Class L Book i Gcpightfl? COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. THE HIGH SCHOOL ITS FUNCTION ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION BY JOHN ELBERT STOUT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION CORNELL COLLEGE, IOWA WITH INTRODUCTION BY LOTUS D. COFFMAN, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO Copyright, 19 14, By D. C. Heath & Co. 1K4 NOV 25 I9K ©CI.A388724 £o TTty ZtTot^er Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/highschoolitsfunOOstou PREFACE The American high school has in a new sense become the school of all the people. It is here that a constantly increas- ing proportion of our young people receive their final train- ing for the social duties and opportunities that await them. In order to meet the demands made upon it, the high school is under the necessity of redefining its aims. This requires a careful examination of the means employed — curriculum, organization, and teaching. Reorganization is demanded and it should result in both progress and stability. Tradi- tions should not be allowed to stand in the way of necessary readjustments, nor should the glamour of things new lead us to engage in hasty and ill-advised experiments. This volume is an attempt to state the principles that should guide in the process of reorganization. The author has felt the need of some such treatment during several years of service as high school teacher and principal. More immediately the work is the outgrowth of courses in school administration given for prospective high school teachers. It is intended primarily for the use of students of education in normal schools and colleges, and for teachers and princi- pals of limited experience. It is hoped that it may possess some value also for all high school workers who feel the need of reorganization in high school education. Part I deals with the function of the high school. Means cannot be intelligently chosen or wisely used in the absence of clearly defined aims that will actually serve as guides in practice. In the belief that generalized aims do not serve as useful guides in the daily work of the school, the several points of view from which the education of youth should be regarded have been emphasized and discussed in detail. vi PREFACE The work of the secondary school has been viewed heretofore quite exclusively from the standpoint of intellectual develop- ment. Physical needs, employment of leisure time, work interests, social adjustments, all need to be taken into ac- count in any discussion of the education of youth. These various viewpoints have been given rather full treatment in order to make clear the true function of the high school. Throughout Part I the social needs and interests of youth have been stressed. The needs and interests of girls have not received at the hands of the school the discriminative attention they de- serve. Secondary schools, so long exclusively boys' schools, have not until very recently made any readjustments to meet the requirements of girls. In view of this, a chapter has been given to the discussion of the education of girls. Part II is devoted to questions of organization and admin- istration. In the discussion of the intellectual organization, the high school curriculum is examined from the standpoint of its historical development, and the influences responsible for the present status are pointed out. The value of a curriculum, however, cannot be judged alone by the sub- jects it contains. The actual subject matter used and its organization for teaching purposes are the important things to be considered, hence they have received the emphasis of attention. The method employed in the treatment of this topic is to point out and discuss the criteria, both psychological and social, that should be employed in selecting and organizing material. This is followed by a detailed discussion of the subject matter of each field. The social studies, science, and English have been treated more fully than the other fields because of the conviction that these should contribute the chief means of secondary education. Scarcely second in importance to proper selection of subject matter is the organization of it into a workable PREFACE vii whole. Many high school curriculums lack such organiza- tion and unity. The concluding chapter in this section is devoted to a discussion of the organization of the curricu- lum. The small high school receives special consideration. The social organization of the high school is viewed from the standpoint of its three-fold relation — to the curriculum, to training in social efficiency, and to school government. The class-room group is regarded as the center around which the social life of the school should be organized. The social character of the school is made prominent and means are suggested for its organization in such a way that it may serve its purpose in the socializing process. I am under special obligations to my wife, Grace Farwell Stout, for valuable assistance in the preparation of the book. Her assistance both in the plan and in matters of detailed treatment has made publication possible. J. E. S. Mount Veenon, Iowa, October, 1914. CONTENTS Editor's Introduction xxi INTRODUCTION Chapter I — Changing Social and Educational Conditions i Growing interest in secondary education — Growth of the high school — General causes of growth — Demand for readjustments — Attempt of the school to minister to all classes — Girls constitute majority enrolled — Changes in school largely in externals — Changes outside the school — Changes in industry — Problems of human welfare arising — Attention being given to these problems — New civic conditions — Changes in the home — New relationships in the home — ; The child and the home — Importance of changes outside the school — Social changes as related to the work of the school — General causes for failure to make read- justments — Unprecedented interest in education — Too much emphasis on the articulation of the work of the schools — Resulting in neglect of those who drop out of school — This class of students require more attention — Failure now more generally recognized — Influence of intelligent interest on the part of the people — Education being denned in terms of social efficiency — Restatement of aim and re- organization of means demanded. PART I THE FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL Chapter II — Factors Determining Function ... 14 New factors determining function — Large proportion of students drop out of school — This fact calls for read- justments — Community demands upon the school becom- x CONTENTS ing specific — Nature of these demands — Demands aris- ing out of increased appreciation of — The educational significance of adolescence — Multiplicity of demands give rise to conflicting interests — Criterion for determining the legitimacy of a demand upon the school — Aim cannot be stated in old terminology — Aim defined in terms of social efficiency — Necessity for an analysis of the term — Points of view from which to regard the work of the school — Physi- cal needs must be taken into account — Necessity for train- ing in leisure occupation — Vocational needs and interests considered — Training in civic efficiency demanded — Func- tion of preparing for higher institutions — Peculiar needs and interests of girls demand consideration — Statement of aim must include these points of view. Chapter III — The Physical Aspects of Educa- tion 23 Education has had too narrow meaning — Significance of the physical aspects — The school must educate for health — Large responsibility resting upon the high school — Two examples cited — The "white plague" — The social evil — Solution to be found in right type of education — The importance of intelligence in matters of sex functions — Significance of normal physical development — Not only health but physical efficiency — Habits of right living and motor control — Practical difficulties to be recognized and overcome. Chapter IV — Demands for Vocational Training and Guidance 31 Majority enter gainful occupations on or before completing high school — Pupils leave school because of vocational in- terests — These interests largely instinctive — School should render them intelligent — Objections to vocational education considered — High school not to specialize but should de- velop and refine vocational interests — Preparation for gaining a living a vital matter — Importance of right atti- tude toward work — Interest of parents in vocational guidance — Two reasons for vocational guidance in the high school — Points of contact between home and school — Social significance of vocational education — A means of pro- CONTENTS xi tection to society — A means of constructive social en- deavor — Value of intelligent choice of occupation — The high school as an agency for vocational education — Special types of schools — An administrative problem — Pedagog- ical considerations — Various needs of pupils must be taken into account — Unfortunate results of class segregation — A final objection to special types of schools. Chapter V — Preparation for Leisure Occupa- tion 44 Problem of rightly employing leisure time — More en- lightened view concerning play activities — Mutual relation of work and play — The larger significance of play — The adolescent and leisure occupation — Old modes of leisure occupation discredited — Demand for guidance in leisure occupation — Situation gives rise to an educational prob- lem — Negative attitude of the school — This must give way to a constructive policy — Interests of the community considered — Present means for guidance inadequate — Futility of voluntary organizations — The school the only efficient agency — The problem in the light of future social demands — Efforts to secure to workers more leisure time and its significance — Relation of leisure occupation to social progress. Chapter VI — Institutional and Other Types of Social Efficiency 55 Modes of social expression other than vocational — Ado- lescent social interests — Efficiency for participation in community life — Importance of ability to cooperate in social endeavor — Home does not provide adequate social environment — Preparation for civic efficiency — Increasing importance of governmental functions — Demand for new civic spirit and new social means — Relation of government to a social democracy — New meaning of popular govern- ment — Problem arising out of separation of church and school — Religion a social asset — Education must take this fact into account — Problems arising out of the decline of the economic importance of the home — Results of the school taking over functions previously performed by the home — xii CONTENTS The problem of the home a social problem — Miscellaneous social activities — The significance of the passing of pioneer conditions — Social forces more and more the product of the school. Chapter VTI — Preparation for College 60 Demands for higher education — Function of the high school in this relation — Mutual interests of lower and higher schools — Lack of coordination in work of lower and higher institutions — Difficulties in the high school — In the college — Difficulties augmented by failure of higher institutions to make readjustments — Fitness for college includes more than mere intellectual ability — Social read- justments demanded — College has different methods of supervision — Students find habits acquired in high school inadequate — Closer cooperation of two types of schools needed — Readjustments called for on the part of the high school — On the part of the college — Radical difference in social life of the two institutions — Responsibility of the high school — The college also has its task — The question of morals in college lif e — The demand of the college for physical efficiency — Guidance in the selection of a college course — Necessity for modification in scholastic require- ments — College must cease to judge high school by single standard — Demand for larger recognition of common interests. Chapter VIII — The Education of Girls 78 The high school must more fully meet the needs of girls — Reasons for neglect in the education of girls — View taken of the education of women — Application of previous dis- cussion — Interests and mental attitude of girls — Physical needs — Education and health — The problem a difficult one — Two means at the command of the school — Educa- tion and home keeping — New social demands upon women — Social participation and personal development — Train- ing for civic efficiency — Training for organized social effort — The school should be positive in its influence — The duty of the high school — Readjustments demanded. CONTENTS xiii PART II ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL A. The Intellectual Organization Chapter IX — The Curriculum 88 Curriculum chief means at the command of the school — Present neglect of this means — Causes of neglect — Im- portance of selection and organization of material — The problem one of reconstruction — Demand for proper criteria in revaluations — Accounting for subject-matter now in use — Traditional influences — Influence of teachers — Teachers in higher institutions have exerted the major in- fluence — Qualifications of teachers in this relation — Char- acter and influence of social demands — Social demands not merely social sanction — Present curriculums regarded from the standpoints of subjects and subject-matter — Relative not absolute values must be considered — Introduction of new subjects has resulted in confusion — A curriculum judged by its required subjects — Also by its electives — Value of a subject determined by its position in the course of study — A curriculum judged by actual subject-matter used — Tests applied to subjects and subject-matter. Chapter X — Selection and Organization of Material 102 Changes needed in subject-matter — Educational practice in the high school has not kept pace with theory — Impor- tance of emphasis on the personal factor — Interests of ado- lescents chiefly social — Importance of social stimuli — Social demands should not be allowed to interfere with the chief duty of the school — Social demands furnish specific criteria for selection of material — Different social demands in different communities — Work in the St. Louis schools as example — Subject-matter to be selected for its content value — Material must be organized for teaching purposes — Mind of the learner should determine type of organiza- xiv CONTENTS tion — Some traditional subjects suffer from lack of proper organization — New subjects not free from same objection. Chapter XI —The Social Studies m Value of the social studies — Unfortunate selections of material — Reasons for this — Too much emphasis on political history — Chief interests of historical peoples re- quire more attention — Vocational interests and activities — Artistic appreciation and achievements — Educational systems furnish valuable material — Subject-matter must all be within the range of interests and capacities of learners — Civics and economics viewpoints from which to select material — Economics should deal with present problems — Problems of most immediate concern should be selected — Practical character of civics — Functions of government should receive emphasis — Importance of local government — Too much attention has been given to governmental machinery — Facts regarding local government — Instruc- tion should be concrete and practical — Importance of study of current events — Social studies furnish standpoint for selecting material in other fields. Chapter XII — Material Science 125 Importance of knowledge of science — Unsatisfactory results in science teaching — Reasons for unsatisfactory results — Unfortunate influence of the "disciplinary" con- ception — Influence of scientists has been detrimental — Science material should not be regarded from the stand- point of the specialist — Needs of learner determine char- acter of material and organization — Science instruction should increase power in control — Material should be chosen for its content value — Practical values should receive em- phasis — Instruction should furnish motive for learning — Knowledge of environment — Science instruction and vo- cational interests — Preparation for vocational activities — Science instruction and right attitudes — Development of social perceptions — Scientific spirit is the social spirit — Need of emphasis on the practical — Material needs re- organization — Importance of proper organization. CONTENTS xv Chapter XIII — English 141 Place of English in the curriculum — Given an important place only recently — Influence of "formal discipline" — Influence of higher institutions — Result of this influence — Results in instruction unsatisfactory — Two aspects of the subject, form and content — English instruction should fur- nish proper social environment — Emphasis upon content rather than upon form value — Interests and capacities of students as related to material used — Content must include more than mere literary content — Importance of use of current literature — Pupils should be encouraged to read widely — One aim of teaching to inculcate habit of reading — English instruction should prepare for leisure occupation Correct forms of expressions to be emphasized — School must furnish motives for correct forms of expression — Training in expression should be related to present needs — Oral composition should receive more attention — In- struction in composition should be practical — Importance of dramatic representation — Wide reading increases power of expression — Necessity for correlation of English and other work of the school. Chapter XIV — Foreign Languages and Mathe- matics 158 Foreign Languages. — Important place occupied by for- eign language — Less emphasis now being placed upon the subject — " Disciplinary" influence particularly strong — Other reasons than "disciplinary" must control — Increas- ing importance of modern language — German predomi- nates — Values largely linguistic — Chief aim of instruction to give reading knowledge — Practical considerations in- volved — Relations which foreign language bears to our language — Greek has never had an important place — " Disciplinary " and " cultural" values of Latin — Limitations upon the study of Latin in the high school — Contribution made by Latin to our language — A question of economy in learning — Limitations upon any foreign language — Value of foreign language after leaving school — The use of translations. xvi CONTENTS Mathematics. — Mathematics an educational inheritance — "Disciplinary" values — Content values — The place of arithmetic — Unsatisfactory status of algebra — Geometry deserves relatively larger place — Mathematics to receive less attention. Chapter XV — Household Arts, Manual Arts, Commercial Subjects, and Agriculture 173 Household Art. — Instruction has been too narrow — Favorable conditions necessary to success — Aim of in- struction to develop proper attitude toward the home — Material to be selected from various fields. The Manual Arts. — Emphasis on the manual side — Move- ment originated in private schools — Rapid development accounts in part for failure — Opposition to the work — Later emphasis upon educative values — The larger values — Two chief aims should control — Correlation with other work of the school needed. Commercial Subjects. — Commercial subjects regarded with disfavor — Instruction in private schools — Instruc- tion limited in the high school — Aims in bookkeeping have not secured results — Lack of proper aims in general — Two aims should govern in the work — Selection and organi- zation of material — The work in commercial high schools. Agriculture. — Furnishes useful point of view for selection of material from various fields — Educative values — Social demands — Social significance of agriculture — Dangers to the success of the movement — Conditions of experimental stage prevail — Emphasis on the practical. Chapter XVI — Music and Art; Moral and Ethical Instruction i< Music and Art. — Sources of material to develop aesthetic appreciation — Two reasons for failure to give music its proper place — Two aims in instruction — Instrumental music in the home — Vocal music in the school — Means of instruction in Art — Household art center for organiza- tion of material. CONTENTS xvii Moral and Ethical Instruction. — Aim of education ethical and moral — Demand for instruction — Not the name but the fact important — Sources of material — Social organiza- tion of the school an agency. Chapter XVII — Physical Training and Ath- letics 196 The term physical training — Unfortunate beginnings; lack of control — Results on school work — The evils rather than the real problem have received attention — Steps in the solution — Three-fold aim — Needs and capacities of learners must be ascertained — Sources of material of in- struction — Importance of physical exercises — The place and function of athletics — Correlation of instruction and Chapter XVIII — Organization of the Curric- ulum 202 Present division between grades and high school unsatis- factory — No such thing as ideal curriculum — Problem of selecting subjects and subject-matter — Many schools at- tempt too much — Limitation as to time — Inadequate equip- ment — Limitation as to teachers — Problem in small schools different from that in large schools — Interests of majority of pupils must govern — College entrance requirements not determining influence — Nor narrow community interests — Proper points of emphasis — Work of many schools not standardized — Courses of smaller schools should not be mere segments of courses of larger schools — Problem in larger schools one of organization — Parallel courses — Criticism of this plan — Required subjects and electives — Required subjects should possess superior educational value — The group system — Criteria for determining relative value of subjects — Most insistent needs of learner must govern — Required subjects determined by these needs — Conditions hindering the working of elective system — Individual differences and social demands require electives — Conditions under which choices should be made. xviii CONTENTS B. The Social Organization Chapter XIX — The Social Organization and the Curriculum 219 The social character of the school — The kind of social structure important — The school both a social and a socializing institution — Proper social setting necessary — Problem of organization a three-fold one — Relation of social organization to the curriculum — Class-room group the primary group of the school — Importance of this fact — The nature of the group — Functioning of a group aim — Standards of a group — Leadership in the group — Interests and capacities of members of the group — Subject-matter in relation to group interests — Daily adjustments in the work — Preparation of the lesson on the part of the teacher — Conducting the recitation — Method must take group situations into account — A test of method — Testing re- sults — Individual and class instruction — Provision for individual interests and capacities — Relation of other groups to the class-room group — Need of proper social environment — An illustration — Principle does not apply in the same degree to all subjects — Segregation of pupils in some lines of work — Curriculum not only factor contrib- uting to social character of the school. Chapter XX — The Social Organization and Training for Social Efficiency 236 Social needs of young people — Function of social organiza- tion — Necessity of providing for leisure occupation — Greek letter societies — Reasons for their persistence — Problem must be dealt with constructively — Positive aspects of the problem — The work in social centers — A proper high school function — Relation of the teacher to the problem — Need of an educational policy — School should exercise more con- trol over social activities — Value of concrete social rela- tionships — Importance of standardizing social organiza- tions — Standardization as to membership — Class-room work basis for standardization — Standardization of activi- ties — Importance of the functioning of a proper social motive — Mere machinery does not constitute social organi- CONTENTS xix zation — Class-room work basis for standardizing activities — Music as illustration — English and other subjects — The vocational subjects — Utilizing class organizations — Problem of direction and control — High school dramatics — Athletic activities — A means of standardizing these activities — Student leadership as a means of control — Functions performed by student leadership — Moral and ethical values. Chapter XXI — The Social Organization and School Government 255 School government not an isolated problem — A real problem none the less — Necessity for proper attitude toward the problem — Problem arises out of relationships within the school — Problem a specialized one in the high school — Control necessary in order that work may be carried on — Not a police but an educational problem — Mere control not the only function of school government — Adolescent characteristics in relation to school government — Moral and ethical aims — Policy of government must be suitable — Military or autocratic form — Pupil government — Mean- ing of self-government in the school — Policy of government not its form the essential thing — Policy should enlist sym- pathy and cooperation — Expression of group consciousness — Permanent interests of pupils attach not to form of gov- ernment but to activities — An illustration — Meaning of the illustration — The spirit of government controls — Expression of school spirit through social organizations — Attitude of pupils toward teacher-made rules — The prob- lem of dealing with offenders — Classes of offenders — Psychological character of the problem — The responsibility must be placed on the offender — Practical workings of the policy. Chapter XXII — Material Equipment 273 Inadequate equipment limits work of the school — True as regards text-books as well — New educational ideals must find expression in equipment — Buildings not large enough — Not properly planned — Much work being car- ried on under unfavorable conditions — Need of gymna- sium faculties — The school building in relation to its use as xx CONTENTS a social center — Inadequate grounds — An illustration — Advantages of adequate grounds — Larger use of school premises — The insistent need of equipment — Two general classes considered — Need of supplementary material — Two general classes of this material — Importance of se- lection of material — The high school library as a community library — Library equipment — Influence of the functional viewpoint. Chapter XXIII — High School Teachers 289 The importance of the teacher's work — Training re- quired — Teaching not permanent occupation — Influence of preponderance of women on permanent supply — Neces- sary to take limitations into account — Problem to secure best training possible in view of limitations — Importance of academic preparation — Material used in high school instruction and its pedagogical value — Teachers required to teach more than one subject — Knowledge of fields outside of those taught — Teacher's value not measured alone by work of the class-room — Professional training — Elimination nec- essary in field of psychology — Importance of functional psychology — Psychology of the learning and teaching pro- cesses — Adolescent psychology — Application of psychology to educational method — Principles of education, psycho- logical and social — Value of the history of education in teacher-training — Necessity for continued professional study — Professional training secondary to personal* quali- ties — Necessary qualification determined by the nature of the teacher's work — Importance of right attitude toward the work of teaching — Attitude toward young people even more important — Relations which teachers sustain to the work of the school as a whole — Relations to the community — Continued professional personal growth. Appendix 305 Index 319 INTRODUCTION A direct result of the compulsory attendance at school of all children has led to an increased recogni- tion of individual differences and to a multitude of attempts to adjust educational practise to equip properly each individual to discharge his full obligation to the body politic. This movement has expressed itself in new types of schools, new subjects of study, and new forms of organization. In no field are these tendencies more numerous or more distinctly seen than in the field of secondary education. The most pro- nounced tendency affecting the secondary curriculum is the fading out of that sharp distinction between preparation for college and "preparation for life." A unanimity of opinion prevails that high-school educa- tion that is not good enough for college is not good enough for the purposes and pursuits of life; and on the other hand that high-school education that does not afford a good preparation and equipment for life, fails also to give a proper preparation for college. This doctrine calls for a constant reexamination of the curriculum of each of these types of schools, and of the forms of articulation existing between them. Each modification has had the reactionary effect of standardizing the other institution. The enrichment of the secondary curriculum has been due mainly to sanctions and pressures created by groups of people or classes in society not connected with the established school system. And the practical xxii INTRODUCTION attempts to secure a better articulation of the grammar and the high school and of the high school and uni- versity, have come from workers in the public schools, with the aid of an occasional university leader. The usual distribution of work is eight years for the grades, four for the high school, and four for the university baccalaureate degree. Based upon the assumption that this does not conserve the best interests of the pupils, we now have a number of proposed readjust- ments in the schools below the university, such as the 6 and 2 and 4 plan, the 6 and 6 plan, the 6 and 4 and 4 plan. Each of these has its strengths and its limita- tions. It is too early as yet to tell which of them, if any, solves the problem. These proposed administrative adjustments are one of the many evidences that the public schools of this country, and particularly the high schools, are literally under fire. Whether meriting it or not, criticism, ofttimes of the sharpest sort, is being directed at the curriculum, the methods, the organization, and the management and administration of high schools gen- erally. This criticism apparently is coming quite as much from men engaged in active educational work as from laymen. Numerous reforms have been pro- posed, — many of which have given primary considera- tion to the adjustment of materials to the different varieties of mind represented in the high school student population and have neglected the equally fundamental consideration of the social forces that quietly, but nevertheless effectively, determine the nature and organization of the school. New materials and methods have been selected and old ones preserved largely INTRODUCTION xxiii because of their supposed mind-training value. At- tention, however, has gradually centered upon both aspects of the problem, (i) that of reconstructing the character of the appeal of the high school so as to minister more adequately to the capacities and abili- ties of individual students, and (2) that of utilizing the educative materials and modes of work of social and industrial life as a basis for this reorganization. Professor Stout, recognizing the importance of these two principles, outlines a plan for increasing the gen- eral efficiency of high schools. The success of his scheme depends not so much upon the introduction of new subjects of study as upon a revision of our point of view with reference to the old subjects of study. It is true that he recommends the elimination of useless materials and the introduction of more serviceable materials to take their place. His constant problem is, what habits, what knowledge, what ideals, and what forms of organization are of most worth to high school pupils. His answer is, those habits, that knowledge, those ideals and attitudes, and those forms of organization are of the most value, that have the largest number of relations of identity with the most serviceable phases of social life outside the school. The educational values of the different subjects of study are, therefore, determined by their social utility. Although this is not a new point in general education, this book is one of the pioneer attempts in the field of secondary education at accounting for the purpose and nature of the high school in terms of its social background. L. D. C. THE HIGH SCHOOL INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I CHANGING SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS The past twenty years have seen an unparalleled Growing ... . interest in growth in the interest in secondary education. Dur- secondary ing that time the number attending secondary schools education has grown from 365,000 to 1,130,000. This is an increase of 210 per cent, while during the same period our population increased but 47 per cent. In other words, attendance in secondary schools has been growing more than four times as fast as the popula- tion. This rapid increase in attendance is a marked testimonial to our belief in secondary education. The high school has become the chief means of Growth of ... the high secondary education in this country. These schools school have multiplied with unprecedented rapidity. Twenty years ago there were about 2500 public high schools. Now there are more than 11,000 of them. They have been established in sections of the country not hitherto supplied with any means of secondary edu- cation. Classes of our population are now sending their children to these schools who a generation ago had no thought of education beyond that provided by the elementary school. The trend is all in the direction of regarding high school education as a neces- sary equipment for all the children of all the people. THE HIGH SCHOOL General causes of growth Demand for readjust- ments Attempt of the high school to minister to all classes This quite astonishing growth of high schools may be attributed to two causes. The first of these is a growing belief in education in general, and in second- ary education in particular. The second is that we have adopted the policy of public control of second- ary as well as of elementary education. Thus the public high school has supplanted the private academy. The mere fact that high schools have multiplied so rapidly is in itself very significant. But even more significant is the fact that the high school is now attempting to minister to all classes of society. New demands are being made upon the school. These demands mean that both educational aims and means as related to secondary education must undergo im- portant changes if the high school actually ministers to the needs of those who support it. Readjustments in neither aims nor means have kept pace with the demands made upon the school. The aim of secondary education defined in terms of preparation for college or conceived merely as a means of " discipline" must no longer exert a predominating influence upon the selection and organization of subject matter. The new classes of society to whom the high school is now undertaking to minister command the empha- sis of our attention. The children of farmers, labor- ers, mechanics, in fact, children from all walks and conditions of life, are attending high school in increas- ingly large numbers. Whereas a generation ago the farmer believed in secondary education for his boy who aspired to enter a profession, he did not regard it as necessary or even desirable for his other boy who would remain on the farm. But a great change is CHANGING CONDITIONS 3 coming about in the attitude of the farmer where, indeed, it has not already taken place. So it is with the laborer, the mechanic, and representatives of other classes who until recently have had little or no interest in education beyond the elementary school. In any discussion of the character of the enrollment Girls con- in the high school we must not leave out of account majority that the majority are girls. The old secondary school enrolled was for boys, and for a considerable time after the principle of coeducation was accepted and the public high school established, boys were in the majority. Now the ratio is changed. In 1910, fifty-seven per cent of the pupils enrolled in high schools were girls. In the same year, girls constituted sixty per cent of those who graduated. The needs and interests of girls have as yet received but little consideration on the part of the high school. If they are to receive educational opportunities equal to those provided for boys, important readjustments in the aims and means of secondary education must be made. The foregoing are some of the changes which have changes in been taking place as related to the classes of society {^giyin 1 now represented in the high school. They have had externals to do largely with externals in so far as they have exerted any influence upon the school. The increase in the amount of money expended for high school education has been greater than the increase in attend- ance. People have been lavish in their expenditures for high school purposes. As a rule, the high school building is the best school building in the community. The equipment of this building also receives first consideration. The pride of every community is in THE HIGH SCHOOL its high school. But attention thus far has been directed largely to securing improvement in externals. Far too little attention has been given to securing internal readjustments in harmony with the needs of the community. Important changes have occurred outside the school. Some of these have operated as causes, resulting in the changes within the school already noted. Other social changes now effected, or in process of becom- ing, have as yet scarcely functioned at all. New ideals of citizenship, readjustments in the relation- ships of the home, and changes in industrial society, have thus far failed to influence to any considerable extent the aims and means of secondary education. These must now be taken into account and be made to serve in furnishing criteria for the internal reorgani- zation of the school. It is not enough to know that more are availing themselves of the opportunity of securing a high school education. The vital question is whether the school is providing adequate oppor- tunities for preparing our youth to meet the demand growing out of these numerous and fundamental social readjustments. Changed conditions are found in very marked de- gree in the industrial world. So pronounced have been these changes and so much attention has been directed to industry in its various forms, that this particular manifestation of our national life has given color to our whole social process. Industry has so overshadowed everything else that we are wont to designate our generation as commercial, practical, materialistic, according to our several points of view. CHANGING CONDITIONS 5 Whatever may be the interpretation given to the facts, out of the situation have developed certain great social problems, the successful solution of which will put to its supreme test our efficiency as a people. The solution calls for an intimate and sympathetic knowledge of the work-a-day world on the part of all the people. Such knowledge must result in a proper social attitude and in an efficient social technique for grappling with the problems. The problems are not alone those relating to the Problems production of wealth. If they were thus limited our welfare" 1 educational problem would be much simplified. New arising industrial conditions have not resulted alone in a demand for better trained workers. They have given rise to human-welfare problems which demand for their solution intelligent cooperation on the part of all the people. The health of the worker, the ade- quacy of his wages as related to the care of those who are dependent upon him, and all else that enters into the question of his efficiency as a member of the com- munity, are matters of public concern. The human equation is beginning to assume proportions hitherto unknown in the industrial world. It is the magni- tude and social significance of this equation that con- stitutes the chief problem for the secondary school. Great aggregates of wealth of which we have been Attention unduly boastful are beginning to be interpreted not JoSese* 6 " only as an evidence of great individual achievement P roblems but also as sure signs of social failure. They mean serious social maladjustments. They mean that the relationships, industrial and otherwise, out of which such conditions have arisen, are abnormalities incon- New civic conditions 6 THE HIGH SCHOOL sistent with the spirit of democracy. It is with these abnormalities that we are chiefly concerned, and with their causes that we are attempting to deal. Our attention is being directed as never before to child labor, housing, conditions of labor for men and women, pure food laws, health departments, and kindred things. The distribution of wealth and how it is used, are coming to be seen as matters of public con- cern. Public sentiment must be aroused and ren- dered intelligent if the present movement to promote human welfare be successful. The high school is the chief agency upon which we can rely for the achieve- ment of these ends. Important readjustments have been taking place in matters relating to government. These are result- ing in new meanings of the word citizenship. In the generation preceding ours, form and function of govern- ment were legal questions. The rights of sovereignty, national or state, and the legality of the function performed were the vital things. The theory was that government was much circumscribed in its right to interfere in matters of social relationships. Its chief function was to protect the individual in the exercise of his legal rights. We are coming now to conceive its chief function to be securing to the indi- vidual the opportunity to exercise his human rights. In other words, we are attempting to substitute human relations for legal relations as a basis for efficient government. Fundamental laws will no doubt need to be rewritten and the machinery of government materially modified in order to bring about the neces- sary reorganization. This places a great responsibility CHANGING CONDITIONS 7 upon the secondary school in training for intelligent citizenship. The home has come in for its full share of changes, changes in Whether these changes are all in the direction of social the home betterment need not be discussed here. We are con- cerned only with the facts and the relations which they bear to the functioning of the home in the com- munity. It is not to be inferred that the functions of the home are less important. The home is still the fundamental institution and must continue so to be. Its importance has not been lessened. But some of the reasons for its importance have become second- ary and others have been given greater prominence. The home is no longer the center of economic pro- New duction. The man is not employed in the home as f el ationships * : •> in the home a producer of wealth. His efficiency as a worker, however, depends in larger measure than ever before upon the conditions of life in the home. The economic importance of woman has not been lessened. On the contrary, the importance of her functions has tre- mendously increased. Her contribution is no longer chiefly on the side of production. She is now con- cerned quite largely with matters relating to expendi- ture and consumption. The organization of the home on the basis of wise consumption is no less important and even more difficult than it is on the basis of pro- duction. But it is a different type of organization and calls for correspondingly different knowledge, attitudes and technique. In providing opportunity for acquiring this knowledge and for the development of proper attitudes and technique, the high school comes in for a large share of responsibility. 8 THE HIGH SCHOOL The child and the home Importance of changes outside the school The child no longer contributes in any marked way to the home or to the community through occupa- tional activities carried on in the home. The economic contribution of childhood and youth is growing less and less important. This decline in economic im- portance of children means that the home is ceasing to provide for occupational activities. This fact gives rise, particularly as regards the training of youth, to an educational problem of very great significance. The school must do what the home has done, and it must do this on a larger scale and more efficiently than the home has been able to do it. These changes which are going on outside the school are fundamental social changes. They involve per- manent readjustments which have been taking place in society. Old social structures have given way or are giving way, and new structures are in process of forming. The changes constitute in themselves neces- sity for important readjustments in secondary educa- tion. Beyond this, however, and even more important is the fact that readjustments in society are only in the process of achievement. The school is not merely under the necessity of adjusting itself to meet the demands of a reconstructed society. It must train for participation in carrying on this work which is only just begun. Intelligence on the part of the many is the safeguard for the future. This intelli- gence must permeate all classes and conditions of society. The school constitutes the chief agency upon which society can rely for giving direction to the work of social reorganization. The changes in society, institutional and otherwise, CHANGING CONDITIONS o are particularly significant as related to determining Social the character and extent of the work of the high t^STt^ school. The beginning of the adolescent period is no the w . ork of . . the high longer signalized by quitting school to the extent it school was a few years ago. We now regard this period as large with meaning from the point of view of prepar- ing for efficient social service. The elementary school can do but little more than lay the foundation for such preparation. The college is now and will continue to remain an educational opportunity for the few. The high school must constitute the great effective socializing institution in our civilization. These changes in society have not resulted in corre- General sponding changes in secondary education. Readjust- Stare to* ments within the high school both as regards aim and m^e read- means have not kept pace with the legitimate demands JUS made upon it. One very potent reason for this failure is found in the prevalence of educational ideals which actually control in practice. It is true that, theoretic- ally, criteria for determining aims have undergone important changes. But these changes have not in the main contributed toward rendering the high school more efficient in the training of youth in a democracy like ours. They have tended rather to foster a type of secondary education not unlike the type furnished by the schools which the high schools have all but displaced. In spite of the changes in educational theory, the old meaning of education still predomi- nates largely in controlling educational practice. The unprecedented interest in education in general, Unprece- and in secondary education in particular, has in itself interest in been a cause of failure in making readjustments. education IO THE HIGH SCHOOL Too much attention on the articulation of the work of the schools Resulting in neglect of those who drop out of school Public control of education has also been a contribut- ing factor. Attention has been centered so largely upon the multiplication of schools that relatively little attention has been given to the redefining of guiding aims or to a reorganization of practical means. The emphasis which has been placed upon the im- portance of articulating the work of the high school and the college has exerted a powerful influence. Values have been thought of largely in terms of higher education. Education, like the sack of gold at the foot of the rainbow, has been regarded as something always just ahead. The elementary school has pre- pared for the high school, and the high school has pre- pared for the college. In the thought of those who have controlled the policy of the high school, the school at the top of the system has furnished the larger and in fact the only real educational opportunity. In the minds of these same people the function of the high school was to prepare for entrance to higher institutions. The ladder which we have finally constructed may or may not stand for the highest type of educational achievement. If its construction has meant the neg- lect of certain important criteria which should have been employed in determining the function of the high school, then the very perfection of our work constitutes its failure. We have been so absorbed in constructing the ladder with its foot at the door of the kindergarten and the top resting on the threshold of higher institutions, that we have forgotten some very important considerations. We have neglected to give proper heed to the many who have fallen and continue to fall in the upward way. The large num- CHANGING CONDITIONS n ber who annually drop out of school have received scarcely no consideration. And further, we have failed to inquire with any degree of insistence whether those who have successfully made the assent bear the marks of the educated person. We are now inquiring with a good deal of concern This class whether we have not inadvertently defeated the pur- ofstu dents J r require pose which we set out so hopefully to achieve, viz. to more provide a high school education for all the children of all the people. In our attempt to democratize second- ary education we are wondering whether we have not so placed our emphases that the goal has been set beyond the reach of the many whom we have hoped most to serve. It is entirely proper to feel a sense of pride in our educational system. A well articu- lated system of schools such as ours, which makes it easy for one to pass from a lower school to a higher one, is a notable achievement. So far as it lies within the power of the state an open way should be provided from the kindergarten to the university. But we are beginning to see that more attention should be given to providing educational opportunities along the way and relatively less attention to the values which lie only at the end of the road. This change of emphasis as it relates to the high Failure now school is of large significance. The rather general- generally ized educational ideals functioning for half a century recognized in educational practice are now a matter of such serious controversy that revaluations and readjust- ments are inevitable. In fact the work has already begun. Changes in the high school are now taking place. Its failure to perform its full duty has become 12 THE HIGH SCHOOL a part of the consciousness of the average man. Since the question as to whether he shall send his children to the high school is no longer in doubt, he will have more and more to say regarding what kind of a school it shall be to which he sends them. He is beginning to inquire with a degree of intelligence hitherto unknown, what difference education really makes in the lives of his children and his neighbors' children. His judgment of values will finally largely determine the criteria for distinguishing between the educated and the unedu- cated person. No other single influence is having so much to do with the democratizing of secondary education as this intelligent interest on the part of all the people. At- tention to the work of the high school is entering upon its constructive stage. Blind faith in second- ary education, accompanied by a good deal of destruc- tive criticism, has had its day. It is being replaced by an intelligent conviction that the high school can be made our most efficient agency for preparing the youth, not only for higher institutions, but for success- ful participation in the affairs of the community. This placing of the high school in new relationships by those who patronize it, is large with meaning. The vital relationship of education to the new citizenship, the home, industry, and leisure occupation, renders clear as nothing else has done the demands upon the secondary school. This democratized ideal of secondary education, which we are just beginning to work out in practice, is a part of the whole movement to define education in terms of social efficiency. It rests upon a two-fold CHANGING CONDITIONS 13 conception of education, the individual and the social. It deals with health, strength, knowledge, attitudes, and technique in the control of life forces. It further deals with these forces in such way as to render the individual efficient as a factor in social progress. Thus individual efficiency and social efficiency are conceived not as ends in education mutually opposed, but sup- plementary, the one having no meaning without the other. An imperative necessity exists for a restatement Restatement of the aim of secondary education and for a corre- reo^aiSza- sponding reorganization of means. The aim should tionot take into account in a degree not now present the demanded needs and interests of all classes in society who patron- ize the high school. The curriculum stands in need of thorough-going revision both as regards the sub- jects offered and also as related to the subject matter used in instruction. Reconstructions are now taking place and it is highly important that they should be in accord with the actual demands being made upon the school. Part I of this book will be devoted to a detailed dis- cussion of the function of the high school. Part II will treat of the means to be relied upon for insuring greater efficiency in the work of the school. PART I — THE FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL CHAPTER II FACTORS DETERMINING FUNCTION New factors are entering into the determination of the aim of the high school. The controlling influence, that of higher institutions, is being replaced by other influences. These influences, psychological and social, are beginning to bring about changes in the aim of secondary education. In spite of the phenomenal increase in the number of high school students, the proportional number entering higher institutions has remained practically the same for more than twenty years. This means that the emphasis in the work of the school must be shifted more and more in the direction of preparation for participation in community affairs. The fact that so many high school students drop out of school should enter more largely into our con- siderations. Since 1890 the enrollment has more than trebled, but the proportion of those who drop out of school has remained unchanged. During this period, for every one hundred enrolled in the high school, forty-three have belonged to the first year, twenty-seven to the second year, eighteen to the third year, and twelve to the fourth year. Approximately seventy per cent of the students drop out before the third year. FACTORS DETERMINING FUNCTION 15 More than eighty per cent of those who enter do not remain in school for the work of the fourth year. These figures should challenge our attention. First, This fact the causes for this loss, in so far as they exist within ^just- the school, should be removed. A far larger propor- ments tion of the students should be found in the upper classes. Until this result is achieved, the high school must stand convicted of inefficiency. Second, the needs of those who inevitably drop out of school should receive more consideration. Less emphasis should be placed upon the relation of the work of the earlier years to that of the later years of the course. The work of the earlier years should be determined more largely by its value to those who drop out of school. In any event, those who remain in school for only a part of the course are entitled to far more considera- tion than they have heretofore received. The demands which the community is making upon Community the high school are becoming more and more specific. JfJJJJjjJj Higher institutions have always made specific demands, ^gh school and for this reason they have constituted the deter- specific mining influence. Now that community demands are being stated in relatively exact and concrete terms, they will become effective in the same way. We have, of course, always assumed that secondary edu- cation does make a difference in the activities of those educated. But just now we are dealing with this question of differences in a very practical way. Con- crete tests are being applied as never before, to deter- mine whether the high school is actually contributing its share to the social efficiency of those who are for a longer or shorter time enrolled in the schools. i6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Nature of these demands New interpreta- tion being given to the mean- ing of youth Multiplicity of demands results in conflict Preparation for the life in the home is becoming a part of the work of the school. The school is also to have a part in preparing the boy to become a suc- cessful farmer. Vocational interests in general are to be rendered intelligent by the school. The value of education is to be measured in part by increased vocational efficiency. These represent some of the specific demands which the community is making upon the high school. And these demands have al- ready begun to function in determining the character of the work attempted by the school. The new interpretation being given to the meaning of youth as related to education is doing much to break down traditions and to establish new criteria for judging educational values. The education of youth is no longer conceived merely in terms of the development of intellectual powers. On the con- trary, the whole range of needs, interests, and capaci- ties are being taken into account. As a result of this change in attitude toward the adolescent, the aim of secondary education has been broadened and the work of the high school rendered vastly more impor- tant. New demands are being made upon the school and readjustments are called for in order that these demands may be met. The very multiplicity of demands made upon the high school renders the problem of secondary educa- tion a very difficult one. And the difficulty arises not alone out of the number of these demands. It has its rise chiefly out of the fact of conflicts which are inevitable. Now that the high school is patronized by all classes in society, it is but natural that some of FACTORS DETERMINING FUNCTION 17 the demands made upon it arise out of narrow, selfish interests. In an industrial community, for example, the demand that the high school place its emphasis upon technical education becomes very insistent. If this demand controls the policy of the school, the result is that larger and more important social inter- ests are neglected. A proper balance must be main- tained in order that social efficiency and not merely industrial efficiency may result from the work of the school. In determining whether a demand upon the school Criteria for is legitimate and if legitimate, to what extent it should legitimacy determine the policy of the school, the present needs of demands of the adolescent must always be taken into account. No community demand should be allowed to inter- fere with supplying these needs. Whatever else the school should do, its first duty is to furnish an environ- ment, intellectual and social, inside of which the nor- mal development of the youth will be best promoted. If it does not furnish such environment, nothing that it can do will compensate for this delinquency. The home is first of all concerned with having its children well taken care of, and only secondarily interested in having them transformed into intellectual prodigies or skilled workers. The interests of society are best served by keeping in mind that the function of the high school is to care for the whole on-going life of youth. It is evident that the aim of secondary education Aim cannot is a complex one. In our attempt to redefine the aim belted in in harmony with the complexity of the situation, it noiogy becomes clear that old terminology utterly fails to serve any useful purpose. " Mental discipline," "cul- i8 THE HIGH SCHOOL Aim defined in terms of social efficiency Necessity for an analysis of the term ture," " preparation for life," and like terms were at best never sufficiently clear to serve as guiding aims. As long as the demands of higher institutions dic- tated the curriculum of the high school the failure of these generalized concepts was not so apparent nor so significant. But now there is an imperative neces- sity for clearness and definiteness in the statement of aim in order that it may serve as a guide in educational practice. The intolerable confusion which now exists should not be permitted to continue. The use of the term social efficiency is peculiarly appropriate in defining the aim of secondary educa- tion. The adolescent period is the one in which socialization takes place in largest measure. It is the period in which important social adjustments must be made. Failing in his endeavor to make adjustments, the individual emerges at best unsocial, at worst anti- social. The adolescent is orienting himself in the social world. He is getting his bearings, and the proc- ess is going on in some fashion whatever kind of school he may be in or whether he is in school at all. Every normal adolescent is developing social interests and arriving at judgments of value. Whether these interests are desirable and the judgments valid will depend very largely upon the social environment from which the stimuli come and in which the responses take place. Training in social efficiency is therefore peculiarly the work of the high school. However useful the term social efficiency may be, an analysis of the term is needed in order to reveal what the school must actually undertake to do and what means it must employ in order to realize the FACTORS DETERMINING FUNCTION 19 aim. It means, of course, fitness on the part of the individual to meet the demands which society will make upon him. But this leaves the meaning, if not indefinite, at least too general to serve as guide in educational practice. It appears that there is no better way of making the necessary analysis than to select certain points of view from which to regard the Points of individual who is to be educated. Physical needs, ^htehto* play interests and activities, vocational demands, regard the civic duties, preparation for college, and the peculiar the high needs and interests of girls, constitute the more im- scho01 portant of these points of view. The function of the high school is first of all to pro- Physical mote the health and physical development of the boys ^ ee t ^l must and girls. Neglect in this relation cannot be com- into account pensated for by anything else the school may do. Well planned courses in physical training will accom- plish something. But nothing short of well-defined, specific aims in physical education will result in the selection of suitable means. The aim must seek the correction of physical defects and the building up of correct habits of life. It is necessary that the means insure intelligence about the body and its functions, and result in proper mental attitudes as related to the welfare and care of the body. Because of great funda- mental physical changes which are going on during adolescence, the responsibility resting upon the high school should no longer be ignored. Physical effi- ciency lies at the very foundation of social efficiency. The vocational interests of young people furnish a Vocational very fruitful standpoint from which to regard the ^terests 1 ' 1 work of the high school. In the whole complex of the considered 20 THE HIGH SCHOOL Necessary for training is leisure occupation developing social consciousness of adolescents, these interests form a very important part. They consti- tute the greatest single cause for so many students dropping out of high school. In the average Ameri- can community the majority who drop out of school do so not because of economic necessity but because their interests lead them elsewhere. These interests should be utilized by the school. By so doing not only will a larger number complete the high school course, but all who come within the influence of the school will be rendered more efficient. For many young people, no need is more insistent than is the need of vocational guidance. If they are rendered intelligent as regards the choice of occupation, the high school must do it. All need some knowledge of the work-a-day world, and all need to have developed intelligent and sympathetic attitudes toward its prob- lems. In the absence of such knowledge and atti- tudes the hope of an industrial democracy is vain. The high school must constitute the greatest democra- tizing influence in this country. Another point of view from which the work of the high school should be regarded is that of the interests of adolescents in leisure occupation. The social in- stincts are now ripening, and these find expression largely through group activities. The gang spirit is strong and if not properly controlled and directed, both individuals and society suffer. The average com- munity has no greater problem concerning its young people than that of providing suitable forms of leisure occupation. The only institution in the community which can in any satisfactory way solve this problem FACTORS DETERMINING FUNCTION 21 is the high school. It should furnish a place where leisure time may be spent and provide opportunity for spending the time wholesomely and profitably. Training in civic efficiency is a task belonging pe- Training in culiarly to the high school. The years of adolescence efficiency are the ones in which social ideals are largely formed demanded and social attitudes developed. During this period youth is confronted with the necessity of making social readjustments. The control of the group is substituted for control by elders and parents. New standards of conduct are now set up, new sources of authority established, and new modes of social expression sought for. Training in all these things is needed. The high school which does not provide this training both as regards its curriculum and its social organization neglects one of its greatest opportunities. The high school now constitutes the chief means for Function of preparation for higher institutions. Eighty-five per preparing cent of all our secondary schools are high schools, and institutions eighty-eight per cent of secondary students are en- rolled in high schools. These figures indicate the relative importance of the high school as a preparatory institution. That college entrance requirements have in too large measure determined the work of the high school none will deny. But the fact still remains that the high school must continue to prepare an increas- ingly large number of young people for work in higher institutions. This is an extremely important func- tion, and one of the aims of the high school should be to inspire its students to go to college and to fit them to meet the requirements which will be made upon them. It should be kept in mind in this connection 22 THE HIGH SCHOOL Peculiar needs of interests of girls demand considera- tion Statement of aim must in- clude these points of view that preparation for college means more than merely meeting entrance requirements. It means also prep- aration to take advantage of the opportunities made possible only through a college course. The needs and interests of girls differ materially in certain important particulars from those of boys. The more delicate physical structure of girls and the physical changes peculiar to them which take place during adolescence call for a type of physical edu- cation in keeping with sex peculiarities. Girls as well as boys need physical education, not merely physical training. And the means employed must be in har- mony with their peculiar needs. The relations which women sustain to the home and to the community demand a type of education for girls which takes into account these relations. If the high school is to edu- cate for social efficiency it cannot ignore the needs and interests of girls as related to the social demands which will be made upon them. Society is no less concerned in educating for the duties of the home than it is in training for the work of the farm or the factory. It is not less interested in efficient women than it is in efficient men in the solution of its social problems. It is clear that the aim of the high school cannot be stated in a single phrase. The several points of view from which the high school should be regarded must somehow be included in any statement of aim if it functions fruitfully in guiding educational practice. These several standpoints will be discussed somewhat in detail in the chapters immediately following. CHAPTER III THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION There is quite general agreement that the word Education education has possessed too largely merely intellectual t0 o narrow content. This narrow conception of the meaning of meanm g the term has ruled, in practice at least, in spite of educational theory which should have caused the school to function in a broader, more inclusive way. Youth as it is actually constituted by interests, needs, and capacities, must be regarded as furnishing criteria for determining educational aim, means, method, and organization. The whole on-going life of youth should be more fully taken into account. The immediate practical question that the secondary school must answer is, what are the present needs that the school can supply and how, through the exercise of present capacities, can these needs be best supplied. These needs — physical, mental, social, ethical — and their corresponding capacities for development, furnish the only proper guide in educational practice. One of the outstanding fundamental peculiarities of significance adolescent life is its physical aspect. Great changes are physical taking place which are of transcendent importance. as P ects Rapid growth, organic changes, disturbed functions, sex impulses, are some of the more apparent marks of these changes. These fundamental facts have not had the attention in secondary education which they de- 24 THE HIGH SCHOOL The school should educate for health serve. First and last, every American youth has a right to be possessed of a healthy body. Whatever is done or is not done by the school, that hinders or fails to help him in the achievement of this worthy end, should not be included in our concept of education. High ideals of scholarship, rigid requirements, record books, college accredited, are but things that mock us in the presence of perverted bodily functions and broken health. Much has been written recently upon this theme and some exaggerations have no doubt been indulged in. But the fact still remains that the average secondary school is derelict in its duty to the youth of our land. This right to health is paramount. Not only should the school provide healthful con- ditions, but it should educate for health. The prac- tice of charging ill-health to our ancestors and to providence has had its day. Diseases are now pretty largely traceable to well-defined causes. Curative medicine and surgery are accomplishing much. But curative agencies, however important and efficient they may become, should be regarded as only tem- porary — as only a step in our upward progress from ignorance and superstition to knowledge and en- lightenment. Preventive agencies must supplant cura- tive ones. For the latter we must necessarily depend upon the knowledge and skill of the physician. For the former we must of equal necessity look largely to the enlightened layman. Perhaps in no single field of human endeavor has there been more notable achieve- ment than in the field of curative medicine, and much has also been accomplished on the preventive side. More and more emphasis is coming to be placed upon PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION 25 the latter, and this emphasis should be increased through organized, intelligent effort. It is necessary to continue to educate the physician for expert serv- ice, but we must now begin to educate the individual for right living. Knowledge and skill are the requisites of the expert. Knowledge and right attitudes are necessary to the individuals who constitute the great majority in society. The argument that we know more than we practice is not conclusive. Our knowl- edge is only partial and fragmentary. It is acquired too late to be very effective, and the general attitude of indifference to the whole problem of physical edu- cation renders it largely useless. The high school age is the one in which knowledge of the body, its functions, and its care can be most effectively utilized. The school must be awakened to its opportunity Large re- and its duty. For reasons that are perfectly obvious, resting upon the secondary school must assume a large part of the Jj^J* responsibility for this type of education. The child before he goes to high school can be taught many things useful; but his immaturity will prevent any- thing like the completeness in instruction necessary as a basis for intelligent living. The care of the child is important as a foundation. But the youth must be taught in a much more comprehensive way to care for himself. This evident limitation on the elementary school, and the fact that comparatively few will ever attend a higher institution, make it clear that whatever is accomplished in the way of educating for physical efficiency must be accomplished in large measure dur- ing the high school period. 