, and, if the seat is bad and there is no extra hose gasket, make the seats round, if they are not so, and recouple. If the leak still exists, break the coupling, put a small stick back of each lug, and close the couplings on them. Q. Why should paper never be used to make a joint f A. It works into strainers, often causing an auxil- Train Inspe:ction. 167 iary to charge slowly, and it may prohibit getting quick action on this car. Q. When inspectmg a train, if we find a brake that does not apply with the rest, what should be done ? A. See that the car is cut in properly, and try the bleed cock to see that there is air in the auxiliary. If the auxiliary is charged, signal the engineer for a train- line reduction. Q. If the brake applies andthe^i leaks off grad- ually, without any air coming oitt of the triple ex- haust, what is probably the trouble? A. The air is blowing by the packing leather in the brake cylinder. Q. How can a brake that does not apply when the redttction is made be s07netim.es made to work ? A. By cutting it off from the car ahead and the one behind it and opening the angle cock. The cylinder may be dirty, and setting the brake in the emergency may loosen the dirt and cause it to work properly. Q. If the a^txiliary were found to contain no air when the bleed cock was opened^ what might be the trouble ? A. The feed grooves might be corroded shut in the triple ; the strainer where the cross- over pipe joins the main train line, or the one where the cross-over pipe joins the triple, may be filled with dirt and scale. Q. Is it good practice to pour oil iitto a hose to w.ake a brake work f A. Decidedly not ; it may occasionally furnish tem- porary relief, but it will decay the rubber- seated valve and dampen the strainers, pipe, and triples so that dirt ivill adhere to them and render them sticky. 1 68 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. Is a small leaky ofie that the pump will easily overcome, mo7^e easily managed in a long or a short train ? A. In a long train. Q, Why f A, Because there is a much larger volume of air in a long train line, and the reduction causing the brakes to leak on harder after being applied will be much slower on a long than on a short train. Frequently a leak that could not be gotten along with in a train of three or four cars, if cut in with twenty tight cars, would not be noticed. Q. If a retainer were broken off and the pipe plugged, what would result ? A. After the engineer applied the brake, he could not release it, as the exhaust port would have been closed. Q, Would it interfere with applying the brake f A. No. Q. If a brake sticks, what should be done f A. Look to see that no retainer handle is up, that the hand brake is not set, and that no lever is caught. Then signal the engineer again to release. If he is unable to release it, cut the car out and bleed it. Q. Should a car be bled when cut out ? A. Always ; a leakage of train-line pressure between the cut-out cock and the triple might cause the brake to apply after it was cut out, if any air were left in the auxiliary. Q. If the piston stays out on a car after we hear the air escape froTn the triple exhaust port^ what is wrong ? Train Inspection. 169 A. The release spring is weak probably. Q, Is it necessary to cut such a brake oitt ? A. No ; tlie jar of tlie wheels against the shoes will force the piston in. Q, If two hose cotiplings are frozen together^ how should they be separated ? A. The ice should be thawed, or the gaskets will be torn. Q, If a triple fails to work because it is frozen^ what should be done ? A. It should be thawed and the drain plug removed in the bottom of the triple, to remove the water and avoid a repetition of the trouble. Q. What three things would cause the brakes to go into emergency when making a gradual train- line reduction f A. A weak graduating spring, a broken graduating pin, and, by far the most likely, a sticky triple. Q^ How wotild we find the triple causing the trouble ? A. On a train of five or six cars we can watch to see which brake grabs first and cut the car out. On a train of over seven cars, the brakes do not usually apply with the first reduction on the car causing the trouble, so, to - find the faulty triple, have the engineer make a five-pound train-line reduction, find the car with the brake not set and cut it out. Then try again with all cut in to be sure that the faulty triple has been found. Q. How would we find the faulty triple if the brakes went into quick action with the first reduc- tion on a long train ? A. Turn an angle cock in the middle of the train and see which half contains the trouble ; continue in this 170 Air-Brake Catechism. manner until tlie trouble is located in a five car lot ; have the brakes applied and watch these five to see which brake goes into quick action first, and cut out the defective triple. Q. If the emergency has been used, or we find a car cut out, and, when we cut it in, a strong heavy blow issues from the triple exhaust and at the same time the brake sets on the car and cannot be released, what is the troiible ? A. The emergency piston is stuck down, holding the emergency valve from its seat. Q. How can we close it ? A. Tap the triple lightly. If this does not work, turn the cut-out cock in cross-over pipe until the blow stops and then cut it in suddenly ; the sudden flow of air up under the emergency piston may raise it. Q, In trying the brakes on a passenger train, how should the signal be given f A. From the head car to apply them and from the rear car to release them, to be sure that the whistle-line cocks stand right through the train. On an excursion train the signal should be tested from every car in the train. TRAIN HANDLING. Q. What sJiotild we always do befo7^e cotipling to a train ? A. Start the pump and be sure fhat everything is work- ing properly. Do not wait to discover pump or engineer's valve defects when your train is in and ready to proceed. Q. How should an engineer handle the brake on his engine in coupling to a train ? A. In backing onto a train, especially an empty one, Tie should make two or three applications of his driver and tender brakes, and leave his valve on lap when coupling to the train. Q. Why is this done ? A. To couple to the train with reduced auxiliary pressures. When the cocks between the engine and tender are turned, in coupling a train to an engine, the brakes are usually applied on the engine and tender on account of the reduction caused by the air flowing back into the train. If the train line is long and empty, the main reservoir pressure might flow back and equalize with that in the train line at so low a pressure that it might not be able to overcome the tank and driver auxiliary pressures so as to force these triples to release position. In this case the two brakes would be stuck, and if more cars were to be picked up, we would have to wait to pump up, or get down and bleed these two brakes off. If we had backed onto the train with reduced auxiliary 172 Air- Brake Catechism. pressures on the engine and tender, we would not have met with this trouble, as the main reservoir pressure could then have raised that in the train line sufficiently high to have released the brakes. Q. What should be done after getting otir cars placed in the train ? A. We should wait until everything is fully charged. Q. How can we tell when the train is charged? A. The pump will about stop ; or place the valve on lap, and if everything is charged the black hand will not fall. Q. What should then be done ? A. A thorough test of piston travel, leaks, and retaining valves should be made before attempting to handle the train on grades. Q. How mtuh reduction should be made ? A. A gradual twenty-pound reduction. Q. Why is it necessary to make a test ? A. A part of the pistons may be traveling against the cylinder heads, the travel may be too short, the retainers may not be good, or there may be something wrong with a triple that would throw the whole train into emergency when the service application was desired, in which case freight might be shifted or broken, especi- ally in a train partly equipped with air brakes. Q, III testing brakes, from what point should they always be applied and released ? A. From the engine. Q, How could it happen that a brakeman could turn an angle cock at the rear of the train and apply the brakes , and an engineer could release them, but that the engineer could not set them, from the engine ? Train Handi^ing. 173 A. The lining of a hose might be loose, so that the engineer could throw air back into the train to release the brakes, but when a reduction was made, the air flowing in the opposite direction might roll the lining up and close the hose. Q. Is this a common occ^trrence ? A. No, but it is by no means unheard of. Q. What else should always be tested? A. The train line, to see if it leaks, and how much. Q. Hozu should this be done ? A. By making a seven-pound reduction in service position and then placing the valve on lap. Watch the black hand, and the fall of it will show the leak on the train line. Q. Will not a leak on the train line show if the valve is simply lapped without first applying the brakes ? A. It will in time, but not nearly so quickly as by the other way. Q. Why not ? A. If the valve is simply lapped, the brakes are not applied, the triples are in release position, and the feed grooves connect the auxiliaries and train line. If there is a leak in the train line with the triples in release posi- tion, the air from the auxiliaries will leak through the triple feed grooves back into the train line, and not only the train-line but the auxiliary pressures will have to be reduced before the black hand on the gauge will register the leak. Q. Why is the other way quicker ? A. If the brakes are first applied and the valve then placed on lap, the feed grooves in the triples between the auxiliaries and train line have been closed and the leak 174 Air-Brakk Catechism. simply has to reduce the train-line pressure when the black hand will register the leak. With a large volume of air a given leak will reduce the pressure much more slowly than the same leak drawing air from a smaller volume. Q. J^ist as soon as a train tips over the summit of a hiil, what shottld be done f A. A reduction of train-line pressure should be made to be sure that no angle cocks have been turned and that the brakes take hold properly, also to get the use of the retainers as soon as possible. Q. How can we tell if the angle cocks back of the tank are properly tttrned? A. By the sound of the train-line exhaust. The more cars of air the greater the volume of air on the train line, and the longer the equalizing piston will have to stay up to make a given reduction. Q, What should be done if the brakes do not hold properly, or we know by the train-line exhaust that an a^tgle cock has been closed? A. Blow brakes before the train gets to moving fast. Q. How m^uch reduction should be made for the first f A. Not less than five pounds, and after we get over fifteen cars it is better to make a seven-pound reduction. Q. In a part air train, what zvottld be the harm in starting with a tenpound reduction ? A. The brakes setting hard on the air-brake cars would cause the slack on the non-air cars to run up hard, causing a jar that would be likely to damage the car or the contents, to say nothing of the efifect on the crew in the caboose. Train Handling. 175 Q. Why is a light reduction liable not to set the brakes, especially on a long train ? A. Because, with a large volume of train-line pressure, reductions are made so slowly that there is a tendency for auxiliary pressure to feed through the triple feed grooves into and equalize with that in the train line, in which case the triple pistons would not move; or, if they did, the air going from the auxiliary into the brake C}dinder very slowly would blow through the leakage grooves past the pistons and out to the atmosphere. Q. How much should be made for the second reduction f A. This is governed largely by circumstances, but the best results with long trains will be gotten if no very light reductions are made. If the reduction is being made on a long train and the packing rings of some of the triples are a little loose, there is a tendency on the part of the auxiliary pressure, that should go to the brake cylinders, to leak back into the train line by the packing ring. Q. We continue our train-line reductions ^tntil finally our brakes are full set, that is, all the atcxil- iary and brake-cylinder pressures have equalized. How m^uch redtiction is usttally necessary to accom- plish this, if the piston travel is not over 8 inches f A. About twenty pounds, if it is made with one re- duction ; but in handling a train on a grade, if we needed to get all we could, it would be permissible to make a twenty-five-pound reduction. Q. Give the reason for this last statement. A. In descending a grade, we may have gone two, three, or four miles, while we have been making a twenty- pound reduction. Naturally, some of the air put into the brake cylinders has escaped by the packing leathers 176 Air-Brakk Catechism. to tlie atmosphere in going this distance, and making another train-line reduction will let more auxiliary press- ure to the cylinders. Where the twenty-pound reduc- tion was made with one reduction, the air had no time to leak away by the cylinder packing leathers. Q. Stippose we had already made a twenty-five- pound reduction and the packing leathers in the brake cylinders were practically tight^ if we con- tinued taking air from the train line, would \ the brakes be set any harder ? A. No. Q. Would we lose any braking power f A. Yes. Q. How would we lose braking power ? A. The brake is already full set, that is, the auxil- iary and brake- cylinder pressures are equal ; with a further reduction of train-line pressure, no more auxil- iary pressure can go to the cylinder ; but just as soon as the auxiliary pressure is enough greater than that in the train line to overcome the resistance of the graduating spring in the triple, the triple piston will be forced to emergency position, and we will have a direct connec- tion between the auxiliary and brake cylinder through the emergency port in the end of the slide valve. The train-line pressure being less than that in the auxiliary and cylinder, both these pressures will begin leaking by the packing ring of the triple piston into the train line. Q. Is there any other way in which we would lose braking power by too heavy a train-line re- dtiction f A. Yes ; the train-line check in the emergency part of the triple is seldom air-tight, owing to corrosion. When the train-line pressure is less than that in the brake cylinder, the brake-cylinder pressure forces the Train Handling. 177 rubber-seated valve from its seat and leaks by the train- line check into the train line. Q. Is there usually any warning to let the en- gineer knozu he has made too heavy a reduction f A. Yes ; especially on a long train, where there are more packing rings to leak. Q. What is it? A. Under these circumstances the equalizing piston is likely to rise of its own accord, causing a blow at the train-line exhaust. Q. What cattses the piston to rise f A. The engineer reduced the little drum pressure in order to cause the equalizing piston to rise and reduce the train-line pressure. It seated when the train line was a trifle less than the little drum pressure. When too heavy a train-line reduction had been made, we saw that the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures fed back into the train line. The train line now being greater than the little drum pressure, the equalizing piston is forced from its seat, and the blow at the train-line ex- haust continues as long as air is feeding into the train line from the auxiliaries and brake cylinders. Q, Does the equalizing piston always rise and give this wariting? A. No ; if the packing ring in the equalizing piston is too loose, the air feeds by and equalizes the little drum and train -line pressures, but the braking power is lost just the same. Q. Is the triple piston supposed to forin a joint 07i the leather gasket between the triple head and the main body of the triple? A. Yes, when the gasket is new, but the gasket dries out so that the surface is not smooth. 