, FRANZ JOSE - Book._ ' ' GpiglitK^ /4-Zt-2L ni i<7 5ca: •'••»:OtV'>*' Pt.rarrcnt WORLD SHOWING UNITED STATES AKD ITS POSSESSIOKb United SUUs ruueulona in Bed BoU of miM on li.e Kqirnar 1000 moo aooo MOO Uofw .ui ft^,>UWAIIA»M», O.SAMOA II . ,ot°- jLiwLA 1? ►J»*»« k »■ : ■•■''.*'."o'™ • - -^ • (OCI [TT l». • '• 'Cow /■"* none Of cA|«ico«M fj F I lAnauuAs IS. IS. COOK ISv 80 lUO IW Lc>ii«l>udt ItO Zut rtdia 1<0 UiMOvloh lau A BRIEF TOPICAL SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY BY OLIVER P. CORNMAN, Ph.D. ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS PHILADELPHIA, PA. AND OSCAR GERSON, Ph.D. THOMAS JUNIOK HIGH SCHOOL PHILADELPHIA, PA. REVISED D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright, I'tOl, 1911, HUT, and 1922 By D. C. Heath & Co. 2 D 2 MRriT22 ©^4681846 PREFACE This little work has been prepared in response to a general demand for a text-book which could be employed in teaching United States history by means of topical reviews. The topical outlines found in many of our best text-books have proved unsatisfactory as a means of review, since their use does not result in much more than a mere restudy of the original text. In order to present the historical review from new and interesting points of view, many teachers have found it necessary to prepare outlines or syllabi of lectures that their classes may be furnished with definite material for study. The present work is an outgrowth of a series of such notes prepared by the authors for use in their respective schools. The necessity for review is universally admitted. Almost all courses of study call for topical reviews in the various subjects of instruction, especially in history. Sound psychological and pedagogi- cal considerations demand that this review should not consist of mere repetition, but should, as far as possible, be presented in fresh guise, and aid the pupil in organizing the knowledge which he has already acquired. The various elements of the matter to be reviewed should be closely interrelated, essential features emphasized, and a broader range of view disclosed, so that the knowledge as a whole may form an apperceptive system to which future acquisitions may be readily related. In the present work the attempt has been made to furnish a text for such a method of reviewing United States history. In adding this book to the large number of text-books on United States history already published, the authors feel that a further word of apology or justification is demanded. Many text-books attempt to steer a middle course between a reading book and study book. This attempt seems a rather unfortunate one, as neither end is attained, the result being a book not interesting enough to constitute a good reading book, nor yet concise enough for purposes of study. The present work is frankly a book to be studied. The elimination of all unnecessary detail has made possible the preparation of a brief, yet iii \Y PREFACE comprehensive, review. Of course, the book assumes a previous detailed study of the facts of United States history, being intended for tlie use of pupils who have completed the study of one of the ordinary school histories. It is, therefore, especially adapted for use in higher grammar grades or in high schools. For certain practical reasons, a comprehensive review of United States history by pupils of the upper grammar grades is very desir- able. A large nuijority of such pupils do not enter the high scliool, and it is therefore important that they should not go out into the world with their knowledge of history an inchoate mass of details, but that they should have, as far as possible, a broad knowledge of the history of their country and an intelligent attitude toward its institutions. Acknowledgments are due to Professor Franklin Spencer Fdmonds, of the Central High School, Philadelphia, who kindly read the manu- script of the work and made several valuable suggestions. The authors are also greatly indebted to Professor William MacDonald, of Brown University, for valuable assistance in the revision of the proof sheets. Since the last revision of the book, many important events have occurred. There has also been considerable change in the attitude of the national and state governments toward far-reaching social and economic reforms. The present edition brings the purely historical chronology up to date and also attempts to indicate clearly govern- mental tendencies and ideals of to-day. (). P. C. O. {]. June, li»17. CONTENTS PART I ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC CHAPTER PAGE I. Discoveries and Explorations .2 II. Colonization of America — Establishment of English Supremacy . . . . . . . . .14 III. The War for Independence ...... 30 IV. The Adoption of a New Form of Government . . 40 V. Establishment of the New Government ... 62 PART II TROUBLES AT HOME AND ABROAD VI. Troubles with Foreign Countries 64 VII. Indian Wars — Slavery and the Civil War ... 78 PART III FINANCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY VIII. Financial History 98 IX. History of Political Parties . . . , 1 . . HI Y VI CONTENTS PART IV GROWTH AM) PROGRESS CHAPTER X. Growth in Tkrkitokv and I'oriLATioN XI. Tkogress in Science and the Usefli. Arts XII. Progress in Education .... XIII. Growth of American Literature XIV. Problems of To-day and the Near Fltlke TAGK 128 143 1H3 175 188 AiTEN DICES A. The Constitition of the United States .... 1 B. Glossara' of Terms 41 C. Comparative View of the Governments of the United States and Great Rkitain ....... 45 Ikdex ^^ LIST OF MAPS Map of Early Voyages .... Map to illustrate the French Explorations Map of the Spanish Claim .... Map of the English Claim .... Map of the French Claim .... Map of the Dutch Claim .... Central North America, 1755, at the Beginning of the French and Indian War Central North America, 1763, after the French and Indian "War Reference Map for the Revolution. Northern and Middle States Reference Map for the Revolution. Southern States Lewis and Clark's Route Route of the National Road Reference Maps for the "War of 1812 Map of the Mexican "War Territory acquired from Mexico as the Result of the Mexican War The United States in 1820, shovying the Missouri Compromise Reference Map for the Civil War, 1861-1865 . Campaigns in Virginia Territorial Growth of the United States, 1783-1867 The Centre of Population, from 1790 to 1900 . The Westward Movement of Population . Chart showing how the Number of Immigrants has varied Map of the Erie Canal ,,...,, vii 9 11 12 12 13 13 28 28 34 38 60 61 67 71 72 85 92 94 132 137 138 140 153 A WORD TO THE TEACHER This book is not a digest or chronology to be committed to memory by tho pupils. It should rather he looked upon as notes taken in advance, as it were, for the pupils, to be utilized by them for purposes of home study, in order that the essentials of the instruction may be fixed and retained. The study of each part and chapter should sup- plement, not precede, the careful presentation of the topic by the teacher. The teacher, in his presentation of the subject, should have recourse to such works as would invest it with a real and live interest. For this purpose original sources should be employed as far as possible. A very suggestive treatment of such sources for younger pupils will be found in "Studies in American History" by Mary S. and P^arl Barnes. For more extensive work of this character Hart's " Ameri- can History told by Contemporaries " will be found very useful. The teacher will also find in John Fi.ske's series of histories and in John Bach McMaster's great work, "The History of the People of the United States," many topics presented so clearly and graphically as to be well within the range of comprehension of pupils of the higher grammar grades. Appropriate selections from these and other works should be read and discussed in class, and the pupils should be encouraged to make use of the great standard histories for collateral reading and for the preparation of essays upon special topics. Many of the historical articles of current literature may be similarly utilized, and the pupils' reading of fiction may also be directed along historical lines. Channing and Hart's "Guide to the Study of Aniorioan History" will be found an invaluable reference book for the teacher of history. viti PART I ORIGIN AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REPUBLIC CHAPTER I The Period of Discovery and Exploration p^^^. The Renascence and its Consequences ...... 3 Spanish Discoveries and Explorations ...... tt English Discoveries and Explorations 7 French Discoveries and Explorations 10 Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 12 Conflict of Claims .13 CHAPTER II Colonization of America and Establishment of English Supremacy Period of Colonization ......... 15 The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast . . 16 The New England Colonies 16 The Middle Colonies 18 The Southern Colonies 20 Government of the Colonies 21 The French in America 25 The Establishment of English Supremacy 26 CHAPTER III The War for Independence Causes of the Revolutionary War 31 Principal Events of the War ........ 34 First Period (1775-76, principally in Nev? England and Canada) 34 Second Period (1776-78, principally in the Middle States) . . 37 Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States) . 39 CHAPTER IV The Adoption of a Nexo Form of Government Consolidation of Colonies 41 Early Plans for General Union ........ 43 Steps leading to the Constitution 44 Articles of Confederation 46 Formation of the Constitution 48 CHAPTER V Establishment of the New Government Domestic Affairs 53 Foreign Complications 56 Growth and Development 59 1 CHAPTER I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION The Renascence and its Consequences. — 1. The Renascence. 2. The New Spirit shown in Cieograplij'. 3. The Trade with India. 4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. 5. Search for a Passage through the New Continent. 0. Motives of Early Explorations. Spanish Discoveries and Explorations. — 7. Superiority of the Span- isli Claim. X. Di.scovc ly and K.xploration of Florida. !». Discovery of the Mississippi. lU. First Permanent Settlement in America. 11. The Spanish Claim. English Discoveries and Explorations. — 12. Voyages of the Cabots. l;J. Other English Explorers. 14. First Attempts at Colonization. 15. The English Claim. French Discoveries and Explorations. — 16. Early French Explor- ers. 17. K-xjiioratlon ot the .Mississippi Valley. 18. The French Claim. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations. — 10. Henry Hudson. 20. The Dutch Claim. Conflict of Claims. — 21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by the English. CHAPTER I THE PERIOD OF DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION I. The Renascence and its Consequences 1. The Renascence. — For about a thousand years after the fall of Rome (476 a.d.) civilization declined. Very little attention was given to learning; ignorance and superstition prevailed. This period is often termed the Dark Ages. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, however, Europe awoke, as it were, from its long intellectual slumber. This period of awakening is known as the Renascence. Various causes helped to produce it. One of the important events of the period was the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. Hundreds of Greek scholars fled before the conquering Mohammedans, and carried learning and a zeal for study with them to Italy and other parts of Western Europe. Numerous books were thus brought to the notice of eager students in Italy, Germany, England, France, and Spain, and libraries were formed. There was increased activity of thought in all fields, but especially in science, with the result that numerous inventions were made. Among these were the printing press, which helped to spread the newly acquired learning; gunpowder, which, taking the place of the crude weapons of earlier times (spears, lances, etc.), made the foot-soldier the match of the mounted knight ; and the astrolabe and compass, which rendered possible the exten- sive voyages of this period. 2. The New Spirit shown in Geography. — Geography was one of the sciences which received especial attention. The old ideas in regard to the shape and size of the earth were ques- tioned. Crusaders who had travelled over Europe and Asia into Palestine to wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the Moham.t 3 4 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORV medans, came back with much interesting and wonderful infor- mation about the countries and peoples they had visited. As a result of these accounts, many were impelled to travel and make geogi'aphical discoveries from mere love of adventure, ^[any of the descriptions of foreii^n countries were nothing but glowing exaggerations of imaginative writers. These stories, however, were widely read, and did much to create a longing to visit the strange lands and also to obtain a share of the great wealth which they were reputed to possess. 3. The Trade with India. — There had long been a consider- able trade carried on between India and various Mediterranean ports. Venice and Genoa especially were centres of this com- merce, importing large quantities of spices, silks, and precious stones. The pirates who infested the Mediterranean, and the brigands of the deserts who plundered the caravans on their overland routes to the Indies, made the commerce particularly dangerous. Another route to India was therefore eagerly sought. One of the first jjlans to suggest itself was that of sailing around the southern point of Africa and thence north- east to India. This attempt was successfully made by the Portuguese, whose excellent geographical position gave them a great advantage. In 1487 a I'ortuguese navigator, Bartolomeo Diaz, discovered the Cape of (iood Hope, and ton years later (five years after America had been discovered) Vasco da Gama succeeded in reaching India by sailing around the coast of Africa. 4. New Geographical Ideas — Christopher Columbus. — At the same time that these (liscoveries were being made, the writings of the ancients which had now found their way into Western Europe were eagerly being read by many students. In certain respects the j^eople had retrograded during the iMiddle or Dark Ages. Superstition and ignorance character- ized many of their beliefs. This was especially true of their ideas concerning geography. Most of the people of that day believed the earth to be flat, although some of the ancient writers and geograjjhers had reached the conclusion that it DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 5 was round. Among those who were bold enough to adopt the ancient belief was the Genoese sailor, Christopher Columbus. So sure was he in regard to the true shape of the earth that he wished to make the attempt to reach India by sailing west. With the aid of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain he finally succeeded in fitting out three small vessels. After a discouraging voyage of seventy days the island of San Salva- dor, one of the Bahama Islands, was sighted (1492). He also discovered Cuba and other islands of the West Indies, taking possession of all the land in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. He made three other voyages, in one of which, 1498, he touched the mainland of America at the mouth of the Orinoco River. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent, but thought that the land was India. Many others made this error, which was natural enough since they were ignorant as to the real size of the earth, thinking it much smaller than it really is. Moreover, they had no suspicion of the existence of a large continent between Europe and Asia. 5. Search for a Passage through the New Continent. — It soon became known, however, that the newly discovered land was really a new continent, and not merely a portion of Asia. Numerous attempts were then made to find a way through or around it. Nunez de Balboa, a Spaniard, while searching for gold in Central America, discovered the Pacific Ocean (1513). This led to the belief that the whole continent was very narrow, and explorers became anxious to find a water route through it, so that they could reach the coveted shores of India. Magellan, a Portuguese, in command of a Spanish fleet, by sailing through the straits which bear his name, dis- covered the first and only practicable water route which has been discovered through America (1520). One of the vessels of the fleet succeeded in circumnavigating the globe, thus definitely proving the earth to be round. 6. Motives of Early Explorations. — As soon as it became known that a new continent had been discovered, various nations of Europe hastened to claim its territory. Spain, Eng- 6 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY land, France, and Holland were most active, ami all sent ont ex[)lorers to take possession of the land in the name of their respective sovereigns. There were, liowever, many who sailed to the New World from other motives, — some to acquire riches, some to Christianize the natives, and some merely to seek adventure. A knowledge of these early discoveries and explorations is imi^ortant, as tlie different nations of Europe based their claims to laud in the New AVorld upon them, II. Spanish Discoveries and Ezplcrations 7. Superiority of the Spanish Claim. — Uf the various nations Spain seemed to have lie best claim to the newly discovered land. It was in Spain that Columbus had secured the assist- ance which enabled him to make the famous voyage of dis- covery, and he had taken possession of the land in the name of the Spanish king and ([ueen. Spain's formal claim to the New World was based ui)on an edict of Pope Alexander VI (1498), who had divided the " Heathen Lands " between Spain and Portugal, the line of demarcation leaving for Portugal, however, but a small portion of what is now known as Brazil. There were three other important Spanisli rxjilorcrs who helped to justify S])ain's flaim. These were Ponce de Leon. Ferdinand de Soto, and Coronado. 8. Discovery and Exploration of Florida. — Ponce de Leon had bcL'ii guverucu- uf I'urto Uiru, but uu being removed from that office he determined to make explorations to the north- ward. Two important motives led him to take this step. These were the hope of discoverijig gold and of finding the ** Fountain of Youth " which was reported to exist in that region. He was disa])i)()inted in both of these ex])ectations, but he took possession of the southern portion of North Americu (1513). He named the country Florida because he had landed on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pdscua Florida. He later made an unsuccessful attempt to colonize the country that he had discovered. DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 7 9. Discovery of the Mississippi. — In 1539 De Soto undertook to subdue Florida. He set out from Cuba with a large force of men and horses, determined to find treasures of gold and to conquer the Indians. They failed to find gold, but discovered the Mississippi River, in whose waters De Soto himself was buried. Only half of the number who started out reached the Spanish settlements in Mexico. They had wandered for two years through the region which now comprises the states of Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Coronado (1540), the Spanish governor of a Mexican province, explored the southwestern part of what is now the United States. 10. First Permanent Settlement in America. — Menendez, who was sent out to conduct an expedition against some French intruders in Florida, succeeded in driving them out and in founding St. Augustine (1565) — the first permanent settle- ment in America. 11. The Spanish Claim. — As a result of these discoveries and explorations by De Leon, De Soto, and Coronado, as well as the original discovery of America by Columbus, Spain laid claim to a large portion of North America. The claim stretched northward without any definite limit, embracing a large part of the territory now occupied by the United States. III. English Discoveries and Explorations 12. Voyages of the Cabots. — John Cabot, a Venetian, living in Bristol, England, was possibly the first to discover the con- tinent of America (1497). Henry VII, who was then king of England, encouraged him to voyage westward, as Columbus had done, in order to find a "northwestern passage" to India and China, and thus secure the trade of that region for Eng- land. He failed in this, but seems to have discovered the mainland of America, landing somewhere in the region about the mouth of the St. Lawrence. He took possession of the land in the name of the king of England. Sebastian Cabot, a 8 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY son of John Cabot, in 1498 explored the coast of North America from Nova Scotia to Cape Ilatteras, also taking possession of this land in the name of Henry VII. 13. Other English Explorers. — It was not until nearly eighty years after the vuyages vi the Cabots that the English attempted to make explorations in the West. Since the Portuguese had discovered the route around southern Africa (see § 3), they had controlled the commerce of the Indies. In lo7G Sir Martin Frobisher set out t<} find a northwestern passage to India, but acconi[)lished nothing of any moment. Captain John Davis later made a similar attempt, but also failed. In 1578 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a half brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, secured a charter from Queen Elizabeth, granting him any lands he might discover in America. His first expedition failed, but in 1583 he made another attempt and landed at Newfoundland, taking possession of it for the queen. On liis homeward voyage Gilbert, togetlier with the crew of his small vessel, were lost in a storm. In 1577 Sir Francis Drake started on a plundering expedi- tion against the 8})aniards in South America. He reached the Pacific by way of Magellan Strait and then sailed northward, expecting to find a passage through to the Atlantic which might be used as a route for trading with the Indies. He took possession of the western coast of North America and called it New Albion. He returned to England by way of the Cape of Good Hope, bi'ing thus the first Englishman to circumnavi- gate the globe. 14. First Attempt at Colonization. — The purpose of most of the early explorations was to lind a way through the new continent to India. Sir Walter Raleigh, however, believed that America might be a valuable land to settle and colonize. The grant of land which he received from Queen Elizabeth extended from Elaine to Georgia, and was named Virginia in honor of the queen. Although his attempts at colonization proved failures, they were important because they were the first serious efforts to plant an English nation in America. -^^ AZORES-', T ^J^^'5*^ ^MADEIRA/ ..^ ,;^^^'^^ CANARY IS./^'«' ^A — J"^ ^'"^^ 1 -Jv-^^— " COLUMBUS 1492 •• • ■ / -r^'k^, ocean;? Balboa 1513 *-^'g, Gfij ..♦.., Map of EARLY VOYAGES Strait of Magellan''**^2i(^2jpg i^^^,^ 10 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 15. The English Claim. — As a result of these discoveries and explorations, especially those of the Cabots, England laid claim to all the laud from Florida to Labrador on the Atlantic coast, and westward to the Pacific. IV. French Discoveries and Explorations 16. Early French Explorers. — No attempt was made by the French to obtain pos.sessions in the New World until ir)2.3, when Francis I sent out an exploring expedition under Verraz- zani. He explored the coast of North America from North Carolina to Newfoundland in 1524, discovering New York and Narragansett bays. Cartier was the next Frenchman to explore the New World. In 1535 lie discovered the St. Lawrence River and sailed up to what is now the city of Montreal. He later made an unsuc- cessful attempt to plant a colony in Canada. In 1G08 Champlain, a famous French explorer, sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec, establishing the first permanent French colony in America. He later set out on an exploring expedition, getting as far south as the lake which bears his name, and claiming the country for France. 17. Exploration of the Mississippi Valley. — The main pur- pose of the French Jesuit missionaries, members of a Komau Catholic order, in coming to America was to convert the Indians to the Catholic faith. These missionaries were fired with reli- gious zeal, and spared themselves no pain or privation to secure their ends. They accomplished a great work in the conversion of the Indians, living in the regions which they explored, at the same time taking possession of the land in the name of France. In 1()7.'5 Joliet, a French explorer and trader, together with Father Marquette, a Jesuit priest, started on an expedition from Canada to find the Mississippi River. They made their way in canoes until they finally reached the river and were borne by the current to the region which De Soto had explored over a hundred years before. They feared to go farther south on account of the unfriendliness of the Indians. They then DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 11 had to paddle up the river against the current to their starting- piace. Six years later (1679) an attempt was made by La Salle to Map to illustrate French Explorations complete the work begun by Joliet and Marquette. He went down the Mississippi, building forts on his way, and, after suffering great hardship, succeeded in reaching the Gulf of 12 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Mexico. He had previously explored the Ohio. To this entire region he gave the name of Louisiana, in honor of Louis XIV, then king of France. Chicago, Mobile, and ^Xew Orleans were indirectly the result of these explorations. 18. The French Claim. — New France embraced the region from Now York to Labrador on the Atlantic, and included Acadia (Nova Scotia), Canada, and the basin of the Great Spanish Claim English Claim Lakes and the Mississippi River. Tlie claim to it was founded chiefly on the discoveries of Verrazzani, Cartier, and La Salle. V. Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 19. Henry Hudson. — The motive which prompted the first Dutch exploration was to find a passage tlirough the continent to India and China. This work was intrusted to Captain Henry Hudson, an Englishman in tlie employ of Holland. He readied the cast coast of (Greenland and explored the surrounding region. Later, in 1609, he set out in the service of the Dutch East India Company. He reached Nova Scotia, then sailed southward, exploring the coast as far as Chesapeake Ray. He then explored the river named for him, ascending it as far as the spot where Albany now stands. In 1614 Holland, finding from Hudson's report that a valuable fur trade could be carried on with the Indians, took possession of the valley of DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 13 the Hudson Eiver, naming it New Netherland. In 1623 the Dutch built a fort on the upper Hudson, which they named Fort Orange. They also made a treaty with the Iroquois Indians, which the latter kept faithfully. 20. The Dutch Claim. — New Netherland extended from Cape May to Nova Scotia and indefinitely westward, the claim to it being founded upon Hudson's discoveries and explorations. French Claim Dutch Claim VI. Conflict of Claims 21. Dutch and French Possessions secured by the English. — It will be seen from the accompanying maps how the claims of these nations conflicted. This overlapping of claims, how- ever, did not lead to serious trouble until the country became more thickly settled. In 1664 the English, under Nicolls, took possession of New Netherland and changed its name to New York. England thus had control of the Atlantic coast of North America, while the French held Canada and the Mississippi Valley, and the Spanish, Florida and Mexico. The dispute over conflicting claims was ended by the French and Indian War. The battle of Quebec settled the question of supremacy in North America. France ceded Louisiana to Spain, and retained only two small islands off the coast of Newfoundland. Spain lost Florida, and England finally ob- tained control of North America east of the Mississippi. CHAPTER II COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH SUPKEMACY Period of Colonization. — 22. The Seventeenth Centurj'. 23. The Most Succfssful Nations. 24. LciiLrth of the Coloiiizinj; I'ituhI. The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast. — 25. Causes of Difference in the Characteristics of the Colonies. 26. The Tiiree Zoiie.«!. The New England Colonies. — 27. The ruritans in New England, 28. (imwlli and rrosperity. The Middle Colonies. — 2i>. Motives of the Settlers. .30. New Nether- land. 31. New Jersey, renn.syivania, and Delaware. 32. Lord Bal- timore and Maryland. 33. Growth and Prosperity of the Midtlle Cdliinies. The Southern Colonies. — 34. Virj;inia. 3;"). Character of Settlers and l'",arly DiHiculties. 30. Tlie Colony firmly Establi.shed. 37. The Caro- liiias and (Jeorgia. 38. Ciiaracter and Mode of Life. Government of the Colonies. — 39. The Three Forms of C/olonial Gov- ernment. 40. Charter Government. 41. Proprietary Government. 42. Royal or Provincial Government. 43. Common Features of these Tliree Forms. 44. Differences. 45. Effects upon the Rights of the l\'oi)le. 4fi. Special Local Features of Government. 47. The Town System of New England. 48. The County System of Virginia. The French in America. — 40. Attempts at Colonization. 50. Work of the Missionaries. 51. Ki'forts to establish an Empire. Establishment of English Supremacy. — 52. Origin of the Conflict. 53. Intercolonial Wars. 54. The French and Imiian War. 55. Im- portant Strategic PoinUs. 5(5. First Important United Action of the Colonies. 57. Success of the English. 58. The Treaty of Peace. 59. Effects of the French and Indian War. 14 CHAPTER II THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AND ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH SUPREMACY I. Period of Colonization 22. The Seventeenth Century. — The history of America for about one hundred years after its discovery by Columbus is one of further discoveries, explorations, and occasional attempts at settlement. It was not until the seventeenth century that the true colonizing spirit developed and settlements were made by those who really wished to establish for themselves and their descendants permanent homes in the New World. 23. The Most Successful Nations. — England and France were the nations which were most successful in conducting these colonizing enterprises. The Spanish, it is true, had made the first permanent settlement (St. Augustine, 1565) and had triumphed over the French in securing possession of the southern part of North America. The Dutch also had attempted to develop New Netherland. The latter, however, were soon swallowed up by the greater power of their rivals, the English, who needed the Hudson River for both commer- cial and military reasons. The main motives of the Spanish — love of gold and conquest — were not the foundation on which to build prosperous colonies. Absence of worthy motives for colonizing, lack of industry and defects of government, pre- vented the growth of Spanish power in America, although at one time it had looked as if Spain might control the whole continent. Spain made a brilliant beginning and then stood still, while England and France, wh© failed at first, were suc- 15 16 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY cessfully developing a New England and a New France in the New World. 24. Length of the Colonizing Period. — The colonizing period extended over about one hundred and tifty years, dur- ing the last half of which the English and French were disput- ing for the supremacy in a series of wars in which the English colonists finally triumphed (Quebec, 1759). II. The English Colonies — Settlement of the Atlantic Coast 25. Causes of Differences in the Characteristics of the Colonies. — In reviewing the history of the thirteen original colonies it is important to note certain great differences in the characteristics of the settlers and of the colonies which they established. While all the colonies were English (Delaware, settled by the Swedes, New York and New Jersey by the Dutch, were soon afterward acquired by the English), and nearly all the people spoke the same language and pro- fessed the same religion, yet quite different classes of people, actuated by different motives, had settled the country along the Atlantic. Differences of soil, climate, products, etc., of the regions settled also produced marked contrasts in the gen- eral character of the several colonies. The Puritans of New England were decidedly different in habits, nuanners, and cus- toms from the slave-holding settlers of Virginia. The Quakers and Dutch of the Middle colonies also gave a distinctive char- acter to that re,t,M()ii. 26. The Three Zones. — The colonies may be conveniently studied in three groups : — 1. The New England colonies, or northern group. 2. Colonies of the middle zone. 3. Virginia and the far South. III. The New England Colonies 27. The Puritans in New England. — The Puritans did not believe in all the forms and ceremonies of the Established Church of England. Some of them who believed in separat- COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 17 ing entirely from the English church (Separatists), being unable to secure the liberty to worship as they pleased, fled to Hol- land, where they enjoyed full religious freedom. On account of their wanderings, they were afterward known as Pilgrims. But though the Pilgrims were willing to exile themselves from their native land for the sake of their beliefs, their love of country was so strong that they could not content themselves in the midst of a foreign, though friendly people, and at the risk of their descendants ceasing to be English. Facing great difficulties, they determined to secure religious and civil liberty on English soil — the soil of the New World. They were compelled to live in a rude, primitive way in the new country, engage in the arduous labors of reclaiming its wilderness, face the rigors of a severe climate, and fight a savage foe — • .the Indians. They endured all this with great fortitude ; led simple, fearless, upright lives, and governed themselves well and justly, though their laws were harsh and severe. They had great respect for learning, and early established schools and colleges. They were also deeply religious and worshipped in the plain manner that seemed best to them. Yet they refused to allow others the religious liberty which they themselves so highly prized, but persecuted those who disagreed with them. Their banishment of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson and their persecution of the Quakers are the most notable instances of this intolerance. The great hardships which the Puritans were willing to undergo for the sake of their ideas of right and liberty, their courage and determination in overcoming these hardships, and their intolerance of opinions and practices different from their own, show the strong and peculiar character of the people who first settled New England. 28. Growth and Prosperity. — The soil being poor, the peo- ple engaged in shipbuilding and commerce, and many found employment in the great cod fisheries. Thousands of emigrants from England sought the shores of New England, and the colonies grew and prospered. 18 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY IV. The Middle Colonies 29. Motives of the Settlers. — Just as the Puritans had founded a New England, the Dutch attempted to found a New Netherland and the Swedes a New Sweden. The latter attempt was short-lived, the settlement being conquered by the Dutch and absorbed into New Netherland. The Quakers under Penn and the Catholics under Lord Baltimore settled Pennsylvania and Maryland respectively in order to secure religious liberty. The motives which led to the settlement of the Middle colonies were thus similar in some respects to those of the New Englanders. There were such great differ- ences, however, in the character both of the people and of the country in which they settled, that the Middle colonies were quite unlike those of New England. 30. New Netherland. — The Dutch, after Hudson's discov- eries, were attracted to the valley of the Hudson by the opportunities for profitable fur-trading with the Indians which that region offered. They soon became interested in farming also, which they developed by means of the patroon system. They were a thrifty, peace-loving people, and with few excep- tions allowed full religious liberty to everyone. So many })eo- ple of different nationalities cunie to New Amsterdam that it became very cosmopolitan, a cliaracteristic which New York retains to this day. The i)eople of New Netherland were not warlike enough to hold their own against the English ; hence their colony became English and continued as prosperous as it had been under Dutch rule. Though the Dutch were con(juered, the influence of their simple manners and customs is felt to the present day, especially in the valley of the Hudson. 31. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. — New Jersey was sold to (Quakers and scttlt'd by llieni. This led to the founding of Pennsylvania by William Penn as an a.sylum for the persecuted Quakers and the oi)pressed of other creeds. The tolerant spirit of the Quakers was in marked contrast to the narrow religious views of the Puritans. Penn called the COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 19 colony his " Holy Experiment," and endeavored to base it upon the Golden Rule, which he rightfully thought the red man would be able to understand and appreciate. The success of the undertaking, and especially the friendly relations which he established and maintained with the Indians, were due to Penn's wisdom and his great ability as a governor. He after- ward became proprietor of Delaware. 32. Lord Baltimore and Maryland. — Lord Baltimore, another wise and good proprietor, founded in Maryland a colony for persecuted Catholics. More religious freedom was allowed here than in any other colony. It accordingly became a refuge not only for Catholics, but for the oppressed of all creeds. This religious liberty prevailed however only while Lord Balti- more was governor. His enemies, unfortunately, triumphed over him for a time, and Catholic worship was prohibited until Lord Baltimore regained the power which he had employed in such a liberal spirit. 