26 THE HIGH SCHOOL The importance and character of the problem can be got before us in no better way than by reference to some of the conditions calling for increased intelli- gence in matters relating to physical welfare. piagu'e^ Mte Tuberculosis is a widespread disease affecting people in all parts of our country and in every station of life. It is rightly termed the " Great White Plague." The mortality roll is high, and countless thousands drag out a miserable and profitless existence because of its ravages. The pulmonary type is only one of its many forms. The bacilli infest parts of the body other than the lungs with equal frequency and with the same fatal results. Tuberculosis is not inherited. While the individual may inherit certain predisposi- tions, he acquires the disease by infection. He may inherit the soil, but his fellows, not his ancestors, pro- vide the seed. The causes of this disease are now well known to physicians. They should be rendered a matter of common knowledge. The disease in its earlier stages is curable, and what is more important, its prevention is in every instance possible. Prevent- ive agencies, if rightly employed, would in a genera- tion eradicate the disease. The agencies are both individual and social. The individual must be en- lightened as to its causes and as to methods of pre- vention. Society must see to it that those who are infected shall receive expert medical attention and a cure be effected if possible. If this is not possible, then adopt restrictive measures which shall prevent further infection. It does not seem to be out of the bounds of reasonable expectation to say that the secondary school will soon be one of the chief social PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION 27 agencies employed in the control and final eradica- tion of tuberculosis. The problem growing out of the social evil is prima- The social rily an educational problem. It is not only a tremen- dously important problem, but also an extremely difficult one. Nothing is gained by attempting to minimize its importance on the one hand, or its difficulty on the other. Neither indifference nor hysterical opposition to all attempts to grapple with it and solve it, will lead us anywhere. The recital of conditions is unnecessary. The facts are plain enough to all who have knowledge of the situation. Every reason that prompts us to deal with tuberculosis, obtains in respect to the social evil and other reasons, even more insistent, demand con- sideration. The fact is, we shall have to face the problem and lend ourselves courageously to its solution. It is evident that restrictive measures, however rigidly Education they may be enforced, will not eradicate or even greatly ** £ s means lessen the evil. The key to the situation lies in a type elimination of education that will, through an enlightened intelli- gence, make such conditions impossible. The education of our youth will provide the only way in which any- thing constructive and permanent can be accomplished. Whether the home can be made an effective agent to this end, or whether the school can be relied upon to accomplish our purpose, are matters of present con- troversy. But it seems evident that the school, either by direct instruction or indirectly through its influence in the community, will have an important part in the solution of the problem. This matter of sex instruction cannot be dismissed without full and fair consideration. If there were 28 THE HIGH SCHOOL importance no social evil, with its attendant physical and moral eencetn" considerations, the necessity for enlightenment on the matters part of young people in regard to sexual functions functions would still remain. The perversion of these functions is not rare, and the sexual impulse is so intimately bound up with the development of the adolescent, that we shall sooner or later have to provide in some manner for appropriate instruction. It does not seem that we can much longer allow conventionalities to blind us to the demands of the situation or to deter us from meeting these demands. Significance The matter of normal physical development is a physical vital one, and where ignorance prevents it and knowl- deveiopment eQ ig e promotes it, we should not prefer ignorance to knowledge. Health of body, so desirable in itself and contributing as it does to health and vigor of mind, must first of all be sought for the adolescent. The interests of society should not longer be sacrificed to mediaeval standards set up by false notions concern- ing the body and its functions. If health considera- tions, used in the sense of mere absence of disease, did not demand such instruction, the duty of the school to promote normal physical growth still remains. Education Education should provide not only for a healthy efficiency* 11 body but also for an efficient one functioning in such a way that its vitality is at the maximum. Low vital- ity does not always mean disease, but no one can live an efficient life on this plane. This is mere nega- tive health — health because of what one has escaped rather than because of what one has achieved. And vigor and vitality of body should be regarded as an achievement the same as vigor and virility of mind. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION 29 When we have set this up as the first worthy end of secondary education and have provided appropriate means for achieving it, we shall have taken a long step toward making the school an educational institu- tion in fact as well as in name. An efficient body is a worthy goal to set up for American youth and will serve as a challenge to right living as nothing else can do. It will be the positive factor upon which we can rely. To the fear of consequences we shall be able to add the reward of achievement. In the discussion of physical education, efficiency Habits of can have no narrower meaning than it has elsewhere. jjfj^™ 8 Intelligent attitudes in matters of health and kncwl- control edge of how to maintain it should result from the work of the school. Habits of right living should be estab- lished and motor control promoted. Attempts which have been made in the way of physical education have not usually been wisely conceived nor intelligently carried out. These efforts have been carried on under the titles, " physical training" and "physical culture" with results, in general, failing far short of what really constitutes physical education. The concept must be enlarged and vitalized and the organization of the school, both intellectual and social, made to contrib- ute more fully to the realization of the larger aim. The practical difficulties are not to be underesti- Practical mated. Long-standing prejudices and social taboos ^J^® 8 cannot be got rid of in a day. In matters of sexual func- recognized tions and relations these prejudices are deeply rooted, overcome Nothing will be gained by ignoring these facts in an attempt to make the school an agent in promoting intelligence regarding these matters so vital to both 30 THE HIGH SCHOOL individual and social welfare. On the other hand, the policy of refusing to grapple with the problem be- cause of these difficulties cannot longer commend itself to thoughtful people. Those things which the school can do with little or no opposition, if done well, will go a long way toward breaking down prejudice through making clear the meaning and results of physical edu- cation. When the school has done what it reasonably can do under all the circumstances, much will have been accomplished in the way of securing the support of public opinion in further endeavor. The time is near at hand when the high school will constitute the most fruitful means for promoting the health and physical efficiency of the youth of every community. CHAPTER IV DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND GUIDANCE The problem which many high school students, Majority particularly boys, will soon have to solve is that of ffnfni making a living. This question is pressing in upon occupation ,, .. . on or before them and frequently becomes so insistent that they completing leave school before the completion of the course, ^s 118011001 However much we might wish it otherwise, this is one of the outstanding facts which confronts us. The ranks of the students of secondary schools are con- stantly thus depleted. And for those who remain, the time when they shall likewise face this practical problem of earning a livelihood is but deferred. Only a limited few will go to college, and the great majority will enter into the active life of the community in one capacity or another. Whether they are equipped so to do is a matter of vital importance to them and of no less importance to the community. If this falling off in the school attendance were due Pupils leave largely to the necessity of entering some gainful occu- because of pation, the duty of the school would still be clearly vocational . . interests that of doing what it can to prepare for occupational activities. But fortunately, the most of those who leave school do so not because of necessity but because of an awakening interest in the work-a-day world. Thus far our efforts have been almost entirely in the 32 THE HIGH SCHOOL School should render these interests intelligent direction of stifling these interests. We have re- garded them as premature and have held them to be inimical to the best interests of the individual and of society as well. On the contrary, we should regard these interests as perfectly normal and take them into account in the work of the school. They are due to an awakening social consciousness. The social environment, made possible by the ripening social instincts, stimulates the youth to social activity, and one of the modes of response is to engage in some gainful occupation. This call is insistent. It fires his imagination and stirs his blood. Finding no opportunity in the school to give play to his imagina- tion or to employ his energy, he answers the challenge to the rising tide of enthusiasm for fellowship with those who are doing the work of the world. The difficulty is not that he has these interests. There are no higher interests than these, rightly con- ceived and properly ministered unto. The trouble lies in the fact that they are largely instinctive instead of intelligent, and are liable to lead the youth where he is not prepared to go. Interests should be culti- vated and refined and be made to serve as guides in the great highway of the common life. To serve in home or shop, in factory or field or market place, is not mean service if one performs his task with joy and gladness in the thought that what he gives is more the measure of his success than what he gets. Interest in art and poetry and music is not to be denied; but interest in work must stand beside these on the high plane of noble living. The claim of these interests will be disputed on the DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 33 ground that the secondary school should not special- Objections ize. The answer to this objection is that the high education school should not offer opportunity for narrow speciali- consider ed zation. It should not be narrow in the opportunities offered for growth and development. But it should supply in larger measure than it is now doing the needs of the adolescent and in such a way as to pre- pare him to meet the social demands which will be made upon him. In an effort to render the hign^ school more efficient in this relation, no one should be disturbed by the charge that the school is lowering its standards. The high school has too long been a school-master's school in which the normal interests of youth have been neglected. Its curriculum has been dictated by professional and traditional influ- ences, with too little attention to the demands right- fully made upon it. The American high school should in no sense be High school made a technical school. On the contrary, its duty JjjJJ will be most fully performed by reducing specialization and refine in any form to the minimum. This does not mean, interests however, that the school should not offer opportunity for vocational training of a kind that will furnish to the pupils the opportunity to develop and refine the great vocational life interests. As has been said, these interests are normal, desirable, and highly useful if properly guided and controlled. If there were no other reasons than purely psychological ones, the manual arts would rightfully have a place in every high school. If we ignore the social demands and turn deaf ears to the so-called " clamor" that is aris- ing in the community for things practical and things 34 THE HIGH SCHOOL Preparation for gaining a living a vital matter real, we should still be under the necessity of creating some such environment within the school as frequently leads the pupils to leave school in order to find oppor- tunity for normal expression of their interests. If we were to shut out the fact that the young people will soon be called upon to engage in gainful occupation of some kind, a true appreciation of educational value would lead us to conclude that the school environment must be in harmony with the needs and interests of those being educated. These boys and girls will soon face the realities of earning a livelihood. Whether their interests are superficial and temporary, or intelligent and perma- nent, is extremely important. Whether one is pre- pared to face the responsibility of making a living is a vital question. The preparation for gaining an hon- est living is a serious matter. To say that it involves nothing but dollars and cents, that it is only a matter of bread and butter, that such an educational aim is unworthy, is to convict one of ignorance of its mean- ing. There are other questions involved. Whether we can earn a living with a reasonable expenditure of time and energy is a question of no mean dimensions. Leisure as well as work is involved. To educate for leisure, which is desirable and necessary, and to neg- lect to educate for work in order that leisure may be rendered possible, is illogical. One should be so equipped for his work that his efficiency will secure both time and means for leisure in which to enjoy the things that the school has taught him to value most as contributing to the art of living. It is not only a question of whether one is capable DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 35 of making a living. One's attitude toward his work importance „ . _ . . . of right is equally important. Lack of preparation means not attitude only lack of ability to work effectively but also lack of ^JT d appreciation of its meaning. If we would dignify an occupation we must render it worthy by encouraging preparation for it. If we would have it looked upon other than as a means merely of acquiring dollars and cents, let us cease to regard it as beneath the work of the school to provide means to get ready for it. Noth- ing else has been done that has had so much influence in changing the attitude of the farmer boy toward the occupation of his father as agricultural education. High schools where such courses are offered do not undertake to turn out agricultural experts and they should make no such attempt. But they have dig- nified the occupation by simply recognizing it. The knowledge gained by the boy is not very extensive, nor perhaps is it in all respects entirely practical. But the method employed in acquiring it, and above all the place in which he acquires it, has an influence of incalculable value upon his attitude toward the occupation. So it is with domestic science in the school. It dignifies home-keeping simply by recog- nizing it. The information gained is of some value, but the chief value after all is the attitude on the part of the girl toward what in the very nature of things, will constitute her life occupation. On the community side we find no less demand for interest of vocational efficiency on the part of the individual, vo^atiomd First, as regards the home: Parents are interested glance in having their children get a right start in life. The choice of occupation and the preparation therefore 36 THE HIGH SCHOOL Points of contact between home and school are matters of large import and are primary considera- tions to parents. They know from experience how much depends upon economic efficiency. They de- sire, even more than some other very valuable things, vocational guidance for their children. The objec- tion is raised that the high school age is too early to attempt to give vocational guidance. There are two answers to this objection. One has already been made, viz. that vocational interests are already de- manding attention. The other answer is that the great majority of the pupils enrolled in the high school will never attend college or a technical school. If their education is to provide vocational guidance at all, the high school must provide it. The home is involved from another point of view. Cooperation must exist between the home and the school. At the present time cooperation for the most part consists in the home giving the child over to the school to do with him what it will. Points of actual con- tact between the two institutions are lacking. There are too few specific interests in common having concrete forms of expression. The relations of the home to the child include present problems as well as those which have to do with his future welfare. The parents are in- terested not alone in the child's attitude toward a future occupation, but also in his attitude toward the economic necessities of the home. The absence of vocational inter- ests in the school has a tendency to estrange pupils from home duties rather than to encourage participation therein. The presence of such activities provides com- mon interests constituting points of contact that result in mutual understanding and helpfulness. DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 37 Turning now to a consideration of the larger com- society munity interests, it appears that vocational training Jo™^ 1 ^ has every justification. The community is interested training and in the vocational efficiency of the individual on the gm ance protective side. It needs to protect itself first of all against the possible economic inefficiency of its future members. The community, no less than the individual, is interested in the question of ability to earn an honest living. The economic unfit sooner or later become a public charge. They recruit the criminal class, con- stitute the great army of the unemployed in times of economic stress, make up the large number of those who are constantly on the verge of want, and consti- tute finally a burden on society of enormous propor- tions. Marked progress has been made in recent years Asa means both in the amount of aid given to these unfortu- of P rotection nates and in methods of administration. Legal and extra-legal organizations have reached a high degree of efficiency. We point with pride to these worthy achievements, and rightly so. They are among the outstanding characteristics of our civilization. The manifestation of such social attitudes and the intelli- gent methods employed in giving concrete expression thereto, deserve high commendation. Nevertheless, however worthy the endeavor, it constitutes an enor- mous social burden. The increased and increasing burden is no doubt due in part to the fact that we are caring more adequately than ever before for the de- pendent classes. It is equally certain, on the other hand, that the difficulty of adjustment to economic conditions on the part of the individual is constantly 38 THE HIGH SCHOOL Asa means of promoting economic interests Importance of intelli- gent choice of occupa- tion becoming more serious. Concentration in industry, specialization in occupation, and rapid changes in methods of production, make this inevitable. But whether all of these causes or none of them contrib- ute to the situation, the fact remains that we have with us the great army of the unfit. And how to reduce the number enrolled therein and not how to provide temporarily for them, is the ultimate problem. On the constructive side, the community is no less interested. To reduce the number of social debtors is only half the problem. The other half is to trans- form as many as possible of these into social creditors. The individual who contributes no more than he receives, who only "breaks even," is not a contributor to economic welfare except in a negative sense. When reckonings are finally made he is in reality still a so- cial debtor because he makes no positive contribution. Society is interested in increasing to the largest possi- ble extent the number of those who are positive con- tributors to its economic welfare. The high school is the means upon which society has a right to place a large share of responsibility for accomplishing this end. The question of the individual's intelligence regard- ing occupational activities in general is also a matter of social concern. Matters of choice to suit the indi- vidual interests and capacities, and of proper distribu- tion of workers in relation to social demands, are questions in which the community is vitally interested. If choices are made in ignorance, both individuals and society suffer. The policy of delaying choice beyond the period of high school life or even beyond college DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 39 graduation may have some justification. But the theory or practice of withholding information concern- ing the nature and meaning of occupational activities is indefensible. Choice may be deferred, but when made it should be done with as full knowledge as is possible to secure. Society no less than the individual is interested in having this achieved. Vocational mis- fits swell the army of the unfit to serious proportions. The unequal distribution of workers constitutes a menace to regularity of employment and to stability of production. Knowledge of economic opportunities and demands should be made possible for every youth in the land. What agencies has the community upon which it can rely for preparation for vocational activi- ties? The apprentice system, so long depended upon, is no longer in vogue. The home, from time imme- morial a center of economic activity, has ceased largely so to be. The decline of these as means of vocational instruc- Education tion has been so rapid that we have as yet scarcely ^defo™" realized the importance and necessity of educational c nan ges in industrial readjustments. The causes which have operated to life bring about these changes we need not enter into. They have apparently done their work completely and permanently. The factory, widely diversified industry, the minute division of labor, mechanical invention, have ushered in a new economic order. With the going of the old order of things have gone old methods of preparation for vocational activities. These will not return, and we could not use them if they did. They were inadequate and would be still more so now because the training never included 4Q THE HIGH SCHOOL High school or special type of school Majority of communi- ties cannot support two types of schools preparation for intelligent choice of occupation as well as preparation in the technique of the trade itself. It can scarcely be said that the apprentice chose the vocation. The choice was made for him and his apprenticeship served only to perfect him in the req- uisite skill for his work. The home with its re- stricted environment and stern necessities did no more than this and even in less degree. The needs of the individual and the interests of the community demand more than this. An educational institution of some kind must perform this highly important function. The question here arises whether we shall organize the high school so that it will provide for vocational training and guidance or whether we shall set up a special type of school. Some would choose the latter because they feel that the former alternative would interfere with what they conceive to be the proper work of the high school. They conceive the proper aim of the high school to be limited by opportunity to gain a " liberal" education. This aim, they hold, would be interfered with in the high school by an attempt to render young people intelligent regarding the nature and requirements of vocational activities. If the community is to provide such opportunity, in their view it should be done in a special school. Some objections to the special school for vocational training will be pointed out. In the first place very few communities can afford to institute and main- tain two types of secondary schools. Education is a worthy object and we can well afford to spend more money for it than we are now doing, but there is a DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 41 limit beyond which communities cannot go. Legal restrictions obtain in many states and even if these were removed, financial limitations still remain. The limited number of pupils of high school age in the majority of communities would render division undesir- able. The advantage of number up to a certain point should be sought in order to permit such type of organization as will result in proper social environ- ment. Except in the larger commercial and indus- trial centers, for obvious reasons, we must choose what kind of school we shall have and rely upon it to provide adequate educational opportunity for all. It is extremely doubtful whether a special type of And they school would be desirable even if it were possible. un desirabie It is probable that in centers of large population such type of school is necessary to meet highly specialized demands. Whether this be true or not will not be discussed. The fact remains that the secondary school of whatever type should do more for the adolescent than was accomplished by the apprentice system or by the home, even if it should do this in a more com- plete way. Vocational efficiency, however adequately^ it may be insured, is not the only sort of efficiency necessary to the individual and to society as welly The needs and capacities of the individual will be only partially provided for by a highly specialized environment within the school. The environment must be complex and include a relatively wide range of social stimuli if preparation is to be made for ad- equate appreciation of the demands of a complex community environment and the development of cor- responding powers to meet these demands. A highly 42 THE HIGH SCHOOL Various needs of adolescents to be taken into account A final objection to special types of schools specialized type of school, furnishing of necessity a limited environment, will not provide a sufficiently wide range of opportunity for modes of experience necessary to the needs of high school students. The segregation of one class of our young people in a school offering opportunity only for development of proper vocational attitudes and something in the way of preparation for vocational activity, and segre- gation of the other class in a school offering no such opportunity, is wholly undesirable. A highly special- ized intellectual environment in the school is quite as narrow and no less indefensible from a pedagogical point of view than a highly vocational one. To deny within the school to the boys and girls who will not become industrial workers, the opportunity for the develop- ment of rational attitudes toward the great work-a-day world and for the cultivation of intelligent sympathies for those who constitute the very foundation of our civilization, is nothing short of educational folly. The individuals themselves will be handicapped by any such policy, no matter in what name it be conceived or upon what grounds it be defended. Any successful attempt thus to limit the educational opportunities of those enrolled in our secondary schools would but result to their incalculable loss. The upbuilding and maintenance of American de- mocracy means the democratization of American youth. Class distinction in education in our secondary schools will mean the absence of mutual understanding and the lack of common social ideals so necessary to intelli- gent cooperation. Our youth must abide together in an educational environment that will result in such DEMANDS FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING 43 understanding and promote such ideals. If we would educate for democracy our educational organization must be democratic. The threatened social cleavage into classes favored by opportunity and other classes to whom opportunity is denied, requires an educational policy that will aid in welding together all elements of society. CHAPTER V Problem of rightly employing leisure time More en- lightened view con- cerning play activities PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION If we inquire further into the peculiar characteris- tics of the adolescent, we find that one of his perplexing problems is how to employ rightly his leisure time. Old modes of employment are largely discarded be- cause they are unsuited to the rising social con- sciousness. The new individuality is characterized by certain social attributes which do not manifest them- selves in any marked way until this period of life. The play spirit is still dominant, and the recognition of this fact is necessary in any system of education that is comprehensive enough to care for the whole on-going life of youth. In fact such recognition is necessary to any sort of sympathetic understanding and appreciation of the essential characteristics of adolescent life. Play is no longer regarded by intelligent people as a troublesome form of idleness indulged in by children because they do not know any better. It is now recog- nized as an important factor in the education of the child, although it has taken a long time to arrive at this sane and pedagogically sound conclusion. For- tunately we have arrived and this more enlightened view concerning the significance of play activities furnishes a new basis for the consideration of educa- tional values. Parents and teachers recognize that play PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION 45 represents a healthful form of activity and that it is a necessary propaedeutic to work. "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy" is a familiar phrase that expresses our meaning. It is necessary for us to relate play not only to work Mutual but to life in general. Work occupies a large place fwork in our lives and ought so to do. But it is not all of and P la y life. It is not even the end toward which all prepara- tion should be made. Play bears a functional relation to work. On the other hand, work bears . reciprocal relation to play. The relation is mutual and should be so regarded. And these activities in turn are functionally related to life in its larger and completer aspects. Play may save Jack from becoming a dull boy, but if this is all it accomplishes it has not ful- filled its mission. Unorganized and undirected it may lead to results quite as undesirable as dullness. It may lead to evil associations and to the formation of habits that will eventually defeat the ends of educa- tion as related both to the efficiency of the individual and to the welfare of the community. The play im- The larger pulse is one of the most useful impulses if properly significance directed. Uncontrolled and undirected it may result, and frequently does result, in incalculable harm. We are beginning to see that play activities are not con- fined to the period of childhood, and it is with the edu- cational significance of this fact that we have to deal in this discussion. The play impulse is carried over into the adolescent The period, and all that has been said above is applicable ^ leisure to the problem of secondary education. There are, occupation however, some important distinctions which need 4 6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Old modes of leisure occupation not adequate emphasis. In the first place, the term play as usually associated with the activities of childhood is not ade- quate in scope. Play as set over against work refers to those activities whose value to the participant lies in the pleasure of the activities themselves and not in any end sought. The adolescent is no longer satisfied with merely this. He has begun to set up more or less consciously certain ends looking toward self-realization, involving motives which lie beyond the region of activities for the sake of themselves. The merely physical element is now reinforced by the mental element, largely emotional, which must be taken into account. The adolescent is developing well-defined mental attitudes toward his social envi- ronment which find expression in various forms of what may be termed leisure occupation. Old modes of expression are discredited in the mind of the adolescent because he somehow feels superior to them. This feeling is no doubt in part due to the causes referred to in the preceding paragraph, and in part due to the influence of his social environment. The causes of change are both psychological and social, but whatever they are or which is the most potent, is not important. The change of attitude has come and with it we have to deal. And how to deal with the situation constitutes an educational problem. Teachers know this well enough, and parents are even more intimately familiar with the fact, although neither the school nor the home is at present attempting in any adequate way to solve the problem. It is scarcely possible to over-emphasize the im- portance of the matter of proper employment of PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION 47 leisure time on the part of our youth. Within very Demand wide limits, at least, it is safe to say that no voca- ^leisure* 106 tional occupation leads to vice or crime or indolence, occupation The vicious, the criminal, and the loafer are the prod- uct of leisure employment to an astonishing degree. The factory and the sweat-shop where many of our youth work, deserve all the attention they are receiv- ing. But what about the saloon, the dance-hall, the pool-room, the alleys and vacant lots, and other places where multitudes of our youth play? Our policy in the former case is corrective because it is constructive. Our policy in regard to the latter, if indeed we have any, is scarcely corrective at all because it is almost wholly negative. None would be so foolish as to assume that many boys and girls will not of necessity engage in some sort of gainful occupation. Who of us dare be so blind, so indifferent to the truth, as to hold that all boys and girls will not engage in some sort of leisure occupation. Not occasionally nor sea- sonally will they do this, but daily throughout the whole of their developing lives. But what about the means of caring for the youth Situation of our communities? What sort of attitudes are they fj^ ns( developing toward the meaning and the function of educational problem leisure occupation? And again, what is the character of the environment in which these attitudes are formed? If they are not intelligent about the harmful effects of certain forms of leisure occupation, whose is the fault? The conditions implied in these questions present a situation the significance of which should be more fully appreciated, and the attempt to meet it will be vastly more adequate when we once realize the large 48 THE HIGH SCHOOL social import of these questions. When the training of youth bears upon any social situation there must arise at that point an educational problem. And it is so here. If the community is interested in how the youth employ their leisure time, the question becomes a matter of educational concern. The position taken with respect to training for efficiency in leisure occu- pation cannot be different from that taken in regard to vocational efficiency or efficiency of any other type. One's attitude toward leisure occupation is not less significant than his attitude toward occupational activity in general. If leisure time has no value, if it is regarded as waste time, then why should not one employ it as he will? We cannot expect youth rightly to employ leisure time until something has been done by way of inducing them to assume an intelligent attitude toward it. And if leisure time is of so little importance that no preparation is neces- sary for it, we can hardly expect that intelligent use will be made of it. N ^ atlve f The school too frequently discounts leisure occupa- the school tion by giving no attention to it except of a negative kind. Too often nothing is done except to eliminate it as far as possible. Such an attitude implies that it has no place within the range of school activities and that the school ought to, as far as possible, through the assignment of home tasks, eliminate such occupa- tion altogether. We have been too largely concerned with attempting to get rid of a situation rather than with making an intelligent, constructive attempt to deal with it. This negative attitude on our part not only does not lead us anywhere, but creates an intol- PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION 49 erable situation within the school which fosters dis- content with or indifference toward the work of the school. A more intelligent view is needed concerning the This must trivc W3.v breadth of the function of the secondary school. This t o a can be secured only by going back to first principles constructive and securing proper bases for our concept of the mean- ing of secondary education. The needs and capaci- ties of the adolescent and the social demands alone form proper bases. We are inclined too much to theorize about human nature and are not enough en- gaged in dealing with it as it is. Reflection can but impress one with this fact. The adolescent impulse to seek expression through leisure occupation is in no sense an abnormality. It is not an indication of depravity. The difficulty is that we confuse modes of expression which he sometimes employs with the impulse itself, forgetting that while the impulse is inherent, modes of expression are acquired. The im- pulse may need more or less inhibition, but its supreme need is direction. Whatever may be our belief con- cerning the teleological theory of play, the importance of the modes of play in terms of fife and character cannot fail to impress us. Viewing the situation from the standpoint of the The inter- problem of the community as related to the welfare community of its youth, we can hardly fail to see the significance involved. In our effort to prepare young people for participation in the affairs of the community in the future, we too frequently ignore their presence in the community of the present. They are as truly a part of the social structure in the present as they will ever be 5° THE HIGH SCHOOL Present means for guidance inadequate in the future. And some of the most difficult prob- lems of the community arise out of this fact. If we could imagine a community without young people, we should have a very different social structure from what we now have. The relations which these young people bear to one another, their mutual relations with adult members of the community, and the rela- tion which they bear to the children of the commu- nity, all give rise to problems of profound significance. These young people are a part of the social structure of every community and they must be taken into account. They must be provided with opportunity for expres- sion adequate to their needs. Leisure occupation will engage a relatively large part of their time. What means are provided through organization for this demand? Is the home adequate to the task? Can the churches undertake it successfully? Can the local ! government be depended upon? What about the suc- cess of voluntary organizations, clubs, associations, guilds of one sort or another? The answer to all these questions is the same. The organized means are not meeting the situation, and for this there are well- defined reasons. There are certain limitations upon these institutions outside of the school which make it impossible for them to provide for the employment of leisure time in any adequate way. In the first place, there are physical limitations. Lack of buildings, grounds, equipment, is in itself sufficient to account for failure. There are social limitations in the absence of group life which cannot be overcome. The lack of adequately trained people to direct and control these activities needs no discussion. Witness the PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION 51 repeated failures of well-intentioned efforts to meet Futility of this crying need of every community. One instance ™gankation of an effort of this kind may be cited. In a certain Western town the people became interested in the problem before us and proceeded in the customary way to solve it. A large hall was rented and paid for by interested parties, and one of the citizens volun- teered his services to direct the experiment. Every- thing was lacking, however, but good intentions. There was no well-defined aim, no adequate means, no trained service to direct and control. Failure was but another witness to good intentions and bad judgment. The school, on the other hand, can be so organized The high as to reduce if not entirely remove the limitations which only efficient have spelled disaster for all these sporadic attempts a e en cy to solve this perplexing community problem. Would this be within the proper province of the school. This can best be answered by asking another question. Is it within the province of the community to exercise intelligent and organized control over the leisure occu- pations of its youth? If this question is answered in the negative, there is of course no call for further dis- cussion. But if the question is answered in the affirma- tive, then we cannot avoid the conclusion that the high school is the only institution upon which reliance can be placed to perform this necessary and highly important service. The fact is so apparent that it is the proper function of the high school to care for the whole on-going life of youth that no argument at this point seems necessary. The answer that the school in the past has not performed such duty or that it is 52 THE HIGH SCHOOL not properly organized to perform it now, is avoiding the question. It is only an evidence that the com- munity is not awake to what the school ought to do and not informed concerning what it can do. The problem Turning now to the consideration of the future de- in the light . of future mands which will be made upon our young people, it demands j s i m p 0r ^ an t to inquire whether this type of education will be useful in relation to these demands. Does the way in which adults employ leisure time have any par- ticular significance with reference to the welfare of the individual or of the community? Does the manner in which parents spend leisure time affect the interests of the home? If the father spends eight hours at work, two at meals, and eight in sleep, is it a matter of any concern to the integrity and usefulness of the home as a social institution when and how he spends the re- maining hours of the twenty-four? Is it a matter of economic concern how and where workers spend their leisure time? Does leisure give rise to any serious problems as related to civic control? Are there any great moral issues growing out of the manner in which men and women spend their leisure time? These are some of the questions to which intelligent attention must be directed if we would understand the importance of leisure occupation in its contribution to the complexity and meaning of modern community life. Not only is the matter of leisure occupation at present a problem of serious concern, but we are engaged in efforts of various kinds which, if successful, render the problem still more serious and complex. We are designedly engaged in attempts to shorten hours of labor and thereby insure to the worker more leisure PREPARATION FOR LEISURE OCCUPATION 53 time. Labor organizations and legislators and public- spirited citizens, singly and in association with others, are all engaged in this effort. Even our education is contributing to the achievement of this end. We are endeavoring to increase the industrial efficiency of the individual not only because we want him to be able to produce more but also because we wish him to be able to produce it in less time. We want to shorten hours of labor as well as to increase output. For some of the evidences of what is actually hap- More leisure pening we need only cite labor laws, limitation of J^era and hours of work, compulsory school attendance, half its signffi- c&nce holidays on full pay in certain occupations. These are the facts, and we assume that they are all signs of progress. They are all regarded as evidence of en- lightened social conscience and worthy social achieve- ment. More leisure time for the individual inures to his advantage and to the general well-being of the community, is the assumption. The validity of this assumption, however, admits of grave doubt if we ignore the importance of the question as to how this larger amount of leisure time will be spent. The fact is that whether leisure results in good to individuals and to communities depends upon the attitudes and interests and capabilities of those who engage in it. Values attach here and ignorance cannot appre- ciate these values. Knowledge and training alone can be relied upon to secure proper employment of leisure time. The history of civilization reveals nothing more Leisure clearly than it does the fact that leisure time makes ^sodd for enlightenment and culture and progress on the one progress 54 THE HIGH SCHOOL hand, and for degradation and vice and decay on the other. The manner in which it has been employed has always and everywhere determined which of these two conditions resulted. Art, music, and literature are its products. Gladiatorial combats, bull-fights, and shameless national vices are monuments to its degraded use. The facts are familiar enough. The question^ is whether we shall take heed and constitute the school the greater socializing institution where our youth may receive adequate preparation for intelligent partici- pation in the varied and complex life of our social democracy. CHAPTER VI INSTITUTIONAL AND OTHER TYPES OF SOCIAL EFFICIENCY Vocational activity constitutes but one of the Modes of modes through which one gives expression to his expression interests, makes trial of his capacities, and secures for other than himself the satisfaction of his needs. It is also but one of the modes which the individual employs in rendering service to the community in which he lives. There are other modes of expression which we may term institutional activities that are equally impor- tant. To say that any one of these is more important than another would be untrue. Vocational efficiency and preparation for leisure occupation are important, but to neglect training for participation in other lines of social activities would result in the failure of the school to perform its full duty to the community. Complexity of community life calls for corresponding complexity in the aims and means of education. We need to have the facts presented by the specialist who through training and experience is able to get them all before us. But without proper balance of judgment as regards the relative importance of social demands, we shall emphasize one duty of the school to the neglect of others equally important. This leads to fads and foibles, results in lack of well- balanced educational policy, involves waste of time and opportunity, and ends in discrediting the school 56 THE HIGH SCHOOL Adolescent social interests Efficiency for partici- pation in community life in the eyes of those who support it and have a right to expect from it adequate preparation of their children for intelligent participation in the affairs of the com- munity. Fortunately the adolescent has social interests which can be seized upon by the school in its efforts to aid him in making preparation for participation, present and future, in community life. These interests are even more immediate and are seeking modes of expres- sion more particularly in the present than those which have to do with vocational occupation. Problems of social adjustment and control are to the youth present ones and are demanding solution. They are problems whose source is within the self — the new self in which resides the social attributes that now begin to mani- fest themselves in divers ways. The adolescent period above all other life periods, is the one in which the socializing process is at its height, and whether it will be accomplished well or ill is a matter of great impor- tance. New criteria for social judgments are sought, new standards of conduct are demanded, and new modes of social expression are imperative. Authority is questioned, old standards are abandoned, and old modes of social response are not adequate. The term " institutional efficiency" was employed in a previous paragraph for the sake of convenience. It is a correct term as far as it goes, but it is inadequate to describe the situation in any complete way if used in its restricted sense. Efficiency for participation in community life more nearly states the case, and the word institutional will be used in this broad sense. The term civic efficiency, sometimes employed, is SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 57 entirely too restricted in its scope to include social activities of extreme importance. The state is one of the institutions in which the individual must partici- pate and is a very important one. But to narrow our preparation to this one kind of participation would leave out much that should receive primary considera- tion. There need to be taken into account the various points of contact with one's social environment and the different aspects of the community life in which in- telligent participation is necessary. The matter of rights and responsibilities is an im- importance portant one, not only in civic relations but also in all participate social relations. The individual apart from its social Asocial endeavor environment is a myth. What he does for his group and what the group does for him constitute the "give and take" of life. The anti-social individual is a criminal. The unsocial one is an outcast. The activ- ities carried on in a community through group organi- zation are many and varied. But the single purpose back of all these activities is the betterment of the group or the community as a whole. The ability and the disposition to cooperate with others are required of everyone who would have any part in community life. Many worthy undertakings are carried on by voluntary organizations. Reforms of various kinds are sought through the agency of these extra-legal organizations, and preparation for participation in these undertakings is necessary. The home cannot perform this function in any com- Home does plete way. We have a right to expect large things adequate^ from the home in the education of the child, but we social must not expect the impossible. The fact is, the me nt 58 THE HIGH SCHOOL home is not organized to care for the social needs or to develop the social capacities of the adolescent. Among other things, it cannot furnish a sufficiently varied social environment. In reality it would be less a task for it to undertake to supply an adequate intel- lectual environment for the education of the youth than to supply an adequate social environment. We readily concede its inability to provide the former, and with even more unanimity we ought to agree to the impossibility of the latter. People constitute the chief sources of stimuli, and social organizations of one kind and another furnish the chief opportunity for response. And we must look to the school not only for the intellectual but also for the social en- vironment in which adequate preparation may be secured for intelligent participation in community life. Preparation j n discussing efficiency for participation in institu- efficiency tional affairs our attention is quite naturally first directed to the question of civic efficiency. Our schools have always given much attention, in theory at least, to training for civic efficiency. The obligation to pre- pare for citizenship has always been conceded to rest heavily upon the school. To what extent our educa- tional practice has been in accord with our theory might be a matter of some dispute. However short our schools may have fallen in measuring up to this demand, it has always been an important one and is becoming more insistent. Rapidly changing conditions in social life, the phenomenal growth of great centers of population, the great diversity of interests, the passing of the frontier, the rapid increase in population, have operated to create great burdens for the state. SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 59 These changed and changing conditions have had increasing ~ - . importance many important results. One of these is the increase of govern- of the duties which the government is called upon jj^Sms to perform. Governmental control has been greatly increased even within the last decade. It is of course unnecessary to say that just in the degree in which the people rely upon the government for social control does its importance as a social agent increase. If it is to perform only a few functions, success on the one hand will not contribute so largely to social welfare, and on the other hand failure will not be so great a calamity. If its functions are very numerous, and if in addition to exercising police power it attempts to enter into the regulation and control of private enter- prises, we have a very different situation. As has been implied in a previous paragraph, the Demand for great social and material changes which have come spirited about are resulting in a change in the conception of new social the meaning of government. The old, rather naive idea that the purpose of government was merely to see to it that the individual rights were not to be interfered with, is passing. It was born of the struggle of the eighteenth century against tyranny and oppres- sion. The new conception is that government is rather a name for certain great social functions which the people in a collective capacity are undertaking to perform for the larger good of the whole. This is call- ing for a new civic spirit and for new social means through which the ends may be accomplished. But for these new demands made upon the average citizen, the nature and purpose of the school would not be affected. Increased intelligence concerning the right- 6o THE HIGH SCHOOL Relation of government to social democracy New mean- ing of popular government ful functions of government and the means of securing conditions whereby these may be successfully per- formed, is the,' precise thing that is placing the heavier and more important burden upon the school. The goal toward which American civilization is striving is a democracy. This of course is a larger thing than political democracy. But government as a means of control will have an increasing func- tional relation to this achievement. The denser popu- lation, and the multiplication of interests will require this. That particular type of individual liberty which our government in its earlier history sought to secure to the individual, if his freedom is to be maintained, must be transformed into an even larger liberty achieved through a more complete functioning in all social rela- tions. Not in the absence of social responsibility, but in the increased power to perform his social duties will the citizen of this great social democracy find his largest freedom. It follows that since government will be increasingly important, that in a democratic form of government the individuals must perform their duties more intelligently. One of the significant signs of the times is the larger responsibility for government being assumed by the people themselves. That degree of direct participa- tion which we have held throughout our history to be suitable only to small governmental units, we are now applying to the larger units as well. Whether the theory of government by representation, government by "wise men" as it were, was sound or not, we are abandoning it at the present time. The ballot, whose former purpose was simply to select men, is now SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 61 coming to be employed to a considerable degree as a direct means to determine governmental policy. This not only calls for a higher degree of intelligence on the part of the voter, but for a much wider range of intelligence. And one of the direct aims of education must be to promote this type of intelligence. There is no direct relation in this country between Problem the work of the public school and the church. In o"separ°a^ European countries this is not generally true. There ti ° no * religious instruction is given in public schools and it school is frequently the case that the church itself exercises control over the instruction given. This was true in this country in colonial times. But our policy of com- plete separation of church and state has also resulted in the severing of nearly all of the direct connections between the school and the church. Whether this is desirable or not is not open to discussion here. We are simply dealing with the fact in order to point out one of the very marked differences existing between our system of public education and those of European countries. And further to point out that, however desirable such separation may be, it gives rise to a problem which after all may be more serious than it appears upon its face. Religion is one of the very important social assets Religion a of any people. No reference is intended to dogma or ^ciaT sectarianism of any kind. The incontrovertible fact c o ncern is that religion is a valuable social asset. And a type of education which is irreligious, or even wholly non- religious, fails in making its full contribution to society. It would be unfortunate in stating our educational aim and in choosing our educational means if we were to 62 THE HIGH SCHOOL The school must take this into account Problems arising out of changes in the home be wholly unmindful of two outstanding facts. First, that the adolescent period, more than any other period of life, is one in which the individual is most susceptible to religious influences. The records relat- ing to this matter show beyond any question that a far greater number definitely ally themselves with church organizations during this period than at any other period of life. The second fact is that society as a whole is concerned in the part which the church of the future shall play. The functioning of this social institution is not a mat- ter of less interest to society in general than is that of any other of our institutions. The church has through- out the centuries maintained its elementary and second- ary schools and the relation that these schools sustained to the church was fully recognized. Now one branch of the church, at least, has ceased almost entirely to maintain any other than higher institutions. We are not concerned here with the problem which this con- stitutes for the church as such. We are simply point- ing out the facts and raising the question from the point of view of social welfare — what will be the effect upon this great social institution, if the instruction in our public schools should be irreligious or even non- religious? Nor is this statement to be interpreted as implying that it is either one or the other. The em- phasis is that it must be neither. The home is the greatest social asset of a people. If it is regarded otherwise than this, there is a reckoning ahead. So self-evident are these propositions that argument would be superfluous. The American home has been our proud boast and rightfully so. But the SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 63 conditions which give to it its peculiar force and functions are passing. The economic bond is no longer of the same character and power. As popula- tion has become more dense and means of communi- cation have improved, the former isolation of the home has ceased. All these changes are no doubt desirable, but out of them arises the necessity for tak- ing into account what has happened. In the degree that the strength of these old bonds has been lessened, other means must be substituted for insuring the integrity of the home. Citations of the mistakes of ancient peoples is an Results of old method of uttering warnings against present tend- j fl ^ °° er encies. But in spite of the antiquity of the method functions it is not without value. The taking over by the school performed of things previously done by the home has been in by the home other civilizations a contributing cause to the loosening of domestic bonds. This result followed not alone because of what was included in the educational aim but also because of what was not included. It was due not only to the functions performed by the school but also to the failure to perform certain other functions. The experiment of the school in taking over important activities performed by the home without at the same time making provision for strengthening domestic bonds is not a new one. It has been tried and has failed. If there is anywhere lurking in our minds the error of assuming that the home is a less valuable asset than it has been in the past, that the domestic bonds are to be less numerous and less binding, our experiment will result as the others have done. 64 THE HIGH SCHOOL The prob- This topic will be discussed in more detail in a later lem of the * home a chapter dealing with the education of girls. But problem anything like adequate treatment of the subject re- quires more than a mere discussion of the home from the point of view of women's contribution to it. The problem of the home is by no means exclusively a woman's problem. It is a fundamental social problem, and the attitude and the efficiency of all the parties to the domestic relations count in determining how suc- cessfully the home is making its social contribution. The promotion of intelligent interest in the home through a proper correlation of the work of the home and of the school is an important duty of any efficient educational institution. Misceiia- Functioning in a social process, however, is not neous social ° . activities confined, using terms in rather a strict sense, to mere participation in institutional life. Social control is exercised and social welfare promoted through various types of organizations both for men and women. These organizations are playing a larger and larger part in our community life. The duties which they undertake to perform, civic and philanthropic, should become increasingly important as time goes on. Such organizations will depend, however, for their ultimate value upon the spirit that prompts the activities and upon the means and methods chosen for achieving these ends. These organizations are so numerous and have such wide range that no enumeration will be undertaken. In fact, none is needed because the general topic under discussion is a matter of common knowledge. The future of these organizations depends in no small degree upon our educational aims and SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 65 means. To educate for intelligent participation in the work of such organizations is quite as necessary as it is to provide vocational training and guidance. The demands upon the school in these relations are significance increasing because of changed conditions in society. pa^ gof Just as the home has changed, so the community as pioneer a whole has changed. An eminent student of social problems recently said that democracy does not grow on bushes any more. This was another way of saying that the natural springs of a social democracy are drying up. The earlier conditions prevailing of wide-spread economic equality, the common struggle to subdue the forces of nature, — in short, the comparative pioneer conditions everywhere, — were the sources of the spirit, were the well-springs of life of a social democracy. These conditions have passed or are passing, and Social forces what are to be the forces upon which we shall depend m ore the in the future? It is no reflection upon the social effi- P rod ^ct of . the high ciency of those who have had so much to do with rear- school ing the structure of American civilization to say that the causes of that efficiency are passing. Our ideals remain, but they must be renewed and refined and the forces to accomplish this task will have to be more and more the product of the school. Social forces are in the last analysis psychic forces. The control of these through definite aims and suitable means con- stitutes one of the difficult educational problems. The burden rests in large degree upon the high school both because the elementary school period is too early for effective training and because the very large majority of young people will not continue their education beyond the high school. CHAPTER VII PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE Demands for higher education High school to prepare for college Mutual interests of lower and higher institutions The recognized relation that college-bred men and women bear to the promotion of social welfare needs no comment. The higher education of at least a por- tion of the youth of every community is an impera- tive social necessity. Trained leadership is essential, and the society of the future will in large measure con- tinue to look to the higher institutions to furnish such leadership. Because of this social demand one of the important duties of the high school is to prepare students to enter college. That the high school has thus far devoted too much of its attention to the performance of this one duty is readily admitted. And that col- lege entrance requirements have been and are yet to too large an extent unreasonable, is equally true. But in spite of these conditions, since the American high school is rapidly supplanting every other type of secondary school, it is evident that if young people are prepared for college at all, the high school must furnish the preparation. In view of the importance of this duty of the second- ary school, it is desirable to ascertain in a definite way what are in reality the mutual interests of the higher and lower institutions. Lack of agreement as to these inter- ests has been one of the chief causes of the failure to PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 67 secure agreement between the high schools and colleges as regards entrance requirements. The administrators of high schools, reluctantly yielding to the demands of the college, insist that the kind of preparation required by the colleges is not in conformity with the needs and interests of high school students. The college authorities on their side have insisted and still insist that the great majority of students who come from the high schools are inadequately prepared for the college work. When we find a situation in which all parties concerned are dissatisfied, there is need for a dispassionate and unbiased inquiry to ascertain the grounds for dissatisfaction. Mere demands on the part of one type of school or the other, even if acceded to, will not settle the question. Only by each school taking into account the educational problem of the other school can satisfactory relations be established and maintained. There has been a growing tendency during recent Lack of co- years for the high schools to become more and more the^oriTof independent, and the colleges have accepted, although the two with great reluctance, a type of preparation differing considerably from that demanded a decade ago. In accepting these changes in the character of the prep- aration, the college authorities have quite generally insisted that it is not of the right kind and, as an earnest of their faith in the old type of preparation, they require students to pursue certain lines of work in the college which were formerly regarded as pre- paratory work. It is a serious question whether the greater liberality now manifested by college authorities has led to better mutual understanding or to any more 68 THE HIGH SCHOOL Difficulties in the high school In the college unified educational policy taken as a whole. In spite of the effort that has been going on for over half a cen- tury to articulate successfully the work of the schools, the accomplishment of this very necessary undertak- ing still remains far from realized. There are practical difficulties to be solved on both sides of the question. The smaller high schools par- ticularly face a difficult problem. In view of the limita- tions under which they work, they are unable to meet the demands of both the community and the college. They must choose between the interests of the ma- jority who will not go to college and the minority who will go to college. In some measure the interests of either the majority or the minority must be sacrificed. Even if the minority is accepted by the college, the work is carried on under unfavorable conditions be- cause of lack of preparation, and the value of the college course is greatly lessened. For the student to enter college with any considerable number of con- ditions to be made up is a serious handicap. One is almost persuaded sometimes that some of the students who enter thus conditioned had better not enter at all. The college is dissatisfied with them and they are dissatisfied with the college. They pursue studies under compulsion that they avoided taking in the high school. They know and every one else knows that there is no pedagogical reason why these requirements should be made so late in the student's career. The college on its side has its problems that are quite as difficult as those belonging to the high school. The college authorities have set up certain educational aims and have chosen what they conceive to be the PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 69 best means for realizing them. Their courses are planned assuming that students will come prepared to pursue their work successfully. It is assumed, sometimes perhaps quite arbitrarily, that a student will be prepared to begin his study of English, mathe- matics, language, or whatever it may be, at a given point and that he will possess a sufficient mastery of the elementary work to enable him to exhibit a reason- able degree of efficiency in the higher work. As a matter of fact some such assumption has to be made. The college, if its work is worth while, must have def- inite aims and must be as free to choose the means as is the high school. The difficulty arises, however, when: the college in exercising this freedom of choice does so in the absence of the recognition of the fact that its work must be a continuation of what the lower schools can, under all the circumstances, be expected to do. As an illustration in point, if it should come to pass that it would seem best for the high school to offer but two years of mathematics instead of three, then the college should take this into account and govern itself accordingly. While there must continue to be a line drawn between preparatory work and the higher work, the line must be more or less a shifting one as circumstances and conditions change. The difficulty in making adjustments on the scholas- Difficulties tic side have no doubt been augmented, in part at by^Tureof least, by the failure of the college to readjust its own colle g e to work with reference to the new social demands made justments upon the educated man and woman. The adjustments on the part of the lower schools have been far more radical and rapid than they have in higher institutions. 