178 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What places should we pick otU, if possible in which to recharge ? A. Where the grade lets up a little and on curves where a train binds. Q. To release brakes, where should the handle of the engineer s valve be placed f A. In full release position. Q. How long should it be left here ? A, This is governed entirely by the length of the train. If, in descending a grade, both hands on the gauge show that the train-line and main reservoir press- ures equalize below seventy pounds, the valve should be left in this position until both hands start to go above seventy. If the pressures equalize above seventy pounds when the valve is thrown to full release and stay there, the valve should be moved to running position as soon as the brakes are released, so as not to over- charge the auxiliaries. Q. Why, on a long train, should the valve be left in full release position until both hands start above seventy pounds ? A. A large port connects the main reservoir and train line in this position and a small one in running position, and we get the benefit of the excess pressure from the main reservoir in recharging ; the pump works faster, and we can charge the train much more quickly, because the train-line pressure being higher forces air into the auxiliaries faster. Brakes are likely to stick and wheels slide, especially on a long train, if we try to release brakes in running position. Q. Why does the pump work faster f A. Because there is less main reservoir pressure for it to work against. Train Handling. 179 Q. Why do the last three 07^ four pottnds feed more slowly into the train line, if the valve is pttt i7i runnifig position ? A. Because when, in running position, the train-line pressure is almost up to that at which the train-line gov- ernor is adjusted, the spring in the governor begins to be compressed and allow the little feed valve to partly close, in which case the pump will compress air faster than it can get through the train-line governor. When the main reservoir is charged to ninety pounds, the pump practically stops, and this is likely to happen be- fore the auxiliaries are fully recharged. Q. Why will some brakes stick in trying to re- lease them in running position ? A. Because the train-line pressure rising slowly may feed by some triple piston-packing rings, and allow auxil- iary pressure to keep equal with that in the train line. Q. Why will the wheels slide in this case ? A. Because the brake on this car has been left full set and the auxiliary fully recharged. A five-pound re- duction will probably set this brake in full with a press- ure of sixty-five pounds, and this is more than is safe, especially with a light car. If a brake once sticks it is very likely to remain so, as the auxiliary and brake- cylinder pressures equalize so high that it requires a higher train-line pressure to release this brake, and the train-line pressure increasing slowly, gives the air a bet- ter chance to leak by the triple packing ring. A brake acting this way may be all right if handled properly. Q. In descending a grade after getting the tcse of the retainer and having everything recharged, why is a fivepound redttction miuh more effectttal than a fivepotcnd reduction made without the ttse of the retainer ? i8o Air-Brake Catechism. A. Because in one case we are putting five pounds from the auxiliary into fifteen pounds in the cylinder, and in the other we are putting five pounds from the auxiliary into an empty cylinder, and a part of that put in blows through the leakage groove before the piston travels far enough to close it. Q. If a twenty-pound train-line reduction will apply a brake in f till without the use of the retainer, how much reduction ottght to set the brake in full after getting its use ? A. Not over fifteen pounds. Q. If all retainers are being used, is it necessary after charging up to make a five or seven pound for our first reduction ? A. Yes, some of the retainers might have been out of order, so as not to hold any air in the cylinder, and less than a five-pound reduction would not catch these brakes again. Q. What should an engineer do, if, when he is not using the brakes, he feels them applying so as perceptibly to diminish the speed of the train ? A. He should place the handle of the engineer's valve on lap. Q. Why ? A. Probably a hose has burst, or the conductor is using the conductor's valve. If the valve is not lapped, the main reservoir pressure will be lost, and there will be~ no pressure with which to release the brakes and re- charge the auxiliaries. Q. Which is less hurtful, a leak that will grad- 21 ally slow a train up, or one that will simply keep the train running steadily ? Train Handling. i8i A. A leak that will slow a train up is much to be preferred. Q, Why ? A. If the leak simply runs the train steadily and the engineer allows the pressure to gradually leak away be- cause he seems to be making a nice, smooth run, he would have a hard time stopping the train if necessity demanded it, after the pressure had leaked down to fifty pounds. Q. Shottld an engineer try to make as smooth a run with air as can be do7ie with hand brakes ? A. As a rule, no, although on some light grades a few retainers will run them smoothly. On heavy grades and long trains it is necessary to slow up to recharge. Q. What should always be done, where possible, in making train-line redtictions f A. Watch the gauge. Q. How do you account for the fact that some- times, after a seven-potind reduction of little drtim pressure is made and the valve lapped, the gauge records only a fivepound redtiction whe7i the train- line exhatist closes ? A^ The packing ring in the equalizing piston is loose, and train-line pressure has fed by it into the little drum. Q. Is this more likely to happen on a long or a short train ? A. On a long train. Q. Why ? A. As there is a greater volume of air on the train line of a long train, it takes longer to reduce the press- ure, and the train-line pressure has a longer time to leak in the manner described. 1 82 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. If a quick 7redttction is made i7^ einergency with the engine alone, and the valve is then placed on lap, why is the tank or drivei^ brake likely to kick off after a feiv seconds, althotigh they wo^tld stay set i7i service application ? A. In emergency position, air is drawn direct from the train line without taking any from the little drum. When the valve is placed on lap, the little drum press- ure leaks by the packing ring of the equalizing piston, raises the train-line pressure, and kicks off one or both brakes. Q. Why will this happen on an engine and not on a train ? A. The volume of air on the train line of an engine alone is very small, and a slight leak into it is sufficient to raise the train-line pressure and release the brake. With a train, the train-line volume is so large that the leakage into it from the little drum is not sufficient to affect the triples. Q. The release of the brakes on the engine alone, after the use of the emergency, is ascribed by some to the surge of air. Is this the catise ? A. No ; a surge of air would release the brake almost instantly. The brake does not release sometimes until five or ten seconds have passed. Q. Why will this happen on one engine and not on another f A. This simply means that on one the triple piston- packing rings are looser than that in the equalizing piston, and the train-line pressure feeds by the triple piston and equalizes with that in the auxiliaries. Q. The above usually happens wheji stopping aii Train Handling. 183 engine at a zvater-crane or 071 a tttrntable. How ai^e these stops best made with the air f A. One application is best to use with an engine alone. If we find that we are stopping three or four feet short, open the throttle, and the engine can be helped along a short distance and a smoother stop be made. Q. What happens eveiy time you tcse the efyier- gency on a tttrntable ? A. You strike the table a blow equal to the weight of your engine multiplied by the speed at which you are moving, and then, if the turntable breaks down, wonder why the company does not provide a decent table. Q. In making a water -tank stop with a pas- senger train, how shoitld it be done to avoid a jar to the train and pa.ssengers f A. The stop should be made with two applications of the brake, except the grade is too steep and the press- ure too low for safety. Q. How do we handle the valve to make the Jirst release so that the brakes will respond with the first reduction ? A. When the speed of the train has been reduced to about three miles an hour, throw the valve handle to full release and bring it back on lap immediately. Q. Why bri7ig it back on lap ? A. So as not to raise the train-line pressure too high. The feed grooves in the triples are small, and have only three or four seconds in which to equalize the train-line and auxiliary pressures. If the valve is left in full re- lease or running position, and the train-line pressure gets to seventy pounds, and there is, say, only fifty- five pounds in the auxiliaries, the triple pistons will not move to serv- ice position until over a fifteen-pound reduction of train- line pressure has been made. By the time we have made this amount of reduction in service position we shall 184 Air-Brake Catechism, have gone by the water- crane, unless we use the emer- gency, and that is what is usually done if the engineer is not up to date, Q. When should brakes be released' on a pas- senger train ? A. Just before the train stops. Q. What shotild be done on a grade just heavy enough so that the train will start with the brakes- released? A. vStop the same as at a water-crane. No jar will be felt with a light application. Q. How abotit a heavy grade ? A. Our stop will then depend on the grade and our pressure. Safety should be of first importance, everL if the stop is a trifle rough, Q. What makes the jar, if the brakes are not released before the train stops ? A. With the brakes set hard, the trucks are dis- torted, and it is the struggle of the trucks to right them- selves that causes the jar. Q, Can brakes be released longer before stopping after a light or a heavy reduction ? A. After a heavy reduction, as there is more air iri the cylinders to be gotten rid of, and the brakes release more slowly. Q. What is meant by an application? A. It covers all the time from the moment the brake is applied until it is released ; three or four re- ductions may be made during one application. Q. In making a stop with a freight train, whew should brakes be released ? A. After the train comes to a full stop, to avoid Train Handling. 185 breaking the train in two if the slack runs out hard in releasing before stopping. Q. If we have stopped short with a freight train, and need to release before stopping to picll up farther, what should be done ? A. We should wait for the slack to adjust itself in the train before using steam. Even then the steam should be used very cautiously. Q. In running passenger trains over cross-overs to get around freights, what care shotild be taken ? A. To do this, brakes have to be used when flagged, at the upper cross-over, lower cross-over, and usually at a station. We should charge up as much as possible after each application. Do not follow the plan of re- leasing and putting the valve on lap in. such a case, to be sure the triples will respond quickly. They will respond quickly, but if the station stop is on a grade, you may not have air enough left to make it when you get there. Q. What is the tisual cause of trains r tinning away ? A. Making a great many reductions without oc- casionally charging up, or allowing the pressure to leak away, because the train is running steady, and then when we get ready to recharge, not having enough air left to slow up the train. Q. On a fast passenger run, how "inay time be saved in tising the brake ? A. By waiting longer before applying the brakes and then making a ten-pound reduction at the start. Q. Will this not jar the passengers f A. Not when going fast. Passenger trains are con- tinuous, and there is very little slack to run up. A ten- 1 86 Air-Brake Catechism. pound reduction made with a train moving ten miles an hour would produce a very unpleasant sensation to pas- sengers, where at forty miles an hour it would not be noticed. This is explained in the subject High-Speed Erake. Q. Should brakes be tested in taking on cars f A. Yes, to be sure that the brakes on these cars work properly, and that the brakes back of them can be applied and released through them. Q, When all retainers on a train are not neces- sary, how should they be used ? A. At the head end if the grade is short ; otherwise change them around and use them on every other car, so as not to overheat any wheels. Q. If the brakes are applied and the engineer wishes to release and drift two or three hundred feet before stopping, what shotild be done f A. Enough retainers should be put in operation to keep the slack bunched. Q. When shottld hand brakes be used? A. On the rear of a part air train when backing it into a siding, or, if it stands on a knoll, to keep the slack from running back. Q. Should hand brakes and air brakes be tcsed together on the same car ? A. This is a risky practice. If the two brakes work together, we are very likely to slide wheels, and if they work in opposition, there is danger of a brakeman being thrown from the car, and the hand brake being applied will take up the slack in the brake rigging, so that the piston cannot get by the leakage groove. Q. If hand brakes be used back of the air, if Train Handling. 