33. Growth and Prosperity of the Middle Colonies. — New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore became important commer- cial centres; but the people of the Middle colonies generally engaged in farming to a much greater extent than did those of New England. Maryland, however, with its large planta- tions and few towns, bore a greater resemblance to the Vir- ginia colony than it did to those of the middle and northern sections. The Middle colonies maintained much more friendly rela- tions with the Indians than did those of New England. The most remarkable example of this was the success of Penn in securing the friendship of the Indians for the peaceable Quakers. The Dutch and Quakers of this whole section were kindly, simple-minded people. They lived plainly and had quaint customs, but they were not harsh and severe like the Puritans. Both Penn and Lord Baltimore endeavored to rule in a broad, liberal spirit, and granted to the colonists a degree of civil and religious liberty unknown to the other colonies, and indeed to all the rest of the world. 20 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES lUSTORY V. The Southern Colonies 34. Virginia. — The \'ii<,Miii;i colony was the lirst i)ermanent Kiiglisli settlement iu the New World. Raleigh had spent nearly §1,000,000 iu attempts " to ])lant an English nation iu America,'' which, though unsuccessful, kejit u]) an interest iu the New World and set an example for later and more per- manent settlements. It happened about IGOO that hundreds of Englishmen were out of employment. Emigration was sug- gested as a remedy, and Virginia was declared to be "a door which God had opened for England." Hence companies were formed and chartered by the king (London and Plymouth companies). The settlement of Jamestown (1G07) was the result of the efforts of the London Company. 35. Character of Settlers and Early Difficulties. — .Many of the first emigrants were " gentlemen "' unused to work, and tilled with the idea of getting rich (piickly and returning to England. They were not persevering and industrious like the northern colonists, but were fond of gayety and luxurious living. The original plan of colonial life (conununism) tended to encourage them in their idleness and to discourage the few who were industrious. Trouble Avith the Indians added to their difficulties, and it is no wonder that the settlement almost failed. The energy of John Smith saved it from extinction. 36. Colony firmly Established. — The arrival of men and supjilies and the wisi- though harsh rule of Governor Dale, who abolished the foolish communistic plan and forced each man to work for his own living, gave the colony a new lease of life. The discovery of the value of tobacco firmly estab lished the colony. It also led to far-reaching results by the enccnirageiiHMit which it gave to negro slavery. 37. The Carolinas and Georgia. — The other Southern colonies were settled much later and by various peojjles. I''rench Hugue- nots, (Jermans, and Scotch Highlanders joined tlie original English settlers. In the Carolinas the English settlers were COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 'ZL emigrants from England, Virginia, and Barbados who had become dissatisfied with life in these places. In Georgia they were poor people who had been released from debtors' prisons in England through the philanthropy of Oglethorpe. The cul- tivation of rice and indigo was almost as important for this region as tobacco had been for Virginia. 38. Character and Mode of Life. — The Southern colonists lacked both the simplicity of character and the patient in- dustry which characterized the Puritans of New England and the Dutch and Quakers of the Middle colonies. They were not so deeply religious and were not troubled by religious controversies to the same extent as were the people of some of the other colonies. Plantation life did not favor the growth of large cities, and this, together with the institution of slavery, tended to divide society into classes, — (a) the wealthy plantation owners, and (b) the slaves and poor whites. Labor was looked upon as degrading. The aristocratic landowner or gentleman of the South thus formed a marked contrast to the thrifty, industri- ous farmer and mechanic of the North. VI. Government of the Colonies 39. The Three Forms of Colonial Government. — Though the English colonies were all under the control of the same mother country, they had three distinct forms of colonial government, known as the Charter, the Proprietary, and the Royal or Provincial. 40. Charter Government. — To some of the colonies the king granted charters which conferred the power of government upon the people. The charters were somewhat similar to our present state constitutions. They defined the powers of government and secured many valuable rights to the people. The people elected their own governor and the members of both houses of the legislative assembly. The king had so little to do with the government of the charter colonies that they really resembled small independent republics. Massachu- 22 SURVKY OF rXITKI) STATES HISTORY setts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had the charter form of government, although Massachusetts under its second charter lost the privilege of electing its own governor. The charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island were so liberal that they were retained without change as state constitutions until 1818 and 1842 respectively. 41. Proprietary Government. — Some of the colonies were under the ((Piitidl ot a j)i(t])rict()r, to wiiom th»^ king had granted \n>t\\ the land and the j)ower to ride it. The pro- prietor either ruled it himself or appointed a governor. He also appointed a council ; but the jyeople elected representa- tives to the assembly. The powers granted the proprietor vX^ Iv liHilni Hii 7^ mii ili 4,^11 flu lUHir M r Ai ^iMii.K OF Part uf thi K . l I' i> oivkn to I'knn were so great that he was in effect a sort of local prince, and the proprietary colony resembled, in its form of government, a limited monarchy: limited, because the ])eople elected the lower house of the assembly, ^laryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware had proprietary forms of government. New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were under the pro- prietary form of government for a time. The plan proving unsatisfactory, they later became royal provinces. 42. Royal or Provincial Government. — In most of the colo- nies tlie king neither gninted a charter to the people nor conferred the power of government upon a proprietor. The king himself ajjpointed a governor as well as the gov- ernor's council, although the people were allowed to elect the lower house of the assembly. The colonies ruled in this way were under the royal or provincial form of government, and COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 23 were called Royal Provinces. At the beginning of the Revo- lution, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia were royal provinces. 43. Common Features of these Three Forms. — The three forms of colonial government were alike in four important respects : — 1. In each form there were two houses constituting the assem- bly or law-making body, and also a governor. This was like the government of England. The plan of having an executive officer and two houses is exemplified to-day in our national, state, and many city governments. In the nation we have the President and Congress, consist- ing of the Senate and House of Representatives ; in each state there is a governor and a legislature, also con- sisting of two houses, usually named as are the two houses of Congress ; in many cities we have the mayor and councils, consisting of two houses, often called alder- men and common council. 2. In each form of colonial government the lower house was elected by the people. 3. In all the colonies the governor had absolute veto power upon any act of the legislature. 4. No colony was permitted to pass any law contrary to the laws of England. 44. Differences. — The colonies differed as to the manner of appointment of the governor. In the royal colonies the gov- ernor was appointed by the king ; in the proprietary, by the proprietor when he himself did not act as governor ; in the charter colonies he was elected by the people. In the royal colonies the council was appointed by the king ; in the pro- prietary, by the proprietor; in the charter the council was elected by the people. 45. Effects upon the Rights of the People. — By the nature of their government the provincial colonies were most depend- ent on the king and Parliament. The people of these colonies 24 SUKVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY consequently had fewest political rights. Tlie i)ioprietary colonies were dependent on a local ruler, the proprif tur. They had greater privileges and rights than the provincial colonies, though this was due, not to the nature of the government, but to the fact that they chanced to have good i)roprietors. The charter colonies were the least dependent on the king and Par- liament, and had greatest political freedom. In exercising the rights granted them by their charters they learned how to govern themselves, and the political institutions which resulted were often superior to tliose of tlio otlicr colonit'S. 46. Special Local Features of Government. — As there were great differences in the character and mode of life of the colonists of the Northern, ^Middle, and Southern sections, so they developed certain distinct features in local government. The most important of these were the Town System and the County Systi'Hi of govcrnincut. 47. The Town System of New England. — Tlie New Eng- land colonies had a system of local government called the Town System. It was a pure democracy. The country was divided into districts called towns. The government of the town was vested in a Town Meeting held once a year, at which every male citizen was c.\i)C(;ted to be present and was at liberty to address the meeting and vote on any sub- ject that might come up. This was democratic because each person was taking part in the government himself, and not by a representative. The spirit of independence was kept alive by the discussions which arose at these meetings, and the ulti- mate revolt of the colonies was due in some measure to the uniform opposition which the New England towns displayed to the unjust cuactnieuts of Purliauicnt. 48. The County System of Virginia. — Plantation life, and the tendency to aristocracy which tliis life developed, did not encourage anything like a town meeting. A body of leading men attended to the government of each county. They had the power of filling vacancies in their own body, so the people had little to do with choosing them. COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 25 Other systems of local governuient, which resembled in some particulars each of the above, and which may therefore be called Mixed Township-county Systems, were developed by the colonists of the Middle region. VII. The French in America 49. Attempts at Colonization. — AVhile the English were firmly establishing themselves along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia, the French were making extensive explora- tions in Canada and the Mississippi Valley. They were en- deavoring to found a great French empire in the New World. Their first successful attempt to plant a colony in Canada was the founding of Quebec by Champlain in 1608, a year after the settlement of Jamestown by the English. 50. Work of the Missionaries. — The French explorations and settlements were not made for commercial and patriotic reasons only, but sprang also from the efforts of the Jesuit mis- sionaries to convert the Indians to Christianity. The mission- aries led lives of great self-sacrifice, bravely penetrating the wilderness and enduring fearful hardships. They established numerous missions and trading-posts. (See map, page 11.) As a result of their labors, the French gained such great influ- ence over the Indians of the Northwest that the latter served as allies of the French in their wars against the English. 51. Efforts to establish an Empire. — The French turned their attention chiefly to the fisheries and the fur trade with the Indians. They were not successful farmers, and as a con- sequence failed to develop thriving settlements like those of the English colonies. They endeavored, however, to strengthen and defend their claim to the vast region which they called New France by building a chain of forts from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi. The strength of the French was due to (1) their military training; (2) the despotic form of government, which assured united action ; (3) their ability to control the Indians and secure them for their allies. Their main element of weakness consisted in the fewness of their 26 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY numbers. Their communities did not increase rapidly on account of the absence of agricultural interests, the rigorous climate of Canada, and a faulty system of government. VIII. Establishment of English Supremacy 52. Origin of the Conflict. — We have .seen liow the French and English settlers in America came to lay claim to differ- ent regions of the continent. France had control of the immense regions bordering on the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, the ^Mississippi and its tributaries. The work of build ing forts throughout this vast domain was energetically begun by La Salle and continued by his successors. It was very evi- dent that the French regarded America, not as a temporary possession, but rather as the possibility of a future emi)ire, which would make France a power in the New World. All this time the English colonists had been prospering and living contentedly in the narrow strip of land bordering on the Atlantic Ocean. The Alleghanies stood as an effective barrier to their western migration. It was inevitable, however, that a conflict should arise between the French and the English, not so much on account of their differences in religion and customs, but because of the enmity of the mother countries, France and England. It was the long war between these two nations in Europe which really first brought the English and French colonists into conflict. They were, however, the more ready to take up the quarrel of the mother country because of their own quarrels over fisheries, fur-trading, and territorial boundaries. The question to be decided was '' which should be the ruling nationality in North America — French or English ? " and it required a long series of wars to answer it. In these wars the French were generally assisted by the Indians, with the exception of the Iroquois of New York, who faithfully kept a treaty of friendship with the English and assisted them in their battles. 53. Intercolonial "Wars. — It is customary to divide the con- flicts which thus took place from 1G89 to 1763 into four wars, COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 27 the first three being named after the monarchs then reigning in England. It was, however, but one war with long intermis- sions. The first three wars made little change in the territorial possessions of France and England. The treaties of peace generally restored to their original owners King William's places which had been captured. This was War (1689-97), not the case with Acadia, however, which Queen Anne's War f 1702— 1 3^ remained in possession of the English at the i.. „ , „, ^ ^ King George's War close of Queen Anne s War, its name being (1744-48), changed to Nova Scotia. Perhaps the most French and Indian important event of these wars was the taking ^^^ (1754-63). of the strongly fortified fortress of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, by Colonel Pepperrell of Maine with a small force of American or " Yankee " soldiers. There were two important results of this victory : (1) it stopped the French piracy among the fisheries ; (2) it inspired the colonists with confidence. The latter was perhaps the greatest effect, and had, in con- nection with the additional encouragement given by the French and Indian War, far-reaching consequences. 54. The French and Indian "War (1754-63). — The French and Indian War was the last of the intercolonial wars. The English had been practically inactive while the French had been fastening their hold on the entire Mississippi Valley as far east as the Alleghanies. Fearing at last, however, that this part of the country might be entirely lost to them, the English decided to plant a colony near the Ohio River. As all this re- gion was claimed by the French, they stoutly resisted the en- croachments of the English intruders. To protect their rights, they built a new line of forts from Erie to where Pittsburg now stands. Governor Dinwiddle of Virginia sent George Wash- ington, then a young man of twenty-one, with a message to the French commander of one of the new forts ; but as an unsat- isfactory answer was received, it became apparent that force would be necessary to settle the dispute. ' 55. The Important Strategic Points. — The points of the greatest strategic importance in the conflict were : (1) Fort 28 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Duquesne, the present site of Pittsburg, which commanded the entrance to the Ohio, and hence the Mississippi Kiver, and was thus the key to the region west of the Alleghanies ; (2) Acadia and Louisburg, which protected the French fisheries and, on account of their nearness, menaced New England; (3) Crown Point and Ticonderoga, which protected the internal route to Canada; (4) Quebec, which was the strongest strategic position in North America, having an excellent situation on a high bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence, thus being the key to Canada. 56. First Important United Action of the Colonies. — During the first three intercolonial wars, the New England colonies, and especially Massachusetts, had borne the brunt of the fighting, assisted to some extent by New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. In the French and Indian War, however, the colonies had been drawn into a conflict not because of disputes between Enghiiul and France, but on their own ac- count, in order to gain possession of the Ohio Valley. All the colonies became interested in this war and acted together for the first time. They were advised by the British government to unite for the common defence. Delegates were sent to a colonial congress at Albany from New Hampshire, Massachu- setts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. P)enjamin F'ranklin proposed a plan of union which w'as unsatisfactory, both to England and to the colonies, but which was nevertheless very important as being the first att('in]»t of a l;ir;-rc iiuiiibcr of the colonies at iinion. 57. Success of the English. — The war was stubbornly con- tested by the British soldiers and the colonists on the one side, and the French and Indians on the other. After several reverses, due partly to the ignorance of the British generals in regard to Indian methods of warfare and their unwilling- ness to profit by the advice of George Washington and other Americans, the English finally succeeded in gaining possession of the important points above enumerateil. The success of the war was due largely to the wisdom and energy of CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1755 AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. CENTRAL NORTH AMERICA, 1763 AFTER THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. (ACCORDING TO PEACE OF PARIS) COLONIZATION OF AMERICA 29 Sir William Pitt, who, when he came to have charge of affairs iu England, sent over many troops to light for the colonists. The war was practically ended by the fall of Quebec, " The Gibraltar of America," in 1759. The town was bravely defended by General Montcalm, but was captured after a siege by a daring assault by the British and colonial forces under General Wolfe. Both the commanding generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, lost their lives in this battle, which has been properly classed as one of the decisive battles of the world. It settled once for all the question of supremacy. 58. The Treaty of Peace (1763). — Shortly after the fall of Quebec all Canada succumbed to British rule. In 1763 the treaty of peace was made. It completely changed the political map of North America. Florida, which had belonged to Spain, was ceded to Great Britain. France gave up New Orleans and the vast Louisiana territory to Spain, and ceded Canada to Great Britain. All that France retained of her vast possessions in North America were a few small islands. The English possessions thus included the entire eastern part of North America, from the Arctic Ocean to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi. 59. Effects of the French and Indian War. — Next to the establishment of English supremacy, the most far-reaching result of the French and Indian War was the fostering of the spirit of union among the English colonists. Fighting shoulder to shoulder during the war, they had learned to know and respect each other. The sectional feeling and animosity which tended to keep the colonists apart had been partially wiped out. The way was prepared for the real union which was to come, — a union of independence which was to cement the hitherto rival colonies into a brotherhood, to be known to the world as the United States of America. The French and Indian War in another way indirectly led to the independence of the American colonies, as it was the adoption by England shortly after of a new colonial policy that prompted their first acts of resistance. CHAPTER III THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE Causes of the War. — GO. Interference with Commerce. CI. Taxation without Representation. 62. British Army in America. 6:}. First ContinciitiU Congress. Principal Events of the "War. — First Period (177.')-70, princi- pally in New England and Canada). 04. Operations about Boston. ()5. Second Continental Congress. 06. Bunker Hill and the Evacua- tion of Boston. 07. Expedition to Canada. ()8. Growth of the Idea of Independence. 09 The Declaration of Independence. Second Period (1776-78, principally in the Middle States). 70. Oper- ations around New York and New Jersey. 71. Capture of Philadel- phia : Valley Forge. 72. Burgoyne Surrenders : Aid of France Secured. Third Period (1778-81, principally in the Southern States). 7.3. The Surrender of Coruwallis : End of the War. 74. The Treaty of Peace. 80 CHAPTER III THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE I. Causes of the War 60. Interference with Commerce. — England regarded her colonies merely as sources of gain. Dutch vessels had been carrying the commerce of America to a great extent, and it was determined that England should acquire a monopoly of this profitable trade. As early as 1651 the Parliament of England had begun to pass certain laws known as Navigation Acts, which bore very heavily on American trade. The Navigation Acts provided that only English or colonial vessels might carry products to the colonies, and that all goods imported by the colonists must come from some English port. In order to evade these discriminating laws, smuggling was resorted to. The laws were poorly enforced, the revenue officers them- selves being sometimes guilty of smuggling. After the French and Indian War, however, when George III ascended the throne, it was decided that these navigation laws should be rigidly enforced. Writs of Assistance were issued, giving cus- toms officers the right to enter any man's house and search for smuggled goods. The enforcement of the Navigation Acts bore most heavily upon the New England colonies, which had been carrying on a profitable trade with the Spanish and French West Indies. The activity of the customs-house officers served to embitter the colonists, and did much to arouse the spirit of opposition to British rule, which afterward became the demand for independence. 61. Taxation without Representation. — Perhaps a still more fruitful source of bad feeling was the attempt to raise money 31 32 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY hv levying taxes on the Americans without their consent. The colonists were not represented in Parliament, and they believed that their rights as English subjects were assailed by being thus taxed. The passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, requiring the colonists to use stamps on all important docu- ments, pamphlets, and newspapers, was greeted with a storm of protest and indignation. The reason given for the passage of the act was that the Americans should help pay for the support of a I'ritish standing army in America. The colonists contended, however, that no standing army was necessary, as the war was not likely to be renewed. They also Angor- ously opposed the idea of a standing army, feeling that it would be a menace to the degree of self-government they already enjoyed. Patrick Henry, the famous orator of Vir- ginia, voiced the sentiments of the people and aroused them to a great pitch of excitement by his fiery eloquence and — as the British called them — treasonable utterances. James Otis of Massachusetts was ]>articularly emphatic in denouncing the injustice of Great Brit- ain's treatment of the colonies, and gave expression to the ideas of the colonists in the assertion that "Taxation without rej)re- sentation is tyranny." Samuel Adams, the ^^^5 ^^ " 1^ '^^^^^1' of tlie Revolution," also denounced Stamp ishd in 17G5 the act in strong terms. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1 "()(>, but England still claimed the right to tax the colonists. In 1707 another tax was ordered, requiring a duty to be paid on all imported glass, paper, paints, ami tea. This tax likewise met with stul)born resistance, and Parliament decided to remove all the taxes except a very low tax on tea. But the colonists were now ojtposed to the prinriple of taxation without representation, and the shiploads of tea sent over to America were either sent back or destroyed. In Boston, the contents of the vessel were thrown overboard (Boston Tea Party). THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 33 62. British Army in America. — The idea of maintaiuing a British standing army in America was bitterly opposed by the colonists. The support of the British soldiery was one of the reasons assigned for the obnoxious taxes. The acts of opposi- tion on the part of the colonists enraged the King and Parlia- ment of England, and a law was passed closing the port of Boston until reparation should be made for the destruction of the tea, and proper respect shown to the king. Moreover, the people of Massachusetts were no longer to be allowed to govern themselves, but were to be under the military rule of General Gage, who was ordered to Boston with several regi- ments of soldiers. There were frequent quarrels be- tween these soldiers and inhabitants of Boston. In one of these conflicts (1770) the British soldiers fired upon a mob which had been insulting them, and five per- sons were killed and four dangerously wounded. This was known as the Boston Massacre and served to add fuel to the rage of the colonies. In 1772 the Gaspee, a British war vessel which had run aground in Narragansett Bay, was captured and burned by residents of Providence. Some historians regard this affair as the real beginning of the Revolution. 63. The First Continental Congress. — The First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in 1774, and petitioned Eng- land for a redress of grievances. All the colonies except Georgia were represented in this congress. There was no talk of independence yet. England, however, gave a deaf ear to the calm, respectful, yet firm demands of the American colonies. OPPOSITE THIS SPOT VA5 SHED THE FIRST BLOOD or THE AAERICAN REVOLUTION AARCH y" 1770 Tablet commemorating the Boston Massacre lu State Street, Boston 34 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY II. Principal Events of the War First Period — 1 775-70 prixcipally in new england and canada 64. Operations about Boston. ^ As the most violent opposi- tion to England came from Massachusetts, and troops had been sent over to force these colonists into submission, it was natural that the first military operations of the war should occur there. The Boston ^lassacre and the destruc- tion of the Gctfijyee were but a preface. The first real fighting occurred April 10, 1775, when the British made an attempt to destroy some military stores at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston. On the way they stopped at Lexington to arrest the "arch rebels,'' Samuel Adains and John Hancock. A con- flict occurred here between the British soldiers and some " minute men," i.e. men ready to fight at a minute's notice, and seven Americans were killed. At Concord the British destroyed the military stores. Meanwhile the farmers and other inhabitants had been aroused, and many of the British were killed on their retreat to Lexington and thence to Boston. 65. Second Continental Congress. — In the meantime the Sec- ond Continental Congress had met at IMiiladelphia (May 10, 1775). While it still recognized George III as the rightful sovereign of the colonies, it prepared for the war which had already begun. ^Measures wore also taken to defray the ex- penses of the war, and George Washington was appointed coinniandi'i'-in-cliicf of llie ( 'out iiicntal aniiv. 66. Bunker Hill and the Evacuation of Boston. — Tlio first really important battle of the war, known as the battle of Bunker Hill, resulted from an attem])t by the British to dislodge the American army from a strong jjosition they had taken on a liill overlooking Boston. The Americans were under command of Prescott, Putnam, and Warren, and numbered about fifteen hundred. The British were twice repulsed; but the third time, owing to lack of ammunition and the disparity of numbers, tlie Americiuis were driven s|Harttord/ „is?\- _^ ^ 1^ -^ CharlottesyiUci .^Kichmond "Wiiullmsburg , Torlrfi 'REFERENCE MAP FOR THfe ftifcVOLUTIOM THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 35 back. The loss was heavy on both sides; but though com- pelled to retreat, the colonists had won a moral victory, as their bravery and determination to fight for their rights had been definitely proved. During the winter of 1775-76 the siege of Boston was con- tinned by the American forces under Washington. In March, 1776, Washington succeeded in planting his cannon in such favorable positions that the English were forced to with- draw, leaving Boston and sail- ing to Canada. The American army then entered the city of Boston, which the British never recaptured. 67. Expedition to Canada. — While these operations around Boston were in progress. Gen- erals Montgomery and Arnold made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada. Montgomery took Montreal, and was later joined by Arnold with a wretched army, sadly diminished by disease and desertion during their heroic march through the wilderness of Maine. The attack on Quebec was a dismal failure; Montgomery was killed, Arnold badly wounded. Shortly after, all the Americans were driven out of Canada. 68. Growth of the Idea of Independence. — All this time the Americans had been fighting, not for independence, but merely for their rights as British subjects. The conduct of England, however, was hastening the time when nothing short of independence would satisfy them. In reply to the colonists' plea for justice and redress of grievances. King George called for troops to i)ut down the rebellion. Early in Bunker Hill Monument 36 SURVEY OF rXITED STATES HISTORY 1770 a j)ainiililot Avas pulilishod by Thomas Paine, a noted free-thinker, in whir h it was boldly asserted that the time had come wluMi the Americans must fight for their independence. The pamphlet was entitled " Common Sense." It liad an im- mense sale, and served to excite the people, who saw in it the frank expression of what they themselves really thought, but were afraid to express. The last straw was the news that Eii-^land had hirt-d Hessian soldiers to fight the Americans. 69. The Declaration of Independence. — In June, 177(5, a resolution was offered in the Continental Congress by Richard ^1 ;....i H-TTr iii^n ^ f ^2.:-^-^ (^ -jUu^^I^r frii ,'y!%} . r x^KtUA. tyr\n^>*^ TKtm.'to a^aaiu^mifb- -'tf'^>^■y^l^tlum. x^..JUi t.,^^.^%^ '- ■ ' J .,-,— i^_v ^ . Kuuuc'ED Facsimile of thk First Two Pakaukai-hs ok thk Dkclaration »)F Indei-endknck Henry Lee of Virginia, "Resolved that these xoiited colonies are, and of rii/ht ought to be, free and independent states." The reso- lution was seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, and a committee was appointed to draw up a Dcclaraliou of Indepen- dence. The Declaration was written by Thomas Jefferson and signed by John Hancock, president of the Congress, and other mend)ers on July 4, 1776. Thus the United States of America had its beginning. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 37 Secoxd Period — 1776-78 principally in the middle states 70. Operations around New York and New Jersey. — The English now tried to gain possession of the Hudson, so as to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. The Americans had no fleet ; hence if the English had been successful in carrying out their plan, a great advantage would have been gained. They succeeded, although with considerable opposition from Washington, in gaining possession of the city of New York, the Americans making a masterly retreat under cover of night. Washington now retreated across New Jersey, closely followed by the British under Cornwallis. At Trenton he crossed the Delaware, having prevented the enemy from fol- lowing him by seizing all the boats on that part of the river. On Christmas night (1776), Washington with a force of two thousand men recrossed the Delaware and surprised the Hes- sians, taking a thousand prisoners and a large amount of ammunition. This unexpected stroke served to revive the drooping spirits of the American soldiers, who were by this time thoroughly miserable and disheartened. Their families were destitute, and the paper money of the Continental Con- gress, with which they were paid, had practically no purchas- ing power. It is hard to say what dire consequences might not have arisen had not Robert Morris, a prominent financier of Philadelphia, come to Washington's assistance with a loan of $50,000 in coin. It saved the army at a most critical period. Shortly after this Washington again outwitted Cornwallis and gained an important victory at Princeton, inspiring the army with his personal bravery. The American army then took a strong position in the hills about Morristown, from which Cornwallis feared to attempt to dislodge them. 71. Capture of Philadelphia : Valley Forge. — Washington having prevented the British from taking Philadelphia by land, Howe returned to New York and fitted out a naval expedition against the city, then the capital of the United States. He 38 SURVEY OF T'XITED STATES HISTOKY sailed up the Chesapeake so as to avoid the fortifications on the Delaware, and marched northward. He met aijd defeated "Washington at lirandywine Creek, and thus gained possession of I'liiladelphia. Washington, after an unsuccessful attack on the British at Germautown, fell back with his army to Valley Forge, where they spent the winter of 1777-78. It was the darkest winter of the war, the sufferings of the army being ter- rible. Yet the important work of organizing and drilling tlie array went on. This was largely due to the efforts of Baron Steu- ben, a Prussian military engineer, who had come to this country to assist the Americans in their struggle for independence. 72. Burgoyne Surrenders : Aid of France Secured. — While Howe and Cornwallis had been carrying on their operations in southern New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylania, an expedi- tion had been started under General Burgoyne from the North. He was to ntarch down from Canada and effect a junction with the forces under General Howe, thus securing control of the Hudson and dividing the colonies in two. The expedition, however, was a complete failure. Washington delayed Howe, while Schuyler and Arnold, helped by Daniel Morgan's sharp- shooters and the New England farmers, succeeded in so har- assing Burgoyne and weakening his army, that the liritish were defeated at the battle of Bennington, and later at Saratoga. General Burgoyne, with his entire army of about six thousand men, was forced to surrender (^October 17, 1777). This was a severe blow to the British, as it completely spoiled Howe's plans, and helped the United States to secure the aid of France. On this latter account it may be considered the greatest victory of the war, and it is classed among the decisive battles of the world. The next year, 177S. Benjamin Franklin, our minister to France, received a pledge frt)iii the king of France, whoi)romised to send money, ships, and men. France also acknowledged our independence. As the British now had France to contend with, Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, feared that a French fleet might prevent his escape from IMiiladolphia. He therefore abandoned that city and marched across New Jersey to New REFERENCE MAP FOR THE f^EVOLUTION SOUTHERN ST^T^S' THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 3|j York, where most of the British forces were now located. The American forces in New Jersey under Washington watched their movements closely. Third Period — 1778-81 principally in the southern states 73. The Surrender of Cornwallis : End of the War. — The British now decided to conquer the South, so that even if they should lose the war, they might at least retain this portion of their former possessions. Their plan was to begin at Georgia and conquer northward. They were at first entirely success- ful, gaining possession of Georgia and South Carolina. But the persistent guerilla warfare of Marion and Sumter, together with the skilful manoeuvres of General Greene who was, next to Washington, the ablest American general of the Revolution, finally (1781) forced Cornwallis into Yorktown, Virginia, and shut up the rest of the British in Charleston, South Carolina. Lafayette, a young French nobleman who had come to this country, also rendered valuable assistance during this campaign. While Cornwallis was at Yorktown, a French fleet arrived, blocking up the Chesapeake and preventing his escape. Wash- ington seized the opportunity, and leading General Clinton, the commander of the British troops in New York, to believe that he was preparing to attack him, marched rapidly down to the head of Chesapeake Bay, and proceeded thence by vessels to Yorktown. It was the liberality and patriotism of Robert Morris which enabled Washington to accomplish this. It is said that the Philadelphia financier contributed over a million dollars at this time. Cornwallis saw that with the combined forces of America and France against him, resistance would be useless. He accordingly surrendered, October 19, 1781. 