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TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 
 
 TERRITORY OF ALASKA. 
 

TRAVEL AND ADVENTURE 
 
 TERRITORY OF ALASKA, 
 
 FORMERLY RUSSIAN AMERICA— NOW CEDED TO THE 
 
 UNITED STATES—AND IN VARIOUS OTHER 
 
 PARTS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC. 
 
 By FREDERICK WHYMPER. 
 
 WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 LONDON: 
 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
 
 ISIiS. 
 
 The right qj Translation is reserved, 
 
w- 
 
 V 
 
 % 
 
 
 -ONDON : PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, 
 AND CHARING CROSP. 
 
TO 
 
 SIB BODERICK I. MUBCHISON, BABT., K.C.B., 
 
 D.C.L», LL.D., F.R.S., ETC., 
 
 PRESIDENT OP THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, AND FOREIGN 
 
 ASSOCIATE OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, 
 
 IN ADMIRATION OF HIS GREAT SCIENTIFIC ATTAINMENTS, 
 
 AND AS A GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF 
 
 MUCH KINDNESS SHOWN TO 
 
 THE AUTHOE. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 So little is known of the interior of Kussian America, that 
 I trust even this imperfect and meagre narrative may prove 
 not altogether uninteresting. A large portion of these 
 pages refers to a journey made in the Yukon region, which 
 though containing one of the grandest streams on the North 
 American continent, has hitherto remained almost unnoticed. 
 Sir John Richardson, indeed, when on the Mackenzie, col- 
 lected some information respecting it, but never visited any 
 portion of it, whilst the travels of Zagoskin, of the Russian 
 Imperial Navy, have never been popularly known. 
 
 This country has recently acquired some notice from its 
 transfer to the United States Government, and within a 
 few years we shall doubtless hear more of it. The natives 
 have been hitherto so isolated from civilization, that perhaps 
 in no other part of America can the " red-skin " be seen 
 to greater perfection. In a few generations he will be 
 extinct. 
 
 " Alaska Territory " — the title by which the whole of 
 Russian America is to be known in future — though as good 
 a name as any other, is founded, apparently, on a mis- 
 conception. It seems to have been derived from the title 
 

 viii PREFACE. 
 
 of that long peninsula (Aliaska) with which we are all 
 familiar on the map, but the title does not properly belong- 
 to the whole territory. 
 
 I have before me a ' Report on the Resources of Iceland 
 and Greenland,' issued this year (1868) by the State 
 Department at Washington. It was compiled, at the desire 
 of the Hon. W. H. Seward, by B. M. Peirce, Esq. From 
 that production I glean that the United States Government, 
 so far from regretting the purchase of Alaska, are almost 
 ready to bid for Iceland and Greenland! Mr. Seward's 
 mania for icebergs and snow-fields seems insatiable. 
 
 The opening chapters contain some earlier reminiscences 
 of British Columbia and Vancouver Island, whilst in the 
 concluding pages I have attempted to sketch California of 
 our own time. I have also briefly recorded some visits 
 paid by me to the eastern coasts of Siberia and Kamchatka. 
 
 Some of the most pleasant days of my life were spent 
 with the two Expeditions with which I have been con- 
 nected ; and of many of my old friends and companions I 
 shall ever think with much kindness. To Colonel Bulkley, 
 Engineer-in Chief of the Russo- American Telegraph Ex- 
 pedition; to Captain Scammon (U. S. Revenue Service); 
 and to my good friends Messrs. Wright, Chappel, and Lewis, 
 all American gentlemen with whom it was a pleasure to be 
 connected, I am indebted for courtesies which it would 
 be difficult for me to sufficiently acknowledge. 
 
PKEFACE. ix 
 
 To the President and Council of the Koyal Geographical 
 Society I am specially obliged for the use of the map, 
 illustrating the coarse of the Yukon, &c, which is to appear 
 in their ' Journal ' in connection with the paper contributed 
 by me. To Mr. Arrowsmith, for the trouble he has taken 
 to work out the crude material laid before him ; to Mr. 
 H. W. Bates and Captain George ; to Mr. Murray, and to 
 my father and brother, for their constant and kind assistance, 
 I cannot be too grateful. 
 
 The illustrations are taken, with but two exceptions, from 
 the original sketches made on the spot; they have gained 
 considerably in the hands of my friends, Messrs. Skelton, 
 Mahoney, and Zwecker. The portrait of an Aht native 
 (Vancouver Island), page 53, has been copied from an ex- 
 cellent photograph by Mr. Gentile, now of San Francisco; 
 and the picture of a Tchuktchi house, page 89, is from a 
 photograph by Mr. Kyder, who was for the season of 1866, 
 attached to the Telegraph Expedition. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 THE VOYAGE OUT. 
 
 Leaving England — Our passengers — Old Mo' — Freight for the 
 matrimonial market — Storm on hoard — Mutiny — Volunteer coal- 
 heaving — Falkland Islands— Port Stanley — The Horn — Out of 
 coal — San Francisco — The Straits of Fuca — Cook — Vancouver 
 — Juan de Fuca — Victoria — Cariboo mines — The gold — The 
 discoverers of William's Creek — Journalism on the Pacific Page 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE GLACIERS OF BUTE INLET, BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 The mountains of British Columbia and adjacent coasts — Bute Inlet 
 — Chilicoten Indians — A " blow up " — Indian packers — Eoute 
 through the forests — Indian guide — Chinook jargon — Trackless 
 forests — Lost in the woods — The glacier streams — Camp — Great 
 Glacier — Description — Eeturn journey — Second Glacier . . 18 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE TRAGEDY AMONG THE GLACIERS. 
 
 Reported murder — Canoe trip on the sea — Dodd's Narrows — 
 Island on fire — The massacre at Bute Inlet — Reports of survivors 
 — Second massacre — Excitement in the Colony — Expeditions in 
 search of the Indians — Capture of a part of the murderers — The 
 
' 
 
 xii • CONTENTS. 
 
 ideal and real Indian — His ultimate extinction — Eeasons for it — 
 Indian traders — Proposed semi-secular, semi-missionary settlements 
 — The mission at Metlakahtla Page 29 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE INTERIOR OF VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Pleasures of labour — Unknown interior of Vancouver Island — 
 Expedition organized — Cowichan Eiver — Somenos — Kakalatza 
 and his hat-box — Travel up the river — Our camps — Camp yarns 
 — Indian version of the Book of Jonah — Cowichan Lake — Eafting 
 experiences — The " Eampant Eaft " — Brown's camp — Acquisition 
 of a canoe .. 41 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE INTERIOR OF VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Nittinaht Inlet — " Whyack " — The Indians — Aht tribes — The 
 breakers — Port San Juan — Indian yarn — Sooke Basin and 
 Eiver — Discovery of gold — Gold on Queen Charlotte's Island — 
 Nanaimo — Coal-seam at Comox — Ascent of Puntledge Eiver — 
 Wreck of Canoe — Interior lakes — Barclay Sound — Game list — 
 Camp-mark .. 52 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ALASKA TERRITORY. 
 