187 there are not enough air brakes to control the train, what is likely to happen ? A. This is likely to produce a bad effect when the air brakes are released. If the retainers are poor and allow the slack to run out, the train may be broken in two. Q, If hand brakes are to be used with the air, where should they- be applied f A. Next to the air. Q. Should driver brakes be cut in when descend- ing a heavy grade ? A. Always, or so much more work is thrown on the car brakes. Q. If an air-brake train should be stalled on a gradey should part of the train be left with air brakes to hold them until the engine comes back ? A. No ; the air brakes should be released one at a time, and the hand brakes applied. If left with the air holding them, the air might leak off and allow the train to run away. Q. Wheit brakes are full set, the long travel brakes are easier to release. They may be released and leave the short travel brakes applied. Is this good practice in holdi^ig trains ? A. No ; it is very bad practice. A train may be broken in two in this way. Q. If brakes stick and will not release by placing the valve in full release, what should be done ? A. Make a full service reduction and then, with a full excess pressure, throw to full release. If a release from the engine is possible, this will accomplish it. i88 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. What harm is there in pulling hose apart instead of imcotipling them ? A. The couplings are likely to be sprung so that they cannot be coupled again, and the train line is likely to be torn from the car or engine. Q. Does it do any harm to lean on the rotary handle when the brakes are applied? Ac Yes; if the dovetail piece that fits into the rotary is tight on account of dirt and gum, the rotary may be cocked so as to allow main reservoir pressure to feed into the train line under the rotary and release some of the brakes. Q, What is thf trouble, when there is a leak on the train line^ if the engine is alone, but coupled to tight cars, the leak does not show ? A. The leak is in the angle cock at the rear of the tender. When coupled to a train, the leak is not noticed as the cock is open. With the engine alone the cock leaking allows air to pass out of the hose to the atmos- phere. Q. In double heading, which engine should han- dle the brakes ? A. The lead engine. Q. What should the second engineer do ? A. Turn the cut-out cock under his valve, and under no circumstance, unless told to, should he cut in and interfere with the work of the lead engine. Q. If the pusher engine has no cut-out cock, what shotild be done ? A. The valve should be placed on lap. Q. In this case, why does the equalizing piston sometimes rise f Train Handung. 189 A. Because the lead engineer increases train-line pressure to release the brakes, and the pressure under- neath the equalizing piston is greater than that above it. Q, Hozv may it be seated f A. By putting the handle in full release position long enough to charge the little drum and seat the pis- ton. Q, In case of emei^gency , when it is necessary for us to leave the eitgine, what should be done ? A. Throw the engineer's valve to full emergency position and leave it there. In our hurry, if we tried to lap the valve, we might get it into running position and release the brakes. Q. Why ought we never to bring our valve back fro'in emergency position too quickly f A. There might be two or three cars cut out, a couple of plain triples, a contracted passage, or a couple of cars that would not go into quick action on account of dirty strainers. If these cars were together, they would not help to carry the quick action back. Generally a quick-action triple will not send a quick reduction through five cars which are cut out. In this case, if the engineer's valve had been lapped too quickly, the surge of air ahead from the rear end would release the head brakes, and all we would have would be a very light service reduction on the cars back of those cut out. If we leave the engineer's valve in emergency position long enough, we could at least get the full service application on these cars, and the emergency on those ahead of the cars cut out. Q. If we were going into a head end collision, and we thotcght we could stop all right and start back^ how should the valve be handled f A. Set the brakes in emergency and gradually return 190 Air-Brakk Catechism. ffl < •S3HS Nl HMIX ^'SS^S 2^ ^2:^ 000 0\V0 UO 0) •xaHj[ NI JOXS aOVHHAV ^0)00 1-^ 11^ % t^M M ON 0. 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Emergency stops, train running at *twenty miles per hour. 2. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles per hour. 3. Applying brakes while train was standing still, to show rapidity of application. 4. Emergency stops, train running at * forty miles per hour. 5. Service stops and time of release. Exhibition of smoothness of ordinary stop and time of release. 6. Hand brake stops at * twenty miles per hour with five brakemen at their posts. At Buffalo there were seven brakemen. 7. Breaking train in two. 8. Emergency at * twenty, miles per hour, the brake leverage having been increased to give the quickest stop possible. In the seven previous tests the usual safe braking power was used. 9. Emergency stop at * forty miles per hour, same leverage as test 8. 10. A train of twenty freight cars and a train of twelve ordinary passenger coaches, run along beside each other on parallel tracks, each being about the same weight and length of trains, and the brakes applied at the same time. This shows the relative stopping power of the old and the new brake. * Speed attempted ; actual speeds attained are given in statement and as read from speed gauge on engine. Fractions of miles and seconds are omitted. Two engines were used in making tests at St. Paul, and one in other tests. PIPING. Q. What should be done in preparing pipe f 07" -use ? A. After bending the pipe it should be blown out with steam to get rid of scale and dirt. If there is no steam at hand, air should be used. Under no consider- ation should pipe be used without first being cleaned. All fins should be carefully removed to prevent their working loose and clogging strainers. Q. What should be done to the pipe while it is being blown out f A. It should be tapped lightly to loosen the scale. Q. What size pipe should be used in the differ- ent parts of the system ? A. The sizes given in the air-brake catalogues are correct and should be strictly adhered to. Q. When using red lead on pipe, how should it be applied? A. Always on the outside of the thread to be screwed in, as in this way the red lead will not get inside the pipe. Q. In applying piping, what should be avoided? A. No sags should be allowed in which water might collect ; where practicable, gentle bends should be sub- stituted for elbows, and very short bends should be avoided. Q. Why are elbows or short bends undesirable ? A. The friction caused by them retards the flow of air when a sudden reduction is desired in emergency. Piping. ' 197 Q. Cottld pipe zuork be so crooked and elbows so mtmerous on an engine that a stifficiently quick re- duction to cause emergency woidd not go throtcgh an engine f A. Yes ; this has been found so on engines, but the trouble was remedied when the number of elbows and bends was reduced. Q. Hoiu should pipe work be secttred ? A. By clamps that will hold the pipe rigidly in place so as not to allow the pipes to be moved, holes to be chafed in them, or any vibration to exist. Q, After the pipe work is applied, what should be done ? A. It should be thoroughly tested under full press- ure, and the leaks detected by the use of soapsuds. Q. After the pipe is tested, what should be done f A. It should be painted with a rust-proof paint and one, if possible, that will not be affected by salt water dripping from refrigerator cars or by the acid in soft coal. Q, Why is larger pipe used on freight than on passenger cars ? A. Because on a long freight train a sudden reduc- tion will travel through the large pipe more quickly, as the larger the pipe the less the friction exerted to the passage of the air. Q. Is there any other reason ? A. Yes ; in emergency, with quick-action triples air from the train line is put into the brake cylinder ; a freight car being shorter than a passenger car, the larger pipe makes the volume of air in the train pipe more nearly equal to that in the smaller pipe used on the longer passenger cars. THE M. C. B. RULES. The following was taken from the '99 M. C. B. Rules of Interchange as applying particularly to air brakes : Delivering Company responsible. Owners ' responsibility Sec. I. Defect cards shall not be required for defects for which owners are responsible, except for missing material on cars offered in interchange, as provided for in Section 32 of Rule 3 ; neither shall they be required of the delivering road for improper repairs that were not made by it, with the exception of the cases provided for in Sections 24, 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37 of Rule 3. DEFECTS OF BRAKES WHICH JUSTIFY REPAIRS. Sec. 22. Defective, missing or worn out parts of brakes which have failed under fair usage, except missing material on cars offered in inter- change. Sec. 23. Cylinder or triple valve of air-brake cars not cleaned and oiled within twelve months and the date of the last cleaning and oiling marked on the brake cylinder with white paint. Sec 24. If I -inch hose and fittings are found on I >|^-inch train pipe. Sec. 25. Missing air-brake hose and fittings, angle cocks, cut-out cocks, triple valves, release valves and pressure-retaining valves. Sec. 26. Damage to any part of the brake appa- . ratus caused by unfair usage, derailment or acci- dent. Sec. 27, If the car has air-signal pipes or air- brake pipes, but no air brakes, the hose and coup- lings on the car are at owner's risk, unless the car is stenciled that it is so equipped. Thk M. C. B. Rules. 199 IMPROPER REPAIRS. Sec. 38. Any company making improper re- pairs is solely responsible to the owners, with the exception of the cases provided for in Sections 24, 33> 34, 35, 36 and 37 of Rule 3. The company making such improper repairs shall place upon the car at the time and place that the work is done, an M. C. B. defect card, which card shall state the wrong material used. RULE 4. Sec. 15. In replacing air-brake hose on foreign cars for which bills are made, new hose must be used. RULE 5. Sec. 4. Bills may be rendered against car owners for the labor only of replacing couplers, drawbars, brake beams (including their attach- ments, such as shoes, heads, jaws and hangers), brake levers, top and bottom brake rods that have been lost on the line of the company making the repairs. Drawbar springs, followers and yokes may be included in the above, provided they have heen lost with the drawsbars or couplers. Sec. 10. Bills for repairs made under these rules and for material furnished shall be in con- formity with schedules of prices and credits for the articles enumerated below : Material. Charge. Credit. Air-brake hose, i34 inch, complete with fit- tings applied Air-brake hose, i}4 inch, credit for fittings for same Air-brake hose, i inch, complete with fit- tings applied Air-brake hose, i inch, credit for fittings for same Bolts, nuts, and forgings, finished, per lb. . . Brake shoes applied ; no credit for scrap. Castings, rough iron per lb, " " malleable iron " " steel.. Chain Pipe, % inch per ft " I ^ inch ■30 ■ OiVz •05 Air-Brake Catechism. Sec. 12. In rendering bills for owner's defects, the following should be observed : No credit for scrap and no charge for labor shall be allowed in renewing brake shoes. Sec. 19. The following table shows the num- ber of hours which may be charged for labor in doing various items of work enumerated, which includes all work necessary to complete each item of repairs, except in so far as labor is already included in charging for materials : Ordinary Cars. Refrigerator Cars. Hrs. Charge for 1 I,abor. 1 Hrs. Charge for I.abor. Brake beam, one, replaced Brake beam, one, metal, black- 2 $0 40 .40 2 2 I0.40 Sec. 21. The following table shows the labor charges allowable, in cents, for the items named in air-brake work : Angle cock, renewing 5 Angle cock, handle, renewing 5 Coupling, dummy, applying 5 Cut-out cock, renewing 15 Cut-out cock, handle, renewing 5 Cylinder body or reservoir, or both, renewing 25 Cylinder cleaned and oiled Cylinder and reservoir, tightening when loose Cylinder release spring, renewing Cylinder gasket, renewing Check valve case, renewing Check valve case gasket Gasket, coupling, renewing Pipe, renewing one section Pipe, securing to body Pipe nipple on end of train pipe renewed Piston, renewing . . Piston-packing leather, renewing Pressure-retaining valve, repairing Release valve, repairing Release valve rod, repairing — strainer, renewing Triple slide valve, repairing Triple emergency valve seat, repairing Triple valve gasket, renewing Triple valve cleaned and oiled The M. C. B. Rui.es. 2( Sec. 22. The settlement prices of new eight- wheel cars shall be as follows, with an addition of $36 for each car equipped with air brakes. The road destroying a car with air brakes may elect to return the air-brake apparatus, including such attachments as are usually furnished by the air brake manufacturer, complete and in good con- dition. Sec. 23. Depreciation due to age shall be estimated at six per cent, per annum upon the yearly depreciated value of the bodies and trucks only ; provided, however, that allowances for depreciation shall in no case exceed sixty per cent. of the value new. The amount, $36, for air brakes shall not be subject to any depreciation. PASSENGER CAR INTERCHANGE AIR BRAKES. 5. Brakes must be in perfect working order (adjustment based on seventy pounds as the initial pressure), with a piston travel of not less than 5 inches, nor more than 8 inches. , BRAKING POWER AND I.EVBRAGE. Q. What is meant by bi^ a king power ? A. The force applied by the shoes against the wheels to stop the motion of a car. Q. What is meant by the percentage of braking power f A. The total brake-shoe pressure as compared to the light weight of the car. The percentage is found by dividing the total braking power by the light weight of a car. Q. What per cent of the weight of a car is used as braking power on a freight car f A. Usually about seventy per cent or seven-tenths of the light weight of the car. Q. On a passenger car ? A. Usually ninety per cent or nine-tenths of the light weight of the car, excepting with the high-speed brake. Q. Can these percentages be used if the car has. two six-wheel trucks, and only two pairs of wheels on each car are braked ? A. No ; the percentages given refer to a certain per cent of the total weight on the rail of the braked wheels. Q, What per cent of braking power is used in designing driver brakes ? Braking Power and Leverage. 203 A. Usually seventy-five per cent or three- fourths of the weight on the drivers when the engine is ready for the road. Q. What per cent of braking power is used on tenders ? A. Usually one hundred per cent. Q. Why is a larger per cent of braking power used on tenders than on enp-ines or cars ? A. Because tenders are practically always loaded. Q. How were these percentages determined on as safe? A. By actual tests in the different kinds of service. Q. What brake-cylinder pressure is used in fig- 2iring the braking power with the different sizes of cylinders ? A. Sixty pounds where using quick-action triples, and fifty pounds with the plain triples are figured as the cylinder pressure when the brakes are full set. This does not refer to the quick-action triple as used with the reinforced brake. Q. How do we calculate the force acting on the p2tsh rod due to the pressure in the cylinder acting on tJiepiston f A. Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself; the product by the decimal .7854, and this last product by the pressure in the brake cylinder. Q. What force would act on the push rod of an S-inch cylinder using a quick-action triple ? A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 60 = 3015, usually figured as 3000 pounds. Q. With a plain triple ? 