70 THE HIGH SCHOOL Fitness for college in- cludes more than mere scholastic preparation Social tests of efficiency The new educational ideals, if they persist, must before long exert the same influence upon educational means in the higher institutions that they have already ex- erted in the secondary school. The colleges have increased the number of electives and have in some degree modified requirements for graduation. A fur- ther modification of educational practice in the colleges will result in changes in entrance requirements in the direction of allowing the high school greater freedom in its work. If preparation for college consisted only in meeting scholastic requirements for entrance, the problem would be far more simple than it is. Fitness for college includes very much more than the mere ability to present to the college authorities a certificate setting forth that a definite number of specified units of work has been completed. It involves the ability to par- ticipate in a type of social life to be found nowhere else in the entire social process. Failures, far too numerous in college, are due in large measure not to the inability to do the work of the class-room but rather in the failure to fit into the college situation. The social readjustments that the student has to make upon entering college place far greater demands upon him and are more severe tests of his fitness than are the requirements of the class-room. Even if we were to secure perfect agreement so that the college would modify its demands in the light of what the high schools can reasonably do, and if the latter should meet all the requirements of the former, it is doubtful whether the large number of failures in the freshman year would be lessened in any considerable degree. It PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 71 is necessary for us to give consideration to some of the causes of failure other than the mere lack of scholastic requirements for entrance. The general cause of the difficulty that the student College has finds in adjusting himself to the new situation is the methods of very different sort of supervision to which he is subject. su P ef vi sion The student is not only away from home and from its influences, but he also finds his school environment of a very different nature than that to which he was accustomed in the high school. The transition from a situation in which supervision is exercised more directly and is extended to details, to one in which supervision is more general and indirect, constitutes a very radical change. Some of the direct causes of his failure to measure up to the requirements of his new situation are traceable to this change in modes of supervision. The college authorities say that many of the high students school students have not formed proper habits of acquired in study, and assign this as the principal cause of failure. !" g ^ sch ° o1 This claim no doubt has some validity. But any to meet intimate knowledge concerning the conditions in the eman s high school, forces one to conclude that high school students are generally good students and perform their work with a reasonable degree of efficiency. They have built up useful habits of study, but they have been acquired in the presence of stimuli which are partly lacking in the college environment. These stimuli, as has already been indicated, have been determined by the kind of supervision which is exer- cised in the high school. For example, the preparation of the student's lessons is made in part, at least, in 72 THE HIGH SCHOOL Readjust- ments called for on part of high school On the part of the college study halls under the direction of the teacher. And further, the close relation which exists between the school and the home enables the school authorities to know in a definite way how the student's time is employed outside of school hours. The remedy for this failure of students to adapt themselves to the work of the college is a modifica- tion of methods of supervision in both the college and the high school. The latter should take into account more fully the nature of the college environment in this respect and have as one of its aims to build up habits of study under conditions more similar to those obtaining in the college. It is evident if the chief stimulus to study is the teacher, or even if the teacher enters to a considerable extent into the stimu- lus situation, that the absence of the teacher will result in the necessity of supplying other stimuli. Supervision should be less direct and less in detail as the student in the high school advances in his work. This is equally true concerning the supervision of the work of the student who will not go to college. A modification of methods of supervision is desirable for the students who will enter immediately into the life of the community as well as for those who will go to college. The college on its side has a duty to perform. The assumption that a student in the freshman year in college differs essentially from the student in the last year of the high school has no foundation. If the college would recognize the conditions under which the high school student necessarily works and would plan its supervision in view of these conditions, the PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 73 situation would be greatly improved. Some colleges have recognized the importance of this and have insti- tuted a plan whereby freshmen assemble once a week for instruction relative to the changed conditions into which they have come. This effort is commendable, but it is not sufficient to meet the demand. An im- portant step forward will be taken when the colleges have more successfully modified the environment and have made it more in accord with the previous experi- ence of the students. If both the high school and the college should change their environmental conditions as suggested, neither would have to make so radical a change as would appear at first thought. As a part of the same situation just under discus- Radical dif- sion, the failure of the student on entering college to ^"socia? make his social adjustments, in the narrower sense, and life o f the to gain control over his surroundings, is quite as tions noticeable as the failure to meet the requirements of the class-room work. This difficulty also arises be- cause of the radical difference between the social life of the high school and that of the college. As a rule, in the average high school the social life is very simple and but little opportunity is given for participation in social affairs. Social activities also lack proper organization and control, and in consequence the student is wanting in the type of social efficiency that the college demands. For the most part the high school is to him simply a place where he prepares and recites his lessons. When he goes to college, about the first thing he encounters is the complex social situation in which he immediately finds a diversity of interests which, if not properly evaluated, related, 74 THE HIGH SCHOOL Responsi- bility on the high school The college also has its task The ques- tions of morals in college life and controlled, will defeat the very purpose for which he became a member of the college community. The lack of articulation on the social side is quite as marked and quite as unfortunate as it is on the scholastic side. The assertion is ventured that the lack of such articulation is the one cause above all others responsible for failures in the freshman year. In a considerable degree the high school is responsi- ble for making possible the articulation on the social side which is so much needed. Since in a later section the whole question of the social organization will be taken up, no detailed treatment of the subject will be given here. It needs to be said in passing, however, that no phase of the problem of preparation for college requires more careful consideration than the topic under discussion. In the meantime, while the high school is working out its problem, it is necessary for the college to take more fully into account the lack of social training on the part of those who enter its halls. Restrictive measures on the part of the college are already suffi- ciently abundant, if indeed they are not too numerous. The deficiency exists on the constructive side. First year students in college need direction in the organiza- tion and carrying on of their social activities. Methods of supervision need to be improved in the colleges as well as in the high schools. No finer type of young manhood or womanhood is to be found anywhere in America than in her colleges. But the moral breakdowns that do actually occur during the college years challenge our attention. This, of course, is not apart from the general social PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 75 problem. It is simply an important phase of it. The stress and strain in a college environment must be taken into acount by all who have anything to do in the preparation for participation in college life. The moral and ethical standards are high and in the ab- sence of preparation to meet these standards, break- downs are apt to occur. It is unnecessary to point out that the way a student spends his leisure time bears a very direct causal relation to the moral situa- tion. What has been said previously of the importance of preparing for leisure occupation and the duty of the high school in relation thereto can be applied in full force here. Physical efficiency is quite as necessary for a college Demand of career as it is for a vocational one. It need not be f rphy5cai said that the old type of college student, if he ever efficiency existed in fact as much as in fiction, whose emaciated body and pale countenance were regarded as evidence of scholastic ability, is out of date. A college career demands a strong, healthy body, well controlled, with which to begin it and is necessary to its successful com- pletion. If one lives up to his opportunities in college, the physical strain is heavy and any deficiency at this point will sooner or later manifest itself. The popular stories concerning the physical breakdowns in the col- lege are not unlike those concerning moral breakdowns. But disregarding this exaggeration, they are far too frequent. One of the things which a high school should not fail to do is to render to the student all possible aid in the development of his body. It should give him an appreciation of its value as a college asset and some definite information as to how to use it. 7 6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Guidance in the selection of a college course Necessity for modi- fications in entrance require- ments Another duty that the high school should perform in larger measure is to render the student who is to en- ter college more intelligent in his selections in his col- lege course. The college complains that the student doesn't know what he wants, much less does he know what he needs. However willing the college authori- ties may be to give advice, they are limited in their efficiency in this respect by lack of knowledge of the particular interests, needs, and capacities of the stu- dent who enters. The high school authorities should be more familiar with these things than anyone else, and are presumed also to know the opportunities offered for different lines of work by the college curric- ulum. For a student to be able to plan his college course upon entering with some degree of certainty that he is choosing what is most suitable to his needs and capacities, and what will prepare him best for his future career, is of very great value. If there is any real point of disagreement between the college and the high school, it is in regard to the scholastic requirements for entrance. We feel assured, however, that substantial agreement will be arrived at concerning this matter. As more accurate knowledge of the limitations and possibilities of adolescent life is acquired, and more vital psychological and social criteria worked out for evaluating subject matter, much of the disagreement will disappear. It is probably true that those who contemplate a college course will need some- what different preparation along scholastic lines than those who will go immediately into active life. But these differences will grow less and less as the criteria above referred to are more completely worked out. PREPARATION FOR COLLEGE 77 One of the purposes of this discussion has been to College show that outside of some particular scholastic re- Sludge* 86 quirements, the tests made by the college upon the Mgh school efficiency of the work done by the high school do standard not differ from those made by the community at large. Outside of this one limitation the duty of the high school is no different here than in other relations. If this fact were kept clearly in mind it would serve good purposes. One of the results would be that the college would cease to judge the high school so largely by a single standard and would thereby more fully recognize the service that the lower school can render in preparing students for a college career. On the part of both institutions a fuller realization Demand for of these important common interests would correct recognition the too common assumption that the paths of the two ? f common interests institutions lie so far apart. Anything that will serve to bring about more sympathetic relations between these two institutions, whose cause after all is a com- mon one, should be taken advantage of to the fullest possible extent. More emphasis placed upon what the two types of schools do actually have in common and less attention paid to their differences, would serve to bring about a spirit of cooperation now too frequently lacking. CHAPTER VIII The high school must more fully meet the needs of girls Reasons for neglect in education of girls THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS It is thought desirable to give special treatment to the education of girls in order that their peculiar needs and interests may receive the necessary emphasis. No such treatment of the education of boys is neces- sary. High schools were founded for boys and have too largely remained boys' schools as far as educational policy is concerned. The curriculum was in large measure an inheritance from a time when secondary education was scarcely thought of for girls. The changes that have occurred as a result of social de- mands have not until very recently taken girls into account. The result is that we are only beginning to consider the psychological and social characteristics peculiar to the majority of the students constituting high school enrollment in this country. The circumstances under which women were ad- mitted to what were conceived to be equal educational privileges are significant. Women came into the schools at a time when public opinion was thoroughly saturated with the doctrine of individual rights. No reason could be given why women should be denied the right of educational privileges. It was generally held, however, that they had no need of an education beyond that furnished by the elementary school, and doubt generally prevailed of their ability to secure it. THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 79 Doubt of the ability of women to master the subjects in the high school and college curricula no longer exists. Although this doubt no longer prevails, it has had not a little to do with the failure to make edu- cational readjustments in the interests of women. They have been so busy in demonstrating their ability to master the men's curriculum that they have given scant attention to the question whether the effort has been worth while. Suggestions relating to changes in the curriculum made from time to time have not been kindly received by the women. Proposals of this kind have not been infrequently interpreted as containing an implication that women are inferior in mental ability or that they are not entitled to equal educational privileges with men. This attitude on the part of women has exerted an influence in de- laying educational readjustments. The more potent reason for the lack of change in view taken educational practice has been the generally prevailing of women" 1 assumption that education cannot have the same prac- tical value for women that it has for men. The fact that the majority of women marry soon after leaving school gives rise to the belief that their education is not a matter of serious concern. If any considerable time elapses between graduation and marriage, it is assumed that the time is employed in teaching school. Prepa- ration for this work has been regarded as practical and worth while. But outside of this, education for women has not been regarded as having much relation to the demands made upon them. It is no doubt true that the kind of education provided for women has fur- nished some justification for the conclusion. 8o THE HIGH SCHOOL Application of previous discussion Interests and mental attitudes of girls The present interest, however, is neither in an his- torical account nor in the general problem of the edu- cation of women. The duty and opportunity of the high school as related to the education of girls is the topic with which our discussion deals. The history of the case and the character of higher education for women explain in part why the education of girls has not received more discriminative attention. Only for this reason have these matters been discussed here. The chief reasons for a separate discussion of the education of girls have already been referred to. The standpoints from which the work of the high school should be regarded, discussed in previous chapters, will now be applied specifically. Much that was said in those chapters requires such application if the needs and interests of girls receive the attention necessary to secure needed readjustments in educational prac- tice. These discussions will need to be kept in mind in reading the present chapter. The interests and mental attitudes peculiar to girls, whether these are due to social causes or to sex dif- ferences, must be taken into account in their educa- tion. The tendency to regard these as results of social survivals that no longer have value, is unwarranted. It is no doubt true that some of these are due to social conventions which have served their purpose. But this statement is no more true concerning girls and women than it is as regards society in general. The interests and mental attitudes peculiar to girls and women have an important function to perform both with regard to their development as individuals and as related to the degree of their social efficiency. The THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 81 important thing, so far as education is concerned, is to see to it that these interests and attitudes are prop- erly fostered and that they are made to function in a normal way. Whether these mental peculiarities are due to sex Physical differences may be a question of dispute. But the nee s educational significance of physical peculiarities due to sex differences is readily admitted. No system of education for girls which does not take this into ac- count is adequate. It is the business of the school in the first place not to require work either in character or amount that will in any way interfere with the normal physical development of the girl. The school should not provide or permit games or other forms of physical exercise that will hinder such development. On the positive side, there is no more important work that the high school can perform than to provide such instruction as will render the girl more intelligent con- cerning the nature and importance of the physical characteristics peculiar to her sex. This instruction should be supplemented by properly selected exercises that will serve as correctives and in a constructive way secure to the fullest possible extent the develop- ment of a strong and well controlled body. We may ignore if we will the wholesale charge made Education against the high school that the health of the great majority of girls is being impaired. But our common knowledge of the situation is enough to convince us that both because of its requirements and its neglect, the health of far too many girls is being sacrificed in the attempt to secure a high school education. The situ- ation is wholly unwarranted, and there is no possible 82 THE HIGH SCHOOL The problem a difficult Two means at the command of the school excuse to be offered for it. One fact is that health is being impaired and the other fact is that health should be improved. It is quite the fashion to minimize these facts by asserting that impairment of health is more frequently due to causes over which the school has no control. That social functions and late hours and lack of proper care are responsible in part for these conditions, is probably true. The truth of this affords the school no justification, however, for making contri- butions either through its requirements or its neglect. The problem is too serious and the issue involved too significant for the school to continue to deny a large degree of responsibility. But the question may be asked, What can the school do in the presence of the opposition that would prob- ably be aroused in the community if it should under- take to grapple with the problem? The answer is that it is the duty of the school to proceed cautiously and yet certainly to enlighten the community upon this very important issue. This is not a task to be regarded lightly, and none realize this more fully than those who are carrying on the work of the school. The achievement of the end will not be promoted by hasty and ill-advised attempts to solve the problem. Social taboos are difficult to eradicate. They will yield only to intelligence, and the high school must assume large responsibility in this relation. What can the high school actually do? The answer is that it can do two things. First, it can give a type of instruction that will put the girl in possession of information regarding the meaning of her own physical peculiarities. The physical education of girls should THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 83 not of course be confined to this type of instruction. But instruction should include this. Such instruc- tion will result in more wholesome attitudes on the part of girls and in the intelligent promotion of their own physical welfare. The second thing that the school can do, is to provide properly chosen exercises to assist in building up a set of useful physical habits. The experiences involved in the formation of these habits will contribute to promoting health in the present, and when these habits are formed they will function in preserving health and render the possessor physically efficient. Nothing can compensate for the neglect on the part of the school to provide opportun- ity for the physical education of girls. While women are entering nearly all the vocations Education formerly pursued almost exclusively by men, one ^^ me " vocation, that of home-keeping, deserves special con- sideration. The time is past when well-informed people regard this vocation exceptional in that it re- requires only feminine instinct and ingenuity to carry it on successfully. Education should have a con- tribution to make, and this contribution should be large and vital. Changed social conditions have trans- ferred some functions from the home, but they have also added to it others which require a type of prepara- tion not hitherto necessary. The school should educate for work in the home, and in the very nature of the case the high school must assume a large share of the responsibility. There are other reasons why the education of the New social girl should receive discriminative attention at this j|p^ ands time. Women are being admitted to equal political women 84 THE HIGH SCHOOL privilege. Conferring the right of suffrage upon a large number who have not hitherto exercised this right is in itself significant. Under any circumstances this would create a serious educational problem. But when we take into account the fact that women bring into the situation new interests and peculiar mental attitudes toward public questions, education for citizen- ship takes on new meaning. This means not so much that the education of women should differ from that of men in this particular as it does that it shall not be neglected in training for citizenship. Social par- j t j s now generally conceded that women are entitled ticipation ° and personal to this larger participation in civic affairs as a means ment° P " °^ personal development. If this is to be realized, interests peculiar to them must find expression in civic relationships. These interests of the home, which of course include child welfare and all those questions in the community that affect its ethical and moral life, must find expression in such way as to give larger opportunity for this personal development. In edu- cating for citizenship, civic interests cannot be de- tached from the great primary interests of the home without loss both to the women and to society. If our education now has a tendency to do this, it needs to be changed for men as well as for women. Training The place for the majority of American women is in for civic ill n • i i i • ... efficiency the home, but this does not mean that their activities should be confined to the four walls of the house. On the social side, through the functioning of their great life interests, women will make important contribu- tions. What women should do in larger measure, and what society needs to have done, is to bring into THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 85 greater prominence social problems now being neglected. Whether these interests, upon which reliance must be placed, be born of instinct or social inheritance, or arise out of domestic environment, matters not. The important thing is to strengthen them and render them more intelligent so that they will find expression in legal enactment and law enforcement. If this can be accomplished by identical civic training for both sexes, well and good. If not, then we should not hesitate to differentiate where differentiation is neces- sary in order to secure the most efficient citizenship possible in a democracy. What has been said concerning women's influence Training for on legal enactment and law enforcement may be said effort 1 " with equal force concerning the larger influence which they are coming to exert in public affairs generally. Through their efforts, organized and unorganized, much is being done to shape public opinion and to arouse public conscience to the need of important social reforms. It is hoped that their activities will multiply and that their influence will be augmented in bringing about more speedily readjustments in the social order. We may depend upon legislation for some of these reforms, but in a far larger way we shall have to depend upon enlightened social conscience. From the point of view of the home and its interests the women should bring into the situation just the element that is needed and upon which the largest dependence for social reform will have to be placed. The question here is, What is the school doing to The school . , , ,,. should pro- stimulate these interests to make them more intern- vide positive gent and to cause them to function more powerfully trah ^ n & 86 THE HIGH SCHOOL The duty of the high school Readjust- ments demanded in the solution of our great social problems? The contention that the education of women, and particu- larly higher education, is tending to alienate them from the home and its influences, is probably not well founded. But even if it were established beyond doubt that the school is not exerting a negative in- fluence in this particular, this in itself does not justify the prevailing type of education. It is no evidence that the school is providing the kind of education that has the highest value. The question is, What positive influence is the school exerting to make these interests intelligent and in causing them to function in the promotion of public welfare? This is the vital ques- tion regarding the education of the girl as it relates to her preparation for social service. When we face the issue squarely we are confronted by the fact that the high school takes the girl at the time when interests are maturing and attitudes are being formed. For four years the school constitutes the center of her attention and effort. The vocational and other interests of the boy, of which our educational system is beginning to take serious notice, are not more important from the point of view of social wel- fare than are the peculiar interests of the girl. The secondary school should continue in larger measure to recognize the educational importance of the boy's interests, but it must also take into account far more than it is now doing the educational meaning of the interests of the girl. The arguments put forth that the immaturity of the high school girls makes impossible in any degree worth while the accomplishment of the task just out- THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS 87 lined, should not be regarded too seriously. The school cannot do everything that some of the ardent promoters of this movement for a special type of edu- cation for girls would like to have done. The recog- nition of these limitations will in the end secure the most permanent results. There is much, however, that can be done by the high school and a large service will be rendered to the girls themselves and to society in the doing of it. What is needed most just now is emphasis upon the service which the high school can be made to render as a socializing institution. If persisted in, this can but result in a redefining of aims and a revaluation of means in secondary education. Both the physical and psychological peculiarities of girls must be taken into account if girls are to have equal educational privileges with boys. The social demands made upon them no less than those made upon boys must operate in determining the high school curriculum. PART II — ORGANIZATION AND ADMIN- ISTRATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL A. THE INTELLECTUAL ORGANIZATION CHAPTER IX THE CURRICULUM Curriculum ^he curr i cu i um should be the chief means at the com- chief means at command mand of the school for performing its work. Whether esc oo ^3 i s actually true in practice at the present time or whether this has always been true in the past does not invalidate the proposition. Whatever may be the defects in curriculums at any particular time, the fact still remains that the chief business of the school is to teach a body of knowledge. The character of this knowledge and its organization must be such as shall lead to experiences on the part of the student that will enable him to realize his own development to the largest possible extent and that will prepare him in the best way for participation in the social process in which he will find a place. Present it should not be necessary to emphasize the impor- neglectof J ^. *L this means tance of the curriculum as a socializing agency. But in fact, if not in theory, there has been a tendency in recent years to relegate the curriculum to a relatively unimportant place in educational practice. It is not unusual to hear graduates of high schools, and even of THE CURRICULUM 89 colleges, declare that only a small part of the value of the school course was derived from the class-room work. There is no disposition to challenge in any- wholesale fashion the validity of these statements. But if they are true, then there was something wrong with the curriculum, with the method of teaching, or with the attitude of the student toward his work. Perhaps something was wrong in all these particulars. Whatever the reason may be for the failure to realize proper values from the study of subject matter, the remedy is in correcting faults wherever they may lie and not in seeking to substitute other means for per- forming a work which the curriculum alone can per- form the most economically and successfully. No doubt the great emphasis being placed upon the Causes of importance of the social organization of the school has contributed to secure less emphasis upon the curriculum. The quite general skepticism prevailing in regard to the value of some of the traditional subject matter has also been a contributing factor. It is very probable that the greater emphasis being placed upon the im- portance of social organization is warranted, and that the lack of faith in some types of old subject matter has some justification. But nothing can justify, either in theory or in practice, the conception that the chief business of the school is other than that of teaching a body of subject matter through which the socializing of the individual will be most effectively promoted. It is very necessary that all those who have control importance ... . . , of selection over the selection, organization, and teaching of sub- and organ- ject matter, perform these duties with full knowledge j^riaf of their importance. What material is of most value, 9° THE HIGH SCHOOL how to organize the material selected, and what are the best methods of teaching it, are questions demand- ing the most intelligent and careful consideration. Nothing can make up to the school what is lost through ignorance, carelessness, or indifference in these par- ticulars. It is not within the scope of our treatment to discuss methodology except as it is inseparably con- nected with an intelligent discussion of the selection and organization of subject matter. Our problem deals primarily with the selection and organization of material. Any discussion of methodology will be only incidental. The problem At the outset it should be kept in mind that the one of re- ■ construction practical problem is not to construct a curriculum for the high school. It is rather a problem of reconstruc- tion. Every school has its curriculum, on the one hand, which is working in a more or less satisfactory way; and on the other hand, there is constant demand for readjustment and reconstruction. It is a question then of relative values of what we already have over against the probable value of something else. Definite criteria need to be employed as guides in our revaluations. Just because some subjects have occupied a permanent place in the curriculum is not in itself sufficient to warrant the continuance of such permanence. On the other hand, this past permanence is not in itself sufficient to justify us in the conclusion that something else should take the place of these traditional subjects. That a particular type of sub- ject matter having a well established organization has served well, is a presumption that there is something of value in it else it would not have persisted. Never- Demand for proper criteria in revaluation THE CURRICULUM 91 theless, it is only common sense to assume that new social demands or old demands in new form will call for a corresponding change in the means and methods of education. These are only general considerations, however, and can serve only as a basis for proceeding to more definite standards for determining values. It is desirable, first of all, to account for the subject Accounting matter that we already have. In approaching this matter now question it is useful to keep in mind the causes that fr™ account for the curriculum in any type of school at any particular time in its history. In the main, there are three types of influences accounting for curriculums. In part they operate in the present to maintain what is, and in part they exert an influence in attempt- ing to change the present status. These influences are designated as tradition, professional influence, and social demands. In an attempt to account for curricula, it is necessary to ascertain the extent to which each of these influences is responsible for the subjects included. In some cases we shall find one of these influences alone responsible, and in other cases a complex of two and possibly even all of them may combine in different proportions to give to a subject its preeminent place. In making a study of the history of certain subjects it is found that the influences responsible for their introduction into the curriculum have disappeared and other influences account for their continued presence. Latin is an example of this class of subjects. The school, like all other institutions, has its tra- Traditional ditions and these always have more or less influence in determining its aims, means, and methods. It is 92 THE HIGH SCHOOL only natural that subject matter highly valuable as educational means when it becomes a part of the school curriculum should sometimes persist beyond the point where its utility has the same relative value. Changing conceptions of education, incident to changing social demands, render it highly probable that educational means should be modified to meet new demands. But old subject matter gives way slowly. It has become so identified with the meaning of education that it is difficult to disassociate it. It often persists long after the types of schools with which it was identified have passed out of existence. The humanistic studies, for example, which have occupied so prominent a place in the high school curriculum, have survived at least two types of schools, the Grammar School and the Academy, influence of Tradition usually finds powerful support in the teaching class. The two influences form a complex that gives some subject matter a degree of prominence seemingly out of proportion to its educative value. But, aside from this support that the teaching class gives to tradition, it is always an important factor in determining the particular content and form of subject matter used. Geometry, for example, is a school- master's subject. As used by the Greeks it was a prac- tical subject, but it was transformed into a logical subject by the philosophers and has so remained up to the present. The content of algebra is almost entirely a product of the teaching class. The content of Latin has been largely determined by the same influence. English, a comparatively new subject, owes its present content almost entirely to the teacher's influence. In THE CURRICULUM 93 the sciences, perhaps no better example of this same influence can be found than the orthodox textbook in botany. Even when tradition dictates the general field, the professional influence in greater or less degree determines what is actually taught. The influence thus exercised by the teaching class is Teachers in of course inevitable. Teachers have always made stitutions this contribution and will continue so to do. But it J^ve exerted the major is necessary to indicate a little more definitely the influence source of this influence. Teachers in the secondary schools, as a whole, have had little direct influence upon the character and extent of subject matter. It is the teachers in higher institutions who are makers of textbooks and whose influence determines college entrance requirements that have exerted the con- trolling influence in the selection of subject matter. Whether or not this influence makes for the best interests of the secondary school depends upon the standards employed in evaluating material. If these teachers in higher institutions are cognizant Quaiifica- of social demands and in sympathy with them, they teachers in can, because of their familiarity with their respective thisrelation fields, render a highly important service through the selection and formulation of suitable material for the secondary school. If they add to this qualification a further one, — viz. an intimate and sympathetic knowledge of the needs, capacities, and interests of adolescent life, — their service is rendered doubly significant. On the other hand, if any material in our present curricula is there merely because of the intel- lectual and highly specialized interests of those who are responsible for its presence, it should be regarded 94 THE HIGH SCHOOL Character and in- fluence of social demands with suspicion. Material, whatever may be the in- fluence responsible for its presence in the curriculum, must meet the double test of being justified both by social and psychological considerations. Social demands expressed in one way or another are, of course, in the first instance, responsible for the presence of subjects, if not for the detailed subject matter. Latin thus gained a place because of its practical utility. History came in because of its supposed moral as well as civic value. English forced itself in against both traditional and professional in- fluences. And so with the other subjects. The de- mands are more or less specific, and utilitarian reasons are usually responsible for them. The demand in some instances comes from a small group and at other times from a large group. It occasionally happens that a social demand becomes institutionalized, as in the case of the demands made by higher institutions upon the secondary school. We may thus have a com- plex of all three influences — ■ tradition, professional influences, and social demand — ■ responsible for the presence of both the subject and the subject matter. Social de- It is not in this historical sense, however, that we merely social employ here the term social demands. In this sense, sanction social demand may mean merely social sanction. By social demands we mean those demands which in the present are made by certain classes in society and which result in the introduction of subjects into the curriculum for the purpose of meeting these demands. The commercial subjects and manual training, for example, are familiar types of subjects which are the result of these demands. There is a present social THE CURRICULUM 95 demand for agriculture and other vocational subjects; also for English, civics, and some of the other older subjects. Whether the particular type of subject mat- ter of any or all of these is adequately meeting these demands is another question. It is evident, for ex- ample, that there is unanimous agreement that English should be taught in the high school. There is by no means the same unanimity concerning the value of the subject matter now employed in instruction. In submitting the present curriculum to an examina- Present cur tion to ascertain whether it is adequately meeting social ""^f 1 ^ demands, we have to consider it first of all from the from the standpoint of the subjects themselves. Are there any ^subjects subjects in the curriculum for which there are no and subject matter apparent corresponding social demands? On the other hand, are there social demands for which there are no corresponding subjects? If we answer either or both of these questions in the affirmative, then reconstruc- tions are necessary. When the fields have thus been determined, the next inquiry must be to ascertain whether the subject matter in kind and extent corre- sponds to the demands upon the school. Botany as it has been taught in the schools has had at least four relatively different types of content. On the other hand, there are subjects — geometry, for example — ■ the content of which has remained relatively constant. In our inquiry concerning both subjects and subject Relative not matter it is, of course, necessary to keep in mind that values must values are not absolute but relative. No subject in be«m- the curriculum at present, whatever the subject mat- ter may be, is without some educative value. But the question is whether one subject or one type of o6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Organiza- tion of curriculum should re- veal domi- nant educational aim subject matter is more or less valuable than another subject or another type of subject matter. Every high school curriculum provides and must continue to provide but a relatively small number of subjects, and of subject matter itself a still smaller amount. In consequence of this, in the revaluation of subject mat- ter and the reconstruction of curriculums, that which is rejected will far exceed that which is chosen. Not infrequently in the discussion of educative values, these facts have not had due consideration. The problem of choice of subjects, once relatively simple, is becoming more and more difficult both because of the multiplication of subjects available and because of the increasing number and complexity of social demands. For the same reasons, selection of material within the fields chosen is becoming an increasingly complex and difficult problem. A study of a curriculum should reveal, however, not only the subjects included and the subject matter selected, but also the dominant purpose or aim of instruction. This is revealed not alone by the sub- ject matter as such but is also made clear by the organ- ization of this material into a workable whole. There must be some kind of definite organization controlled by a dominant purpose, and it is important that we examine every curriculum with reference to this con- trolling purpose. If a curriculum is anything more than a mere hodge-podge, it has a purposeful organiza- tion, and those who administer it, if they are not mere blind operators of a machine, recognize the dominant purpose that determines the organization. If one were to examine the curriculums of the old Grammar THE CURRICULUM 97 Schools or those of the German Gymnasia, the organi- zation is clearly revealed. The aim of the curriculum was " formal discipline," and all the subjects bore relation to the achievement of that end. At first the subject matter was almost wholly classical. Nothing that did not correlate with this material was admitted and what was admitted was employed in more com- pletely realizing the end sought. Mathematics readily found a place because of its power to contribute and our older English grammars reveal clearly that an attempt was made to have the English language con- tribute to the realization of this dominant purpose. Whatever may have been the defects of these old, restricted curriculums, they had the decided advantage of being definitely organized and the teachers in these schools understood well what the organization meant. This dominating purpose of secondary education, influence of "formal discipline, " has largely determined educational ^ 0T ^i » practice, educational theory to the contrary notwith- standing. When new subjects were admitted into the curriculum they were soon dominated by the discipli- nary aim. We usually associate formal discipline with the classics and mathematics, but as a matter of fact science teaching has in recent years been the chief ex- ponent of the disciplinary theory. The aim has been to develop a certain type of mental technique which we have assumed could be generalized. We have talked about " scientific method" and " scientific attitudes," thereby revealing that the theory of transfer of training governed in educational practice. Any other theory that may have been held has failed to express itself in respect to particular subjects or in the curriculum as a whole. 98 THE HIGH SCHOOL introduction On th e other hand, while the disciplinary conception of new . . i 7 , . subjects has has continued to determine educational practice, we confusion 11 nave ^ een adding many new subjects and providing makeshift courses to parallel the " regular'' course. In an attempt to maintain educational respectability and at the same time provide for meeting the social demands that are becoming so insistent, the high school curriculum has lost much of its former unity. The elective system has added further to the confusion. Required subjects reveal clearly enough the predomi- nant influence of the disciplinary conception, while the elective subjects reveal with equal clearness that they are mere additions to, rather than an integral part of, a definitely organized curriculum. If there were no other reason for a reorganization of the secondary school curriculum, the chaotic condition just pointed out is sufficient to warrant it. A curriculum j n an attempt to judge of educational values in a judged by its . , . . . required course of study it is necessary to ascertain what con- subjects stitutes its core. For example, if mathematics, foreign language, and English constitute the required sub- jects, these are the ones upon which the school places chief reliance. The very fact that they are required is proof of this. The first two are primarily form studies as opposed to history and some other subjects which are recognized as content studies. Although English may not belong strictly in the same class with mathematics and foreign language, it is very similar to them in this regard. If these three subjects are required, it is probable that three-fifths or more of the student's time will be devoted to them. However numerous the electives offered may be, the required THE CURRICULUM 99 subjects represent very largely whatever educational opportunity the school affords. A wide range of electives with relatively little time to devote to the studies will not essentially change the character of the course of study. Any curriculum, however, must be judged in part Also by its by its elective studies. The number and character electives of these subjects must be taken into account. If they are few in number, not much choice is rendered possi- ble. If choices are compelled between subjects belong- ing to the same general field — ■ for example, between botany and physics — little or nothing is gained. In case the electives are relatively numerous and but a short time is devoted to each, it is evident that a student can become only superficially familiar with any of them. For example, if the four or five units of electives are made up of six to ten subjects, no one subject can be relied upon for much either in the way of present development or of preparation for meeting a community demand. Further than this, it must be ascertained whether there is any sort of organization of the electives. Are they thrown in hit-and-miss, governed by nothing but administra- tive convenience? Or is there a well defined organiza- tion with reference to securing definite educational values? Another important thing to consider is the position Value of a occupied by a subject. Take, for example, the sub- determined ject of civics. This subject was introduced on the b . y {t f posi " tion in the assumption that every high school student should have curriculum an opportunity to gain some knowledge of the duties of citizenship. But suppose it is not offered until the IOO THE HIGH SCHOOL A curric- ulum judged by actual sub- ject matter used fourth year. The records show that seventy per cent of the pupils will not elect the subject simply because they will have dropped out of school before the begin- ning of the fourth year. Civics in the fourth year means then that only about one-fourth of the students who enter the high school will ever study the subject. When we refer to algebra, however, we know that all will take it, not only because it is required but because it is placed in the first year of the course. The sub- jects placed in the first year of the course are the ones that all take. Those placed in the last years will provide educational opportunity for a relatively small number of high school students. A knowledge of the subjects making up a course of study and their arrangement in the course constitutes but one standpoint from which to judge educational values. The subject matter actually used in instruc- tion is after all the determining factor in the matter. As related to some subjects, the subject matter is quite a matter of course. Algebra, for example, stands for a relatively definite type of subject matter. So it is with geometry or Latin. On the contrary, the word botany may stand for anything within a very wide range of subject matter. A high school course can include but a small portion of the material in the whole field. This is also true of other subjects, such as his- tory or civics or literature. Even the terms ancient history or English literature convey but little informa- tion concerning what is actually taught. Only by knowing the character of the subject matter can one pass judgment concerning the educational value of the subjects offered. THE CURRICULUM 101 When detailed information is secured concerning the Test . s t0 be curriculum of a high school, then one is able to apply subjects and the tests that determine educational values. The JjSj^ points of view from which the function of the high school should be regarded have been discussed in detail in Part I. Subjects and subject matter alike should be required to meet the demands made upon the school viewing its work from one or more of these points of view. Not all subjects can provide material for physical education. Preparation for leisure occupa- tion can not be afforded by some subjects. No sub- ject can be made to serve all the ends of education. But any subject that has a rightful place in the curric- ulum must afford opportunity to select material that will contribute to the realization of one or more of the definite ends of high school education. CHAPTER X SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL Changes needed in subject matter Educational practice in the high school has not kept pace with theory The changes most needed in the work of the high school have to do not with subjects but with subject matter. History, botany, English, one or more of the foreign languages, and other subjects now con- stituting the curriculum will remain. The newer sub- jects, agriculture, domestic science, and the manual arts will form but a small part of the total subjects offered by the high school. The older subjects will continue to be relied upon in large measure to fur- nish educational opportunity to our young people. It would be unfortunate, for example, if mathematics were dropped from the course of study. Much of the material now used, however, should give place to other material more suitable to the needs of high school students. The same should be said of some other subjects constituting present curriculums. Changes in the character of subject matter are necessary if the high school is to perform its work successfully. The influences responsible for the present type of subject matter have already been discussed. These forces are now in conflict as they have not been since the origin of the high school. Old educational theories are giving way as a result of this conflict. But unfor- tunately old educational practices continue while the conflict goes on. Traditions still hold in most of the ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 103 subjects and continue to determine their content and type of organization. Reform in educational practice began in the primary school and its progress upward has been slow. Reading is still taught in the grades, but the subject matter used differs very radically from what was employed in the earlier schools. Mathe- matics in the high school has remained practically unchanged for half a century. The subject matter in general of high school instruction has changed but little, and changes are as much needed here as in the lower school. Child psychology has been far more influential in determining the work of the grades than has adolescent psychology in determining the work of the high school. The needs, interests, and capacities of adolescents should have the same consideration that they have received in the education of the child. In the selection of educational means this emphasis importance upon the personal factor is extremely important. The uponta* 818 needs of the individual give rise to demands that are personal . . . . . factor always valid. To allow traditions to dictate in making selections of material and thereby defeat the aim of instruction is indefensible. Social demands for results in education do not always constitute rightful demands upon the high school. Teachers themselves too fre- quently view subject matter from the standpoint not only of the adult but of the specialist. In consequence of this, they fail to give proper consideration to the needs, interests, and capacities of those whom they teach. They are apt to forget that the test of the material used is not whether it gives intellectual pleasure to the teacher but whether it provides means of development for the pupils. Subject matter must 104 THE HIGH SCHOOL This factor relatively constant Interests of adolescents chiefly social be within the range of the interests and capabilities of the learner if it is to serve any useful purpose. The personal factor to be taken into account in the selection of material is fortunately relatively constant. Whether in city or country, whether students are pre- paring for college or for vocational activities, the interests and capacities of adolescents are relatively the same. Individual differences do exist and are to be reckoned with. The matter of preparation for the work of the high school is also to be considered. The high school must begin where the work of the grades leaves off. But after full allowance is made for individual differences and for the varying degrees of adequacy of preparation, the fact remains that high school students are much alike. Adolescents are primarily interested in what is to them a new social world. Their fundamental interests relate to people, and they are chiefly concerned in ad- justing themselves to the social demands of which they are becoming conscious. What is true in this respect of the beginning of the adolescent period is characteristic of the whole high school period. Some of these interests are vocational, others relate to the employment of leisure time, and others are of the more strictly intellectual type. But whatever they are, they are essentially social in character. Youth is interested in the concrete rather than the abstract, in the personal rather than the impersonal. It is true that there is interest in abstractions, in laws and principles, and other forms of generalization, but only or at least chiefly, when these relate to social situa- tions. ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 105 It is a common error to assume that high school importance students are interested chiefly in intellectual tasks as g^^Jf 1 such, when in fact some social stimulus accounts for the interest. The stimulus may exist in the school or it may arise out of some social demand in the community. To isolate the task from the stimulus giving rise to the interest in it, is to neglect the essential thing that gives to the task its educative value. The German boy, for example, has quite a different attitude toward the work of the school than does the American boy. This is not, however, due to the intellectual superiority of the former. It is due, on the contrary, to a kind of social stimulus lacking in this country. Take away the influence of militarism and the social distinctions in Germany as they relate to education, and the so- called intellectual interests of the German student would probably disappear. The individual to be educated must first of all be Socia i taken into account in selecting the means of educa- demands should not tion. This gives us a standpoint from which to regard be allowed social demands as they relate to the work of the school. J^^S ° Education can, of course, have no meaning apart from dut y of fc® these demands. But the development of the youth and not what he is going to do after he gets out of school, except as development and future occupation are related, must furnish the basis for selecting edu- cational means. Just because some industry in a community demands a particular kind of training for its workers is not in itself sufficient justification for the school to undertake to meet this demand. As an example of some social pressures that do not con- stitute a rightful demand upon the school, the one for io6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Social demands furnish specific criteria for selection of material trained technical workers may again be cited. This demand is not justified, simply because the adolescent period is not the time in life when a large degree of skill can be acquired without hindrance to a normal development of the individual. Technical training involves relatively narrow interests and calls for atti- tudes belonging to more mature years. To thus restrict interests and attempt to develop attitudes prematurely can but result in harm to the indi- vidual. It is true, of course, that education is not to be thought of as apart from the social demands that will be made upon the learner. These demands furnish the more specific criteria for the selection of subject matter. Take again the illustration of the German boy and the American boy. The detailed content of some sub- jects taught in the secondary schools of the two coun- tries will not be the same. History should be taught in both schools, but the actual content used will differ. English history should have a much larger place in the American school than in the German school. The American not only needs to know more English his- tory, but it is necessary for him to be made familiar with certain phases of the subject in order to under- stand the history of his own country. The German boy for the same reasons needs to have emphasis placed upon continental history. Both boys should have instruction in civics. The relation sustained by the German citizen to his country is so different from that which the American citizen sustains to his country, that the content of the subject there and here will be correspondingly different. ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 107 The differences in individual and social conditions Different in different sections of the country require somewhat margin different types of subject matter. Civics as taught different in cities should differ somewhat in content from the subject matter used in the schools of rural com- munities. Industrial communities give rise to social demands differing from those of agricultural communi- ties. The subject matter of the sciences and mathe- matics should be determined in part at least by the extent and character of these demands. The terms "farm physics" and "farm mathematics," and "in- dustrial physics" and "shop mathematics" indicate in a general way the various types of subject matter. These examples will serve to make clear the part that social demands play in furnishing criteria for select- ing subject matter. An illustration of the influence of social demands The work upon the character of subject matter is furnished by m , st . Louis ^ ' J school as the German courses offered by the St. Louis high school, example It has been the practice in this school for many years to offer both "literary" and "business" German. All students pursue the same work until a mastery of the rudiments is secured, and then the work is differen- tiated in order to meet the practical demands of the community. The business interests of the community demand such differentiation and the school authorities recognize it as a rightful demand upon the school. It has been made clear that subject matter should subject be selected primarily for its content value. No sub- ™J^ df ject in our view can be justified merely or even largely its content on "disciplinary" grounds. It must possess a content that justifies its place in the curriculum or give place io8 THE HIGH SCHOOL Material must be organized for teaching purposes Mind of the learner should determine type of organization to something else. This conclusion is justified upon both psychological and social grounds. The adolescent is first of all concerned in building up a mental content and the development of mental technique can not be secured apart from the content process. Social stimuli must be relied upon for a motive for learning and the thing learned should possess the largest possible value as related to meeting social demands. The selection of material constitutes only a part of the task belonging to textbook makers and teachers. The organization of the material into appropriate form for teaching purposes requires attention. A mass of unorganized material has little value for educational purposes, and material having an organization not in harmony with the experience of the learner is equally unsuited for purposes of instruction. The severely logical organization of subject matter which appeals to the mind of the adult specialist is not suited to the mind of the adolescent. The person who has acquired a considerable mastery of a subject is prone to give to any portion of it such organization as is possible to the high school student only after he has attained to something of the same degree of mastery. The learner's mind, not the teacher's, furnishes the only proper basis for a useful organization of subject matter. A knowledge of the adolescent mind is quite as neces- sary as related to the organization of material as it is to its selection. The older textbooks in economics furnish an ex- ample of a type of organization unsuited to the capaci- ties of high school students. Recent books are by no means free from this same objection. Definitions ORGANIZATION OF MATERIAL 109 and principles are the concepts used by the specialist in his thinking. They constitute for him starting points from which to deal with concrete problems grow- ing out of economic relationships. His knowledge of the subject has permitted him to work out an organiza- tion that will meet the requirements of the logic of the subject. The beginner has no such fund of experience and no proper setting for the abstractions with which he is required to deal. To require him to begin only where he can leave off after at least an elementary knowledge of the subject is a too common type of educational folly. The student already knows some- thing of economic relationships and this knowledge furnishes the necessary point of contact. The mode of procedure employed by the learner outside of school should be continued within the school. The school should endeavor to hasten the process, but it should not attempt to reverse the method by which the process has been carried on. Textbooks in the various high school sciences offer some abundant evidence of a type of organization unsuited ^??^ al to the adolescent mind. Some improvement is noted suffer from in the more recent books, but the marks of the special- pr ope°r ist are still too much in evidence. One of the later organization texts in botany undertakes to introduce the student to the subject through a discussion of the structure of plants. The first thing that the learner is required to master concerning roots is a mass of detail relat- ing to structure. This plan of organization prevails throughout the book. The material selected is in the main more suitable than is found in the older books, but its organization renders it uninteresting if not, no THE HIGH SCHOOL indeed, unintelligible to the average high school stu- dent. Physics has suffered a good deal from the same intolerable organization of material. High school boys and girls are interested in the subject matter of this field, but the organization must be in accord with their ability to deal with it. New sub- It is not strange that the older subjects should be free from under the influence of a conception of education that s £ me ti placed great stress upon logical organization. We should expect, however, that the newer subjects would not be thus controlled. But this is not always so. Some of the textbooks in agriculture are quite as logi- cal in their organization as are texts in subjects re- ferred to above. A recent text intended for high school students devotes the first two chapters to the scientific aspect of the subject, while the art, not the science, of the subject serves as the only fruitful introduction. The entire book shows the attempt of the author to render the treatment "logical," and in consequence teachers find the text quite impossible of use for high school instruction. In the following chapters the various lines of high school work will be taken up. The criteria suggested in the present chapter will be employed in the discus- sion of the details involved in the selection of subject matter. The necessary limits of the book will not permit detailed outlines of courses of instruction in the various fields. CHAPTER XI THE SOCIAL STUDIES The field in which we find the material correspond- Y* 1116 ° f . the social ing most nearly to the social processes now going on is studies that of social science. The social processes are the ones to which the adolescent is endeavoring to relate himself, and therefore the social studies are especially valuable during the high school period. History, civics, and economics are the subjects within this field most suitable for use in the high school. They may be made to serve in promoting the appreciation of and control over the social environment in which the ado- lescent will finally test his social efficiency. These subjects constitute the ideal subject matter for the education of youth and should give tone and color to the curriculum as a whole. Up to the present time the social studies have been regarded too largely as merely convenient electives for those who, because of lack of ability or interest, fail in other subjects. There is abundant reason for placing them in the required list of every high school curriculum. The social studies, perhaps even more than some unfortunate others, have suffered because of lack of proper dis- select V>ns of 7 g t r- r- material crimination in selecting material. The fields are so mode large and the high school can offer relatively so little opportunity for study, that the practice has been to ii2 THE HIGH SCHOOL go to one or the other of two extremes in the selection of material. The earlier practice was to attempt to give the most meager outline of the whole range of the subjects. " Outlines of Universal History" and 11 General History" are titles that indicate the range of subject matter offered in history. Texts in civics and economics were nothing more than abridgments of college texts in the same subjects. The more recent practice has been to provide for more intensive study of a narrower range of subject matter. For example, the history of Greece and Rome has been substituted for the "history of the world." This plan is preferable to the earlier practice, but if the material selected for study is chosen from the point of view of adult interests and capacities, instruction is rendered difficult and fruitless. Certain phases of life receive emphasis and other phases are given scant attention without regard to the interests and needs of the learner. Minutiae of detail of the political life of peoples are given, while little is offered concerning manners and customs relat- ing to daily modes of life. In considering the matter of instruction in social science, one is confronted by the fact that textbooks contain much material unsuitable for high school work. The process of selection is therefore first of all one of elimination, followed by substitution of material in harmony with the needs and interests of students. The reasons why elimination and substitution are necessary in such large measure are not difficult to find. The social studies were given a place in the curriculum under protest. The marks of this adverse prejudice against these studies are still manifest. The THE SOCIAL STUDIES 113 dominant ideal of " mental discipline " gave scant consideration to content subjects of any kind. Later when " informational " studies were regarded as having a place, they were subordinated to the disciplinary ones. Then followed the emphasis upon mere facts as such, without due regard for the needs and capacities of the learner. These influences have determined the means of instruction in the social studies. In conse- quence the subject matter is generally not suitable for high school work and the 'prevailing type of organiza- tion is not in harmony with the capacities of the students. In history, too much attention has been paid to Too much political history. Political dynasties and wars have on poutical constituted the chief centers of attention. These history possess a certain dramatic interest, but they do not constitute the core of vital and valuable courses in history. They represent neither its substance nor its spirit. Knowledge of this kind has but little value in itself nor does it result in the development of intelli- gent and helpful attitudes toward social processes now going on. It has happened too frequently that the historical environment in which we have attempted to place young people is not the kind in which orientation is possible. And further, it has not been a kind in which we should want them to orient themselves even if they could. History to be valuable must constitute a social environment to which youth can respond in such way as to promote social perceptions and aid in arriving at proper social valuations. If a knowledge of the past is to aid in interpreting the present, it must have vital relation to the present. ii4 THE HIGH SCHOOL Chief interests of historical peoples re- quire more attention Vocational interests and activities People are not now chiefly concerned with resisting governments nor in modifying political institutions. Nor have these endeavors ever been matters of chief concern, although the history taught in secondary schools would lead the learner to believe that the chief occupations of peoples have been to tear down one government and set up another one. The fact is that people have been chiefly concerned in edu- cation and religion, and in occupational activities, vocational and leisure. Modes of expression relating to these great life interests are found in their manners and customs, in music and art, in means of communi- cation, and modes of travel, in sports and games, and in modes of carrying on their daily work. Political structure of some kind is necessary to any society, and we must know something of this structure in order to understand the life of any people. But other struc- tures are just as necessary, and reveal more clearly the thought and ideals and endeavors of those whose man- ner of life we would know. Social structures other than political are the ones in which people are chiefly concerned and through which they make the largest contribution to social welfare. No better approach can be found to the inner life of a people than through a study of their occupa- tional activities. Far more emphasis should be placed upon this type of historical material than it now re- ceives. People have always been chiefly engaged in those activities through which they gained a living. The nature of these activities has much to do with their ideals and social aims. If commercial interests predominate, this fact gives color to their civilization. THE SOCIAL STUDIES 115 This is true in regard to agriculture or any other pre- dominant type of occupational activity. In case any single industry overshadows all others, manners and customs, laws and institutions, will differ materially from what they would be if industry were diversified. If conditions of economic life are extremely hard, little interest can be expected in the higher forms of social expression. On the contrary, if labor is well rewarded, time and opportunity will be afforded for the things that make for social progress. One can have no ade- quate appreciation of the history of our own country, for example, in the absence of a knowledge of our economic development. Fortunately, the vocational interests of adolescents furnish a vital point of contact with this type of historical material. The knowledge acquired and attitudes developed through a study of this kind of subject matter are worthy of attainment. The artistic appreciation and achievements of a Artistic ap- people constitute another fruitful point of view from ^acMeve- which to enter into sympathetic relations with them. men * s No discussion need to be entered into to demonstrate the close relation between the ideals of a people and their forms of artistic expression. Those things which we regard as truest and most beautiful are symbolized in forms of artistic expression. Sculpture and paint- ing and architecture are abiding testimonials to the degree in which a people has attained to an apprecia- tion of the aesthetic in nature and in human life. This is particularly true of the ancient peoples who had not yet worked out a technique for expressing aesthetic sentiments in other forms. Not only is art a fruitful means of approach to an understanding and appre- n6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Educational systems furnish valuable material Subject matter must all be within the range of interests and capacities of learners ciation of the noblest and best in their lives, but it also represents for some peoples one of the chief forms in which they made their contribution to civilization. The educational system of a nation reveals what it regards as most worthy of being made permanent in its civilization. The school is at once a product of social forces and an instrument in furthering social progress. It is not always immediately responsive to social demands, but neither is government, nor indeed, any other social institution. Whether education is. for the few or for the many, whether publicly supported and controlled or left to private initiative and enter- prise, and whether schools are articulated in such way as to result in a unified system, are all matters of great importance. The fact that the common schools of Germany are for one class in society and the second- ary schools for another class, reveals social conditions even more clearly than a study of German govern- ment. To understand the development of our own country, some knowledge of the rise and growth of educational institutions is a necessity. At the present time we are engaged in a reorganization of our whole educational system, and intelligence is demanded in regard to what reforms are needed and the means of best securing necessary changes. No attempt is made here to set forth in detail the material for courses in history in the secondary school. Points of view other than political — such as modes of living, occupations, and religions — are valuable as guides in selecting material. The purpose of this discussion is only to make clear the standpoints for the selection of such material as will be most useful THE SOCIAL STUDIES 117 in realizing the aim of history teaching. Subject matter must be within the range of the interests and capacities of the adolescent and result in knowledge and attitudes that will aid young people in orienting themselves in the present social process. If we would have them relate themselves to this process as it now is, no such fruitful means are at our command as historical material, wisely chosen and properly presented. In considering further the social studies we need to civics and take into account the two subjects most closely related JjJJ ^" to history — economics and civics. In fact, these sub- from which 1 . ■, . 1 . . to select jects should constitute nothing more than viewpoints material from which to regard the whole body of intimately related material to which we apply the term social science. The controversy over the question whether civics and history should be brought together as one subject, has been fruitful in that it has brought out more clearly the fact that it is impossible to separate the content of the one from the other by any absolute line of demarcation. On the other hand, it has been made clear that the two points of view promote the fruitfulness of the teaching of each. It needs to be emphasized that economics bears a like relation to history. It is simply a necessary viewpoint from which to regard certain material in the field of social science. History deals with facts, economics with the problems Economics that these facts constitute. These are problems of !jffiSL human welfare and constitute the point of view from problems which to regard the facts. Economics rightly regarded does not deal with theories but with economic con- n8 THE HIGH SCHOOL Problems of most immediate concern selected ditions giving rise to great social problems with which we are attempting to deal. Reference has already been made to the value of the study of industrial his- tory. The study of economics should give opportunity for the use of knowledge acquired in the interpreta- tion of present industrial problems. There seems to be some disposition to substitute this type of history for economics. This is a mistake. If we must choose between the history of economic development and a study of present economic problems, the latter alter- native should be chosen. No problems before the American people at the present time are more impor- tant than those growing out of industrial relations. The high school more than any other educational institution must be relied upon to provide an intelli- gent citizenship for the solution of these problems. The course in economics should deal with the prob- lems that are most vital and those of most concern to the mass of the people. The transportation problem is at present one of great interest to the people. Whether we shall attempt to solve the problem through govern- mental control or governmental ownership is an open question. Adequate control of some kind is being sought, and only through a generally disseminated intelligence, concerning the relations that common carriers bear to the people, can an understanding of the problem be secured. The wage problem is another public question of vital interest. We are seeking to control conditions and remuneration of labor by means of governmental action, and a knowledge of the factors involved in the question is demanded of our citizens. These problems indicate the type that should be THE SOCIAL STUDIES 119 selected for emphasis in a course in economics in the high school. A knowledge of the facts of our eco- nomic life is required of all those who will enter into economic relations. Intelligent attitudes toward the human welfare problems resulting from our complex industrial conditions must constitute one of the aims of instruction in economics. The questions growing out of economic and other Practical social relations give rise to problems calling for govern- ci^cT* 6 ' ° mental control. It goes without saying, of course, that these, too, are human welfare problems. The content and organization of some of our textbooks in civics would lead us to believe that they are the creations of constitutional lawyers and political philos- ophers. On the contrary, the problems with which civics should undertake to deal are the result of rapidly changing and expanding life of the people. A study of the functions of government should precede a study of the machinery used in performing the func- tions. The plan of beginning to study civics with a study of governmental machinery is on a plane with introducing a student to a study of physiology with a lesson on the bones. The first question for consideration in a course in Functions of civics is what the people in small groups and in large should groups need to have done through a form of coop- receive . eration which we call government. Any amount of detail concerning means without an appreciation and understanding of the end sought, will not result in an understanding of civic rights and duties. More than this, such emphasis upon the machinery leads to a wrong conception of government, the very thing to be 120 THE HIGH SCHOOL avoided. A right attitude toward government is the most important result of civics instruction, importance Not only is the functional viewpoint the one from government which to begin the study of civics, but the functions which are undertaken by small groups should have first attention. These are, as a matter of fact, the most important functions and they furnish concrete situations that can be studied at first hand. There are certain things that need to be done in which all are more or less concerned and in the very nature of things they can be done better through group coopera- tion than through individual effort. Maintenance of schools, road building, care of the poor, protection against infectious diseases, are some of the public undertakings that can be studied in the immediate environment of the school. From the study of these it will be demonstrated that governmental responsibili- ties are of more than mere local concern and that other functions belong in the main to larger group coop- erations. The study of these simpler undertakings gives the only fruitful point of view from which to study the machinery through which governmental functions in general are performed. Too much The study of civics was introduced into the schools been^ven 38 under a mistaken notion. It was thought that mere to govern- knowledge of constitutions and laws and details of machinery governmental machinery would insure a patriotic spirit and an intelligent exercise of the privileges of citizenship. This theory is no longer held, but the old practice resulting from this theory has persisted up to the present time. This idea regarding the importance of governmental machinery has not been confined to THE SOCIAL STUDIES 121 the schools. We have been persistently multiplying laws and changing governmental machinery to the neglect of the study of the nature and importance of governmental functions. As a result of this wrong emphasis, we have largely neglected the means neces- sary to the development of a proper civic spirit to insure respect for obedience to the laws. Fortu- nately a change is taking place in the social con- sciousness, and the secondary school should lead in this movement to secure a more vital and virile type of civic righteousness. A detailed discussion of the character of subject Fac * s . matter to be chosen cannot be given here. A few i 0C ai points of emphasis will be noted. A knowledge of g° vernment the details concerning how laws are enacted is less valuable than a knowledge of what the laws are as they relate to making roads, conducting schools, and levying and collecting taxes. The duties of local officers should have fuller consideration than the duties of the officers of the state and nation. School boards, township trustees, and county commissioners expend by far the largest amount of money collected in taxes. A knowledge of the duties of an assessor is quite as necessary to an intelligent selection of a man to perform these duties as is the knowledge of the duties of the governor of the state in making selection for that office. In considering the larger political units, a study of the machinery of government used in matters relating directly to the people should be emphasized. The method of operating the postal system is a matter of far more general concern than is the federal judicial system. If we would render in- 122 THE HIGH SCHOOL practical struction in civics practical we must deal with the practical phases of the subject, instruction The subject matter of civics properly selected and concrete and presented does not need to wait for application until school days are over. The problem of government in the school is one of the real problems always present and not infrequently very perplexing. The subject matter of civics may be made to bear directly upon this problem and to aid in its solution. Rights, duties, and obligations of citizens can thus be made concrete and become real problems, the solution of which be- comes a matter of practical experience. To overlook the opportunity of thus correlating theory and practice is to neglect, on the one hand, a valuable aid to con- trol within the school and, on the other hand, it is to refuse the opportunity to make civic instruction con- crete and practical. The purpose of the study of social science is to ac- quire a knowledge of the present social process and to develop a proper attitude toward it. The study of the past is valuable for this purpose if subject matter is selected in accordance with the aim. But the value of this material should not make us unmindful of the importance of the study of society as it now is. One of the valuable results of instruction should be the creation of an intelligent interest in current events, and the securing of methods of interpreting them. No method is so fruitful for accomplishing this as' the use of material dealing with present affairs. It is useful to know the powers of congress as defined in the constitution, but it is more to the point to know how congress is exercising these powers at the present Importance of study of current events THE SOCIAL STUDIES 123 time. Some knowledge of judicial systems is valu- able, but to neglect to use this information as a means of ascertaining what the courts are actually doing now in giving judicial interpretation to social ques- tions is to fail to make right use of opportunity. No amount of information of mere legal procedure as embodied in constitutions and statutes will result in an intelligent appreciation of the value of a judicial system. Economic problems are present problems and what is going on in the present is a matter of vital con- cern. The student should have the historical basis for his study, but experience in the study of present eco- nomic forces and conditions is of extreme practical value. Current events wisely selected, and intelligently presented, should constitute an important part of the material in social science instruction. The material that we have selected as the center social around which to organize the curriculum has been studies selected not only because of the value of its content standpoint as such. It serves also to give what we have con- materiaTin^ ceived to be the proper standpoint from which to select other fields other material and from which to organize all the material selected into a unified and workable whole. This standpoint carried over into other fields, will enable us to select within these fields the material that will contribute most in its way to the realization of the ends sought in high school instruction. And it is important to emphasize at this point two con- siderations. First, that each field does contribute, if at all, in its own way; and second, whether or not it does contribute even in its own way, is determined by the type of material selected in any particular field. 124 THE HIGH SCHOOL An effort has been made to make these two points clear in the discussion of social science. The social studies will not accomplish all the ends of education. Neither will the teaching of any other subject. It is readily conceivable that a type of material could be se- lected in history or economics or civics that would con- tribute very little, if indeed at all, to the realization of the ends to be gained through instruction. The same may be said of material science, English, mathematics, language, or any other field from which we may choose to select material for a secondary school curriculum. No difficulty is experienced in understanding that material which would be highly useful for a special type of education, would have little value for purposes of high school instruction. All subject matter must meet the test of the requirements of the needs, inter- ests, and capacities of high school students. CHAPTER XII MATERIAL SCIENCE No more valuable material is available for high school importance instruction than that found in the field of material edgeoT" science. The subject matter is concrete, and provides science a kind of intellectual environment to which the high school students can make sympathetic response. The knowledge that may be gained in this field bears such vital relation both to present needs and to prepara- tion for future social efficiency that science material is especially valuable for use in the secondary school. The purposes served by science instruction cannot be realized through instruction of any other kind. Sci- entific knowledge is so fundamental to our modern conceptions of life and so large a factor in modern achievements, that a lack of such knowledge places a serious handicap upon the individual. Instruction in science has not been as productive unsatisfac- as it was hoped it would be by its advocates. For * or yf esults r J in science several years past, interest in science work has declined, teaching and the relative number of students pursuing the sub- jects has decreased. The reasons for this decline in interest and for disappointment in results, are not difficult to find. In the first place, the problem of selection of subject matter is a difficult one because so much of the available material is not suited to the needs and capacities of high school students. In no 126 THE HIGH SCHOOL other field of knowledge is there more danger of making wrong selections. It is true, at least, that particu- larly unfortunate selections have been made in the sciences. In accounting for this we are led to a con- sideration of the causes responsible for both the char- acter of material in use, and the type of organization prevailing. Reasons for Opposition to the introduction of science into the tory results curriculum was persistent and even violent. The church opposed it on religious grounds and the school for what were assumed to be educational reasons. The colleges for a considerable time refused to accept the work done in science in the secondary schools, and regarded their own science courses as inferior in value to courses in the ancient languages and mathematics. These subjects were held to be inferior to the humanistic ones because they lacked " disciplinary " and " cultural" value. In order that the proper dis- tinctions might be made, a special degree was con- ferred by the colleges upon those students who elected any considerable amount of work in science. This distinction in degree was supposed to represent a qualitative difference in educational values and this fiction persists even in the present. Within college circles there is even now a definite and partially suc- cessful opposition to an acknowledgment that scientific subjects have the same educational value as the old humanistic ones. This opposition is growing less and less powerful, and we should not be concerned with it here except for the fact that it accounts in part for the present unsatisfactory results from instruction in science. MATERIAL SCIENCE 127 Science, in order to gain and hold a place in the Unfortunate curriculum, had to justify itself on disciplinary JJe^dte- grounds. It had to find a place in the curriculum by "pUnary . . , J conception" conforming to the requirements of the predominant educational ideal. Only so far as it could be made to conform in content and organization to this ideal was it regarded as possessing educative value. Hence, makers of textbooks and teachers hastened to accept these requirements upon the subjects and undertook to meet the demands set up by the influences domi- nating the schools. Authors of textbooks in science regarded it necessary to defend in the prefaces of their books, both the subject matter selected and the organization of it, from the standpoint of disci- plinary values. Teachers felt it incumbent upon them in their emphasis and presentation to justify both their subject matter and their teaching in terms of these same values. Thus an attempt was made to compel science to make a contribution toward the realization of an educational aim possessing doubt- ful validity. And further, it was required to make a contribution having even less value than other contri- butions that it is capable of making. This attempt has been persisted in, placing the sciences at a disad- vantage, and much yet remains to be done before we shall have gotten entirely away from the consequent misconceptions of the real values inherent in this kind of material. Another influence which has been more or less a influence of part of that discussed in the preceding paragraph has j|"s been been exerted by scientists themselves. This influence, detrimental more than any other, has been responsible for the 128 THE HIGH SCHOOL barrenness of instruction in science. It is apparent from textbooks and from the details of courses in science that it has been assumed that scientific method and scientific material are quite apart from ordinary- methods of thought, on the one hand, and the ordi- nary things of life, on the other hand. The scientific method has been confused apparently with an extremely logical method which deals with the minutiae of details at first hand. Material in order to be scientific must be kept free from all suggestion of practical usefulness, and its organization must conform to strict require- ments of logic. Further than this, it seems that each group of scientists have felt that they must build a wall about themselves in order to maintain a proper degree of professional respectability. So they has- tened to divide the field of science into its respective parts, and even now the use of the term " general science" meets more or less successful opposition. The integrity of each science has been maintained to the detriment of the interests of the learner. Even botany and zoology, which to the layman seem to be intimately related, have been kept apart. The out- growth of this influence has been a type of subject matter unsuited to the needs and capacities of high school students, and a degree of specialization that has no place in the secondary school. Fortunately we are getting away from the concep- tions that have resulted from these influences just be regarded di scusse d. Whatever of mind training and transfer from the t ° value is to be derived from instruction in science, this is not its greatest value. And whatever value the specialist's attitude possesses in other relations, it is Science material should not standpoint of the specialist MATERIAL SCIENCE 129 not the attitude from which to regard this material for purposes of instruction in the high school. Herbert Spencer gave the proper standpoint from which to re- gard science as related to educational values. It is unfortunate that his point of view has not been more largely accepted. In answer to the question, What knowledge is of most worth, he answered that knowl- edge of science was of most worth just because of its practical value in everyday living. All might not agree that this type of knowledge is of most worth. But there should be no hesitation in maintaining that its greatest worth consists in a contribution to mental content and mental technique that will be immediately useful in the problems of right living. In the selection and organization of material for Needs of instruction in the high school, no different standpoint Jeteraaiiie should be employed than the one used in considering character of the social studies. The aim of high school instruc- organization tion in science is a practical one. There are definite educational values that can be secured through the teaching of science, and the aim of instruction is to secure these values. The sciences contain a type of material that cannot be found elsewhere in the field of human knowledge, and this material should be used for the largest values in it. Scientific knowledge as such, is not the end sought in teaching. Nor does just any type of organization that could be pronounced "scientific" necessarily have a high degree of value for purposes of instruction. We have put so much em- phasis upon the word science and scientific that we are apt to be content with names and forms to the neglect of real educational values. It does not appear that 130 THE HIGH SCHOOL Science instruction should increase power in control Material should be chosen for its content value we can put too much emphasis upon the fact that we must not be satisfied merely with securing a type of knowledge or with an organization of that knowledge that will merely meet with what we call "scientific" standards. The mind of the learner is the point of view from which to regard the material and its organi- zation. It is very much more important, after all, that our organization be psychological rather than scientific, provided that it cannot be both. It is no less important that the knowledge gained shall be im- mediately useful, even though it might not measure up to all the requirements of "scientific" knowledge. Fortunately, however, the words useful and psycho- logical need not be set over against the word scientific. The terms are not mutually exclusive. The practical character of scientific knowledge is what renders it so important as an educational means. Its chief value lies in the control that it gives its pos- sessor over his environment. Scientific control as op- posed to unscientific, is what really distinguishes an educated person from an uneducated one. Refinement of tastes and development of ideals are necessary re- sults of high school instruction, but unless control is promoted the individual will be quite as helpless in the presence of the realities of life as if he had not spent four years in high school. We should define education in terms of the difference it makes in the individual. The contribution that science has to make to this differ- ence, is increased power in control over environment. Subject matter in science should be chosen for its content value. No other basis of selection will secure the material best suited to the needs of high school MATERIAL SCIENCE 131 students. The chief aim in the study of science is to acquire a body of knowledge immediately useful in daily living. The learner should be taught to observe, and verify, and be encouraged to find out things for himself. One of the results of science instruction should be the development of a scientific attitude toward environment. But the material used in in- struction should be such that the knowledge gained is valuable in itself. It would be interesting if we could know how many generations of high school students have analyzed the same kind of botanical specimens in precisely the same way, and how little it has all amounted to. The fumes of ill-ventilated, cluttered-up, chemical laboratories have been inhaled by succeeding generations of students long enough to warrant us in checking up to find out what has happened. It is now in order to ascertain how much harm to health has resulted and whether anything of real value has been contributed to the power of right living. This is not an attack upon laboratory methods, or upon the laudable desire on the part of teachers to develop in their pupils the spirit of inquiry and inves- tigation. But it is a protest against the unscientific instruction which, in the name of science, has too largely predominated in the work of the secondary school. Scientific instruction, under whatever name it may be given, should make its contribution, first of all, to the ability of the learner to live his life better than he could have lived it without the instruction. This practical aspect of scientific knowledge cannot values receive too much emphasis. A knowledge of the sho ^ d r ° receive properties of foods and of drinking water and of other emphasis 132 THE HIGH SCHOOL Instruction should furnish motive for learning things pertaining to the needs and daily experiences, need be no less scientific because it is useful. An in- vestigation carried on for the purpose of making practi- cal discoveries in the field of science, requires a method no less scientific than does research in order to find out something in which no one will be particularly inter- ested. A knowledge of the structure of the earth- worm and the frog, the amoeba and the clam is no doubt of value to the specialist. But high school students have but little interest in that kind of knowl- edge and still less use for it. They need to know some- thing of animal life. What concerns them is not structure of lower forms, but habits of life and useful- ness of higher forms and how these may be made more useful by proper breeding and good care. This kind of knowledge will be valuable to them in getting on in the world, and in cooperating with their fellows in promoting social welfare. One of the fallacies underlying a great deal of our instruction in science, has been the assumption that the chief business of the educated person should be and will be the acquiring of more knowledge of a tech- nical kind. The fact is, however, the average person will be concerned with the acquiring of more knowl- edge of a practical kind and with applying his knowledge to the solution of his everyday problems. This is not denying the importance of the work of the school in an attempt to cultivate in the mind of the learner the desire to acquire more knowledge, and to help him to develop methods for acquiring it. But this does not make less true that the practical view of knowl- edge, is of highest value even for this purpose. We MATERIAL SCIENCE 133 might wish that our students would go on acquiring knowledge because of the thirst they have for it, and because of the mental satisfaction they get out of the process of acquiring it. But the fact is, that they are just like we are and will not do anything of the kind. For some reason, this is the way of life. The desire for knowledge arises naturally out of a source of practical need for it. While we are providing avenues J^ 81 *® *? r through which knowledge may come in, it is also necessary to provide avenues through which this knowledge and other to be acquired, may go out, functioning in supplying the needs of the common day. The learning process will be continued after school days are over, largely in proportion to the ex- tent to which the immediate value of knowledge has been made clear to the mind of the learner. To put the learner thus concretely in contact with the de- mands that will be made upon his intelligence is, after all, the most fruitful way of inculcating in him the de- sire and the disposition to have his intelligence become commensurate with the demands which will be made upon it. To abstract the real values from knowledge in the name of " scholarship," on the one hand, or "pure science" on the other, is one of the absurdities borrowed from the schoolmen of other times and should have been discredited long ago. We continue to learn in proportion to a sense of realization that learning and successful living go together. The high school should seek, first of all, to promote Science in- the physical welfare of young people. Instruction in and physical science is one of the ways in which this can be realized. welfare The instruction should supply the means in such prac- i 3 4 THE HIGH SCHOOL tical, concrete, and compelling way that all who come within the influence of the school will be benefited. A knowledge of one's own body and the right attitude toward its care are fundamental to physical welfare. The vital processes of life — digestive, respiratory, circulatory, sexual — should be understood and the knowledge applied to daily living. The biological sciences are particularly abundant in material for pur- poses of instruction. The sciences have important contributions to make that do not immediately relate to health and physical efficiency. But if they do not contribute to intelligence regarding these things, their most important contribution is neglected. The first test that should be applied to ascertain whether an individual is scientifically trained, is whether he is living scientifically. If he lacks knowledge concern- ing his body, or does not manifest an intelligent concern regarding its care, it cannot be said that he is scien- tifically trained. One who is so trained has such control of himself and of his environment, that he is able to secure and maintain a high degree of physical efficiency. Knowledge It is of course evident that a knowledge of the func- environment tional aspects of the body is not in itself sufficient. One must have control over his physical environment in order to supply his needs and to develop his capaci- ties. A knowledge of physiological processes in the absence of knowledge of one's physical environment as related to right living, is of little value. One of the causes of the barrenness of instruction in physiology has been the mistaken notion that mere facts concern- ing digestion, respiration, circulation, and anatomical MATERIAL SCIENCE 135 structure can be relied upon to secure right living. A knowledge of the body in relation to its environment is required. Properties of food, modes of cooking, sanita- tion, light, ventilation, and things of like nature must be known in order to give to the information concern- ing bodily structure and functions its meaning and its value. What we shall call this subject matter is not important. But that we recognize its superior value is of large significance. Instruction in science should result in a higher aesthetic appreciation of nature. But after all, the thing of greatest and most immediate value is such control over one's physical environment as will result in a strong, vigorous and healthy body. In the discussion of the function of the high school Science emphasis was placed upon the importance of vocational an d interests. In the selection of subject matter in science, y ocational J m 7 interests these interests should be taken into account. The sciences contain abundant material useful for this purpose, and this should be substituted for much of the subject matter now in use. The words agricul- tural, industrial, commercial, economic, as applied to botany, physics, chemistry, and the earth sciences, indicate the kind of material in which the pupil will be interested. This will also constitute a kind of intellectual environment the response to which will result in stimulating vocational interests and in rendering these interests intelligent. No more fruitful means can be chosen to assist young people to appre- ciate their industrial environment and to interpret that environment in terms of its social meaning. One of the fundamental principles of modern education is 136 THE HIGH SCHOOL that the school should constitute, as far as possible, an environment similar to that supplied by the com- munity. The school environment differs, however, from the community environment in that the former is organized for purposes of education and controlled specifically for educational purposes. What we call the practical in science, helps to furnish such environ- ment so organized and controlled. Preparation The type of instruction in science indicated in the vocational preceding paragraph is desirable apart from any activities relation that it may have to preparation for specific lines of vocational activity. It constitutes a neces- sary part of the work of the school in the effort to develop the powers and capacities of our youth. But such instruction also bears relation to meeting social demands, industrial and otherwise, made upon the school. There are some subjects that in the very nature of the case can furnish but little preparation to meet these demands. The field of science, on the other hand, possesses abundant material for such pur- pose. The boy who will work on the farm or in the shop or factory can be given a training in science that will be of great value to him. The importance of a knowledge of science as it relates to the manage- ment and care of the home is readily seen. The train- ing of the girl for the duties of the home must include instruction in science of the same practical kind as that which is given to the boy to prepare him for his work. In no work that the school undertakes to do, should it take into account so much the needs and interests of girls as it does in instruction in science. MATERIAL SCIENCE 137 The emphasis upon these phases of the subject, Science . . . instruction gives a basis for work in science that permits other and right than immediately practical aims to be realized. One attitudes of the aims of science instruction is to help adolescents to understand the meaning and value of law as it relates to life. The learning of the mere fact that law does prevail in the universe is futile. Only when it is known that health and happiness and prosperity and usefulness depend upon obedience to the laws of nature does respect for law become a reality. This can be accomplished only by the use of a kind of sub- ject matter that will reveal these laws as they operate in the commonplace things of life. A knowledge of the causes of earthquakes or of volcanoes can add nothing to one's power of control over himself or his environment. A knowledge of unsanitary conditions that cause disease or of the causes of poor crops will give control resulting in health and in abundant crops. A knowledge that health and pure water and whole- some food are caused by the operation of laws will result in an understanding that this is a law-controlled universe. The emphasis upon the value of the practical in Deveiop- science teaching is not to be interpreted as meaning me ?* of c ° social per- that it lacks social value. On the contrary, a high ceptions degree of social efficiency in our day is scarcely possible in the absence of a knowledge of science. Scientific method is necessary in every line in which we are seek- ing to promote social progress. In order to relate the knowledge and the method to the social problems of our time, instruction in science must be broader than the merely personal aspect. Health is a social asset 138 THE HIGH SCHOOL and disease a social menace. The one who in this day is concerned only in the development and care of his own body is no less unsocial than the recluse of the middle ages who was anxious only for the salva- tion of his own soul. Instruction in science should be made to contribute to the development of one's social perceptions and to his ability to render social service. Scientific The scientific attitude upon which so much stress social spirit has been placed is only beginning to manifest itself as related to the solution of our great social problems. Poverty, vice, and crime — the great social diseases — demand scientific treatment. In order to treat them thus, we shall have to depend upon science to yield the knowledge. If our instruction in science has been materialistic and impersonal, it must cease so to be. Subject matter must be chosen and applications of the knowledge gained therefrom be so made that the instruction will become essentially ethical and social. The scientific spirit is in truth the social spirit. It seeks truth not for its own sake, but for the welfare of society. Instruction in the high school should inculcate this spirit. It cannot be done by merely talking about it in the class-room or laboratory. It can be done only by establishing the relation between the thing learned and its social value. Need of The high school is so limited as to time and often as the P practicS to ec l u ip ment that the work may fall short of what has been proposed. The only way out of the difficulty is to select the things to be accomplished in the order of their importance and in view of the limitation upon equipment. Knowledge of science, like other knowl- edge, in order to be power, must function in those MATERIAL SCIENCE 139 relations where the vital issues of life are involved. If a school can offer but little instruction in science there is all the more need that it be practical. The proper organization of the material of instruc- Material tion in science is no less important than its selection, organization The problem is considerably simplified, however, by keeping the practical viewpoint in mind. Whether we shall continue to organize the material into definite groups and give these groups the same names they now bear is not important. Botany, chemistry, physics, and so on are valuable terms only when they designate types of subject matter having practical value for use in the high school. Science instruction has suffered as a result of too much emphasis upon the organization of material from the standpoint of narrow and technical scientific classification. If old divisions and old names interfere with the type of organization most useful, then they must give way or be reconstructed. Points of view from which to select material are more impor- tant than either divisions or names. The most insis- tent needs of the learner and not the convenience of textbook makers and teachers should determine the organization. It may be that we shall finally drop old names and substitute some such designation as first year science, and second year science. If this should result in breaking down the walls built up around the sciences, the change would be welcome. In our effort to make our instruction more fruitful importance we must not, however, go to the other extreme and ^SuSStkm neglect to organize the material we attempt to teach. The term "general science" is now being employed and it may or may not be a useful term. If it means, 140 THE HIGH SCHOOL as its opponents assert, that we have substituted a hodge-podge of unrelated material for certain units of well-organized material, then the term is unfor- tunate. On the other hand, if it signifies that subject matter has been selected from the several practical viewpoints and organized in accordance with the needs of the learner, the name serves a useful purpose. If a student can study science but one year, it is desirable that he secure what is of most value to him from two or three fields rather than devote the time to one subject, such as botany, physics, or chemistry. We should not fear the accusation that we are giving only a smattering if the instruction is more successful than the time-honored arrangement is able to secure. The necessity for more fruitful results in the teaching of science is generally recognized. Any means that will be productive in securing such results will be welcomed by high school teachers. CHAPTER XIII ENGLISH The position in the curriculum occupied by English Plac e of • -n- • rf. w 4- 4. I,* u 11 t- l, EngUsh in is unique. It is the one subject taught by all high the schools and is required in most schools throughout the cumculum course. No electives are placed over against it. It is assumed that nothing can take its place because it performs a service that no .other subject can perform. It is secure in its place and few would have less em- phasis placed upon it than it now receives. The very fact, however, of its security renders it all the more necessary that it shall be made to perform a service commensurate with the attention it receives. The place that English now holds has been gained The work in little more than a half century; and the preeminent recently position that it now occupies dates back less than givenan important twenty-five years. In tracing the development of the place subject, one is struck by the increased importance attached to it. The earlier practice was not to in- clude English in the Classical Course, or if included, little attention was given to it. A parallel course, usually called the English Course or General Course, was provided and in this course more emphasis was placed upon English instruction. The colleges neither required it nor gave credit for it as an elective. As late as 1890, many of the higher institutions required 142 THE HIGH SCHOOL but a year and a half of English for entrance. It is only recently that a teacher of English has been re- quired to make special preparation for teaching it. For many years it was assumed that no special prepara- tion was necessary, and the work was parceled out among the teachers in accordance with administrative convenience. It came into the curriculum as a result of social demands, and it suffered the prejudice com- mon to all the so-called practical subjects. The tend- ency in the earlier years on the part of the schools to regard English rather indifferently resulted in a very slow development in English instruction. No particu- lar social or economic interests exerted an influence except the commercial interests. This influence, how- ever, has never been a large factor in determining the subject matter of English and other influences are responsible both for the large place that the subject now occupies and also for the character of the instruc- tion given, influence of The prevailing educational theory, that of formal discipline" discipline, soon made itself felt on instruction in English. In the earlier schools the students who pursued English did so as an elective for Greek and Latin. It was assumed that since they could not secure the advantages supposed to result from the study of the classics, it was necessary to make the English language supply the lack of instruction in the ancient languages as far as this was possible. English gram- mar was studied largely for its "disciplinary" value and literature for its "cultural" value. Rhetoric, a subject inherited from the earlier schools, remained undivorced from logic. Composition received scant ENGLISH 143 attention and little information is available regarding details of instruction. The result of the influence of the predominant educational theory is found in instruc- tion in English at the present time. The influence more responsible than any other f or*the influence of character of our work in English is that of higher in- Institutions stitutions. Perhaps no other type of subject matter in our secondary curriculums, has been so largely deter- mined by these institutions. The teachers of English in the higher schools, through college entrance requirements and through the training of teachers, have practically determined what has been taught in the high schools. This influence has had much to do with stimulating the study of English and of giving to it its preeminent place in the curriculum. To them is due the credit for giving to English the place that rightfully belongs to it, but at the same time they have been responsible for not a little of the unfruitfulness of instruction. This predominant influence exerted by higher insti- Result of tutions has given rise to some unfortunate conditions, influence It has resulted in a formalism in instruction and in wrong emphasis upon certain phases of the work. In consequence the needs and interests of high school students have been neglected and social demands have been in too large measure ignored. Reform is needed in our English work in order to fit it more nearly to the capacities of students and to make it serve the interests of the community. The fact that English has a secure place in the cur- Results in riculum has been noted. Another fact of equal signiri- Jj^^^a" cance is that there is general dissatisfaction with the tory work being done in English in the high school. Whether 144 THE HIGH SCHOOL the dissatisfaction is wholly justified may be open to question. But the conviction that the work is not what it should be is quite general and complaints cannot be ignored. The pupils themselves are more or less rebellious and failures in the work are common. Teachers in higher institutions are loud in their lamen- tations over the character of the work done in the high school. Business men have in general ceased to look to the high school for very much in the way of preparing for business and commercial pursuits. When there is such apparent general dissatisfaction there is probably a degree of truth in some or all of the criti- cisms directed against the kind of instruction given. This condition furnishes sufficient reason for a revalua- tion of the means used in instruction, of the In the selection of material in English it is necessary formand to k ee P * n mm d that we have to deal with two aspects content of the subject, form and content. There is the lan- guage side and the literature side. It needs no argu- ment to establish that literature, if wisely selected and properly taught, is one of the principal repositories of human valuations that have been worked out in the experience of the race. And it is equally clear that language is the chief means of social control. These two phases of the subject, intimately related and interdependent, are merely two standpoints from which to regard the whole field from which material is to be selected. Whether we shall return to the distinct classification made some years ago — grammar, com- position, rhetoric, and literature — is not important. But it is necessary to keep our attention directed to the two points of view from which to regard the ma- ENGLISH 145 terial. To give our attention to the form without due reference to the content, or vice versa, is to fail to understand the vital contributions that the study of English should make to the efficiency of the individual. To pronounce instruction good or bad from either point of view alone has no justification. If the business man declares that the English instruction in the high school has no value just because its graduates do not have a complete knowledge of the rather highly technical forms of business correspondence, he should not be taken too seriously. Or if the college teacher makes the same pronouncement because the student cannot write a highly technical criticism of a piece of litera- ture from the standpoint of its form, his judgment is not to be taken as final. The student of English during his high school course should receive some in- struction in business correspondence. This is a neces- sary part of the work of the school. He should have some experience in literary criticism in order that he may develop appreciation of literary merit. But to judge English instruction from either of these or from any other highly specialized point of view, does not lead to a fair judgment upon the efficiency of the work done. Other aims than these must be taken into account. English The aim of English instruction should be to furnish jjj^a on such social environment on its intellectual side as will furnish serve, on the one hand, to stimulate and arouse social environment instincts and impulses and, on the other hand, to give opportunity for the expression of these through proper language forms. The content of the subject matter and not its form, however, is the important thing. The 146 THE HIGH SCHOOL peculiar advantage possessed by literature is that of its social content. Whether the theme is one that deals with actual social situations or not, the literature that has lived has done so because of its portrayal of the abiding human interests. This is what constitutes its appeal to young people. It is true to say that litera- ture is life, if the human element in it is thus made prominent. To exalt form over content results only in making study irksome, instruction barren, and re- sults fruitless. The field is rich in material that can be made to contribute both to an increased appre- ciation of human values, aesthetic, moral, ethical, and to increased power to realize these values. Emphasis For purposes of high school instruction, unless rather° ° material is worth while because of its content, no than upon refinement of form or technique in expression can form values e g ^ r justify its use. Literary value from our point of view is human value. And we must, of course, judge values from the point of view of the interests and capacities of the learner and not from the standpoint of the intel- lectual satisfaction which the specialist may be able to derive from the study of a masterpiece. The chief purpose of teaching literature is not to give a taste for good literature. To develop an interest in books is, after all, secondary. It is rather to develop those personal attitudes toward the great values in human life that will enable one better to appreciate these values in life as it is lived all about him, and to discriminate more carefully in the selection of those values which he wishes to realize in his own life. The study of poetry, for example, is not primarily for the purpose of giving to the individual certain emo- ENGLISH 147 tional satisfactions or of making him a mere critic of literary forms. But the purpose is rather to give him the poet's attitude toward life as found in the social process and in the processes of nature in the world about him. The aim in the study of fiction is not chiefly to discover plots and to furnish opportunity to criticise literary forms. But it is rather to give one a clearer insight into the great human motives that have prompted and dominated men and still prompt and dominate us in our upward way in the process of civilization. Here again the chief purpose is not to create an interest in good fiction. The aim is to give an insight into human life as it is lived in social rela- tions and to inculcate a desire for the better things of life as they are revealed in the associations of men and women all about us. The problem of the selection of material involves interests an intimate and sympathetic knowledge of the interests capacities of and capacities of the learner and a knowledge of what ^ted*: &S subject matter is best suited to him. It is important material to establish a point of contact with the experience of those who are taught. We have to begin with what the pupil knows, with what he feels, with what he wills; with his attitudes, his valuations of life as they actually are. However much we might wish to give him our own point of view, we have to take him as we find him. Emphasis is placed upon this fact here because not a little of the barrenness of results in teaching literature is due to the failure to recognize that we cannot give to another what he does not want and has no capacity in the content of his own experience to receive. A good deal of 148 THE HIGH SCHOOL Content must include more than mere liter- ary content time has been wasted in the attempt to teach "good literature" because the "goodness" of it has been judged from a point of view which the learner has not been able to appreciate and understand. Whatever the philosophical truth about the matter may be, the pedagogical fact is that goodness and beauty are sub- jective values. This is not intended to convey the notion that we are to accept present values as the ones that the pupil is to hold finally. But they are the values that must be accepted as starting points from which we may lead him to come into possession of other values that we desire him to appreciate and realize in his own life. The use of the words high standards and low standards in respect to literary tastes are sometimes misleading. The vital question is not how high or how low a standard may be, judged by adult experience, but how useful it is to accomplish the purpose of instruction. In the name of high standards in English teaching it has too frequently happened that we are trying to begin where we have a right only to hope that we may finally leave off. The criteria for selection already pointed out, indi- cate the points of view from which material must be judged. The varying circumstances and conditions of life from which the pupils come into the high school, will necessitate a rather wide range of selection. Fortunately the field of literature furnishes abundant opportunity for making this selection wisely. At this point attention needs to be called to the restricted meaning that we are apt to apply to content. The fields of social science and material science and those including the arts are rich in material having highly ENGLISH 149 valuable content. If this material is examined from the standpoint of literary form, it meets every re- quirement. Some of the material selected by college entrance boards and committees of English teachers leads one to believe that these authorities are in sore straits to find suitable subject matter. While if they were to go into the fields suggested above, abundant material could be found which if judged both as to con- tent and form would prove to be highly useful in English instruction. Until such time as these authori- ties give this larger and more vital meaning to the content of the subject it would be profitable if more teachers of English would do a little foraging on their own account. The wall built up around literature should be torn down and much included in the field that is now regarded as belonging exclusively to other fields. Current literature of the right kind is not receiving importance the attention that it should have. The fact that current* much of this is not worthy of consideration makes it literature all the more necessary that the youth should be given experience in discrimination. In order to keep in touch with the life of his day and generation he will need to be an appreciative and discriminating reader of its literature. In so far as literature moulds the opinions of any generation, this is largely accomplished through the literature that that generation itself pro- duces. The word literature is used here in the more inclusive sense indicated in the preceding paragraph. It is true that rightly planned courses in the social studies and in material science will include some of this material, but the teachers of these subjects have no exclusive rights. The material is abundant and use i5° THE HIGH SCHOOL Pupils should be encouraged to read widely One aim of teaching to inculcate habit of J reading of it by English teachers will do much to relate the English work to the other work of the school. One valid criticism that can be made against the work done in the high school is that pupils do not read enough. The methods employed call for such analyt- ical study that the pupils drone over an assignment until all interest is lost. The practice is to designate a small list for critical study and this is supplemented by another list that is supposed to be read in addition to regular class assignments. But the method em- ployed in reading the designated list is such as to render it impossible to carry it over into practice for general reading. More than this, the critical method is so deadening in its influence that any natural desire to read is apt to be inhibited. A much wider range of reading than the present practice requires or even allows should be secured. The wider range of reading will appeal to the varied needs and abilities of the students and will bring them into contact with a range of social valuations in which they have interest. To accomplish this requires no less ability on the part of teachers in the selection of material, nor does it re- quire less intelligent direction by them. It requires both more knowledge in making selection and more skill in directing the work than now obtains. If it be true as claimed that students are now reading all that the time will permit, the answer is that too much time is now employed in over-emphasis upon a critical study of the restricted body of material used. The chief aim of teaching literature is not to create a taste for good literature. Nevertheless, one of the results, and a highly valuable result of teaching it, ENGLISH 151 should be a growing interest in literature itself. This cannot be hoped for, however, if the material selected for use in the school is not such as to encourage reading, and if methods employed do not permit pupils to read widely while in school. The desire to read, if it func- tions after pupils leave school, means that they shall have formed the habit of reading. The building up of such habits in school has a distinctive value on the social side. In almost all lines of vocational activity there is an increasing volume of literature dealing with the interests of workers. Society has no way of demanding outright that those engaged in these activities shall read, but its demand for a continually increasing efficiency is in itself an implied demand. The school should take this into account and endeavor to meet it. One of the results of cultivating a taste for good English literature is to provide an agreeable and valuable should pre- means of employing leisure time. In the selection p^efor . . leisure of material this fact should be kept in mind. When occupation the stress and strain of life comes, whether the pupils who have been trained in school will employ their leisure time in reading at all or whether they will spend it in reading good literature, will depend almost entirely upon their school training. The emphasis placed upon reading as a task may be easily carried to the point where reading as a form of pleasure will be lost sight of. It should be the ambition of every teacher so to famil- iarize his pupils with the great masterpieces that they will have acquired proper standards of taste and of judgment before leaving school. But observation and experience both teach us that this class of litera- 152 THE HIGH SCHOOL Correct forms of expression to be em- phasized ture will not be read to any extent to occupy leisure hours. Current productions of both fact and fiction are so numerous that the probabilities are that much of the leisure time spent in reading will be spent in their perusal. Many of these are of such high character that no teacher should fail to take advantage of the opportunity to create an interest in and appreciation for these better things. Training in the correct and effective use of language is one of the important aims to be kept in mind in the teaching and study of English. It is not necessary to dwell upon the fact that language is the chief means through which appreciation is secured and through which social control is exercised. The learning of mere grammatical forms which, as a matter of fact, have little relation to one's ability to interpret others or to make himself understood, is of doubtful value. Examination of textbooks on grammar and composition and rhetoric reveals the large amount of material that might be left out and the relatively small amount of concrete material actually used to illustrate the prac- tical application of what is really essential. An error in speech judged by certain abstract literary stand- ards is worthy of corrective attention. But after all, it is a matter of secondary importance as compared with those errors because of which one fails to make himself understood. There are certain amenities of language that deserve consideration, but they now receive consideration out of all proportion to their importance. This results in the neglect of other aspects of the forms of language that are more important. ENGLISH 153 Emphasis in instruction upon the essentials, and a felt necessity on the part of the learners for the knowl- edge of these essentials, are conditions requisite to successful results. This matter of recognition on the part of the pupil of School must his immediate need of knowledge of grammatical and motive for literary forms is the key to the situation. The student £°^ s ct of in his effort to interpret others and to make himself expression understood must be made to feel this necessity. The pupil's interest in language forms grows out of those situations in which he finds himself unable to make adjustments and secure control through the tise of language as an instrument. This is such a common- place fact in the case of the child learning to speak that no one would think of controverting it. But we frequently neglect to keep this in mind when we systematically set about, through formal instruction, to aid him in the process. We forget that the stress and the strain incident to the learning of a language so manifest in the earlier years, no longer exist to any considerable extent. By the time the pupil comes to the high school, he gets along without much difficulty in his usual social environment. He is able to adjust himself and to secure control over situations in so far as language is an instrument, in a quite satisfac- tory way. The environment of the school must be made to furnish the stimulus that was fur- nished in the earlier years by the home and the community. The work in English needs to be more closely related to the other work of the school and to the demands which this work makes upon the student. 