 Acquisition of Eussian America by the United States — American 
 criticisms on the purchase — Coal and gold discoveries — Mock 
 advertisements — America for the Americans — Geographical litera- 
 ture of the Pacific — Of Eussian America — The Treaty — W. U. 
 Telegraph Expedition — Its organization — Preference for young- 
 
 men 
 
 64 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 CHAPTEK VII. 
 
 A VISIT TO THE CAPITAL OF ALASKA. 
 
 The voyage — Sitka Sound and harbour — Baranoff — Early history — 
 The town — Water supply — Agriculture — Former Eussian settle- 
 ments in California — Eussian American Company — The fisheries 
 — Kalosh Indians — Our experiences of Eussian hospitality — Sitka 
 in new hands — Two Sundays in a week — Kodiack ice — Formal 
 transfer of Alaska Page 72 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGE IN THE NORTH PACIFIC. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Departure from Sitka — Oukamok — Ounga — Breakers ahead — 
 Volcanoes in Ounimak Pass — St. Michael's, Norton Sound, 
 Aiaska — Soundings of Bering Sea — Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia 
 — The Tchuktchis — Tents — Canoes — Tchuktchis' strength — 
 Children — The irrepressible " Naukum " — Native's idea of the 
 telegraph — The ' Shenandoah ' pirate — Avatcha Bay . . . . 84 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PETROPAULOVSKI AND OUR RETURN VOYAGE TO SAN 
 FRANCISCO. 
 
 The Harbour — Town — Monuments — The fur trade — Kamchatka 
 generally — The volcanoes — The attack of the Allies in 1854 — 
 Their return in 1855 — The ' General Teste ' — Eejoin the steamer 
 ' Wright ' — Gale — Incidents of storm — Covert's " smoke-stack " 94 
 

 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 VOYAGE IN THE NORTH PACIFIC. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Organization of the expedition — Thirsty medical man — Our fleet 
 
 — Voyage — Petropaulovski again — The Eussian corvette — Eus- 
 sian wedding — Heat . — International pic-nic — Voyage north — 
 Bering's voyages — Shipwreck — Death of Bering — Gulf of Anadyr 
 
 — The " Wandering Tchuktchis " Page 105 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE ANADYR RIVER AND PLOVER BAY, EASTERN SIBERIA. 
 
 Tchuktchi with letter of recommendation — Boat expedition to 
 the river — Our explorers — Their experiences — The Anadyr 
 Eiver — Tchuktchi thieves — Plover Bay — Naukum again — 
 Advertising in Bering Straits — Telegraph station erected — 
 Foraging with a vengeance — Whaling — Norton Sound, Alaska — 
 Death of Major Kennicott 117 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 RUSSIAN AND INDIAN SETTLEMENTS. — NORTON SOUND. 
 
 St. Michael's — The fort and its inhabitants — The ' Provalishik ' — 
 Eussian steam-bath — " Total immersion " — The island — Incident 
 of break-up of ice — Arrival of dead Indian sledge-driver — Steam- 
 boat trip — Steamer laid up — Eussian post at Unalachleet — 
 Malemute and Kaveak Indians — Skin clothing — Intertribal com- 
 merce — Trade with the Tchuktchis — Underground houses — Fish- 
 ing through the ice 127 
 
CONTENTS. xv 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 UNALACHLEET — NORTON SOUND. 
 
 Indian town-hall — Preparations for dance — Smoke-consuming Indians 
 — Feast — Dance — Chorus — The Malemutes and Kaveaks — The 
 chiefs — " Parka-mama" — Erection of quarters — Preparations for 
 sledge journey Page 141 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SLEDGE JOURNEY TO THE YUKON. 
 
 Routes to the Yukon — Sledges and dogs — Our start — Our party — 
 Unalachleet River —Brought to a standstill — Dogs desert — Inge- 
 lete Indians — Underground houses, &c. — Beans versus rice — 
 Indian cleanliness — Medical aid — Ulukuk — The river — Indian 
 trading 148 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 sledge journey to the yukon. — Continued. 
 
 Cross the Ulukuk River — Walking on snow shoes — Ulukuk Moun- 
 tains — Land travelling — Versola Sofka — Patent camp — Our 
 frozen breath — Indian honesty — The use of snow shoes — Warm 
 springs — First glimpse of the Yukon — Coltog — Old " Stareek " 
 — Travel on the Yukon — AlikofPs " barabba '' — Meet a Russian 
 sledge-train — Arrival at Nulato 159 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 LIFE AT NULATO — YUKON RIVER. 
 
 First explorers of the Yukon — Nulato — Our quarters — Water 
 sledge — Fish traps— Winter sketching — Frozen provisions — 
 
xvi CONTENTS. 
 
 Coldest day — Departure of a sledge train — Dinner party — Indian 
 arrivals — Shortest day — Merry Christmas — Bill of fare — Aurora 
 — Temperatures — Supplies — Principal winter trip of our 
 lorers Page 169 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE CO-YUKON INDIANS. 
 
 Co-Yukon tribe — Fashions — The Nulato massacre — Incidents of 
 the attack — Indian murders — Mourning observances — " Wake " 
 
 — Four-post Coffins — Superstitions — " Corralling " deer — News 
 travels fast — Furs and trading — Indian women — Indian "goggles" 
 
 — Children's dolls 182 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 CANOE JOURNEY. — ASCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Spring — Thaw — Break-up of the Yukon — Preparations for journey 
 
 — Our canoes — Start — Dangerous condition of river — Its size — 
 Current — Perilous navigation — Submerged islands — Co-Yukuk 
 
 — Birch - bark fleet — Sachertelontin — Lagoon • — Newicargut — 
 Purchase of supplies — Tooth - brush experiences — Medicine- 
 making — Indian dissipation — Child's birch-bark chair . . . . 192 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 canoe journey — (continued). — ASCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Meet a deserter — Indian taste for " Nigger " minstrelsy — Tracking — 
 Lagoon — Piles of drift wood — Nuclukayette — Unsophisticated 
 Indians — Ceremony — Leave the Eussians — The Indian's head — 
 Mountain gorge — Indian dogs — Canoe leak — The rapids — The 
 " Eamparts " — Moose -hunting — Islands — Overhanging banks — 
 Shallows — Shortest night — First English Indians — Porcupine 
 Eiver — Fort Yukon 207 
 
CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 CHAPTEE XX. 
 
 FORT YUKON. 
 
 Eeturn of the Commander and Missionary — Information received from 
 them — Mackenzie and the Yukon — The Indians — Numerous 
 tribes — The furs — Fictitious black fox — Missionary work — 
 Eeturn of our explorers from the Upper Yukon — Fort Yukon, 
 sledges, &c. Page 219 
 
 CHAPTEE XXI. 
 
 DESCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Drifting down the stream — Yukon salmon — Arrival at Nulato — 
 Overdose of arsenic and alcohol — Trip resumed — Indian music 
 
 — Anvic — The mission — Earthquake on the water — Andreavski 
 
 — The mouths of the Yukon — Smith's observations — Pastolik 
 
 — St. Michael's — Progress of the telegraph — Frozen soil — 
 Scurvy — Arrival of our barque — Plover Bay — Eeturn to San 
 Francisco 231 
 
 CHAPTEE XXII. 
 