74. The Treaty of Peace. — In 1783 a treaty of peace was con- cluded at Paris. The independence of the United States was acknowledged, with the following territorial boundaries : north by Canada, west by the Mississippi River, south by Florida, which was transferred to Spain. CHAPTER IV THE ADOPTION OF A NKW FORM OF GOVERNMENT Consolidation of Colonies. — 75. Causes of Lack of Union aincr.p; ihe Colonics. 70. Circumstances favoring Union. 77. Union of Adjacent Towns and Colonies. Early Plans for General Union. — 78. Plans suiiucsted by Penn and by Krankliu. ~U. Iiilluiinc of these Plans. 80. Union against (ireat Prilaiii. Steps leading to the Constitution. — 81, The Stamp Act Congress. ■ 82. Tlie I'irst Continental Congress. 83. The Second Continental Congress. 81. Tlic Declaration of Independence. The Articles of Confederation. — 8"). Difficulties of carrying on the Revolution. 80. The Articles of Confederation. 87. Principal Fea- tures of the Articles. 88. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. 89. Useful Functions performed by the Articles. 00. State of the Country at the End of the War. Formation of the Constitution. — 01. Constitutional Convention. O'J. Different Plans Submitted. O:!. Most Important Compromi.se Effected. 94. The Constitution Adopted. 05. Leading Members. 40 CHAPTER IV THE ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES CONSOLIDATION OF COLONIES 1039. Hartford, Weatliersfield, and Windsor unite to form Connecticut. Towns on Long Island Sound form New Haven Colony. 1G43. The New England Confederacy formed. 1662. Connecticut and New Haven form one colony of Connecticut. 1691. Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth unite. EARLY PLANS FOR GENERAL UNION 1697. Penn proposes a Plan of Union. 1754. Albany Congress and Franklin's Plan of Union. UNION AGAINST GREAT BRITAIN 1765. Stamp Act Congress. 1774. First Continental Congress. 1775-81. Second Continental Congress. 1776. Declaration of Independence. EXPERIMENT AND CHANGE 1781. Articles of Confederation. 1787. Constitutional Convention. 1789. New Government goes into Operation. I. Consolidation of Colonies 75. Causes of Lack of Union among the Colonies. — At first there was little if any desire for union among the colonies. They were scattered along the Atlantic coast, separated from each other by great distances. The dangers and difficulties of 41 42 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY travel and coiniuuuication prevented them from thoroughly nnderstaiuling and sympathizing with each other. Unimpor- tant differences in character, mode of life or government were sometimes sufficient to retard the growth of friendly feeling. Disputes in regard to boundaries and matters of trade, as well as jealousy of each other's prosperity, frcipiently induced a spirit of rivalry which strengthened the colonial feeling, while it tended to prevent development of national sentiment. 76. Circumstances favoring Union. — >.'evertheless, there were certain natural bonds of union that were more important than the differences l)et\veen the colonists. The colonists were niainly of English birth or descent, and spoke the same language. They had very many laws and customs similar to those of the mother country. Though the colonial forms of government differed from each other in some important respects, yet they all bore a strong general resemblance to the government of England. In addition to these circumstances, which naturally favored union, the colonists had to face certain common dangers and enemies (the French and Indians). Thus they were early taught the lesson that " in union there is strength." They profited by this lesson when the liberties which they had learned to enjoy in the New World were so seriously threat.- ened by England's policy. The growth of the idea of union was, however, very gradual. The formation of a really stable and efficient national government did not take place until 17.S9, six years after the close of the Revolutionary War, and thirteen years after the Declaration of Independence. 77. Union of Adjacent Towns and Colonies. — The early his- tory of the colonies furnished exam})les of the value of union between separate settlements and colonies. In New England, crj., we find towns and groups of towns uniting to form a sint^'le colony, as in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In the New England confederacy we have an example of the union of sev- eral colonies. This confederacy was chiefly for the purpose of protection against the Dutch and Indians, and lasted about forty years. ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 43 II. Early Plans for General Union 78. Plans suggested by Penn and by Franklin. — Some of the wisest and greatest men of colonial times saw the value of a general colonial union, and on more than one occasion plans for such a union were earnestly discussed. As early as 1697, William Penn proposed a plan which included a general colonial congress, to be composed of two delegates from each colony. He also suggested a wise scheme of taxation, which embodied the essential principles in defence of which the Revo- lutionary War was fought eighty years later. A colonial congress which met at Albany, in the year 1754, to treat with the Indians, approved a plan of union drawn up by Benjamin Franklin. It provided for a colonial congress, ap- pointed by the colonial assemblies, and a president-general, appointed by the king. The plan was rejected by the colonists, who thought it gave too much power to the king. It was also unsatisfactory to the mother country, because the English thought it gave the colonies too great a ;iieasure of independence. 79. Influence of these Plans. — ISTo attempt was made to put either of these plans into operation. But though they had no immediate practical result, yet they prepared the way for other and more successful plans. There can be but little doubt that the common interests and common dangers of the colonists would have led ultimately to the formation of a gen- eral colonial government, modelled in some sort after the Al- bany plan, even if other events had not hastened the union of the colonies. 80. Union against Great Britain. — The intercolonial wars had had the effect of producing a greater feeling of friendli- ness among the colonists, and had proved that they could unite when necessary. It had also shown the benefits to be derived from concerted action. It was the foolish colonial policy of Great Britain that hastened the formation of that union toward which the colonies were already slowly but inevitably drifting. At first there was little thought of com- 44 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES IIISTOHY plete independence. The meetings that were held were for the purpose of adopting measures that would secure the lib- erties of the colonists, and at the same time establish harmo- nious relations with the mother country. It soon became evident, however, that absolute separation from England was necessary, and the Declaration of Independence was passed by the Continental Congress. The necessity of carrying the war to a successful conclusion, and the ditficulty of dealing prop- erly with questions that ai'ose after independence had been gained, forced the problem of a general government upon the people. Their solution of this jjroblem finally took the form of the present Constitution of the United States. III. Steps leading to the Constitution 81. The Stamp Act Congress. — A congress of delegates from nine different colonies was held in New York, October, 1765, to resist the enforcement of the Stamp Act. It made a vigorous protest against the English policy, and sent remon- strances to the king and Parliament. It had no great imme- diate influence, but it tended to unite the colonies and to prepare the way for future congresses. 82. The First Continental Congress (1774). — This Congress was composed of (lelogutes from all the colonies except Geor- gia. It met in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774. IMPOUTAXT WORK OF THIS COXGUESS 1. It issued a Declaration of Rights with addresses to the king and people of England, demanding the right to levy all taxes and make all laws in the colonial legisla- tive assemblies. 2. It voted that obedience was not due to any of the recent acts of Parliament. 3. It recommended the suspension of all commercial inter- course with Great Britain unless the grievances of the colonies should be redressed. ADOPTION OF. A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 45 4. It sustained Massachusetts in her resistance, and issued a protest against standing armies being kept in the coun- try without the consent of the jjeople. 5. It recommended the holding of another Congress the next year. 83. The Second Continental Congress (1775). — Shortly after the beginning of the Ilevolution the Second Continental Con- gress met in Philadelphia, May 10, 1775. This Congress con- tinued in session (with occasional adjournments) until the adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. From that time until the Constitu.tion went into effect in 1789 the United States was governed by the Congress of the Confederation. MEASURES ADOPTED BY THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 1. It assumed control of the military operations of the colo- nies and proceeded to raise the "American Continental Army." 2. It took measures to defray the expenses of the war. 3. It organized a general post-ofhce. 4. It suggested that each colony should organize a state gov- ernment (eleven colonies did this by framing their first state constitutions ; Ehode Island and Connecticut con- tinued under their old charters). 5. It issued the Declaration of Independence. 84. The Declaration of Independence. — This famous Declara- tion, adopted July 4, 1776, definitely marked the birth of the American nation. Its purpose was to proclaim formally to the world the independence of the colonies that they might be regarded as a nation waging war with Great Britain, and not merely as her rebellious subjects. We may briefly outline its contents as follows : — 1. Preamble. 2. A statement of the rights of men. 3. The reason for establishing governments and a statement of the circumstances under which they may be changed. 40 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 4. A statement of the tyrannical acts of the king. T). An account of the colonists' effort to obtain redress, 6. The (lechiration, " that these United Colonies are, and of Right onght to be. Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Cro^vn ; and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." IV. The Articles of Confederation 85. Difficulties of carrying on the Revolution. — The colo- nies met many dilhcultics in canying un the Kevolution, owing to the absence of a strong union or general government of the states. War time, more than any other, needs a strong government with power to take charge of everything and abil- ity strictly to enforce its orders. The colonies had no such strong general government. Their Congress took charge of affairs as best it could, but it could merely advise measures, having very little power to enforce them. Out of the neces- sities of the case grew the plan known as the Articles of Confederation. 86. The Articles of Confederation. — At the same time that the committee wa.s appointed to prepare the Declaration of In- dependence, another committee was chosen to draft "The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union." Congress, after much discussion, adopted the Articles, 1777, and imme- diately sent them to the states to be approved and ratified. The new government constituted by these Articles was not to go into oi)eration until the consent of every state should be obtained. As it was almost five years before all the states rati- fied them, Congress did not assemble under the Articles of (Confederation until 1781. Meanwhile the Revolution continued, and the states, held together by their common danger, but having no written bond of union, were loosely governed by the Continental Congress. ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 47 87. Principal Features of the Articles of Confederation. — 1. The Confederation was declared to be a firm league of friendship between the several states. 2. Congress consisted of but one house, to be composed of not less than two, nor more than seven delegates from each state. 3. Each state had but one vote in the Congress. 4. No provision was made for a president, but executive power was vested in a " Committee of the States," which consisted of one delegate from each state. 5. There was no national judiciary. 6. All matters pertaining to war, finances, intercourse with other nations, disputes between the states, were to be under the control of Congress, but no power was given to Congress to enforce these rights. 7. The Articles could not be amended without the consent of all the states. 88. Defects of the Articles of Confederation. — The Articles of Confederation never proved satisfactory as a plan of union or constitution for the United States. Under them the real powers of Congress were few. Congress could not punish offenders against its own laws, could not compel the raising of a Federal army, the collection of Federal taxes, the regulation of duties on imports, obedience to its own decrees, etc. 89. The TJseful Functions performed by the Articles. — Although the Articles were so imperfect, yet they were cer- tainly better than no constitution at all. They accustomed the states to Federal government, and their very defects showed the necessity of and led up to "a more perfect union." For it was the attempt to revise and improve these Articles of Confederation which led to the adoption of the present Constitution of the United States. 90. State of the Country at the End of the War. — The defects of the Articles of Confederation became more and more glar- ing as time went on. The states quarrelled over boundaries and commercial regulations. Several states issued paper 48 SURVEY OF UNITED STATKS HISTORY money, and financial confusion and distress increased. Con- gress was powerless to correct tliese evils, and it fell into general disrepute as weak and inefficient. There was serious danger of general disunion or disruption of the Confederation, or that England might reconcjuer piecemeal the nation, wliich she had been unable to coiu^uer as a whole. V. Formation of the Constitution 91. Constitutional Convention. — The situation finally became so bad that a general convention of the states, for the i)urpose of revising the Articles of Con- federation, was recommended by Congress. The convention met, May 14, 1787, at the State House in Philadelj)hia, and continued in session until Septend)er 17, 17.S7. Washington was unanimously elected President. There were great differences of opinion among the members. The most important question was that of representation in Congress. The mendjers from the small states favored equal representation of states in Congress, those from the larger states contended for a proportional re])resentation, based upon the population of the several states. Slavery was another troublesome question to deal with. 92. Different Plans Submitted. — Many i)lans were suggested the most iini)()rt;uit being: — (a) TiiK New Jeksey Plan. — 'I'his was tlie ]»lan of the delegates from the small states. It ])roposed a mere revision of the Articles of Confederation, which should retain the one- house Congress, but provide for an executive officer and a judiciary. Gkurub Washington ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 49 (6) The Virginia Plan. — This was the plan favored by the large states. It proposed to replace the Articles of Con- federation by an entirely new constitution. It was set forth in a series of resolutions which favored proportional represen- tation in both houses of Congress, an executive chosen by both houses, and a judiciary chosen by the Senate. All during the summer months these plans were debated by the convention. The disagreements were many and at times became very bitter. It frequently seemed as if the attempt to devise a satisfactory scheme of government would end in total failure. George Washington, who was the leading spirit in calling together the convention, presided ably over its stormy sessions. Benjamin Franklin's great common sense was of the first importance in bringing about compromises without which the Constitution could not have been adopted. 93. The Most Important Compromises Effected. — The most difficult question before the convention was that of represen- tation. The delegates from the large states contended that representation in Congress should be according to population. This was opposed by the small states, who feared that the plan would confer dangerous powers upon the most populous states. They contended that the new government should be a " federation of states," in which each state should have equal representation. This dispute was finally compromised by pro- viding for a Congress of two houses, the large states conceding equality in the Senate while the small states conceded propor- tional representation in the House of Representatives. The question of slavery occasioned bitter disputes between the Northern and Southern states. The delegates from the Northern states, where there were but few slaves, contended that the slaves should not be counted in the enumeration of the population on which representation was to be based. The Southern states held that they should be included in this enu- meration. The matter was finally settled by a compromise according to which three-fifths of the slaves should be counted. The Northern and Southern states were also divided in regard 50 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY to the importation of slaves. It was finally agreed that the slavo trade sliould not bi' interfered with prior to 1808. 94. The Constitution Adopted. — The Constitution was finally completed and adopted by the convention, September 17, 1787. It was then submitted to Congress, which sent it to the differ- ent states to be ratified. It was to go into effect when ratified by nine states. It was ratified — 1787 — by Delaware, Penns^-lvania, and New Jersey. 1788 — by Georgia, Connecticut, ^Massachusetts, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, and ^Maryland. 1789 — by Xorth (Carolina. 1790 — by Rhode Island. 95. Leading' Members of the Constitutional Convention. — Alexander Hamilton, although he strongly opposed in the convention some of the fea- tures of the new Constitution, perhaps did more than any one else to bring about its ratifica- tion. Together with James Madison and John Jay he wrote the essays published as The Federalist, which did much to convince the people of the wisdom of adopting the new Constitution. JNladi.son liad taken a leading part in fram- ing the Constitution. He took notes of the discussions, which proved to be a very valuable re])()rt of the meetings. His concluding paragraph is the following characteristic story of Franklin: "Whilst the last members were signing, Dr. Franklin, looking toward the President's chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that painters hatl found it diificult to distinguish in their art a ADOPTION OF A NEW FORM OF GOVERNMENT 51 rising from a setting sun. ' I have/ said he, ' often and often in the course of this session, and in the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting ; but now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun.' " On April 30, 1789, the new Constitution, with George Wash- ington as the first President of the United States, went into operation. Congress Hall, Philadelphia. National Capital, 1790-1800 CHAPTER V ESTABLISHMENT OV THE NEW GOVERNMENT Domestic Affairs. — 9G. Difficulties confronting the New Government. HT. Political Parties. 08. Finances. 99. The Whisky Rebellion. 100. < )rs,'anization of New Territory. Foreign Complications. — 101. Washinf^on's Attitude. 102. Early Dillicultits Willi England. lO.S. France seeks an Alliance: the Genet Affair. 104. Trouble with France. 105. "Second War for Independence." 100. The Monroe Doctrine. Growth and Development. — 107. Pnnuotinn of Industries. 108. De- velopment uf the Nation. lUU. Development of Democratic Ideas. 62 CHAPTER V ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT I. Domestic Affairs 96. Difficulties confronting the New Government.— Undei the Articles of Confederation, Congress had practically no power to enforce its laws, and the states obeyed or not as they chose. Taxes could not be levied by the general government, and lack of money, therefore, still further crippled the power of Congress. The regulation of commerce was left to the states themselves, and this led to jealousies and rivalries. The foreign commerce was almost destroyed for want of a uniform system. Moreover, the Revolution had left the country deeply in debt to France and other countries, to our own soldiers and to those who had lent money to the government, while some of the states wanted to be helped to pay their debts also. These were but some of the difficulties that faced the new government. The Constitution, it was hoped, would remedy these evils. The preamble set forth its objects as follows : to (1) form a more perfect union; (2) establish justice; (3) insure domestic tran- quillity ; (4) provide for the common defence ; (5) promote the general welfare ; (6) secure the blessings of liberty. All of these objects were to be attained by provisions of the Consti- tution. The people anxiously awaited the improvements which it was believed that the new government would effect. But, as William Penn had long ago observed, " Good laws need good men to interpret and enforce them." Happily for the United States of America, good men were not wanting at this critical time. 63 54 SURVEY OF UNITKD STATKS HISTORY 97. Political Parties (See Part III, Chap. IX). — At first there were two political parties, known as Federalists and Anti-Federalists. The former were in favor of a strong na- tional government; the latter opposed this view, and wished the separate states to retain as much power as possible. They feared that a strong central government would make the United States too much like a monarchy, and thus endanger the lib- erties of the people. The early difference of opinion in regard to the power that should be granted to the nation and to the states continued to be the real basis of political parties for many years. Washington himself was a Federalist, but he showed great tact and wisdom when he chose representatives of both political views to help and advise him in his duties as President. Alexander Ham- ilton, the most prominent of the Federalist party, was made Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration ul Iiukpendence, and a strong Anti-Federal- ist, became Secretary of State. 98. Finances. — The new nation was dee])ly in debt, and money was also needed to carry on the work of the govern- ment. Hamilton therefore proposed a plan fen- raising revenue, according to which a duty or tax was to be laid on all foreign shii)s entering American ports, and on many articles of import. In 178*J a bill having tliese ends in view was passed by Con- gress, and custom-house officers were ajjpointed, whose business it was to collect the duties. Hamilton next seized the oppor- tunity to establish our national credit and place the United States on a tirju financial basis. l>y sound reasoning and per- sistent j)ers()nal effort, he induced Congress to provide for the ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 55 payment of the national debt. Not only were the debts paid which we owed to France and other countries, and to our own soldiers, and to the men who had lent us money during the Revolution, but the debts of the states were also assumed. The Anti-Federalists opposed this, as they thought it was giving too much power to the central government. Hamilton is deserving of the highest praise for his wisdom and patriotism in establish- ing the finances of the new government upon a foundation of honesty. The United States Government has never swerved from the sound and honest financial policy thus inaugurated. 99. The Whisky Rebellion. — In 1794 it was decided that a tax should be laid on the manufacture of whisky, in order to raise more money -for the government. Although the Consti- tution expressly stated that Congress Imd the power to lay and collect excises, as well as taxes, the people of western Pennsylvania determined to resist the tax. They maltreated the collectors who were sent, and stubbornly refused to pay, taking up arms to oppose what they considered an unjust law. Not only does the Constitution give Congress power to make laws, but it also requires the President to see that the laws are faithfully executed, and makes him commander-in-chief of the army. Washington, in the exercise of these constitutional powers, sent an army of fifteen thousand men to enforce the law. There was no fighting, as the mob dispersed upon the approach of the soldiers. Had Washington been a weak or vacillating char- acter, the whisky rebellion might have been a very serious mat- ter. The nation could not have been well established so long as the people believed that they could disobey the laws with impu- nity. The Constitution, unlike the Articles of Confederation, provided for a President, and gave him powers which had to be respected. 100. Organization of New Territory. — Many states quar- relled in regard to the possession of unsettled territory. Dif- ferent states laid claim to the same land, e.g. New York and New Hampshire both claimed what is now the state of Ver- mont. As early as 1779 the Continental Congress urged all 56 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY the states not to sell any of their western lands until the close of the war. New York was the first state to surrender its hind (between the sources of the Great Lakes and the Cumberland Mountains) to the general government. Shortly after, Virginia gave up its claim to western land, and other states made similar cessions. By the middle of 1787 the United States was in possession of almost two hundred million acres of public land. Tliis territory had to be organized and prepared for statehood. The Constitution expressly gives Congress the power to make all needful rules and regulations for the government of terri- tory. The government of tlio Xorthwest territory was pro- vided for by the Ordinance of 1787, which became the model for territorial government. Congress ap^winted a governor, secretary, and three judges to manage the territory. Slavery was prohibited. It was provided that new states should be formed in the Xorthwest territory as soon as tiie population was large enough. The prosperous states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin have been formed out of this region. (See map between pp. 132-1. S.S.) II. Foreign Complications 101. Washington's Attitude. — In the establishment of the new governuieiit nt)t only was it necessary to meet the domes^ tic difficulties, such as the payment of debts, the raising of revenue, enforcement of laws, etc., but there were foreign complications as well. The United States was now an inde- pendent nation, and the question arose as to what should be its attitude toward other nations. Washington with his great foresight believed that the new republic was not ready to mingle with the affairs of other nations, especially as it was far from being strongly established itself. He saw the dangers likely to arise from foreign entanglements or alliances, and therefore carefully avoided them. 102. Early DiflBiculties with England. — In spite of the pro- visions of the treaty of peace, British troops were still in possession of forts in the neighborhood of Lake Erie. England ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 57 contended that the United States had not fulfilled all its obligations under the treaty, and she refused to withdraw her troops. In addition to the irritation thus caused, much feeling was aroused, especially in New England, by British interference with our commerce. Many leading statesmen were in favor of declaring war against England. In spite of the popular outcry, Washington made the best peaceable adjustment of the diffi- culty that he could. Chief Justice Jay went as special envoy to England and secured a treaty (1794) which, while not entirely satisfactory, was accepted by Washington as the best that could be had. The forts were given up, our honor was maintained, and a war was averted. Washington was violently attacked for agreeing to the treaty, but it was prob- ably one of the wisest acts of his administration. 103. France seeks an Alliance : the Genet Affair, — Similar wisdom and sagacity were shown by Washington in his treat- ment of " Citizen " Genet, a minister sent to this country dur- ing the French Kevolution who sought to secure our aid for France, which was then at war with Great Britain. Washing- ton's firmness and determination in this case were all the more praiseworthy as there was great popular clamor and enthusiasm for the cause of France. The French had aided us during the Revolution, and it seemed but proper gratitude that we should accede to her request, Washington felt that a war with England at this time would be disastrous to the nation, so he steadfastly refused to consider Genet's request. Instead, he issued a proclamation stating that the United States was neutral and would not interfere in any quarrels between Euro- pean nations. Genet then appealed directly to the people to assist France in spite of the commands of the President, and he succeeded in arousing much popular excitement. Wash- ington, however, demanded his recall, and France promptly obeyed. 104, Trouble with France. — Later, in John Adams's ad- ministration, the country was nearly involved in a war with France. She was angered because the United States did not 68 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY take up her quarrel aud help her against England. American merchant vessels were captured, and our envoys insulted. War was threatened unless we should give the French considerable money. This bid for a bribe was greeted with scorn. To the French demands Pinckney made the famous reply, "Millions for defence ; not one cent for tribute.'' This sentiment is as marked a characteristic of Americanism as was the prudent non-interference of Washington. While the United States has always been unwilling to interfere in foreign quarrels, it has not been reluctant or tardy in nuiintaining its rights. Pinck- ney's words of defiance aroused the country. War broke out, and several French vessels were captured. When Napoleon came into power, however, hostilities ceased. (See § 110.) 105. "Second War for Independence." — As war continued between France and England, the interference with American commerce became more and more unbearable. The frequent impressment of American seamen by England made the feeling still more bitter. At last, in IMadison's administration, war was declared against England. (See Part II, Chap. VI.) This war was of such importance in connection with the establish- ment of the new nation that it is sometimes called the Second War for Independence. In the first place, it gained for us the respect of foreign nations. The United States was henceforth regarded as a power that could not be insulted with impunity. We had shown our readiness and ability to maintain our rights, and England especially, which had boasted the title of "mistress of the seas," more than once had to lower her colors before the courage and skill of the American navy. In gaining the respect of other nations, we were ourselves inspired with confidence. By the end of the War of 1812 the republic had passed through its experimental stage. The " period of weakness " was ovex". The feeling of confidence and security showed itself in many ways. Literature, science, and arts began to flourish, and the impulse was given to a century of national progress which has not been exceeded, if it has been equalled, by any other country in any other age. The period following ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 59 the war (Monroe's administration) presented such a pleasant contrast to the previous troublous times that it was known as the " Era of Good Feeling." In addition to this important result of the war, home industry, especially manufacturing, was greatly encouraged. Owing to our imports being cut off for several years, factories were started, especially cotton and woollen mills, to supply us with goods which, under other circumstances, we would have purchased from abroad. The foundation was thus laid for a manufacturing industry which to-day makes the United States one of the most prosperous manufacturing countries of the world. 106. The Monroe Doctrine. — The Monroe Doctrine may also be viewed as indirectly a result of the self-confidence inspired by the War of 1812. It expressed in positive terms the attitude of the United States toward other nations of the world. Mexico and the South American republics had declared themselves independent of Spain and established republican governments. It was feared that some European nation would try to help Spain regain her possessions. Presi- dent Monroe declared in a message to Congress that while we would not interfere with European quarrels, we should also resist any European interference in this continent. Europe has heeded the Monroe doctrine, and to-day almost the entire American continent is formed of self-governing republics. III. Gro-wrth and Development 107. Promotion of Industries. — In addition to the impetus given to manufacturing by the cutting off of our imports during the War of 1812, home production was further encour- aged by a system of protective tariff. The purpose of the tariff was to lay such a duty on imports that it would be cheaper to buy home products. Opinions were divided as to the wisdom of this policy. The protective tariff, or "American system," as it was called, certainly had the effect of greatly increasing our manufacturing, especially in the North. The Constitution provides that Congress shall have power to 60 SURVEY OF UNITP:I) STATES HISTORY " promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited periods of time, to autliors and inventors, the exclu- sive right to their respective writings and discoveries." In pursuance of this power Congress passed laws concerning copy- rights and patents. As a result, inventors have been encour- aged and the century just past has been a most reinarkaV)le one for the number and importance of its inventions. (See Part IV, Chap. XI.) 108. Development of the Nation. — The rapid duvekrpment of the resources of the country was assured as soon as order ~T^i^,^^.±_^^^^-^^^^ Lkwis and Clark's Hoite was established and a stable currency provided. (See Part III, (^'hap. VIII.) The expedition under Lewis and Clark, sent out during Jefferson's administration to explore the Louisiana territory, which had recently been purchased, was exceedingly important. It furnished knowledge of the vast resources of the far West, which later aroused a desire for emigration. The government encouraged emigration and settlement of the new territory west of the Alleghanies by making free grants of land, in some cases exempting the settlers from taxation. The cause of free education was furthered by land grants. Under this stimulus the territories increased in population and prospered. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW GOVERNMENT 61 Western emigration was further encouraged by the construe- tion of a great national road. This work was pushed forward during Monroe's administration. The road eventually extended almost to the Mississippi. The breaking of the power of the Indians, who were a constant menace in the Northwest terri- tory, also encouraged emigration to that region. Cincinnati was founded in 1788. Shortly after, the first western news- paper was published. One by one new states were admitted to the Union. The beginning was made in Washington's administration, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee being added to the thirteen original states. Ohio was the first of the states formed out of the Northwest territory to be admitted to the Union. Route of the National Road. 109. Development of Democratic Ideas. — While the nation was thus becoming firmly established, the fundamental ideas of the Declaration of Independence were deeply influencing the people. The notion of the equality of all men had also found expression in a clause of the Constitution forbidding Congress to grant any title of nobility. Everything of a monarchical character or tendency was looked upon with mingled suspicion and contempt. This idea of equality had roused the people of France to revolution. During the " Reign of Terror" the king and queen had been beheaded, and the streets of Paris ran red with the blood of the nobility. This was during Washington's administration, at the time that Genet was endeavoring to obtain our assistance for France. Many of the Americans sympathized with the French, and were deeply stirred by their democratic enthusiasm. In imita- G2 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY tion of tlie Fipiicli tliey called each other "citizen,'' and in every way possil)!