154 THE HIGH SCHOOL Training in expression should be related to present needs Oral com- position should re- ceive more attention Training in composition both oral and written is, of course, a necessary part of the instruction in English. But a motive must be furnished that will enable the pupil to express himself gladly, and opportunities furnished that will permit him to express himself more and more freely. Expression through language and dramatic representation is not to be regarded as some- thing in which the pupil has an interest apart from his present needs and interests. On the contrary, ex- pression should be related to life which the pupil is endeavoring to interpret and which he finds in litera- ture and in his social relations. A keenly felt desire for better modes of expression is the best guaranty that the pupil will respond to our endeavor to help him acquire increasing ability to control the means through which expression can be given. It is the judgment of competent observers that written composition has been given relatively too much attention. It is true that in this form of com- position there is found the stimulus to exactness and an objectivity that permits of criticism and revision that is highly valuable. But from the standpoint of working out a technique that can be used in the every- day relation of life it has relatively less value than has practice in oral composition. The latter possesses a value far in excess of that of the written form. No argument need be made in support of the fact that thought and its mode of expression is essentially a relation between brain centers. If the most of the experience is with written composition, then the paths of association will be established with the brain cen- ters that control the arm instead of those that control ENGLISH 155 the organs of speech. Ready, correct, and accurate speech is simply a matter of habit. And one of the purposes of practice in composition is to develop and fix this habit. It has been mentioned that certain practical aspects instruction of English instruction demand consideration. The ti n°snouid community cannot rightfully demand that the school be practical shall provide what may be termed technical training for commercial pursuits to the exclusion of everything else. But it does have a right to demand, and the young people themselves need to know, irrespective of whether they shall ultimately engage in those pur- suits, something of the requirements of business corre- spondence and something of the content and the form of business instruments. This kind of knowledge is not only useful for its immediate application in earning a livelihood, but it promotes intelligence concerning business life and furnishes a fruitful point of contact with the business world. The interest that adolescents manifest in dramatic importance representation gives us a good index of its value in the representa- teaching of English, and we can profitably realize upon t">n this interest. To attempt to teach some of the great masterpieces which we use in our instruction, with- out taking advantage of this interest, is to neglect one of the chief means of making the teaching of English effective. It furnishes a group situation that is highly stimulating and gives at the same time oppor- tunities for instinctive modes of expression that are seeking an outlet. A situation that permits of co- operation, furnishes a common interest, compels the assumption of responsibility, and provides tests of i56 THE HIGH SCHOOL Wide read- ing increases power of expression Necessity for correla- tion of English and other work of the school efficiency that can be appreciated and understood by the pupils themselves, is extremely useful. When we add to this the opportunity offered for expression through voice and gesture and bodily attitudes, we have a situation both as to stimulus and response, that heightens appreciation of literature. There are so many requirements of the school which in a sense isolate the pupil from his fellows in his work that it is desirable to take advantage of every opportunity to secure group activity. The suggestions offered regarding the selection and use of subject matter should be noted here in relation to composition work. A wide range of reading, when it includes historical and scientific as well as literary content, furnishes material for composition work and at the same time provides a stimulus to expression. More than this, contact with the large range of material is a great aid in acquiring a technique in expression. In given cases, experience has shown that students who in earlier years have been required to write much are not as free in giving expression in the later years of the course as other pupils of the same class, who have been required to write but little and have been encouraged to read much. Further than this, the latter have also shown a better knowledge of gram- matical and literary forms and have displayed a better technique in expression. One of the outstanding needs in connection with English teaching is its better correlation with other subjects. This is needed in connection with the work as it relates to both literature and composition. There are certain administrative difficulties in this closer cor- ENGLISH 157 relation, but they are not insuperable. A combined course here and there in English and history, and in English and science, would do much to relieve the English work from the isolation from which it now suffers in educational practice. Efforts to secure cooperation of other teachers with teachers of English will accomplish something even under present con- ditions. But not much of value will be achieved until the work itself in the various fields is actually and vitally correlated. CHAPTER XIV FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND MATHEMATICS Important place occupied by foreign languages Less em- phasis now being placed on the subject Foreign Languages Foreign languages had a predominantly large place in the curriculum of our early secondary schools and have maintained this position until recently. The ancient languages in the earlier period received exclu- sive attention, and only during the last half century have modern languages been given a place. College entrance requirements extending almost to the present year, and which have had a very large influence in determining the character of high school curriculums, were such that the linguistic element overshadowed all others. For example, for admission to the arts course, out of the total of fifteen units necessary for admission, six were required in foreign language and three in English, making a total of nine — or three-fifths of the whole number. More recently the requirements in foreign languages have not been generally met and the colleges have been forced to the device of condition- ing the student in these required units. The practice has been quite general in the college to require these units to be made up during the college course and to allow college credit therefor. Some of the colleges, having reduced the requirements in for- FOREIGN LANGUAGES 159 eign language for entrance, have added to the require- ments in foreign language for graduation. We are not concerned here with the policy of the college. These facts are recited only to indicate the relatively large value that the higher institutions have given to the linguistic studies, and the emphasis that they still place upon this type of subject matter. This em- phasis is now growing less in practice, at least, if not in theory. And the high schools have exerted a considerable influence in bringing about this change. Reference has already been made to the predomi- "Discipiin- nant influence that the disciplinary conception of edu- JJj^' mflu " cation has exerted in the selection and organization particularly of the material of instruction. Nowhere outside the field of mathematics has this influence been so marked as in the field of foreign language. The chief aim in the teaching of language has been that of "mental discipline," and we have had the theory applied here in full force. This theory, as we know, holds that mental habits formed in response to a particular de- mand, are carried over into other fields of activity and that the possessor of these habits is able to use them without reference to the nature of the stimuli fur- nished by the environment in which he may be situ- ated. For example, the habit of attention, or of analysis, the power of discrimination, of memory, of judgment, or of reason, can be acquired once for all and is generalized and available at will. Since the study of language requires a high degree of attention, calls for analysis and discrimination, and demands the exercise of the " faculties" of memory, judgment i6o THE HIGH SCHOOL Other rea- sons than " disciplin- ary " must control Increasing importance of modern languages German pre- dominates and reason, the language advocates have insisted that their subjects possessed exceptional value. This con- tention accounts for the large place given in the curriculum to foreign language. To what extent the transfer of training is possible is an open question. But we have arrived at quite general agreement that no subject is entitled to a place in the curriculum merely or even largely upon "dis- ciplinary" grounds. If other reasons cannot be found that are sufficient in and of themselves to justify a subject, sooner or later it will have to give place to something else. The Modem Languages. — The modern languages are securing an increasingly larger place in the curriculums of our high schools. The work done in these lan- guages in the secondary schools was at first denied recognition by the higher institutions. Later the work was reluctantly recognized but not allowed to be substituted for requirements in the ancient languages. Now such substitutions are not only permitted, but some higher institutions which have no entrance re- quirements in the ancient languages, do have certain minimum requirements in the modern languages. This change of attitude on the part of higher institutions is significant in itself, and taken in connection with the increase of attention being given to modern languages in the secondary schools, indicates the important place now being assigned to them. In discussing the values of the modern languages it is well to keep in mind that the study is confined almost entirely to French and German. The latter of these has much the larger place. Just what the FOREIGN LANGUAGES 161 exact ratio is throughout the country is not easy to determine, but in the Middle West, at least, German is in great preponderance. Perhaps the larger per- centage of Germans in our population accounts for this. But whatever the reasons are, the fact is that German is studied by a larger number of high school students than all other modern foreign languages. Foreign language must be regarded very largely Values largely from the standpoint of linguistic values. The high linguistic school student, in the very nature of the case, because of the relatively short time which he devotes to the study of foreign language, cannot get very far into its literature. The time necessarily required to acquire a vocabulary and master grammatical constructions, leaves but little time to be devoted to literature. This is pointed out here because however great the values of the content may be in the literature of a foreign language, it is necessary to keep in mind that the high school student never in any large way realizes these values. It therefore happens that some of the reasons given for the study of a foreign language are valid, except in a very limited way, only in the case of those who will continue their study for a considerable length of time in the college course. In discussing the study of foreign language in the high school, we should not base claims for it upon values not realized by the majority who study it. Taking into account the limitations upon the teach- Chief aim of ing and the study of a modern language, What are J^give ° n the aims that should guide us in the selection and readin s r «i i . i i • knowledge organization of material and m methods of teaching? The chief aim should be to give to the student a read- l62 THE HIGH SCHOOL Practical considera- tions involved ing knowledge of it. It is not meant by this that the student be able merely to read the language with some degree of success as judged by class-room stand- ards. The material used in instruction and the methods employed in teaching should be of such char- acter that he will continue to read it whenever he is placed in a situation where it would be to his advan- tage to do so. One of the great universities of this country now requires all students who enter to be able to read at least one modern foreign language. If any enter who are deficient in this respect, they are re- quired during the first two years of their residence to make up this deficiency. The university seems to be justified in its requirements, since its work is so planned in many of the courses that the student finds it highly advantageous to be able to read at least one modern foreign language. The value, however, in being able to read a foreign language is not confined to the demands of higher institutions. To possess a reading knowledge of the modern foreign languages is highly desirable in cer- tain technical and scientific pursuits. The current literature in these fields is becoming more and more important, and to be able to read this literature is almost a necessity. This literature constitutes practi- cally the source of the social demands for the teaching of modern languages. These demands are impor- tant and are entitled to consideration. The extent to which the high school should be influenced by them, is to be determined in the light of the fact that, rela- tively, a very small proportion of its graduates will have such demands made upon them. FOREIGN LANGUAGES 163 There is no doubt that the mastery of a foreign Ian- Relations guage is an aid to a student in the more complete mas- fonJgn ian- tery of his own language. There are two perfectly guage bears definite ways in which a foreign language in a greater language or less degree contributes to a knowledge of English. These are through structure and vocabulary. A foreign language may contribute either indirectly through contrast or directly through similarity. The modern foreign language which we are actually teach- ing in the most of our secondary schools, is marked by the great contrast which it bears to our own. French is quite similar in structure and vocabulary because both it and our own language are indebted in different degrees to the same ancient language. Whether this similarity should constitute a reason for giving French more consideration, is a question that we cannot dis- cuss here. It is worth while, however, to point out the essential difference between French and German as related to our own language. The Ancient Languages. — When we speak of the Greek has ancient languages, the classics, so far as the high school an impor- is concerned, we refer to Latin. Greek never had tant P lace a place of great importance and it is now a negligible quantity. The causes for this discrimination against Greek are not within the scope of our inquiry. From our point of view, however, except for the contribu- tion made by Latin on the purely linguistic side, there is no apparent reason for such discrimina- tion. Any claim that may be set up for the study of Latin, with this exception, can un- doubtedly be successfully maintained for the study of Greek. 164 THE HIGH SCHOOL " Disciplin- ary " and " cultural " values of Latin Limitations upon the study of Latin in the high school One of the chief claims which has been made for the study of Latin is its disciplinary value. The valid- ity of this claim as a reason for teaching a foreign language has already been discussed and no further consideration will be given to it. Another claim for the study of Latin, hardly second in emphasis to that of " disciplinary " value, has been its cultural value. In fact this claim has frequently had precedence over all others. Latin has been willing to share honors with mathematics in the claim for disciplinary value, but as related to culture, mathematics has been lost in the reckoning and Latin has stood alone. No doubt much confusion has arisen in the discus- sions which have been going on considering the cultural value derived from the study of ancient languages, because of the confusion of terms. Those terms, which everybody is supposed to understand but which nobody takes the trouble to define, lead to just such confusions as we have had in this controversy. For example, throughout a good deal of this discus- sion an attempt has been made to set cultural studies over against informational studies, on the supposition that culture and information were mutually opposed. Further confusion has been introduced into the controversy by an implied assumption that cultural values are inherent in the linguistic element of a lan- guage rather than in the content of its literature. In actual practice, the average high school student does not sufficiently master the Latin language to permit him to enter in any large way into the content and the spirit of its literature. Added to this is the further fact that the kind of subject matter used, particularly in the FOREIGN LANGUAGES 165 second and third years, has possessed very doubtful cultural value, even if mastered sufficiently to reveal its spirit and content. The contribution made by Latin to our language Contribution both as to structure and vocabulary is readily recog- Latin to our nized, and the value of the study of the subject in this lan s ua s e particular is readily seen. It is probably true that in the assistance which the study of Latin gives to the student in understanding and appreciating his own language, is found its chief value. A fuller recognition of this value both in the selection of material and in the method employed in teaching it, would lead to more fruitful results than an attempt to secure values which, even if present, are not attainable because of the limitations under which the high school student works. Since the chief value in Latin appears to be as indicated above, most of the subject matter now used should give place to other subject matter more in harmony with the chief aim of instruction. Ter- minology largely military or legal in character in- volves words not in general use, and from which the words used in daily conversation are in small measure derived. This material is no longer seriously defended from the standpoint of its content value, and the question needs to be pressed as to whether it can be defended from the standpoint of its linguistic value. A question still remains, however, concerning the A question use of foreign language, either ancient or modern, as L learning an aid in a more complete mastery of our own. And the question has to do with the economy of such edu- cational procedure. The requirements of economy must have consideration in matters of education as i66 THE HIGH SCHOOL Limitations upon any foreign language Value of foreign lan- guage after leaving school well as elsewhere. The question is whether such use of a foreign language is a more economical means of securing a mastery of our own language than to spend the same amount of time directly upon the study of English. This question should have a greater degree of attention than it has had in the past. To spend two or more years upon one language only or even largely because of its value in securing a more rapid mastery of another one, may be an extremely wasteful mode of procedure. And even if it is determined that through the use of correct method in instruction it is economical so to use a foreign language, it is still in- cumbent upon us in the matter of practice to be sure that the correct method is being employed. An in- direct method of securing an end under any circum- stances is always more difficult to apply intelligently, simply because of the absence of direct means for testing results. In so far as it is possible, the standpoint suggested for the selection of material for instruction in English should be employed in case of the foreign languages. But because of the fact that students on entering the high school have first of all to get a command of the language, the limitations are readily apparent. These limitations, however, offer no reason for not choosing material which contains the largest content value that can be used in view of the limitations under which instruction is given. If the high school student ever secures much value out of the content of a modern language, it will be because he continues to read the language after leav- ing school. And if the demands which will be made MATHEMATICS 167 upon him are such that he will not do this, it is a ques- tion whether this time in school could not be employed to better advantage than in an attempt to master a language that he will not read. In the case of Latin, there seems to be no probability The use of of the student ever getting very far into the content ansatl0ns value except through translations. Even if four years are spent in the study of Latin not much can be ac- complished, and since there is a tendency developing to discontinue the subject at the end of the second year still less can be hoped for in the future. To hope that students will read the language after they are out of school is futile. In the event that students go to college there will be no demand upon them to read Latin unless they continue its study, which in respect to boys is now rarely the case. There is no social demand calling for the use of the language in any way whatsoever, and it is evident that transla- tions are the only means through which any consider- able appreciation of the literature can ever be secured. There have been certain moral considerations attached to the misuse of translations, but no such objections as obtained in this improper use of them can attach to the uses suggested here. Mathematics Mathematics, like the ancient languages, is an edu- Mathe- cational inheritance. In its various forms it became a ^hwatimial part of the earlier curriculums because of its supposed inheritance disciplinary value and has maintained its position largely for this reason. But, unlike the classics, cer- tain phases of subject matter in varying degrees have 1 68 THE HIGH SCHOOL been taught in response to practical social demands. The knowledge of arithmetic and of certain portions of geometry has been regarded as having practical value, and for this additional reason mathematics has occupied a relatively large place in the curriculum. In spite of this practical view of the subject, however, the choice of the subject matter and its organization have been determined largely by the disciplinary ideal. Succeeding generations of textbooks in arithmetic, for example, make it clear that the practical side of the subject has always been sacrificed to this ideal. No claims on the practical side have been made for algebra, and whatever claims may have been made for geometry, its supposed disciplinary value has been the controlling factor. "Discipiin- The claim made for the study of mathematics has ary " values k een k ase( j U p n the assumption that the study of it develops the power of reasoning. The form of mathe- matics and the difficulty incident to its mastery, are the reasons assigned for its value in this relation. The material readily yields itself to logical treatment and it permits forms of abstractions not possible in other fields. The symbols employed are particularly well adapted for use in making abstractions. So well recognized are these facts that we quite commonly use the terms mathematical forms of thought and mathematical types of reasoning. Whether the ability acquired in dealing with mathematical material can be carried over into fields in which the symbols cannot be used, and particularly whether it can be carried over into those fields in which we deal with concrete social situations, raises again the inquiry concerning MATHEMATICS 169 the validity of the theory of transfer of training. Having discussed this theory in connection with foreign language, no further discussion will be given here. As regards the value of the content of mathematics Content in relation to preparing the student to meet the social demands which will be made upon him, some very important changes have taken place within recent years. On the one hand, much of the material in arithmetic that was supposed to be useful in business transactions, has been rendered of little practical value through the use of various devices for calcula- tion. On the other hand, the value of certain types of material in the whole field of mathematics, has increased through its use in scientific and technical occupations. These changes must of necessity be taken into account in the practical evaluation of the material selected for purposes of instruction. Merely traditional values should not have precedence over actual values arising out of new conditions in the world of affairs. Arithmetic is not studied at all in many of the high The place of schools, and those in which it has a place in the cur- anthmetic riculum, give comparatively little time to it. Except for the inability of grade pupils, on account of im- maturity, to make use of arithmetic in its practical applications, it Js probable that there would be little excuse for teaching it in the high school at all. But because of its usefulness in certain vocational activi- ties, it seems that there is still reason for selecting from this branch of the subject for purposes of high school instruction. 170 THE HIGH SCHOOL Unsatisfac- tory status of algebra Geometry deserves relatively larger place The branch of mathematics receiving the most attention at the present time is algebra. The justifi- cation for this practice seems to be very doubtful. Except as a preparation for the study of higher math- ematics, there is but little reason why algebra should receive so much attention. And no claim can be made for practical values, outside of its relation to the mastery of those subjects requiring the ability to employ alge- braic formulas. The subject also fails to merit the attention it receives on the ground that a very high percentage of failures occur. No other subject in the curriculum has recorded against it the percentage of failures recorded against algebra. Schools are either attempting too much, or are not attempting the right thing, or are employing methods intolerably bad. Whatever the causes of failure may be, the fact is that results are unsatisfactory. For those pupils who will pursue a technical course in a higher institution, a thorough preparation in the fundamentals of algebra is essential. But since these are comparatively so few, their interests should not be allowed to dictate to the disadvantage of the very large number whose needs will be of a very different kind. And if we accept the judgment of these higher institutions, the course in algebra even for this class of students needs radical revision. The whole situation in respect to algebra is intolerable. Geometry has up to the present time not received as much attention as it deserves. The opportunity for making its content concrete, its value in relation to certain other subjects in the curriculum, and the pos- sibilities of application of the knowledge derived to MATHEMATICS 171 concrete problems, taken altogether should give it a relatively large place in mathematical instruction. The division of the time between algebra and geometry at present is an illogical one and readjustments are already being made. These readjustments in the high school are in some places resulting in quite radical changes. In the first place, two years instead of three or three and a half years are being given to the study of mathematics. And further, the work is being organized on an entirely different plan. Instead of dividing the subject in the traditional way, into arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, and devoting a specified length of time to each, selec- tions are made from each of these fields and the com- bined material is designated simply as secondary or high school mathematics. This plan assumes that the value of mathematics consists in its functional relations to other high school subjects and to the social demands which will be made upon those who study it. These two aims, which in effect are one, should govern in the selection of material from the whole field of mathematics. Other values than these, whatever they may be, will in no way be sacrificed if these practical values are given right of way. The shortening of the time devoted to the study of Mathe- mathematics in the high school seems to be inevitable. "J^vViess For the pupil to be required to spend nearly or quite attention a fourth of his time in the study of traditional mathe- matics is illogical. When the matter is looked at from the standpoint of relative values the practice is in- defensible. That less time will in the future be devoted to this traditional material is a foregone conclusion. 1 72 THE HIGH SCHOOL It seems that the logical result of this will be some such selection and organization of the material for the shorter course as has been suggested above. Whether this will be the precise solution of the problem is not material. Some solution will be reached, however, which will give to the subject a higher educative value and which will make it function more largely in con- tributing its part in preparing the young people to meet the social demands which will be made upon them. CHAPTER XV HOUSEHOLD ART, MANUAL ARTS, COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS, AND AGRICULTURE Household Art In the chapter in which was discussed the function of the secondary school as it relates to the education of girls, much that might properly be included under the topic before us was either explicitly stated or impliedly involved and need not be repeated here except for pur- poses of further emphasis or of illustration. Domestic science, or domestic economy, is the name instruction given to a limited type of subject matter which belongs too narrow to a larger whole. In practice the teaching of this subject matter is usually limited to a few exercises in cooking and sewing. The limitations through lack of facilities have resulted in placing wrong interpreta- tions upon the meaning of the whole movement which its opponents have designated as " spending time in making soup and sewing on patches." Unfortu- nately in not a few schools this is about all the work has amounted to. But in spite of unfortunate begin- nings, through misconceptions of its meaning and limitation of its practical workings, the general move- ment toward securing a permanent and important place for home economics in the curriculum of the high school has been going forward at a rapid rate. 174 THE HIGH SCHOOL Favorable conditions necessary to success Aim of in- struction to develop proper attitude toward the home Whatever general term may be applied to designate the field of household arts, it should be recognized that the field is a broad one and includes several related subjects. It is not the purpose here to make compari- sons of the respective values of these related subjects, but rather to call attention to the fact that such eval- uations should be made in the selection of material in the light of circumstances and conditions obtaining in particular communities. The success of the work, it need not be said, will depend very largely upon whether it has the proper support of the community, on the one hand, and whether, on the other hand, competent teachers are available and suitable equip- ment provided. The attempt to teach household art in its different aspects in the absence of reasonably favorable conditions is to invite failure. At the present time there are too many schools attempting to do work of this character where present conditions do not warrant the undertaking. To attempt to teach any subject just because it happens to be the fashion or because the administration of the school desires to appear progressive, has no justification. Household art has suffered more than its rightful share from these ill-advised undertakings. The chief aim in teaching the subject should be to develop on the part of girls a more sympathetic and intelligent attitude toward the general problem of home-making and home-keeping. The kitchen no doubt presents problems of great importance, but these are not the only ones. Home furnishings and decorations and other things relating to the artistic appointments of the home are of no less importance. THE MANUAL ARTS 175 Material dealing with this latter phase of the subject has far more immediate interest for the girls of high school age and instruction in these lines will find ready response and will give a setting for the whole range of instruction attempted. This type of material fur- nishes the point of contact and should receive its share of attention throughout the course. Household sanitation, sewing, cooking, work in textiles, and the economic aspect of the home and the relations which the home bears to the community, command attention and are entitled to consideration. But after all, in- struction in these lines is most valuable when it has the setting suggested. Household art suggests a point of view extremely Material to valuable, from which to regard certain fields of knowl- fromvarious edge as they relate to the education of girls and fields women. The material sciences, the social studies, particularly economics and art in its various aspects, have material in abundance. Thus far these fields have made but slight contribution to the education of women in harmony with their interests and social needs. If interests peculiar to girls and women are to receive larger consideration, subject matter must be selected suitable to their needs. The community demands made upon them must hereafter in greater degree determine the subject matter employed in their education. The Manual Arts The term manual training is sufficient to indicate the Emphasis on character of the work which has been done up to the side™* 1 " 1 present time in the general field of manual arts. The 176 THE HIGH SCHOOL literary content relating directly and indirectly to this employment in the school, designated as manual train- ing, has been practically negligible. In the absence of such content we have a parallel in the household arts. We are describing these courses as they are actually constituted in the average high school. This does not mean that these subjects have no such con- tent, but it is well to recognize that this particular negative characteristic of the work has served to set it over against the other subjects in the curriculum to its own disadvantage. It is no doubt fortunate in some respects that such content did not at first receive attention. The absence of it has served to bring to out attention more clearly the educative value of manual work. This needed to be done. On the other hand, persistence in assuming that all the posi- tive value in this sort of work is confined to the mere training of the hand has prevented certain valuable correlations which would give to the work its greatest significance. Before discussing this point it will be useful to devote brief consideration to the general movement which has given manual training an increas- ingly large place in our schools. Movement This movement did not originate in the public schools, private^ ^ut was ^ e resu ^ °f private enterprise, undertaking to schools meet the demands for vocational training in prepara- tion for the trades. These schools were called manual training schools and were not regarded as educational institutions in the commonly accepted sense. The courses were designed to meet a social demand by giving young men technical training. The early char- acter of the movement was responsible for giving to THE MANUAL ARTS 177 the work its specific vocational aspect, even after it was taken over by the public schools. Some of these private schools after they were estab- Rapid de- lished were taken over and incorporated into a sys- accounted tern of public schools. This was due, of course, to part for the general tendency which has been gaining momen- tum in this country for three-quarters of a century, for the public to control all educational endeavor and to support the same by means of taxation. This movement for public education of this particular kind, beginning at the great centers of population, rapidly spread throughout the country. It became the fad and the fashion to introduce manual training into all the schools, and attempts to accomplish this in scores and hundreds of towns would only excite merriment if the futility of it all were not really a mat- ter for serious consideration. With no aim except of the most generalized sort, with no equipment worthy of the name, with teachers wholly incompetent for the task, instruction was attempted without hope of success. It was the fashion to offer manual training, and many schools did so at the cost of time and energy that might have been employed in some useful way. Manual training has been the subject of much ridi- opposition to the work cule which in some degree has been justified. It was attacked on the ground that it was not the business of the school to train for vocational activity. As a matter of fact, the schools in general were in no wise guilty of doing any such thing. But of the ones who brought the charge or those who hurried to the defense, or the people who sat as judge, no one seemed to realize that a waste of time was the real offense committed. i 7 8 THE HIGH SCHOOL Later em- phasis upon educative values The larger values While the controversy was about nothing in the con- crete, the abstract proposition was worth discussing as to whether the public school should direct some of its energies to the satisfaction of the new demands made upon it. This controversy was valuable because it did call attention to the potential educative values in the manual arts. In the second stage of the movement the advocates of manual training put their emphasis upon the edu- cative value of the work. The purpose of education, they said, was to train both brain and hand and they were contending for the hand training. The manipu- lation and care of tools, the working in wood and metal, the sawing of boards, and making of joints and hammering of iron, gave the hand a training which would serve to establish the proper balance between the learning and the doing so essential in a well-rounded education. This activity, of course, was supposed to look forward to the making of things in which pupils could exercise their ingenuity, and which would give opportunity for a highly valuable mode of expression. The difficulty was that so much time was spent in "manipulating" and upon "exercises" that no time was left for the average student to come into his real inheritance, which was to be found in the really con- structive aspect of the work. This second stage in the movement was valuable, however, because it took our attention away from the mere vocational value of the subject and directed our attention to its educative value in its broader aspects. In these implied criticisms it has not been intended to underestimate the educative value in the develop- THE MANUAL ARTS 179 ment of manual dexterity. Nor should it be under- stood that any implication is made that preparation for the trades should not result from instruction in manual training. On the contrary, it should be said that both aims are justified. But there is larger edu- cative value possible than mere development of manual dexterity and more in the work on the vocational side than simply a little training for some occupation. These values for both boys and girls should be recog- nized and the work reorganized in accordance with the possibilities afforded. The chief aim of instruction should be to give oppor- Two chief tunity for expression through the hand and to develop c™4 i h i ° uld interest in and appreciation for the larger social mean- instruction ing of vocational activities. On the industrial side, to put it another way, we are quite as much concerned in the manual arts with an interest in and appreciation for the people themselves who work at forge, in foundry, at the loom, and in the shop, as we are with the material with which they work. It is an educa- tion worth while, whether we shall engage in those activities or not, to be able to appreciate the value of the service of the people who in the making of a living produce with brain and hand these useful and beautiful things that have so much meaning in our civilization. Repeating what was said in connection with house- Correlation hold arts, the manual arts suggest a point of view from ^ork^the which to regard certain types of material. The content sch ° o1 of the subject is the tools and the material, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the literature dealing with the life history of that material, with the various i8o THE HIGH SCHOOL processes in its manufacture, and with the people who have in the past engaged and who in the present are engaged in giving to the material its social values. The work ought to be correlated with social science, English, and material science, to render it successful. In view of this, to say that this subject has no literary content indicates a misunderstanding both of the aim and of the ultimate values to be realized. Commercial Subjects Commercial Commercial subjects have had more or less attention gardedwith in our high schools for a good many years. The disfavor position, however, which they have occupied has always been a precarious one. They have been re- garded in general as possessing comparatively little educative value. Students who have pursued them have been regarded usually as being deficient in abil- ity or lacking in industry, or both. These conclusions may not be justified, but they represent in general the estimate placed upon commercial subjects. They were introduced into the schools because of their prac- tical value, and we should not expect very much con- sideration for them at a time when the practical was being set over against the cultural as though the two concepts were mutually opposed. Recently, however, the conception of education itself has been under- going radical reconstruction and in this process the advocates of commercial subjects profess to find hope that they will be accorded their proper place in our new scale of educational values, instruction In our rapidly developing economic society the de- schools 6 mands for commercial instruction grew so insistent that COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 181 private schools sprang up all over the country to meet the demands for practical training. It was but natural that we should finally undertake in the public schools this kind of training, in accordance with the popular belief that it is the duty of the state to support and control education of all kinds. These private com- mercial schools persisted, however, and have furnished in large measure the opportunities for commercial education. As a matter of fact, commercial instruction has instruction never had an important place in the work of the high high schools school, nor does it now have except in the congested centers of population. Outside of bookkeeping, a rather small minority of high schools have under- taken such instruction at all. Bookkeeping, however, has been quite generally taught and even now it is found in the curriculums of most of the high schools of the Middle West. This is not only true of the larger schools, but is equally true of the smaller schools situated in rural communities. Two reasons have been assigned for teaching book- Aims in keeping. One is that it is a practical subject and the ^ n e e t pmg other is, strangely enough, that it possesses disci- secured plinary value. The latter reason furnishes additional evidence, if any were needed, of the influence of tra- ditional ideals. It seems that bookkeeping was no exception to the rule that the practical claims for a subject could not secure for it a position of respecta- bility. In order to gain such position, the advocates of that subject had to establish somehow its right to a place in the curriculum on traditional grounds. It thus came about that one claim made for it was that it l82 THE HIGH SCHOOL Lack of proper aims in general Two aims should govern possesses value in training the learner in habits of accuracy and neatness. As a result of this conflict between modern and traditional ideals, instruction in bookkeeping in the high school has been rather unfruitful. It would indeed be difficult to find any reason for the place which bookkeeping has in the curriculum, in the light of the usual conception of the subject and the way in which it is taught. For the most part, the instruction is not practical and the disciplinary value claimed for it is of very doubtful validity. It is not to be concluded from the discussion of bookkeeping, that commercial subjects do not have a rightful place in the high school. The unfruitfulness has not been due to the fact that the field represented by commercial subjects does not have in it material of great value for purposes of instruction. The result has been due to a lack of proper aims as guides in the selection of material and in methods of teaching. The attempt to justify commercial subjects on disciplinary grounds is absurd. To regard them as having no other value than to serve as preparation for a job, is to neglect larger values that may be realized under proper conditions of instruction. These larger values, how- ever, can be realized only by substituting other aims for those which have heretofore controlled in the work. Two aims should govern in commercial work. The first is that of giving to the young people a valuable point of view from which to interpret and understand the communities in which they live. This aim is closely related to one of the aims in instruction in Eng- lish. The other aim is that of providing training for COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS 183 participation in business life. These two aims are not, of course, mutually exclusive. When the first one is realized, much has been accomplished in realizing the second. If these aims are permitted to control, com- mercial work will be given its rightful place in the curriculum. Subject matter already included in the discussion of Selection English need not be mentioned here. Commercial law J^on^T" is closely related to civics and economics. The more material technical subjects, such as stenography and type- writing, bookkeeping, banking and business practice, are demanded by both aims but are more nearly related to the second aim. This subject matter almost more than any other now in use has suffered from lack of organization. A subject has been thrown here and there into the curriculum to serve as a sop to the com- munity, or as a convenient elective. Only by giving to this type of subject matter 'the same consideration given to other subjects in respect to its selection and organization, can we expect satisfactory results in the work. The recent movement for the establishment of com- The work in mercial high schools in the large cities, indicates the hi^choois emphasis which is now being placed upon commercial instruction. These schools are the direct result of the commercial demands of the community for practical education. The subjects chosen and the subject matter used in instruction are principally determined by the practical demand. Nevertheless, a study of some of these curriculums leads one to the conclusion that educative as well as so-called practical values are aimed at in instruction. The courses in English are 184 THE HIGH SCHOOL Furnishes useful point of view for selection of material Educative values comprehensive and thorough, and emphasis is given to economics and industrial history. The place accorded these subjects tends to give to the work a breadth and depth that insure more than merely a training for commercial pursuits. Since, however, these courses of study are planned in direct answer to the peculiar demands of urban communities, it is likely that com- mercial instruction will be confined quite exclusively to the city schools. The tendency in the smaller schools seems to be away from the commercial subjects, and in the direction of vocational training in other lines. Agriculture The suggestion was made in a previous discussion that whether agriculture be regarded as a science, is not material. The word suggests a point of view from which it is fruitful to regard certain types of science material and from which to organize it for teaching purposes. It is with this value of the term that we should be chiefly concerned. If by scientific agriculture is meant systematic and purposeful in- struction, then the term is useful in assisting in the establishment of standards and in their use to realize the aim. Otherwise than this the term has no value for our purpose. With this interpretation in mind, there is every reason to regard this field of science as furnishing material possessing great educative value. Its con- creteness, its relation to our fundamental industry, and the opportunity for laboratory work of the most vital and fruitful sort, go far in commending it as highly useful in secondary instruction. The imme- AGRICULTURE 185 diacy of the problems, the social import of the situa- tions arising, and the point of contact which such instruction furnishes, make this material more valuable than some other science material for which claims have been so insistently made. One of the chief reasons assigned for instruction in Social . . ,, . r . r ,, demands agriculture, is the importance of preparing many of the students in quite an immediate way to meet the social demands, in the form of vocational activities, which will be made upon them. Admitting the validity of this argument, it does not after all constitute the only reason and, indeed, not the chief reason, for such instruction in the secondary school. It is not to be doubted that the opportunity furnished by such instruction to those who will live their lives upon the farm, is of great value. The development of more sympathetic and intelligent attitudes toward this vocational activity and of making the occupation more highly productive and successful, should not be regarded lightly. But the attainment of these ends is not only important, from the point of view of what we regard as personal success, but because of the very funda- mental nature of the industry and its relation to social welfare in general. Our schools through neglect of attention have belittled agriculture about as long as society can afford. In fact, we have carried that policy beyond the point of indifference on the part of the people as a whole. We are reaping what we have sown and the harvest is not altogether to our liking. We are now awakening to our folly. It is evident Social significance that the indifference and even studied neglect of ofagncui- this great industry on the part of the schools is being ture i86 THE HIGH SCHOOL Dangers to the success of the movement paid for in terms of waste of natural resources and of crowded populations living under intolerable condi- tions. The farmers themselves are, from a selfish point of view, less immediately concerned with the conserva- tion of the productivity of the soil than is the great mass of population not living on farms at all. If we look at the matter from the standpoint of general wel- fare, the constant drift of rural populations to the crowded centers, constitutes a problem in which urban far more than rural populations are concerned. When we become conscious of the situation in its entirety we shall see that the demand upon the schools to develop intelligent attitudes toward this vocational activity and to increase the general intelligence concerning means of conserving these natural resources on account of their large social import, is not coming from the farmers. The philanthropic attitude which some of those in authority are assuming toward the farmers in America would be quite ridiculous if it did not display a degree of ignorance that is positively harmful. Increased intelligence on the part of everybody concerning this great industry is coming to be one of the outstanding necessities of our generation. The assumption of those who would belittle the attempt to meet this great social need, that instruction in agriculture is quite beneath the dignity of educational institutions, shows an utter lack of understanding of the meaning of education in our country and time. That agriculture will be given a permanent and im- portant place in the curriculums of our schools there can be little doubt. Those who so vigorously oppose the movement in this direction may temporarily retard AGRICULTURE 187 it, but their influence is rapidly waning. There is far more danger to the success of the movement, at the present time, from its active supporters and those who are accepting the logic of the situation as a matter of course. Those, on the one hand, who see in it only the means of vocational training and those, on the other hand, who regard it merely as a fashion of the times and hasten to adopt it, fail to recognize its edu- cational significance. These conditions are pointed out here for the reason that the selection and organi- zation of material from a merely vocational point of view or from no point of view at all, will greatly retard the movement and for a long time defeat the real aim of instruction. To keep definitely before our attention the potentially large import of instruction in agriculture, is the best means of assuring that the process of selection and organization of material will realize the aim which we have set out to accomplish. It can hardly be said that the instruction in agricul- Conditions ture now being given in the high schools is meeting cental stage with much success. We cannot defend the present prevail situation on any other grounds than that confusion in aim, disorganized and unrelated material used in instruction, and lack of method in teaching, are in- evitable in the early stages of educational experiments. Recognizing that social demands for agricultural edu- cation are legitimate, we shall go forward in working out aims that will more definitely function in the selection of material and the organization of it so as to render it most useful for purposes of instruction. Both the art and the science of the subject should Emphasis have attention, but the former should receive the practical 1 88 THE HIGH SCHOOL emphasis. The course should deal with a study of soils, their properties and care. Varieties of grains, the care and planting of seed grain, cultivating and harvesting crops, are important phases of the subject. Insects and other pests and means of their extermina- tion should receive attention. Breeding and care of animals, standards of judging stock and the like are matters of interest. These illustrations serve to indi- cate the general character of the work. Emphasis upon such topics will appeal to the interests of stu- dents and thereby contribute to the educative value of the subject. On the vocational side this kind of work is demanded in order to develop right attitudes toward the farm. This type of instruction will serve also as preparation for meeting the practical demands of farm life. CHAPTER XVI MUSIC AND ART; MORAL AND ETHICAL INSTRUCTION Music and Art The various fields discussed offer abundant material Sources of which, if properly used, will contribute toward the develop t0 development of aesthetic appreciation. History and aesthetic .. , , . , .iiii appreciation literature are abundant m such material and the house- hold and manual arts have important contributions to make. The failure to use this material is not only unfortunate in itself, but it also results in a lack of proper setting for instruction in those subjects whose chief value lies in the contribution which they make to the aesthetic side of life. In fact, aesthetic appre- ciation is not developed so much through direct instruc- tion as through an environment, material and social, in which aesthetic features are prominent. Such an environment, however, is made to function more fully through some direct attention to those subjects which deal more exclusively with aesthetic appreciation. Music has not received the attention in the high Two reasons school that rightfully belongs to it. Two reasons may f< ? r faUur f t0 . . . give music be assigned for this neglect. One reason is that its its proper value is not appreciated, and the other is that no well- p ac< defined aim in musical instruction has governed the work. A fuller realization of the value of music, both in its aesthetic and social aspects, would have a 190 THE HIGH SCHOOL Two aims in instruc- tion Instrumenal music in the home tendency to give it the larger place which it deserves. A proper emphasis upon its social value would do much to determine an aim in musical instruction in accordance with the needs and capacities of youth. The relation of music to the employment of leisure time is an important one and the aim of instruction is largely determined by this relationship. The aim of instruction should be to cultivate an appreciation of music and to prepare the learner as far as possible for participation in musical activities. The realization of this aim is not only desirable but in a considerable degree possible. Interest in musical activities is easily aroused through proper social organ- ization in the school, and aside from the fact that boys are unable to sing during the earlier part of the adolescent period, they participate in musical activities with as much interest and freedom as do the girls. Proper social stimulus is needed, however, in order to secure such participation. Definitely organized groups through which musical activities can be carried on, provide the proper stimuli and furnish opportunity for the functioning of group motives. Every high school can and should encourage students to pursue the study of instrumental music through giving credit toward graduation for work done under private instruction. Some schools are now doing this, and, under proper control exercised by the school, there seems to be no reason why the plan should not become universal. The educative value of instruction in music is sufficient to warrant recognition by the school, and the administrative problem presented by the plan now in vogue in some schools does not render the plan MUSIC AND ART 191 difficult to operate. Many girls in the high school desire, and their parents desire for them, something in the way of a musical education. This is impossible unless the school will cooperate in the direction sug- gested above. Few high schools perhaps should attempt instruc- Vocal music tion in instrumental music except in connection with ^J e h . an orchestra. The latter kind of instruction is pos- sible in most schools and it should receive attention. The teaching of vocal music is possible in all high schools. The instruction should not be technical nor aim at the development of trained musical performers. Not a little musical instruction is fruitless because of the deadening influence of its technicalities and hum- drum exercises employed in an attempt to work out a technique impossible to be acquired by most young people, and if acquired would in the majority of cases never be put to any use. The aim should be to teach the young people to sing, and this task is not a diffi- cult one if the social motives above referred to are appealed to in the right way. Glee clubs and choruses are the key to the situation so far as vocal music is concerned. These organizations are extremely useful to the social life of the school and through their activi- ties the young people receive a training that is highly valuable. Instruction in art, as far as the majority of high Means of schools are concerned, is almost a negligible quantity, in art In respect to the education of girls, no type of instruction is perhaps more valuable. It appeals to their interests, furnishes opportunity for highly valu- able modes of expression, and prepares them for service in the home and in the community. The aim of 192 THE HIGH SCHOOL Household art center for organi- zation of material instruction should be to cultivate an appreciation of the beautiful and also to train in artistic expression. On the appreciation side, one of the most fruitful means is to provide an artistic environment in the school and its surroundings. An artistic material environment properly utilized can be relied upon in large measure to secure artistic appreciation. The school that fails to provide and utilize such environ- ment fails to perform one of its most important duties. The high school may easily be rendered a center in every community from which an influence will go out that will do much for the community in promoting artistic appreciation and in securing better conditions on the artistic side. As was pointed out above, the household arts and other subject matter of the curriculum furnish oppor- tunity for the development of artistic appreciation. Household art constitutes a center around which all material used for such purposes should be organized. Design, color schemes, interior decoration, indicate some of the possibilities in high school instruction. As in music, the instruction should not be technical, nor should the aim be to develop a specialized tech- nique. The plan of instruction should not be such as to appeal alone to the exceptional few, but of such character as to enlist the interest of every girl within the range of the influence of the school. The aim is not to cultivate talent, but to arouse interest and to provide means through which this interest may find fruitful expression. MORAL AND ETHICAL INSTRUCTION 193 Moral and Ethical Instruction It was assumed at the outset that nothing need Aim of education be said directly concerning moral and ethical mstruc- ethical and tion in discussing the work of the school. It was taken mond for granted that no one who is competent to think about education at all would fail to understand that education itself has no meaning in the absence of eth- ical and moral considerations. All recognize now that morality and