 THE VALUE OF ALASKA. — THE ORIGIN OF THE ESQUIMAUX 
 OF NORTHERN ALASKA AND GREENLAND. 
 
 The value of Alaska — The furs and fisheries — The purchase, an act 
 of justice to Eussia — The Aleutian Islands — Volcanoes — Bogoslov 
 Island — The Asiatic origin of the Esquimaux — The Tchuktchis — 
 Sea-going canoes — The voyages of two Japanese junks — The 
 connecting links between the Tchuktchis and the Esquimaux — 
 Language — Degeneration of the Esquimaux — Community of goods 
 
 — The " Schaman " and the " Angekok." 2-44 
 
 b 
 
xviii CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIIT. 
 
 W. U. TELEGEAPH EXPLORATIONS IN ASIA. 
 
 Major Abasa appointed Chief — Arrival in Petropaulovski — Travels 
 in Kamchatka — Ghijega — The town, &c. — Eoute betwen Ghijega 
 and Ochotsk — The explorations of Mahood and Bush — Nicolaiefski, 
 Month of the Amoor — Travel to Ochotsk — Eeindeer riding — The 
 Tnnguse — Ayan — Ochotsk — MacCrea and Arnold's wanderings 
 among the Tchuktchis — Anadyrsk Page 257 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIV. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 California in 1849 — To-day — Agricultural progress — Wine manu- 
 facture — Climate — Lower California — San Francisco — No paper 
 money — Coinage — Growth — General prosperity — Scarcity of 
 labour — Hiring a domestic — Luxuries of the land — The " Mis- 
 sion " — Hotel carte — Home for the Inebriates — Immigration 
 desired — Newspapers — Chinese population — " John's " status — 
 John as a miner — Dead Chinamen — Celestial entertainment — 
 Merchant's pigtail 269 
 
 CHAPTEE XXV. 
 
 California. — Continued. 
 
 San Francisco Society — Phraseology — Ladies of Fr'isco — Sunday 
 in the city — Free criticism on parsons — Site — Steep streets — 
 San Francisco calves — Earthquakes — House-moving — Fire com- 
 panies — " Wells Fargo's Express " — The three-cent stamps — The 
 men of the Pacific 282 
 
PKEFACE. xix 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI, 
 
 CALIFORNIA AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 
 
 Early American opinions of the country — California steamers — The 
 public lands — Extent — Price — Labour — Wages — The wine 
 interests — Table of temperatures — The vineyards, &c. — Classes 
 suitable for immigrants — Education — Schools — School ma'ams 
 — Investments 292 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. — The Proposed Overland Eoute from the Atlantic 
 
 to the Pacific, through British Territory .. .. 309 
 
 LL— The W. U. Telegraph Scheme 312 
 
 ILL — Notes on Sitka 315 
 
 IV. — Port Clarence, Northern Alaska 316 
 
 V. — Indian Dialects of Northern Alaska 318 
 
 VI. — Notes on the Geology of the Yukon , 329 
 
2 LEAVING ENGLAND. [Chap. I. 
 
 in the Mediterranean, " had our destinies in their power," and 
 made us aware of the fact. 
 
 " Winds are rude in Biscay's sleepless bay : " 
 
 at least we found them so, for a breeze increased into a gale 
 before we were clear of its outer waters. Our craft was a 
 staunch iron screw-steamer, the ' Tynemouth,' which had won 
 a good reputation during the Crimean war by weathering out 
 that terrible storm in the Black Sea, in which so many vessels 
 (including the ' Black Prince ') were lost. We were bound 
 for Vancouver Island, via the Horn, and expected to call 
 at one or two ports by the way. On board were some 
 three hundred passengers, two-thirds of whom shewed a total 
 loss of dignity and self-respect during these early days, and 
 made our vessel much resemble a floating hospital. But 
 there is an end to all things ; and by the time we reached 
 the tropics, our friends had recovered their appetites, and, 
 clad in light attire, lounged, smoking, chatting, and reading 
 under the awnings, giving our decks the appearance of a 
 nautical pic-nic. Our passengers were a study in themselves. 
 They included a number of young men, much too large a 
 proportion of whom had apparently no profession, business, 
 or definite aim in life, to augur well for their future career 
 in a new country* Still, most branches were represented; 
 from farmers, tradesmen, and mechanics, to lawyers, artists, 
 and literary men. The greatest character on board was a 
 venerable Jew, generally known as " Old Mo'." He was an 
 Israelite of the conventional stage type, and did not neglect 
 turning a penny, by selling to the passengers stale lemons 
 and bad cigars, or by organizing raffles and mock auctions. 
 Towards the end of the voyage, he purchased all the odds 
 
Chap. I.] OUR PASSENGERS. 3 
 
 and ends on which he could lay his hands, offering the 
 " highestch prishe for old closhe and zhewellry ;" and with 
 these he afterwards stocked a small shop in Victoria. Moses, 
 like Shylock, had much to stand in gibes and sneers, but 
 bore it " with a patient shrug." 
 
 Our most noticeable living freight was, however, an "in- 
 voice" of sixty young ladies destined for the colonial and 
 matrimonial market. They had been sent out by a home 
 Society, under the watchful care of a clergyman and 
 matron; and they must have passed the dreariest three 
 months of their existence on board, for they were iso- 
 lated from the rest of the passengers, and could only look 
 on at the fun and amusements in which every one else could 
 take a part. Every benevolent effort deserves respect; but, 
 from personal observation, I cannot honestly recommend 
 such a mode of supplying the demands of a colony. Half 
 of them married soon after arrival, or went into service ; but 
 a large proportion quickly went to the bad, and, from appear- 
 ances, had been there before. The influence of but a few 
 such on the more respectable girls could not have been 
 otherwise than detrimental. To speak ungallantly, but truly, 
 many of these ladies were neither young nor beautiful, and 
 reminded me of the crowd who answered the advertisement 
 in the farce of ' Wanted 10,000 Milliners ! ' Of course much 
 might be said about giving the poor creatures a chance ! but 
 the fact is, that the market would in the course of affairs 
 more naturally supply itself. The prosperous settler would 
 send for his sweetheart, or come home in search of one, and 
 could always get suitable domestics sent out by his friends, 
 and meet them at the port of arrival. It will be readily 
 understood too, that in a new country there is a floating 
 
 b 2 
 
4 MUTINY ON BOARD. [Chap. I- 
 
 population, among whom some individuals by " chance," or by- 
 industry, have acquired a little money, and are ready to 
 plunge into matrimony on the slightest provocation ; whilst 
 there is also a large proportion of " black sheep," who are 
 quite ready to amuse themselves at the expense of the poor 
 girls. 
 