^ showed tlieir disapitroval of everytliing that savored of royalty. This feelinj; was manifested espe- cially by the anti-Federalists, who always feared that the rif^hts of the people were in danger of being encroached upon. It was due to their efforts that the first ten anieudnients to the Constitution, known as the ** Bill of Kights," were passed, all of which were intended carefully to insure the rights and guard the personal liberty of the people. When Thomas Jefferson, the most prominent of the anti- Federalists and author of the l^eclaration of Independence, became President, the princi- ples of equality and democracy were strongly emphasized. In his dress and manner he set an exami)le of "republican simplicity." He mingled with the people as one of them. AN'ashington and Adams, both somewhat inHuenced by mo- narchical customs, stood more apart from the people. They addressed the Congress in per- son. Jefferson, on the con- trary, merely sent a written message. His example has been followed by all subse- quent presidents, with the exception of Woodrow Wilson. The Declaration of Independence, the enthusiastic sympathy aroused by the Freiu'h Revolution, and Jefferson's personal examj)le all gave expression to the lil)erty-loving instincts of the American people. America stands to-day as the country of ecjuality and liberty. It is most fitting that the first object to greet the eye of the foreigner api)roac]iing New York harbor should be the statue of Liberty, a gift of the French repul)li(\ blAXUK Ul- I.IUKKTV In New York Harbor PAET II TROUBLES AT HOME AND ABROAD CHAPTER VI Troubles with Foreign Countries Foreign Wars ........... 65 War of 1812 66 ( )regon Boundary Dispute ......... 69 War witli Mexico 70 Spanish-American War 74 Tiie World War 76 CHAPTER VII Indian Wars. Slavery and the Civil War Troubles with the Indians History of Slavery ...... National Progress and the Slavery Question Early History of Slavery .... Increased Importance of the Slavery Question Anti-slavery Agitation .... The Question settled ..... The Civil War Causes of the War ..... Events of the War Effects and Consequences of the War 79 82 82 83 84 91 91 92 95 63 CHAPTER VI TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES Foreign "Wars. — 110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. War of 1812. — 111. Causes of the War. 112. Declaration of War. li;5. The War on Land. 114. Naval Success. 115. Effects of the War. Oregon Boundary Dispute. — 110. Conflicting Claims. 117. "54° 40' or (JLiht."" 118. Settlement by Treaty. War w^ith Mexico. — 119. Events leading to the War. 120. Immediate Cause of War. 121. Campaign Plan.s. 122. Success of United States. 12.3. Result of the War. 124. Justice of the War. 125. Later Relations with Mexico. Spanish-American War. — 120. Cau.ses of the War. 127. Destruction of the Mainr. 128. Success of the United States Army and Navy. 129. Treaty of I'eace. 130. Government of the Islands. 131. Prob- lems for the Future. The World War. — 132. The Great European Conflict. 1.33. Dith- culties of the Neutral States. 134. America in the Worlil War. 64 CHAPTER VI TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES I. Foreign "Wars 110. Troubles with France and Tripoli. — For nearly the first century of its national life the United States had comparatively little trouble with foreign nations. In its intercourse with other nations difficulties and disagreements have frequently arisen, but it has generally been possible to settle these ami- cably by treaty. The Oregon boundary question is an instance of this. There have been several occasions upon which diffi- culties with foreign nations led to open hostilities, though not to serious wars. The first was the difficulty with France in John Adams's administration. It was due to French inter- ference with American commerce and the dishonorable attempt to extort mone}'' from the envoys as the price of peace. This aroused such indignation that preparations were made for war (1798), and some French vessels were captured. When Napo- leon came into power (1799), he speedily made peace, receiving the American envoys with the respect due to the representa- tives of an independent nation. The war with Tripoli (1801) was merely a naval expedition against the pirates of the Bar- bary states of North Africa, who had been exacting tribute from the nations of Europe as well as of America. The United States deserves the credit of having first brought the ruler of Tripoli to terms and of securing the freedom of the Mediter- ranean for merchant vessels. These two conflicts proved to the world that although the United States was a young and struggling nation, it was determined nevertheless to maintain its rights. On three other occasions, however, the international 6h nfi SURVEY OF rXITED STATES HISTORY diffcronces were of a more serious nature and were settled by wars of a more extensive character. The early years of the nineteenth century were marked by the War of 1812 with England ; the middle of the century saw the Mexican War (1846-48) ; and near its close occurred the Spanish War (1898), fortunately of but a few months' duration. II. "War of 1812 111. Causes of the War. — The war between England and France had proved very disasti'ous to American commerce. Each of the warring nations issued orders forbidding ships of neutral nations to enter the other's ports. Ships that attempted to disobey these orders were liable to be captured by the foreign warships. The Embargo Act (1807) and Non- intercourse Act (1809) were passed by Congress in the attempt to remedy the matter. The one forbade any American vessel to leave port, the other prohibited commercial intercourse with P^ngland and France. It was expected that these laws would compel England and France to revoke their orders; but they proved to be unwise pieces of legislation, and worked serious injury to America. The commercial distress that they occa- sioned inflamed the people against the primary cause of all the trouble. The other and principal cause of the war was the riglit which England claimed to search American ships, and take from them sailors who they claimed were ISritish subjects. This was known as tlie" right of search." The claim itself was unjust enough, and the high-handed manner in which the commanders of British warships exercised the '< right" raised America's anger to the highest pitch. The people demanded the right to send their ships where they pleased, and protection for their sailors against such seizures. These denmnds found voice in the battle cry of the war party : " Free Trade and Sailor's IJights." 112. Declaration of War (1812). — (Mlier less iini)ortant events had helped to fan the ill will of the people against England. England had been suspected of encouraging Indian THE WAR IN THE SOUTH Reference Maps for the War of 1812 68 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY outbreaks, and of endeavoring to persuade New England to se- cede from tlie Union iind to join Canada. Madison, however, was a peace-loving man and delayed final action as long as jjossible ; but public indignation against Great Britain's acts forced Con- gress to declare war in the summer of 1812. In view of the great damage to commerce and the impressment of several thousand men by the British navy, it is surprising that war was not declared sooner. There was good cause for war against France also, but she was the traditional friend of the United States, and her offences had not been so grave as Great Brit- ain's, Moreover, the country was not well prepared for war against one, to say nothing of fighting two powerful enemies. 113. The "War on Land. — The campaign on land soon demon- strated the utter lack of preparation of the Americans for the conflict. The British Canadian possessions were the object of attack, but the American generals, principally Revolutionary officers too old for such active service, managed the invasion poorly, and the result was failure. General Hull, who was in command of the American forces at Detroit, surrendered that city and all ^lichigau to the British without firing a gun in its defence. It now began to appear that instead of conquering Canada, the Americans might lose the entire Northwest terri- tory. Later some successes were achieved by younger and more competent generals. These operations were all on the Canadian border around the Great Lakes. English warships plundered and burned some Atlantic ports and succeeded in keeping the seaboard in a state of terror. The burning of Washington by the invaders was a disgrace- ful incident of the war. The repulse of the British at New Orleans was a brilliant victory for the Americans, who were under the command of General Jackson. The Americans lost about seventy against two thousand killed, wounded, and mis- sing of the eiiciiiy. 114. Naval Success. — In striking contrast to the reverses of the army were the brilliant successes of the navy. The disparity of naval forces was very great, England having by TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 69 far the greater number of vessels. Yet such was the superiority of discipline and marksmanship of the American sailor that an almost unbroken succession of naval victories was gained. The frigate Coyistitution (Old Ironsides) made an especially- brilliant record. Perry's celebrated victory on Lake Erie, with ships built from the green wood of the Michigan forests, saved the Northwest territory. Macdonough's victory on Lake Champlain prevented invasion of New York. Privateers of both nations scoured the seas, but each nation suffered heavily in this kind of warfare. 115. Effects of the War. — The treaty of peace which ended the war apparently left things as they were before, strangely enough saying nothing at all about the British claim of " right of search," the primary cause of the trouble. Nevertheless our great naval victories had banished all fear of any future attempt on the part of Great Britain to press such a claim. The remarkable battle of New Orleans had proved the ability of the army to repel invasion. The war, therefore, had not been fought in vain. It convinced the world that no European nation could hope to gain a foothold on the territory of the United States. One important effect of the war was to give a great impulse to manufacturing in the United States. The destruction of commerce had compelled the home manufacture of goods for which we had formerly depended upon other countries. The war has fitly been called " The Second War for Inde- pendence." Its conclusion marked the end of the first quarter century of national life — "■ The Period of Weakness." This was now followed by the growth of a strong feeling of nation- ality. It was the dawn of a new era in America, remarkable for internal improvements and increased prosperity. III. Oregon Boundary Dispute 116. Conflicting Claims. — The territory between upper Cal- ifornia and the southern boundary of Alaska (54° 40') was claimed by both the United States and England. The United 70 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY States based its claim upon the discovery of the Cohimbia River by Robert Gray (1792), the exploration by Lewis and Clark (1805) (see § 108), and the establishment of a trading- post, Astoria, by John Jacob Astor (1811). England's claims were based upon still earlier discovery and settlement. A treaty granting joint occupancy was made (1818), and the question did not assume importance for many years. 117. "54" 40' or Fight." — Astor sold out to an English fur- trading company and it looked at one time as if the English would gain control. Dr. Marcus AVhitman, an American mis- sionary, made great efforts (1842-4;>), however, to secure the Oregon country for the United States by inducing immigra- tion. He successfully organized a large emigj-ant train and piloted it to the Columbia River. The Americans were soon in the majority and organized a local government. The demand for the whole territory became very strong, one of the campaign cries of 1844 being " 54° 40' or fight." 118. Settlement by Treaty. — Fortunately temperate and wise councils pievuiled, and the matter was settled by a compromise treaty, according to the terms of which the Oregon territory was divided, ICngland securing that portion north of the 49th parallel, the United States the portion south. Thus there was added to the United States a vast territory whose ownership had been in dispute. It was a great triumph for the jjriuciple of peaceful dijjlomatic settlement of international disagree- ments, as against the unwise and costly appeal to the barbari- ties of war. (See map between pages 132-133.) IV. "War with Mexico 119. Events leading to the War. — Texas was originally a part of Mexican territory. Euiigrauts from the United States in large numbers settled a portion of the territory, and becom- ing dissatisfied with ISIexican rule, set up a government of their own. The attempt of Mexico to quell this revolt was defeated ; and Texas became an independent republic (1830), and was treated as such by the United States and other nations. Mex- TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 71 ico, however, did not formally relinquish her claim over the country. In 1837 Texas, the " Lone Star State," applied for ad- mission to the Union, but was not formally annexed until 1845. Its annexation had been strongly urged by the South, as it would mean an extension of slave territory and increased in- SCALE OF MILES ^ il l I . I I I 6 ioo aoo 300 400 wo Kn\y^if' i'^JJ^SIf Saata,I-e'/.',r-, ~ T ^^f'-W^^o, \& — V^l .\o\ ^'^1 It -, J N— \ ^6^Cljjhuahua1 Map of the Mexican War fluence in favor of slavery in both houses of Congress. On this account some historians regard slavery as the real cause of the Mexican War. 120. Immediate Cause of the War. — The immediate cause of the war was a boundary dispute between Texas and Mexico, 72 SUKVKY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY The former claimed to the Rio Grande, the hitter to the Nueces Kiver. The United States supported the claim of Texas, and sent troops to the disputed territory. Some encounters took place with Mexican soldiers, and Congress shortly afterward declared war. 121. Campaign Plans. — Armies to invade Mexico and cap- ture its capital were sent by way of the Rio Grande and Vera Cruz. Another army was sent against the Mexican territory of New Mexico, and a fleet on the Pacific attacked California. 122. Success of the United States. — The United States troops had to force their way fur great distances through a very ditti- cult and hostile country, and were invariably greatly outnum- bered by the opposing armies. The Mexicans, however, were poorly armed and disciplined, and though they did not lack in courage, were defeated in every engagement. The war ended with General Scott in possession of the City of Mexico, and United States troops occupying New Mexico and California. 123. Result of the War. — The treaty of peace, which was concluded in 1848, was very favorable to the United States. The Texas boundary claim was acknowledged, and upper California and New ^Mexico, as then constituted, were ceded to the United States for ^15,000,000. Thus was acquired a ter- ritory larger than the United States at the close of the Revo- lution. The assumption by the United States of certain Mexican debts raised the cost of this new territory to over $25,000,000. This was thought by many at the time to be an expensive bargain, but subsequent events have proved its enor- mous value. 124. Justice of the War. — Opinion differed greatly as to tlie justice of this war. On the one hand it was held that the Mexican government was so unstable that arrangements satis- factorily guaranteeing the rights of Americans could not have been made without recourse to war. On the other hand, it was argued, that all the events immediate and remote leading up to the war made the latter an unjustifiable war of conquest, waged by a strong nation against a feeble neighbor. MAP SHOWING THE TERRITORY ACQUIRED FROM MEXICO AS THE RESULT OF THE MEXICAN WAR Longitude West W £iom Greenwicn TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 73 125. Later Relations with Mexico. During the Civil War, while the government of the United States was too busily engaged to prevent the invasion, the French sent troops to Mexico, overthrew the government, set up an empire in its stead with Maximilian, an Archduke of Austria, as Emperor, This was in violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and when the Civil War was concluded, the United States government de- manded that France withdraw her troops from Mexican terri- tory. France acceded to this demand, Maximilian was captured and shot by the Mexicans (1867), and the danger of the estab- lishment of a foreign empire on American soil was averted. Thus the United States in a critical period of Mexican history materially assisted that country to regain its freedom to de- velop as an independent and sovereign nation. Mexico suffered from internal dissensions until Porfirio Diaz became president (1877). Diaz restored order and maintained peace for more than thirty years, but his rule, though giving to Mexico the appearance of prosperity, was said to favor for- eign capitalists and wealthy landowners, while being grossly oppressive to the common people. The latter were kept in a state of " peonage " little better than slavery. To correct these evils, the people under various patriotic leaders resorted to force, and the revolutionary movements thus inaugurated (1910) threatened to embroil other countries, the lives and property of whose subjects or citizens resident in Mexico were endangered. There were many in the United States who thought that this country should intervene in Mexico in order to restore law and order. President Taft, however, adopted a policy of strict neutrality, and Wilson, who succeeded him, one of '• watchful waiting " in order that the Mexican people might be permitted to work out their own salvation. A raid upon the border town of Columbus, Texas, however, under the leadership of Villa, a Mexican chieftain, led the United States to send a punitive expedition into Mexico in his pur- suit. Although the " First Chief," Carranza, head of the gov- ernment of Mexico, was himself fighting Villa, the presence 74 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY of American troops on Mexican soil was strongly resented, and relations between the two countries were severely strained. The American troops failed to capture Villa, who hid in the mountains, and were finally withdrawn across the border. The international situation presented numerous and serious diffi- culties. It was generally realized that intervention would mean war with ]Mexico. Those who supportedlPresident Wilson felt that this should be avoided if possible and that the United States should endeavor to assist its weaker and sorely afflicted neighbor to establish a progressive, independent, and stable government that would assure it lasting peace and prosperity. V. The Spanish-American War 126. Causes of the War. — In the early years of the nine- teenth century, Spanish misrule in Florida was a source of trouble to the United States, This difficulty, fortunately, was amicably settled (1819) by the Florida purchase. The United States did not, however, thus entirely get rid of its trouble- some neighbors. Spain still held Cuba, an island so near the shores of the United States that the latter could not avoid being interested in its welfare and progress. Spain, unfortu- nately, seemed incapable of governing the Cubans. The island was in a state of chronic rebellion. The severe measures taken by Spain to put down the rebellion enlisted the sym- pathy of Americans for the Cubans in their struggle for inde- pendence. Unsuccessful attempts were made to have Congress formally recognize the Cuban republic. Filibustering ex])edi- tions were fitted out which succeeded in carrying aid to the Cubans in spite of the efforts of the United States government to prevent it. Although the United States government thus at- tempted to maintain a friendly or neutral attitude to Spain, there was much resentment felt by the Spanish against the attempted American interference. The excessively cruel " Ileconcentrado '' policy of the Spanish governor-general Weyler, aroused the American people to a high pitch of indignation, and it soon became evident that interference of some kind nmst t;ike place. TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 75 127. The Destruction of the " Maine ' (February 15, 1898). — The mysterious blowing up of the Maine in Havana harbor while on a friendly visit to Cuba undoubtedly hastened American intervention. Congress declared war April 21, 1898, avowing its purpose to restore peace to Cuba and give its people an oppor- tunity to establish for themselves a stable form of government. 128. Success of United States Army and Navy. — Fortunately the war was a very brief one, the United States army and navy being uniformly successful. Admiral Dewey completely de- stroyed the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay without the loss of a single sailor. Another American fleet under Admirals Sampson and Schley won a similar victory (July 3) over the Spanish fleet under Cervera as the latter attempted to escape from Santiago harbor. The land battles took place near Santiago de Cuba, which was captured by the Americans. 129. Treaty of Peace. — Hostilities were suspended (August 12) while negotiations for peace were in progress in Paris. By the terms of the treaty, Spain gave up her claim to Cuba, and ceded Porto Rico and her other West India islands to the United States, thus withdrawing from the Western Hemi- sphere. Spain also gave up the Philippines, receiving in ex- change $20,000,000. 130. Government of the Islands. — The United States estab- lished a civil government in Cuba, pending the establishment of a government by the Cubans themselves. This was Anally accomplished in 1902 and the United States withdrew. Porto Rico was made a territory. The rebellion of the Filipinos against the Spanish government which existed during the Spanish-American War later became a rebellion against the United States. The government promptly quelled the rebel- lion and established^ order in the islands. In 1901 military rule was changed to civil government, and a civil governor, William H. Taft, was appointed by the President. 131. Problems for the Future. — Just what the ultimate dis- position of our new possessions will be is impossible to proph- esy. Will Cuba be able to govern itself '? Is annexation to 76 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES IIISTOUV the United States a probable event? Is such annexation de- sirable? Is it or is it not right? are questions that receive different answers from both Cubans and Americans. In February, 1917, Congress gave to the inhabitants of Porto Rico full rights of United States citizenshi]), and a large meas- ure of self-government. Should the Filipinos be given their independence ? If not, shall our treatment of the Asiatic archipelago be similar to our treatment of Porto Rico? Must the United States develop a colonial policy? This array of, questions indicates the serious nature of the problems that confront the United States. Faith in her past achievements leads us to have confidence that she will so solve them that the Spanish AVar will prove to have been what it was origi- nally declared to be — a war for humanity, , VI. The "World War 132. The Great European Conflict. — In August, 1914, Austria- Hungary declared war against Serbia and soon thereafter most of the nations of Europe became embroiled in the conflict. The " Central Powers " — Germany and Austria-Hungary — assisted by Turkey and later by Bulgaria, were arrayed against Russia, which had supported Serbia, France, Pjelgium, England, and Japan. These " Allies " were later joined l)y Italy, Portu- gal, Roumania, and the United States. Including the colonies of these nations, more than sixty per cent of the inhabitable land area of the world and nearly sixty per cent of its })0})ula- tion were represented in this titanic struggle. It has been de- scribed as not only the most stupendous war in all history but the most ai»])alling disaster that lias over befallen civilization. 133. DiflBculties of the Neutral Nations. — The warring na- tions in their life-and-death struggle with each other disregarded or trespassed upon the rights of neutrals. Commerce was not only seriously interfered with, but ships were captured or sunk and the lives of their crews and passengers jeopardized or lost. Finally, on April 6, 1917, the United States officially declared war against Germany. TROUBLE WITH FOREIGN COUNTRIES 77 134. America in the World War. — Every part of the United States now became the scene of intense and enthusiastic war activity. Men, ships, munitions, food, and money were hur- ried to the hard-pressed Allies, The terrible strain of three years of heroic resistance to the terrific onslaught of Teutonic warfare had left the people and armies of Belgium, England, and France almost exhausted. In the spring of 1918, after the collapse of Russia, the Ger- man and Austrian armies determined on a decisive and crushing- campaign against the Allies on the western front. They fully realized that with America against them, the victory must be won quickly if at all. But they were too late. General Foch, who had been made Commander-in-Chief of the Allied forces, now had not only the material but the moral help of the aroused Americans. With the assistance of General Pershing, Com- mander of the American Expeditionary Forces, splendid victo- ries had been won at Cantigny, Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Fismes. At St. Mihiel, an American Army under the direct command of Pershing won a great victory, taking thousands of prisoners, hundreds of guns, and liberating a num- ber of French villages. Later the Americans drove the enemy from the forest of the Argonne and thus opened up a direct path to Germany. While this terrific counter attack of the Allies aided by the Americans was in progress, Germany's allies — Austria, Bulga- ria, and Turkey — had practically surrendered. Knowing that further resistance was useless, Germany, on November 11, 1918, pleaded for an armistice. Thus the great war was ended, for everyone understood that the request for a cessation of hostili- ties was really a surrender, and that Germany not only gave up her dream of world dominion, but also acknowledged her- self defeated. The German representatives signed the treaty of peace at Versailles, June 28, 1919, but it was not until late in 1921 that peace was officially restored between Germany and the United States, CHAPTER VII INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR Troubles with the Indians. — 135. Characteristics of the Indians. i;jii. Relations between the Whites and Indians. 137. Conflicts be- fore the Revulution. 138. Since the Revolution. 139. Treatment of the Indians since the Civil War. History of Slavery. — Introiluctonj, — 140. National Progress and the Slavery Question. Early History of Slavery. — 141 . Beginnings of Slavery in the North and South. 142. Slavery abolished in the North. 143. Laws against Importation of Slaves. 144. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. Increased Impurtance of the Slavery Question. — 145. Effect of In- vention of the Cotton Gin. 14G. Slavery becomes a I'olitical Ques- tion. 147. The Missouri Compromise. Anti-Slavery Arjitation. — 148. Abolition. 140. Annexation of Texas. 150. Wilmot Provi.so. 151. Omnibus Rill. 152. Anti-Slavery Feeling Intensilied. 153. Kansas-Nebraska Rill. 154. Debates of Lincoln and Douglas. 155. Dred Scott Decision. 15(). John Brown's Raid. The Question Settled. — 157. Election of Lincoln. 158. South Carolina Secedes. 150. Emancipation rroclamation. 160. Thir- teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. The Civil War. — Causes of the War. — 1*51. Growth of Slavery in the South. I(i2. Effect.s of Slavery on the South. 1()3. Effects of Free- dom on the North. 1(>4. The Doctrine of State Rights. I(i5. Effect of the Election of Lincoln. 10(5. The Question at Issue. Events of the War. — 167. Beginning of the War. KiS. The South on the Defensive. 109. The Union Plan, and how it was carried out. Effects and Consequences of the War. — 170. Results of the War. 171. The Problem of lU'Con.struction. 172. How the Problem wa-s Solved. 173. The Alabama Claims. 78 CHAPTER VII INDIAN WARS. SLAVERY AND THE CIVIL WAR I. Troubles with the Indians 135. Characteristics of the Indians. — The original inhabit ants of America, the Indians, as tliey were misnamed by Columbus, were not very numerous. It is estimated that there were only about 250,000 east of the Mississippi. They were divided into many tribes, and were scattered over a great extent of territory. They did a little rude farming, but main- tained themselves principally by hunting and fishing. They moved so frequently from place to place that they could hardly be said to " possess " the land of which they made so little use. Disease and bitter wars between the tribes kept their numbers from growing. The tribal feuds also prevented the Indians from uniting successfully against the white in- vaders of their hunting grounds. They were patient, brave, and tireless hunters, with remarkable knowledge of woodcraft. Believing in the duty of "blood revenge," they became the savage and relentless foes of any who treated them badly. In warfare they were exceedingly treacherous and cruel. They were capable, however, of appreciating good treatment, and would repay kindness with kindness. 136. Relations between the Whites and the Indians. — The French treated the Indians well. The missionaries made great sacrifices to convert them to Christianity, while the fur- traders did everything to gain their good will, treating them as equals and even intermarrying with them. The Iroquois, against whom the French had once fought, were the only Indians of the region claimed by France who were not her 79 80 SURVEY OF UNITKl) STATHS IIISTORV strong allies. Most of the trouble that the English had with the Indians can be traced to unwise or unjust treatment of them. The settlers of the Middle colonies treated the Indians fairly, and thus established friendly relations with them, which were maintained for many years. The Virginians, profiting by the wise control of John Smith, had comitaratively little trouble with the red men. New England, however, was the scene of cruel wars, largely because the settlers of that region regarded the Indians as a " nest of serpents " to be " rooted out of the world." The Indians complained that " the English made them drunk and then cheated them in bargains." It should be borne in mind, however, that the Indians of New England were fiercer and more warlike than those of the ^Middle and Southern colonies. 137. Conflicts before the Revolution. — There were frequent conflicts between the early white settlers and the Indians One of the most important of these was known as the Pequot War (1G37). It was waged by the inhabitants of the towns in the Connecticut Valley against the Pequot Indians, who had been plotting against the whites. The war was carried into the Indians' country, and resulted in the practical extermination of the tribe. The next important Indian war occurred in Ma.ssachusetts in 1675, and was known as King Philip's War, because it was led by a celebrated Indian chief of tliat iiainc. It lasted two years, and ended with the death of King I 'hill p and the comjdete dostnirjion of the ])()wor of the Indian league. During the intercolonial wars, the Indians, with the exception of the powerful Iroquois tribe of New York, assisted the French. The last attempt of the Indians to resist the colonists occurred shortly after the close of the French and Indian War. It was known as Pontiac's conspiracy. The Indians under Pontiac wore decisively defeated. 138. Since the Revolution. — During the Revolution, the British instigated the Indians to attack the Americans. Hor- rible massacres took place in western Pennsylvania and New York. In Washington's administration there were Indian INDIAN WARS 81 troubles on the western frontier. The Indians were at first successful, but were afterward badly beaten by General Anthony Wayne. The next serious difficulty occurred with the Creeks of the Southwest territory, during the War of 1812. General Andrew Jackson defeated them, securing this terri- tory for the United States. He later (1818) conquered the Seminoles of Florida. Jackson's success indirectly led to our obtaining this territory from Spain. (See § 229.) The Black Hawk War (1832) resulted from the opposition of the Indians to the westward movement of the Americans. They were finally driven beyond the Mississippi River. The Seminoles, who had meanwhile broken out again, were also forced west of the Mississippi. In 1872 the Modocs, and in 1876 the Sioux, of the extreme West were compelled to occupy reservations in the Indian Territory, but not without serious wars. In the Sioux War General Custer and his entire command were destroyed. 139. Treatment of the Indians since the Civil War. — The United States government has for a long time pursued the policy of restricting the various Ind- ian tribes to certain districts called reservations, where it has also aided them by distributing allowances of ammunition, food, etc. Unfortu- nately, cattle-kings and gold-hunters have frequently invaded the Indian reservations, utterly disregarding the rights supposed to be secured to the red men by treaties between them and the United States government. The government agents have also been corrupt in their dealings with the Indians. These acts of injustice have been the cause of most of the Indian uprisings. General Grant- attempted to improve matters by his " Quaker policy " (1869), by which he gp.ve the manage- A Kiowa Chief From a photograph 82 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY ment of the reservations into the hands of members of the Society of Friends. The governmeut has further attempted to civilize the Indians by giving them independent ownership of farm- land, thus inducing them to become self-supporting. Efforts have also been successfully made to ciWlize the Indians by establishing schools for the education of their youth. The prevalent notion that the Indians are dying out seems to be erroneous. It is estimated that they are about as numerous to-day as they were when the continent was first discovered. History of Slavery I. Introductory 140. National Progress and the Slavery Question. — The problem of government which confronted the United States at the close of the Revolution was satisfactorily settled by the adoption of the Constitution and the wise administration of Washington and his successors. "The Second War for Inde- pendence " (1812) won the " Free Trade and Sailor's Rights " for which it had been fought, and firmly established the United States as a nation. Acquisition of territory both by pur- chase and conquest extended the country's domain to the Pacific. Great tides of immigration flowed into the new land and developed its resources. Maiuifacturiug, mining, and com- merce increased at such an unexampled rate that the internal development of the country more than kept pace with its great increase in area and its growth of population. This peaceful prosperity, however, was seriously disturbed by the great social and industrial question of slavery. Should the land west of the Mississippi be free or slave soil ? The INlissouri Oom- promise was passed (1.S20), and many believed that it had settled the question forever. It ]»roved to be only a tem])or- ary answer to the question. The struggle between those for and those against slavery continued, and finally became so bitter that it involved the countrv in the most terrible civil HISTORY OF SLAVERY 83 war of history (1861-65). It took many years for the nation to recover fro}u the effects of this disastrous war. Its great cost in life and treasure can only be justified by what it accom- plished for human freedom. II. Early History of Slavery 141. Beginnings of Slavery in the North and South. — The history of slavery in the United States is a long story, extend- ing back to colonial times. Beginning with the importation of a few negroes into Virginia (1619), the practice of slave-holding gradually extended until by 1776 slavery existed in every one of the colonies. By 1790 there were over 600,000 slaves in the South, and about 40,000 in the North. This difference was due to the fact that slave labor never proved profitable in the North. The slaves were employed there generally as house servants. In the South, however, the institution flourished because the slaves seemed well adapted for labor in the rice fields and on the tobacco and indigo plantations. Later they were of great service in the cotton fields. 142. Slavery abolished in the North. — Opposition to slave- holding was soon manifested. Even in the South there were many who objected to the custom. Some Quakers of Pennsyl- vania held a meeting as early as 1688 to protest against slavery, but it was not until 1780 that Pennsylvania provided by law for its gradual abolition. The Northern states one after the other abolished slavery, so that by 1810 there were no slaves north of Mason and Dixon's line. 143. Laws against the Importation of Slaves. — Many of the colonies showed their opposition to slavery by passing laws against the importation of slaves, but the slaves were forced upon them by Great Britain. The Continental Congress also tried (1775) to prohibit their importation, and further showed its opposition to slavery by a provision in the Ordinance of 1787, making the Northwest territory free soil. One of the compromises agreed to in forming the Constitution was the 84 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY guarantee of non-interference with the slave trade until after 1S07 fsoo § \)?>). 