204 Air-Brakk Catechism. A. 8 X 8 X .7854 X 50 = 2513, usually figured as 2500 pounds. Q. Explain the difference in the percentage of braking power of a freight car lights and the same car when loaded to its full capacity. A. Seventy per cent of the liglit weight of a freight car is considered safe braking power. If the light weight of a freight car is 25,000 pounds^ it is given 17,500 pounds braking power. If the capac- ity of the car is 60,000 pounds, when loaded to its full capacity the total weight of the car and contents is 25,- 000 + 60,000, or 85,000 pounds, but we have only the brake-shoe pressure to stop the car loaded that is used when it is light. In emergency, we get about sixty pounds pressure in the brake cylinder and have seventy per cent braking power with a light car, but with the car loaded, when the brakes are set in emergency, the braking power is only twenty and one-half per cent of the total weight of this car. In ordinary service application we obtain about fifty pounds pressure in the brake cylinder. This reduces the maximum braking power one-sixth, so that we use fifty-eight per cent braking power when the car is light, but when the car is loaded, the percentage of braking power to the total weight of the car and contents is only seventeen per cent. Q. How is the percentage of braking power of a passenger car affected by its load ? A. Not very much, because ninety per cent of the light weight of the car is used as braking power, and when loaded, the additional weight is seldom as much as 10,000 pounds. Q. What forces are figured as acting at the push rod with the cliff erent sized cylinders, the cylinder pressttre being figured at fifty pounds iii service and Braking Power and Leveragk. 205 sixty in emergency with the quick-action ti^iple, and fifty pou7ids with the plain triple in either service or emergency / A. Service application : 6 in. 8 in. 10 in. 12 in. 1400 2500 4000 5600 Emergency application : 1700 3000 4700 6800 14 m. 7700 9200 By using tlie following cuts and formulae, the brak- ing power on a car with any kind of leverage may be figured. LEVER OF 1st KIND Fig. 33. FORMULA Fxb W . Wxa b=' Wxj Fig. 34.— L:^vkr of ist Kind. There are three classes of levers : I. When the fulcrum c (Figs. 33 and 34) is between the force F and the weight W. II. When the weight W (Figs. 35 and 36) is between the force F and the fulcrum c. 2o6 Air-Brake Catechism. III. When the force F (Pigs. 37 and 38) is between the weight W and the fulcrum c. Figs. 33 and 34 represent a lever of the first class. Q. What brake-shoe pressure JV zvill resttlt with a force F = 2000 pottnds, b = 16 inches, a =^ 8 inches ? . Txr F X b ,Tr 2000 X 16 TTr A. W= or W= — ^ or TF=4ooo a 8 pounds. The forces W and F act in the same direction on the levers, and the force at c acts on the lever in an opposite direction from both and must be equal to their sum, or 6000 pounds. Q. What is the distance a if F =^ 2000, b =^ 16 inches, and W = ^000 ? Fxb , . . A. a ^= — -^jy- ; substituting values, W 2000 X 16 o • 1 a = or a = 8 inches. 4000 Q. What is the force F, when W = 4000, a = 8 inches, and b =^ 16 inches ? A. i^= — - — ; substituting values, ^ 4000 X 8 „ , -r = ^ or i^ == 2000 pounds. 16 Q^ How do we find b if W = zfooo pounds ^ F = 2000 pounds, and a =^ 8 inches ? . , W X a , . . A. = — ; substituting values, b = 4000 X 8 , ^ • -u or 6 = 16 inches. Braking Power and Lkverage. 207 Figs. 35 and ^6 represent levers of the second class witti the weight between the fulcrum c and the force F. Assume that F = 2000 pounds, a = 8 inches, d = 16 inches, and 6 = a + c?, or 24 inches. LEVER OF 2nd KllMD Fig. 35. Q. What is W? A. W= — '- ; substituting values, TF= — 1 or TF= 6000 pounds. w= FORMULAE. , Fxb. _Wxa Wxa F Fig. 36. — Lever of 2nd Kind. In this class of levers we see that the forces F and W act in opposite directions on the lever, and the force ex- erted at c will be equal to the difference between F and ir, or 4000 pounds. We may compute values for a^ F or 6, as was illus- trated in the first class of levers, if we know the values of the other three. 2o8 Air- Brake Catechism. Figs. 37 and 38 represent the third class of lever with the force F exerted between the weight W and the fulcrum c. Assume that F = 2000 pounds, 6=8 inches, d ^ 16 inches, a = b -\- d^ or 24. b -^ LEVER OF 3rd KIND Fig. 37. W=- FORMULA Fx b F — Wxa b Fig. 38.— Lkver of 3RD kind. Q. What is W? F X b Fxb W _W X a A. W= ; substituting values, ^^^ 2000 X 8 ur—^^ro -1 g^=^ or kK — 666t pounds. 24 W and F act in opposite directions on the lever in this case, and the force exerted at the fulcrum c will be equal to the difference between i^ and TFor^inthis case, I333F pounds. Braking Power and IvEveragk. 209 The other three formulae may be used to find the value of a, F, or b when the other three values are known, as already shown. Besides speaking of levers as first, second, and third class, they are known by their proportions as i to i, 2 to I, 2 J to I, etc., according to the amount the force F is raised or diminished, due to the class and propor- tions of the levers employed. To find the proportion of a lever of the first class, divide the distance of the fulcrum c to the force F by the distance from the fulcrum c to the weight W; or, re- ferring to Fig. 33, it would be : 6^-aori6^8 = 2. This proportion of lever would be called a 2 to i lever. The force F is multiplied by 2 at W. In the second class, or Fig. 35, the proportion of the lever would be represented by: b ~ a or 24. ~ S = 3 , or a 3 to I lever. In the third class, or Fig. 37, the proportion of the lever 'would be represented by: 6 ^ a or 8 -^ 24 = i, or a J to I lever, in which case the porportion and class of levers reduces the force 3 to i instead of increasing it. HODGE SYSTEM Fig, 39. Having studied the classes of levers, we will now 2IO Air-Brakk Catkchism. make a practical application of their use in figuring the proportion of the levers to be applied to a car of given weight. We wish to design a brake for a passenger car, the weight of which is 60,000 pounds, and use the Hodge system of levers as shown in the sketch. Ninety per cent or nine-tenths of 60,000 pounds is 54,000 pounds. 54,000 pounds will be the safe braking power to apply to the wheels of a passenger car weigh- ing 60,000 pounds. 54,000 -^ 4 = 13,500, or the amount of braking power to be developed at each brake beam. The length of the truck levers has to be determined from the truck construction. We will suppose the di- mensions to be — long end, 28 inches ; short end, 7 inches. The truck levers are of the second class and substitut- ing the values in the formula (Fig. 36). F = or i^ = -^1^ — ^U- or F ^ 2700 ^ 35 That is, to get a power W of 13,500 pounds against the brake beam, a force of 2700 pounds is necessary at the top of the live truck lever. The forces F and W act on the live lever in opposite directions, so the force acting at fulcrum c will be 13,500 — 2700 = 10,800. This power is transmitted to the bottom of the dead lever, which is of the same class as the live lever ; but the force F is applied at the bot^ torn instead of the top of the lever. - We have from Fig. 36 : Tjr F X b Tj-^ 10,800 X ^O jjT W = or W= — ^ ^- or M/= i^.^^oo a 24 ^'^ So that, with a force of 2700 pounds acting at the top of the live lever of the dimensions given, a power W of 13,500 pounds is developed at each truck, brake beam. Braking Power and Leverage. 211 The dead truck lever need not be of the same length as the live lever, but the proportions between the holes must be the same in each. The force of 2700 pounds that acts on the top of the live lever also acts at X, the end of the floating lever, and we must now determine what force must act on the rod that connects the end of the cylinder lever with the floating lever. This rod is connected at the middle of the floating lever, and the power at this point must be sufficient to develop a force of 2 700 pounds at each end of the float- ing lever. The force exerted at the middle must be 2 X 2700 or 5400 pounds, as half of this amount is given to each end of the floating lever. This 5400 pounds acting at the center of the floating lever must also act at the end of the cylinder lever, being connected directly with ito What we now wish to determine is, with any desired length over all, how must the holes be spaced in the cylinder lever that the pressure acting on the push rod will produce a force of 5400 pounds at the outer end of the cylinder lever. A 12-inch cylinder is recommended by the Westing- house Company to be used with this weight of car. The brake set in emergency with a 12-inch cylinder gives us a push at the piston rod of 6800 pounds. We will suppose the distance between the outside holes of the cylinder lever to be 30 inches. The following rule will enable us to locate the mid- dle hole in the cylinder lever to which the tie rod is attached. Midtiply the force actwg at the piston by the length of the lever between the outside holes, ani 212 Air-Brakk Catechism. divide the product by the sum of the forces acting at both ends of the cylinder lever. The result will be the distance from the middle hole of the cylinder lever to the hole to which the connection running to the floating lever is attached. Applying this rule to our problem we have 6800 X 30 = 204,000 6800 + 5400 = 12,200 204,000 ^7- 12,200 = 16.72 30 — 16.72 = 13-28 The distance between the holes at the short end is 13.28 and the long end 16.72 inches, and, according to the rule, the long end is connected to the connection running to the floating lever » The force exerted at the middle hole of the cylinder lever is also communicated to a hole similarly placed in the other cylinder lever, so that, using the same levers, we will obtain the same braking power on the wheels of the other truck. In. figuring the levers for the Stevens system of lever- age, the power desired at the top of the live lever is figured the same as just explained. When we know this force, we know that the same power has to exist at the outer end of the cylinder lever, as the Stevens system has no floating lever. This we figure by the rule already given for spacing the holes in the cylinder levers. To figure the braking power of a car already equipped, we start with the force acting on the piston rod and work towards the truck levers by the aid of the formulae given. To use the formulae, first determine the class of lever with which we have to deal. The foregoing illustrations were a practical applica- Braking Power and IvEverage. 213 tion of the forinulse, in calculating the proportion of levers that would give a proper braking power on a car of known weight. We will now consider a shorter method of calculating the proportion of levers for a Hodge and for the Stevens systems of leverage for this same car. Fig. 39 (page 209) shows the Hodge system of levers. If this were a Stevens system, the floating lever would not be used, and the other end of the connection to the live lever of the truck would connect directly with the outer end of the cylinder lever. With the Stevens sys- tem the hand-brake connection runs from the brake mast direct to the top of the dead lever. (i.) To find the total braking power required: Subtract 10 per cent, of the weight of the car on the wheels to be braked for passenger cars, and 30 per cent, for freight cars. (2.) To find the leverage required: Divide the total braking power required by the total pressure on the piston. (3.) To find the proportion of tJie brake-beam levers: Divide the entire length of the lever by the short end, if the truck has a bottom connection ; if it has a middle connection, divide the long by the short end. (4.) To find the total brake-beam leverage : Multiply the proportion of the brake-beam levers by two, for the Hodge system, and by four for the Stevens system. (5.) To find the proportion of the cylinder lever : Multiply the whole length of the lever by the required leverage and divide the product by the sum of the total brake-beam leverage plus the required leverage. If the required leverage is greater than the total brake- 214 Air-Brake Catechism. beam leverage, the long end of the lever must go next to the cylinder ; if less, the short end goes next to the cylinder. The dead and live levers may be of different lengths, . but must be of the same proportion to develop the same braking power. EXAMPEE. Hodge system of levers, as shown on page 209, also the lengths of the truck levers. Weight of car, 60,000 lbs. A 12-inch cylinder is used with this weight of car. A pressure of 6,800 lbs. is developed on a 12-inch piston, using a quick-action triple valve. (i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. (2.) 54,000 lbs. -^ 6,800 = 7.94, leverage required. (3.) 35 ^ 7 = 5, brake-beam leverage. (4.) 5 X 2 = 10, total brake-beam leverage. Assume the length of the outside holes of the cylinder lever to be 30 inches. (5-) (30 X 7-94) - (7-94 ^ 10) = 13.28 inches. 30 — 13.28 = 16.72 inches. The required leverage is less than the total brake- beam leverage, hence the short end of the cylinder lever connects to the piston. Stevens system — same car. (i.) 60,000 lbs. less 10 per cent, is 54,000 lbs. (2.) 54,000 ^ 6,800 - 7.94, the leverage required. (3.) 35 -T- 7 = 5, the brake-beam leverage. (4.) 5 X 4 = 20, the total brake-beam leverage. The cylinder lever is 30 inches between outside holes. (5-) (30 X 7-94) -^ (20 X 7.94) = 8.53 inches. 30 — 8.53 = 21.47 inches. The required leverage is less than the total brake- beam leverage, hence, according to the rule, the short end of the cylinder lever (8.53 inches) connects to the piston. SIZES OF CYIvINDERS TO BE USED ON CARS AND TENDERS OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 14^' brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light Tveight exceeds 70,000 pounds. ■ 12" brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light ^weight exceeds 50,000 pounds. 10^' brake cylinder on passenger cars whose light Tveight is less than 50,000 pounds. 6" brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight is less than 15,000 pounds. 8^' brake cylinder on freight cars whose light weight exceeds 15,000 pounds. 10^' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight exceeds 35,000 pounds. 8^' brake cylinder on tenders whose light weight is less than 35,000 pounds. AMERICAN BRAKE .LEVERAGE. Q. How do you find the braking power on an engine equipped with the American equalized brake as shown in sketch, page 218 ? A. Multiply the cylinder value, or total pusli on the piston, by the long lever arm, and divide this product by the short lever arm. This result multiplied by 2 gives the total braking power. Q, With the long lever arm 2^ inches long and the short arm 5, what braking power would we havey using 12-inch cylinders ? A. 56,000 pounds. Thus : 5600 X 25 ^ 140,000 140,000 -^- 5 = 28,000 28,000 X 2 = 56,000 Q, If any different design of rigging were used than that shown in the sketchy how could the braking power be figured ? A. First find the power exerted at the bottom of the rocker shaft and use this in connection with the cuts illustrating the different classes of levers. Q. What per cent of the total weight on drivers is tcsed as braking power with driver brakes f A. Seventy-five per cent of the engine's weight on the drivers when ready for the road. American Brakk Leverage;. 217 Q. What braking power shotild be used on an engine whose weight on drivers is go, 666 pounds? A. 90,666 X .75 = 68,000 pounds. Q. What weight should be on the drivers for an engine to have 68,000 pounds braki?ig power ? A. 68,000 -r~ .75 = 90,666 pounds. Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A and D on an engine having two pairs of drivers, to give an equal braking power 07i each wheel? A, The middle hole in A should be equidistant from the two outside ones. The hole in the lever at D should be so as to have the connection attached at h stand about parallel with the track. The corresponding hole h at the other end of the lever B must be placed the same distance from the other end. ABC Fig. 40.