ethics are not abstractions. On the con- trary, they are of themselves the very essence of life. One should not have to say that the aim of education is anything other than moral and ethical. Just because everyone takes these things for granted, however, does not make it less necessary to select means intelligently and to use these means wisely. Content and its organization must be determined by the same criteria as those which we employ whenever we engage in any kind of educational endeavor. We are perhaps guilty of a good deal of loose thinking concerning moral and ethical education. The tend- ency is to regard such instruction as merely incidental. We have no right to hope for mere by-products to have high value in the field of morals and ethics any more than we have anywhere else. The aim should be clearly defined and the material selected with the same care that is exercised elsewhere. Perhaps no needs of the adolescent are more obvious Demand for than those which have to do with his adjustments to moral and ethical demands. The adolescent period is a moral crisis. No plea of lack of available means can justify us in a neglect to meet the demand for 194 THE HIGH SCHOOL Not the name but the fact important Sources of material instruction. If no means are available, then all that we are doing in the name of education is worse than futile. Much is being done by wise teachers to refute the statement sometimes heard, that our schools are not giving moral instruction. Nevertheless there is an insistent demand that much more be done than we are now doing. In the absence of religious instruction in our public schools the problem is no doubt a difficult one, and one which has not as yet been very satisfactorily solved. The introduction of such material as is used in some of the European schools is out of the question. In the presence of this difficulty, we have been inclined to attach a great deal of importance to the mere names of things and lament our lack of proper means of instruc- tion. Whether we shall be able to gather together the material for use and organize it into a body of knowledge which we shall designate as ethics or some such term, is not particularly important. The im- portant thing is the meaning of a moral and ethical life and to understand how such a life is conditioned. We should know by this time that no one ever be- comes either moral or ethical by simply studying about morality and ethics. One is no more able to build character out of that kind of material than he is to develop a strong body as result of a knowledge of bones and muscles. Valuable material is in fact available and use should be made of it. The first means at our command is a more definite use of the material in the curriculum. History, science, art, literature, are rich in material for moral and ethical instruction. An intelligent attitude toward one's own MORAL AND ETHICAL INSTRUCTION 195 physical welfare is the basis of morality. This can be secured through the proper use of science material, as has already been pointed out. There is no need to dwell upon the possibilities in the other material suggested above. But there must be a definite aim controlling and an equally definite plan in the details of the work in order to realize the aim. The teacher who fails at either point thereby confesses not only the failure of his teaching, but also the failure to make use of his own education in his everyday living. As valuable as the subject matter is for moral and Social ethical instruction, it is no more valuable than is the oHhTschooi social organization of the school, provided it is of the anageacy right kind. It is not the purpose here to enter into any details concerning the character of the social organ- ization. The topic will be treated in a later chapter. But in passing, emphasis should be placed upon the fact that the social organization of the school is perhaps the greatest single agency at our command for charac- ter building. That this is often not so is no doubt true. That it should be and may be the most potent factor within the command of the school is beyond controversy. CHAPTER XVII PHYSICAL TRAINING AND ATHLETICS Unfortunate beginnings; lack of control It was pointed out in Chapter III that the use of the word training as related to the topic under discussion is not altogether fortunate. The word education is a better term. Training places emphasis upon prac- tice in certain physical exercises and results in undue attention being given to one of the means employed in physical education. Whereas education implies an educational aim and the selection of all the means neces- sary to carry out the aim. Physical education has had a strange history. For generations people were content with a theory regard- ing its importance, but very little was even attempted in the way of actual endeavor and achievement. How much longer this state of affairs would have prevailed had not the young people themselves taken the matter in hand would be difficult to determine. The young people, however, did take the matter in hand and upon their own initiative, and frequently in opposition to school authorities, athletic activities were introduced into the schools. The colleges led and the high schools were quick to imitate. Inter-school contests furnished the sole stimulus, and these were arranged and carried out through student initiative and enterprise. Out of this situation certain evils developed and in an PHYSICAL TRAINING AND ATHLETICS 197 attempt to regulate these evils some kind of super- vision and regulation was attempted on the part of the school authorities. This was an unfortunate beginning and we still suffer from its effects. One of the evils resulting from the lack of control Results on was deterioration in scholarship. Interest in athletic activities ran high and participation in them became for many of the boys the chief end of existence. In order to meet the emergency, the schools began to de- vise means whereby proper control could be exercised. The result of this endeavor was the setting up of stand- ards of work which must be met before participa- tion in inter-school games was permitted. Thus it came to be established that no one could take part in inter-school games who did not meet certain scholastic requirements. In order to promote this endeavor, associations of schools were formed and the eligibility of players was through this means doubly assured. If the school to which the players belonged did not insist upon the requirements being met, the contesting school would see to it that conditions of eligibility were respected. That these efforts to put inter-school con- tests upon a reasonable basis have accomplished much is generally conceded. But that much remains to be done in the cause of physical education is the subject requiring our present attention. There is perhaps no other phase of educational The evils endeavor in which we have been so long in theory and the real so short in practice as in physical education. The begin- P roblem ning was made at the wrong end, and we have literally received backed into the situation in which we now find our- selves. Those who were responsible for forcing the 198 THE HIGH SCHOOL problem upon the schools had no conception of its meaning, and the attendant evils were so apparent that about all that has been done by school authori- ties up to the present is to attempt to minimize the evils. The problem of the evils rather than the real problem, that of physical education, has received prac- tically all the attention devoted to the subject. steps in the The imperative necessity at present is for all the schools to do what only a few schools are doing toward solving the problem. The beginning of the solution is a clear and reasonable statement of the aim of physical education. The second step in the process is an intelli- gent and workable method of providing for the needs and capacities of the pupils. Three-fold The aim in reality is three-fold — corrective, pre- aim ventive, and constructive. This calls for a compre- hensive consideration of the subject and requires that means be employed which for the most part have not yet been taken into account at all. The present makeshift policies only tend to confuse the issue and in many cases are resulting in positive harm. The correction of faults, the prevention of the development of undesirable tendencies, and an increasing control over the process of development on the part of the learner, constitute the goal of instruction. Needs and Nothing worth while can be accomplished toward the learners S ' realization of this aim, in the absence of proper means must be anc [ methods of ascertaining the needs and capacities ascertained m ° . of each individual receiving instruction. Requirements which are more and more being insisted upon by the schools may or may not be desirable, depending upon whether they are intelligently determined. The as- PHYSICAL TRAINING AND ATHLETICS 199 sumption, quite generally in vogue, that the only essen- tial requirement for an instructor is the ability to coach a team is an absurdity. Or if we add to this function the knowledge of the use of gymnastic apparatus, the essential factor is still neglected. The instructor, or some one for him, must first of all determine what each individual needs and what his capacities are, before the three-fold aim set up can serve as a guide in instruction. The literary content for physical instruction has Sources of been practically nothing in the great majority of schools instruction up to the present time. More attention needs to be given to this before physical education will be placed upon an intelligent basis. The material sciences, particularly the biological sciences, possess abundant material for this purpose if properly selected and organized. This was suggested in our discussion of the sciences and nothing need be added here except by way of emphasizing the necessity of making use of this ma- terial in the most practical and fruitful way. Whether we shall continue to use the material in science in- struction as such or whether we shall select out of the field such material as is useful, organize it, and give it another name, is not important. The essential thing is to make use of such material in promoting the cause of physical education. The three-fold aim, however, will continue to rely importance to a considerable extent upon intelligently chosen and excises wisely directed exercises for its realization. Mere knowledge of one's own physical needs and capacities and a knowledge of methods of supplying the needs and developing the capacities will, of course, avail 200 THE HIGH SCHOOL but little. The building up of a strong body and the development of control must depend upon exercises intelligently selected and carefully directed. The breaking off of old physical habits and the forming of new ones constitute a large part of the task. The only way to get rid of a bad habit of any kind is to set about vigorously to build up a good one. Oppor- tunity must be furnished by the school for the upbuilding of such physical habits as will result in proper development and control and will function in right living after the stimulus of the school environ- ment has been replaced by conditions of daily living. The place Athletic activities which now for the most part and function constitute the whole of the endeavor being made, are of athletics indispensable in any system of successful physical edu- cation. That such activities should constitute rela- tively much less of the total endeavor than they now do, is no doubt true. But the hope entertained by some that athletic contests can be entirely elimi- nated is wholly futile. The stimulus furnished by contests, the value of these in themselves from the social point of view, and the unifying influence when properly controlled which they exert upon the school as a whole, renders elimination undesirable if it were possible. The need is to correlate properly these activities with the whole of the situation and cause them to contribute more largely to the solution of the problem of physical education. Instruction and exercises should be properly corre- lated and go hand in hand. The instruction of the class-room should be utilized as far as possible in the gymnasium and on the athletic field. The work of Correlation of instruc- tion and exercises PHYSICAL TRAINING AND ATHLETICS 201 the gymnasium and the athletic field should in turn make clear to the student the importance and sig- nificance of the work of the class-room. The student should be taught what to do and then should be guided in the practice of doing those things that will result in correcting physical defects and in promoting health and physical vigor. CHAPTER XVIII ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM Length of the high school Present division between grades and high school unsatisfac- tory In a discussion of the organization of the curriculum the first thing to take into account is the length of the course. A four-year course is now quite generally accepted in practice. Few high schools have extended the course beyond four years and there is no general movement to do so. A large number of the smaller high schools offer a course of less than four years. Some of the larger schools are also offering two and three year courses along with the regular courses. In the former, the shorter courses are offered because of the limitations of communities as regards population or funds or both. The latter offer the two and three year courses for those students who can not or will not remain in school for the longer period. In neither case is the shorter course regarded with favor. Four years are considered as the standard for a high school course in this country. No reason can be assigned for our present practice of offering four years of high school work. Eight years for the work of the grades and four years for that of the high school is an illogical arrangement. The plan of six years for each is quite generally accepted as being wholly warranted and more desirable from every point of view than the present practice. Seven years for the grades and three or four years for the high school, ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 203 have also been suggested as a desirable modification of the present system. Change has been under discus- sion for a considerable time, but we are holding to the old division in spite of a quite general agreement that the practice is indefensible; and the imme- diate future gives little promise of reform. Reorgani- zation of courses of study now taking place, although extremely radical in some particulars, has not, except in isolated cases, disturbed the time-honored practice in respect to the length of the course. In view of this, our discussion of the organization of the curriculum will assume that four years will constitute the maxi- mum time allowed for the work. No attempt will be made to formulate an ideal No such curriculum for the simple reason that there is no such ?jj^ as thing. The factors that must be taken into account curriculum in the making of a curriculum are so variable that any attempt to formulate one to be used indiscriminately would be futile. Community interests vary to such an extent that no course of study, however valuable it might be in one community, could be used without some modification in another community. In some instances little modification would be necessary. In other cases, the course of study in one school would need to differ radically from that of another school. Administrative reasons also enter into the formula- tion of a curriculum. Small communities cannot do what large communities are able to undertake success- fully. For these reasons, the limits of the present chapter will permit of nothing more than a discussion of those fundamental principles that should serve as guides in the organization of a curriculum. 204 THE HIGH SCHOOL Problem of selecting subjects and subject matter Many schools attempt too much Limitation as to time The making of a course of study requires, in many schools, the selection of but a limited number of fields from which to choose material. The problem of select- ing from among the various fields of knowledge is quite as important as is the selection of material within the fields. To offer opportunity to any considerable extent for study in all of these various lines would mean an extensive program which the average high school is not able to maintain. The criticism called for at this point is that the majority of schools are attempting far too much in view of the limited facilities at their command. Re- form is needed in this particular, and until it is accom- plished no constructive work is possible. The first step in the right direction is a realization that the school can not offer everything, and in consequence must choose that which possesses the largest value in view of the particular limitations under which it has to carry on its work. In the case of many schools, this would result in the entire elimination of certain fields which under favorable conditions might be given an important place in the curriculum. The first limitation to be taken into account is that of time. While it is assumed in practically all of our educational literature that all high schools offer a four-year course of instruction, the fact is that in most of the states of the Middle West the two and three year high schools are very numerous. In Kan- sas, for example, in a total of approximately five hun- dred high schools nearly half the number offer less than four years of work; about fifteen per cent offer but one year of work; twenty per cent, two years; ten pel ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 205 cent, three years; and the remainder offer a four-year course. These smaller schools may not be entitled to be called high schools, but they are attempting to give secondary instruction and must be taken into account. They are attempting too much and must soon choose between being less ambitious, and pro- viding proper facilities for doing well what they at- tempt to do. The time limit, if there were no other reason, is sufficient to require that they attempt less and thereby take the first step necessary to secure a higher degree of efficiency. Further limitations are placed not only upon these inadequate schools but also upon many four-year high schools, equipmen because of inadequacy of equipment. With their facilities for work, a considerable number of the pres- ent four-year schools should not undertake more than three years of work. Science instruction and manual training are attempted without adequate equipment, resulting in a waste of time and effort. The communi- ties in which these schools are situated, are too fre- quently laboring under the delusion that the length of the course of study rather than the quality of the work done is of primary importance. They are no doubt honestly seeking to give their boys and girls opportuni- ties equal to those offered by the high schools of the larger towns and cities. But in fact, they are depriv- ing them of real educational opportunities through failure to provide the facilities demanded by their ambitious undertakings. The teaching force is another factor to be taken Limitations into account. The number of teachers should be ^achers adequate to the demands of the course of study. It 206 THE HIGH SCHOOL is unfortunate when one teacher is compelled to teach four or five different subjects, but the condition be- comes intolerable when in addition to this the teacher is expected to hear classes every hour of the day. No teacher under such circumstances can do satisfactory work, and no community that permits any such thing has a right to expect very much from its schools. Two teachers and a four-year course — and even three teachers in the case of elective subjects — constitutes an unwarranted combination. If a community can- not or will not provide more teachers, then the only alternative is to attempt less work. Problem These limitations operate to restrict the amount Shoois °f work attempted. They also enter into the matter different f determining the character of the curriculum. If large schools less than four years of work can be offered, or if four years of work is offered with few electives, the problem of curriculum making is very different from the case where a large number of electives is offered and pupils, acting upon the advice of parents and teachers, choose those lines of work which seem best suited to their needs. If the curriculums of these schools are properly organized, we have in the case of the larger schools a number of courses of study instead of a single one. To select any one of these courses as the only course that a school can offer to all the pupils might naturally be a serious error. The tendency on the part of the smaller communities merely to duplicate in so far as they can the curriculums of schools in larger communi- ties, has been entirely too prevalent. More independ- ence is needed on the part of the smaller communities in determining the opportunities offered to their boys ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 207 and girls for a high school education. The difficulty of selection is generally in direct ratio to the degree of limitation under which the school carries on its work. It is freely granted, that it is difficult to determine interests of averages in the matter of deciding what kind of a ^afmust course of study should be maintained by a high school govern providing few or no electives. Nevertheless, this is precisely what has to be done. The interests of the majority of the pupils of the school must be the de- termining factor. This question is determined every- where by the relatively constant factor to which reference has been made, and further by the probable social demands that will be made upon those who constitute the majority. What lines of work, taking into account all the circumstances, will probably fur- nish the best educational opportunities, is the question to be answered. In arriving at an answer, it is neces- sary to consider some of the influences that will prob- ably have to be ignored to a considerable degree. The first of these influences to be considered is that College of college entrance requirements. No defense need quirements" be entered to the charge that we are under-estimating not d eter - . mining the value of the influence which the college has upon influence the high school. Neither is it required, that a dis- cussion be entered into concerning the value of the stimulus which the high school should give the pupil to inspire him with the desire to go to college. In a previous chapter this matter has been discussed at sufficient length. The fact is that the course of study offered by the small high school has been too largely infTuer>ced by college entrance requirements. The 208 THE HIGH SCHOOL majority of the boys and girls of this class of schools will not go to college. Unless it can be demonstrated that a college preparatory course does best serve the needs of this majority, then the minority should not determine what opportunities the majority are per- mitted to enjoy. A very strong presumption against the value of the college preparatory course is furnished by the fact, that it is planned wholly with a view to preparing the students for pursuing academic work throughout a college course. Nor narrow Another influence is that arising out of the narrow hiterest?* 7 vocational interests of the community. If we had a single demand instead of several, it would still be true that the function of the school is not chiefly to train for any particular vocational activity. When there are several such influences, it is evident that most of them would have to be ignored even if such training were attempted. The demands of the com- munity are no more valid than the demands of the college, unless they permit the schools to provide those opportunities that furnish to the pupils a kind of environment possessing real educative value. It is no more good educational policy to compel the pupils to take bookkeeping or stenography or some other subject preparing for vocational activity, just because one or two pupils demand it, than it is to com- pel all to take four years of Latin and three years of mathematics because one or two wish to prepare for college. The only grounds upon which either of these alternatives should be chosen is that these subjects possess a higher educative value than other subject matter possesses. ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 209 On the positive side of the question, fortunately, we proper find certain definite guides in the solution of the prob- ^* s °. f lem. The larger interests of the community are served best by furnishing to the pupils that kind of instruc- tion which the peculiarities of the adolescent period demand. There is perhaps no order of importance in these demands. Yet if choice must be made, it seems that physical efficiency, the development and rendering intelligent of vocational interests, and prepa- ration for leisure occupation should have first con- sideration. If these interests are all taken care of, we shall have gone a long way in meeting the demands made upon the high school. These aims of education furnish us valuable criteria for making the selection of means, however great the limitations may be upon the school. Every school should offer something in the social studies, in science, and in English. If it can offer no more than these three lines and do it well, these should constitute the curriculum. If some of the present curriculums of our smaller Work of schools were measured by these standards, it is quite ™^ ls not evident that they would be found wanting. Too standard- many schools allow their courses of study to be de- termined by other reasons than those arising out of educational values. The education offered by the small school should be just as valuable as far as it goes as that offered by the larger school. It must choose its means with a view to accomplishing that which is most essential. When the question has been answered concerning the fields that should be selected as over against cer- tain other fields that must be neglected, the further 2IO THE HIGH SCHOOL Courses of smaller schools not merely sections of courses of larger schools Problem in larger schools one of organization General plan of curric- ulum question arises as to what shall be done within these fields. If the field of social science be selected and if in the light of the circumstances it appears to be best to offer but two years' work in this line, it would not be wise to select the material offered during the first two years by a school that is able to provide four years of instruction. Or if it is decided to offer but one year of mathematics, it is quite likely that the courses should differ materially from any one year offered by the larger schools. The more extended courses in these lines mentioned, or in others, pre- suppose the necessity for laying foundations for further study. But where the time is limited, if it is chiefly devoted to laying an extensive foundation that is all that will be accomplished. If but two years are offered in mathematics, there appears to be no justifi- cation for devoting three-fourths of this time to alge- bra. If but one year is offered in science, a course in "general science" is preferable to a year of a single science or a half-year each of two sciences. What has been said concerning social science, material science, and mathematics should be said regarding any other subject. The problem of curriculum making is very different for the larger schools. They are not restricted as are the smaller schools and are relatively free to offer a wide range of electives. This largely eliminates the problem of selection and rejection of lines of work, and creates a complex problem of organization. The first question has to do with the general plan of the curriculum. One plan is that of parallel courses. Courses are designated so as to represent the emphasis ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 211 employed in selecting the subjects. Various designa- tions have been used such as College Preparatory, Classical, Scientific, English, Latin, Commercial, Mod- ern Language, Manual Training, and so on. Examina- tion of numerous courses of study from the time this plan of organization was first used up to the present, reveals that these terms sometimes mean but very little. They often indicate nothing more than an opportunity to substitute one line of work for another in a very limited way. The Modern Language course, for example, may not differ from the English course ex- cept that two years of German are required whereas in the English course this work may be elective. The course called Elective may not differ materially from Parallel any one of two or three other courses, except that a course little work is required in commercial subjects. The English course, so-called, does not usually require any more work in English than any other course. The name has a negative rather than a positive meaning, in that it signifies the absence of foreign language as a requirement These examples are given merely to show that the courses do not possess such prepon- derance of material as to warrant the designations. They show also that the subject that is supposed to constitute the center around which other material is to be organized does, as a matter of fact, perform no such service. The Classical, College Preparatory, and Latin courses are not usually subject to this criticism. They all indicate about the same thing, namely, a college preparatory course, and are made up of the old humanistic studies with English added. These courses not only indicate the emphasis upon 212 THE HIGH SCHOOL certain subjects, but that the course as a whole serves one purpose, that of preparing for college. Criticisms The criticism upon this plan in general is that the o s p an or g an i2ation of the curriculum is not what it purports to be. The name of the course is supposed to in- dicate that it represents some controlling idea, that some particular type of subject represents the ideal or educational aim and that the course as a whole is so organized as to permit the realization of this aim. On the contrary, these courses too often represent a mere hodge-podge, and while the names indicate a wide range of educational opportunity, in reality they merely mean much ado about nothing. A manual training course, for example, that provides one or two years' work in wood and metal without the opportu- nity to study other subjects belonging in a course in manual training is a deception. This example will serve to illustrate what might be said of other so-called courses. Whatever the plan of organization may be, the facts should justify the educational principle which is supposed to underlie it. Any other view of the case, leads to meaningless terms and results in confusion. Required Another plan which is now in more common use is eiectives*" 1 that of free electives. This signifies that a few sub- jects are required of all students, and a relatively wide range of electives is offered from which a student may choose at will. We have used the word plan, however, in a very loose sense because it frequently happens that the so-called elective system means the absence of either plan or system. Requirements and electives under this plan may amount to the same thing as the loosely organized "courses" referred to above. The ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 213 name of the system signifies nothing valuable unless it stands for some definite educational aim. Why have requirements at all? Or, on the other hand, why permit election of subjects? The answer to these questions if properly conceived will furnish the criteria in selecting the required subjects and will point to the conditions under which electives are to be chosen. The requirement that all students must pursue cer- Required t . 1 i ,. i , , subjects tarn subjects, in order to be valid, must be supported should by the actual fact that these subjects possess inherent JJJSw values from the point of view of the aim, not possessed value in the same degree by other subjects. The practice must be supported by another fact, viz. that the subjects are taught in such way and under such con- ditions as to render the realization of these values highly probable. No other basis than this will justify the selection of any subject or subjects, and require these to be pursued as over against other subjects that may be elected. It needs to be said here for the bene- fit of educational practice, if not educational theory, that the superior value assumed for any type of sub- ject matter in the absence of good teaching and favor- able conditions under which to carry on the work, has led to tremendous waste in education. The group system is a device that has been worked The group out to aid in the organization of subject matter. This system is quite extensively used in the colleges and employed to some extent in the high schools. If its use continues in the higher institutions, it is not un- likely that it will come into more general use in the high schools. The group system, in brief, is the select- ing of a particular field for the major work and then system 214 THE HIGH SCHOOL Lack of agreement regarding choice of minor subjects Criteria for determining relative values of subjects choosing other fields as minors. For example, the material science group or the language group or what- ever else may constitute the major work indicates that the student will specialize in the major field and will select from certain other fields for less extensive study. The system, however, is at present in a state of con- siderable confusion. There is general agreement that the language group, for example, should require the major work in the languages. But when we come to selecting minors from other groups the confusion arises. Some insist that the minors should be chosen in related fields in order to permit of a relatively high degree of specialization. Others with equal insistence declare that the minors should be chosen, in so far as may be possible, in such way as to insure breadth of education representing the larger cultural values. Until an agreement is reached concerning the relation which the minors in the group should bear to the major, no definite plan of organization will result. Assuming that there are one or more fields in which material will be found possessing higher educative value than in other fields, what are the criteria to be employed in determining what field or fields contain these higher values? The answer is none other than what has already been given in our discussion through- out the consideration of subject matter. The indi- vidual factors on the one hand, having to do with the needs and capacities of the adolescent, and social de- mands on the other hand, will determine the order of importance assigned to the various subjects. If these demands, psychological and social, were used as ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 215 criteria in selecting subjects as well as subject matter, the curriculum would indicate more clearly than it now does, a well-defined educational policy. In answering this question, there are fortunately Most outstanding present needs of these young people de- needs oi manding attention. The high school period is the one Iearner . . must govern in which these needs will have to be met if they are met at all, and these potential capacities, if developed to the greatest advantage, must find opportunity for development during these years. Pupils are in the great transition period, and they will become some- thing other than they now are both physically and socially before these four years are past. They are forming permanent social attitudes. Interests are being determined and technique in social control is being worked out. If we are going to make requirements at all, it is Required evident that subject matter should be selected from determined those fields which possess the greatest values for these b ? these needs immediate purposes. If we look at the question from the side of social demands, any intelligent community would insist that the first ithing that the school must undertake to do is to help young people at the point of their greatest present needs. That material which furnishes the most direct point of contact, and which serves most directly in the processes of present devel- opment, should have right of way. Other material, lacking these essential qualities, will no doubt furnish valuable supplementary aid, but just because it is one or more degrees removed is sufficient to warrant giving it a secondary place. What applies most directly in securing normal physical development, and 2l6 THE HIGH SCHOOL Conditions hindering working of elective system Individual differences and social demands require electives in promoting present social control answers the ques- tion concerning what subjects should be required of all students. The question of electives is rather a vexed one be- cause of no general agreement as to underlying prin- ciples. One of the difficulties is that the term itself is capable of so many meanings. So-called free elec- tion may mean a great deal or it may mean very little. Even if free choice were allowed to every pupil, the curriculum is often so limited as to render very little choice possible. And again, if electives are allowed only upon the advice and with the permission of teachers, the system after all might differ very little from a course where the requirements were absolute. A further consideration is that the matter of making the program often enters into the case and interferes with an elective system. These and other conditions that might be mentioned, have rendered the whole situation extremely chaotic. The contending parties in the controversy concerning whether electives should be provided, and if so to what extent, have not infre- quently been talking about different things. It seems necessary because of the confusion of terms to dis- cuss the question of electives at more length than would otherwise be required. The underlying principle in support of an elective system is that individual needs and capacities, at least of a secondary sort, vary sufficiently to require some latitude in determining the course which an individual should pursue. Added to this is the further fact that the social demands, particularly those of the voca- tional activities, vary to an extent which makes neces- ORGANIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM 217 sary some provision for satisfying these demands. In consequence of these demands, some consideration must be given to supplying the needs of individual students through a well worked out scheme of elec- tive subjects. Electives are not makeshifts. On the contrary, they are opportunities provided to meet in- dividual needs and capacities. The elective system requires that choices be made in such manner as to insure that its purpose be realized. The pupil unaided is not competent to make intelli- Conditions r r # c under which gent choices. It not infrequently happens that par- choices ents do not possess the necessary information to ^° de furnish proper guidance. The responsibility must rest largely upon the teachers. They must, however, possess the knowledge both of the individual and of the educational means referred to above. The ad- vantages of an elective system can be gained only by an intelligent administration of it. It must meet different individual needs and provide for differences in capacities or it fails of its purpose. If teachers are to give advice in the absence of knowledge and with- out a realization of the importance of intelligent choice, nothing but failure can be expected. It is important too that the advice be given in such way that the student will choose for himself and still choose wisely. One of the advantages that an elective study has over a required one, is the fact that the pupil does not feel that he is pursuing the subject under com- pulsion. This advantage should be secured as far as possible in the guiding process. The important thing after all is, however, that such choices be made as will result in the greatest good to the student. For a 218 THE HIGH SCHOOL young person to go through high school choosing electives without chart or compass is intolerable. There is no particular virtue in any plan, per se, whether it be that of parallel courses, requirements and electives, or the so-called group system. Any of these constitutes a mere framework and does not in itself solve the problem of curriculum making. The only service rendered is to furnish a convenient form by means of which the content of the curriculum can be organized in the most useful way. In the appendix will be found a few courses of study, selected from a large number examined. These represent what some of the better high schools of the country are doing. They not only will be found useful to show what is being offered by these schools, but will also afford opportunity for comparison and criticism. B. THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION CHAPTER XIX THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND THE CURRICULUM The high school, any school for that matter, is a The social social institution. The social character of the curric- of the ulum has already been pointed out. It grows up out sch ° o1 of the social process and the aim is to have it so func- tion that it will aid in controlling the process. The curriculum contributes in giving to the school its social character, and is valuable just in proportion to its contribution in this particular. One reason why frequent revaluations of subject matter are called for, is because of the necessity of keeping its social contribution up to the highest point. But the curric- ulum accounts only in part for the social character of the school. Wherever we rind a group of people there we have some sort of social structure. The fundamental fact of a group is association, and this means that the members are in some sort of relation with one another. There are leaders and followers, and each is in turn influencing all the rest and is being influenced by the rest. A group is not a mere aggre- gation of individuals. No group can exist without common interests and common purposes. The indi- viduals act and react upon one another and out of these associations grow up social aims, and social means are chosen for realizing these aims. 220 THE HIGH SCHOOL The kind of It is not a question then of whether we shall have structure a social situation, but rather what kind we shall have. Whether the aim of the group will harmonize with the aim of the school will depend upon the kind of social structure that we secure. If left to themselves, the young people will create some sort of social organi- zation and of a kind which will very probably be more or less antagonistic to the school. Not that they will purposely do this. But in the absence of proper direc- tion, self-appointed leaders who have natural tendencies to assert leadership will be instrumental in creating a social situation in the school, out of harmony with its best interests. The school The fact that the school is a social institution, for and a S ° C1 the reasons already pointed out, is the most significant socializing t h mg a bout it except one other fact. This fact is that institution ... .. . , _. . . it is primarily a socializing institution. This is true of course of any school, but is particularly true of the high school. The adolescent period is marked in no other way so distinctively as by the fact that it is a period of socialization. The reason for this is the peculiar social needs and interests of the adolescent. In no other respect should the high school differ so radically from other types of schools as in its social organization. This is true simply because socialization is taking place so rapidly during the adolescent period. What has been said concerning the curriculum and its contribution to the social character of the school, de- rives its full significance from the socializing function of the school. The social organization, like the intel- lectual organization, must be such as to promote this socializing process. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 221 Adolescents, no doubt, have an extremely keen in- Proper social setting terest in social organization and endeavor. But their s interests are not all social in this restricted and narrow sense. They have other interests, intellectual and vocational, of which account must be taken and to which the school, in the last analysis, must make appeal. The real problem is to give these interests a proper social setting and to create an adequate social environment in which the employments of the school are carried on. The problem of social organization is, in brief, a Problem of three-fold problem. First, to effect a social organi- atireSoid zation which will permit the most advantageous use one of the subject matter of the curriculum. Second, this organization must take into account the educa- tive value of group activities in purely social matters. And third, it must assist in solving the problem of school government in such a way as to promote respect for rightfully constituted authority and give adequate opportunity for experience in developing the power of self-control. In utilizing these means of socialization, the social instincts and interests of the pupils will receive proper direction and will be given sufficient opportunity for expression. The work of instruction cannot be successfully car- Relation of ried on in the absence of proper social organization, organization The first problem is to organize the school on the t0 the cur ~ . riculum social side, so that the subject matter may be used in a way that will be most efficient in furthering the socializing process. This has both a negative and a positive side. We must first of all safeguard the school against a social organization that will interfere 222 THE HIGH SCHOOL Class-room group the primary group of the school Importance of this fact with its chief work, that of giving instruction. One of the reasons why a good beginning is so necessary is that in the absence of a definite educational policy, a social structure develops through the initiative of the pupils themselves which makes it very difficult to carry on the work of the school. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the fact that social structures will develop. If these do not develop as the result of a definite educational policy, they will develop by sheer force of the fact of having a group of people who are considerably like-minded because of common social interests. The emphasis here is upon the fact that if we wish to prevent a social structure developing which is out of harmony with the aim of the school, the only way is to provide one that is in harmony with it. The most important group of the school is the class- room group. The recitation where the teacher and pupils meet for the consideration of tasks already assigned and for the assignment of other tasks, should be the chief means of socialization within the school. This is true, however, only when group interests are taken into account in setting up standards, and group activities are taken advantage of in carrying on the work. Intellectual interests are, in the last analysis, social in character and the group interests of the class should be properly utilized. In recent years there has been much written concern- ing the necessity for improvement in the social life of the school. No inconsiderable amount of this discussion has been not only unfruitful but even harm- ful, just because it has failed to recognize that the SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 223 class-room group is the one upon which chief reliance must be placed. The result has been to lessen its importance in the eyes of both pupils and teachers. In the discussion of this group from the standpoint The nature . . ■ of the group of its social organization, it is necessary to deal with certain very elementary considerations. We usually speak of the class-room group as though it simply represented the pupils as individuals, on the one side, and the teacher as a sort of a question mark, on the other. Too frequently, in practice, if not in theory, we assume that the recitation hour merely furnishes opportunity for the teacher to hear one lesson and to assign another one. It is further assumed that the relation is between the teacher and each pupil, and that the pupils bear no relation to one another. That is to say, we have a mere aggregate of individuals each of whom is responsible to the teacher for the perform- ance of a certain task, and that from the standpoint of junction, we have no social group at all. This false assumption lies at the very root of most of the diffi- culty arising in the school. It gives rise to a situation resulting in poor work and in the most vexatious problems connected with matters of discipline. The first thing demanding attention on the part Functioning of the teacher is to secure the proper functioning of ° a \„ group the right sort of group aim. When we talk about the aim of the recitation we are not referring to the aim of the teacher nor to the aim of the pupils as indi- viduals, but rather is the reference to both teacher and pupils as a group, having common interests and com- mon purposes. The only assurance of successful work in the class-room is the presence of interests that can 224 THE HIGH SCHOOL be relied upon to unite all the members of the group, the teacher and the pupils, in a common endeavor. One of the difficulties arises frequently out of the attempt to create interests where we have no right to expect any. It is the teacher's duty to find the point of contact and to establish relations between those things in which the pupils are now interested, and those things in which we hope they will become inter- ested. Lack of attention in the class-room usually means that there are group interests interfering with the aim of the recitation, while attention means that the group interests and the aim are in harmony, standards The relations which the pupils sustain to each other o e group j n ^ dass-room are of great importance. The group feeling is strong and it can be made to function power- fully in promoting the success of the work undertaken. If the standards set up are in reality group standards, they will serve as incentives to good work. There can be no interests that can be relied upon in the absence of this kind of standards. We all know well enough that standards function only when they are felt to be actual standards of performance by those engaged in the group activity. They are vital only in the de- gree in which responsibility is felt for their maintenance. This is true whether we refer to standards of work or standards of conduct. How can proper standards be secured, and how can they be made to function, are pertinent questions. Leadership Social standards mean common interests and pur- poses and this implies cooperation among all the mem- bers of the group. In order to get these standards set up at all and in order to get them to function, there SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 225 must be those who take the initiative and who feel the sense of responsibility. There will be leadership in the class. There is always leadership where we have a social group of any kind. Whether it is of the right kind, is another question, and this is the crucial point in the whole situation. What we are saying concern- ing the class-room group could be said with equal cer- tainty of any social group. We are simply making application of universal principles to a particular situ- ation. The foot-ball coach knows well enough that these things that we are saying are true. He knows that unless he can develop a competent leadership within the team he cannot develop a team upon which he can rely. He knows further that no mere ma- chinery of organization will secure a spirit of coopera- tion so necessary in any successful group activity. The class-room teacher should be equally wise and realize that he must rely upon a leadership within the class and a spirit of cooperation among its members, if he is to give to his work the social setting so necessary to success. The lack of proper spirit in the class can be attributed more often to failure of the teacher than to any other cause. The teacher fails first in aim. This aim in order to function properly must be a group aim which is of course formulated clearly and definitely by the teacher. In the absence of such formu- lation, there can be no spirit of cooperation in the class. What the teacher needs to realize is that until the aim formulated by him becomes the aim of the class as a whole, it fails to function as a unifying influence. In order to determine this intelligently, there are certain considerations which have to be taken into account. 226 THE HIGH SCHOOL Interests and capacities of members of the group Subject matter in relation to group interests The first of these considerations is a knowledge of the interests and capacities of the individuals com- posing the group. The preparation which they have had for the work and all possible social motives which can be successfully appealed to, are to be taken into account. It is entirely conceivable that a class pur- suing the same general subject in one school, or that classes in the same school at different times, would require that some adjustments be made to meet their needs. No one can plan the work in detail except the teacher who possesses all available knowledge of individual differences secured in the presence of the concrete problem. Printed courses of study are useful merely as general guides. To follow one of these implicitly is to neglect a vital consideration, viz. first hand knowledge of the preparation, capabilities, and interests of the individuals who constitute the class. The teacher must further have an intimate and vital knowledge of the contribution which is possible to the type of subject matter being employed. It is essential, as has been pointed out, that the aim correspond with the capabilities and interests of the pupils. There can be no true educational aim in the absence of such correspondence. The means, however, of realizing the aim are no less important. Emphasis has already been placed upon the fact that in the various types of subject matter each makes its own contribution in its own way. This involves on the part of the teacher a thorough knowledge of subject matter, and ability to organize it for teaching purposes. This does not mean simply that the teacher should have SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 227 a wide range of information, nor that mere specializa- tion in a subject equips one to teach it. It too fre- quently happens, that a high degree of specialization contributes to the failure of the teacher to take suf- ficiently into account the necessity for selecting and organizing the material in accordance with the aim which can be determined only by taking into account the pupils to be taught. The teacher should regard the subject matter from the point of view of finding a group interest and a motive for group activity. The social character of the class-room group needs empha- sis nowhere more than it does when material is being chosen and organized. Taking into account these two factors, the personnel Daily of the class and the subject matter to be used in instruc- fa the work* tion, the general plan for the work of the semester or the year can be intelligently determined. These plans, however, at best can be only general in character. There remains the extremely important fact that ad- justment and readjustment must be made from day to day as the work goes on. Elimination of some subject matter selected and the introduction of other matter to take its place will be one of the readjustments made necessary in the program of the work. It is not unlikely, too, that some other organization of material will be called for in order to meet the contingencies that arise. And finally there will be the shift of em- phasis that must take place as the work progresses. The teacher's duty in these particulars is a very impor- tant one, and the success or the failure in class instruc- tion is largely determined by the wisdom exercised in making these necessary readjustments. 228 THE HIGH SCHOOL Preparation of the lesson on the part of the teacher Conducting the recitation There are several factors entering in here, none of which can be left out of account in any fruitful dis- cussion of the topic under consideration. The first of these is the preparation of the lesson on the part of the teacher. In the preparation of the lesson, two things must be kept constantly in mind. One is that the lesson must be prepared from the standpoint of its proper assignment. The other is preparation from the standpoint of teaching it. These two points of view from which to regard the preparation require emphasis. To set the task properly is a long step toward success. If the class leaves the class-room today knowing precisely what the task is, and, with an aroused interest in its preparation, there is reason- able assurance that the class will return tomorrow prepared for the recitation. If, however, too little is done by way of explanation, or if too much is done, or if the right thing is not done when the lesson is assigned, the pupils will work under such disadvantage in preparing the lesson that failure is the only logical result. There can be no interest or unity of effort in the absence of a proper assignment of the lesson. A task properly assigned, as important as that is, by no means completes the teacher's work. The con- ducting of the recitation itself is a duty for which the teacher must prepare in advance each day. An intimate knowledge of the subject matter, a definite aim as to what should be accomplished, and an equally definite plan concerning the part the teacher is to play and that each pupil is to play, are all necessary. Some shifts will have to be made as the work of the day progresses, but in a general way the recitation will SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 229 be successful in the degree that the teacher has made definite plans for the work of the recitation hour. It is desirable to repeat here that in preparing, both for its assignment and its teaching, the teacher must take into account the group situation upon which we have placed emphasis throughout our discussion. It is not the purpose here to discuss methodology Method in detail. We are concerned rather in placing empha- group sis upon the fact that successful method must take Ration ... mto into account the group situation. It is rather strange account that we lose sight of this in employing two of the so-called methods of conducting the recitation. For some reason, in practice if not in theory, it is assumed that the question method and the topic method are modes of dealing with individuals, while the lecture method is the only one which deals with the class as a whole. A pupil who is reciting either upon a topic or in answer to a question, should be no less the center of interest than is the teacher when making a state- ment of fact. It is necessary to have each member of the group, and this of course includes the teacher, contribute to the success of the recitation. Attention is not always necessary to the same de- a test of tail of the recitation, but attention to some phase of method the work on the part of everyone is required. The outstanding problem is to maintain throughout the whole period the social solidarity of the group. Con- sequently in considering method, the teacher should realize that the severest test and also the most vital test of whether a method is working satisfactorily, is determined by whether it has a tendency to disintegrate the class or to hold it together. 23° THE HIGH SCHOOL Testing results Individual and class instruction In order to determine whether the socializing process is actually going on, we have to apply other tests than those which ascertain whether the pupils as individuals have acquired in a more or less satisfactory degree certain information contained in the subject matter. This latter fact can be determined after a fashion by a system of examinations. This method is useful enough for its purpose, but it by no means reveals the truth concerning the whole situation. If the socializ- ing process is being aided by the use of the subject matter, there ought to be some evidence of this other than a mere revelation of whether the pupil has mas- tered the subject matter. The best evidence that the socializing process is going on, is the manifestation of a spirit of cooperation in the work through which it is hoped to achieve the end in view. A pupil who makes no contribution in the class-room to the successful work of the class as a whole, much less the pupil who actually willfully interferes with it, is in all probability not receiving very much from the instruction that will result in greater social efficiency. The test of whether a method is working successfully is in the last analysis a social test. There should be no controversy over the relative merits of individual instruction and class instruction in case we are dealing with normal individuals. Within reasonable limits of variation, granting that the teacher knows how to handle a group, the pupil who is a mem- ber of the class has a decided advantage over the one who works alone. The teacher who fails to recognize the advantage of having a number of pupils grouped together for purposes of instruction, fails to grasp the SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 231 educational significance of social organization. The fact that there are different kinds and degrees of ability, unless the variation is too great, is not a hindrance if the fact is recognized and provided for in the manage- ment of the class. There are some kinds of work in which group work is more difficult to carry on success- fully, but it is doubtful whether this difficulty is ever so great that it is not more than offset by the advantage to the pupil of working with his fellows. The adoles- cent is peculiarly susceptible to social stimulus, and no less significant is the social character of the response. With the foregoing in mind, individual instruction Provision which is always more or less necessary, will have its ^diSl " proper setting and will bring its largest returns. Any interests plan of individual instruction, however, which in effect capacities isolates the pupil from his fellows, interferes with the integrity of the class and deprives the individual of the social setting for his work. There are always those in the class who are capable of doing more work and others who are capable of doing less work than the average member of the class. The former should be given opportunity to make special contributions to the work of the class, and the latter should also receive every encouragement to contribute as much as pos- sible to the success of the work. The standards set by those of superior ability will act as incentives to the class only when the least competent are made to feel that their work is necessary to the success of the class. The individual differences are thus recognized, without isolating either the more capable or the less capable. The class-room group, as has been pointed out, constitutes the center around which the social organ- 232 THE HIGH SCHOOL Relation of ization of the school is to be maintained. The other to the class- groups have no different aim than this one. The means room group on jy are different. No organization should be tol- erated in the high school which is not under the direction of the school authorities and which does not contribute in its own way to the socializing process, as conditioned by the aim of the school. Socialization of some sort will go on whether or no. The business of the school is to see to it that it goes on in the right way. Even if it were possible to eliminate all other groups from the school, it would not be desirable to do so even from the standpoint of the success of the class-room work. There are two reasons why this is so. First, they furnish a proper social environment inside of which the class-room work can be carried on. And second, they furnish opportunity for enlargement of the class-room work itself. Need of A proper social environment is a primary considera- en^ronment tion. The teacher who imagines that the significant life of the school begins and ends in the class-room imagines a vain thing. The social impulses are seek- ing and finding outlet at every turn. Association, not isolation, explains the situation in all of its various aspects. It is simply a question of how much of this social life the school will control, and whether it will so exercise control as to unify it and make every part of it contribute to the realization of the aim of secondary instruction. A proper school spirit cannot be created in the class-room alone. The interests there are too narrow and the employments too re- stricted. It is necessary to correlate other interests and other employments found outside the class-room* SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 233 The only way to secure proper correlation is through an educational policy which recognizes the possibilities in the situation and which provides a means of con- trol in harmony with the policy. This in no way minimizes the importance of the class-room work. It rather recognizes its limitations and undertakes to give to it its proper setting. We have always and everywhere a choice between a general social situ- ation which hinders or one which helps, and wisdom dictates the choice of the latter. Any policy which promotes interest in the school and encourages loyalty to its standards and pride in its achievements, thereby promotes and sustains proper school spirit. The extent to which other organizations may be An fflustra- made to aid in promoting interest in class-room work is taon a matter of vital importance. One of the reasons why class-room work is not more successful is because its relation to the whole life of the school is not taken into account and utilized. By way of illustration a notable exception of this neglect may be cited. The chorus, the glee club, and the orchestra are organ- izations recognized as necessary to successful instruc- tion in music. Other subject matter is limited far more than music in this particular, but the principle that governs is the same. Whether separate organi- zations are always necessary is not important. The point is that whenever possible the class-room work should lead to group activities outside the class-room. And we are speaking now wholly of the relation which this has to the class-room work itself. Later we shall consider its value from another point of view. Some of the activities to which class-room work should lead 234 THE HIGH SCHOOL Principle does not apply in the same degree to all subjects Segregation of pupils in some lines of work are debate, dramatic representation, oratorical con- tests, scientific demonstrations, exhibits of work in manual and domestic art, and other activities of the same general nature as those enumerated. No one would assume that the instruction relating to phys- ical education which does not lead to activities out- side of the class-room, would have any particular value. The principle which should guide throughout is that wherever possible the results of the work of the class-room should be put to some school use, both as a stimulus to class-room work, and as means of fur- nishing larger opportunity for expression. It is evident, as stated above, that all subject matter of instruction does not yield in the same degree to this sort of treatment. All that can be said is that some subject matter is thus limited, but this is no reason why all subject matter should be put in the same category. The mathematics teacher may inquire how this principle applies to his work. The answer would have to be conditioned first by the kind of mathematics that he is teaching. In any event, the principle would not apply to the same extent that it does to some other lines of work. This principle like any other is valid where it works and in the degree in which it works. That it does work to some extent, and in some relations to a large extent, renders it valid and useful. Segregation of pupils in certain lines of work of the high school has much justification. Whether it be due to sex differences or to social influences, girls' interests in certain lines of work differ from those of boys, and the social demands which will be made upon girls are sufficiently differentiated to call for provision SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND CURRICULUM 235 for meeting these demands. The social organization of the school should in larger degree take into account these psychological and social considerations. In physical education, because of social taboos if for no other reasons, segregation is necessary if anything like thoroughness in instruction is accomplished. In material science, social science, and the manual arts, group interests can be appealed to much more success- fully if the boys and girls are separated. Segregation is one of the means through which the appeal to group interests can be made effective and adequate prepa- ration for social service made more certain. Thus far we have discussed the social character of Curriculum not only the school from the standpoint of the class-room group, factor con- But the curriculum is not the only factor which con- ^ ci ^f ng t0 tributes either to the social character of the school or character to its socializing function. The associations within sc hool the school must be utilized in order to realize upon all the means at our command. We have said that even if it were possible, it would be undesirable to eliminate them. The problem is to utilize them in such way that they will not only contribute to the success of the class-room work, but that they will also make an additional contribution toward the more complete per- formance of the function of the school. This phase of the problem will receive attention in the succeeding chapter. CHAPTER XX THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY Social needs In any fruitful discussion of the social organization people 02 °f the n ^§ n scno °l> it must be taken into account that the social instincts and interests of adolescents are seeking opportunity for expression. If these oppor- tunities are not furnished by the school, they will be sought elsewhere. Young people crave social life and it must in one way or another be provided. The class-room work does not furnish sufficient opportunity for meeting these needs and satisfying these demands. The question which the high school must answer is, whether it will compel the young people to rely upon organizations resulting from their own initiative or whether it will provide for such organizations. The duty of directing and controlling the social life of young people is an important one, and the high school is the only means through which the average com- munity can exercise intelligent and adequate direction and control. Functions of In planning the social organization of the high school, organization two things nee d to be kept in mind. The first of these is the necessity of a proper social environment inside which the work of the class-room can be carried on successfully. This has already been discussed. The second point needing emphasis is that the social organ- TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 237 ization itself, aside from its relation to the class-room work, may be made to function as an agency in direct- ing and controlling the whole process of socialization. If we were to regard this matter only from the nega- Necessity tive side and inquire, what is one of the hindrances ridLng'for to the successful work of the school and to the proper leisure up-bringing of the youth of any community, we should find that it is the manner in which the young people spend their leisure time. No teacher need be told that the social organizations, instituted and controlled by the pupils of the high school, frequently interfere seriously with the school work. This situation con- stitutes a very practical problem which thrusts itself upon the school and which the school is wholly unable to grapple with in the absence of a proper social organi- zation of its own. These social functions may be harmless enough in themselves. But the frequency with which they occur and the late hours incident to them and the absence of direction and control, render them hindrances to the work of the school; and they too frequently have a demoralizing influence upon the young people themselves. In discussing organizations outside the school, we Greek letter cannot leave out of account a certain type of organi- societies zation which is perhaps the most troublesome, the most difficult to deal with, and the most demoralizing of them all. We refer here to the Greek letter societies. All school administrators and teachers are practically in agreement that these organizations are always and everywhere subversive of the interests of the school. Whatever good reason there may be for them in the college or the university, the reason is not valid in 2 3 8 THE HIGH SCHOOL Reasons for their persistence Problem must be dealt with construct- ively any degree when applied to the high school. The universal testimony is that the influence of these organizations, not only upon their membership but also upon the high school as a whole, is always de- moralizing. So aroused have some communities be- come that legislatures have been appealed to and the aid of courts has been invoked in an attempt to sup- press them. There is no defense that can be successfully made for these organizations. They are undemocratic in spirit, maintain false social standards, inculcate a spirit of snobbery, and, in a word, are thoroughly un-American. In spite of this indictment against them, however, it is not difficult to account for their perni- cious persistency. They arise out of a perfectly normal tendency in adolescent life. The young people do not form these organizations because they want to do immoral things, or because they wish to defy author- ity. It is rather because they are seeking outlet for their social impulses that can be found only in some type of social organization which will satisfy their peculiar social cravings and interests. The fact that it is a Greek letter society or that it is called a fraternity or a sorority, has no significance in itself. It is the character of the organization, the fact that it is uncon- trolled, that it has no proper social motive, viewed from the standpoint of the school, and that it cannot func- tion in any useful way, that renders it intolerable. The only proper solution of the problem is to deal with the situation in a constructive way. Mere pro- hibitions concerning these organizations and against social functions in general are futile. They create TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 239 antagonism, lead to deception and misunderstanding and utterly fail to solve the problem. The community and the school both need to recognize more fully that the young people in forming these organizations and in promoting social functions, are exhibiting perfectly natural tendencies and that the only abnormal thing about it is that these tendencies are rinding expression in the wrong way. The high school should undertake to care more Positive largely for the social interests, even if it were to benefit ^problem the school only in a negative way. It is worth doing, even if the effort resulted only in preventing those activities which have a tendency to undermine the work of the school. But there are positive reasons why the school should undertake to perform this duty. Socialization can not be accomplished alone by the influence of the curriculum, however efficiently the work of the class-room may be performed. It has to be accomplished in part through social organizations which, on the one hand, supply the proper stimulus to social activities and, on the other hand, provide oppor- tunities for proper social expression. It is probably true in most communities that the actual socializing influences are to be found in larger degree outside the school than within it. Some of the influences are un- directed and uncontrolled, and are opposed to the best interests of the community and of the young people themselves. The demand is that this process, now too largely undirected and uncontrolled, be directed and controlled by the school. Too many communities have no educational policy comprehensive enough to pro- vide for the needs and interests of its young people. 