 We were beginning to find life somewhat tedious, when 
 a storm arose on board that altered the aspect of affairs. In 
 common with a large proportion of ships — as far as my 
 experience goes — we were considerably undermanned, and 
 the overworked crew rebelled. They came aft to the 
 captain; and a scene ensued, in which very high words 
 passed, and at length one of the more daring mutineers 
 "planted" (to use the language of the fraternity) a blow 
 between the skipper's " peepers," which brought the " claret " 
 very freely -from his nose. In consequence, the fiat went 
 forth — instantly and indignantly — "Put them in irons!" 
 which was, however, a thing easier said than done. At last 
 the officers — with the assistance of some of the passengers — 
 succeeded in handcuffing the rebels, and they were then 
 stowed away in a rather warm compartment near the engine- 
 room, till such time as mutiny should be melted out of 
 them. 
 
 Our captain was in a dilemma. We were almost becalmed ; 
 our sails flapped idly in the wind, while the arrangements 
 for the coals were such, that with these men off duty, our 
 engine must soon come to a standstill. The coal was chiefly 
 in the fore-hold, and had to be raised, wheeled along deck, 
 and deposited in the " bunkers." 
 
 At this juncture a committee of the passengers was con- 
 vened, and it was agreed that the more active of all classes 
 
 
Chap. I.] VOLUNTEER COAL HEAVING. 5 
 
 should be invited to volunteer, and act as crew for the time 
 being. All the younger men came forward readily, were 
 solemnly enrolled, and set to work at once, glad of an inter- 
 ruption to the monotony of the voyage. We scrubbed the 
 decks, hauled at ropes, filled the coal-sacks, and hoisted them 
 on deck, getting a fair taste of a modern sailor's life on board 
 a steam- vessel. It is more than doubtful whether any of us 
 would have echoed the words of England's sea-song writer, 
 who says — 
 
 " Then, Bill, let us thank Providence 
 That you and I are sailors ! " 
 
 but we found it good exercise, and worked with a will. Did 
 we not know that the eyes of sixty maidens were looking on 
 approvingly, as we helped them on to the consummation of 
 their dearest wishes ? We did, and even our parson credit- 
 ably proved his " muscular Christianity," and soiled his irre- 
 proachable garments at one and the same time. I tasted 
 the dignity of labour in the role of an amateur coal-heaver, 
 and in the more sinecure employment of keeping the " look- 
 out." We cooled our fevered frames with libations of beer, 
 and buckets of diluted lime-juice ; in this matter having an 
 undoubted advantage over the old crew, who didn't get much 
 of such luxuries. At last the tropical heat, superadded to 
 that of the furnaces, brought the men to their senses, and 
 the larger part of them went back to work ; three, however, 
 held out, and were kept in irons. 
 
 After some rough weather off the Eio de la Plata (known 
 familiarly by sailors as the Eiver Plate), in which we stove 
 in our bulwarks and lost a boat, we at last made the Falk- 
 land Islands, and came to an anchor in Stanley Harbour. 
 This is a land-locked basin some six miles long by half a mile 
 
6 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. [Chap. I. 
 
 or so wide, and is on East Falkland. We arrived there early 
 in August, but it was the end of their winter. The snow had 
 just disappeared from the low lands, leaving them in places 
 very swampy. The island was thick with peat-moss, which 
 affords the inhabitants their only fuel, no timber except a 
 very limited amount of drift wood being attainable. There 
 are no trees whatever on the Falklands, and it is said that 
 attempts to introduce them have been unsuccessful. It was 
 from these islands that Col. Moody, when Colonial Governor, 
 brought the " Tussac " grass. 
 
 The Falklands had been in the hands of both the Spanish 
 and French before we obtained possession of them, and they 
 were not formerly valued as they are now. Port Stanley is 
 a pretty little town of 700 or 800 inhabitants, with a church, 
 government buildings, and school-house. Vessels returning 
 from China, Australia, or California, find these islands directly 
 in their course, and often put into Port Stanley for repairs, 
 water, coal, or supplies. Vegetables and fresh meat are 
 abundant, the latter selling for two-pence or three-pence a 
 pound. The cattle on the islands are very numerous, and 
 for the most part wild ; they were introduced by the Span- 
 iards. Stanley was a free port at the date of our visit, and 
 our passengers took advantage of the fact to lay in stocks of 
 hollands and brandy, much to the disgust of our steward, who 
 firmly believed in monopoly. 
 
 As our ship's cow had given up the ghost — frightened to 
 death in a storm — and the fowls were things of the past, we 
 were all glad to get ashore, luxuriate on milk and fresh 
 provisions, and stretch our legs. An English company had 
 — and I presume has — a large store there, and exported 
 hides and furs, employing some 150 persons directly, and 
 
Chap. I.] PORT STANLEY. 7 
 
 a larger number indirectly, in their collection. Our vessel 
 coaled at this settlement. 
 
 We spent several days in excursions from the ship, shooting 
 wild-fowl, and amusing ourselves with watching the penguin, 
 which were very abundant. On the beach, when waddling 
 away from us in a hurry, they suggested the idea of old 
 women tripping over the stones with many a fall! We 
 visited the excellent lighthouse at Cape Pembroke, the 
 easternmost point of East Falkland, about eight miles from 
 the port. Here we found the keeper's wife, with a family of 
 youngsters, some of whom had never seen even the glories 
 of Port Stanley, and yet were happy. The lighthouse, 110 
 feet in height, stands at the termination of a barren sand waste, 
 and the beach near it is everywhere strewed with kelp and sea- 
 weed of the most enormous growth, resembling in fact sea trees. 
 Kelp is so thick in some parts of the harbour that it is next 
 to impossible to row through it. 
 
 Our mutineers were tried in due form, and sentenced to 
 a spell of hard labour, which in this case consisted of 
 amateur gardening, and sanding the floors of the govern- 
 ment buildings. They were apparently rather glad than 
 otherwise of a brief residence in a place where fresh 
 food was so abundant, and knew moreover that the next 
 vessel touching there short-handed would probably be glad 
 to take them at higher wages than those ruling in the port 
 of London. 
 
 We were detained — partly by bad weather — for twelve 
 days, but at last the favourable moment arrived, and we 
 steamed out in good style. In the evening of the same day 
 we passed Staten Land, over the rugged shores of which a 
 canopy of mist hung gracefully. In the valleys a lace-work 
 
8 CAPE HORN — SAN FRANCISCO. [Chap. I. 
 
 of snow still remained. Next morning we were in the Pacific 
 in sight of the broken jagged coast of the famed and dreaded 
 " Horn." The weather was superb, the sea almost a lake 
 and the regulation terrors of the passage were nowhere ! For 
 the reader's sake, this was a great pity, but our passengers felt 
 a kind of relief from the lingering dread of the more usual 
 bad weather of the Cape. We soon got the " trade winds," 
 set all sail, and knocked off steam. 
 
 Before we made the Californian coast, the wind died out, 
 and having again to steam, our coal got reduced to the last 
 gasp. All loose wood on deck, and even some valuable 
 spars, had to be cut up for the furnaces, and the day before 
 our arrival in San Francisco it was seriously contemplated 
 to strip the second and third cabins of their berths and fur- 
 niture ! 
 