— American Equawzkd Brake;. Q. How should the holes be spaced in levers A, B, and D, if on a mogul or engine having three pairs of drivers ? A. The distance e, lever A^ should be one-half the distance/. The distance ^, lever B, should be equal to hj. The hole ^, lever D, should be the same as on an engine having two pairs of drivers. 2i8 Air-Brakk Catechism. Q. How should the holes in the levers A, B, C, and D be spaced on a consolidation or engine with four pairs of drivers f A. The distance e in lever J. should be one- third of/. The distance g^ lever B^ should be one-half of h. The distance i, lever C, should be equal to j. The hole k in lever B should be the same as with an engine having two or three pairs of drivers. CAM BRAKE. The following simple rule to find the braking power developed by a cam brake is given by Mr. H. A. Wahlert, of the American Brake Company, Take two wires and place them between the brake shoe and the wheel ; one at the top and one at the bottom of the shoe. Apply the brakes fully, and then measure the piston travel. Now release the brakes, re- charge, and then apply fully again. Measure the piston travel again, and note how much more it has increased. Divide the additional travel had upon removing the wires by the thickness of the wire, and multiply this by the value of the cylinder. The result is the braking power on each brake shoe. Four times this power is the total braking power de- veloped on all four shoes. EXAMPLE. Thickness of wires, ^ inch. Piston travel, with wires inserted according to rule, 3 inches. Piston travel, with wires removed, 3 J inches. Value of 8-inch cylinder, 2500 pounds. 3 J inches — 3 inches = J inch. J inch -^— ^ inch = 4. 2500 pounds X 4 = 10,000 pounds on each brake shoe. 10,000 pounds X 4 ^ 40,000 pounds on all four brake shoes. A FEW PRACTICAIv FORMULA AND RULES FOR AIR-BRAKE INSPECTORS. (I) Braking power ^ ^^^^^ ^ ^ Cylinder value * (2) (3) i-incli piston travel Shoe movement for Total leverage ' incli of piston travel. Slioe wear Total increase of piston travel Shoe movement ^ to wear out a set of shoes, for I inch of piston travel Illustration of above Formula. Assume : Weight of car = 40,000 pounds ; it is to be braked at ninety per cent of its weight ; lo-inch cylinder used ; shoes I J inches thick. Ninety per cent of 40,000 = 36,000 pounds. The cylinder value, or push on the piston, of a lo-inch cylinder, when the brake is set in emergency with a quick-action triple, is 4700 pounds. Substituting values in the equations ; X X ^6,000 _ ^^ (i) ^-^ — —7.66 4700 7.66 is the total leverage ; that is, the push of 4700 pounds on the piston must be multiplied 7.66 times to give the proper braking power. 13 or 13 7.66 100 Formula and Rules. 221 ■^ifo of an incli is tlie distance that the brake shoes will move for each inch that the piston travels. (^) — — or — ^ = II. S or iiA II J inches is the distance the piston travel would have to increase to wear out a set of shoes i J inches thick. To find the distance in which a train should be stopped, all other things being equal, the distance and speed of any one stop being known : J^ule : Multiply the known distance by the square of the speed for which proportionate distance is de- sired, and divide the product by the square of the speed at which know7i stop was made. For example : If a train at a speed of thirty miles per hour was stopped in two hundred feet, in what distance should it be stopped at a speed of fifty miles per hour ? Square of 30 = 30 X 30 = 900. Square of 50 = 50 X 50 = 2500. 2500 X 200 ^ ^^^^ ^^^ 900 To find the area of a piston : Multiply the diameter of the piston by itself^ and this product by the decimal ^yS ^4. Example : What is the area of an 8-inch piston? 8'^ X 8 := 64 sq. in. 64 sqo in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 222 Air-Brake Catechism. 50.26 square inclies is the area of tlie piston ; that is. the number of square inches in a circle 8 inches in diameter. To find the volume or cubical contents of a cylinder : Multiply the diameter of the cylinder by itself, this product by the decimal .yS^^y and this prodiict by the length of the cylinder. Example : What is the volume of a cylinder 8 inches in diameter and one foot long? 8'' X 8 = 64 sq. in. 64 sq. in. X .7854 = 50.26 sq. in. 50.26 sq. in. X 12 = 603.12 cu. in. To find the pressure at which an auxiliary and brake cylinder will equalize with a full service application of the brake using an initial pressure of seventy pounds in the train line and auxiliary : Multit>ly the capacity of the auxiliary in cubic inches Oy eighty-five pounds {seventy pounds train- able pressure plus fifteen poimds atmospheric press- ure), and divide the product by the co^nbined ccipacity of the axillary and brake cylinder. The quotient will be., approximately, the pressure plus fifteen pounds atinospheric pressure. This is not absolutely correct, as it does not take into account the clearance in the cylinder back of the piston with the brake released. This usually corresponds to about i inch of piston travel. Example : Capacity of freight auxiliary reservoir = 1625 cu. in. Capacity of 8-inch brake cylinder with 8-inch piston travel = 400 cu. in. FoRMUL.n AND RUI.ES. 223 1625 X 85 = 138,125 138,125 ^ (1625 + 400) ^ 68 68 lbs. — 15 = 53 lbs. Fifty- three pounds is tlie pressure obtained in the auxiliary and brake cylinder with the brake full set in service. INCREASED BRAKE EFFICIENCY FOR HEAVY FREIGHT TRAINS. Q. What does Plate C represent ? A. It shows a slight change in the regular high-speed brake equipment Q. What is the only difference ? A. In the engine equipment for the high-speed brake, the governor pipe containing the one-quarter inch cut- out cock connects with the pipe running to the other . governor, as shown by the dotted lines. Q. What is the object of this special equipment ? A. It is designed for special use on roads having heavy grades and handling loads, such as ore, one way, and light cars the other. Q. What special advantage is gained ? A. By using two sets of pump and train-line gov- ernors, 70 or 90 pounds can be used on the train line, and 90 or no pounds can be used on the main reservoir. Q. Would there not be danger of sliding wheels if 90 pounds were used as train line pressure f A. If used on light cars, yes ; but if used on heavily loaded cars there would be no danger, as the braking power is usually 70 per cent, of the light weight of the car, and when a car is loaded to its full capacity, the percentage of braking power, as compared with the combined weight of the car and its contents, is much smaller than this, even when using a train line pressure of 90 pounds. Plate C. SHOWING INCREASED BRAKE EFFICIENCY FOR HEAVY FREIGHT TRAINS. This Plate also Shows the High Speed Brake Equipment, the only Difference being that Pipe A is Changed as Shown bv the Dotted Lines. L Increased Brake Efficiency for Trains. 225 Q. How much more powerful would a brake be when using a train line pressure of 90 pounds as compared 'with 70? A. Approximately 25 per cent. Q. With the cocks as shown in Plate C, which gov- ernors arc operative ? A. The 90-pound pump governor and the 70-pound feed. valve or train-line governor. Q. What is the object of running pipe A to the feed valve bracket chamber instead of in the manner adopted with the high-speed brake, as shown by the dotted lines f A. The feed-valve bracket chamber, into which pipe A connects, has main reservoir pressure in it, as is shown. The 90-pound governor being cut in, the pump will be stopped as soon as the main reservoir pressure reaches 90 pounds. If the brakes are applied and the brake valve is placed on lap position, no more air can reach the feed-valve bracket, and thence to the governor to keep the steam valve shut and the pump stopped, and the pump will continue to work until main reservoir pressure reaches no pounds, at which time the other governor, always connected with main reservoir pres- sure, as shown, stops the pump. Q. What benefit is derived from this device when the y 0-pound train line and go-pound pump governors are cut in? A. With the brake valve in running position, the pump does not have to work against a higher pressure than 90 pounds, but just as soon as the brakes are applied, the pump raises the pressure in the main reser- voir to no pounds, which pressure is very helpful to insure a quick release on a long train and quickly recharge the auxiliaries. Q. What would be done in case the cars were all 226 Air-Brake Catechism. heavily loaded and it was desired to use a train line pres- sure of go pounds and a main reservoir pressure of no pounds ? A. The reversing cock handle would be moved so as to cut out the 70-pound train line governor and cut in the 90-pound train line governor. The one-quarter inch cut-out cock would be turned so as to cut out the 90- pound pump governor. Q. Would it be safe to use the go-pound train-line pres- sure when there were air brakes en both light and loaded cars in operation in the same train ? A. No ; in all probability the wheels on the light cars would be slid. Q. When using a go-pound train-line pressure, is the same train-line reduction necessary to apply the brakes in full as is used with a jo-pound train-line pressure ? A. No ; a heavier reduction would be necessary. Q. How '^nuch of a train-line reduction would equalize the auxiliary and brake-cylinder pressures, using an initial pressure of go pounds ? A. About 27 pounds, if the piston travel was about eight inches. Q. Why are safety valves placed upon the tender^ driver, and truck brakes ? A. So as to allow all pressure over 50 pounds to escape to the atmosphere. Experience shows that over- heating of tires is likely to ensue if a greater pressure than this is used on the tender, driver or truck brakes. Q. What is best to use on the engine if the grade is very long and heavy ? A. A water brake. With this brake no heating of tires is produced, as the braking is done with the pistons in the main cylinders. MR-BRAKE RECORDING GAGES. Q. What is an air-brake recording gage ? A. It is a mechanism by means of which lines are traced upon a chart. An examination of these lines will tell exactly how the brakes have been manipulated by the engineer. Q, What causes the lines to be traced upon the chart ? A. The contrivance has an arm containing a pen which is raised or lowered as the pressure fluctuates in the place to which the gage is piped. As the pen and chart move, a line is traced showing the variation of the pressure. Q. What causes the chart to move ? A. It is connected with a clock movement, by the adjustment of which the movement of the chart is controlled. Q. To what else is the recording gage similar ? A. To a steam indicator ; but in that case steam instead of air causes the pen to rise or lower as the pressure changes, and the movement of the main steam piston imparts a movement to the indicator drum upon which paper is fastened, and upon which a line is traced by a pen or pencil. Q. To zvJiat part of tJie air brake system is the recording gage piped ? A. It may be piped to the train line, the auxiliary reservoir, or the brake cylinder. On a passenger train 228 Air-Brake Catechism. the gage is usually placed at the rear of the train, while on a freight train it is placed in the caboose. Q, Which of these places is preferred f A. The train line. So connected, the chart shows the fluctuation of pressure when the brakes are applied and released, and the exact habits of the engineer are shown. Q. How many forms of recording gages are there ? A. Two ; a revolving gage, the chart of which is shown in Fig. 41, and a horizontal gage, a chart from which is shown in Fig. 42. Q. From tJie record made by a recording gage, what may be ascertained f A. The amount of train line pressure carried ; the correctness of the air gage ; the method employed by the engineer in the application and release of the brakes ; the position of the brake valve handle in releasing brakes and recharging the train ; it is a valuable adjunct in find- ing the cause of air brake wrecks or " failures " ; shows if the air brake instruction of the road is lived up to ; shows how long it takes to recharge with the different main reservoirs and pumps on the different engines ; it is a valuable aid in discovering the cause of slid flat wheels ; it increases the interest of the engineers in air brake matters, as their record and skill are shown by the lines on the chart ; besides these things, a great deal of kindred information may be gleaned by a careful study of the charts. Q. At ivhat speed do these charts usually move ? A. From two and one-quarter to four and one-half inches an hour, as desired. Horizontal charts have been used at as high a speed as three feet an hour. The speed can be adjusted by means of the clock. Air-Brakk Recording Gagks. 229 Air-Brake Catechism. Nnod Ni 3anssaad Q. Is there any advantage gained from a sloiv or fast movement of the paper ? A. A slow movement condenses the record and does hot require so large a chart, while a fast movement uses a longer chart, but shows a greater corre- sponding amount of detail. If a. slow movement is used, and the detail is desired at any particular point, such as a water crane or milk depot, the speed of the paper may be adjusted as desired. In Fig. 41, the broken line shows the path the pen would trace if there was a constant pressure of 70 pounds. No pressure is represented by the cir- cumference of the small circle. The figures at the top are a time reference, and the figures up and down refer to the amount of pressure. The distance between the lines run- ning up and down represent the dis- tance traveled by the train. The chart (Fig. 41) shows two records on the same run made by two different men. A study of the two shows several points of interest. The best work ' shows on the card to the right ; the card at the left shows that the train line governor was not adjusted properly for a 70 pound train line pressure, or else the gage was wrong ; the card at the right shows three station stops where the engineer made more than a 20 pound train line reduction, while the card at the left shows the same thing at six s«tations, and at almost every station the ■ft' i (._ ^ o < o o a w O N s O Air-Brakk Recording Gages. 231 stop was made by two applications of the brake. The amount of reduction points very strongly to the use of the emergency. Fig. 42 shows a record taken from a horizontal record- ing gage. The horizontal lines represent pressure as indicated, and the length of the paper shows the distance. The card shows that a train line pressure of 72 pounds was used, and that the engineer was in the habit of mak- ing too heavy train line reductions. In one place the train line pressure was reduced to 18 pounds, another to 15, another to 8 pounds, and in one case all air was taken from the train line. The two cases of heavy reduction at the left of the record point strongly to the use of the emergency position of the brake valve. In two places at the right the card shows that in two places the engineer released to recharge, but evidently did not calculate properly, as both times he started to apply the brakes when the train line was only charged to 60 pounds. The pressure in the auxiliaries was undoubtedly even somewhat less than this. SANSOM BELL RINGER. Q, For what purpose is port No. i f A. Port I is admission port. Q. For what purpose is port No. 2 ? A. Port 2 is exhaust port. Q. For what pjtrpose is hole No. 3 f A. Hole 3 is an escape or leak port, so that if taper valve leaks after long service, or spring 4 becomes worn or weak, pressure would leak out of hole 3, and not ac- cumulate on end of taper valve and tend to force valve out from seat. Q. What purpose does spring No. 4 perform ? A. Spring 4 holds taper valve to seat, by pressing: against bar 5. Q. Hozv is the piston packed? A. Piston is packed with cup leather washer 6. Q. How is throw or stroke of bell regulated ? A. To increase throw of bell, screw nuts No. 7 up on the rod 8 ; to decrease throw of bell, screw nuts 7 down on rod 8. Q. What effect ivould be had with a leak iji the valve placed in the supply pipe ? A. A perfectly tight valve should be used in supply pipe ; a small leak in valve wastes air and interferes with the good operation of the ringer, by slowly raising pis- ton of ringer to such position that, when full pressure Sansom Bell Ringer. Fig. 43. — " Saxsom " Bkll Ringer. 