144. Congress asked to abolish Slavery. — Congress was pe- titioned (1790) to provide by law for the gradual extinction of slavery. This measure was endorsed by Franklin, and the policy was favored by Washington and Jefferson, though both the latter were slave-holders. Congress, however, decided that this was a matter to be left to the discretion of the several states. Hi. Increased Importance of the Slavery Question 145. Effect of Invention of the Cotton-gin. — This simple invent ii)ii uf Eli Whitney's (see § I'a.'ij had a wonderful effect upon the growth of slavery. Cotton-raising became a great Southern industry, and the negroes could be used to great advantage in the cotton fields. What opposition had existed in the South died out, and the slavery system flourished as it never before had done. Even in the North it found an advo- cate in the manufacturer, whose success with his cotton mills depended upon the Southern cotton crop. 146. Slavery becomes a Political Question. — So far the opposition to slavery had been based u})on moral grounds, but about this time (early in the nineteenth century) another dif- ference arose between the North and South that added com- plications to the slavery question. The South wished to buy its manufactured goods from European countries, where it could get them cheapest. The North wanted a tariff on foreign goods so that the Northern manufacturers could compete more successfully with the European. This would make the price of maiuifactured goods higher, and encourage the Northern industries. Both parties therefore wished to get more power in Congress: the North to limit slavery and make tariff laws, the South to extend slavery and legislate for free trade. 147. The Missouri Compromise. — Mason and Dixon's Line and the Ohio Jliver t'oniied the boundary between free and HISTORY OF SLAVERY 85 86 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES IlISroUY slave soil, east of the Mississippi. The question of the admis- sion of Missouri, a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, as a free or a slave state, was stubbornly and angrily debated. It was finally settled by a compromise (18U0), which admitted Missouri as a slave state, but at the same time admitted Maine as a free state. This kept the power between the North and South evenly balanced in the Senate. Slavery north of the southern boundary of Missouri was prohibited forever as a part of the agreement, and it was thought by many that the dispute over slavery was now satisfactorily settled. IV. Anti-slavery Agitation 148. Abolition. — The moral sentiment against slavery, how- ever, grew rapidly in the North. William Lloyd Garrison's paper. The Liberator (1831), demanded the " immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave in the United States." The Southerners thought him insane, and many of the Northerners did not symp;it]ii/.c with such extreme de- mands. Garri.son organized an abolition society (1832) ; others followed. There was violent opposition to these for several years, even in the North, yet their influence grew. Congress was petitioned almost daily by the ever-increasing number of Abolition societies. 149. Annexation of Texas. — The next great event in the slavery controversy was the annexation of Texas. The South wanted Texas admitted as a slave state, and were successful. Slavery, on this account, has been said to be the real, if indirect, cause of the Mexican War. 150. The "Wilmot Proviso. — David Wilmot of Penn.sylvaiiia offered in Congress (ISIS) a motion forbidding slavery in any territory which .should be acquired from Mexico. This motion was lost, but ])ro(liu'ed great excitement. 151. The Omnibus Bill (Fillmore's Administration). — The Omnibus Bill was another compromise originated by Henry Clay, in 1850, which attempted to .settle the difficulties growing HISTORY OF SLAVERY 87 out of the admission of California and New Mexico as states. It proposed : — 1. California sliould come in as a free state. 2. The territories of Utah and New Mexico should be formed without any provision in regard to slavery. 3. Texas should be paid $10,000,000 to give up its claim on New Mexico. 4. The slave trade should be prohibited in the District of Columbia. 5. A fugitive slave law should be passed providing more effec- tively for the return of runaway slaves to their owners. This compromise measure did not achieve the peaceful solu- tion of the question which its friends had anticipated. The Fugitive Slave Law was systematically violated by anti-slavery agitators of the North, who secretly assisted escaping slaves. This kind of help became known as the " Underground Rail- road." 152. Anti-slavery Feeling Intensified. — The violent anti- slavery feeling of the time found expression in literature, both in poetry and jjrose. John Greenleaf Whittier wrote many stirring poems which appealed strongly to the sympathies of the North. In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe published " Uncle Tom's Cabin," a vivid story of the miseries of slave life. It had a wonderful influence. More than half a million copies were sold within five years. The country was stirred as it had never been before. Congress became a scene of a great war of words between famous leaders from the North and South. 153. Kansas and Nebraska Bill (1854, Pierce's Administra- tion). — The Compromise of 1850 only produced a lull in the excitement. Stephen A. Douglas introduced a bill in Congress to organize Kansas and Nebraska as territories, allowing the inhabitants of each to decide for themselves whether it should be admitted as a free or a slave state. This was called " squatter sovereignty." Although it violated the Missouri Compromise, it became a law. Kansas and Nebraska then 88 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY became the scone of a small civil war between the free state settlers and those in favor of slavery ; this struggle lasted about five years (1854-59). " Bleeding Kansas" was the sadly ap})ropriate term applied to that state. 154. Debates of Lincoln and Douglas (1858). — Lincoln and Douglas, wlio wore rival c-amli(hiU\s for tin- Senate, engaged in joint debate. Lincoln insisted that the country could not be half slave and half free, but had to be wholly one or the other. Douglas held to the opposite view. This was one of the most famous political discussions ever hold in the United States. 155. Dred Scott Decision (1857, Buchanan's Administra' tion). — The supreme court of the United States, through Chief Justice Taney, declared that slave owners could carry their slaves with them into any state or territory, because slaves had no rights, and were like any other property that a man possessed. This was called the Dred Scott Decision, because it was given in the case of a negro of that name. The decision practically legalized slavery all over the country. It had the effect of uniting the North more firmly than ever in its efforts to aV)olish the system. 156. John Brown's Raid (1859, Buchanan's Administration ). — Jolm Ihown, who had been a prominent '• Free State" man in the Kansas struggle, with the help of a comj)any of men seized Harper's Ferry in Virginia, and undertook to liberate the slaves. He was soon overcome, tried, and hanged. Though responsibility for the raid was disavowed by the North, it created great excitement because it was such a direct assault on slavery. The South thought that the North was trying to arm the slaves and induce them to revolt against their masters. V. The Question Settled 157. Election of Lincoln (I860). — The election of Lincoln was thought to mean that the North would attempt to liberate the slaves, although his party was pledged merely against the HISTORY OF SLAVERY 89 extension of slavery. As the South had now a minority in Congress, secession seemed to be the only hope of maintaining the rights in which it believed. 158. South Carolina secedes (1860, Buchanan's Administra- tion). — South Carolina seceded (December, 1860), before uAhi^io ^ ArC^Z^ ^^^ Aarly history of our country. 177. Continental Money. — During the Ke volution the Con- tinental Congress attempted to raise money by issuing printed bills of credit. This was called Continental money. As the government had no gold or silver to make good its promises to pay, the Continental money soon became almost worthless. English coins were still in circulation. The separate states also issued paper money of as little value as the Continental FINANCIAL HISTORY 101 money, with the additional disadvantage of variations in pur- chasing power in different states. English merchants carried off much of the coin left in the states, for they would not take the paper money. II. Currency after the Revolution 178. Constitutional Provisions. — Under the Articles of Con- federation (1781-89) Congress had power to regulate the alloy and value of coin ; but the states, as well as Congress, had a! SIX'TH of DOLLAR Accordiiig\ to a Re/olu-l tionofQoni-\\ GU ESS, pof-\ \/edafPh\-\ ladelphia, February 17, 1776. ^One Sixth of a Dollar. jPrinted by Ha// & Se/krs^ ^ in Philadelphia. 1776. § Face Back Reduced Specimen of Continental Currency power to coin money. The Constitution gave full charge of monetary matters into the hands of the Federal government. Congress was given " power to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin," and the states were expressly denied the power to " coin money, emit bills of credit, or make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts." These constitutional provisions paved the way for the establishment of a Federal currency. Meanwhile the people 102 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY were compelled to get along with the same mixture of foreign coins and paper money that they had used during the war. 179. United States or Federal Money. — Robert Morris sug- gested an iinlt'peudeut systt'iu oi' cuiiuige fur the UnitL-d States. He proposed to render all money calculations simple and easy by use of a decimal system. Thomas Jefferson aided him in his plans, and suggested the dollar as the unit of value, because the people's familiarity wdth the Spanish dollar would make the change to the new system easier. The final outcome was the adoption of the decimal system in use at the present time. 180. The Mint Established. — A mint was ordered by Con- gress to be established at riiiladelphia in 1791, and in 1792 the first coins were struck. The government conducted all its transactions on the basis of the new currency, and one by one the several states did the same. Foreign coins circulated, however, for many years, as the mint did not issue coins fast enough to meet the demand. The people became accustomed to the new system very gradually. Even after the foreign coins had entirely disappeared from circulation, some of the old terms — shilling, levy, fip, etc. — persisted in use. To-day, however, even these traces of the old state of things have passed away. III. Bimetallism 181. The Ratio between Gold and Silver. — Gold, silver, and copper were used in making the new money. The fineness and weight of the coins, therefore, had to be carefully deter- mined in order that a dollar in gold might be equal in value to a silver dollar. The first silver coins made contained fifteen times as much pure silver as the same denomination in gold coins contained pure gold. This ratio was adopted because at that time gold was worth fifteen times as much as silver. The market value of gold and silver bullion, however, varied with the supply, causing the ratio between the two to change from time to time. In 1834 Congress reduced the amount of pure gold in the dollar, changing the ratio from 15 to 1 to 15.088 to 1, or, as it was commonly called, " 16 to 1." Later changes in FINANCIAL HISTORY 103 the market value of the two metals have not been met by Con- gress by changes in the size or purity of the coins. 182. Silver Coinage Discontinued. — The gold discoveries in California and Australia made the actual value of silver dollars greater than that of the gold dollar. The former gradually passed out of circulation, and in 1873 Congress declared the silver dollar not a legal tender, and ceased to coin it. This was known as the " Demonetization of Silver." 183. The Bland Dollar. — Owing to the discovery of valu- able silver mines in the West, the price of silver began to decline. As there was a demand for more money in circula- tion, Congress passed the Bland Act (1878), reauthorizing the coinage of a certain amount of silver into dollars. A still greater coinage of silver was later authorized by the Sherman Act (1890). This compelled the government to purchase 4,500,000 ounces of silver monthly. The intrinsic value of silver meanwhile had fallen so low that a silver dollar was actually worth only about fifty cents in gold. It passed at its face value only because of faith in the government's intention and ability to redeem it in gold. The purchase requirement of the Sherman Act was held to be in part responsible for the financial distress of 1893, and it was accordingly repealed by Congress after a long and bitter contest. President Cleveland having called an extra session of Congress for that purpose. 184. The Silver Question. — The demand for "the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the ratio of 16 to 1 " grew so strong in certain parts of the country that it became the great issue of the political compaign of 1896. The Repub- lican party opposed this demand. Some of the party, how- ever, believing in the necessity of free coinage, joined the Democrats. " Gold Democrats " nominated an independent ticket on a " gold standard platform." The result was a vic- tory for the Republican party. The Democrats made the free coinage of silver one of the issues of the campaign of 1900, and were again overwhelmingly defeated. Since that time the silver question has ceased to be an issue. 104 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY IV. Banking System 185. The Bank of North America. — Robert Morris, a wealthy busiiH's.s iiKUi (j1 I'liihuh'lpliia, conliilMittHl grciilly tu the suoci'ss of the Revolutionary ^Var by his skilful management of the financial difficulties into which the country was thrown. (See §§70 and 73.) The Continental Congress, when its finances were at their lowest ebb, and its paper money practically worth- less, requested Morris to act as Superintendent of Finance. He succeeded in having the Hank of Nortli America estab- lished (1781), and by drawing upon his own wealth and securing foreign loans, he materially relieved the desperate condition of affairs, l^anks were also established in Boston and New York. 186. The First United States Bank. — Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, aided Washington greatly in the difficult task of establisliing a new government by his brilliant management of the financial problems which it had to face. He submitted to Congress a plan for a national bank, witli a capital of $10,000,000. The bank was to be located in Philadelphia, and have branches in other cities. It was to be a private corporation, but to be chartered by the United States, and was to receive the government money for deposit and dis- tribution. The government was also to be a shareholder in the bank. The bank was established in 1791, with a twenty- year charter. The bank bills which it issued were received by the government in payment for land, taxes, etc. They cir- culated all over the country at their face value and greatly facilitated business operations. The bank was closed (1811) on the expiration of its charter. 187. State Banks. — There were only four state banks when the National Hank was established, but they multiplied rapidly after that date. When the National Hank lost its charter, they increased altogether too rapidly. During the War of 1812 they were compelled to suspend "specie payment." This occasioned great business distress throughout the country. FINANCIAL HISTORY 105 188. Second National Bank. — To remedy the financial dis- tress of the country Congress chartered (1816) a second Na- tional Bank with a capital of $35,000,000. It was very similar in plan to the first National Bank, and was known as the United States Bank. 189. President Jackson and the United States Bank. — Presi- dent Jackson was strongly opposed to the United States Bank. He believed it to be badly managed and a possible source of political corruption. He succeeded in preventing a renewal of the charter, and ordered the government money to be removed from it and deposited in certain state banks. These became known as "pet banks." This killed the Bank, but led (as in 1811) to the multiplication of small banks. They all issued paper money. There was a period of wild speculation fol- lowed by the great financial panic of 1837. 190. President Van Buren and the Independent Treasury System. — The '•' pet banks " were regarded as the cause of the panic of 1837. Opinion was divided as to the remedy. Many thought a third National Bank should be chartered ; but Presi- dent Van Buren believed that the government should create an independent treasury system, thus doing what it had never done before, viz., take entire charge of its money. An inde- pendent treasury was to be established in Washington with branches or subtreasuries in the leading cities. There were many objections raised by those who favored a United States Bank. The Treasury System, however, was established in 1840. It was abolished in 1841, but reestablished in 1846, and has since been continued. 191. National Banks. — A system of national banks was es- tablished in 1863. These banks were required to deposit United States bonds with the Treasurer at Washington. They could then issue notes to an amount equal to 90 % of the par value of these bonds. The bonds served as security for the notes issued, and thus the latter were guaranteed by the credit of the United States. Currency of state banks was taxed so heavily that it ceased to be profitable to issue it. Many of these 100 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY l)auks, therefore, bought aud deposited the bonds, thus becom- ing national banks. As the credit of the United States govern- ment became stronger, the bank notes increased in value, until they became " as good as gold." This was largely due to the " resumption of specie payments " in 1879. In 1913 Congress completely reorganized its banking system. The Federal Re- serve Act was passed, dividing the United States into twelve districts, aud establishing a Federal reserve bank in one city of each district. These banks receive deposits from and issue " reserve notes " to other banks which have become members of the system. A more elastic currency is thus secured. The United States can also deposit its revenue in the reserve banks. The l)anking system of the United States is now on a firm basis, and no other country of the world has a stronger credit. V. Raising Revenue 192. Necessity of Revenue. — The government of a nation cannot be conducted without money. The salaries and other expenses of the legislative, judicial, and executive depart- ments ; the mamtenance of an army and navy '' to provide for the common defence " ; and the many things that must be done " to promote the general welfare " of the country all involve heavy expenditures. Besides these running exjjenses there is generally a public or national debt on which interest must be ])aid until the debt itself can be cancelled. A government, therefore, must have the power to lay and collect taxes, for its very existence depends upon it. The most important dif- ference between the government before and that after 1789 was that the former had no power to enforce the collection of taxes, and tlic latter had this jjowcr cxiircssly granted to it. 193. How the Continental Congress raised Money. — The Continental Congress was forced to resort to all sorts of meas- ures to raise money to pay the expenses of the Revolutionary War. The states were called upon to contribute, but compara- tively little money was raised in this way. Congress was, therefore, obliged to issue paper money and certificates of FINANCIAL HISTORY 107 various kinds. These were all " promises to pay " the face value of the bills ; but as the government had no gold or silver to redeem its promises, the Continental money soon became almost worthless — " not worth a Continental." Congress also borrowed about $ 12,000,000 from foreign nations. 194. The National Debt. — The debts thus contracted by the Continental Congress, as well as those which the several states had incurred, were not repudiated by the new government under the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton proposed that interest-bearing bonds should be issued in exchange for the old debts. This was done, and the national debt thus formally acknowledged amounted in 1790 to $ 55,000,000. The assump- tion of this debt helped greatly to establish the credit of the United States on a firm basis. 195. How Money is raised by the Government. — Money is raised by the government in two ways : (1) by taxation ; (2) by borrowing. Taxation. — The taxes imposed are of two kinds : direct and indirect. The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution (1913) gave Congress the power to tax incomes. Such direct taxes are now collected from corporations and from individ- uals, the rate depending upon the amount of the income. In- comes of less than $ 3000 are not taxed at all. Those above $ 3000 are taxed in proportion to the amount, the rate increas- ing somewhat with the size of the income. Customs (duties on imported goods) and internal taxes (upon goods manufac- tured within the country, principally upon liquors and tobacco) are two great sources of national revenue. These are indirect taxes, because while the importer or manufacturer pays the tax in the first place, the people afterward indirectly pay it in the higher price charged for the goods. Borrowing. — " To borrow money on the credit of the United States " is expressly stated in the Constitution as one of the powers of Congress. It is almost as necessary as " the power to lay and collect taxes." Ordinary expenses may be provided for by taxation, but for extraordinary expenses, such 108 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY as those of war, Congress may be compelled to borrow. It may do this by selling interest-bearing bonds. These must be redeemed by the government at a speeitic time. Another way for Congress to borrow money is by issuing treasury notes. These notes circulate as money and maintain their par value as long as the people have faith in the ability of the government to redeem tliem in coin. VI. The TariH Question 196. The First Tariff : a Tariff for Revenue. — One of the iirst acts passed by Congress (17S'J) was a tariff act, imposing duties upon imports. Custom houses were established and custom house officers appointed for the collection of this tiix. This act was mainly for the purpose of raising revenue to carry on the government, although the protection of home industries was also one of its olijccts. 197. The American System : a Protective Tariff. — The War of IHVJ, and the events which led up to it, had so interfered with American commerce that the i)eople were compelled to manu- facture many goods formerly purchased from abroad. This gave a great impulse to manufacturing in the United States, and many people thought that the government should encour- age and foster these *' infant industries,"" as they were called. The method proposed was so to increase the price of imports, by imposing a high tariff, as to make it cheaper for Ameri- cans to buy articles of home manufacture. This high tariif was called a " protective tariif," because it was for the pur- pose of protecting American industries. It also became kiPown as the American system. The first protective tariff act was l)assed in 1816. Other protective tariif acts were passed later, and the system continued until 1840. From that date until the Civil War, the protective duties were taken off, and only a small tariif foi- revenue was imposed. 198. Opposition to the Tariff. — Tariff legislation had not been received without opposition. The North, which ha7. The question of its annexation became of great j)oliti- cal importance, owing to its bearing upon the extension of I0- 'L. of the 82 TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES iTss-iser SCALE OF MILES ^ ^, 100 200 800 ^ Stl,Paul_ Milwaukee 1 w roitJC Chicagq^' TtTs; ^r « U--^kX s toM^^V fe°r ^ jr\o!iioS. ei. n\ 12^ / V2: v/,ia«saj'»- The Wkstwakd Movement of Popilation steadily toward the West. Tliis shifting of tlie centre of popula- tion has been due to the rapid settlement of the West by hardy and courageous emigrants from the Eastern states and Europe. Daniel Boone was a great jjioneer of this westward movement, leading the way into Kentucky before the Kevolution (17(59). Later, other emigrants made many settlements in the valley of GROWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 139 the Ohio. Some made their way to the region bordering on the Great Lakes. People of the Southern states emigrated to Mexican territory. This was the first of the long series of events which resulted in the acquisition of Texas. The courage and enterprise of some of the pioneers carried them all the way to the Pacific, and the occupation of Oregon by both British and American settlers led to the Oregon treaty, by which another vast area became part of the United States. 241. Some of the Impulses to Western Expansion. — This tendency to Western expansion received a great impulse after the close of the War of 1812. (See § 108.) " The era of good feeling " was at hand, and the country was prosperous. Much attention was bestowed upon internal improvements. Eoads and canals were built (the Erie Canal was finished in 1825), and the steamboat (invented in 1807) was to be found upon all the navigable rivers. After 1835 steam railroads be- gan to be employed. These improvements in travel and communication made possible the unprecedented growth of the West. An exceedingly important event in the history of the West was the discovery of gold in California in 1848. The quick growth of San Francisco and the rapid population of the country (admitted as a state 1850) is a wonderful story of adventure and enterprise. IV. Immigration Table of Immigration 1821-30 143,439 1871-80 . 2,812,191 1831-40 599,125 1881-90 . 6,246,613 1841-50 . 1,713,251 1891-1900 . . 3,844,420 1851-60 . 2,598,214 1901-1910 . . 8,795,386 1861-70 . 2,314,824 1911-1916 . . 4,757,831 242. Growth of Population by Immigration. — The great opportunities offered by this country have attracted millions of foreigners to its shores, so that immigration has been a very important factor in the rapid increase of population that 140 SURVEY OF UNITP:D states IIISTOKY has taken place. In the early history of the United States the volume of immigration was not large, but since 1840 it has grown rapidly, that of every decade (except 1861-70, which included the Civil War) surpassijig the previous one. The recorded immigration of the last one hundred years reached the ciionnous total (if more than tliirty-two millions. 243. Nationality of Immigrants. — The countries of north- western Europe have contributed about one-half, the countries l.ooo.am 900,000 1 800. ooo / l\ / 000,000 800,000 A / / / 1 n / , / 400,000 3on,(m 100,000 100,000 ) ^ / ^ / A J ^ ^ y / "xl V ^v -V \J s '5 R 8 IIOW THE NlMltKR OK ImMKJKANT.S HAS VaUIKD 1 UU.H YeAK TO YkAK of southeastern Europe more than one-third, of the total foreign-born ])()puhition of tlie United Stiites. ^lore than one- tenth of our f(jreign-b()rn population is composed of natives of American countries outside of the United States. The re- mainder is composed of people from almost every other part of the world. At first Ireland furnished by far the greatest number of immigrants. Later the Germans came in such numbers as to head the list. Recent years have seen great changes in the character of the immigration. That from GKOWTH IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION 141 Ireland and Germany has decreased, while a rapid increase has taken place in the immigration of Swedes, Norwegians, Him- garians, Poles, Russians, and Italians. 244. Character of Early Immigrants. Until comparatively recent years the tide of immigration furnished in the main a really desirable class of people, who wished to make homes for themselves in this country and become its citizens. Most of them were farmers or skilled laborers. They were thrifty, industrious, and ambitious to make the most of the opportuni- ties offered in the New World, and they contributed in turn to its growth and prosperity. They learned to understand and appreciate the institutions of their adopted country, and be- came loyal and useful citizens. Their tendency was to settle in the West. Hence we find the Western states having a large proportion (about one-quarter) of their total population foreign born. The South, on the other hand, has been called the home of the native American, because of its freedom from the ad- mixture of the foreign element. 245. Later Immigrants. — In proportion as immigration in- creased in quantity, it decreased in quality. Instead of thrifty farmers and industrious and skilled artisans, thousands of unskilled laborers, to say nothing of the pauper and criminal classes, sought the shores of the United States. These did not push to the open country of the West, but as a rule re- mained in the great cities, adding a very undesirable and even dangerous element to the nation's population. 246. Problems of Immigration. — Owing to the change in the character of the immigration, the problem of its restriction and regulation has arisen. The flocking of Chinese to the Pacific states led to the passage of Chinese Exclusion Laws. The importation of cheap labor from abroad mider contract to American employers has resulted in the passage by Congress of a Contract Labor Law, prohibiting the practice. Paupers and criminals, so far as possible, are sent back to the coun- try from which they came. It is thought by many that the immigration laws should be stricter than they are, that some 142 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY educational qualification, for example, should be demanded of all immigi-ants, and that all who do not intend to become citi- zens should be excluded. An immignition act passed by Con- gress during Clevt4and's administration was vetoed by him because it contained the provision that immigrants unable to read and write should be denied admission to this country. President Tuft also vetoed a similar act and President Wilson vetoed two such measures because they contained the literacy test. Congress, however, passed the last measure over the President's veto, and it is now a law. The framing of Avise immigration laws and their proper enforcement are questions not easily solved. The public schools accomplish a great deal toward making the children of foreign descent good citizens of the country adopted by their parents. The study of United States history helps to acquaint them with the nature and spirit of our republican institutions. The exclusive use of the English language in our public schools furnishes an important bond of union for the diverse national- ities which constitute so large a part of our population. CHAPTER XI PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — 247. Patents. Labor-saving Machinery. — 248. Steam, Electricity, Factories, Divi- sion of Labor. Heating. — 249. Open Fireplace, Franklin Stove, Hot-air Furnace, Gas Range, Wood, Coal, Hot Water, Steam, Electricity. Lighting. — 250. Open Fireplace, Candles, Whale Oil, Flint and Tinder, Matches, Gas, Petroleum, Electricity. Manufacturing. — 251. Hand Work of Colonial Days. Steam and Electrical Machinery of To-day. Building. — 252. Concrete. Sky-scrapers. Fire-proofing. Agriculture. — 263. Hand Farming and Crude Implements of Colonial Days. Improved Machinery of To-day — Whitney's Cotton Gin, McCormick's Reaping Machine, Grain Elevator, Canning and Pre- serving, Hothouse Cultivation, Cold Storage. Travel and Transportation. — 254. Horseback, Stage Coach, Canal Boat, Sailing Vessels of Colonial Days. Locomotive, Trolley, Bicycle, Automobile, Steamship, Aerial Navigation of To-day. Communication. — 255. Slow Mails, Special Couriers of Colonial Days. Fast Postal Service, Telegraph, Submarine Cable, Telephone, Wire- less Telegraphy of To-day. Warfare. — 256. Primitive Weapons, Wooden Battleships of Colonial Days. Improved Guns, Ammunition, Steel-clad Battleships of To-day. Printing. — 257. Hand Press of Colonial Days. Improved Steam Press of To-day. Reduction in Cost of Literature. Medicine and Surgery. — 258. Primitive Methods of Colonial Times: Bleeding. Modern Improvements and Discoveries : Anaesthetics, Antiseptics, X-rays. Photography and the Phonograph. — 2.59. Camera. Motion Picture. Dictaphone. Industrial Expositions. — 260. Centennial Exposition, 1876 ; Colum- bian Exposition, 1893 ; Pan-American Exposition, 1901 ; Panama- Pacific Exhibition, 1915. 143 CHAPTER XI PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 247. American Enterprise and Inventiveness. — One of the most striking characteristics of the American people is " inventiveness." Not only has the American mind been fer- tile in devising new methods and instruments, it has also been quick to adopt and improve upon the inventions of other nations. We live to-day in a world of conveniences, of which the people of a hundred years ago could form no conception. There have been various causes for this marvellous change in addition to the enterprise and ingenuity of Americans. In the new country there were immense resources which liad to be developed. The original settlers of the Atlantic coast, and later those who pushed across the Alleghanies, had to make their roads and houses, and build their cities. They were thus thrown on their own resources. "Necessity is the mother of invention." Later, when the Constitution was adopted, Congress gave a great impetus to discovery and invention by securing to the inventors themselves the profits of their labors. "Patents are issued by the Patent Office at Washington, giving the inventor of any new and useful machine, instrument, manu- facture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement of them, the monopoly in their manufacture and sale for the term of seventeen years." ISIore than half a mill- ion patents have been granted within the last sixty yfars, and the number issued per year is constantly increasing. 248. Labor-saving Machinery. — The most important result of this inventive aclivity lias been the substitution of 141 PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 145 machinery run by steam or electricity for manual labor. Such machinery enables one man to accomplish the work of hundreds of hand laborers. This machine work is conducted upon an extensive scale, and has given rise to factories, employ- ing thousands of men. Division of labor is thus rendered pos- sible, and the work is done niore economically. This lessens the cost of the articles manufactured, thus bringing them within the reach of the poorer classes. The laboring man of to-day enjoys luxuries which were not obtainable even by the rich of colonial days. We will obtain a clearer idea of this progress by comparing some of the methods and instruments of colonial days with those of to-day. 249. Heating. — In colonial days, stoves were rarely or never seen. The Franklin stove, invented by Benjamin Franklin, was one of the earliest. In most houses there was a large open fireplace, which, while it was cheerful and pictur- esque, was really an unsatisfactory means of heating. Cooking was performed over these fireplaces. Wood was used almost exclusively for fuel. Later, soft and hard coal were used, the latter, known as anthracite, having been discovered in Penn- sylvania in 1790. The first load was brought to Philadelphia in 1803. For a while it was considered too hard to burn, but it has since become our principal article of fuel. The houses of to-day show great improvements in means of heating. Modern improved stoves, burning coal, have taken the place of the old fireplace, though the latter is sometimes used for its quaint and picturesque effect. Many houses are heated by furnaces, placed in the basement, sending hot air through asbestos-covered pipes to all parts of the building. The cook- ing is no longer done by means of stoves, which also heat the house, but separate cooking-stoves or ranges have been invented. The modern ones contain ovens and other conven- ient appurtenances, such as boilers supplying hot water to various parts of the house. Oil and gas are largely used to-day for both heating and cooking, as they are found to be economi- cal and satisfactory. Large buildings, such as schools, churches 146 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY and theatres are generally heated by steam or hot water, cir- culated in pipes through the various parts of the building. These improved methods of heating are superseding the hot air furnaces in many modern dwellings. Electricity has also been used recently for heating purposes, particularly in elec- trically propelled or trolley cars. Electrical cooking ranges are employed in some large establishments. 250. Lighting. — When we consider that gas and electricity — our two chief means of lighting to-day — were unknown in colo- nial days, we can easily imagine how dark the streets and houses must have been at night. The blazing logs in the open fireplace supplied most of the light on winter nights. Candles, and lamps burning whale oil, were also used. There were no matches, and fire was obtained by striking flint against steel, and igniting some combustible material with the spark. The petroleum oils, which are so largely used to-day for light- ing, heating, and oiling machinery, were unknown in colonial days. ,^ , , T 1 . ^o-n TiNUKK iiu\, Flint, AND Si KKL Petroleum was discovered in looO, in northwest Pennsylvania. Numerous wells have since been opened in Pennsylvania and neighboring states, so that the output of oil to-day amounts to thousands of barrels daily. The manufacture and use of gas was a European discovery, but it rapidly became a popular necessity in America, where it was introduced early in the nineteenth century. Modern improvements, such as portable gas lamps, incandescent l)iuiiers, etc., have added greatly to its value. Many old people living to-day can remember the time before gas lamps were used to light the streets, while the men and women of the next generation will probably find it hard to remember street gas lamps, so completely has electricity taken the place of gas for street illumination. There have been such wonder- ful improvements in \ho employment of electricity for illuini- PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 147 Hargreaves's Spinning-Jenny nating purposes that the electric light to-day is fast becoming universal. 