 But if we had been glad to go ashore at the Falklands, 
 how much more so were we to land in San Francisco, to 
 walk about its handsome streets, and enjoy its good things. 
 Some of our passengers were so well satisfied with it that 
 they abandoned all idea of going any further, and others, who 
 could not imagine that our captain would start from it in 
 such a hurry, were in consequence left behind. Of San 
 Francisco, I shall speak in my concluding chapters. I have 
 watched its growth for five years, and believe its history to 
 be almost unexampled among cities that have arisen in 
 modern times, and that its future teems with the greatest 
 promise. 
 
 Kesuming our trip, we at length reached Cape Flattery 
 and the Straits of Fuca, and obtained a first glimpse of the 
 interminable forests on Vancouver Island, that were to be the 
 home of some of us for many a day. As late as the days 
 
Chap. I.] STRAITS OF FUCA. 9 
 
 of Cook, it was believed that Vancouver Island was a part of 
 the mainland, and it was so laid down in the atlas accom- 
 panying his great work. The Straits of Fuca were in effect 
 so named in 1792 by Vancouver, after their real discoverer, 
 Juan de Fuca, an old Greek sailor, whose pretensions, in re 
 gard to their exploration, were long scoffed at by geographers. 
 Cook sailing up the coast of New Albion, now known as 
 Oregon and Washington Territory, reached the promontory 
 which has always since borne the name he gave it — Cape 
 Flattery. " It is in this very latitude," says he, " where we 
 now were, that geographers have placed the pretended Straits 
 of Juan de Fuca. But we saw nothing like it ; nor is there 
 the least probability that ever any such thing existed." 
 Tolerably positive language ! — more especially when we know 
 the real facts of the voyage, as later given to the world by 
 Captain James Burney* who served with Cook on this iden- 
 tical voyage. He says, "After making the coast, unfavourable 
 winds and weather forced the ships as far south as to 43°, 
 and when we again made way northward, blowing and thick 
 unsettled weather prevented our tracing a continuation of the 
 coast, so that between a cape in lat. 44° 55' N., named by 
 Captain Cook Cape Foulweather, and a point of land in 
 48° 15' N., which he named Cape Flattery, because the 
 prospect of the land near it gave it a doubtful promise of a 
 harbour, we obtained only now and then a glimpse of the 
 land. 
 
 " We were near the last-mentioned point on the evening of 
 the 22nd (March, 1778), and a little before seven o'clock ; it 
 
 * 'A Chronological History of North-Eastern Voyages of Discovery. 
 
 Chap. xix. 
 
10 STRAITS OF FUCA. [Chap. I. 
 
 growing dark, Captain Cook tacked to wait for daylight, in- 
 tending to make closer examination ; but before morning a 
 hard gale of wind came on with rainy weather, and we were 
 obliged to keep off from the land. At this time a port was 
 necessary to both ships, to repair the lower rigging, as well 
 as to recruit their stock of fresh water. On the 29th, in the 
 forenoon, we again made the land. At noon, the latitude was 
 observed 49° 28' N." The reader who has followed me thus 
 far, will see that Cook missed the entrance to the Straits of 
 Fuca. There is nothing surprising in the fact, though there 
 is in his hasty conclusion with regard to the existence of a 
 strait. The last latitude is approximately that of Nootka 
 Sound, Vancouver Island, of which both Cook and Burney 
 give us full descriptions. 
 
 Between 1787-9, Captains Berkely, Duncan, Meares, and 
 Kendrick — the three first-named English, the latter American 
 — all confirmed Fuca's discovery by visits which they paid 
 to various parts of the Straits; and one of the objects of 
 Vancouver's great voyage was to determine the truth of their 
 statements. He arrived in the Straits — the supposed Straits 
 of Fuca, as he terms them — on Sunday, the 29th April, 
 1792, and from that date commenced the survey which has 
 immortalised his name. On the day of his arrival he met 
 Captain Grey, an American, who had made a trip up the 
 Straits, and had been wintering on the coast. 
 
 And now let us speak of Fuca, who seems to have been 
 in his own day neglected and misunderstood, as he was after- 
 wards doubted and ignored. His real name was Apostolus 
 Valerianos ; and all that we know of him is recorded in the 
 celebrated work entitled ' Purehas Ms Pilgrimes? — first pub- 
 lished in 1625 — under the title of " A note made by me, 
 
Chap. I.] JUAN DE FUCA. 11 
 
 Michael Lok the elder, touching the Strait of the Sea, com- 
 monly called Fretum Anian, in the South Sea, through the 
 North-west passage of Meta incognita." 
 
 In substance the narrative is as follows: — Lok being in 
 Venice in 1596, was introduced to a Greek pilot — an old 
 man of " three-score yeares," commonly known by his com- 
 panions as Juan de Fuca, although his real name was that 
 recorded above. He said that he had been in the Spanish 
 service "fortie yeares," and that, on one of his voyages, he 
 had been in the galleon taken off Cape California (? Cape 
 St. Lucas), by " Captaine Candlish Englishman, whereby he 
 lost sixtie thousand Duckets, of his owne goods." 
 
 In 1592, the Viceroy of Mexico sent him on a voyage of 
 discovery to the Straits which now bear his name. He 
 followed the coast of California and Oregon, &c, "vntill 
 hee came to the latitude of fortie-seuen degrees, and there 
 finding that the land trended North and North-east, with a 
 broad Inlet of Sea, betweene 47 and 48 degrees of Latitude : 
 hee entered there into, sayling therein more then twentie 
 dayes, and found that land trending still, sometime North- 
 west and North-east, and North, and also East and South- 
 eastward, and very much broader Sea then was at the said 
 entrance, and he passed by diuers islands in that sayling. 
 And at the entrance of the said Strait, there is on the North- 
 west coast thereof, a great Hedland or Island, with an 
 exceeding high Pinacle, or spired Kock, like a pillar there- 
 upon. 
 
 " Also he said, that he went on Land in diuers places, and 
 that he saw some people on Land, clad in Beasts skins : 
 and that the Land is very fruitful], and rich of Gold, Siluer, 
 Pearle, and other things, like Nona Spania. 
 
12 JUAN DE FUCA. [Chap. I. 
 
 "And also lie said, that he being entered thus farre into 
 the said Strait, and being come into the North Sea already 
 (which means that he had ronnded Vancouver Island), and 
 finding the Sea wide enough every-where, and to be about 
 thirtie or fortie leagues wide in the mouth of the Straits, 
 where hee entred, hee thought he had now well discharged 
 his office, and done the thing which he was sent to doe ; and 
 that hee not being armed to resist the force of the Saluage 
 people that might happen, hee therefore set sayle and re- 
 turned homewards again e towards JVoua Spania, where he 
 arrived at Acapulco, Anno 1592." 
 
 The Viceroy welcomed him with empty compliments, and 
 recommended him to go to Spain, and lay his discoveries 
 before the King, "which voyage hee did performe." The 
 King received him courteously with " wordes after the Spanish 
 manner," but did nothing for him, and giving up all hopes of 
 reward, he went to Italy, where Lok met him. 
 