234 Air-Brake Catechism. is admitted, the piston has not sufficient further distance to travel to properly throw the bell, so its momentum will force piston to bottom of cylinder, and thereby close exhaust opening, and open valve for re-admission of air to again force piston to its upper position. Q. Explain the operation of the ringer ? A. Ringer is operated by admission of air under pis- ton, which forces piston upward and carries connecting Fig. 44. — Shows the Bell Ringer as Applied to a Bell Frame Especially Designed for Use with a Ringer. rod attached to crank on bell shaft ; when the arm ex- tending on the left of piston has traveled to the nuts 7, the plug valve is turned by means of rod 8 until admis- sion port is closed, and exhaust port 2 opened, thus allowing air in cylinder to escape and the weight of bell to force piston to bottom of cylinder. The arm extend- ing from left of piston striking the lower nuts on rod 8, and closing exhaust and opening admission port as be- fore described (during upward stroke), and thereby cans- Sansom Bell Ringer. ^3S mg piston to again rise in cylinder and the operation to be repeated. Q. What trouble may occur to taper valve ? A. Spring 4 may wear and not allow valve to pro- perly seat itself. In that case, remove bar 5, and place a plug of wood about y^ inch thick in the bottom of hole that carries spring 5, in this way getting additional com- pression on spring to hold taper valve to its seat. Get a new spring put in as soon as you can. Q. Hozu would you proceed if ringer were frozen up ? A. In winter, from the accumula- tion of moisture, should the ports be- come clogged from ice, hold torch for a moment (while air is turned on) under base of ringer, about ports i and 2. This is a very rare occurrence. Q, Hozu should the Sansom Bell Ringer be applied? A. The distance from the center of crank shaft of bell to the center of bolt holes, where ringer is bolted on frame, should be not less than 10^ inches, and preferably should be about 12 inches. The bell shaft may be any size above I inch in diameter, as convenient. The adjustment of ringer is made by means of the nuts on the 14^ -inch rod connected with the plug cock, and extending up through the lug on the side of the piston. A very close and satisfactory^ adjust- ment can be made with these nuts, and, when the throw of bell is just as desired, they can be firmly locked together. Fig. 45. — Shows THE Applica- tion OF A BelI/ Ringer to an Old Bell Frame. 236 Air-Brake Catechism. The pipe or connecting rod, extending from the crank to the inside of the piston, should be cut off about 3^ inch short of touching the bottom of the piston when the crank is at its lowest position of throw. OCHSE BEIvL RINGER. Q. Explain the operation of the OcJise Bell Ringer, A. When the bell is at rest, the two small slide valves are in their lowest positions. As air or steam, whichever is used to operate the ringer, passes into the ringer, it finds its way over the top of the slide valve, and through an exposed port directly underneath the piston. As the air forces the piston up, the piston lifts the bell crank, and this in turn raises the bell. The piston is connected with the two slide valves by a hollow sleeve, as shown in Fig. 46. This loose sleeve allows the piston to rise about an inch without moving the slide valves, at which time a pin in the slotted stem and main piston draws the slide valves up. This movement causes one slide valve to close the feed port, and the other to open the exhaust port at the lower end of the ringer, and allow the pres- sure to escape to the atmosphere. The bell is raised until the pressure is exhausted, when the weight of the bell forces the piston and slide valves down, and this downward movement of the slide valves closes the exhaust and opens the feed port, when the piston is again forced upward after the momentum of the bell has swung it over its dead center. Q. What would be the first thing to do with a ringer that zuould not operate ? A. Increase the opening of the feed port by screwing down on the adjusting pipe. 238 Air-Brake Catechism. "^iG. 46. — OcHSE Bell. Ringer. OcHSE Beli. Ringer. 239 Fig. 47. — OcHSE Bell Ringer. 240 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. What should be done after screwing down on the adjusting pipe if the ringer still refuses to respond ? A. Disconnect the supply pipe and be sure that air issues from the pipe when the throttle valve is opened. Q. What shoidd be done if the bell does not swing suffi- ciently high ? A. Screw down on the adjusting pipe to open the feed port farther. Q. What shoidd be done if the bell szuings too high ? A. Screw up on the adjusting pipe so as to decrease the air supply. Q. What should be done with a ringer that is sluggish and is not adjusted readily ? A. Remove the spring between the slide valves and replace it with a new one. This trouble is very un- usual. Q. Is a ringer likely to freeze in winter ? A. This depends upon where the ringer is located. If the bell bracket is bolted to the boiler, the ringer should get sufhcient heat to keep it free from ice. If the main reservoir is kept well drained, there should be no trouble from water working into a ringer and freezing. Q. What zvould happen if the arm of the bell ringer should point straight down when the bell is at rest ? A. The ringer would be on its dead center and could not start. The crank should be put on to stand as shown in the cut. Q. How much oil does a bell ringer require ? A. Very little if air is used, but regularly where steam is used. SANDERS. Q. How docs the Leach " Z? " sandcr operate f A. The sand is carried by means of pipes to traps beneath running board, from which traps the sand is forced through the ^-inch delivery pipes to the rail by air pressure. Q. How can the amount of sand delivered by this de- vice be diminished or increased f A. To regulate the amount of sand delivered, in- crease or decrease distance "A" (Fig. 49) by loosening jamb nut "C," and moving adjusting tube "D," in or out. The greater the clearance "A," the greater the sand delivery. Care should be taken to have nozzles on opposite sides of engine adjusted alike. Q, What are the chief drawbacks to the successful oper- ation of a pneuTnatic sander ? A. Unscreened sand or sand which has not been screened of all coarse and foreign matter is the chief cause of trouble with pneumatic sanders. WET sand CANNOT BK USKD WITH A PNEUMATIC SANDER. Q. Why are \-inch delivery pipes generally used with pneumatic sanders ? A. Three-quarter inch delivery pipes are used so as to " squirt " the sand direct to point of contact between driving wheel and rail, and they should always be kept in such a position at bottom ends as to accomplish above results. 242 Air-Brake Catechism. Sanders. 243 244 Air-Brake Catechism. Q. For what purpose is small thumb screw ^^ F*^ {F^S^ 49) used with the Leach air nozzle ? A. It is placed opposite small ;3%-inch air choke so as to enable the air choke to be cleaned out without dis- connecting any of the pipes. Q. What is the object of placing small check valve ^' B '^ {Fig. 49) between the sand trap and air choke of the Leach air nozzle ? A. It is placed there to prevent the sand from work- ing back and into the air choke. Q. What is the cause of sand becoming moist and wet in the traps on this device ? A. The sand becomes wet in the traps from two causes : the unions in the sand pipes are not tight ; or in some cases, moisture in these traps is caused by the main reservoir not being drained regularly, and water is carried from the air pipes into the traps when the sand is working. Q. What are the advantages of the Leach '' Z> " Sander ? A. It is outside of the sand box, accessible at all times for inspection and when making repairs, and any engineman or shopman can, at a glance, understand its operation. The resistance of the column of sand always above trap prevents air pressure from escaping up through sand box, and therefore a high pressure is available through discharge pipes for removing obstruc- tions at their lower ends. The adjustable air nozzle used with this style of device can be so adjusted as to regulate the amount of sand dis- charged to the rail. This nozzle is fitted with a small check valve, preventing air passages from becoming plugged with sand. The device is capable of forcing sand to both front and back wheels of the locomotive Sanders. 245 246 Air-Brakk Catechism. from the sand box as usually situated over the front drive wheels. Q. How does the Leach '' A '^ style of sander {Fig. 50) operate f A. With this type of device the blast is used simply Blast Cap O Slip Joint >^ Sand Pipe Union. Fig. 51.— Leach ♦* B " Sander. for economy in the use of sand and for convenience in operating. The sand traps are attached to the box in the most convenient manner ; the sand is supplied there- to through independent outlets from the box, and is dis- charofed therefrom into and throuo-h the usual hand Sanders, 247 248 Air-Brake Catechism, lever controlled pipes to the rail, the lever attachments being available for use as desired. The traps being on the outside of the box, are easily applied and maintained, and conveniently located for cleaning. Q. How does the Leach *' ^ '' sander differ from the '''■A'' sander ? A. The principle of operation of this device is the same as the " A " type, and is only arranged differently in order to facilitate its application to old sand boxes. Q. How does the ^' She " sander operate f A. The operation of the " She " sander is that of a syphon and injector. The syphon used in the action of this device is especially designed to carry sand from the pipes to the rail with great velocity, and uses only a small amount of air to accomplish this result, the syphon being in the center of sand box, where sand is always the driest and least apt to bake. Q. Why is a screen placed in the top of sand box with the " She " sander ? A. So as to prevent pebbles or other foreign matter entering the sand box, which would interfere with the working of the syphon. Q. Is it not a good plan to have sand boxes fitted with screens whe7i pneu^natic sander s are used ? A. It is a most valuable addition toward the suc- cessful operation of pneumatic sanders ; but where there are very many engines to be sanded up in a short time, it has been found a better plan to screen sand thoroughly in the sand house, where larger screens can be used and the sand screened much more speedily. INDEX. See also additional index on page 254. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. Air brake, straight 17, 18 Air brake, Westinghouse Automat- ic 18,21 Air brakes used with handbrakes, 186, 187 Air brakes vs. hand brakes . . .181, 194 American brake leverage 216-318 American brake, power developed, 217 American brake, spacing of lever holes 218,219 * American equalized brake 218 Application of brake 184 Area of piston, rule 222 Automatic air brake, Westing- house 18, 21 Auxiliary, bleeding 168 Auxiliary, charging 27, 31, 32 Auxiliary leaks 47 Auxiliary not charged 167 Auxiliary use 53 Bleeding auxiliary 168 Brake cylinder pressure 56 59 Brake cylinder pressure, emer- gency. . . • . . ..... .58-60 Brake cylinder pressure table 57 Brake inoperative 167 Brake stuck 168, 170, 179, 187 * Brake valve, D 8 106, llO, 111 Brake valve, D 8, bottom view of rotary 112 Brake valve, D 8, emergency posi- tion 112 :^rake valve , D 8, excess pressure, 115,116 Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure spring 116 Brake valve, D 8, excess pressure valve 116, 117 Brake valve, D 8, full release posi- tion 107 Brake valve, D 8, lap position 109 Brake valve, D 8, on lap, main reservoir pressure 116, 117 Brake valve, D 8, operation . . . .106-113 Brake valve, D 8,pipe connections, 107 Brake valve, D 8, positions, 107-109,112 Brake valve, D 8, pressure adjust- ment 115,116 Brake valve, D 8, pump governor.. 116 Brake valve, D 8,rotaryleaking,115, 117 Brake valve, D 8, running posi- tion 108, 109 Brake valve, D 8, service po,s;i- tion 109, 111 PAGE Brake valve, D 8, slot in rotary seat Hi, 113 Brake valve, D 8, troubles 114-117 Brake valve, D 8, with pump gover- nor 1('9 Brake valve, F 6 Sl-105 Brake valve, F 6, adjustment of pump governor 87 Brake valve, F 6, and brake valve, D 8, comparison 107, 108, 118, 119 Brake valve, F 6, connections 81 * Brake valve, F 6 )^2, 84, 86 Brake valve, F 6, emergency posi- tion 91 Brake valve, F 6, excess pressure, 94, 95,102 Brake valve, F 6, lap position 88 Brake valve, F 6, parts 81 Brake valve, F 6, positions. .81, 83, 85, 83, 89, 91 Brake valve, F 6, release position, 83, 85 Brake valve, F 6, rotary, bottom view 90 Brake valve, F 6, running position 85,87 Brake valve, F 6, service position, 89, 90 Brake valve, F 6, use 81 Brake valve, location 80 Brake valve, reservoir. See Little druvi. Brake valves, engineer's 79-119 Brake valves now in use SO Braking power 202 Braking power and leverage.. . .202-220 Braking power, car light 204 Braking power, car loaded 204 Braking power, C5'linder pressure used in figuring 203 Braking power, force on push rod, 203, 204 Braking power lost by too heavy reductions 176, 177 Braking power, percentage 202 Braking power, pei'centages deter- mined 203 Braking power, percentage used on freight car 202 Braking power, percentage used on passenger car 202 Braking power, percentage used on tenders... 203 Braking power, percentage used with driver brakes 202, 203, 217 Braking power, to find weight of engine on drivers 218 250 Index. An asterisk (^) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE Brakes applied from engine in testing 172,173 Brakes applied with rear angle cock..... 166 Brakes, applying, lap valve 180 Brakes, poor, necessary steps 174 Brakes released on grades 178, 179 Brakes, releasing 59-61 Broken graduating pin 45 * Bushing, slide valve... 39 Cam brake 219 Capacity of pumps 121 Car discharge valve 145 * Car discharge valve 147 Cavity D. See Little drum. Charging of auxiliary .27, 31, 32 Charging train 165, 172 * Comparative efi&ciency of West- inghouse brakes 161 Cooling of pump 130 Cut of freight equipment 52 Cylinder lever 55 Cylinders, power developed 204, 205 Cylinders, sizes 215 I> 8 brake valve. See Brake valve ^ D 8. D 8 valve, equalizing piston 117 Dead lever ... 55 Diaphragm in old style pump governor 142 Discharge valve of pump, stuck. . . 127 Discharge valves of pump, poor seats 128 Double heading .1S8, 189 Drain plug 37 Drip pipe in pump governor 139 Driver brakes, cut out 187 Driver brake release using emer- gency 182 Driver brakes, used with reverse lever 190-192 Dry pipe leak 120 Dry steam 120 Emergency, brake cylinder press- ure 58-60 Kmergency check valve 36 38 B^mergency piston 36-38 Emei-gency port 37, 38 Emergency position, D 8 brake valve 112 Emergency position, F 6 brake valve 91 Eniergency position of plain triple 83 Emergency used, loss of driver brake 182 Emergency used, loss of tank brake 182 Emergency, use of. . 