251. Manufacturing^. — The use of steam and electricity as motive power may be said to have revolutionized all forms of manufacturing. In colonial days spinning and weaving were done by hand. The people wore clothes made of stout home- spun material, and the spin- ning-wheel was a necessary article in every household. Spinning and sewing were important feminine accom- plishments. To-day spin- ning and weaving are per- formed by machinery, steam or electricity supplying the power. Large mills have been built which give em- ployment to hundreds of "hands." These improvements began as early as 1764 with Hargreaves' spinning- jenny. In colonial days sewing was done entirely by hand. So greatly have the sewing-machines (invented by Elias Howe in 1845) been improved and cheapened, that to-day almost every household contains one. In factories, sewing-machines are driven by steam or electric motors. 252. Building. — The art of building has had a remarkable development since Colonial days. This progress has been made possible by the marvellous advance in methods of con- struction and engineering. Recent improvements in the manu- facture of concrete — a mixture of cement, sand, and broken stones — have resulted in a wide application of this invaluable product. Its value as building material is due to the fact that it readily changes from a soft plastic condition to the firmness of hard rock. Concrete is cheaper than ordinary stone or brick, and is especially good for laying foundations in damp soil as it may be made impervious to water. For this reason it forms an excellent material for submerged piers supporting bridges. 148 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Tall l»uil(lings, sometimes called sky-scrapers, have multiplied rai)i(lly, especially in the large cities of the United States. Their framework consists mainly of steel and concrete. The stone, brick or other material which forms the ornamental outside of the building may be regarded as a kind of skin or cover- ing,', not resting upon the nuiin foundations. The steel columns and girders are 'W»TT^,\ n' WOOLWORTII BflLDINC, NkW YoUK trimmed and punched at the factories so that they can be ])ut in place quickly at the building operations. Tliis is acconii)lished by means of l)()wcrful steam and electric cranes. The weight of these sky-scrai)ers is so enormous that it is found desiraljlc to dig to considerable depths for rock bottom foundations. The highest building in the world is the fifty-five-story Wool- worth building, 77 o feet high, in New York city. It is fre- quently referred to as the " Cathedral of Commerce." Its weight is estimated at about 125,000 tons, and it was necessary to dig 110 feet below the sidewalk level for its rock foundation. The (construction of these enormous buildings, some of them containing over 10.000 tenants, has directed attention to the necessity of fire-proofing. Uni)rotected steel is easily afl'ected by intense heat, 'i'lic columns, girders, etc., are generally ])ro- tected by enclosing them in concrete, hollow tile, or brick. Sometimes they are coated with a kind of cement gum. ]*rac- ticully no wood is used in the construction of stairways, window trim, etc. Elevator doors are protected by wired PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 149 glass. The main idea in all these precautions is to prevent fire from spreading from room to room or from floor to floor. Not only sky-scrapers, but all buildings such as schools and theatres, where large numbers of persons assemble, are now being con- structed with a view to fire prevention. Fire escapes and various means of fighting fire are also required in all such buildings. 253. Agriculture. — Farming has also been greatly improved by numerous inventions. In colonial days agriculture was a laborious occupation. The farming implements were rough and clumsy. Iron being scarce, they were, for the most part, made of wood. Wooden plows covered by plates of iron were used. Raking, sowing, reaping, gathering, and threshing were all done by hand. Extensive farming, such as is now carried on in the Central and Western states, would have been impos- sible under those primitive con- ditions. One of the earliest and most important inventions was Whitney's cotton gin (1793). Previous to this invention there had been but little cotton raised in the South, as no practicable method had been devised for separating the cotton wool or fibre from the seeds. So much labor was required for this op- eration that cotton was a very expensive article used only by the rich. By means of Cotton Gin The upper figure shows Whitney's in- vention. The lower figure shows a later Whitney's invention, one man form- was enabled to do what before would have required a thou- sand. Cotton-growing immediately became a most important industry of the South. IVIany cotton mills were established in the North, and our export trade increased. 150 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY Some ten years before tliis, the grain elevator liad been invented and various iniproveiuents were made in milling flour. One of the most important agricultural inventions made in America was McConnick'g reaping machine, l)atented in 1834. It was operated by horse i)Ower, and marked a threat improve- ment over the la- borious methods The First Type of McCormick Keaim:i: Qf reaping pre- viously employed. It was improved later so that in addition to reaping it also bound the grain in sheaves. Its influence has been felt especially in the West, where it has made pos- sible farming on a most extensive scale, (rreat changes have also been wrought through the invention of numerous harrowing, sowing, baling machines, first driven by horse power and more recently by gasoline. No greater contrast can be imagined than that between the hand farming of colonial days and the macliine farming of to-day. The farmer in ISOO plowed his land with wooden plows, sowed the grain broadcast by hand, and when it was ripe cut it with a scythe and threshed it on the barn floor with a flail. Huge automobile tractors have recently been invented and improved so that they i)erform the various complicated farm- ing operations with a rapidity that would have been regarded as unbelievable by the fanners of twenty oi- tliirty years ago. By the invention of canning and preserving processes, the hus- bandman's market has been greatly enlarged. I le has, moreover, learned how t(j create an artificial climate under t^lass and to grow vegetiibles and fruits all winter. Cold storage keeps over for the winter the summer's sur])lus, and renders practicable the transportation of many perishable jiroduets over great distances. PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 151 The "Clekmont"' From Eergart's " Life of Fulton "' 254. Travel and Transportation. — If we imagine what would be our condition to-day without the use of steam and electricity and machine-made vehicles and vessels, we can form a pretty accurate picture of conditions a hundred years ago. Travel was slow and dangerous. The horse was of the greatest ser- vice, whether carrying a rider or pulling a coach. The roads were poor, and horseback was the best mode of travel. Outside of the towns but few wheeled wagons were seen. To go from New York to Philadelphia in three days was considered fast travelling. Travelling by water was particu- larly uncertain, since steamboats were unknown, and the variable wind was the only power which could be used. Sail- ing vessels were frequently wrecked by storms or seriously delayed by unfavorable winds. The trip across the Atlantic Ocean required as many weeks as it now takes days. In 1807 the first steamboat w^,s successfully operated by Robert Fulton. The Clermont, as it was named, steamed up the Hudson as far as Albany, to the wonder and terror of the people along its banks. This invention completely revolutionized water travel. Shortly after Fulton's successful experiment, numerous steamships j)lied the principal rivers and the lakes, and thus encouraged the further settlement of the West. The first steamship to cross the ocean was the Savannah, which in 1819 started from Georgia. Many improvements have been made in steamships since that day, Ericsson's invention of the screw propeller being one of the most important. The passenger vessels of to-day may fittingly be called floating palaces, so complete are their conveniences and luxuries. The trip to Europe may now be made m a little over five days, and it is possible that the time will be further shortened in the near future. Iron has largely superseded wood in the construction of vessels. After the battle of the Monitor and Merrimac, 152 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY (luring the Civil War, war vessels were protected by iron, and now most large passenger and freight ships are made of iron or steel. Travelling on land has been completely transformed by the use of steam and electrieity. Tlie steam locomotive was in- Vfiitetl 111 Enghmd, .-w.^-^^ ' BALTlMOKli AND (JHIO 1{a1LKUA1), IbuO From au old |)rint. and was at first a very crude affair, running at the rate of about ten miles an hour, ^lean- while experiments were being made in America, and in 1828 Charles Carroll of Maryland broke ground for the tirst passenger railroad in America, from Balti- more west. The first train ran over the road in 1830. In the course of the next ten years nearly three thousand miles of railroad were built in the different states. To-day there are more than two hundred and fifty thousand miles of railroads in the United States, carrying each year a billion tons of freight and five hundred and fifty millions of passengers. The growth of railroads was a more powerful influence than the steamboat in developing the West. Numerous im- provements have been made, so that to-day a very high rate of speed, sometimes as much as seventy miles an hour, has been reached by/ the handsomely equipped passenger trains. For street and suburban traffic electricity has lately been extensively used. The modern well-furnished, brilliantly lighted trolley car in our principal cities seems to approach the ideal of smooth, clean, and comfortable travelling. The twentieth century will probably witness electricity supersed- ing steam for passenger and freight transportation. Among the popular means of travel tcj-day may be mentioned PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 153 the bicycle, motorcycle, auci especially the automobile. The bicycle and motorcycle are extensively used, for healthful and pleasurable exercise, and also in business. In the automobile, electricity or gasoline, generally the latter, is used to furnish the power. The last decade has witnessed a marvellous in- crease in the use of automobiles. Their cost has been so greatly reduced that it is estimated that in the United States one per- son out of every thirty owns one of these vehicles. The auto- mobile will in all probability eventually supplant the horse. The building of canals has also served to facilitate commerce and develop the resources of the country. They furnish a Map of the Erie Canal cheap mode of transportation, especially for bulky goods of a non-perishable nature, as canal traffic is comparatively slow. The first great canal projected in this country was the Erie Canal, which was completed in 1825, connecting Buffalo and Albany, and thus furnishing a water outlet from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic by way of the Hudson River. Great quantities of grain are carried to the East and various manu- factures to the West by means of this canal. Thus all sec- tions of the country profit by it. Numerous other canals have been constructed in various parts of the United States. 154 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY PACIFIC OCEAN ■^^•■JT-^se €01611" -rtlO" ATLANTIC OCEAN ,.l' :i3 Rklikf Map of tiik Panama Canai, The Panama Canal, which was constructed by the United States, was completed in 1913. This great artificial waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans has been of tre- mendous advantage to the commerce of the world. It sliortens the voyage from New York to San Francisco by 10,000 miles. In the conduct of war, the control of this canal is of vast importance to the United States. Under the efficient methods PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 155 of the United States, and particularly through the efforts of Colonel G. W. Goethals, the Canal region has been entirely freed from the ravages of yellow fever. In recent years aerial navigation has made great strides. Many successful experiments have been made with dirigible balloons (lighter than air) and aero- planes (heavier than air). The problem of navigation of the air as a practical means of transporta- tion, though still presenting diffi- culties and dangers, seems to be rapidly nearing solution. The great European war has proved definitely the dependence of military supremacy upon a per- fected system of aerial scouting. It has also tended to produce a tragic realization of Tennyson's poetic prophecy — " ^he nations' airy navies grappling in the central blue." 255. Communication. — Lacking the means of rapid travel employed to-day, the people of colonial times suffered great inconvenience from the slowness and uncertainty of communication. The lumbering stage coaches brought news some days or weeks after the events had occurred. In urgent cases couriers were em- ployed to take messages, but it required as many days for the delivery of such mes- sages as it now takes hours or even minutes. News from abroad was, of course, delayed by the slowness of the sailing vessels. The great battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812 An Aeroplane p -s- -» " »■ 5=*^ t3> M^lM^ ^^ An (Jld-ti.-\ie SxAGEcoAea 156 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY was fought after peace was actually declared, because the news could not be sent fjuickly enough to the generals of the ojjposing armies. Mails in the colonial days were slow and expensive. *As a consequence, comparatively few letters were written, and the postage was generally not prej)aid. The rail- road and steaml)oat have changed all this. For two cents, a letter carried by the fastest trains or vessels will now be delivered to any part of the United States or Great liritain. Even more important for communication than the rail- road and steamshij) have been the electrical inventions, the telegraph and telephone. In 1844 Professor S. F, B. ]Morse, having received an a])propriation of $30,000 from Congress, established the first system of telegraph wires, from Baltimore to Washington. The first message sent was, " What hath God wrought I " — an appropriate Biblical quotation, for what could have seemed more miraculous than that a message should be sent a distance of forty miles in a few se(;onds? By 18G0 there were one hundred thousand miles of line in oi)eration in the world, and in 1000, one million miles. About one million messages are sent by wire every day in the year. As early as 1843 Morse had said that telegraphic comnnmica- tion across the Atlantic Ocean was possible. His prediction was fulfilled in 18o8, Cyrus Field deserves the credit for the success of the venture. The cable operated successfully for a few weeks, and then stopped. Field was not discouraged by this failure, but in 18G6 succeeded in laying a submarine cable from the United States to Ireland by way of Newfoundland, by which permanent communication was established between Europe and America. Since then many other cables have been successfully laid, bring- ing all parts of the world in closer contact. There are now more than two hundred thousand miles of submarine cable, and the yearly number of messages sent is more than six million. By means of these tclegrai)hic inventions we receive news of the important events from all parts of the world very shortly after their occurrence. IIow the world is benefited by means of these improvements can be shown by a single instance. PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 157 When some time ago a horrible famine existed in Russia, the news was telegraphed and cabled to various parts of the world. In a short time fast-going steamships were crossing the Atlantic, carrying for the relief of the stricken people cargoes of grain raised by farming machinery in the West, and transported by railroads to the ocean ports. A hundred years ago the famine-stricken people might have starved before even the news of their condition had reached distant countries. A most wonderful modern invention is the method of teleg- raphy without the use of wires. It is no longer in the experi- mental stage, but competent authorities assert that this means of communication may be expected to take the place of both land and submarine wires. W'ireless telegraphy enables moving ships to communicate with each other and with the land. There seems to be no limit to the distance which wireless messages may span. Another form of communication which, except for great distances, is more valuable than the telegraph, is the telephone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell. By means of this instru- ment conversations can be held between persons thousands of miles distant. All large modern cities have extensive tele- phone systems. Many business offices and homes are fur- nished with telephones. So thoroughly accustomed have we become to these electrical conveniences that it is hard for us to imagine how people ever got along without them. 256. Warfare. — Wonderful improvements have also been made since colonial days in instruments and methods of war- fare. In early days iron breastplates and helmets were worn. Flintlock Matchlock The first guns were heavy and clumsy matchlocks, so called because a long slow-match was carried with which to ignite the powder. Their weight was so great that they could not be 158 SURVEY OF UNITKD STATES HISTORY lieUl in the ordinary way, Vmt had to Ik* rested on forked sticks. These guns were succeeded by flint-locks, in which sparks were made by flint striking steel. Since tliat time great changes have taken place. Self-cocking and repeating guns and re- volvers, rapid-tire cannon of immense range and terrible destructive power, buUets of high penetrating power, lyddite shells and smokeless powder, have largely revolutionized modern warfare. The great European war which began in 1914 has been a revelation to the world of the tremendous possibilities of instruments of destruction. Sujijwsedly im- pregnable fortifications have crumbled before i)0werful cannon of recent invention. Poisonous gases and li(|uid tire have added to the horrors of modern warfare. In naval equipment the progress has been still more marvel- lous. The old wooden sailing vessels, armed with short-range, Modern Cannon A SUHMAKINK sinootli-borp cannon, have been superseded by steel-clad steam battleships, nionitors, and tor])edo boats employinij rapid fire guns with smokeless powder, which send shells with territic penetrating ijuwer to great distimces. War vessels are also PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AN'D THE USEFUL ARTS 159 equipped with powerful searchlights. Increased efficiency in the management of submarines has made them very potent factors in naval warfare of to-day. The United States army and navy have grown greatly, espe- cially in recent years. The army in 1800 comprised 4118 men and 318 officers. At the head of the organization was a brigadier general. In 1916 our army consisted of 100,000 men. In 1800 the navy of the United States comprised 17 frigates, 3 brigs, and 2 schooners, without counting 8 revenue cutters which were heavily armed. The two largest frigates. United States and Constitution, each carried 42 guns. One of our unpro- tected cruisers of to-day could have sunk this primi- tive navy in a short time. Our present navy consists of more than 225 fighting vessels, including battleships, destroy- ers, cruisers, and submarines. 257. Printing. — The art of printing has practically been revolutionized since colonial days. The hand-press of early days has been superseded by the steam-press invented by Hoe. The consequent decrease in the price of books brings them within the reach of all. The opportunity for reading thus afforded has been of the greatest advantage to the world, since books are the principal means of education and enlightenment for the masses. (See § 282.) To-day there is scarcely a house- hold too poor to own its little library. Not only is the printing itself done more cheaply, but lithographic, photo-chemical, and other processes of illustration have made books beautiful as well as interesting and instructive. Books for children, neatly bound The ' ' Constitution ' ' Launched in 1797 ; now In the Boston Navy Yard. 160 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES IIISIOKV and beautifully illustrated in colors, are now plentiful and cheap, whereas a hundred years ago they would have been an exi)ensive luxury which only the wealthy might enjoy. The binding as well as the press work is now done by machinery. The greatest advance in modern methods of printing is seen in the newspapers of to-day. Newspapers of sixteen or more pages can be bought for a cent or two. These papers con- tain the most imjwrtant news of the world, together with much other enter- taining and instructive matter. It is interesting to watch the i)rocess of making a great modern newspaper. Tlie type is set, the paper is })rinted, cut, folded, fastened, counted, and wrapped in bundles, all by ingenious machinei'v. 258. Medicine and Surgery. — When we consider the methods t'Uiployed by physicians and surgeons in colonial and even later times, we should feel grateful that we enjoy the benefits of the wonder- ful progress of medical science. Perhaps the greatest boon to humanity in this field was the discovery of anaesthetics by Dr. W. T. G. Morton of Boston, in 1846. He found that arti- ficial sleep could be induced by certain gases, making the I)atient insensible to the ])ain of surgical operations. Prior to this discovery patients who had to be operated upon suffered the greatest agony, while death from shock was very frequent. To-day, even such a trivial o]ieration as having a tooth ex- tracted is rendered painless by the iidialation of nitrous oxide gas. I'or more serious operations, ether is now generally em])loyed. Bleeding was formerly employed as a universal remedy, often with fatal results, as is said to have been the case with Washington. To-day it is seldom used, as it is considered unwise and dangerous. Franklin's Printing Press In the Smithsonian Institution, Washington. PROGRESS IN SCIENCE AND THE USEFUL ARTS 161 Pathology, or the science of diseases, has been revolutionized by the discovery that most diseases are caused by germs or microbes. The causes of contagion and infection being more perfectly understood, diseases are more easily prevented as well as cured, and epidemics are frequently averted. Many diseases which were considered incurable are now successfully treated by modern methods. Antiseptics which prevent putre- faction and blood-poisoning have also been discovered, so that surgical operations are much safer than they were formerly. The discovery of the Roentgen or X-rays has been of inestimable service to surgery. 259. Photography and the Phonograph. — Eecent years have witnessed a great development in the science and art of photog- raphy. The camera has come to occupy a prominent place not only as a means of refined diversion, but also as a form of scientific apparatus. Astronomy, anatomy, and criminology — to mention only a few examples — are deeply indebted to the progress of photography. The Motion Picture industry has created a new form of public entertainment, and there is no doubt that the photo-play will profoundly influence the development of the drama. At pres- ent, much attention is properly bestowed upon the encourage- ment of the motion picture as an educational agency, and to a rigid censorship in order to remove its demoralizing aspects. Edison's invention of the Phonograph has also been perfected and the cost of production reduced to such an extent as to bring the entertaining and refining influence of music into an in- creasing number of American homes. The principle of the phonograph has also proved itself to be of considerable com- mercial value. In the form of the Dictaphone it has to some extent supplanted the stenographer. 260. Industrial Expositions. — There have been various ex- positions and fairs to show the progress of the sciences and arts. Of these the three most important held in this country were the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876, the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, and the Pan- 162 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES IIISTOKY American at IJuffalo in 1901. The Pliila(leli)liia Exposition showed how completely steam machinery had taken the place of the hand labor of Washington's day, and suggested the beginning of the era of electricity. The wonderful progress which the latter has made was shown at the Chicago Exposition. We seem to be living in an electrical age. Although this mysterious force is so extensively used to-day, new ai)plica- tions of it are constantly being made. Electricity will possi- bly accomplish more changes in the twentieth century than steam did in the nineteenth, Tlie Pan-American Exi)osition was a representative exhibit of the commercial, industrial, and educational progress of the entire Western continent. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904) was held at St. Louis in comnu'iiiMnitioii (if tlic great accession of territory in Jefferson's administration. Exhibits, showing methods and progress of education, formed an interesting feature of this exposition. The Lewis and Clarke Centennial Exposition held in Portland, Oregon, in 1905, marked the hundredth aimiver- sary of tlie ]noneer Avork of these courageous explorers. The Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition (1909) was held at Seattle, Washington. It directed attention to the progress of the Pacific states and to the AVf)n(l(M'fnl v»^sonrces of the northwest, especially Alaska. The Panama-Pacific Exposition (1915), held in San Francisco, celebrated the completion of the Panama Canal, one of the greatest feats of engineering and sanitation of modern times. These industrial ex])ositions accelerate the march of progress by educating the millions of ])eople who visit them, showing them what has been aecomiilished and stimulating them to further thouglit and activity. Furthermore, the different sec- tions of a country, and, in facrt, the dill't-rent nations of the world, acquire a fuller knowledge of each other's progress in the arts and sciences. This knowledge in itself tends to produce a greater har- mony in their commercial and hence in their political interests. CHAPTER XII PROGRESS IN EDUCATION Popular Education. — 261. Popular Education in the United States and Other Nations. 262. Relation to General Progress. Education in the Colonial Period. — 263. Differences in the Colonies as regards Education. 264. Early Education in New England. 265. Higher Education. 266. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. 267. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. 268. Early Education in the South. 269. Character of the Elementary Education. 270. Influence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. 271. Character of the Higher Education. Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period. — 272. Experi- ence. 273. Newspapers. 274. Books. 275. Sermons. Education in the Republic. — 276. Effect of Independence. 277. Establishment of the Public School System. 278. Labors of Great Leaders. 279. Growth of the Public School System. 280. Improve- ments of the System. 281. Higher Education. 282. Other Means of Education. 283. Summary. 163 ClIAlTHi; XI 1 PUOGUKSS IX KDrCATloX I. Popular Education 261. Popular Education in the United States and Other Nations. — That popular education receives very great atten- tion in the United States at the present day is shown by a conii)arison of the rehitive expenditures of money for that l)uri)ose by the United States and other great nations. Sta- tistics show that the United States is far ahead of the other nations in the provision that it makes for education. 262. Relation to General Progress. — The great advance that the United States has made, however, has been from such lmml)le begiiuiings that tlie story of its progress in educa- tion is just as remarkable as that of its growth in territory and poi)ulation, and of its progress in the sciences and useful arts. One has kept i)ace with the other. In fact, these several lines of i)rogress are so interwoven and interdependent that one could not well have been made without the other. Really l.ermanent material growth and jjrosperity depend largely upon a far-sighted devotion to education, and as the country grows in wealth, it in turn provides more lil)erally for i)ublic education. II. Education in the Colonial Period 263. Differences in the Colonies in Regard to Education. — Altliuugli tilt' struggle tor cxislcuce in the i-arly part of the colonial period was often very severe, yet many of the colonists a])i)reciated so highly the necessity and advantages of educa- tion that they made strenucms efforts to provide schools and 104 PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 165 render education as nearly universal as possible. There were great differences in the attention given to education in the several groups of colonies. Democratic New England made by far the greatest and most successful efforts to establish schools and promote free public education. In aristocra''c Virginia there was opposition to the idea of public educa- tion. The Middle colonies encouraged education, but it did not secure there the generous support that it was given by the Puritans. Harvard College in the Eighteenth Century After a picture entitled "A Prospect of the CoUedges in Cambridge in New England " in the possession of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 264. Early Education in New England. — Hardly had the Puritans built their homes and founded their churches before they sought to establish schools. They regarded it as the duty of the government to contribute to the education of its future citizens. As early as 1647 laws were passed requiring every town to establish a free school, and every town of one hundred families a grammar school. Compulsory education laws, requir- ing the attendance of all children of school age, were passed in every colony except Rhode Island. The crudely built log schoolhouses became a prominent feature of the New England landscape. 166 SURVEY OF unitp:d states history 265. Higher Education. — Not only did tlie Puritans estal> lish a free public school system, but they also founded the first institution for higher education in the country. In 1636 money was voted to found a college at Cambridge, which was afterward (1638) named Harvard College, in honor of Rev. John Harvard, who bequeathed his library and half his estate to the college. The respect for learning felt by the peoi)le of New England was at one time sliown by almost every family contributing something toward the support of the college. Yale College had an even more humble beginning than Har- vard. Two ministers made the first contribution — a number of books — in 1700. It was formally founded in 1701 at Say- brook, Connecticut, being afterward removed to New Haven. 266. Grammar Schools and Seminaries. — There were schools intcrnu'diatc between tlie cunimoii seliuols and colleges, where young men Avere prepared for entrance into college. They were known as grammar schools and seminaries, and were generally conducted l)v ministers. 267. Early Education in the Middle Colonies. — Tin- Dutch of New Netlierland seemed almost as eager as the Puritans to secure education for their children, and established some free schools (the first in 1633). Unfortunately these schools were not encouraged by the English when New Netherland c^me under their rule. The Quakers of Pennsjdvania were active in the cause of education, establisliing free schools and academies. The University of Pennsylvania (1745) at Phila- delphia, founded largely through the efforts of Benjamin I-'iaiikliii, Princeton College (1746) in New Jersey, and Colum- bia College (17ol) in New York were results of early attempts to provide higher education, and are now to be numbered among the greatest colleges and universities in the country. They were su})ported almost entirely by private means and endowments. In the IVliddle colonies there was, in fact, very little i)ublic money devoted to education. Even the element- ary schools, which were rather numerous, were for the most part private schools. PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 167 268. Early Education in the South. — Public education was neglected more in the South than in any other part of the coun- try. It was actually opposed by Governor Berkeley of Vir- ginia, who wrote, '' I thank God there are no free schools nor printing." Education was regarded as the duty of the family, and not a matter to be undertaken by the government. Tutors were employed by the planters to educate their children, or children were sent abroad for that purpose. Yet some people battled against these ideas, and a few free schools were estab- COLLEGE OF WiLLIAM AND MARY After a lithograph made from a drawing by Thomas MiUington, about 1740. lished. Higher education, however, was not neglected. Wil- liam and Mary College (1693), the second oldest college in America, was, before the Revolution, one of the most impor- tant institutions of learning in the country, 269. Character of the Elementary Education. — The diificul- ties under which education was carried on were numerous. Although many schoolhouses dotted the country, a large num- ber of the pupils had long distances to go, often through sec- tions of a country without roads and beset with many dangers. The schoolhouse itself was generally but a one-room log cabin furnished with rough boards for seats and desks. Both pens and ink were home-made. Maps, charts, libraries, and other helpful apparatus so familiar to the modern schoolboy were entirely absent, but the all-important symbol of the peda- 168 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY THE ^^' WHOLE -i^' lc>j BOOKE OFPSALMES J^J 'fWj OHltrt. prJ !1 \\Pi^ WFeitwxoiiprtiixcdiifaurtedc- "ju . VlT^cbripj nolonjyihe UwluJtncj. bijtallb<>}0 t^ dltlKCtdicyoflkthovcnlyOndlalou Ot"! J Cod gogiie's office — the Liich rod or stout hickory stick — was always conspicuously present and was frequently employed. The text-books were the primer and spelling-book, badly printed. The pictures which some of them contained seem to-day like fec.'^^^uk-CJX'tLi'.tie.^rc^i absurd caricatures. Hyiun books aud ]%'_ the ' "Jii^: catechisms were often utilized, not only for religious instruction, but also as a means for the teaching of reading, spelling, etc. The teachers were poorly paid. jMany were not very learned, some were intemperate. The best of them taught school only temporarily, to support themselves while they prepared for some other more profitable work or profession. The three R's— Readin', 'J^itin', and 'liitluuetic — were the subjects taught, — the barest rudiments of an educa- tion. The girls generally received even less instruction than the boys. Needle work was regarded as better for them than writing. In some localities the boys went to school in winter and the girls in summer. The discipline was harsh and even brutal. The continual flogging was bad enough, l)ut other cruel and degrad- ing forms of i)iniishmont were employed. 270. Influence of the Little Red Schoolhouse. — Yet in spite of all the defects of this early education, tlie "little red school- house" (many were painted that color) became deservedly famous for its work in educating the children of the colonists. It kept alive the spirit of education, and paved the way for the development of the great free public school system of whicli the United States is to-day so justly proud. 271. Character of the Higher Education. — The higher edu- cation of colonial tlays was also very simple and crude as ?nJ Ijmt, ». Cjrf rr-. mjiimtrrj Ut Urn ftf [Jmt. jj-. '§. ^'- I Rkduced Facsimile of the Title-page of the First Book PRINTED in,\merk A PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 169 compared with that of to-day. A grammar school meant a school for Latin and Greek grammar, which were taught to the neglect of the mother tongue. In fact, little else than Latin, Greek, and mathematics was taught at all. The semi- naries were boarding schools, each containing but a few pupils. The fare was poor and coarse, the discipline brutal. The col- leges were small affairs as compared with the great institu- tions of to-day. The average age of their pupils was nearer that of the pupils of the modern grammar or high school. The course of instruction usually included little besides the dead languages and mathematics. ISTevertheless, these institu- tions were the fruitful beginnings of the great system of pre- paratory schools, colleges, and universities that now offer such splendid opportunities for higher education in every part of the United States. III. Other Means of Education in the Colonial Period 272. Experience. — School and college do not afford the only means by which people are educated. The whole of one's surroundings, everything one sees and does, helps or hinders his education. "Experience is the best teacher." The very difficulties the colonists had to overcome, the hardships they had to endure to secure an education, and the hard struggle for life in the early period developed their characters, making them frugal, thrifty, industrious, fearless, and self-reliant, and implanting that spirit of independence which sustained them in their rebellion against oppression. 273. Newspapers. — The press is to-day one of the great educational forces of the world. The colonists did not have a newspaper until 1700, and at the beginning of the Revolution there were only thirty-seven in circulation. Most of these were published in the New England and the Middle states, New England having fourteen, and Ncav York and Pennsylvania together thirteen papers. They bore little resemblance to the great papers of to-day. They were little sheets, poorly printed, 170 SURVEY OF UNITKI) SIATKS HISTORY and from a moderu standpoint absurdly illustrated. As they had few facilities for getting information from different parts of the country, their news was principally local. They would sometimes publish letters received by the townspeople from friends abroad or in other colonies. These letters were long and contained matters that are seldom found in a modern let- NuM. 1084 T^AMERICAN W E E KLY MERCURY. From Thurfday OUalier i, to Thurfdjy 0<.iobrrslk of thb First Newspaper in Philadelphia ter, since the daily newspaper supplies such information in more than abundant measure. 