 He there offered to enter the English service, hoping at the 
 same time to be remembered in regard to his great loss to 
 Candlish. Lok wrote immediately to Lord Treasurer Cecil, 
 Sir Walter Ealeigh, and Master Kichard Hakluit the geo- 
 grapher, asking them to forward 100?. to fetch Fuca to 
 England, he not being in a position to afford it. Answer 
 came that the idea was well liked, but the money not being 
 forthcoming, the matter was allowed to drop. Later, Lok — 
 who had been English Consul at Aleppo — corresponded 
 with Fuca, and when himself in the island of Zante, wrote to 
 Cephalonia, offering to take the old pilot at his own expense 
 to England. But poor old Fuca was by this time — Christmas, 
 1602, — dead, or at the point of death, and we lost the chance 
 of making an early discovery of an important coast. 
 
Chap. I.] VICTORIA, VANCOUVER ISLAND. 13 
 
 The Straits of Fuca have been often described, and I will 
 not enlarge upon the subject. Although the scenery is in 
 parts very beautiful, and occasionally grand, there is a mono- 
 tony about them inseparable from pine-forests, rocks, and 
 islands. We soon arrived off Esquimalt, obtained a pilot, 
 and entered the harbour, now one of our most important 
 naval stations in the Pacific, as it is also one of the healthiest. 
 It is, in effect, the port of Victoria, as only moderate-sized 
 vessels can safely enter the harbour of the latter place, owing 
 to a bar at its entrance. 
 
 Of Victoria, in which town I spent three winters, what 
 shall I say? Its career has been a forced and unhealthy 
 one, and it is at the present day suffering from the effects. 
 For a time, indeed, the British Columbian mines gave it an 
 impetus, and had there been a really good agricultural 
 country in the neighbourhood, it would have doubtless 
 become a permanently prosperous settlement. But although 
 Victoria has much in its favour, — a climate almost unsur- 
 passed, provisions abundant and cheap, and fair facilities of 
 communication with neighbouring countries, — it has dwindled 
 down to a very low ebb indeed. I may be excused for 
 alluding to one fact well known in the colony, although 
 most writers on the subject have persistently ignored it. It 
 is this : that men who have made large fortunes in the 
 mines, and other ways, — and there have been many such, — 
 do not, as a rule, become settlers in that country. In 
 Australia and California they do become attached to the 
 soil ; they find abundance of available and open lands, and 
 end by becoming prosperous and contented residents. This 
 point is of great importance. The discovery of minerals, 
 however profitable to individuals, will not make a country : 
 
14 VICTORIA, VANCOUVER ISLAND. [Chap. I. 
 
 but the discovery of minerals and rich lands fit for agricul- 
 tural pursuits may do so.* 
 
 I spent many pleasant days in Victoria : it was my resting- 
 place in the intervals between many lengthened journeys. 
 It is a very bright, clean, well-built little town, with all the 
 latest improvements. There are episcopal, dissenting, and 
 Koman Catholic churches, a mechanics' institute, theatre, 
 and gas-works. There are many private and public societies, 
 masonic, national or charitable ; and the traveller can always 
 be sure of much hospitality if he comes with good credentials. 
 The naval gentlemen from Esquimalt give life and tone to 
 the society of the place, while the active or retired servants 
 of the Hudson's Bay Company are its principal residents. 
 This Company has in Victoria a very fine warehouse and 
 wharves, and now does a miscellaneous business, in addition 
 to the collection of furs. 
 
 Our fellow-passengers, who had come to make a rapid and 
 gigantic fortune in Cariboo, now for the most part awoke to the 
 fact that the mines were yet some five hundred miles away, and 
 out of our list of three hundred persons not more than 
 
 * The mainland of this now united colony, British Columbia, has a fair 
 amount of good land. The Governor in a recent Blue Book says, " The 
 most important advance made by British Columbia in 1866 was the rapid 
 development of agriculture occasioned by the increasing number of waggon 
 roads and other communications. Home-manufactured flour of superior 
 quality is already taking the place of the imported article. Use is being 
 made of the magnificent timber covering the sides of the harbours and 
 inlets ; and spars and lumber of superior quality were exported in 1866 to 
 the value of 10,0002. The yield of gold in the year is roughly estimated at 
 600,000?., and, as there were certainly not more than three thousand miners 
 engaged, the average product reached 200?. per man, — far exceeding any 
 average ever reached in California or Australia." 
 
Chap. I.] CARIBOO MINES. 15 
 
 twenty-five ever reached the Northern El Dorado. When, 
 in 1863, I made a sketching and pedestrian tour to that 
 district, I met some of my fellow passengers already on the 
 way down, disgusted and crestfallen. They knew nothing 
 of mining, and their only chance of obtaining an interest in 
 a company was in the same way as in Cornwall or Wales — 
 by buying it. This too was a rather shaky undertaking. 
 If bought on the spot, there was a great probability that 
 the ground was " salted," a technical term for a well known 
 ruse, that of scattering a few ounces of gold among the dirt ; 
 the seller (true in a double sense) re-discovering it there 
 before the victim's eyes. He did not always get even this 
 satisfaction ; fragments of brass candlesticks and dutch metal 
 have sometimes done duty for the precious deposit, and it 
 is said that Chinese miners are excellent at manufacturing 
 fictitious nuggets and quartz specimens. 
 
 A friend of mine purchased in Victoria a share in a Cariboo 
 mine, and on arrival there was unable to find or hear of any 
 traces of it. It existed only on paper. On the other hand 
 Cariboo was, and still is, a very rich field. A single com- 
 pany once realized 180 lbs. of gold as the result of one 
 day's work.* I have myself seen 200 oz. collected from the 
 " dump-box," as the proceeds of one " shift," or eight hours' 
 work. Much of this kind of thing has been already laid 
 before the public, but the deductions made therefrom have 
 not been by any means correct. The fact is, that in a large 
 
 * For the week ending July 9th, 1865, the Ericson Company took out 
 1400 oz. The following week reached still higher, — 1926 oz., worth over 
 6000?. I well rememher the first gold "struck" in that claim, and 
 the general surprise that anything whatever was to be found in that 
 locality. 
 
16 RISKS OF GOLD-MINING. [Chap. 1. 
 
 number of cases the working expenses were very heavy, and 
 one, two, or even three seasons' work had often to be first 
 expended before there were any returns. The price of pro- 
 visions, at the date of my visit, averaged all round a dollar 
 (4s. 2d.) a pound, and labour commanded ten dollars a day. 
 Even the hardy pioneers, men who had been " broken in " 
 in California or Australia, were by no means universally 
 lucky. The fate of the discoverers of "William's Creek," 
 the richest valley in Cariboo, is a case in point. One of 
 them, William Dietz, a German, broken down by hardship 
 and exposure, was dependent on charity while I was in 
 Victoria ; and the second, Eose, a Scotchman, died of 
 starvation in the woods, and was afterwards found by horror- 
 stricken friends. On his tin-cup he had attempted to 
 record his sufferings, by scratching thereon a few broken 
 words. 
 