240 THE HIGH SCHOOL The work in social centers A proper high school function One of the most striking illustrations of the influence exerted by constructive educative policies is furnished by the work being carried on in some of the social centers. A visit to Hull House, located in one of the industrial districts of Chicago, reveals what can be done and what is in fact being done through a well- defined educational policy. In the first place, the work being carried on there is a complete refutation of the as- sumption that young people prefer to spend their leisure time in ways against which we all make such vigorous protest. The dance-halls, the pool-rooms, and ques- tionable resorts of every sort have not abated in the least their attempts to attract the young people to these places. At Hull House the amusements are sane and wholesome, wisely directed and under proper con- trol. No questionable amusements and no rowdyism, and yet the number of young people found there on any evening is limited only by the facilities at the com- mand of those who have the work in charge. One sees there boys and girls, mostly of the adolescent age, engaged in work or play, ostensibly managing their own affairs, orderly, contented, and law-abiding. This illustration is given not because every community should undertake to solve its problem through the use of these precise means, but because it does demon- strate what every community should attempt to do with the means most readily at its command. The high school is the institution in the average community upon which the responsibility of perform- ing this task must rest. There are two reasons for this. In the first place, this larger undertaking by the school would result in a more vital interest in the TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 241 work of the school on the part of both pupils and parents. Where an effort has been made to constitute the high school the social center for the young people of a community, their response has been so hearty and the spirit of cooperation so manifest that no doubt has prevailed concerning their appreciation of the undertaking. The parents have been quick to see the significance and meaning of the endeavor. Their interest has been aroused in the school and its work, and a working basis has been established upon which closer relationship between the home and the school could be maintained. The second reason why the high school should con- Relation of stitute the social center, is the fact that high school totiie* er teachers are better qualified than any others who can problem be secured to undertake the work. In a previous chapter reference was made to the repeated failure of well-intentioned undertakings because of the lack of proper direction and management. The whole history of community endeavor is largely a history of failure, and no other result than this can be expected in the absence of a trained leadership to direct and carry on the work. Teachers should be qualified for the work, and if they are not, it is an evidence of their unfitness for the work which they are now attempting to do in the more restricted sphere of the activity of the school. An argument frequently used against the school Need of an undertaking this task is that the various organiza- p ^y ° n tions necessary to success will interfere with the work now carried on. This argument is no doubt valid in the absence of a definite educational policy which includes these social activities and which provides for 242 THE HIGH SCHOOL adequate direction and control. Without such defi- nite policy, nothing but failure can be expected. On the other hand, under proper direction and control these activities will not only not interfere with the work as it is now carried on but will actually promote it. The class-room work will be given a proper social setting, and the problem of school government will be rendered more largely an educational problem than it now is. At the present time so few of the activities are directed and controlled by the school that the problem of government is chiefly one of negative con- trol exercised for the sole purpose of restraint. School The purpose of this larger undertaking by the school should have . . . , , ., § , ... more com- is to give it more complete control of all the activities piete control j you ^. One of the causes of waste in education is over activi- J ties the failure to plan for play as well as for work and thus utilize as fully as possible all the interests of those who come within the influence of the school. One of the difficulties now in the high school situation is brought about by the isolation in which its work is usually car- ried on. There is lack of proper unity in the life of the pupils because of the break between life without the school and within it. Further than this, the school does not control a sufficient amount of the pupils' time to give proper direction and to render its work most effective. Any type of social organization that will remove these difficulties, will go a long way in assuring that the work of the school will be performed in a more satisfactory manner than is now being done. It is not improbable that the school year will be lengthened. But before doing this, we should more fully utilize the time of the school year as it is now constituted. TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 243 The problem of organization is a thoroughly prac- Value of tical one, and in the absence of definite educational ^^ etc policy no solution can reasonably be expected. Social- reiation- ization, whether it be regarded from the more narrow point of view or whether it be looked at from the stand- point of civic efficiency or from the angle of moral and ethical considerations, results from concrete social relationships. Young people have to have experience in social affairs. They have to learn how to evaluate situations, how to adjust themselves to these, and how, through cooperation with others, to secure social control. Experience cannot be secured except through direct participation. This means that they must take the initiative, assume responsibility, and put to a practical test the means employed in realizing social ends. Pupils, however, lack experience and do not possess sufficiently mature judgment to carry on these activities in the absence of direction, and it is the duty of the school to provide such direction as is needed. The first step in the process of putting these organ- importance izations upon a proper basis, is to see to it that they San^sodai" are properly standardized. The difficulty is, if pupils organiza- are left to themselves, false standards are set up. One of the chief evils usually connected with the social group within the school, is lack of character due in turn to the absence of proper standards. Standardi- zation is of far more importance than the mere machin- ery of organization, even from the point of view of the interests of the pupils themselves. The first requisite for the success of any school group Standardiza- is a proper standardization of membership. This is membership necessary to the welfare of the school as a whole, but 244 THE HIGH SCHOOL Class-room work basis for stand- ardization at this point emphasis should be placed upon the welfare of the group itself. One of the reasons why- social groups outside the school so often fail to func- tion in any helpful way is that requirements for mem- bership bear no real relation to the nature of the work undertaken. If this mistake is to be avoided within the school, care must be exercised at the outset in seeing to it that the membership of any group is so conditioned as to make possible the stand- ardization of the work which the organization under- takes to carry on. The work of the class-room furnishes the proper basis for such standardization. To make successful work in the class-room a requisite for membership in the various other school groups, not only furnishes a stimulus to good work in the class-room, but what is more important for our purpose here, it gives character to the groups in which membership is so conditioned. To make membership stand for something worth while is the surest way of enlisting the interests of pupils. The spirit, however, in which the test is applied goes very far in determining its real value. If the test is applied merely to compel better work in the class and the pupils fail to see any relation between it and any real standardization of the other groups, its appli- cation is of doubtful value. It may secure, under protest, a higher standard of work of a mechanical sort, but it will not improve the spirit of the work, and this is the important thing. Let it be understood that these scholarship tests are applied in the interest of the work of the social organizations, and the great majority of pupils will yield hearty response to the requirements. TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 245 It is necessary to standardize membership in these standardi- social organizations, but it is equally important that activities the activities also be standardized. The first require- ment after membership is properly safeguarded, is to provide a motive that will furnish a social bond and will function in harmony with the whole purpose of the school. There is no advantage gained in bringing these organizations within the school unless a social motive can be furnished that will result in unified, pur- poseful effort. One of the dangers to be avoided is the presence of social organizations which have no legiti- mate school purpose. They sap the life of the school and fail to make helpful contribution to the develop- ment of those who compose the membership. In determining whether any particular type of organiza- tion is desirable, it is necessary to inquire whether it stands for some legitimate social motive viewed from the standpoint of the interests of the school. Any organization within the school that is isolated from its great fundamental interests, serves as a hindrance to successful administration. No doubt many of our schools are burdened with importance organizations that serve no useful purpose. The functioning multiplicity of organizations within the school, in the of a proper socidJ, absence of a well-defined policy for their control, motive hinders rather than helps the school in performing its work. If we were to go outside the school, it would not be difficult to find organizations the usefulness of which would be greatly increased through the function- ing of a definite social motive. What is the social bond holding together the young people's religious societies in the average community? From the young 246 THE HIGH SCHOOL people's point of view, what is the social motive func- tioning in these organizations? And looking at the matter still through their eyes, what is the type of social endeavor possible to united effort? A serious attempt to answer these questions would result in a partial explanation, at least, of why these organiza- tions are so difficult to keep alive and why so little relatively is accomplished through them. This is not an attack upon the worthy aim of these organizations, nor should it be regarded as an expression of lack of appreciation of the good purposes of those who are endeavoring to unite young people in fruitful Chris- tian work. It is rather an attempt to point out in a constructive way why these worthy endeavors are not more successful. The ideal set up for any organ- ization must function as a motive if it avails anything. If it does not, one of two things will happen. The organization will be such only in name and member- ship, will signify nothing worth while either to the individuals or to the community. Or by sheer force of the fact of social relationships some motive will arise which will not function in harmony with the ideal con- ceived by the founders of the organization. The net result is an organization not functioning in any vital way or in the wrong way. Mere These examples found outside the school are cited machinery . does not because they are familiar to all and furnish illustra- socTa\ ltUte ti° n of the futility of an organization in the absence organization f some social endeavor that needs to be carried on. Further than this, the endeavor must be such as can be and will be carried on successfully, taking into account the interests and capabilities of those who TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 247 are responsible for the management of the organization. Not a few organizations within the school, as well as those without it, do not fulfill these conditions. Mere machinery of organization in the absence of some social need and without adequate means of pur- poseful control, does not constitute social organization. The latter presupposes a necessary work to be done in which the members have a vital interest and which they are capable of doing through united effort. Organizations outside the school are no doubt diffi- Class-room . rr • -n, • work basis cult to standardize m any effective way. But withm forstand- the school, there is no excuse for the existence of any ^vities organization which does not contribute its share toward the realization of the socializing aim of the school. The class-room work furnishes opportunity not only for standardizing the membership, but also for stand- ardizing the work attempted. Some subject matter yields more readily to such treatment than does other subject matter. But the fact still holds that the class-room work provides interests that can be util- ized in many of the social activities of the school. Reference has already been made to the importance of these activities in furnishing breadth of interest to class-room work. At this point it is necessary to emphasize the value of making use of these interests in activities whose purpose is to render the school more efficient in carrying on its work of socialization. Music is one of the subjects which can be easily Music as an and fruitfully utilized for standardizing social organi- mustration zations. As individuals, high school pupils, particu- larly boys, have but little interest in music. But when the work is given a social setting in glee clubs, choruses, 248 THE HIGH SCHOOL English and other subjects The voca- tional subjects and orchestras, their attitude is completely changed. As has been pointed out, barring the fact that boys are not able to sing at a certain stage of the adolescent period, their musical organizations are quite as suc- cessful as those of girls. When a group is formed for accomplishing a definite thing in music in which the whole school is concerned, interest is aroused not because of the machinery of the organization, but because of the successful appeal which can be made to group motives. English furnishes abundant material for group work. If the right emphasis is employed in the class-room work, both the content and the spirit of the work can be carried over easily and naturally into various social activities. The dramatic interest, for example, can be relied upon and if properly utilized it not only secures better work in the class-room, but also pro- vides an extremely useful basis for supplying both group motives and material for social endeavor. Other subject matter, such as material and social science and the modern languages, gives opportunity for standardizing group activities. Debating leagues, sci- ence and language clubs, and like organizations ful- fill requirements on the social side, while at the same time they promote those intellectual interests which in themselves have distinctive socializing value. In the departments representing the vocational in- terests like opportunity is found. We have already spoken of the social character of these interests, and the group motive is even more easily appealed to here than in those subjects which we think of as more ex- clusively intellectual in character. The manual and TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 249 household arts offer possibilities not only in the class- room but outside as well, for fruitful expression of group consciousness that appeals to the interests of the pupils and at the same time affords a type of experi- ence that is truly educative in character. The con- clusion of the whole matter is that the strongest appeal that can be made to high school students is, after all, to those interests which may be properly designated as school interests. Fortunately, it is not necessary to make these interests secondary, or to sugar-coat them with a detail of organization that tends to obscure the real function of the school. There is a type of organization in almost every high Utilizin g , , class organi- school which may be rendered very effective in carry- zations ing on social activities. We refer to the class organiza- tion. This organization appears to be inevitable and unless some useful purpose is found for it, it is very apt to be a source of trouble to the school. Class "scraps" and other outbreaks are evidences of neither mental incapacity nor moral degeneracy. They are rather the result of group consciousness in the absence of any legitimate group motive. If these organiza- tions can be furnished a proper school motive, they will serve two very useful purposes. The first of these is that they render unnecessary a multiplicity of organi- zations for carrying on the work of the school. In the smaller high schools the class organizations provide opportunity for carrying on nearly all the social activi- ties of the school. In the second place, they serve a very useful purpose as a means through which control of the school can be exercised. The class-room work can be utilized for standardizing both active mem- 250 THE HIGH SCHOOL Problem of direction and control High school dramatics bership in these groups and the social activities undertaken by them. The chief problem arising out of these social organiza- tions within the school is one of direction and control. They must be made to serve some useful school purpose and at the same time provide opportunity for freedom of initiative on the part of the students. The mode of standardization suggested in a preceding paragraph pro- vides opportunity for such initiative and still allows for proper direction and control on the part of school authorities. As illustrations of the nature of the diffi- culty incident to these organizations when not properly standardized, two typical cases will be cited. At the present time high school dramatics is a sort of fad, and in many schools gives rise to a serious problem. It is doubtful whether the practice of giving school plays is in any large degree justified, because of lack of proper standardization. The plays selected are not infrequently valueless from the standpoint of any function of the school, and the results are positively harmful to those who take part in their presentation. The general result is to interfere with the legitimate work of the school and nothing is gained to compen- sate for this loss. Interest in dramatic representation is a normal interest in the adolescent and is not diffi- cult to turn to good account. But in the absence of any educational aim or method, no result worth while can be expected. If the demand for utilizing this perfectly normal interest arises out of the demands of class-room work, criteria will be furnished both for selecting the plays used and for choosing those who participate in their presentation. TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 251 The athletic situation in most high schools is far Athletic from satisfactory. It is no doubt true that the harm- activities ful influence of these organizations have been some- what lessened by scholarship standards which have been set up, conditioning membership in them. But it is doubtful whether very much has been accom- plished in the way of actually standardizing the work carried on. It is unusual to find any correlation be- tween athletic activities and the other work of the school. The reason for this is not difficult to find. There is no provision in the curriculum for physical education, and in the absence of this no other result than lack of correlation is possible. This condition is extremely unfortunate both because of the importance of physical education and because of lack of opportu- nity for proper standardization of athletic activities. There is no doubt good reason for continuing to a means require successful work in English, mathematics, and ^^g" the other subjects pursued as a condition for participa- thes e , , m, 1 activities tion in mter-school contests. There is, however, a much more valid reason for requiring certain standards of scholarship in those subjects making up the part of the curriculum which deals with physical education. This policy would result in putting things together which naturally belong together. The fuller recog- nition of the importance of physical education would thereby be promoted and athletic activities, particu- larly inter-class and inter-school contests, would be put upon a basis where control could be intelligently exercised. In most schools, no other organizations are so isolated as are athletic organizations and no others lack in the same degree points of contact with the 252 THE HIGH SCHOOL Student leadership as a means of control Functions performed by student leadership actual work of the school. This isolation is no doubt in part due to the fact that athletics in the high school came in as a result of college influence, at a time when the lower schools were not able to grapple in a con- structive way with the problem arising out of the forced situation. A continuation, however, of a lack of constructive policy is both undesirable and unneces- sary. Points of contact should be established so as to stimulate interest in physical education on the one hand, and on the other hand, to secure means of properly standardizing all organizations within the school whose purpose it is to control athletic activities. One of the essential things necessary to the success of these organizations is to secure the right kind of stu- dent leadership. Failure occurs at this point more fre- quently than at any other. Pupils who are in school largely because of interests in these activities, assume leadership to the detriment both of the organizations themselves and of the interests of the school as a whole. No one acquainted with the practical aspect of deal- ing with the problem of control will need to have the fact emphasized that competent student leadership is the fundamental necessity. As those acquainted with the situation know, effective control must for the most part be exercised through student leaders. Outside control, if efficient, results in hampering the activities and renders the organization useless for any school purpose. Not only is student leadership the most successful method of controlling these organizations, but it is the only means through which they can be made to function as educative agencies. These organizations TRAINING FOR SOCIAL EFFICIENCY 253 — whether literary, athletic, or whatever else they may be — are fundamentally social in character and their chief purpose is to furnish opportunity for ex- perience in social affairs. In order to perform this function, the members of the group must take the initiative and must feel a sense of responsibility for the success of the undertaking. These things can be accomplished only through leadership within the group. Actual leadership must not be confused with the machinery of organization. Experience in matters of high school administration demonstrates that the most influential members of a group are frequently those who do not happen to hold office. The actual leaders, because of interest, initiative, and capability, are those who assume responsibility and give character to the organization. If they happen to constitute the officers of the club or society, well and good. But it is by no means necessary that they should. They mould public opinion and this, and not official ma- chinery, is the all-controlling factor. In the last analysis, the greatest values attaching Moral and to school organizations are moral and ethical ones. JJJj^ This fact should be the controlling factor in their management. This is true even of athletic organiza- tions. The fact that one is required to play in a com- plex situation and is held responsible for making his contribution to the success of a group undertaking, is a kind of experience not to be valued lightly. The situation calls for the exercise of self-control, the sub- mission to what at times appears to the individual to be an injustice in the enforcement of rules, and for submission to defeat, because of the superior skill 254 THE HIGH SCHOOL of his opponents. No greater lesson can be learned in school than to play the game hard and fair without reference to the outcome. Other social activities give rise to moral and ethical situations in which young people receive a type of training, the value of which can scarcely be over-estimated. CHAPTER XXI THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND SCHOOL GOVERNMENT In the preceding chapters, school government has School gov- been under consideration. In any discussion of social antedated organization, we are dealing with the social aspect of problem the school and in consequence with problems of ad- ministration. School government is not to be thought of apart from the general considerations which have occupied our attention. Not only is it not separate from these, but the special problems arising out of the whole school situation which call for governmental control, can have no meaning if isolated. There is a sense, however, in which school govern- A real ment, discipline if you please, calls for special treat- non e the ment. Educational theorists frequently profess to less believe that these problems ought to be and can be eliminated. But practical people who have to deal with the situation in a concrete way, know that in our present state of educational endeavor we have not succeeded in ehminating some very real and at the same time very vexatious problems arising out of the general school situation. No amount of argument will convince one who is at work in the typical American high school that problems of discipline do not arise constantly, and that the manner of dealing successfully 256 THE HIGH SCHOOL Necessity for proper attitude toward problem Problem arises out of relation- ships within the school with these problems does not constitute one of the severe tests made up in the efficiency of teachers. It is to this class, who have to deal with the concrete situation as it actually exists, that this chapter will make its chief appeal. In dealing with the problem of high school govern- ment, it is necessary to take into account some of the fundamental things that give rise to the situation calling for administrative control. The problem of discipline is too often regarded as one which is thrust upon the school by untoward conditions that should not exist. Our tendency is to regard the situation as abnormal, and this is responsible for many of the serious difficulties arising within the school. We theorize a good deal about the duty of the teacher being to teach, and insist that discipline is no part of his work. We argue that the high school pupil should be able to adjust himself to the demands of the school, and that if he does not do so, the school is under no obligation to him. The result of all this is that we take the wrong attitude toward the whole situation and, as might be expected, confusion and undue fric- tion result. When we face the facts, however, and regard them in a rational way, it is evident that these conclusions are all wide of the truth. The problem of discipline is a necessary one, arising out of the employments of the school. A group of people, just because of the relationship that the members sustain one to another, give rise to problems of social control. No one expects, for example, that any group of adults can successfully carry on any activity in the absence of regulations SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 257 and of some properly constituted authority for enforc- ing these in the interest of those concerned in the undertaking. Problems of social control always arise out of any social situation. In spite of this, however, the tendency is to regard the problem of discipline in the high schools as an extraneous one and that, by some hook or crook, it can be eliminated. This atti- tude results too frequently in the lack of a policy of government in harmony with the nature and purpose of the school. It is essential to recognize the necessity for a policy Problem a in the government of a school. In the high school, an 2e^^ educational policy as related to government is impera- ^ek school tive because we are dealing with adolescents. It is perhaps true of this period in greater degree than of any other period of life, that the most insistent prob- lem of the individual is one of making readjustments to social situations. The technique which the adoles- cent has built up for social control is largely inadequate for his present needs. The modes of adjustment which he has found entirely adequate up to this time are not only not useful, but they are actually hindrances in meeting present demands. It is a situation in which habits do not function properly and in which other habits have not been worked out adequately to meet the new demands. The teacher is frequently impatient with the boy because some of these old habits do func- tion when the demands of the situation call for another type of conduct. What the teacher fails to realize, however, is that the adolescent is engaged in the break- ing of old habits by the formation of new ones, and that it is the duty of the school to assist him in this 258 THE HIGH SCHOOL Control necessary in order that work may be carried on process. It is the breaking of old habits and the formation of new ones, or at least greatly modified ones, which gives rise to the situation in the high school, making the problem of discipline a peculiarly difficult one. School administrators are dealing with a concrete situation in which is found a class of individuals sus- taining peculiar social relationships. There are prac- tical difficulties arising in connection with the attempt to sustain these relationships, and it is these difficul- ties that give rise to the problem of government. The most immediate fact in this connection is, that control has to be exercised in order that the work of the school may be carried on. Regulations, both negative and positive, are required to meet the demands for orderly procedure in the employments of the school. Properly constituted authority must at times restrain from activity, and at other times compel to activity, in order that the school may perform its rightful function. This is one point of view from which school govern- ment must be regarded. Order is the first law of the school, and orderly procedure must in some way be secured. If this cannot be accomplished in the best way, then some other method must be employed. Inexperienced teachers are frequently inclined to theorize about how things ought to be when the situa- tion calls for action dealing with things as they actually are. Order must be secured and maintained even at the expense, sometimes, of the use of methods having doubtful pedagogical justification. This important and necessary function of school government is, however, frequently defeated by being SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 259 held too conspicuously before the minds of teachers Not a police and pupils. The problem of government is not a educational police problem. It is, on the contrary, a most vital problem and insistent educational problem and must be dealt with as such. School government has to do primarily with a system of ethical relationships through which the young people ought to learn some of the most important lessons which the school can teach them. As pointed out above, occasional situations may call for the use of methods lacking pedagogical warrant. But any governmental policy that regards these methods as any other than extreme measures to meet exceptional situations, utterly fails. Methods of con- trol and methods of teaching are, in the last analysis, subjected to the same educational tests. They both deal with learners and are only one side of a process of which learning is the other side. The right attitude toward authority, respect for Mere con- the rights of others, and the development of a sense oniyfunc- of social responsibility, are matters concerning which *°*°\ lessons have to be learned through actual experiences government in social relationships. These things cannot be taught categorically and by word of mouth. Any of us who have in reality an intelligent attitude toward authority, have developed this attitude through experiences in consequence of which we have found out its real sig- nificance. Our respect for others has not been de- veloped through any abstract conception of rights and duties, but rather through experiences which have taught us how intimately our own welfare is bound up with the welfare of others. A keen sense of so- cial responsibility has been developed, not primarily 260 THE HIGH SCHOOL Adolescent characteris- tics in relation to school gov- ernment through intellectual apprehension of high ideals and the making of noble resolves, but rather has it come through experiences in which we have been compelled to evaluate conduct in terms of its social consequences. The adolescent is called upon to make quite radical readjustments in his ethical relationships and is able to make them only in the midst of a situa- tion where the actual stress and strain of life is put upon him. Teachers and parents who really understand the significance of the great changes taking place in the transition from childhood to youth, never make the mistake of assuming that young people are lawless. On the contrary, they know that in no period of life is the respect for law greater, or the proper attitude toward authority more pronounced than it is during the earlier years of adolescence. That which distinguishes this period, however, from the one which precedes it, is the kind of law that is binding and the type of authority to which submission is readily ren- dered. It is true that the "thus saith I" kind of law is lightly regarded and the authority which promul- gates and attempts to enforce the law is little respected. The youth respects in very high degree any sort of social regulation which appeals to him as necessary and just, and he has equal respect for the authority which enforces this kind of law, even though he be penalized in its enforcement. He has high regard for the rights of others, revealed in the concrete social relationships sustained in the group of which he is a member. For abstractions he has little interest and even less respect. He is sensitive, even SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 261 morbidly so, concerning the matter of meeting his social obligations when he comes to feel that the de- mand growing out of concrete relationships consti- tutes an obligation resting upon him. He prefers to be misunderstood, to be punished, to be expelled from school even, rather than to fail to meet what he regards to be his obligations to his fellows. The sense of social responsibility is never more keen or more compelling than during the adolescent period. There is no adolescent need more outstanding and Moral and more commanding than the need of sympathetic direc- l^l tion in the formulation of criteria of judgment and in the working out of a technique in making adjustments to and in securing control over social environment. Any system or form or ideal of school government which fails to provide such sympathetic direction fails to perform its most important function. Educational aims and means and methods should control here as elsewhere in the school. Order must be secured and maintained, but order is not an end in itself. The final test of the efficiency of any system of government is found in the permanent moral and ethical influences it exerts. The vital question is not how orderly is procedure in the school, but rather what are the moral and ethical experiences resulting from its system of control. For example, if serious difficulty in the mat- ter of control arises in any considerable degree in the upper classes of the school, it is perfectly evident that school government has not performed its chief function. One of the best evidences that school govermnent is functioning properly is the fact that the pupils require less and less the exercise of its police power. 262 THE HIGH SCHOOL Policy of government must be suitable Military or autocratic form In determining the form of school government, it is necessary to keep in mind the moral and ethical aim already indicated. Further than this, the suitability of any form of government as related to the interests and capability of high school students must receive attention. Any policy of government inconsistent with this aim or which because of its character is not suitable for high school purposes, will have to be rejected. Some of the so-called systems of govern- ment advocated for use in the high school are borrowed forms and that fact alone should make us suspicious of them. The form of government, whatever it may be in name, must be determined by the nature of the employments of the school and the needs of those being educated. The military or autocratic form of government should theoretically require no discussion, because in name it was long ago abandoned. The spirit of it, how- ever, whatever fleshly form it may take, still abides. We call things by different names, but in fact the old spirit continues in many schools to dominate govern- mental policies. The "thus saith I" form of govern- ment never works, simply because the spirit of it is out of harmony with the needs and sympathies of young people. Yielding to this type of authority on the part of adolescents, is more often an evidence of arrested development than it is a sign of angelic dis- position. In a democracy where we are attempting to train for intelligent citizenship, there is no valid defense that can be made for this type of school gov- ernment. There is but one excuse even that can be offered for it, and that is the weakness and gen- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 263 eral incompetency of high school administrators and teachers. A despotism is neither a credit to those who are responsible for its maintenance, nor an agency that can serve any useful purpose in training for citizenship in a social democracy. A form of government which has flourished more Pupil or less in recent years and the superiority of which has been declared with a good deal of assurance, is called self-government, or more properly pupil-government. The chief source of pride of those who are sponsors for the harmful delusion that pupils are capable of setting up and maintaining an elaborate governmental system, is in its complicated machinery. Like any other com- plicated system, so much attention being given to the task of operating it, results in an emphasis upon the form, to the neglect of proper consideration of the edu- cative function which school government ought to perform. There are two criticisms to be made upon this particular type of social control. The first is that the form, which is political in its nature, is un- suited to the nature of the governmental problem in the school. Nothing is gained in the way of develop- ing self-control by substituting some pupil or group of pupils for the teacher, in a place of authority. The exercise of police power is just as subversive to the real aim of school government, regardless of who exer- cises it. The spying system, through marshals or monitors or by whatever name these officials are desig- nated, constitutes a form of government out of place in any school seeking to secure an increasing power of self-control. The second objection to the system is that it does not work. If orderly procedure is secured government 264 THE HIGH SCHOOL Meaning of self-govern- ment in the school Policy of government not form the essential thing and if the system succeeds in maintaining itself for any considerable time, it is because of the dominat- ing personality of the principal or some teacher who succeeds in spite of the system rather than because of it. The defects in the system are so apparent and the failures so numerous that it seems there are no valid grounds upon which it can be defended. Self-government, using the term in its proper sense, should have a large place in any scheme of govern- ment, and pupils who are exercising self-control should be found in increasingly large numbers as they pass through the high school. But that any definite body of pupils at any time should constitute the governors and that the larger body, on the other hand, should constitute the governed, should not necessarily follow. At the outset of the discussion it was insisted that the problem of government is essentially an educa- tional one. The relationship of teacher and pupil is no different here from what it is in any other school situation. The pupil is a learner in matters relating to conduct, and the teacher is the director and the super- visor in the learning process. There are certain types of social organizations that are essential in performing governmental functions, but the purpose of these organizations is to put at the command of the teacher the means of realizing certain definite educational aims. Pedagogical principles must govern here as elsewhere in the school. The particular form of school government is of itself not important. The significant things are a definite governmental policy which is in accord with the purposes of the school, and the choice of means that SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 265 are best adapted under all the circumstances to carry- ing out the policy. The purpose of school government is not only to keep order, but also to accomplish certain educational ends. The limitations in experience on the part of pupils must be taken into account, or these ends will not be realized. The real test of the efficiency of the governmental machinery is whether it is increas- ingly efficient as a means of education in and of itself. If this test is successfully met, government becomes less and less necessary as a means of securing favorable conditions under which the regular work of the school can be successfully carried on. Education, and not order in the school, is the final test of school government. The first essential of a successful policy of school Polic y /. , should government is that it enlists the sympathies and co- enlist operation of the pupils themselves. Any policy which ^^J hy does not do this in a considerable degree is a wrong operation policy, and the greater degree in which it does enlist the sympathies and secure cooperation, the more successful will it be in actual operation. There are various schemes, so-called policies, which because of their novelty may attract for a time, but cannot be relied upon for anything like permanent achievement. As soon as the novelty wears off and participation on the part of the pupils ceases to be a fad and a fash- ion, the schemes fail. Not novelty but pedagogical soundness must be relied upon to secure permanent cooperation. The actual condition of lack of sympathy and of Expression i r • °* group cooperation on the part of the students, is frequently conscious- revealed by the refusal to give information concern- n ^ t s ° f nthe ing the perpetrators of offenses against the good order pupils 266 THE HIGH SCHOOL Permanent interests of pupil attach not to form of govern- ment but to activities of the school. This expression of group consciousness is not an indication of abnormality. On the contrary, it is perfectly normal and highly commendable. It is an evidence that social responsibility is beginning to be keenly felt, and that moral and ethical standards, in terms of group relationships, are controlling con- duct. The unfortunate thing is that these standards frequently function in the wrong way and serve un- worthy ends. This spirit of loyalty to ethical ideals and to a sense of social obligation, should be made to function in the right way and be utilized both in the interests of the pupils themselves and for the creation of a proper school spirit. This loyalty on the part of the pupil to what he conceives to be a binding social obligation and which renders school government dif- ficult, is the very thing, properly utilized, that can be transformed into a most effective means of social control. Loyalty to the school consists in loyalty to these same ethical standards. The problem is to secure the proper functioning of these standards through the attachment of this loyalty to the larger and more permanent school interests. The seeking of cooperation directly in matters of government is not the best means for securing this attachment through which alone proper school spirit may be developed. The interest of pupils may be enlisted temporarily in a scheme of school government. But permanent interests attach only to those per- manent activities which the working groups within the school are actually carrying on. The importance of these activities should be kept constantly in the foreground, and the appeal made for cooperation in SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 267 securing conditions under which they can most success- fully be promoted. This puts the matter of govern- ment in its right relation in the minds of the pupils, and secures by indirect means genuine and permanent cooperation. An illustration will be used here to render more con- An uiustra- crete what has been said in the preceding paragraphs. on Two high schools in neighboring towns recently en- gaged in an athletic contest. Some of the pupils from the visiting school conducted themselves in a reprehensible manner. The game was played in the late afternoon and the visitors did not depart for home until evening. On the next morning, there appeared at the school where the game was played one of the older boys of the visiting school, asking permission to make a statement on behalf of his school. In effect, he wished to say that the pupils who made the disturb- ance misrepresented the spirit and the character of his school. He stated that they were being properly dealt with by the school authorities. He wished on behalf of his school to offer an apology for their conduct and to obligate the school to prevent the repetition of such an occurrence in the future. Back of the novelty in the mode of procedure indi- Meaning of cated above is the fact of a spirit of cooperation in the school which sought to reestablish friendly rela- tions. In the first place, it is evident that the refrac- tory visitors were reported upon by their fellows. This was an evidence of the existence of a true school spirit. The attachment of loyalty was to the interests of the school represented on that particular occasion by the members of the athletic group engaged in the inter- 268 THE HIGH SCHOOL school contest. Cooperation was not primarily in the matter of government but in an undertaking which had been interfered with by certain members of the school. What sort of punishment was administered to the offenders it is not important to know. It is known, however, that there was no elaborate ma- chinery of pupil-government in that school, and that no new or novel method of dealing with offenders was in vogue. The important thing is, that a type of public opinion prevailed in the school which rendered it self-governing in the true sense of the term. There was a true spirit of cooperation between teacher and pupils and among pupils themselves and a loyalty to standards of conduct within the school which rendered the problem of dealing with offenders comparatively a simple one. The essential thing in school government is not to provide elaborate machinery for dealing with offend- ers, but rather to secure such conditions as will in large measure eliminate offenses. There will be viola- tions of regulations even in the best ordered schools, and well defined policies are necessary for dealing with offenders. But to the pupils themselves, it is the matter of conduct in these concrete relationships to which we have referred that is of chief concern. It is not a civic problem at all, but rather a moral and ethical one. If we were to select the words most often used by pupils in connection with the matter of school government, we should find the words "fair," "just," "right," "wrong," and like terms predominat- ing. Unless suggested to them, little concern is mani- fested in the form of government, while emphasis is SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 269 continually laid upon its spirit. It is the spirit of government, not its form, that must be relied upon for eliminating offenses. The only way, however, in which to secure proper Expression school spirit is to provide means for its expression spM? 001 in the social organizations through which the work of through the school is actually being carried on. The machinery izations^^" of these organizations constituted by the pupils them- selves is necessary, but like the framework of a build- ing, it serves its purpose best when obscured. The motives of the group and the activities which give these motives objective reality are the things in which pupils are interested, and for this reason must receive the emphasis. One of the reasons why pupils resent government by the teachers is because the machinery is too apparent. Obscure the machinery by putting in the foreground group interests as a reason for regula- tion and give opportunity for group activities which provide opportunity for the expression of school spirit, and the resentment largely disappears. The assertion that high school pupils obey willingly Attitude of only those rules and regulations which they make and ^ward enforce through a system of elaborate machinery, is teacher- n t «iit. made rules put to a rather severe test when we consider athletic organizations. Nowhere within the whole range of school organizations do pupils have so little to do with making rules, and nowhere do they obey rules more implicitly. The reason for obedience is not in the source of the rules, but in the fact that they are nec- essary for carrying on the game successfully. The rea- sonableness of the rules in relation to the demands of the situation is the compelling factor. So it is in 270 THE HIGH SCHOOL The problem of dealing with offenders The classes of offenders the other groups of the school and the school as a whole. No doubt many teacher-made rules are pro- ductive of anarchy within the school. But this result follows not so much because they are teacher-made as because they have no justification revealed to the pupils by the actual concrete demands of the situation. In spite, however, of the emphasis which has been rightfully placed upon the necessity of policy in govern- ment which seeks to eliminate offenses, the problem of dealing with offenders is a persistent one and should not be lightly regarded. In fact, the method of dealing with offenders has much to do not only with determining the attitude of pupils toward government in the school, but with the spirit which prevails in the school as a whole. It is quite natural to classify offenses against the order of the school, and this is too frequently done to the neglect of classifying offenders. An analysis of conditions as they actually exist in every school, reveals that three more or less well- defined classes have to be taken into account. The relative number in each of these classes differs in different schools and in the same school at different times. But the recognition of the existence of each class is important. First, we have those pupils who do not know what the rules are that govern conduct in the various school relations. This class is relatively small in a school where the policy is to lay down and publish, verbally or otherwise, an extended code of rules governing all sorts of possible situations. On the other hand, where the policy of the school is to encourage pupils to dis- cover for themselves by a study of the situation pre- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 271 sented proper rules to govern, the number in this class will be larger and composed of the younger mem- bers of the school. The second class is composed of those who know what the regulations are but fail to appreciate their significance. Lack of interest in the activity interfered with and lack of experience in evaluating conduct account for this class. The third class is constituted by those who willfully and ma- liciously violate the regulations of the school. This class is always relatively small and usually quite harm- less where the right sort of school spirit prevails. For these reasons, if there were no others, there is no justification for making this class the basis for deter- mining a method of dealing with all offenders. The foregoing analysis reveals the psychological Psychology csJ. cii3.r3.ctGr character of the problem with which we have to deal. fthe Method to be effective must take into account the P roblem offender himself and also all others who are in any way connected with the school situation out of which the offense has arisen. Viewed from any standpoint, the justification of any method is found only in its edu- cative value. The great lesson which the adolescent has to learn is that freedom is positive, not nega- tive, that it is not conferred but achieved, and that it can be achieved only by assuming those obliga- tions which naturally grow out of the social situation of which he is a part. When he fails in discharging these obligations, any method of dealing with him which shifts the responsibility to teachers or other pupils, deprives him of valuable experience which he would gain through an opportunity to solve his own problem in so far as he may be able to do so. 272 THE HIGH SCHOOL The responsi- bility must be placed on the offender Practical workings of this policy The situation viewed from the standpoint of both the individual and the group, demands that the re- sponsibility be placed back upon the one who is respon- sible for interfering with the good order of the school. When an offense has been committed, the first ques- tion that should arise in the minds of everyone con- cerned is, What is the offender himself going to do about it? He should be made the center of the whole ethical situation, both for purposes of his own educa- tion and for the influence that such a mode of pro- cedure would have upon others. When this method is accepted by the school, offenses decrease with the increase of the experience of pupils, and offenders cease to be either heroes or martyrs. In actual practice, it will no doubt sometimes happen that pupils will either refuse to accept the responsi- bility or fail to devise means by which they can restore themselves to their former relationship with the group. Teachers and other pupils may have to be called in council to help decide the issue. But the employment of this method demonstrates that pupils in general readily accept it as "fair," "just," "right," and use it with a high degree of success. Through the use of this method the emphasis is placed upon the individ- ual's responsibility to the group, and not upon the machinery which the group may be compelled to set up in order to carry on its activities. The method is sound psychologically because the adolescent does feel responsible primarily to the group as such. On the social side, no other method is as effective in training young people in recognizing social obligations, and in securing right attitudes toward meeting these obliga- SCHOOL GOVERNMENT 273 tions. The adolescent is more or less unconsciously endeavoring to discover these obligations and to re- spond to their demands. The school can render him no higher service than to aid him in making this endeavor conscious and intelligent. CHAPTER XXII MATERIAL EQUIPMENT Inadequate equipment limits work of the school True as regards textbooks as well One of the objections which will no doubt be offered to the plans suggested in our discussion of the social organization of the school, is that in the average com- munity these plans could not be carried out. This objection has some validity and is supported by con- ditions actually prevailing. Buildings are not suit- able and grounds are inadequate, and these facts have to be taken into account in considering the actual problems involved in administration. Until very re- cently school architecture has not taken into account the social interests and needs of young people, and the movement is quite as recent toward the recog- nition of the importance of securing adequate school grounds. We have no better objective evidence of old educational ideals than the school houses found in many communities. The old ideals assumed that the only function of the school house was to provide a place for the pupils to study and recite their lessons. The social aspect of education was not included in the ideals, and in consequence it was not taken into con- sideration in the architecture of school buildings. Insufficiency of equipment is not confined, however, to school buildings and school grounds. An objec- tion may be made with equal force to the practicability of our suggestions concerning the intellectual organiza- MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 275 tion of the school. Textbooks for the most part, both from the standpoint of the type of material included and its organization as well, will not be found to be in accord in any large degree with the criteria which we have set up for the selection and organization of material. Some very decided improvements are being made in the character of textbooks at the present time and yet there is much that remains to be done. The disciplinary conception of education has so thor- oughly controlled all of our educational practices that textbooks as well as school buildings are objective evidences of the commanding influence of this ideal. The fact that educational ideals thus find expres- New edu- sion in the material equipment of the school, makes it ^eds must evident that the restatements of educational aims now ^d expres- going on must result in radical changes in matters equipment of equipment if the new ideals function in any large way in educational practice. The primary question before us is not whether textbooks or buildings or other forms of equipment are suitable for our purposes. The vital question is whether our contentions with reference to the intellectual and social organization of the school are valid. If they are, then equipment of every sort must be made to conform to the aims and ideals. In actual practice, it will be found that much can be accomplished in the way of realizing these new aims and ideals even under present unsatisfactory condi- tions. One of the reasons why practice in our schools has not kept pace with educational theory is because we have put too much emphasis upon lack of equip- ment and have not put forth enough effort in using the equipment at our command. The first step 276 THE HIGH SCHOOL toward securing the sort of equipment necessary to render our work the most efficient is to make intelli- gent and persistent use of the equipment already at our command. The fact that equipment is inade- quate is frequently obscured by the other fact that it is either not used or is misused. Buildings One of the criticisms that can be made upon almost enougif 6 any building used for high school purposes is that it is not large enough. When one inspects a high school building, having in mind the characteristics of high school pupils, one is impressed with the fact that every part of the building is constructed on too small a scale. Entrances and exits are inadequate in size, halls and stairways are too narrow, cloakrooms are overcrowded, recitation rooms and laboratories are too small, and sometimes nothing in the way of anything like an adequate assembly room is provided. Buildings are not constructed on the proper plan, but much would be gained even if we continue to construct them on the same plan, if they were made much larger. No adequate provision is made for movement except within the most restricted limits. If any standards at all are used in determining the amount of room needed for carrying on the work of the school, it appears that they have taken into account only the needs of the school when the pupils are sitting or standing. Movement is possible only when controlled by single file, lock-step rules. It would not be far out of the way to say that if the ground dimensions of every school house were multiplied by two, no more room would be afforded than is required by the nature and employments of the school. MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 277 The second fact to be taken into account, if ade- Not properly quate room is available, is its proper distribution in P lanned order that each employment of the school may be carried on under reasonably favorable conditions. Since our ideal of secondary education has changed, means and methods must change in order that the ideal may be realized. This calls for a new type of school architecture which provides facilities for the employment of new means and methods. For example, in theory at least, we place great emphasis upon the use of the library, but in spite of this, it is a rare thing to find a suitable room even in our modern school build- ings for carrying on library work. Library facilities are by no means measured alone by the amount and character of the material provided. It is necessary, of course, to have a place where this material can be kept and properly cared for. This provision, how- ever, is only a beginning. The essential thing is to provide a place where this material can be used to the best advantage and which will serve as a stimulus to its use to the fullest possible extent. As a general thing, either no room is provided for