189, 192 Emergency valve 36-38, 47-49 Emergency with service reduc- tion 169 PAGE Engine changes necessary for high- speed brake 162 Engineer's brake valve, location.. 80^ Engineer's brake valves in use. ... 80 Engineer's brake valves, West- inghouse 79-119 Engineer's D 8 brake valve. See Brake valve ^ D 8. Engineer's F 6 brake valve. See Brake valve, F6. Equalization between auxiliary and cylinder, rule 223, 224 Equalizing piston, D 8 valve.. . 117 Equalizing piston, will not rise, 102,103 Excess pressure 92 Excess pressure, D 8 brake valve, 115, 116 Excess pressure, F 6 brake valve, ., 94,95,102 Excess pressure spring, D 8 brake valve 116 Excess pressure valve, D 8 brake valve... 116,117 Exhaust port .37, 38 Expander ring 51 K 6 brake valve, leaks 102-105 F 6 brake valve, troubles 102-105 F 6 engineer's brake valve. See Brake valve, F 6, Feed grooves 31, 32, 37, 42 *Feed valve 94 Feed valve 93-97 Feed valve, duty 93 Feed valve, no excess 94, 95 Feed valve, operation 93 Feed valve, removal of. 9T Feed valve, troubles 94-97 Feed valve, when used 93 ♦Freight equipment 52, Freight equipment parts 51, 53, 54 Freight equipment, Westinghouse, 51-54 Freight service, main reservoir, 74, 75, 78: Freight train, release of brakes, 184, 185- Frozen hose couplings 169 Frozen triple 169 Full release, gauge hands 105 Full release position, D 8 brake valve lOT Functions of triple valve 27-34 Gasket leak, freight equipment. . . 54 Gasket leak, 9i^-inch pump 131 Gauge hand indications Ill Gauge hands, full release 105 Gauge hands, movement 114, 115 Gauge hands, running position, 105,118 Graduating nut 37 Graduating pin, broken 45 Graduating port 37 Index. 251 An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. Graduating spring 37, 44 Graduating stem 37 Graduating valve 24, 25, 37 Graduating valve leaking 50 Grooves, feed • 31, 32, 37, 42 Hand brakes used with air brakes 186,187 Hand brakes vs. air brakes 181, 194 Heat due to compression 130, 132 Heating of pump 180 Heavy reductions at fast speeds,! 85, 186 High-speed brake 158-162 High-speed brake from quick- action 1 62 High-speed brake efficiency 158 High-speed brake on engine 162 High-speed brake, percentage of braking power 158, 159 *High-speed brake reducing valve, 160 High-speed brake reducing valve, 159, 160,162 High-speed brake, train-line press- ure 159 High-speed brake, use 158 Hodge lever 5!i *Hodge system 209 Hodge system, short method of figuring 214, 215 Hodge system, to figure levers, 209-212 Hose couplings frozen 169 Hose couplings leaking 166, 167 Hose uncoupling 88 Hose, use of oil 167 I^ap position, brakes applying 180 lyap position, D 8 brake valve 109 I^ap position, F 6 brake valve 88 Ivcakage groove 53 Leak, at train-line exhaust Iii4 Leak at triple exhaust 47-49 Leak, dry pipe '. 12J Leak from little drum 104, 105 Leak, gasket of 9J^-inch pump 131 Leak, hose coupling 166, ] 67 Leaks, effect in train handling... 173 Leaks, F 6 brake valve .102-105 Leaks in auxiliary 47 Leaks in triple 47 Leaks on slide valve 46-48 Leaks on train line, 47, 89, 168, 180, 181, 188 Leaky graduating valve 50 Leaky rotary 102-104 Leverage, American brake 216-218 Leverage and braking power . . 202- 220 Lever, first class 205-206 Lever proportions 209 Lever, second class. 207 Lever, third class 208, 209 Levers, classes 205, 206 Little drum 98-101 *Little drum. 98 Little drum, leak.. 104, 105 Little drum, location 98 PAGE Little drum, time of five-pound reduction 10 1 Little drum, use 99 Live lever 5 > Long travel brakes, kicking off. . . 187 Lubrication of pump 125, 126 Lubricator, location 121 Main line governor, troubles ... 94 9T Main reservoir 74 78 Main i-eservoir, capacity 74, 78 Main reservoir, care of 77 Main reservoir, in freight service, 74,75,78 Main reservoir, in passenger serv- ice 74,75,78 Main reservoir, location 76 Main reservoir, object 74 Main reservoir pressure 74 Main reservoir pressure, D 8 brake valve, on lap 116,117 Main reservoir pressure on signal line.. 154-156 Main reservoir sizes 74-78 Main reservoir, table of efficiency, 77 Main reservoir, too small 75 M. C. B. rules 198-201 McKee slack adj uster 6S * McKee slack adjuster 64 Moisture in brake system 44 Oil used in hose 167 I*acking leather 51 Packing rings, pump 130 Parts of freight equipment. . .51, 53, 54 Passenger service, main reservoir, 74, 75, .8 Passenger train, release of brakes, 183,184 Percentage of braking power, high- speed brake 158,159 Pin valve in pvxmp governor 140 Pipe connections, D 8 brake valve, 107 Piping 196,197 Piston, emergency 36-38 Piston, equalizing, will not rise, 102,103 Piston in pump governor 140 Piston lever 55 Piston sleeve 51 Piston travel 55-65 Piston travel, adjustment 55, 63, 65 Piston travel, car light 62 Piston travel, car loaded 62 Piston travel, car running 61, 62 Piston travel, car standing 61, 62 Piston travel, determination of. . . 62 Piston travel, eflfect on pressure, 56-61 Piston travel, long 63, 65 Piston travel, proper length 63 64 Piston travel, rule 221 Piston travel, short 63, 65 Piston travel, uneven 59 Piston travel, variation in 62, 63 252 Index. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE * Plain triple 22 Plain triple 21, 22-26 Plain triple, emergency position . . 33 Plain triple, parts 22-24 Plain triple, service position 32 Plain triple, use 34 Preliminary exhaust port, closed.. 105 Pressure adjustment, D 8 brake valve 115.116 Pressure, black gauge hand 88 Pressure brake cylinder 56-59 Pressure excess . . 92 Pressure governed by piston travel, 56-61 Pressure high on train line 117 Pressure in brake cj'linder, emer- gency 53-60 Pressure, red gauge hand 88 Pressure, regulation on signal line 157 * Pressure retaining valve 67 Pressure table, bi-ake cylinder. ... 57 Proportions of levers 209 Pump governor, old style.troubles, 141,143 Pump governor pin valve. ....... 140 Pump governor piston 140 Pump governor relief port 139 Pump governor slot in stem. . . . 142 Pump governor -with D 8 brake valve 109-116 Pump, groaning 125 Pump, heating 130 Pump, location 131 Pump lubrication 125, 126 Pump, packing. 125 Pump packing rings » 130 Pump, pounding 126 Pump receiving valves stuck.. 127, 128 Pump speed 129 Pump, starting of 126 Pump, steam exhaust 131 Pump, use 120 Pump valves, stuck,how^ loosened, 128 Pumps 120-135 Capacity 121 6-inch pump 120 8-inch pump. See Pump, 8-inch. 914-inch pump 121-132 914-inch pump, care 125-132 914-inch pump, gasket leak 131 914-inch pump, operation. . 121-125 914-inch pump, Plate B. 914-inch pump, stopping 129 9J^-inch pump, troubles . . . .125-132 914-inch pump, valve lift 130 Pump, 6-inch 120 * Pump, 8-inch 133 Pump, 8-inch 132-135 Pump, 8-inch, blows of 135 Pump, 8 -inch, lift of valves 152 Pump, 8-inch, operation 18^-135 Pump, 8-inch, troubles 135 Pump, 914-inch 121-132 Pump, 914-inch. Plate B. PAGE Pump, 9J4-inch, care .125-132 Pump, 914- inch, operation 121-125 Pump, 914-iiich, stopping 129 Pump, 914-inch, troubles 125-132 Pump, 914-inch, valve lift 130 Pump, cleaning 131 Pump, cooling 130 Pump, dancing 130, 131 Pump discharge valve, stuck 127 Pump discharge valves,poor seats, 128 Pump governor, adjustment with F 6 valve 87 Pump governor, % and 1-inch im- proved 140 Pump governor, diaphragm. 142 Pump governor, drip pipe 139 * Pump governor, improved 138 Pump governor, improved, opera- tion 137-139 Pump governor, improved, trou- bles 139,140 Pump governor, location 121 * Pump governor, old style 141 Pump governor, old stj'le, opera- tion 140, 141, 143 Pump governors 137-143 Quick-action triple, advantages... 35 Quick action changed to high- speed brake 162 *Quick-action tidple 3s Quick-action triple in emergency, 37 Quick-action triple, parts 36-38 Quick-action triple, strainer. .36, 38, 42 Quick-action triple,troubles, 41-50, 89, 40, 42, 43, 44 Quick-action Westinghouse triple, 35-40 Receiving valves of pump, stuck, 127,128 Recharging on grades 174 Reducing valve, high-speed brake, 159,160,162 Reductions, loss of power 176, 177 Reductions of train-line press- ure 174-177,181 Release of brakes on freight trains 184,185 Release of brakes on grades — 178, 179 Release of bi-akes on passenger trains 183, 184 Release position, F 6 brake valve, • 83, 85 Release spring 51 Release spring, weak . . 169 Release valve 54 Releasing brakes 59-61 Relief port in pump governor — 139 Retainer, gains made with 71-73 Retainer, missing 168 Retainer, table of value 72 Retainer, testing 69 Retainer, troubles 69 Retainer, when put in use 69, 70 i Index. 253 An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE ♦Retaining valve ... 67 Retaining valve, location of 66 Retaining valve, operation 07-69 Retaining valve, use of.. 70, 71, 1S5, \i^6 Retaining valve, Westinghouse.. 66-73 Retaining valve, where used 66 Reverse lever used with driver brakes '...190-192 Rotary, leaky 102-104 Rotary of D 8 brake valve, bottom view 112 Rotary of D8 brake valve, leak- ing 115, 117 Rotarv of F 6 valve, bottom view, 90 Rotary test 103,104 Rubber-seated valve 36-38, 47-49 Rule, area of piston 222, 223 Rule, distance in train stops 222 Rule, equalization between auxil- iary and cj^inder 223, 224 Rule, piston travel 221 Rule, shoe movement 221 Rule, total leverage . 221 Rule, volume of cylinder 223 Rules, M. C. B 198-201 Running position, D 8 brake valve, 108,109 Running position, F 6 brake valve, 85, 87 Running position, gauge hands, 105,118 Service port 37 Service position, D 8 brake valve, 109,111 Service position, F 6 brake valve, 89,90 Service position of plain triple 32 Shoe movement, rule 221 Signal apparatus on coach 145 *Signal apparatus on coach 146 Signal apparatus on engine 144, 145 *Signal apparatus on engine 144 Signal cord, use of 150, 151 Signal, improper response 153-157 *Signal improved reducing valve, 150 Signals in testing passenger train, 170 Signal line, lack of air at car dis- charge valve 153 Signal-line pressure, regulation of 157 Signal-line pressure, testing 156 Signal line, with main reservoir pressure .154-156 *Signal old style reducing valve . .152 Signal pipe, lack of air 152, 153 Signal reducing valves 145-147, 157 Signal system 144-157 Signal system, passage of air 148 Signal system, troubles 152-157 Signal valve 148-150 *Signal valve 149 Signal valve, baggy diaphragm... 154 Signal valve, location 145 Signal Kttistle. 147, 148 PAGE *Sigual whistle 151 Slack adjuster, McKee 63 *Slack adjuster, McKee 64 Slide valve 25,26,37 *Slide valve 39 *Slide valve bushing 39 Slide valve leaks 46-48 Slide-valve spring 37 Slid wheels 179 Slot in pump governor stem 142 Slot in rotary seat, D 8 brake valve 112,113 Speed of pump 129 Stevens system, short method of figuring 214,215 Stevens system, to figure levers, 212, 213 Sticky triple 45, 47 Stops on turntable , 182, 183 Straight air brake 17, 18 Strainer, quick-action triple, 36, 88, 42 Stuck brake 168,170,179,187 Stuck pump valves, how loosened, 12S Sweeney compressor 136 Taking on cars 186 Tank brake release using emer- gency 182 Test, train-line leaks 173, 174 Testing, brakes applied for engine, 172,173 Testing retainer. 69 Testing signal-line pressure 156 Testing, train-line reduction 172 Three-way cock. 79, 100, 101 Total leverage , rule 221 Train charging 165, 172 Train handling 171-195 Train handling, eflfect of leaks. ... 173 Train handling, initial steps.. 171, 172 Train inspection 163-170 Train inspection after charging. . . 165 Train inspection, initial steps, 164, 165,172 Train inspection, necessity of. .. 163 Train inspection, report 166 Train inspection, where begun. . . 163 Train-line check 36-38 Train-line check spring 36 Train-line exhaust, flash at 114 Train-line exhaust leak 104 Train-line governor 93 97 *Train-line governor 94 Train-line governor, duty 98 Train-line governor, no excess... 94, 95 Train-line governor, operation 93 Train-line governor, removal of. . . 9T Train-line governor, troubles 94-97 Train-line governor, when used ... 93 Train-line leaks,47, 89, 168, 180, 181, 183 Train-line leaks, how to test for, 173,174 Train-line pressure, high 117 Train-line pressure, high-speed brake 159 Train-line reductions. 174-177, 1«1 254 Indkx. An asterisk (*) denotes the subject is illustrated. PAGE Train-line reduction in testing 172 Train-line reductions with aid of retainers. 1T9, 180 Train stops, distance figured 222 Train tests, Westiughouse 194, 195 Travel, piston £5 65 Triple exhaust leaks .47-49 Triple, frozen 169 Triple leaks 47 Triple pai-ts, quick-action B6 38 Triple piston stem 37 Triple, plain 21, 22-26 * Triple, plain 22 Triple, plain, emergency position. . 88 Triple, plain, parts 22-24 Triple, plain, service position 32 Triple, plain, use 34 Triple, quick- action, advantages. , 35 * Triple, quick-action 38 Triple,quick-action,in emergency, 37 Triple, sticky ;... 45,47 Triple, Westinghouse quick-action, 85-40 Troubles, feed valve 94-97 Troubles, improved pump gover- nor 139, 140 Troubles of quick-action triple, 39, 40, 41-50, 42-44 Troubles, pump governor, old style. 141-143 Troubles, signal system 152-157 Troubles, train-line governor 94-97 Troubles, F 6 brake valve 102-105 Troubles, 8-inch pump 135 Troubles, D 8 brake valve 114-117 PAGE Troubles, 9i^-inch pump 125-132 Troubles, with retaining valve h9 Turntable stops 182, 1S3 Valve, emergency .36-38, 47 49 Valve, graduating 24,25 37 Valve lift, 9V^-inch pump 180 Valve, rubber seated 36-3S, 47-19 Valve, slide 25, 26, 37 Volume of cylinder, rule 228 "^RTarning port 85 Water tank stops, passenger train, 183,184 Weak release spring 169 Weight of engine on drivers, to find braking power 217, 218 Westinghouse brakes, comparative efficiency 161 Westinghouse engineer's brake valves 79-119 Westinghouse freight equipment, 51-54 Westinghouse high-speed brake, 158-162 Westinghouse pumps. 120-135 Westinghouse pump governors, 187-143 Westinghouse retaining valve 66-73 Westinghouse train tests 194, 195 Westinghouse whistle signal sj^s- tem..., 144-157 Wheels, slid 179 Whistle signal systerL- See Signal system. ADDITIONAL INDEX. Increased Brake Efficienc)' for Heav}^ Freight Trains, . ... * Air-Brake E^ecording Gages, *Sansoni Bell Ringer, .... *Oclise Bell Ringer, . . , . . * Sanders, . o . . . PAGES 224-226 227-231 232-236 237-240 241-248 JUST PUBLISHED. 17th edition, greatly ENLARGED, Locomotive Catechism, by R.OBKRTr QRINISHAW. I7th EDITION. PRICE, $2,00. Mnlarged by Nearly loo Additional Pages, Many Illustrations , and Three Large Folding Plates. Containing i^i all Nearly 4^0 Pages, over 200 Illustrations, and Twelve Large Folding Plates. This book commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fire- man, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion. In plain language, with full, complete answers, not only all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as ' ' stickers. ' ' It is a veritable Encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, and thoroughly up to date. It contains Sixteen Hundred Questions with their Answers. It has been very highly endorsed by the Journal of the Brother- hood of Locomotive Engineers, Brotherhood of Locomotive Fire- men s Magazine, Locomotive Engineering, and other railroad magazines, besides which we have thousands of testimonials from Engineers and Firemen, all speaking in the very highest praise of it. WHAT IS SAID OP IT BY THE RAILWAY JOURNALS. " This book is worth the price asked many times over." — Locomotive Engineering. "We recommend the book to all Firemen and Engineers."