274. Books. — Few books were written and published in the colonies, and not very many were brought from abroad. The best of the colleges had only what would now be regarded as insignificant libraries. The books to be found in the homes were largely theological works. (See §§ 280, 287.) Benjamin Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac " was full of a homely wit and practical -sNnsdom well suited to the conditions of a peo]»le struggling to establish themselves in a new world. 275. Sermons. — The clergy, especially those of New Eng- land, formed an educated class. They were held in great re- spect by every one on account of their learning and profession. The Sunday sermon, two, three, or even more hours in length, gave the people subject for thought, and was an educational influence of no mean importance. PROGRESS IN EDUCATION 171 IV. Education in the Republic 276. Effect of Independence. — The attainment of indepen- dence aroused a new interest in education. The instruction of its children was felt to be a patriotic duty that each state owed to the republic. The early fathers of the nation be- lieved this strongly, and exerted great influence for the cause. Washington said, " In proportion as the structure of a govern- ment gives force to public opinion, it is necessary that public opinion be enlightened." Jefferson combated the aristocratic ideas of Governor Berkeley, and introduced a bill into the General Assembly of Virginia for the establishment of schools " for the free training of all free children, male or female." Benjamin Franklin expressed his belief as follows, " A Bible and a newspaper in every house, a free school in every dis- trict, all studied and appreciated as they merit, are the princi- pal supports of Virtue, Morality and Civil Liberty." 277. Establishment of the Public School System. — The peo- ple in general were willing to put in practice these wise suggestions for universal education, but it proved to be a matter beset with difficulties. How to raise the money was one important question, on which all did not agree. What religion, if any, should be taught in the schools, was another problem. At first only poor children received free education. The public schools then suffered from being called " Pauper Schools." Though the free common schools of the New Eng- land and the Middle colonies furnished the beginnings, there was a period of fifty years (1790-1840) of struggle for free and universal education before a truly great and extensive system of free public schools became firmly established. 278. Labors of Great Leaders. — Horace Mann of Massachu- setts and Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania labored zealously in the cause of the free public schools, and were not only suc- cessful in the practical work of organizing the school systems of their own states, but also in arousing great interest in public education throughout the country. 172 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY 279. Growth of the Public School System. — The latter half of the nineteenth century saw a wonderful extension and im- provement of the free public school system. The Federal gov- ernment encouraged education by grants of land (See § 108). More than eighty million acres of public lands have been thus devoted to education. Western emigrants carried Eastern ideas of education Avith them, and the schools of the West compare favorably to-arties. The i)olitical management of city aiTairs has often resulted in inefficient, extravagant, and corrupt administration. It is maintained that the questions wliicli city authorities have to decide are very different from those which face the state or nation. They are simply business problems on a large scale, and should be dealt with in a business-like manner ; e.g. the PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 201 streets must be kept clean and lighted, transportation facilities furnished, schools built and maintained, good water supply- secured, police regulations enforced, etc. The use of the spoils system in city government — since the latter is in effect a busi- ness corporation — has been attended with great evils. Private corporations sometimes secure from city officials valuable fran- chises, such as gas and water supply, street railways, etc., through corrupt political means. City ownership has been sug- gested as a remedy for these evils. Others, however, maintain that under our present political administration of city affairs liuch municipal control would only multiply the evils it is meant to cure. Some city charters have been drawn up which hope to get the cities under good business management by the cre- ation of a few great departments, the heads of which can be held strictly responsible. Another method of city government known as the Commis- sion form has become popular. The City of Galveston was forced by a great disaster, the flooding of the city by a terrific storm and tidal wave (1900), to take extraordinary means to re-establish itself. It appointed a small commission to manage the affairs of the city. The success of this experiment was so marked that the Commission form of city government became very popular, and more than three hundred and fifty cities are now governed in this way. Another method of city government which aims to be non-partisan and business-like, has grown out of the commission form. It consists in the election of a City Manager who conducts the business of the city somewhat as a President or Superintendent of a large business enterprise would conduct its affairs. More than thirty cities are now conducted under the City Manager plan. It is claimed that both the Commission form of government and the City Manager plan have proved to be economical and effi- cient, and that many traditional evils of municipal government have been overcome. The future development and success of such plans depend upon the degree in which their ideal of non- partisan management for the good of all the people is realized. 202 SL'IJVKY OF UNITKI) STATES IIISTOUV 326. Race Problems. — Since the adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, ami Filtitiith Amendmeuts to the Constitution, the treatment of the negroes of the South has been a most serious problem. In some sections of the South the colored inhab- tants outnumber the whites, and the latter have feared that legishition might be controlled by the negroes. This fear has increased the hatred caused by natural race prejudice and the events of the Civil War. Race riots have sometimes occurred, and the negroes have fre(iuently been subjected to inhuman treatment. Bribery and intimidation have prevented the negro from freely exercising the right of suffrage. Some have en- deavored to justify this on the ground that the negro is too ignorant to vote intelligently. Attemjits have been made in some states recently to debar the illiterate negro by law from voting by demanding certain educational (jualiti cations. Such restriction of the ballot would be at the risk of a reduction in the state's representation in Congress, in proportion to the number of votes thus excluded. (See Amendment XIV, Sec- tion 2.) Education of tlie negro is the remedy most frequently advanced fur the solution of this important problem. The treatment of the Indians (see § 139), Chinese, and Japanese are race problems which are not as yet quite satisfactorily settled. 327. The Temperance Question. — The evils of intemperance have at last itroduced the conviction that the use of alcoholic liquors must be prohibited by law. As a result the XVIII Amendment was adopted on January 16, 1919. Previous to that date, many states had passed prohibition laws ; of course, no law, even a Constitutional Amendment, will be ef- fective, unless public sentiment is behind it. As was to be ex- pected, there have been many infractions of the law, and many households still contain quantities of liquor and means for its manufacture. The habit of alcoholic intemperance is one of the most ditticult to overcome, and this very fact emphasizes the degradation of those who are its slaves. Everyone interested in the welfare of humanity should do all in his or her power PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 203 to assist in the strictest enforcement of the XVIIIth Amend- ment. 328. Woman Suffrage. — After many years of agitation, women now have the right to vote in every part of the United States. Many of the western states had long ago given them this privilege. Although at first regarded as an experiment, it was plainly a matter of simple justice that women should have an equal voice with men in the government of a free nation. The XlXth Amendment granting women the suffrage was adopted August 26, 1920. The fine and noble service of women during the World War undoubtedly helped to pass the Amendment, and it probably will not be very long before all the great nations of the world will grant women equal rights with men. By the wise exercise of their new right women hasten this action. 329. Americanization of the Foreigner. — The extent of the admixture of foreign elements in our population due to immi- gration is indicated by the census returns which show that more than one-third of the people living in the United States are either foreign-born or of foreign-born parentage. This is a truly remarkable condition. It is esj)ecially imj)ortant in a democracy where the people make their own laws and govern themselves that such a condition should be clearly recognized and that provision be made to assimilate the various foreign elements as rapidly and completely as possible. The foreigner should be taught to understand the laws, to respect the institutions, and to become a patriotic citizen of the country he has adopted as a home. With a view to assisting in the solution of this problem the Department of the Interior of the United States Government has entered upon a nation-wide campaign for the Americaniza- tion of the foreigner. It has enlisted the interest and support of Chambers of Commerce and other civic organizations in this work, the movement has acquired great strength, and much good has been accomplished. One of the most impor- tant agencies cooperating with the United States Government 204 SURVEY OF UNITED STATES HISTORY for this purpose is the public school. In many cities, the schools have established evening classes for foreigners, and in some places day classes for those who work at night. In these classes English, including both oral and written lan- guage, and civics, with special reference to the meaning and ])urpose of Americ^m laws and institutions, are tauglit. The foreigners attending evening schools are also grouped in " Xaturalization Classes " in which they are assisted in till- ing out their application papers and given otiier practical instruction in preparation for the examinations they must take in order to become " naturalized citizens " of this coun- try. A certificate showing that the api)licant has completed the work of the evening schools is sometimes accepted instead of an examination. The United States Government is en- couraging the schools to do this work and is assisting them in many ways. Thus the schools and other patriotic agencies are endeavor- ing to promote the work of " The Melting Pot." As Israel Zangwill describes it : " America is God's crucible, where all the races of Europe are melting and re-forming. . . . Here you stand, good folks, tliink I, in your fifty groups, with your fifty languages, but you won't be long like that, brothers; for these are the fires of (Jod you have come to, these are the fires of God. A fig for your feuds and vendettas. Germans and Frenchmen, Irishmen and Englishmen, Jews and Russians, into the crucible with you all ! (rod is making the American." A little high-school girl of Kussian birth, reading these lines, wrote : *' How true are these words, and do they not show the elements which inspired Zangwill to call America the crucible'.' If you could tiike a bird's eye view of every country in the world you would not find elsewhere such a mixture of foreign people and foreign languages as here in America, and do you wonder at this ? What PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY 205 other country liolds before the people such liberty to act, and do, according to their instinct as America? Free education, free speech, and rights of citizenship, which includes the two mentioned, greet the newcomer as he lands on the shores of the free land. It is only three years since I, myself, first felt the wonderful spirit of America." And similarly, another wrote : " To Israel Zangwill, America is a great melting pot, where the evil is cast away and the good remains. Here the posterities of all the races will forget their ancient grudges, and will strive for one thing together — to become true Americans." The phrase " and the good remains " used by the young writer is in agreement with the views of many older students of this problem who have pointed out that the simile of the *' melting pot " should not be interpreted to mean that in the Americanization process the foreigners are to be cast into one rigid mold ; rather are these " strangers within our gates " to be encouraged to conserve their national heritage, each racial group making its contribution to American life in craft and culture, art, and ideals. THE OOl^STITUTIOK OF THE UNITED STATES. (1) We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- quillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. SECTION I. (2) All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II. (3) The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the sev- eral States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. (4) No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. (5) Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 1 2 CONSTITUTION OF among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall bo determined by adding to tlie whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex- cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall he made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enu- meration shall be made, the State of New Hartipshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provide7ice Fhmtations one, Cotmecticut five, New York six. New Jerseij four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary- land six, Virg'mia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. (6) When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. (7) The House of Representatives shall choose their Speak- er and other ofiicers, and shall have the sole power of im- peachment. SECTION III. (8) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature there- of, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. (9) Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if UNITED STATES. 3 vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. (10) No person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- tained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. (11) The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. (12) The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. (13) The Senate shall have the sole power to try all im- peachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. (14) Judgment in cases of impeachment s-hall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punish- ment, according to law. SECTION IV. (15) The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. (16) The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year. 4 CONSTITTTTION OF and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in Decembei^ unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V. (17) Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num- ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. (18) Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. (19) Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. (20) Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI. (21) The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com- pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace be privi- leged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. (22) No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for wliich lie was elected, be ap])ointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased tTNITED STATES. 5 during such time ; and no person holding any ofRce under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in oflice. SECTION VII. (23) All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. (24) Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two- thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn- ment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. (25) Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be pre- sented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. CONSTITUTION OF SECTION vni. (26) The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, aud excises, to pay the debts and pro- vide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; (27) To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; (28) To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, aud with the Indian tribes; (29) To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; (30) To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of for- eign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; (31) To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; (32) To establish post-offices and post-roads ; (33) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclu- sive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; (34) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; (35) To define and jmnish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offences against the law of nations ; (36) To declare war, grant letters of marque ai.d reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; (37) To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; (38) To provide and maintain a navy ; (39) To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; (40) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel inva- sions ; (41) To i)rovide for organizing, arming, and disci])liniug UNITED STATES. 7 the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the disci- pline prescribed by Congress ; (42) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- ever over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and (43) To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX. (44) The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thou- sand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. (45) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. (46) No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. (47) No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. (48) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 8 CONSTITUTION OP (49) No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. (50) No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. (51) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind, what- ever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X. (52) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. (53) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exjwrts, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and "imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. (54) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. UNITED STATES. 9 ARTICLE II. SECTION I. (55) The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : (56) Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legis- lature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rep- resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two- thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the 10 CONSTITUTION OF President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] ^ (57) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day on whicli they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. (58) No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Consti- tution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-live years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. (59) In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or the President shall be elected. (60) The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he may have been elected, and he sliall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. (61) Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) tliat I will faithfully exe- cute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Con- stitution of the United States." ' This clause of the Constitution has bccu amended. See twelfth article of the amendmeats. UNITED STATES. U SECTION II. (62) The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeach- ment. (63) He shall have power, by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. (64) The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III. (65) He shall from time to time give to the Congress infor- mation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement be- tween them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take 12 CONSTITUTION OF care that the la.w8 be faithfully executed, and shall commis- Bion all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV. (66) The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeach- ment for and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE in SECTION' I. (67) The judicial power of tlie United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. srx'Tiox II. (68) The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; be- tween a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claim- ing lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. (69) In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public min- isters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be a UNITED STATES. 13 party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. (70) The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III. (71) Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giv- ing them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. (72) The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- ment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work cor- ruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. SECTION I. (73) Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II. (74) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privi- leges and immunities of citizens in the several States. (75) A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another 14 CONSTITUTION OF State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. (76) No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III. (77) New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. (78) The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. SECTION IV. (79) The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall pro- tect each of them against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. (80) The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two- thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- UNITED STATES. 15 posing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when rati- fied by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. AETICLE VI. (81) All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the confederation. (82) This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- withstanding. (83) The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. (84) The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. AMENDMENTS.' ARTICLE I. (85) Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the j)ress ; or the riglit of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the gov- ernment for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE IL (86) A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE IIL (87) No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. (88) The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the per- son or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. (89) No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indict- ment of a grand jinv, except in cases arising in the land or 1 TIr" first ten Aiiuiicliiii-iits went into cfTect Nov. ."!, IT'.tl. 10 CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. 17 naval forces, or iu the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. (90) In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VIL (91) In suits at common law, where the value in contro- versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- wise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. (92) Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. (93) The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 18 CONSTITUTION OF ARTICLE X. (94) The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively or to the people. ARTICLE XU (95) The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. ARTICLE XII.* (96) The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate, The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- diately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presi- dent the votes shall be taken by States, the representation 1 In effect Jan. 8, 171)8. « In effect Sept. 25, 1804. UNITED STATES. 19 from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. (97) The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally in- eligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. ARTICLE XllU (98) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. (99) Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV.2 (100) Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citi- zens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No" State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 1 In effect Dec. 18, 1865. 2 i^ effect July 28, 1868. 20 CONSTITUTION OF or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. (101) Skction 2. Kepresentatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective num- bers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of tlie United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the legislature tliereof, is denied to any of tlie male inhabit- ants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representa- tion therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. (102) Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Repre- sentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-Presi- dent, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an ex- ecutive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Consti- tution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of earth house, remove such disability. (103) Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State sliall assume or puy any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- UNITED STATES. 21 cipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. , (104) Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. 1 (105) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condi- tion of servitude. (106) Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI.2 (107) Section 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII.3 (108) Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided that the Legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. Section 3. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it be- comes valid as part of the Constitution. 1 In effect March 30, 1870. 2 Iq effect Feb. 25, 191.'5. 8 lu effect May :?1, 191 .S. 22 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATER ARTICLE XVIII.' (109) Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article, the manufacture, sale, or transportiition of intoxi- cating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the ex- portation thereof from, tlie Tnited States and all territory- subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes, is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- lation. Section 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitu- tion, within seven years from the date of the submission thereof to the States by the Congress. ARTICLE XIX. (110) Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 1 In effect Jau. 17, 1920. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 23 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. I. PREAMBLE. Parties to the Com- / " We the people of the pact. I United States." 1. To form a more perfect union. 2. To establish justice. 3. To insure domestic tranquillity. 4. To provide for the common defenct. Purposes. ' 5. To promote the general welfare. 6. To secure the blessings of liberty : a. For themselves. b. For posterity. Thing Done. " Do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America." QUERIES. 1. What form of government preceded that under the Constitution ? 2. Why was the change made ? 65. 3. When and where made ? 66. (Bancroft.) 4. By whom made — the States or the people ? 6. What prominent men took part in the meeting to form the Constitu- tion ? 6. How long did the discussion last ? 7. To whom was the Constitution reported ? 8. By whom and how ratified ? 9. Were the people unanimously for it ? 10. What are the purposes of a government ? References. — Wilson's State and Federal Governments, pp. 21, 23, 24, 35 ; O. S. Leaflets, Nos. 3, 6, 19. n. PARTS OF OUR GOVERNMENT. 1. The Law-Making Power. 1. 2. The Law-Interpreting Power. 67. 3. The Law-Executing Power. 55. 24 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE LAW-MAKING POWER. III. CONGRESS. (p. 60, 65), f 1, HoiLse of Representatives. 2. composed of t 2. Senate. 2. QUERIES. 1. Why have three departments to the government? 2. Does Russia have the same three parts ? 3. What are these parts called in England ? 4. Should public officers be paid ? Why ? 5. Why have a national judiciary? 41, 83. 6. Why have a national legislature ? 7. Which is the Upper House ? Why so called ? 8. Which the Lower House ? 9. What does each House represent ? 67. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 1. Composed of citizens. 4. ( 1. Age? 2. Citizen how long ? 3. Citizen where ? 4. 4. How disqualified? 22. 5. Loyalty? 102. 1. When? 3. 2. By whom ? 3. 3. Electors? 3. 4. How? 15. 1. How happen ? 18, 100. 2. How filled? 17. 1. Includes whom ? 5. 2. When made ? 5. 3. Upon what basis ? 101. 4. Conditions? 100. 2. Qualifications. 3. Elected. 4. Vacancies. 5. Apportionment. ' 1. Legislative 6. Powers. \e> 'Exclusive. 3. Of impeachment. 7. Electoral. [ ^' ^• 1 2. 93. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 2/^ SENATE. Composed of whom ? (1 8. 2. Qualifications. 3. Elected. 4. Vacancy. 6. Powers. 6. Presided over by -s Age ? 10. 2. A citizen, nine years. 3. Inhabitant of ? 4. Office-holder? 22. 5. Chosen or appointed? 6. Loyal? 102. 1. By whom ? 8. 2. For how long ? 8. 3. How? 9. 4. When? 5. Into what classes ? How happen ? 9. How filled ? ri. To vote. 19. 2. Legislative. 2. 3. Elective. /Officers. 12. I Vice-President. 4. Of impeachment. 13. / Treaties. I Appointment. 63. Vice-President U.S. 11. President pro tem. 12. il: Executive. QUERIES. 1. Why should a senator be older than a representative ? 2. Why should Congressmen be citizens ? 3. Why should senators hold office longer than representatives ? 71. 4. Why have more than one House ? 68. 5. What exclusive power given the House of Representatives ? Why ? 6. What exclusive functions of the Senate ? Why ? 7. On what basis is representation allowed ? 8. What other basis could you suggest ? 9. What change in the basis of apportionment ? Why ? Why is the term " slavery " not mentioned in the Constitution ? 10. Who is responsible for legislation ? 64, 131. References. — State and Federal Governments, pp. 98, 100, 102, 31. 26 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE EXECUTIVE. I. THE PRESIDENT. 1. Supreme Executive. 55. 2. Term. 3. Election. By Electors. By House of Represent- atives. 1. How appointed? 56. 2. How many in each State ? 1. Meet where? 2. How vote ? 3. Make lists. 3. Process. 96. Sign lists. Certify lists. Transmit lists. Direct lists. Before Congress. 2. 3. 4. When ? From whom ? By ballot. By States. Quorum. ^ G. Non-election. 1. Lists opened by ? 2. In presence of ? 3. Counted by ? 4. Election. 5. Non-election. 96. 4 Qualifications. 6. Salary. 60. 6. Removable. 66. 1. Citizenship. 58. 2. Age. 3. Residence. 4. Oath of office. 61. References. — Dawes' Uow we are Governed, pp. 167-8; Macy's Civil Government. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 27 7. Powers and Duties. 1. Military. r 1. 2. 3. 2. Civil. Over militia, conditional. Executive departments. 62. Reprieves and pardons. Make treaties, conditional. 63. 1. 4. Appoint 5. 64. 65. rill vacancies. 6. Send messages. 7. Convene Congress, 8. Adjourn Congress. 9. Eeceive ambassadors. 10. Have laws executed. 11. May veto laws. 24. 12. Must grant commissions. 65. 1. How elected. 1^ (.3 n. VICE-PRESIDENT. By Electors. 2. By Congress. 3. By Senate. 97. 2. Qualifications^ 8. Term. 4. Powers and Duties 97. f 1. Eligible to Presidency 12. Oathc President of Senate. 11. 2. Oath of office. 83. President of i 2. Acting President of the United States. 59. v. QUERIES. 1. Why have but one President ? 77. (Bancroft.) (Wilson, p. 113.) 2. What does the President owe the people ? 32. 3. Why not limit the Presidency to rich or highly educated men f' 47. 4. Why limit the power of the President ? 5. Why should he be a native of the United States ? 6. Why not elected by direct vote? (Wilson, p. 114.) 7. Who counts the electoral vote ? 8. What important contest raised this question ? 9. In case of non-election by votes of electors, why should the House rather than the Senate choose a President ? 10. Why not elect a President for one year ? For six years ? For ten years ? 28 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. Compoaed of 67. Judges. Functions. THE JUDICIARY. f Chief Justice. Supreme Court. Subordinalf Courts I Associate Justices. f 1. Circuit Courts. I 2. District Courts. Appointed by 1. President and 2, Senate. 63. Removable /^^^""P^''*'-"^™^"'- I For what ? 66. Tenure of office. 67. Compensation. /How fixed? C When changed f , Oath of office. 83. ' Judicial power extends to what ? 68. Original Jurisdiction. 69. Appellate Jurisdiction. 69. QUERIES. 1. Why make the judges permanent office-holders ? Sd. 2. ^Vhy give them larger salaries than to Congressmen? 3. Why have a national judiciary ? 83. 4. Wliy not allow all judges to hold office durmg life or good be- havior ? 85. 6. Why heed the courts' decisions ? 6. Wliat are the chief purposes of judges ? 87. 7. What Is a jury ? 89. 8. Difference in purpose of the judge and the jury ? 9. What is meant by the ''common law " ? By " statute law ** f 10. What is meant by " equity " ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 29 PEOVISIONS COMMON TO SENATE AND HOUSE. I ■»«■ V -u- f Composed of. 17. 1. MemDersnip. < ^ , l Decided by. 2. Oath of office. 83. „ r\ f Composed of. 17. 3. Quorum. < '■ I How secured ? ■ c- 1 r How determined ? 21. 4. Salary. < ^ \ How paid ? 5. Rules. 18. 6. Journal. | ^^^P*' ^^- t. Published. 7. Yeas and Nays. 19. {f How long ? 20. Adjournment. I ^yj^^^^ J, Holding civil office. 22. Certain emoluments. 9. Penalties. jPuuishment. 18. C Expulsion. QUERIES. 1. Why should each house decide as to qualifications of its members ? 2. What is a " quorum " of the House ? Of the Senate ? 8. When is a quorum present ? (See discussion over Speaker Reed's decision.) 4. Why should less than a quorum adjourn ? 6. What powers ought less than a quorum to have ? Why ? 6. Why keep a journal ? 7. Why publish a journal ? 8. What is the use of " Yeas and Nays " ? 9. Why not let one house adjourn permanently without the other ? 10. Why should each member vote ? 122, 65. References. — Any good book on Rules of Order ; Bancroft's Forma, tion of Constitution ; Congressional Record. 30 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. BILLS, LAWS, RESOLUTIONS, ETC. f Bills and Laws. Orders, etc. I. Courses. XL First Course. III. Second Course. IV. Third Course. 1. Passed by Congress. 2. Exception. 3. Presented to President. 4. Approved or disapproved. 5. Treated as a bill. 1. With executive approval. 2. With executive veto. 3. Without executive action. 1. Bill pa.sses Congres.s. 24. 2. Sent to the President. 3. President approves. ( 1. Bill passes Congress. 24. 2. Sent to the President. 3. President returns with objeo tions. 4. Objections entered on journal. 5. Bill reconsidered. 6. Approved by two-thirds. 7. "Vote taken. 8. Votes recorded. 1. Bill pas.ses Congress. 24. 2. Presented to President. 3. Not returned in ten days. 4. Effect, Congress not adjourn- ing. 25. QU£RIKS. 1. What are the parts of a bill ? 2. Write a bill forbidding the smoking of cigarettes. 3. Offer an amendment to this bill. 4. What difference between a bill and a law ? 6. What steps in the passage of a bill ? 6. In what ways may a bill be defeated ? 7. How does the President approve a bill ? 8. How express his disapproval ? 78. 0. Write, as President, your approval of the bill mentioned In (2), 10. Veto the bill in (2). CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. 31 POWERS AND DUTIES OF CONGRESS. I. AS TO REVENUES. {1. Taxes, duties, imposts, excises. 26. 2. Borrowed money. 27. 3. Sale of lands. 78. 4. Sale of other property. {1. To pay debts of the United States. 26. 2. To provide for common defence. 3. To promote public welfare. QUERIES. 1. Why should people pay taxes ? 94, 101. 2. What difference between a direct and an indirect tax ? Give exam- ples. 3. What part of the time of Congress is taken up in raising and spend- ing money ? 143. 4. In what ways can Congress borrow money ? 147. 6. Where and how does the government get its title to lands ? 6. What is a tariff ? Where collected ? 99. 7. Why not raise all taxes on real estate or land ? On personal prop^ erty ? On large incomes ? 8. What is a poll tax ? A license tax ? Internal revenue ? 9. For what ought the public money to be expended ? 145. 10. What principles should govern a legislative body in raising taxes ? 11. Should the government lend money to its citizens ? 