 Of my experiences on the grand Cariboo road, a work of 
 great engineering skill, especially in the Canons of the 
 Fraser, of that great river itself, of lakes, forests and torrents, 
 " ranches " and road-side houses, I could relate enough to 
 fill this volume, but will say nothing;* for the very good 
 
 * But I must mention one fact interesting in the history of journalism on 
 the Pacific. In 1865 a small newspaper was started in the mines, and was 
 named ' The Cariboo Sentinel.' It consisted of one (foolscap) sheet of four 
 pages, and with an occasional supplement, sold at one dollar (4s. 2d.) a 
 copy ! The editor, Mr. Wallace, whom I knew well, was the all-in-all of 
 the office. He was his own compositor, pressman, advertisement agent, 
 publisher, and collector, and doubtless would have been his own paper 
 maker on the spot if rags had been less valuable ! He was very successful 
 in a pecuniary point of view, and afterwards sold the concern to some one 
 else. He then commenced the publication of a paper at the town of Yale, 
 
Chap. L] LORD MILTON AND DR. CHEADLE. 17 
 
 reason that the country has already been admirably described 
 in the work of Lord Milton and Dr. Cheadle.f These gentle- 
 men went over exactly the same ground, and have presented 
 a faithful picture of the whole, as far as the subject can 
 possibly interest the public. The succeeding chapters contain 
 some account of my trips in other and less known parts of 
 the same country, while the bulk of this volume describes 
 visits paid to much more northern climes. 
 
 in the Canons of the Fraser, and has since returned to England, having 
 retired with a competency. 
 
 f Capt. Mayne's ' Four Years in British Columbia,' a very reliable and 
 interesting work, touches on the same subject. 
 
18 BUTE INLET. Chap. II. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE GLACIEKS OF BUTE INLET, BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 The Mountains of British Columbia and adjacent coasts — Bute Inlet — 
 Chilicoten Indians — A "blowup" — Indian packers — Koute through 
 the forests — Indian guide — Chinook jargon — Trackless forests — 
 Lost in the woods — The glacier streams — Camp — Great glacier — 
 Description — Eeturn journey — Second glacier. 
 
 A glance at the map of British Columbia shows us one of 
 the most broken jagged coast lines in the world, with arms 
 of the sea innumerable, into each of which some river, small 
 or large, finds its way. These streams, fed by numerous 
 tributaries, born of the snow and ice, pass through the 
 valleys of the Cascade and coast ranges, bordering on the 
 Gulf of Georgia, Straits of Fuca, and adjacent coast. 
 The general character of these mountain ranges is Alpine ; 
 perpetual snow reigns in their upper regions, and glaciers 
 exist in their valleys. Such are known to exist at the 
 Stekine Kiver in particular. 
 
 A direct route from the coast into the Cariboo mines by 
 the way of Bute Inlet had been projected and partly carried 
 out in the year 1864; and in consequence the writer was 
 induced to visit this otherwise inaccessible country. A 
 schooner, with men and supplies on board, left Victoria 
 Vancouver Island, on the 16th March of that year; and he 
 then took the opportunity, kindly given him by the pro- 
 jector of the road, Mr. Alfred Waddington, of paying the 
 glaciers a visit. 
 
Chap. II.] CHILICOTEN INDIANS. 19 
 
 Omitting all details of a tedious passage, we arrived at 
 Bute Inlet on the 22nd March, and getting a fair breeze, we 
 made the mouth of the Homathco Kiver the same day. On 
 entering the inlet, the transition from the low rocky islands 
 of the Gulf of Georgia to the precipitous snow-capped 
 mountains of the mainland was very marked. The skipper, 
 who knew the Norway coast, said that it exactly resembled 
 the scenery of the " Fiords." The snow, then fast melting, 
 yielded many a streamlet which glided peacefully through 
 the forest to the sea, and many a thundering cataract which 
 fell over bare and abrupt cliffs. Near the river some Chil- 
 icoten Indians paddled out in their canoes, and came on 
 board to get a free ride. They had rings through their 
 noses, were much painted, and wore the inevitable blanket of 
 the coast. For the rest, there was nothing very characteristic 
 in their costume ; some having a shirt without breeches, some 
 breeches without a shirt. Two of them were picturesque 
 with wolf-skin robes, hair turned inwards, and the outer side 
 adorned with fringes of tails derived from marten or squirrel. 
 Among them one old hag attracted some notice, from her 
 repulsive appearance and the short pipe which she seemed to 
 enjoy. 
 
 On nearing a small wharf already erected at the mouth of 
 the river, a solitary white man, Mr. C , made his appear- 
 ance, and was evidently glad to see us. He had been left 
 in charge of stores, mules, &c\, during winter, and the 
 Indians had at times threatened his life. 
 
 An amusing incident had occurred during his stay. He 
 had missed many small things from his log house, and could 
 not catch the thief, whoever he might be, but who ho had 
 reason to believe must have entered the cabin by the large open 
 
 o 2 
 
20 "A BLOW UP." [Chap. II. 
 
 chimney. At last he got a friend to go inside with a quarter 
 of a pound of gunpowder, and locking the door, made pre- 
 tence of leaving, but crept back near the house to watch the 
 result. Soon, an Indian came stealthily along, sans culottes, 
 sans everything. He climbed on the roof, and got nearly 
 down the chimney, when the man inside threw the powder 
 on the smouldering ashes, and off it went. The Indian went 
 off also ! and with a terrific yell ; but over his condition a veil 
 must be drawn. He afforded for some time afterwards a 
 very wholesome warning to his tribe, being unable to sit or 
 lie down. 
 
 These people appeared to be very bare of provisions, and 
 disputed with their wretched "cayota" dogs anything that 
 we threw out of our camp, in the shape of bones, bacon rind, 
 or tea leaves, and similar luxuries. Many of them were 
 subsequently employed in packing goods on their backs, 
 always carrying their loads fixed to a strap which came round 
 and over their foreheads. As they would pack 100 lbs. and 
 upwards this way, their heads must be regarded as tolerably 
 strong and thick! Some of them were also employed in 
 building the road. 
 
 After making sundry arrangements, we started up. The 
 route lay through a magnificent forest of cedar,* hemlock, 
 and Douglas pine, individual specimens of which almost 
 
 * Cedar, as it is popularly known on the coast, is the Thuja gigantea'oi 
 botanists. Douglas Pine, Abies Douglasii, and Hemlock {Abies Bridgei, 
 1 Proc. California Acad. Natural Sciences,' Vol. 2.). Maple (Acer macro- 
 pliyllum), Alder (Alnus Oregana), White Pine (Pinus strobus ?) and 
 Spruce (Abies Menziesii), are also common trees of the coast. For these 
 scientific names I am indebted to Mr. Brown, with whom I was after- 
 wards associated on the Vancouver Island expedition. 
 
Chap. II.] INDIAN GUIDE. '21 
 
 rivalled the " big trees " of California. One of the cedars 
 measured forty -five feet in circumference at the butt (about 
 the height from the ground of a man's chest). Although the 
 snow lay on the ground so thickly, that the heavily-laden 
 pack-train of mules could hardly proceed without a path 
 being cleared for them, the musquitoes were already out in 
 full force. So abundant were they that the writer took nine 
 from the back of his hand at one pinch between finger and 
 thumb. They bit through anything from blankets to cord 
 unmentionables, and against their inflictions there was liter- 
 ally " nothing like leather." 
 