— Zoco»^o^^t;e Firemen's Magazine. " A most practical and useful book, which commends itself to all Locomotive Firemen and Engineers. The book is a veritable encyclopaedia of the Locomotive, and is free from theory and mathematics. We recommend it." — Journal of the Brotherhood of Locomotive EriginefTS. " The book covers the ground in a very creditable manner, and is well worth the ^x\ EDITIOIV. TDe EogiQii Kup's GalecKisE — BY — ROBERX ORIMSHA^W, 1^. E. Author of "Steam Engine Catechism/' etc. Telling how to Erect, Adjust, and Run the Prin- cipal Steam Engines in use in the United States. Principai. Features of Various Speciai. Makes OF Kngines, viz.: Armmgton & Simc, Atlas, Buckeye, Cummer, Eclipse- Corliss, Fitcliburg, Fraser & Chalmers' Corliss, Frick -Corliss, Greene, Ide, Porter- Allen, Porter-Hamilton, Putnam, Russell, Straight- Line Twiss, Watertown, Westinghouse, Wheelock. Temper Cut-Off, Shipping and Receiving Foun- dations, Erecting and Starting, Vai^ve- Setting. Care and Use, Emer- gencies, Erecting and Ad- justing Speciai. Engines : Armington & Sims, Atlas, Buckeye, Corliss, Fitchburg, Fraser & Chalmers' Corliss, Gardner, Harris-Corliss, Ide, New Economizer, Phoenix, Porter-Allen, Porter-Hamilton, Putnam, Rollins, Russell, Straight-Line, Watertown, Westinghouse, Wheelock, Whiting, Woodbury-Booth. Third Edition. 366 Pages. Fully Illustrated Handsomely bound in Cloth, $2.00. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers. 132 NASSAU STREET, New YORKt ♦**Copies sent on receipt of the price. A Complete Electrical Library By Prof. T. O'CONOR SLOANE, fHE BEST ELECTRICAL BOOKS. EACH ONE SOLD SEPARATELY. How to Become a Successful Electrician Illustrated. $1.00. It ii? the ambition of thousan one is prepared to spend seve four years requisite are at th without this sacrifice, and th clan " without the outlay usi Electricity Simplified Third Edition. Illustri This work is the simplest not hitherto accomplished. the ordinary man it is all a i subject as plain as possible. Electric Toy-Making, Dynamo Building and Electric-Moior Constmciion. Very Fully Illustrated. $1.00 This work treats of the makiqg at he Dynamos and Instruments in genera and old the manufacture of genuine The work is specially designed f Arithmetic of Electricity. Illustrated. $1.00. It ii? the ambition of thousands of young and old to become electrical engineejrs. Not tv^ity one is prepared to spend several thousand dollars upon a college course, even if the three or four years requisite are at their disposal. It is possible to fbecome an electrical engineer without this sacrifice, and this work is designed to tell " How to Become a SnccessftU Electri- cian " without the outlay usually spent in acquiring the profession. Third Edition, illustrated. $1.00. This work is the simplest ever published on the subject of Electricity, and does something not hitherto accomplished. Electricity is in many respects unexplained by the scientist ; to the ordinary man it is all a mystery. The object of " Electricity Simplified " is to mak"» the subject as plain as possible. Very Fully Illustrated. $1.00. This work treats of the makiqg at home of Electrical Toys, Electrical Apparatus, Uotors, Dynamos and Instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reo'li of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work is specially designed for amateurs and young folks. Fourth Edition. Illustrated. $1.00. A Practical Treatise on Electrical Calculations of all kinds, reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary arithmetic ; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solutian of each one. Followed by an extenirtve series of Tables. We can recommend the work.— Electrical ENaiNEEB. Standard Electrical Dictionary. 624 Pages. 350 Illustrations. Cloth. 8vo, $3.00. The work is absolutely indispensable to all in any way interested in " Electrical Science, " from the higher electrical expert to the every-day electrical workman. In fact, it should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of the greatest science of the times. The dictionary gives evidence of a large amount of painstaking work on the part of the author, and possesses features which must be commended. Among these, the author, wherever occasion required it, has furnished the synonyms of terms, and the book is given an additional value by an alphabetical index, which enables it to be consulted for terms both collectively and individually. The work will prove of value to the reader, whether pro- fessional or non-professional. The definitions are put tersely and concisely, so that the inquiring reader can carry away a defined, net impression as to what is meant. Any Stu- dent who will spend his leisure hours over the volume will be amply repaid for his time and trouble. The book is very clearly printed in bold type on good paper, and is well bound. — Elbctmcal Enginbee. A special circular, fully describing the above, also our catalogues of books for Electricians, Machinists, Engineers, and all other practical . trades, sent free to any address, on request. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers, 132 NASSAU STKEET, NEW YORK. JUST PUBLISHED. Third Edition^ Revised and Much Enlarged. Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines. By Gardner D. Hiscox, M. M. LARGE OCTAVO. 384 PAGES. PRICE, $2,50. The only American Book on the subject. A book designed for the general information of every one inter, ested in this new and popular motive power, and its adaptation to the increasing demand for a cheap and easily managed motor requiring no licensed engineer. The book treats of the theory and practice of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines, as designed and manufactured in the United States. It also contains chapters on Horseless Vehicles, Klectric-Lighting, Marine Propulsion, etc. Third Edition. Illustrated by 270 Engravings. Revised and Enlarged. A FEW EXTRACTS OF NOTICES FROM THE PRESS. This book is written in a plain, concise style, which, will commend it to practical men. — CoUievy Engineer. It is a very comprehensive and thoroughly up-to-date vrotk..— American Machinist. Mr. Hiscox's work, devoted to American practice, is practically unique in subject, and this fact, superadded to its merits, and the authority of the widely known engineer who writes it, gives it a value all its own, —Scientific Ameyican. The subjects treated in this book are timely and interesting, as there is no doubt as to the in':!reasing use of Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines, particularlj^ for small powers. It gives such general information on the construction, operation and care of these engines, that should prove valuable to any one in need of such motors, as well as those already having them in u^e.—Machinery . The author has signally succeeded in his task. This work is one of the most valuable contributions to engineering literature that has come into existence for years. Every detail of the subject is considered, and the construction of nearly every krwswn gas and oil motor on the American market is given. — Scientific Machinist. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers, ISa NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK. V*Copies of above book prepaid to any address on reoeipt of prioe. HECHAHICAL HOVEMEHTS, POWERS, DEVICES, AND APPLIANCES. By GARDNER D. HISCOX, n.E., Author of "Gas, Gasoline, and Oil Engines." Sto. Over 400 Pages. 1649 Illustrations, with Descriptive Text» PRICE $3.00. A dictionary of Mechanical Movements, Powers, Devices, and Appliances, with 1649 illustrations and explanatory text. This is a new work on illustrated mechanics, mechanical movements, devices, and appliances, coverine nearly the whole range of the practical and inventive field, for the use of Mechanics, Inventors, Engineers, Draughtsmen, and all persons interested in mechanical contrivances. Section I. Mechanical Po'wers.— Weights, Revolution of Forces, Pressures^ Levers, Pulleys, Tackle, etc. Section II. Transmission of Power,— Ropes, Belts, Friction Gear, Spur»- Bevel, and Screw Gear, etc. Section III. Measurement of Power.— Speed, Pressure, Weight, Numbers,. Quantities, and Appliances. Section IV. Steam Power- Boilers and Adjuncts.— Engines, Valves and Valve Gear, Parallel Motion Gear, Governors and Engine Devices, Rotary En- gines, Oscillating Engines. Section V. Steam Appliances.— Injectors, Steam Pumps, Condensers, Sepa- rators, Traps, and Valves. Section VI. Motive Power— Gas and Gasoline Engines.— Valve Gear and Appliances, Connecting Rods and Heads. Section VII. Hydraulic Po'wer and Devices.— Water Wheels, Turbines. Governors, Impact Wheels, Pumps, Rotary Pumps, Siphons, Water Lifts. Eject- ors, Water Rams, Meters, Indicators, Pressure Regulators, Valves, Pipe Joints, Filters, etc. Section VIII. Air Power Appliances.- Wind Mills, Bellows, Blowers, Air Compressors, Compressed Air Tools, Motors, Air Water Lifts, Blow Pipes, etc. Section IX. Electric Power and Construction. -Generators, Motors, Wir- ing, Controlling and Measuring, Lighting, Electric Furnaces, B^ans, Search Light and Electric Appliances. Section X. Navigation and Roads.— Vessels, Sails, Rope Knots, Paddle Wheels, Propellers, Road Scraper and Roller, V^ehicles, Motor Carriages, Tricy- cles, Bicycles, and Motor Adjuncts. Section XI. Gearing.— Racks and Pinions, Spiral, Elliptical, and Worm Gear, Differential and Stop-Motion Gear, Bpicyclical and Planetary Trains, "Fer- guson's " Paradox. Section XII. Motion and Devices Controlling Motion.— Ratchets and Pawls, Cams, Cranks, Intermittent ami Stnp Motions, Wipers, Volute Cams, Variable Cranks, Universal Shaft Couplings, Gyroscope, etc. Section XIII. Horological.— Clock and Watch Movements and Devices. Section XIV. Mining.— Quarrying, Ventilation, Hoisting, Conveying, Pulver- izing, Separating, Roasting, Excavating, and Dredging. Section XV. Mill and Factory Appliances.- Hangers, Shaft Bearings. Ball Bearings, Steps, Couplings, Universal and Flexible Couplings, Clutches, Speed Gears, Shop Tools, Screw Threads, Hoists, Machines, Textile Appliances, etc. Section XVI. Construction and Devices.— Mixing, Testing, Stump and Pile Pulling, Tackle Hooks, Pile Driving. Dumping Cars, Stone Grips, Derricks, Con- veyor, Timber SpUcing, Roof and Bridge Trusses, Suspension Bridges. Section XVII. Draughting Devices.— Parallel Rules, Curve Delineators^ Trammels, Ellipsographs, Pantographs, etc. Section XVIII. Miscellaneous Devices.— Animal Power, Sheep Shears, Movements and Devices, Elevators, Cranes, Sewing, Typewriting and Printing Machines, Railway Devices, Trucks, Brakes, Turntables, Locomotives, Gas, Gas Furnaces, Acetylene Generators, Gasoline Mantle Lamps, Fire Arms, etc. *** Prepaid to any address on receipt of price. NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., Publishers. 132 Nassau St. New York. JUST PUBLISHED. THIItr> EI3ITI01V The Modern flachinist, By JOHN T. USHER, Machinist. PRICE, - . ^ $2.50. Specially Adapted to the Use of Machinists, Apprentices, Designers, Engineers and Constructors. A practical treatise embracing the most approved methods of modern machine-shop practice, embracing the applications of recent improved appliances, tools, and devices for facilitating, duplicating, and expediting the construction of machines and their parts. A NEW BOOK FROn COVER TO COVER. Every illustration in this book represents a new device in niachine°shop practice, and tlie engravings have been made specially for it. Svo. 32^ Pages. 257 Illustrations. Price, $3*50. What is said of " Tlie Modern Machinist." This is a new work of merit. It is on " Modern Machine Shop Methods," as its name implies. It is thoroughly up to date, was written by one of the best-known and progressive machinists of the day, is the modern exponent of the science, and all its subjects are treated according to latest developments. In short, the book is new from cover to to cover, and is one that every machinist, apprentice, designer, engineer, or constructor should possess. — Scientific Machinist, This book is the most complete treaiise of its kind that has yet come under our observation, and contains all that is most modern and approved and of the highest efBciency in machine-shop practice, ■etc., etc. — Age op Steel. There is nothing experimental or visionary about this book, all devices being in actual use and giving good results. It might perhaps be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a variety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any library, and will be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done. — Machineey, NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO., rubi.ismbrs, 132 NASSAU STREET, NEW VQRK. *^i* Copies of the above sent prepaid on receipt of price. JUST PUBLISHED. "SHOP KINK5," BT ROBERT QRIMSHAW. 400 PAGES. 222 ILLUSTRATIONS. Price, $2.50. This book is entirely different from any other on machine shop practice. It is not descriptive of universal or common shop usage, but shows special ways of doing ivork better^ more cheaply and more rapidly than usual, as done in fifty or more leading shops in Europe and America. Some of its over 500 Items, and 222 Illustrations, are contributed directly for its pages by eminent constructors ; the rest have been gathered by the author in. his Thirty Years' Travel and Experience. It is ihe most useful book yet issued for the Machinist. No shop can afford to be without it. Every employee can fit himself for advancement by studying its pages. It will benefijt all, from apprentice to proprietor. A FEW OF THE MANY TESTOI03iIALS OF " SHOP KOKS." ThiB is an interesting written book, with plenty of good engravings, which are a great help in making clear any text, no matter how well written. There are over five hundred separate items, selected from the authors observations and the ob- servations of others, as well as from the leading mechanical papers, it abounds in handy ways of doing work, commonly called shop kinks, as the title of the book implies, and there is enough useful information in the book to repay the outlay many times over. The devices shown are all taken from actual practice and the name of the shops where they are to be found is given, so there is nothing that can be called untried or impracticable In It. The information imparted by books of this class, especially when written by men of long experience, is the most valuable that can be obtained, and the intelligent shopman will carefully consider the means- employed in varioua shops, determine which is best adapted to his particular ca8e» and adopt the method that will save the most time and money for their employer. No machinist can read it without finding new methods and ideas which will be of Talue to him —Machinery, March, 1896. *' A strongly bound cloth book, 400 pages, entitled " Shop Kinks " by that living encyclopaedia of mechanics, Robert Grimshaw. As might be expected, the author covers almost every possible subject that could come up in a machine shop. The articles are well illustrated, and the different processes clearly explained Mr. Grimshaw is not one of those who think there is nothing known outside of himself, but is ever gleaning " Kinks " from other men's brains. A copy should be on the desk of every machinist in a factory repair shop, for the right "Kink " at the right time will often prevent the stoppage of a factory."— IFac^e'5 Fibre and Fabric, Feb. 15, 1896. NORIVIAN W. HENLEY & CO., publishers. 133 Nassau Street, New ^York. Spe(^l circular describing the above sent on request, or W0 will tend eopie* on receipt of the price. i--^J>:A.ft ^^^j£M^"-v" 021 218 357 A