library work, or if one is provided, it is a little stuffy affair, inade- quately lighted and ventilated, and wholly unsuited for the purposes of its intended use. Some of the lines of work recently introduced into Much work the high school are being carried on under such un- J^ don favorable conditions, that nothing except the most under meager results can rightfully be expected. As a conditions general proposition it is safe to say that no school should undertake to teach manual training, domestic science, or agriculture, in case the building was erected 278 THE HIGH SCHOOL before these subjects were introduced into the curric- ulum, unless the building has been remodeled. And in many instances the attempts to remodel have not resulted in providing adequate room facilities. The practice much in vogue of using the basement of the school building for work in these lines is indefensible. The basement is usually a room with a low ceiling, damp and foul-smelling, poorly lighted, with scarcely any ventilation at all, and is fit only as a store room for coal or junk. The zeal for progress in a community too frequently far outruns good judgment. And this is one of the instances in which good judgment has lagged far behind. Need of In addition to the enlargement and proper distribu- fcSties ti° n of room in a building, there yet remains to be considered the necessity for facilities not usually pro- vided at all. In this day a school building which does not contain a gymnasium adequate to the needs of the school, ought to be regarded quite as incomplete as a building would be if it provided no place for laboratory work in science. It is true that the larger towns and cities are almost universally providing gymnasium facilities in the buildings now being erected. But because of this we must not conclude that the prac- tice is by any means general. The fact is that in many of the buildings constructed even within the last decade, no such provision is made. In answer to the demand for gymnasium facilities, the argument is fre- quently used that the boys and girls in the small towns and rural communities have sufficient opportunity for exercise outside the school. In reply, it needs to be said that exercise properly directed and controlled MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 279 is one of the essentials of physical education and that the gymnasium is a necessary means for providing such direction and control. From this point of view, it makes no difference whether the school house is situated in a city, a small town, or even in a rural com- munity, a gymnasium is necessary to its completeness. What has been said in a general way in reference to the crowded conditions of the school building, applies with particular force to the gymnasium. It should be large, well-lighted, well-ventilated, and adequately equipped. Throughout our discussion of the social organization The school of the school it was implied that the school should rdatio^fto constitute the social center for the young people of its ? se as a SOC1S.1 CQHt.BT the community. In accordance with this conception, the school building will have to be constructed with reference to these larger demands made upon it. Special rooms should be provided which are free from desks, blackboards, and other accessories of the class- room. These should be fitted up with special refer- ence to the kind of activities which will be carried on. There is nothing to be gained by talking about the importance of the school directing the social activities of the pupils, in the absence of some sort of provision making such direction possible. When a group of pupils desire to have a social function, it should be possible for them to find at the school building the most convenient place for meeting. This is not only the most economical but also the most effective way in which the community can provide for a sane and helpful type of social life for its young people. Facili- ties of this sort are not yet provided. And the surest 280 THE HIGH SCHOOL Inadequate grounds An Illustra- tion way of securing such provision, is for the teachers to encourage the pupils to use the school building up to the full limit of its possibilities as a place for car- rying on their social activities. When a building is thus put to a practical test and is found wanting, no community will hesitate long to provide the facilities needed. A building adequate in size and properly arranged, must be supplemented by grounds sufficient to allow the school to perform its rightful function. In no single respect have school authorities been so short- sighted as in the matter of providing adequate grounds. In the great majority of communities, they have appar- ently been oblivious to the large contribution which adequate grounds properly used may make in the education of their children. The reason for this is not far to seek. The old conception of the school merely as a place where children prepare and recite their lessons, has exerted the same influence in the matter of school grounds as it has had upon our school architecture. As an illustration of the difference between the old conception of the school and the new, the following example serves a good purpose. In a certain large town there was recently erected at great expense a magnificent high school building for the accommo- dation of about eight hundred pupils. The building itself occupies approximately one-half of the ground owned by the district. For all practical purposes, it would be just as well if the building occupied the whole tract, because the tract unoccupied is so small in comparison to the needs of the school that it has MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 281 but little value. A few years before this building was erected, a high school building was put up in a neigh- boring town to accommodate less than four hundred high school pupils. This building, however, was erected upon a tract of land containing about four acres. And later the citizens, by public subscription, purchased at a cost of several thousand dollars an additional four acres and presented it to the district. The advantages resulting to this community can scarcely be over-estimated. The causes leading up to this action on the part of Advantages rm • °* adequate enterprising citizens are worthy of mention. This grounds community had taken a good deal of pride in the care and maintenance of its school grounds, and so success- ful were they that the grounds were the most beautiful and the best kept in the whole town. Some of the more thoughtful people, however, saw that this policy was of doubtful value. They perceived that the chil- dren were being deprived of the use of the grounds for play and outdoor sports. Flower beds and shrub- bery and full-blooded youth at play do not make a good combination. Apparently it was either no beauty spot or no playground. But a few of the leaders of the community did not purpose to choose between these alternatives. They insisted that their school grounds should continue to be a place of beauty and also that the children should have an opportunity to play. Out of this extremely wise and pedagogical conclusion resulted the purchase of the additional acres which could be devoted to recreation purposes without let or hindrance. The youth of this com- munity have the double advantage in carrying on 282 THE HIGH SCHOOL their work in the midst of a beautiful environment and at the same time have adequate outdoor facilities for employing their leisure time. These highly desir- able conditions under which this particular school carries on its work, are possible for any community which has sufficient enterprise to go and do likewise. Larger use In planning buildings and grounds, it needs to be premises kept in mind that provision should be made for the use of school premises in a much larger way than they are now employed. The outstanding need of the average community is that the school provide a suit- able place where the young people may gather in the evenings and on Saturdays for purposes of recreation and other useful modes of employment. The asser- tion that the pupils' time outside of the conventional school hours is fully occupied is not warranted by the facts. Whether pupils of high school age should be so occupied is not the question. The fact is they are not so occupied as regards the great majority of individuals in the average community. A large part of their time outside of school hours is employed in some form of leisure occupation, and the school should undertake to provide for the direction and control of these ac- tivities. Equipment as regards buildings and grounds, which contemplates nothing beyond two hundred, or less, school days of five and one-half hours each, fails to meet the demands of the situation. It has already been pointed out that the home is not organized to take care of the needs and interests of youth and that no institution other than the school, can perform this function in any satisfactory way. It is futile, how- ever, to expect the school to perform this highly im- MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 283 portant function in the absence of adequate material equipment. Not only does the efficiency of the school on the side The in- of its social activities depend upon the character and o^eqrip^ extent of its equipment, but this is equally true in men t large measure also in regard to its intellectual pursuits. Theoretically, perhaps, this fact needs no attention. But on the practical side, no need is greater than em- phasis upon the necessity for better material equip- ment. One often hears the remark that a good teacher can succeed in spite of poor equipment and that a poor teacher would fail no matter how good the equip- ment may be. The more truthful statement is that success to a good teacher is assured and a stimulus to a poor teacher to become a better one is furnished, if suitable equipment is provided. Both the worker and the tools must be reckoned with if expectations for good results are to be realized. An important thing now demanding our attention, Textbooks is the need of textbooks which will more fully em- Radical body the standpoints discussed in the chapters dealing revision with the intellectual organization of the school. A suitable textbook serving as guide in the work is a great aid, if not indeed absolutely essential to success in teaching most of the subjects offered in the high school. Various schemes and makeshifts have been resorted to in recent years, to make up for deficiencies in textbooks, but for the most part these endeavors have ended in failure. In spite of these efforts, the textbook has continued to furnish the emphasis as regards material and to determine in large measure the character of its organization. Our educational 284 THE HIGH SCHOOL Two general classes considered Need .of supplemen- tary material theories in general have far outrun our practical en- deavors, and one of the evidences of this is the character of some of the textbooks still in use. Those who use textbooks as tools in instruction have had too little influence up to the present time in deter- mining their character. One of the most effective ways in which needed changes in content and method of organization can be secured, is for school adminis- trators and teachers to make known their needs, in a constructive way, to textbook makers and publishers. Two general classes of textbooks come in for crit- icism. Those books which deal with the old types of subject matter are survivals representing old educa- tional ideals, and the new social demands being made upon the school render it necessary to displace them by the use of other books embodying the newer edu- cational ideals. The most of the textbooks used in the material and social sciences may be cited as examples. A mere revision of some of these books will not accom- plish much for the simple reason that the most of their content is inferior in value to other content that might be selected. A revision in fact would have to amount in some cases to a new book. The other class of textbooks referred to is that dealing with the newer subjects introduced into the schools. The content of some of these books is very well chosen, but the organi- zation of the material does not meet the requirements. They need to be rewritten and in some cases new emphases employed. Textbooks, however, even if material is wisely chosen and has proper psychological organization, in most of the fields covered by high school instruction, serve at MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 285 best only as guides to point out the way. A large amount of supplementary material is needed, and the choice of this material needs more discriminating atten- tion than it usually receives. A high school without a properly equipped library suffers a handicap impos- The library sible to overcome. An investigation recently made covering a large number of high schools in the Middle West, revealed that the average high school is suffering from such handicap. In the first place, appropria- tions were so niggardly that the amount of material which it was possible to secure was totally inadequate to the needs of the school. In the second place, in many instances the material at the command of the school was in large measure not suitable to its most insistent needs. One of the evidences of this was the fact that much of the material was never used. It is true that this condition may be due in part to the lack of knowledge on the part of teachers as to how to use it. But making due allowance for this, any sort of critical examination of the material makes clear that it is not of the right sort. A third fact revealed by this investigation, is that many schools have no suit- able place provided in which to keep supplementary material and no facilities afforded for its fruitful use. The material necessary to supplement textbook work Two general may be roughly divided into two general classes. In material the first class may be included all material designated as reference works. Dictionaries, atlases, maps, and reference books dealing in an intensive way with special topics, constitute the class under discussion. This sort of material is useful for rendering the class- room work more concrete, and for appealing to a wide 286 THE HIGH SCHOOL Importance of selection of material The high school library as a community library range of interests possessed by individual students. In the second class is included such material as is use- ful for general reading. This material may be divided into two sub-classes. The first sub-class embraces general reading matter supplementary to the textbooks, affording valuable information and stimulating interest in the topics under discussion in the class-room. The second subdivision includes reading matter still more general in character and has no direct relation to the class-room work. Reference has already been made to the importance of encouraging a wide range of reading on the part of high school students, and the means for accomplishing this must be furnished in most communities by the library of the high school. Selection of material for the use of high school stu- dents is a matter of the utmost importance. Too fre- quently the material chosen would be excellent for the use of college and university students and for spe- cialists, but it has little value for the purposes for which it is intended. The content in itself is frequently beyond the range of the interests of high school stu- dents and its organization is equally unsuitable for their uses. One of the purposes of the library is to encour- age reading on the part of the young people, and an intimate knowledge of their interests must function in making selections. In this general discussion of the purposes and functions of the high school library, it appears worth while to call attention to what seems to be a mistake made by some of the smaller communities. An at- tempt is frequently made in these communities to establish and maintain an independent library. If MATERIAL EQUIPMENT 287 the same amount of money were spent in establishing and maintaining a library in connection with the high school, it would serve two very useful purposes. In the first place, it would be a more economical method of providing for the needs of the community. The cost of books and other library material is only one of the items of expense. The care and supervision of the library is another item which should be taken into account. Another advantage in having the library in connection with the high school, is that it aids in ren- dering the school a center of community interests and in making it a center of the activities of the young people. It is so obvious that laboratory subjects cannot be Laboratory successfully taught in the absence of apparatus suffi- e( i ul P ment cient in amount and suitable in character that no extended discussion of the topic is necessary. The theory and the practice of science teaching, however, are frequently so widely separated that continued emphasis upon the necessity for laboratory equipment and material is required. In many schools, work is being attempted in science, agriculture, and the manual arts without sufficient equipment with which to carry it on. When it became the fad and the fashion to offer courses in science, the smaller high schools undertook to carry on the work with no adequate facilities for doing so. Even at the present time, this condition still exists in many schools and has been rendered more intolerable by the attempt to offer courses in the newer laboratory subjects. If it is necessary to make the choice between offering several laboratory subjects without sufficient equipment and 288 THE HIGH SCHOOL offering one or at most a few subjects under condi- tions favorable to successful work, there should be no hesitancy in choosing the latter alternative. Theinflu- ^he practical viewpoint is controlling more and functional more in science teaching, and is exerting an important viewpoint influence in the matter of equipment and in the char- acter of material used for demonstration and experi- mentation. The emphasis now being placed upon the content value of the subject and the practical aims governing in instruction, require many changes in the method of laboratory work. Laboratory work must be justified on other than mere disciplinary grounds. It is no longer successfully defended even as a means of acquiring knowledge for other than practical pur- poses. These changes have given a new meaning to laboratory work and have brought about corre- sponding changes in the criteria employed in selecting equipment. CHAPTER XXIII HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS The teacher is the most important factor in edu- The impor- tance of the cation. This is perhaps neither more nor less true of teacher's high school teachers than it is of other teachers. But work it is equally true of them. Well-defined aims, properly selected subject matter, and adequate equipment are but means to ends which can be gained only through the work of competent teachers. Poor teaching can not be compensated for by anything else. A fuller recognition of this fact is needed on the part of school boards and others who employ teachers and determine their salaries and tenure of office. Competent teachers can be secured only through Training training for their work. Teaching is a specialized form of work and calls for a kind of preparation in harmony with this fact. It is true that teaching can- not be regarded as a profession in this country. Nor is there any prospect that it will become such in the immediate future. This does not mean, however, that teachers should not regard their work as profes- sional in character. It calls for special training both on the academic and professional sides and no satis- factory degree of success can be hoped for in the absence of such training. Some very practical difficulties stand in the way of securing competent teachers. One of these is that 290 THE HIGH SCHOOL Teaching not per- manent occupation Influence of preponder- ance of women on permanent supply Necessary to take limitations into account teaching is not entered upon as a life work by the great majority of those who engage in it. Something can be accomplished by securing better salaries. The economic phase of the question is important. A system of pensions for teachers may help some in making up for low salaries, but that it will result in all the benefits claimed by its advocates is extremely doubtful. Better means of determining fitness of teachers and an established policy of employing teachers, not from year to year but for a period as long as satisfactory service is rendered, would result in rendering positions more permanent and the work of teaching more attractive. In any discussion of the permanency of the teacher's work, the fact must not be left out of account that most high school teachers are women. A permanent force of teachers means that men will take the places of the women in our high schools. No argument is required to sustain this contention. The fact is that we cannot expect that any considerable number of women will remain permanently in the work of teach- ing. The relative merit of men and women teachers is not an issue in our discussion. As long as the ma- jority of those who enter the work of teaching con- tinues to be women, we shall be under the necessity of providing facilities for training a number of teachers far in excess of what would otherwise be required. These facts, which render the teacher-training prob- lem a very difficult one, should not deter us from an attempt at its solution. But it is necessary to know the nature of the problem and the limitations under which its solution must be worked out. Under present con- HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 291 ditions we cannot hope for a body of permanent workers, and this incontrovertible fact must be taken into account. It is no doubt desirable to strive toward the end of securing greater permanence, but there are more immediate ends requiring the emphasis of attention. Taking it for granted that these conditions exist Problem is and will continue to exist, the question is, What sort of besttatiaing training can be provided that will be most effective? possible in -r , . ... , view of In answering this question it is necessary to remember limitations that the interest which prospective teachers have in the matter of their own training is partial and tem- porary. They take the work in connection with a regular college or university course and feel, it is feared, in too many cases, that the chief value of the special work consists in the aid it will render in securing a position, instead of regarding it as a necessity for becoming a successful worker. Whatever their attitude may be, the fact still remains that as long as teacher- preparation is confined to undergraduate courses, com- paratively little time can be given directly to the work. A real problem in correlation presents itself concern- ing how to secure on the academic side the largest amount of preparation possible for teaching high school subjects. No one, of course, can be expected to teach success- importance fully that which he himself does not thoroughly know. jJjJSJJSIJ Thorough academic preparation is the first require- ment; and how to secure this is the first problem presented. Let it be said here, that we are not discussing the question of training specialists in par- ticular subjects, but rather the training of teachers for 292 THE HIGH SCHOOL Familiarity with mate- rial used in high school instruction and its pedagogical value Teachers required to teach more than one subject the high school where the specialist's attitudes is not desirable. This does not mean that thorough famil- iarity with the field in which one attempts to work is not essential. It does mean, however, that the mere mastery of higher mathematics does not fit one to teach secondary mathematics. Nor do courses in Chaucer, Tennyson, and Browning, in and of them- selves, prepare one to teach high school English. A study of higher mathematics, advanced courses in English, and in other subjects is an essential part of academic training. But a thorough familiarity on the part of the teacher with the subject matter which is taught in the high school is absolutely necessary. A teacher should have an intimate knowledge of the pedagogical value of the subject matter employed in instruction. To assume that such familiarity with the subject matter has been gained through high school instruction before entering college or through advanced courses taken in the college, is not justified. The subject matter should be studied from the point of view of teaching it. Opportunity should be offered for such study in any institution which attempts to prepare teachers for secondary school work. In this matter of the academic preparation of teach- ers, it must not be lost sight of that in the majority of high schools, each teacher is required to teach more than one subject. Whether this condition is desirable is not the question. There is a demand for teachers who are qualified to teach two or more subjects and the practical question for institutions which attempt to train teachers is how to meet this demand. A teacher who can teach two or more subjects with a reasonable HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 293 degree of success is of far more value to a school than a teacher who is fitted to teach but one subject but who is required to attempt to teach two or more. It is true that specialization in subjects which one attempts to teach is highly desirable. But in the presence of an actual situation where less specialization in one line permits one to secure preparation for the work which he will be called upon to do, then less specializa- tion and more preparation should be sought. Specialization in subjects which one teaches, as Knowledge desirable as it is, should not be carried to an extent outside of which will prevent a reasonable degree of familiarity J hos ® with other fields of knowledge. Some knowledge of other fields is necessary as a means of promoting the general intelligence of the teacher. A teacher is judged by other standards than merely a knowledge of one or two subjects included in a curriculum. And the efficiency of a teacher in the school and the community is determined upon this broader basis. As a further reason for this more extended preparation, it may be urged that the subjects which one teaches should have their proper setting in the whole list of subjects offered in the school. The relative value of a subject should be thoroughly understood by the teacher, and some knowledge of the value of other subjects is a necessary part of this understanding. A knowledge of the limi- tations of one's subject as well as its possibilities, is necessary. One way of securing this is through a knowledge of other subjects. The reasons frequently set forth why this subject or that one should have first place in the curriculum would be less numerous and the claims made for its superior value would be 294 THE HIGH SCHOOL Teacher's value not measured alone by work of class-room Professional training Elimination necessary in field of psychology less extravagant, if this wider knowledge were more common among teachers. A teacher's value, as already said, is not measured alone by the work done in the class-room. A teacher is a member of a group carrying on a common endeavor. Each does not, or should not, occupy a closed compart- ment, having no knowledge of or any interest in what others are doing. Nothing will so much tend to secure mutual respect and helpfulness as the recogni- tion of the importance of one another's work. A teacher, for example, who teaches mathematics but has an appreciative knowledge of history and its edu- cative value will render more efficient service because of this knowledge. In a way, we have been discussing the professional training of teachers because we have dealt with aca- demic work from the point of view of the work of the teacher. But to subjects other than the academic ones the term professional is more strictly applied. Edu- cation — a rather general term, including history, principles, methodology, and school management — is one of the fields to which our attention is now being directed. Psychology, the other field, is in some of its aspects very closely allied to education, and it is with these allied aspects that we are concerned. We shall deal first with psychology as it is related to the teacher's work. There are certain lines within the general field of psychology which are of interest to the special student, but which do not concern us here. Experimental psychology furnishes an example. It has made very important contributions and we shall have to continue HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 295 to rely upon special workers for the solution of some of our educational problems. But we should leave the work to them and avail ourselves of the benefits of their findings. The time limit, if there were no other reason, is sufficient to rule out work in this line except of the most meager sort. Abnormal psychology is another line that must be left to the special worker. There are certain relatively common abnormalities in children which should be understood, but nothing beyond a knowledge of these should be attempted. Further, there are a number of mooted questions that are interesting, and important for that matter, but the undergraduate student who is preparing to teach can employ time more profitably than in an attempt to answer them. The practical point of view, taking into account the importance need of teachers, should govern in determining the ^ona? " character of the work. This type of psychology pos- psychology sesses a high degree of value in serving as guide in the work of the school-room. All teachers have psycholog- ical conceptions of their work and it makes a great dif- ference whether these conceptions are merely naive or whether they are intelligent and employed con- sciously in determining the interests and capacities of pupils and methods employed in instruction. After all, it is not a question whether a teacher has psy- chology as a working basis, but rather the kind of psychology used. One of the results of a course in psychology should be to eradicate misconceptions and to render clear and workable ill-defined conceptions already held. A course in general psychology should have two 296 THE HIGH SCHOOL Psychology of the learning and teaching processes Adolescent psychology ends in view. First, it should give to the learner an opportunity for gaining definite and practical information concerning the workings of his own mind. The material selected for use in instruction should be of such character as to render evident the utility of the subject from the point of view of its present value. A knowledge of psychology as related to methods of study should precede the attempt to learn psychology for the purpose of determining methods of teaching. The psychology of learning, should precede the psychology of teaching. The second aim should be determined by the fact that students will be called upon to apply their knowledge of psychology to a better understanding of the teaching process. Whether we apply the term child psychology or educational psy- chology to the work is not important. The two points of view, however, that of the learner and that of the teacher, need to be kept in mind. All teachers, whether in the elementary or in the high school, need these more general courses in psy- chology. In addition, the high school teacher should have opportunity for the study of the psychological characteristics peculiar to the adolescent period. This period is sufficiently differentiated from other life periods to render the psychology of it worthy of special study. The interests, mental attitudes, limitations, and capabilities of adolescence are well marked and furnish topics of study very fruitful for the high school teacher. The word psychology, in fact, is too limited unless we put into it more than the usual content. What is required is a study of adolescent life. The physical, mental, moral, and ethical aspects must all HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 297 be taken into account. There is no doubt more or less of the fantastic in some of the material dealing with adolescent life. Nevertheless there is much very thoroughly tested and pedagogically sound material to be found. Teachers should avail themselves of this in the interest of a better understanding of their problem. One of the important applications of psychology is Application in the field of educational method. Method in the ogy to°edu- last analysis is psychologically determined, whatever ca tionai may be the type of subject matter used in instruction. The criteria even, if properly chosen, for the organiza- tion of the subject matter itself, are psychological ones. The teacher, in order to perform the very necessary task of organizing material, must understand the method employed by the learner. In order to perform this task satisfactorily, methods of teaching are of course determined by methods of learning, and a knowledge of psychology alone furnishes the neces- sary information for choosing approved methods of teaching. The principles of education, dealing with both the Principles of psychological and social aspects of the problem, fur- psycho- 00 ' nish a fruitful field of study for high school teachers. ^ and . social The importance of the psychological has already been indicated. When we add to this the fact that from the social side the high school is becoming increasingly important in our educational system, we have an added reason for emphasizing the importance of the training of the teacher. In no other field of education, have the duties of the school been so multiplied as in the secondary field. As long as the work of 298 THE HIGH SCHOOL the high school was solely or even largely to prepare students to enter higher institutions, the social aspect of education was comparatively simple. Now all this has been changed by the multiplicity of demands made upon the high school. If the high school is to edu- cate for social efficiency, teachers must know some- thing of the nature of the social demands and must know how and to what extent these demands deter- mine the character of the work done. Teachers must have a knowledge of those principles which have their genesis in the social process and know how to apply them to the problem of secondary education. Suffi- cient emphasis was employed in previous chapters in regard to the educational significance of social demands to render detailed discussion here unnecessary. Practical There are certain details of the teacher's work which school^ ^ or convenience we include in the general term school management management. Assigning lessons, conducting recita- tions, supervising study-halls, and dealing with refrac- tory pupils constitute the daily round of the teacher's work. It is true that not very much can be learned concerning these practical and commonplace duties except through actual experience. But in spite of this, something can be accomplished in the way of preparing teachers for these duties through class-room instruction. The significance of the duties can at least be made clear and a vicarious sort of experience ac- quired through practical discussion of the problems arising out of the daily employments of the school. This sort of instruction lays a foundation for acquiring experience at first hand and will be of assistance to teachers in avoiding mistakes and will enable them HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 299 the more quickly and the more confidently to enter into the spirit of their work. A knowledge of the history of education is so im- Function of portant as a background for the study of present edu- ^ ^JJjJS,, cational problems, that no course in training should be ™ training considered complete which does not include something on the historical side. In the first place, a more thorough knowledge of the history of education would result in more stability in educational progress. Many of the fads and fancies which have beset us in educa- tional affairs are due to a lack of knowledge that these things have been tried and failed. Not only does the study of history reveal the mistakes and errors of other peoples and other times, but it also makes us aware of those means and methods and systems of organiza- tion which have permanent value. In the second place, a knowledge of history furnishes a historical setting for the teacher's work and renders him a sym- pathetic participant in general educational endeavor. Further than this, it enables one to assume an intelli- gent and inquiring attitude toward current educational undertakings. At best the work of any school is more or less isolated from that of other schools. Anything which pushes back the horizon and makes possible more general participation in the larger educational movements of our generation is valuable. The his- tory of education may be made to serve this useful purpose. The necessity for professional study is by no means Necessity limited to those who are preparing to enter upon the ^ u c e ° d n " work of teaching. The suggested lines of study will professional afford valuable viewpoints from which to regard the 3°o THE HIGH SCHOOL Professional training secondary to personal qualities Necessary qualifica- tions de- termined in the nature of the teacher's work work of teaching and furnish a foundation for further study. But every teacher must continue to be a student of professional literature as long as he engages in the work. The knowledge on the professional side gained in college will not suffice any more than will the knowledge gained on the academic side. Every teacher who succeeds continues to be an interested student in the field in which he teaches. Successful teachers of English, history, science, and the other subjects recog- nize this fact. This class of teachers also recognize the importance of continued professional study. The teacher who leaves off study when the actual work of teaching is entered upon thereby gives proof that the instruction received during the years of prepara- tion largely failed in its purpose. The professional training of teachers, as important as it is, is secondary in importance to those personal qualities without which no teacher can succeed. In fact, professional training presupposes these qualities and has no significance in their absence. All that training can do at best is to develop and refine personal qualities and insure their functioning in the work of the school. These qualities are best appreciated and understood in the light of the character of the work which the teacher has to do. They are qualities for the most part which any person must possess in order to succeed in an environment predominantly social. Any worker who deals primarily with people must have those quali- ties which attract and inspire confidence and gain respect. Frankness, honesty, sympathy, and a gen- uine interest in the welfare of others are essential alike HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 301 to the teacher and to all others who work with and for people. There are things, however, which should be said importance 6 of right concerning the personal qualifications of the high attitude school teacher. The adolescent is so sensitive to ^"of* 116 personal influence and so susceptible to the control teaching of a dominating personality that the personal qualities of the teacher are of transcendent importance. In the first place, a teacher must have the right attitude toward the work of teaching. It must be felt, not merely in a professional way but in a personal way, that teaching is a means through which one may find an unusual opportunity for rendering social service. Not only is this attitude essential at the beginning of one's work but it must continue to persist and to dominate throughout one's teaching experience. This attitude is not only necessary for the success of the work, but it is also essential to the growth and develop- ment of the individual. There may be some sort of excuse for a person entering upon the work of teach- ing, under the stress and strain of circumstances, with little appreciation of its significance. In fact, the larger meaning of the work comes to us only with experience. But for one to remain in the work in the absence of the vitalizing and dominating ideal of social service is to neglect an important source of inspiration and power. Viewed from the standpoint of the interests of the school such a course is indefensi- ble. If we look at the matter from the personal point of view, nothing so devitalizes and dwarfs a teacher's life as a lack of appreciation of the social significance of his work. 302 THE HIGH SCHOOL Attitude toward young people even more important Relations which teachers sustain to the work of the school as a whole Underlying this attitude toward the work, and sup- porting and vitalizing it, is the teacher's attitude toward the young people themselves. No teacher can hope for anything like real and permanent success in the absence of a liking for and interest in young people. Genuine sympathy, carrying with it as it always does an understanding of their limitations and an apprecia- tion of their possibilities, is a fundamental require- ment for successful high school teachers. In the absence of the ability to enter heartily into the life and the spirit of young people, academic preparation and professional training are of little avail. The moral and ethical aspects of education have little meaning if teachers are unable or unwilling to enter sympathetically into personal relations with young people. Not only is this necessary in the interests of pupils, but it is also a great source of inspiration to teachers and gains for them a vision of the true sig- nificance of their work. The relations which teachers sustain to one another and to the administration of the school as a whole are of great importance. No administrator can secure satisfactory results with a mere aggregate of individual teachers. It is only when they are in active and sym- pathetic cooperation that anything like an educational policy can be carried out. An educational policy does, or at least should stand for definite educational aims. These aims cannot be accomplished by one teacher working here and the other there, each inde- pendent of the other. They must work all together, each being interested in the others and supporting the others in a common endeavor to carry out the HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 303 policy of the school. The real success of each teacher is measured by the success of the school as a whole. It sometimes happens that a teacher entertains the harmful delusion that his own strength is measured by another teacher's weakness and his own success by another teacher's failure. The real truth is that a weak teacher lessens the strength of every other teacher in the school. The school room is at least one place in the world where the failure of others is in a measure our own failure. When teachers coop- erate heartily and persistently to build up an efficient school, one of the inevitable results is to increase the efficiency of every worker who has a part in the com- mon endeavor. In a very real sense a teacher sustains a two-fold Relations relationship to the community. The school is a community product of the community and is answerable to it for the character of the work which it does. No teacher should be indifferent to the responsibility assumed in this relation. However we might wish a community were different, we must accept it as it is and render service in the light not only of what it heeds, but of what it will accept. The teacher is a public servant and is answerable to the community where service is undertaken. These considerations should render us patient in tribulation and help us to bear patiently with criticisms which seem to us unjust and with fault-findings which appear to have no warrant. Teachers come and go but communi- ties abide and reap the reward of good schools or suffer the consequences of poor ones. Teachers, however, sustain other than these indirect relations to the com- 304 THE HIGH SCHOOL munity. These other relations are personal and call for participation in community life. In some com- munities the teacher is rather restricted by its cus- toms and traditions. In others, a much larger place is accorded and fuller opportunity allowed for becom- ing part and parcel of its on-going life. But in greater or less degree, participation in the life of a community is possible to the teacher and the opportunity should be regarded not only as a means of rendering service in the community but also as a means of personal growth. The teacher's work is more or less isolated at best, and every opportunity should be sought to widen the horizon and to come into vital contact with the daily life of the community. Continued These relationships to the community cannot be and personal satisfactorily sustained in the absence of continued growth professional and personal growth. On the professional side it requires vigilance and industry to keep pace with the rapidly changing educational ideals and the corresponding social demands made upon the school. The teacher who has arrived and seeks no advance- ment has no promise of success. Life is larger than one's work. Means of personal growth as well as means of professional advancement should be sought by every teacher. In fact there can be no permanent advancement professionally in the absence of personal growth. But professional advancement is not the chief aim of life. It is rather to enlarge and enrich personality and to render one's self more efficient in all of life's relations. APPENDIX A few typical high school courses are here presented for study and criticism. They represent in general what the larger high schools are offering in the way of educational opportunity to the young people of their respective communities. They also show the various plans of organization of courses of study. Asheville, North Carolina, offers two courses, the Latin and the Scientific. This plan has prevailed quite generally throughout the country, especially in the smaller schools. Frequently other names are employed to designate the courses, but the subjects offered in either course are practically the same as those included in the two courses given below. The practice of thus setting ancient language over against science is a survival from the early days of the high school. Latin Course Scientific Course First Year Arithmetic ^ Arithmetic -§• Algebra J Algebra \ English History English History English English Latin Physical Geography \ Civil Government $• Second Year Algebra Algebra Ancient History Ancient History English English Latin Chemistry Third Year Algebra \ Algebra ^ Geometry % Geometry £- English English Latin Physics or Mediaeval History German or French History German 306 APPENDIX Fourth Year Geometry Geometry English English Latin Physics or U. S. History German German The Abilene, Kansas, high school offers three courses as shown below. The College Preparatory course and the General course are fairly representative of what is taught in the majority of high schools in towns and cities having populations ranging from two thousand to ten thousand. The Normal Training course is not representative in the same degree. It is peculiar to those states that provide state aid for schools maintaining Normal Training courses. Kansas and Iowa are examples. Even in these states, a rather small minority of the schools are able or willing to meet the require- ments. In Iowa, for example, only about one hundred fifty high schools out of more than eight hundred offer a Normal Training course. The requirements in the College Preparatory course are evi- dently dictated by the college entrance requirements of the Uni- versity. It is not clear what determines the requirements in the General course. College Normal Preparatory General Freshman Training Required x Required Required English I English I English I Algebra I Algebra I Algebra I Latin I Elective Elective Elective General Science i, '. 1 General Science 1, 2 General Science 1, 2 Physiography i, 2 Physiography 1, 2 Physiography 1, 2 Bookkeeping 1 Bookkeeping 1 Bookkeeping 1 Commercial Geog- Commercial Geog- Commercial Geog- raphy 2 raphy 2 raphy 2 Word Study 1 Word Study 1 Word Study 1 1 Arabic figures show half year subjects 5 and term offered. APPENDIX 307 Required 1 English II Geometry I Latin II Elective Ancient History Botany Agriculture Manual Training Domestic Science German I Required English III Algebra II, 1 Latin III Elective Psychology 2 Civics 2 English History 1 Chemistry German II Geometry II, 2 Sophomore Required English II Geometry I Elective Ancient History Botany Agriculture Manual Training Domestic Science German I Junior Required English III Elective Psychology 2 Civics 2 English History 1 Chemistry German II Geometry II, 2 Required English II Geometry I Agriculture Elective Ancient History Botany Manual Training Domestic Science German I Required English III Civics 2 Psychology 2 Physiology 1 Elective English History 1 Chemistry German II Geometry II, 2 Elective Latin IV American History Economics English IV Physics German III Senior Elective American History Economics English IV Physics German III Required American History Normal Reviews Arithmetic 1 Physics Methods 2 The courses offered in the Twin Falls, Idaho, high school afford an interesting example of the wide range of subjects now being provided by the larger schools. The plan of grouping Arabic figures show half year subjects and terms offered. 3 o8 APPENDIX subjects in the various courses is coming into quite general use. Two general groups of courses are recognized, Preparatory and Vocational. In the first group are included the Classical and Scientific courses. The Vocational courses include Home Eco- nomics, Manual Arts, Agricultural, and Commercial. Preparatory Courses Vocational Home Economics Classical Course Scientific Course First Year Course Required Required Required English English English Algebra Algebra Elementary Cook- Latin Physical Geogra- ing | phy h Cleaning ■§■ Commercial Geogra - Handwork § phy i Physiology and Hy- giene f Elective Elective Elective Ancient History Latin Algebra Physical Geography German Physical Geography Commercial Geogra- - Ancient History Commercial Geogra- phy Manual Training phy Domestic Science Ancient History German Second Year Required Required Required English English English Plane Geometry Plane Geometry Plain Sewing % Caesar and Compo- Botany Designing £ sition Bookkeeping § Manual Training -fa Poultry \ Gardening y-g- Elective Elective Elective Mediaeval and Mod- - Latin Plane Geometry ern History German Botany Botany Mediaeval and Mod - Mediaeval and Mod- era History ern History Manual Training German Domestic Science APPENDIX 309 Third Year Required English Advanced Algebra \ Solid Geometry ^ Cicero and Compo- Required English Advanced Algebra \ Solid Geometry \ Chemistry Required English Advanced Cookery £ Dietetics §■ Chemistry sition Elective Elective Elective German German Commercial Law 4 French Argumentation anc Debate \ Public Speaking -j English History French Political Economy \ English History Argumentation and Argumentation and Debate \ Debate \ Public Speaking \ Public Speaking \ English History German or French Fourth Year Required English | American History and Civics Required English | American History and Civics Required English | American History and Civics Vocational Direc- Vocational Direc- Vocational Direc- tion f Vergil and Mythol- ogy Elective tion f Physics Elective tion § Dressmaking f Millinery § Elective German French Trigonometry \ Political Economy \ Psychology ^ Principles of Teach- French Trigonometry \ Political Economy \ Psychology \ Principles of Teach ingi Physics Psychology Home Sanitation ■£$ House Planning y^j- - French ing i Physics Vocational Courses — (Continued) Manual Arts Agricultural First Year Commercial Required English Commercial Arith- metic Required English Physical Geogra- phy i Required English Physical Geogra- phy § 3io APPENDIX First Year Required Required Required Mechanical Draw- Commercial Geog- Commercial Geog- ing i raphy 5- raphy J Manual Training £ Agriculture j-$ Spelling and Word Soils 1% Analysis -3- Breeds of Live- Spelling and Pen- stock f manship -|- Elective Elective Elective Algebra Algebra Algebra Physical Geogra- Commercial Arith- Ancient History phy i metic German Commercial Geogra- Manual Training phy h Domestic Science Ancient History German Second Year Required Required Required English English English Mechanical Draw- Botany Bookkeeping and ing f Stock Judging f Business Practice Manual Training f Fertilizers ^ Commercial Arith- Grain Judging T V metic Poultry T \ Gardening -j^ Elective Elective Elective Plane Geometry Plane Geometry Plane Geometry Botany Bookkeeping Mediaeval and Mod- Bookkeeping Manual Training ern History Mediaeval and Domestic Science German Modern History German Third Year Required Required Required English English English Designing and Farm Dairying £ Bookkeeping and Drafting f Farm Crops f Banking Manual Training f Irrigation £ Horticulture f Farm Machinery 3- APPENDIX 3ii Third Year Elective ] Elective Elective Advanced Algebra % Chemistry Argumentation and Solid Geometry ■% Commercial Law \ Debate \ Chemistry Political Economy \ Public Speaking \ Commercial Law ^ Argumentation and Commercial Law \ Political Economy \ Debate \ Political Economy \ Argumentation and Public Speaking \ Stenography Debate \ Manual Training Typewriting Public Speaking \ Domestic Science German or French German or French Fourth Year Required Required Required English | English f English | American History American History American History and Civics and Civics and Civics Vocational Direc- Vocational Direc- Vocational Direc- tion § tion | tion f Architectural Draft- Feeds and Feeding ing I 3 TO Manual Training § Farm Management Insect Pests y% Fungous Diseases y 2 ^ Farm Law yg- Elective Elective Elective Trigonometry \ Physics Physics or Chemistry Agriculture \ Breeding y^j- History of Com- Physics Farm Surveying y 2 o merce \ French Marketing Farm Advertising and Products yV Salesmanship \ Manual Training Stenography Domestic Science Typewriting French Physical Culture twice a week throughout the year is required of all Freshmen and Sophomores. Others may elect it. Vocational Direction, one hour per week throughout the year, required of all Freshmen, Sophomores, and Juniors. 312 APPENDIX The Boise, Idaho, high school does not offer quite so wide a range of subjects as does the Twin Falls school, but the essential difference is in the administration. The Boise school provides the free elective system and students select their work under the direction of teachers. The following statement found in the published course of study indicates the plan, "Students are aided in selecting a unified course in accordance with their needs." Course of Study Required English (3 years) 6 units 1 Elective Units Unil English 2 German 6 History 6 Manual Training 8 Mathematics 6 Mechanical Drawing 6 Biology 4 Domestic Economy 10 Agriculture 10 Art 6 Physics 2 Music 4 Chemistry 2 Expression 4 Latin 8 Commercial 18 French 6 An exception to this plan is made in Boise by providing a three-year Commercial course. It will be observed, however, that the free elective plan provides for eighteen units of com- mercial work. A few high schools provide courses for girls differing from those for boys and so designate the course. Jacksonville, Florida, and Springfield, Massachusetts, are examples. In the last analysis this means little more than a different method of administration from that employed in either Twin Falls or Boise. But the plan is interesting as evidence of the rapidly growing conviction that educational opportunities for girls should differ in essential par- ticulars from those provided for boys. The courses offered by the Jacksonville school are the following: 1 A unit is one-half year of work. APPENDIX 3i3 (English and History) Required for Girls Years Units Unit 4 Course A Required for Boys Years English 4 Mathematics, including .Algebra completed, Plane Geometry, 5 Books 3 3 History and Civics (An- cient, Mediaeval, and Modern, English, American, and Civil Government) 4 4 Electives 5 5 Electkes Physical Geography. . . 1 1 Bookkeeping 1 1 Mechanical Drawing and Freehand Sketch- ing 4 4 French or German .... 2 2 Physics 1 1 Solid Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 1 1 If Language or Drawing are elected they must be taken two years each. Course B Required for Boys Years Units English 4 Mathematics, Algebra (Elementary) com- pleted, Plane Geom- etry, 2 Books 2 History (Ancient, Me- diaeval, Modern, English, American, and Civil Govern- ment) 4 French or German ... 2 Elective 4 Electives Physical Geography . . 1 Physics 1 Plane Geometry 1 Domestic Arts (Cut- ting, Sewing, Milli- nery, etc.) 2 Domestic Science (Cooking) 2 English 4 4 Mathematics, including Algebra completed, Plane Geometry, 5 Books 3 3 French or German .... 2 2 Physics 1 1 Chemistry 1 1 Physical Geography. . . 1 1 Electives 4 4 (Science) Required for Girls Years Units English 4 4 Mathematics, includ- ing Algebra com- pleted. Plane Geom- etry. 2 Books 2 2 Physical Geography . . 1 1 French or German ... 3 3 Chemistry 1 1 Botany or Zoology . . . . 1 1 Electives 4 4 314 APPENDIX Course B (Science) — (Continued) Electives Electives Years Units Years Units Mechanical Drawing Domestic Art (Cut- and Freehand Sketch- ting, Sewing, Mil- ing 4 4 linery, etc.) 2 2 Latin 4 4 Domestic Science Botany and Zoology. . . 1 1 (Cooking) 2 2 Solid Geometry, Plane Latin 4 4 Trigonometry 1 1 Physics 1 1 If Latin or Drawing If Latin is elected it are elected they must be must be taken for two taken two years each. years. Optional: Surveying, Electricity. Course C (College Preparatory) Required for Boys Required for Girls Years Units Years Units English 4 4 English 4 4 Mathematics, including Algebra completed, Plane Geometry com- pleted 3 History (Ancient, Me- diaeval and Modern) 2 Latin 4 French or German .... 2 Elective 1 Electives Physics 1 Solid Geometry, Plane Trigonometry 1 Mathematics, includ- ing Algebra com- pleted, Plane Geom- 3 etry, 2 Books 2 2 Latin 4 4 2 French or German ... 2 2 4 History (Ancient, Me- 2 diaeval and Modern) 2 2 1 Electives 2 2 Electives 1 American History and Civil Government. . .1 1 1 Domestic Art (Cut- ting, Sewing, Mil- linery, etc.) 2 2 Domestic Science (Cooking) 2 2 Physics 1 1 Solid Geometry, Plane Trigonometry 1 1 A Witt sTDIX 315 Course D General Course D Household Arts Required for Boys Required for Girls Years Units Years Units English 4 4 English 4 4 Mathematics, including Mathematics, Algebra Algebra completed, (Elementary) com- Plane Geometry, 5 pleted 2 2 Books 3 3 Domestic Arts (Cut- Drawing (Mechanical) . 2 2 ting, Sewing, Milli- Applied Mathematics . . 1 1 nery, etc., 2 2 Commercial Arithmetic History (Ancient, Me- and Bookkeeping 1 1 diaeval, Modern) . . 2 2 Physics 1 1 French or German ... 2 2 French or German .... 2 2 Elective 2 2 Elective 2 2 Electives American History and Civil Government . . 1 Solid Geometry and Plane Trigonometry. 1 Latin 2 Electives American History and Civil Government. . 1 1 Latin 2 2 Bookkeeping 1 1 Plane Geometry 1 1 English History 1 1 The Fitchburg, Massachusetts, high school offers five courses, designated as College Preparatory, Technology Preparatory, General, Cooperative Commercial, and Cooperative Industrial. Only the last two are of particular interest. They represent a general movement now going on in commercial and industrial centers to meet the demands for special types of education. Cooperative Commercial Course First Year Business English and Spelling 5 Writing (one-half course) 5 Typewriting 4 Commercial Arithmetic and Business Forms 5 French, Spanish, German, Elementary Science, Ancient History, or Domestic Science 5 316 APPENDIX Cooperative Commercial Course — (Continued) Second Year English and Business Correspondence 5 Bookkeeping (one-half course) 5 Stenography 5 Typewriting 5 Writing (one-half course) 4 French, Spanish, German, Physics, or Mediaeval History 5 Third Year English 4 Bookkeeping (one-half course) 5 Typewriting and Stenography 10 Commercial Law, Geography, and Industrial History 5 Public Speaking 1 French, Spanish, German, Chemistry, or English History 5 Fourth Year English 4 Civics 5 Stenography and Typewriting 10 Salesmanship and Bookkeeping 5 Electives (one must be taken) — French, German, Biology, Spanish, Drawing, Chemistry 5 " All the Senior pupils who desire experience in an office or store and have successfully completed the subjects of the course for the first three years, will have positions secured for them. Arrangements will be made so that as far as possible the more advanced pupils may secure work and experience during the summer vacation." Cooperative Industrial Course First Year All School Work: English 4 Arithmetic, tables and simple shop problems 5 Civics and American History 4 Algebra 5 Freehand and Mechanical Drawing and Bench Work 10 APPENDIX 317 Cooperative Industrial Course — (Continued) Second Year School and Shop Work: English 5 Shop Mathematics, Algebra and Geometry 5 Physics 4 Industrial History and Commercial Geography 5 Mechanism of Machines 5 Freehand and Mechanical Drawing 5 Third Year School and Shop Work: English 5 Shop Mathematics 5 Chemistry 4 Physics 4 Mechanism of Machines (one-half year) 4 Business Methods (one-half year) 4 First Aid to Injured 1 Freehand and Mechanical Drawing 6 Fourth Year School and Shop Work: English 5 Economics 5 Mechanism of Machines, Jig Design, and Mathematics 5 Physics, Electricity, and Heat 4 Chemistry 6 Freehand and Mechanical Drawing 4 "This course, patterned after that of the University of Cincinnati, is a form of an apprenticeship system, whereby boys receive instruc- tion in the shop during one week, and instruction in the school the next week. The course is of four years duration. The first year is spent wholly in the school, and during the other three years the boys alternate weekly between school and shop. Any boy who is regularly admitted to the high school may, with the approval of his parents, elect this course. " The manufacturers take the boys in pairs, so that by alternating they have at all times one of the pair at work. Each Saturday at n o'clock the boy who has been at school that week goes to the shop and learns on what particular job his alternate has been work- 318 APPENDIX ing and how it has been handled in order that the work may be taken up without delay the next Monday morning. "Shop work consists of instruction in the operation of lathes, planers, drilling machines, bench and floor work, and such other machine work according to the ability of the apprentice, as pertains to the particular branch of manufacture of the shop where the boy is employed. " The boys receive compensation for their services during the week they are in the shop. The wage scale becomes operative the first day of July, when the boys enter upon a trial period of two months. All of the class begin work at this time, reserving a few weeks for vacation in July or August. Division into pairs is made at the open- ing of the fall term in September." INDEX Adolescents home provides inadequate social environment, 57 interests, 31 leisure occupation, 46 play impulses, 45 social interests, 56, 104, 236 vocational interests, 31 Agriculture, 184 emphasis on practical aspects, 187 social demands require teach- ing, 185 social significance, 185 values in teaching, 184 Algebra unsatisfactory status, 170 Ancient languages contributions to our language made by, 165 disciplinary and cultural values, 164 limitations upon study, 164 use of translations, 167 Arithmetic, 169 Art, 189, 191-2 Athletics place and function, 200 results of upon school work, 197 Attendance girls constitute majority, 3 increase in high school, 1 influence of vocational in- terests upon, 31 Bookkeeping, 182-3 Buildings, 276 uses, 282 Citizenship new demands upon, 6 new meaning, 60 new spirit, 59 preparation for, 58 Civics, 119 standpoints for selection of material, n 9-1 2 2 College causes of lack of coordina- tion of work of high school and, 68, 71 changes needed in entrance requirements, 76 difference in social life of high school and, 73 fitness for entrance, 70 high schools prepare for, 66 mutual interests of high school and, 66 new criteria for judging work of high school, 77 Commercial subjects, 180 aims in instruction, 182 limited instruction, 181 Courses of study, 305-17 Curriculum cause of confusion in organi- zation, 98 changes demanded in subject matter, 102 320 INDEX college entrance requirements should not determine, 208 importance, 88 influences of "formal disci- pline," 97 influence of social demands in determining, 94 no ideal, 204 origins of present, 91-3 organization, 203 problem in small schools, 207 proper criteria in revaluation, 90 reconstruction, 90 required subjects constitute chief values, 98 selection and organization, 89 social studies included, 111- 119 subjects and subject matter constituting, 95 subject matter determines real value, 100 tendency to undervalue, 88 value of subject determined by position, 99 what should be revealed by organization, 96 Economics, 117 standpoints for selection of material, 11 7-1 19 Education complex aim, 17 definitions, 12, 13, 18 demands for higher, 66 health of girls and, 81 home-keeping as related to, 83 moral, 194 objections to vocational con- sidered, 34 physical, 197 physical aspects, 23 relation to social evil, 27 society demands vocational, 37 vocational furnishes contact between home and school, 36 English, 141 aims in teaching, 150-2 content values, 146 correlation of other work with, 1S6 emphasis upon oral composi- tion in instruction, 154 influence of "formal disci- pline," 142 influence of higher institu- tions, 143 place of in curriculum, 141, social environment furnished, 145 Environment social, 232 Equipment, 274 Foreign languages, 158 disciplinary influence, 159 important place occupied by, 158 increasing importance of mod- ern, 160 limitations upon study, 164 modern, 160 standpoints for the selection of material, 16 1-3 Geometry larger place given to, 170 Girls education, 78 duty of high school in educa- tion of, 78 INDEX 321 mental attitudes, 80 needs and interests, 3, 22, 80 physical needs, 81 readjustments demanded in education, 86 reasons for neglect in educa- tion, 78 Government, 255 adolescent characteristics in relation to, 260 aims, 261 forms, 262-3 interests of pupils relating to, 266 meaning of self-government, 264 nature of problem, 255-9 spirit, 268 Grounds, 280 uses, 282 Gymnasium, 278 Health school should educate for, 24-6 High school causes for failure to make readjustments in, 9-10 causes of growth, 2 classes participating in, 2 community demands, 15-16 criteria for determining de- mands, 17 demands for readjustments, 2 duty of in preparation for leisure occupation, 51-2 function, 14 government, 255 interests of adolescents in relation to work, 31-2 objections to special type, 40-42 points of view from which to regard work, 19-21 rapid growth, 1 relation of social changes, 9 relation of socializing organi- zations of to curriculum, 221 sex instruction, 27-8 social character, 219 social demands not to inter- fere with chief duty, 105 social forces product of, 65 social organization, 219-221 socializing function, 220 History, 113 importance of environment furnished by study, 113 standpoints from which to select material, 114-116 Home changes in, 7 problems arising out of changes, 62 school taking over functions previously performed by, 63 social character of problems, 64 Household art, 173-5 Industry changes in, 4-6 Instruction individual and class, 230 Leisure time employment, 44 demands for guidance in employment, 47, 237 more being provided for workers, 53 Library, 285 use by community, 286 322 INDEX Manual arts, 175-180 Mathematics, 167 content values, 169 disciplinary value, 168 less attention being given to, 171 Moral instruction demand, 195 sources of material, 194-5 Music, 189, 191 Organizations direction and control, 250-3 educative policy related to, 241 Greek letter, 237 relation of teachers, 241 school to provide for social, 239-242 standardization of member- ship, 243-249 Physical education sources of material, 199 three-fold aim, 198 unfortunate beginnings, 196 Pupils segregation of, 234 Recitation conducting, 228 preparation, 228 standpoints for selection of material, 129 unsatisfactory results in teach- ing, 125-6 vocational interests and in- struction, 135 Society changes in, 4 Studies elective, 212, 213, 216 required, 212-5 Subject matter changes needed, 102 content value, 107 criteria for selection, 103, 106, 107 importance of organization, 108 lack of proper organization, 109-10 mind of learner to determine type of organization, 108 Teachers academic preparation, 292-3 personal qualities, 300-302 professional growth, 299-304 professional training, 294-9 relation to community, 303 training, 289-91 Textbooks needed revisions, 283 Science, 125 emphasis on practical in science instruction, 138 importance of knowledge of, 125 influence of disciplinary con- ception, 127 need of reorganization in material, 139 Women new social demands upon, $s social participation as related to personal development, 84 training in civic efficiency, 84-5 Youth employing leisure time, 44 : 1