208, 212. II. AS TO TRADE. {1. Domestic. 28. 2. Foreign. 3. With Indians. 2. Means of Traffic. f 1. Coining money. 30. 2. Regulating value of money. 3. Fixing standard weights, etc. 30. 4. Regulating bankruptcies. 29. 5. Establishing post-offices. 32. S. Hindrances re- f ^' Punishing counterfeiting. 31. moved by | ^- Punishing piracy and felony. ; I. 3. Protecting inventors, etc. 33. 32 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. QUERIES. 1. Wliat is tlic purpose of trade ? Who Is benefited ? 237. 2. Is all profitable trade justifiable ? Illustrate. 8. What usually controls the price of an article ? 252. 4. Do not tariffs and other taxes raise the prices ? Why allow thia ? 6. Why limit the coining and valuation of money to the general govern- ment alone ? Can you coin paper money ? 6. Why protect iuveutors ? 303. III. AS TO WAR. 1. Congress may declare. 2. May grant letters of marque and reprisal. 3. May regulate captures. 4. May raise and support armies. Limitation. 5. May provide and maintain a navy. 6. May establish rules for army and navy. {1. To execute the laws. 2. To suppress insurrections. 3. To repel invasions. {1. Organization. 2. Equipment. 3. Discipline. 4. Government. QUERIES. 1. Why do wars occur? 257, 202, 297, 309. 2. How best prevented ? 3. What are marque and reprisal ? 4. What is it to declare war ? 5. Why by Congress ? 6. Who are the militia ? 7. Why have militia ? 8. What trouble did President Lincoln meet about the militia? 9. Why not keep a large standing army ? 10. Should all able-bodied male citizens receive military training ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 33 IV. AS TO COURTS AND PENALTIES. I. Courts. 2. Penalties for \l r 1. Congress may constitute inferior tribunals. 34. ! 2. May define and punisli international offences. 35. May fix place of certain trials. 70. May restrict jurisdiction. 69. 1. Crimes on the seas. 35. 2. Offences against laws of nations. 3. Counterfeiting. 31. 4. Treason, with limitations. 72. 5. Violations of laws of special territory. 70. QUERIES. What is the chief court of the United States ? Which are three of the subordinate courts ? What are international offences ? Why should Congress fix a place of trial ? Why have other than State courts ? Why have other than the supreme national court ? How many circuit courts ? How constituted ? Territory ? Is it better to punish wrong-doing or to prevent it ? How can courts become instruments of wrong ? 89. What is treason ? How defined fully ? What is the purpose of punishment ? 264. What is an indeterminate sentence ? Is it wise ? How can schools make a smaller number of courts necessary ? What are international rights ? 303. V. AS TO STATES AND SPECIAL TERRITORY. ' 1. Congress may regulate election of its own mem- bers. 15. It may determine certain things as to electors, 57. 3. State imposts may be restricted. 53. 4. Proof of State records prescribed. 73. 5. Effect of proofs fixed how ? r 1. Exclusive legislation for seat of government. 42; ! 2. Authority over purchased territory. As to States. \ As to Territory and Property. I 3. May admit new States conditionally. I 4. May dispose of territory, etc. 77. 84 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. QUERIES. 1. Why should not Congress regulate all elections ? 2. Who are electors ? 3. What difference between a discretionary power and a mandatory one ? 4. Can a state prevent the election of Congressmen ? 6. What is a state impost ? Of what value ? 6. Why state what constitutes proof ? 7. What is "eminent domain"? Upon what principle does it rest? 196. What rights imply ? 8. How does any man acquire property in land ? Upon what do all deeds rest ? Why ? 197. 9. Why should Congress control the seat of government ? 10. Who makes laws for all territory not part of a State ? Why ? MISCELLANEOUS POWERS, Etc. (How often ? 16. When ? How changed ? 2. Naturalization. Must be uniform. 29. (I'urjwsc. 33. Secure what ? For whose benefit ? 4. Making of general laws. 43. 5. The slave trade. /Recognized. 44. I Abolished. 98. 6. Legislation as to executive vacancy. 59. /-I. 61. 7. Inferior appointments. -J 2. is. (1. Original. 80. 2. By convontioo, .3. Limitation. QUERIES. 1. WTiy must Congress meet yearly ? How long can ft remain in ses- sion ? Where must it meet ? 2. Can one house prevent the assembling of Congress ? CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 35 3. What is the purpose of naturalization ? Should immigration be re- stricted ? 313. 4. What is a patent ? A copyright ? How secured ? What is an inter- national copyright? Do you favor these ? 182. 5. Was the slave trade ever directly legalized by the Constitution ? Why abolish it ? Its history. 6. Why not limit law-making power to particular subjects or objects ? 7. Can Congress alter or amend the Constitution ? Why provide for amendments ? 8. Is there any part of the Constitution which cannot be amended ? 9. What is the constitutional definition of an inferior officer ? What danger in controlling his appointment? 109, 110. 10. What is the civil service law ? Its purpose ? Its value ? 108. OFFICE-HOLDERS. Reetrictions. Term of Office. Salaries. Impeachment. • 1. Upon Congressmen. 22. 2. Upon office-holders. 3. As to presidential electors. 56. 4. As to disloyal persons. 102. . 5. As to favors from foreign powers. 51. ■ 1. Of senators. 8. 2. Of representatives. 3. 3. Of the President. 55. 4. Of the Supreme Court. 67. 6. Of the Cabinet. 1. Amount. 21. 2. From what paid ? 1. Extent of judgment in. 66. 2. Any further liability. 3. Who are liable to ? 4. On what ground ? 70. QUERIES. 1. Why require public officers to be loyal ? 138. 2. Why not allow a Congressman to hold another office ? Why restrict presidential electors ? 159. 8. Who are office-seekers? Is it wrong to seek office? 110. 4. Who are politicians ? What are " rings " ? Caucuses ? ^0 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 6. Wliy not let every office-holder remain during life or good behavior? HI, 1G2. 6. How did the term "rotation in office" arise? 113. What is meant by the expression, "To the victors belong the spoils" ? What idea anderlies this '? 7. How large should salaries be ? What obligations do salaries imply ? 8. Why provide for impeachment ? On what grounds ? 9. Why limit the punishment ? THE UNITED STATES ARE FORBIDDEN 1. To restrict slave trade. fl. Lie 1 2. Wl Limitations. 44. hen abolished ? 98. 2. To suspend habeas corpus — (Exceptions ?) 45. j-l. Bill of attainder. 46. 3. To make such laws as -J 2. Attainder of treason. 72. 1 3. Ex post facto law. 46. 4. To lay direct tax (unless ?) 47. On domestic exports. 48. interstate commerce. 49. 6. To give preference in trading to any State. f 1. For armies beyond two years. 2. Without appropriation. 50. 3. Without published statements. 4. For rebellion, etc Territorial claims. 81. 5. To levy duties ( 1. On d 12. On ii 37. 7. To pay public money (1. Territorial 2. Contracts. 3. Public deb 9. To grant title of nobility. 10. To prohibit freedom. bt. 51 103. Religious. Civil. Tests. 83. Kind. 85. Exercise. {Speech. 85. Press. 85. Public assembly. Petition. Bearing arms. 86. QUERIES. What Is the *' habeas corpus''? Why so important? pended ? Why sua- 2. In commercial matters. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 37 2. Define a writ. An attorney. A court. Bail. 90, 91. 3. Give the correct basis and principle of taxation. 94, 98, 101. 4. What are duties ? For what purposes levied ? Why restricted ? 163. 5. What principles should govern in expending public money ? 6. Should it be spent for internal improvements ? Without limit ? 7. Why limit war appropriations to two years ? 8. What is repudiation ? Why forbidden ? Is repudiation not recog- nized as right in bankrupt laws ? 9. What objection to titles of nobility ? Principle ? 10. Reasons for civil and religious freedom ? Are freedom and licenso identical ? THE STATES ARE FORBIDDEN ( 1. To make alliances, etc. 52. 1. In interstate relations. -j 2. To lay duties, except ? 53. I 3. To enter compacts, unless ? 54. f I. To coin money. 52. 2. To emit bills of credit. 3. To make legal tender, unless ? I. 4. To impair contracts. 52. 3. To grant title of nobility. 52. . ^ , . f 1. To pass bill of attainder. 52. 4. In penalties. i o t. , ^ . i ^ I 2. To pass ex post facto law. {1. To engage, unless? 54. 2. To keep troops, etc. 3. To make reprisals, etc. 52. 6. To permit slavery. 98. QUERIES. 1. What is the supreme law of the land ? Why ? 2. Do all officers swear or affirm to support the Constitution of the United States ? Any other ? 3. Why restrict the States as to treaties ? What was -(Esop's fable as to the bundle of sticks ? 61. 4. Can you tell anything about " wild-cat" banks ? 5. Origin of money ? Of coin ? Of paper currency ? 199. 6. Can the government cheat in making money ? Are greenbacks money ? Or bonds ? 200, 202. 7. What is a contract ? Wliy forbid a State to impair it ? 8. What is an ex post facto law ? Illustrate. Why objectionable ? 9. Does not the State militia form part of State troops ? 10. Are laws made for the rulers only ? For the rich only ? For the poor only ? 298, 299, 134, 47. 38 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THK STATKS ARK SUBORDINATE {1. Of State legislators. 83. 2. Of State executives. 3. Of State judicial oflBcers. fl. To United States Constitution. 82. 2. To United States laws. 3. To United States treaties. 4. To United States judiciary. 82. constitutional anicndnn Constitution itself. 84. S. In State obligations. f 1. To constitutional amendments. 80. I 2. To QUERIES. 1. What difference between the Confederation of 1776 and the Republic of 1787 ? 2. What difference between an oath and an affirmation ? Who are per- mitted to affirm ? 3. What is perjury ? Does a man commit perjury in court If he tells only part of the truth ? 4. Do laws make men good ? Can you establish morality or temperance bylaw? 281,291. 5. What is interstate commerce ? Why not left to the States ? 6. What was the "original-package" discussion ? RIGHTS OF THE STATES 1 rr^ ~,.„,„„„^»„«:-,^ f !• In the House. Basis. 5. 1. To representation. < (. 2. In the Senate. Basis. 8, 9. 11. Time. 15. 2. Place. 3. Manner. 8. With militia. 1^- 'I'o appoint officers. 41. 1 2. To train by United States Manual. 4. In interstate relations. 73. 1. Immunities and privileges. 74. 6. As to citizenship. ■( 2. Ot States and the United States. 100. Equal protection. 100. 1 11. im 2. Ot 3. Eqi (•..Making new States. / 1- By dismemberment. 77. C 2. By junction. ii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 39 As to fugitives. {!• Not protected. 1 2. Not delivered. (.3. 8. A guarantee. 9, Reservation. 75. 76. Of republican form. 79. Of protection from invasion. Against insurrection, etc. 79. v. Of rights not delegated. 94. Are vFomen represented QUERIES. 1. On what principle is representation based ? in governing bodies ? Why ? 2. Why should the States have control over certain things in the election of national officers ? In the militia ? 3. Does the United States Constitution define and fix citizenship ? Why ? 4. Why limit Congress in making nev? States ? 5. What moral principle involved ? 6. What is meant by a " republican form of government " ? 7. On v?hat principle is national protection based ? 8. What is reserved to the States ? Why ? 9. Can an amendment be adopted contrary to the wish of any State ? On what ground ? 18, 12. RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS. 1. Of senators and representatives { {I. 2. As to treason. 3. As to his house. 4. Security. { is 6. In criminal prosecutions. As to arrest. 21. 2. As to freedom of speech. 1. Shall consist of ? 71. 2. Conviction only by ? 71. 1. In peace. 87. 2. In war. In what ? 88. Against what ? Illegal warrants. ' 1. Kind of trial. 90, 91. 2. When tried ? 3. Where tried ? 4. Accusation. 89. 5. Witnesses must confront. 6. May have counsel. 7. Reasonable bail. 92 8. No excessive fines. 9. No cruel or unusual punishments. 40 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 6. In civil actions. 7. In the courts. il 1. Jury trial, when ? Second trial. 89. 1. Privileges. 89. 2. Indictment. .3, Twice for same offence. 4. Self-accusation. 89. 5. Due legal process. 100. (5. Compensation for property taken. 7. Kcpiai protection. QUERIES. 1. What is an individual ? Natural right ? Legal right? 2. What distinction between freedom and license ? 3. Were tiie Anarchists of Chicago arrested for free speech ? 4. What is meant by " A man's home is his castle " ? 6. What is a warrant ? Why must it be specific, not general ? 6. What idea underlies trial by jury ? What is a grand jury ? A petit jury? 7. Why have witnesses face the accused ? 8. What is counsel ? Is it provided by the State ? 9. What is an indictment ? Does it prove guilt ? 10. What is the first object of government ? 11. Is the public school a protection to the State ? How ? 12. How can the principles underlying these provisions of the Constitution be taught in the school ? I GLOSSARY OF IMPORTANT TERMS AS USED IN CIVIL GOVERNMENT. Acquittal. A discharge from accusation by judicial action. , Act. A law passed by a legislative body. Adjournment. Act of suspending or postponing a meeting. Administration. Management of public affairs ; government of the country. Admiralty. The name of a jurisdiction vphich takes charge of cases whicli arise out of maritime affairs and of crimes committed on the high seas. Affirmation. A solemn declaration that one will tell the truth, made by one conscientiously opposed to taking a judicial oath. Alien. A resident foreigner not naturalized. Alliance. A union of nations or states for any common purpose. Ambassador. A diplomatic officer of the highest rank commissioned to represent his government in a foreign country. Amendment. An alteration in the constitution by change or addition. Appellate Jurisdiction. Jurisdiction in cases of appeal. Attainder, Bill of. A bill attainting persons of certain crimes by which their civil rights are forfeited. Ballot. A piece of paper or other thing used in voting. Bankrupt. One whom the law has formally declared as unable to pay his debts. Bill of Rights. A summary of the rights and privileges claimed by the people. Cabinet. The constitutional advisers of the President. Capital Crime. A crime punishable with death. Capitation Tax. A tax levied on individuals, as a poll tax. Census. An official enumeration of the inhabitants of a country. Citizen. An inhabitant of a country who enjoys the rights of a free man. Colony. A foreign settlement under the jurisdiction of the mother country. Commission. A document issued by a government conferring rank, power, or authority, on the person or persons therein named. 41 42 GLOSSARY Common Law. The unwritten law of Kiigland, the baais of judicial pro- ceedings of all English-spealting i)e(jples. Compromise. An agreement between contending parties in which con- cessions are made by each side. Concurrence. Agreement ; approval. Confederacy or Federation. A union between states for a conuuon object. Consul. An officer commissioned in foreign countries. His chief duty is to protect the commerce of his own country. Contract. A lawful agreement between two or more parties. Conviction. A judgment that the person accused is guilty. Court. One or more pereons sitting in a judicial capacity for the trial of causes. Crime. An offence against the laws of the land and to which a penalty is attached. Duty. Any sum of money required by the government to be paid on goods. Elector. One who has the right to vote ; also one chosen to cast the vote of his constituency for the President and Vice-President of the United States. Eligible. Qualified for office. Emancipation. Liberation from bondage or slavery. Emolument. Kemuneration of any kind connected with any office or occupation. Equity. The correction of the law where it is defective in particular cases ; redress of a wrong. Excise. Duty on home coumiodities. Executive. Having the powers of executing or carrying into effect ; an official personage or body charged with the administration of government. Felony. A crime punishable with imprisonment or death. Forfeiture. Losing one's possessions as a penalty for crime. Habeas Corpus. (Literally, " You may have the body.") A writ having for its object to bring a party before a judge or court to inquire into the cause of his imprisonment. High Seas. The ocean beyond the limit of three miles from ilie sliore. Immunity. Freedom from duty or penalty granted by law. Impeachment. An arraignment of a public officer under a written formal accusation of crime or misdemeanor for which he should be removed from office. Imposts. Taxes or duties, especially on imports. Involuntary Servitude. Service under compulsion. 1 GLOSSARY 43 Journal. A record of proceedings. Judgment. A decision reached by a court. Judicial. Pertaining to a court or judge ; law-interpreting. Jurisdiction. The limit within which power may be exercised. Jury. A number of men (generally twelve) to decide the issue in any case at law. Law of Nations. The common law of nations regulating their intercourse in peace and their relations in war. Legislative. Having the power to make or enact laws. Letters of Marque and Reprisal. A license or extraordinary commission granted by a government to its subjects to take the property of a foreign state or of its citizens or subjects for injuries supposed to have been received. Majority. More than half. Militia. A body of soldiers enrolled in the state to be called on in emergencies. Minister. A representative at a foreign court ; an ambassador. Misdemeanor. A crime less than a felony. Naturalization. The process by which an alien becomes a citizen. Oath. A solemn declaration with an appeal to God for its truth. Order. A direction, command, or regulation, made by authority. Original Jurisdiction. Authority to try a cause for the first time. Pardon. Release of an offender without further punishment. Party. Plaintiff or defendant in a law suit. Piracy. Robbery on the high sea. Plenipotentiary. An ambassador invested with full powers to negotiate for his government. Plurality. The greatest of two or more numbers, whether it be a majority or not. Pro Tempore. For the time. Quorum. A sufficient number to transact business ; unless otherwise ordered, a majority. Ratification. The act of confirming. Rebellion. Open resistance to lawful authority. Reprieve. Temporary suspension of a sentence. Resolution. Something determined upon by the vote of an assembly, distinguished from a bill. Revenue. The total income of a government. Revolution. A complete change of government due to a revolt. Secession. Act of withdrawing or separating. Securities. Written or printed promises for payment of money, e.g. bonds. 44 GLOSSARY Session. The time between the first meeting of an assembly and its final adjournment. Speaker. The presiding officer of the House of Representatives. State Sovereignty. The right claimed by some states of acting indepen- (U'litly of the general government. Suffrage. A vote ; the right of voting. Suit. A judicial action for recovery of a right or redress of a wrong. Tariff. A table of duties on nierchandi.se payable to the government. Tax. An impost ; a duty ; a charge laid by tlie government on the in- ciinie or property of individuals for the support of the government. Territory. A tract of land, under a temporary government, belonging to the United States. Treason. See " Constititution of United States," Art. 3, Sec. 3. Treaty. A compact, between two or more nations or sovereigns, drawn in legal form. Tribunal. A court of jastice ; any judicial body. Valid. Sufficient and effective in law. Veto. (I forbid.) The refusal of the executive to sign a bill passed by Congress or the Legislature. Warrant. A judicial order authorizing arrests, searches, or seizures. Writ. A written order issued by a court or magistrate. Yeas and Nays. A vote by roll call in which each member answers yea or nay as his name is called. COMPARATIVE VIEW COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE LEGISLATIVE AND EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERN- MENTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND GREAT BRITAIN ^ UNITED STATES I. Constitution. Adoption : Present Constitution adopt- ed September 17, 1787. Amendments : Congress may, by two- thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon appli- cation of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a conven- tion for proposing amend- ments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Leg- islatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof. Form of Government : Republic. II. Chief Magistrate. President of the United States. GREAT BRITAIN I. Constitution. There is no written Con- stitution except ordinary law and precedent. Five docu- ments lie at the foundation of what is called the Un- written Constitution. They are: 1. Magna Charta, by King John, 1215; 2. Petition of Rights, temp. Charles I, 1628 ; 3. Habeas Corpus Act, temp. Charles II, 1679 ; ,4. Bill of Rights, temp. Wil- liam and Mary, 1689 ; 5. Act of Settlement, tetnp. William III, 1701. Fortn of Government : Monarchy in form, but Re- public in practice. II. Sovereign. King (or Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, and Emperor (or Empress) of India. 1 Copyright, 1891, by John Wenzel. u COMPARATIVE VIEW UNITED STATES Term of Office : Elected for four years by the Electoral College, and is re-eligible. The Electoral College consists of Electo.s appointed by each State equal to the whole numher of Sena- tors and Representatives to which each State may be entitled in Congress. Their only duties are the election of the President and Vice- President of the United States. Qualifications : Must be a natural born citi- zen, fourteen years a resident of the United States, and at least thirty-five years of age. Succession : In case of his death, resig- nation, or inability, the Vice- President takes his place. The newly chosen President of the Senate has the title of Vice- President. In case of the inability of both President and Vice-Presi- dent, the Secretary of State, and after him, in the order of the creation of their offices, the other members of the Cabinet, act as President until the disability of the President is removed, or a new President shall be elected. Responsibility : May be impeached by the House of Representatives, GREAT BRITAIN Term of Office : Holds office for life, by hereditary title, subject to the conditions of the Act of Settle- ment. Qualifications : Must be a descendant of Princess Sophia of Hanover, must be a Protestant member of the Church of England, and married only to a Prot- estant. Succession : Hereditary, following the law of primogeniture. S Responsibility : Cannot be removed. The Ministers are personally re- COMPARATIVE VIEW Ul UNITED STATES and tried by the Senate for treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde- meanors. Powers atid Duties : Commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the militia in the service of the Union. May convene Congress on extraordinary occasions. Must inform Congress of the state of the Union, and may recommend meas- ures to Congress : this is known as the President's Message. Bills passed by Congress must receive the President's signature in order to become lav^rs ; but bills not returned by him unsigned to Congress within ten days become laws without his signature. Has power to veto any bill or resolution passed by Con- gress, but subject to the power of Congress to pass the same after reconsider- ation by a two-thirds majority in each House. Appoints and commissions all Federal officers with the GREAT BRITAIN sponsible for the misconduct of the Sovereign. Powers and Duties : Has command of the army and navy. Parliament cannot be as- sembled, prorogued, or dis- solved except by the express command of the Sovereign. At the commencement of a new Parliament must deliver, either in person or by a com- mission authorized for that purpose, a speech declaring the cause of the summons. Bills passed by Parliament must receive the assent of the Sovereign in order to become law. Has legally a veto power ; but, because the influence of the Executive over legislation has passed into the hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since 1707. Has powei to appoint all officers in the army and navy, IV COMPARATIVE VIEW UNITED STATES advice and consent of Senate. the May make treaties with the advice and consent of the Senate. Has power to grant re- prieves or pardons for offend- ers against the United States, except in case of impeach- ment. III. Cabinet. Number of Members : Nine. Appointment : Chosen by the President, but must be approved by the Senate. Relations to Congress : Do not have seats in Con- gress. Tenure of Office: May be removed by the President. GREAT BRITAIN judges, ambassadors, colonial governors, bishops and arch- bishops of the EstabHshed Church, and grants all de- grees of nobility. May make treaties of any kind. May grant pardon to any particular offender. III. Cabinet. Number of Members : From ten to eighteen. Appointment: Nominated from both Houses by the leader of the dominant party in majority in Parliament and appointed and commissioned by the Sovereign. The leader be- comes the Prime Minister. Relations to Parliament : Are the leaders of Parlia- ment, shaping and directing the business of the Houses. Tenure of Office : Dependent upon the favor of the House of Commons ; for if not sustained they must all resign. COMPARATIVE VIEW UNITED STATES Responsibility : Responsible to the Presi- dent. powers and Duties : Meets in consultation with the President concerning matters of policy and admin- istration. Each Minister is at the head of an executive department. Members of the Cabinet : 1. Secretary of State. 2. Secretary of the Treasury. 3. Secretary of War. 4. Attorney-General. 5. Postmaster-General. 6. Secretary of the Navy. 7. Secretary of the Interior. 8. Secretary of Agriculture. 9. Secretary of Commerce and La- bor. GREAT BRITAIN Responsibility : Responsible to the House of Commons. Powers a?id Duties : All real authority is with the Cabinet. The executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative departments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet. Members of the Cabinet : 1. Prime Minister, and First Lord of the Treasury. 2. Lord High Chancellor. 3. Lord President of the Council. 4. Chancellor of the Exchequer. 5. Secretary of State for the Home Department. 6. Secretary of State for War. 7. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. 8. Secretary of State for Colonies. 9. Secretary of State for India. 10. First Lord of the Admiralty. 11. Lord Chancellor of Ireland. 12. Chief Secretary to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. 14. President of the Board of Trade. 15. Lord Privy Seal. 16. President of the Local Govern- ment Board. 17. President of the Board of Agri- culture. VI COMPARATIVE VIEW UNITED STATES IV. Congress. I. Senate. Composition : Composed of two Senators from each State (90 in 1906), chosen by the State Legisla- tures for six years, one-third retiring every two years. Qualifications : Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents. Remuneration : $5000, with mileage. Organization : The Vice-President of the United States is the President of the Senate. Is elected by the Electoral College. Votes only in case of a tie. Committees : Members are divided into standing committees, chosen by the Senate itself, which GREAT BRITAIN IV. Parliament. I. House of Lords. Composition : Composed of about 590 peers, who hold their seats: a. By virtue of hereditary title ; b. By creation of the Sov- ereign ; c. By virtue of office (English bishops ) ; d. By election for life ( Irish peers ) ; e. By election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers). Qualifications : Must be at least twenty-one years of age. Remuneration : Receive no pay. Organization : The Lord Chancellor, who is a member of the Cabinet, presides. Committees : Special committees are ap- pointed to make investiga- tions, and report on matters COMPARATIVE VIEW VU UNITED STATES act in the preliminary exami- nation, and shaping of meas- ures to be voted on. Quorum : A majority of members. Powers and Duties : In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it makes the laws. It also has power to confirm or reject all appointments to office by the President of the United States, and all treaties. The members constitute a high court for the trial of impeach- ments. 2. House of Representa- tives. Composition : Composed (in 1906) of 390 members elected every second year for two years by the people of the States in the proportion of one Repre- sentative for every 194,182 inhabitants. Each State, however, is entitled to at least one member, whatever its population. Qualifications : Must be at least twenty- five years of age, must have been seven years a citizen of GREAT BRITAIN which could not be under- taken by the whole House. Quorum : Three, including the Lord Chancellor. Powers and Duties: In concurrence with the House of Commons, makes the laws, having a revising power over all bills proposed by the House of Commons, except those relating to pub- lic revenue and expenditure which it must pass or reject without amendment. It is also the supreme court of appeal. 2. House of Commons. Composition : Composed (in 1905) of 670 members, elected by secret ballot for a term of seven years. As a matter of fact, Parliament has always been dissolved before the expiration of seven years, thus ne- cessitating a new election. Qualifications : Must be at least twenty- one years of age. Clergy- men are disqualified from Vlll COMrARATIVE VI KW UNITED STATES the United States, and must be an inhabitant of the State from which he is chosen. Rcmujteration : $5000 and mileage. Organization : Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker. Committees : Almost all the acts of the House are under the control of Standing Committees, ap- pointed by the Speaker. Quorum : A majority of members. Powers and Duties : May originate and, in con- currence with the Senate, pass resolutions and bills. Bills relating to the raising of revenue must be originated by the House, but may be amended by the Senate. Has sole power of impeachment. GREAT BRITAIN sitting as members, also Eng- lish and Scottish peers, gov- ernment contractors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act. Remuneration : Receive no pay. Organization : Elects its own presiding officer, who is called the Speaker. Committees : The business of the House is almost entirely under the direction of the Ministry; however, commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and re- port on matters which could not be undertaken by the House. Qtiorum : Forty members, including the Speaker. Powers and Duties : May originate and, in con- currence with the House of Lords, pass resolutions and bills ; but bills relating to the imposition of taxes and the granting of supplies for the service of the State must be originated in the House of Commons. 1 INDEX (References are to pages.) Abolition Society (1832), 86, 120. Acquisitions of territory, Louisiana Purchase (1803), 131, 132. Florida Purchase (1S19), 132. Oregon boundary determined, 132. Results of, 132. Texas-Mexican Cession (Gadsden Pur- chase— 1853), 132, 133. Alaska Purchase (1867), 133. Hawaii Annexation (1899), 133. Spanish Cessions (1899), 133. Adams, John, 36, 57, 65, 117. Adams, Samuel, 32, 34. Aerial Navigation, 155. Agriculture, 149, 150. Alaska Purchase, 133. Albany Colonial Convention (1754), 28, 43. Alien and Sedition Laws, 117, 118. Amendments. (See Constitution.) "American System." (See Tariff.) Anti-Federalists, 54, 116. Anti-Nebraska Men, 121. Anti-Slavery Society, 86, 120. Army, Growth of LTnited States, 15. Arnold, Benedict, 35. Articles of Confederation, Origin, 46. Principal features and defects, 47. Functions performed, 47. Astor, John Jacob, 70. Balboa, Nunez de, 5. Baltimore, Lord, 19. Bancroft, George, 186. Banks, Establishment of, 104, 105, 106. Bell, Alexander G., 157. Bill of Rights, 62. Bimetallism, 102, 103. Bland Act (1878), 103. Boone, Daniel, 138. Boston Massacre, 33. Boston Tea Party, 32. Breckinridge, John C, 122. Brown's Raid, John (1859), 88. Bryan, William J., 124, 125. Bryant, William Cullen, 182. Buchanan, President, 86, 122. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 7, 8, 10. California admitted (1850), 139. Canada, Ceded to Great Britain, 29. During Revolution, 35. Canals, 153, 154. Cape of Good Hope, Discovery of, 4. Carolinas, the, 20, 21. Carroll, Charles, 152. Cartier, 10, 12. Catholics, Persecution of, 19. Census, 135. Champlain, 10, 25. Chinese Exclusion Laws, 141. Circumnavigation of the Globe, 5, 8. Claims, Spanish, 7, 13. English, 10, 13. French, 12, 13. Dutch, 13. Conflict of, 13, 26. Clark, Explorations of Lewis and, 60, 70, 132, 162. Clay, Henry, 86, 109, 118, 120. Clemens, Samuel L., 187. Cleveland, Grover, 124. Coal, Discovery of Anthracite (1790), 145. Colleges and LTniversities, Harvard College (1636), 165, 166. Yale College (1701), 166. University of Pennsylvania (1745), 166. Princeton College (1746), 166. Columbia College (1754), 166. William and Mary College (1693), 167. Growth of, in United States, 173. Colonies : English, New England, 16, 17. Middle, 18, 19. Southern, 20, 21. French, Quebec, 25. New France, 25. Causes of slow development, 25, 26. Dutch, New Netherland, 13, IS. Absorption by English, IS. Establishment of English supremacy, 26-29. Government of, 21-25. First United Action of, 28. Consolidation of, 41. 42. Education in, 164, 165. Columbus, Christopher, 4-7. Compromise of 1850, 86, 87. Concrete, 147. Confederacy, 89, 90, 92, 122. 53 54 INDEX Constitution of the United States, OriRin. 4S. I'liins and compromises, 4S, 40. Adoption (17S7), "lO, .51. Amnndnipnt.M to. 02, 90, ".)6, 117. Artifles of. Appendix, 1-22. Queries on, Appeiulii, 25-42. Constitutional Convention, .50. Construrtionists. Loose und Strict. (See Politiciil Parties.) Continental Connre.ss, First (1774). :«. 44, 4.5. Second (177.5). 34, 45, 8.3. Contract I..abor I^aw, 141. Cooper, James Fenimore, 181, 182. Copyright. GO, 176. Coronado, 6, 7. Cotton Gin, Invention of, 84, 149. Cuba, Discoverj' of, 5. Surrendered by Spain, 75, 133. Independence of. 75, 133. Currency. (.S'ec Financial History.) Custer, General, 81. Da Gama, Vasco, 4. Dale, Governor, 20. Danish West Indies, 134. Davis, Jefferson, 92, 96. Declaration of Independence, 36, 45, 46, 179. Delaware. 16, 18, 19. De Leon, Ponce, 6, 7. Democrats. (See Political Parties.) Demonetization of Silver (1873), 103. De Soto, 6, 7. Dewey, Admiral, 75. Diaz, Barthoiomeo, 4. Dinwiddle, Governor, 27. Discoveries and Explorations, Cape of Good Hope (1487), 4. New Route to India (1497), 4. San Salvador (1492), 5. Cuba and West Indies (1492), 5. South America (1498), 5. Pacific Ocean (1513), 5. ' Straits of .Magellan (1520), 5. Circumnavigation of the Globe, 5, 8. Florida (1513), 6. Mis.sissippi River (1.539), 7. Southwestern section of the present Inited States (1540), 7. America (1497), 7. Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras (1498), 8. Newfoundland (1.5H3), 8. West coast of North America (New Albion — 1.577), 8. New York and Narragansett Havs (1524), 10. St. Lawrence River (1.53.5), 10; (1608), Lake Champlain (1000), 10. Mississippi Valley (1073), 10; (1679). Greenland, 12. Nova Scotia to Che-sapeake Bay (1609), Hudson River (1609), 12. Lewis and Clark Expeditions, 60, 70, 132. 162. Dougla.s, Stephen A., 87, !W. Drake, Sir Francis, S. Dred !^cott Decision (1857), 8S, 122. Dutch, Explorations and Discoveries, 12, 13. Settlers, 16, 18, 19. Edison, Thomas A., 161. Education, Progress in. Popular Education, 165. Education in Colonial Period, 165-170. Education in Republic, 171-174. Edwards, Jonathan, 178. Electricity, 145, 140. Emancipation Proclamation, SO, 90, 95. Embargo .\ct (1807), 00. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 185. English, Discoveries and Explorations, 7, 8, 10. Establishment of .Supremacy of. 26-29. Erie Canal (182.5), 139, 153. Excise Laws, .55, 116. Explorations, Motives of Early, Search for new route to India, 4, 5. 12. Search for passage through new con- tinent, 5, 8. Purposes of possession, 5, 6. Search for wealth, 6. Missionarj', 6. Search for northwestern passage to India, 7, 8. Search for passage to China, 12. Explorers, Diaz, Barthoiomeo, 4. Da Gama, Vasco, 4. Columbus. Christopher, 4. Balboa, Nuflez de, 5. Magellan, 5. De I.«on, Ponce, 6. De Soto, 6. Coronado, 7. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 7. Frobisher. Sir Martin, s. Ciilbert, Sir Humphrey, 8. Drake, Sir Francis. 8. ^'erazzani, 10. Cartier, 10. Champlain, 10. Joliet. 10. Mar1. Parkman, Francis, 186. Patents, 60, 144. Penn, William, 18, 19, 22, 43, 53. Pennsylvania, 18, 19. People's Part.v, 124. Petroleum, Discovery of (1856). 146. Philippines. 74, 124. 133. Photograph.v, 161. Pierce, President, 121. Pilgrims, 17. Pine-Tree Shilling, 100. Pitt, Sir William, 29. Plymouth Company, 20. Poe, Edgar Allan, 1S5. Political Parties, Strict and Loose Con'-1697), 27. Queen Anne's War (17(12-1713), 27. King George's War (1744-I74.S), 27. French and Indian (1754-1703), 13, 20-28, 78. War for Independence (1775-1783), Causes, 31-35. Principal Events, 34-30. Treaty of Peace, 39. War of 1812 (Second War for Inde- pendence), Causes, .58, 60. Losses and Victories, 68. Effects 69, War with Tripoli (1801), 65. Mexican War (1S40-184S), Cau.ses, 70, 71. Campaign, 72. Results, 72. Civil War (1861-1865), Causes, 91, 92. Events, 92-95. Effects. 95. 96. Wars — Continued Spanish-American War (1898), Causes. 74. Events. 74, 7.5. Terms of Treaty, 75, 124, 12.5, 133. European (1914- ), Causes, 77. Events, 77. Indian Wars, Pequot (1037), 80. King Philip's War (107.5). 80. Black Hawk (1832). 81. Modo (1872). 81. Sioux (1876). 81. Washington. George, 27, 28, 34, 35, 48. 49, 51. 55. 115, 110, 171. Wayne, General Anthony, 81. West Indies, Discovery of, 5. Spanish, ceded to United States (1899), 133. Whigs, 118-121. Whisky Rebellion (1794), .55. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 70. Whitney, Eli, 84, 149. Whittier, John Grecnleaf, 87. 182, 183. Williams, Roger, 17. Wilmot Proviso (1848), 80. Wilson, Woodrow, 125, 120, 142. Wolfe, General, 29. Woman Suffrage Party, 115. 123. 203, 204. Writs of Assistance. 31. X-ray. 161. Longitude Wesi 'H';!ii!,! i!'!;^ m 1=1 ! LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 010 546 181 1