 The road followed more or less the river valley, the scenery 
 of which was not seen to advantage till, after crossing the 
 stream by a rope-ferry, we commenced the ascent of a moun- 
 tain by a zigzag trail, in order to avoid the passage of a 
 rock-girt canon. From this the views were superb. Purple 
 cliffs rose — pine-clad and abrupt — whilst below the Homathco 
 made its way to the sea, realizing the words of our Laureate, 
 
 " Waters between walls 
 Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass." 
 
 Afar off, snow-crowned peaks and blue valleys completed 
 the picture. 
 
 On the 1 9th April, having arrived at the furthest camp of 
 the constructing party, I engaged an Indian who was sup- 
 posed to know the country well, and started with him for the 
 Great Glacier. The Chinook jargon, the only medium of 
 converse with these Indians, has no equivalent for " glacier." 
 It could only be expressed by hyu ice, hyu snow, — " plenty of 
 ice and snow ; " and I was very much in the fix of a dignitary 
 of the Church on that coast, who began an address to the 
 Indians with " Children of the forest," but was rather disgusted 
 
22 TEACKLESS FOKESTS. [Chap. U. 
 
 to find his interpreter could only render it, Hyu tenass man 
 copa stick — " Many little men among the sticks (or stumps) ! " 
 I could not make the man thoroughly understand, and after 
 two days' wandering it became obvious that it would be better 
 to return and seek another guide. We accordingly returned, 
 and, having secured the services of an Indian of some intelli- 
 gence — Tellot by name — an old chief, I again started ; this 
 time, as it proved, with more success. 
 
 Few can have any conception of the old forests through 
 which our course lay, who have not themselves seen such- 
 Thick with living vegetation, they were equally so with decay 
 and death. Now an immense fallen trunk, over which we 
 had to climb, blocked the path ; now one under which 
 we were obliged to creep ; and now and again, an accumula- 
 tion of the same, the effect of some wintry storm or natural 
 death. Here, as the tree falls so it lies, and has lain undis- 
 turbed for ages. Hence, a log, green with moss, suddenly 
 collapsed as we trod on it, and we were half-buried in tinder. 
 Prickly thickets were common. 
 
 Men have frequently been lost in the woods of this country 
 for long periods ; and some, unable to discover a way out from 
 them, have suffered protracted and painful deaths. 
 
 In 1865, a merchant of Victoria went out on an excursion 
 trip on the occasion of the Queen's birthday, and landed with 
 others at Sooke Harbour — a place sixteen miles from the 
 town, and where, as is common on Vancouver Island, the 
 forest is extremely dense. Being rather short-sighted, he 
 wandered off a trail, and was six days in the woods without 
 food. 
 
 A party of sixty men, among whom was the writer, volun- 
 teered to go in search of him, and made a detailed examina- 
 
Chap. II.] LOST IN THE WOODS. 23 
 
 tion of the locality, proceeding in the manner of riflemen 
 when " extended," with as much regularity as was possible in 
 that broken country, thick with timber and underbrush, and 
 where you often could not see the next man ten feet off. 
 But these efforts were entirely unsuccessful, although con- 
 tinued for several days; and eventually this gentleman 
 wandered out again on the ill-defined trail, and was found 
 there — in total ignorance of the fact — by some hunters pass- 
 ing by. It need not be said that he was in a very exhausted 
 state. He had heard the bugle-calls and shouts of the 
 searching party, but was at the time in too feeble a condition 
 to make himself heard. On the fourth day he had made his 
 will, and having no paper, had written it in pencil on his white 
 handkerchief ! 
 
 Later the same year Mr. Butler, an explorer, in a different 
 branch of the same service as the writer — the Busso- Ameri- 
 can Telegraph Expedition — was lost for nearly two weeks in 
 Northern British Columbia, near the Upper Fraser. He had, 
 when in pursuit of a Cariboeuf deer, wandered far from the 
 camp of his companions, and attempting to retrace his steps, 
 found that he had lost his reckoning entirely. In order to 
 try and discover a way out of the forest he climbed a tree ; 
 but a branch gave way, and he was unfortunate enough to 
 fall from it, remaining at its base stunned and half-uncon- 
 scious for two days. At last, partially recovering his strength, 
 he managed to reach Fraser Kiver, and to construct a raft o£ 
 smalt logs; but from his weakness, and from the rapidity 
 of the current, he was unable to manage it, and it left him at 
 last stuck on a bar of the river, with the pleasure of seeing 
 it iloat away in the distance. He, however, reached the bank, 
 and took to the slower but surer mode of following the course 
 
24 • GLACIEK STREAMS. [Chap. II. 
 
 of the river by land through the woods and thickets. He at 
 length reached a small " clearing " owned by Chinamen, who 
 treated him kindly and took him to the " city " (a board and 
 shingle one) at the Mouth of Quesnelle. He had subsisted 
 for twelve days on fern and " gamass," or lily roots, and a 
 few berries. 
 
 To return to our narrative: — we found that rotten snow 
 covered the ground, logs, and underbrush, to a depth of 
 several feet, and travelling with the loads we carried was 
 hardly pleasurable. We, however, pushed on, and, after fol- 
 lowing the Homathco Kiver more or less closely for the greater 
 part of a day, we reached the first glacier stream, and soon 
 obtained a distant view of the great " frozen torrent " itself, 
 with the grand snow-peaks behind it. 
 
 This stream, with several others derived from the same 
 source, ran with great violence, and had to be waded ; it was 
 as much as I could possibly do to cross them, and I thought 
 that but for the additional fifty pounds on my back I should 
 have been taken off my legs. 
 
 To this point several Indians had accompanied us, and I 
 was not over-grieved to see them continue following the main 
 river ; they were bound for Tatla Lake. They begged for a 
 " potlatch " or gift, and, glad to get rid of them, I acceded to 
 their request for a little flour, tobacco, &c. To one of the 
 children I gave a sixpence, explaining in doubtful Chinook 
 that her Majesty, as thereon portrayed, was Victoria, Klootch- 
 man tyhee copa King George illi-he, — or " Woman-chief of the 
 King George Land " or England,* and he immediately sug- 
 
 * " King George man," in the Chinook jargon (a mixture of English, 
 French, and Indian, used as a means of converse among most of the white 
 
Chap. II.] GREAT GLACIER. ' 25 
 
 gested by motions that he intended to hang the coin from 
 his nose ! 
 
 We pitched our camp in an open space from which the 
 snow had melted, on the flat of land extending for several 
 miles below the glacier. On the next morning (24th April) 
 after our simple repast, and one pipe, I left Tellot in camp 
 to look after the traps, as he was unwilling to take any more 
 trouble, and struggled up by myself to the base of the glacier, 
 a distance of about two and a half miles, through very deep, 
 but rotten and thawing snow. The flat was strewed with 
 boulders and drift-wood, with here and there a sand-bar, and 
 covered with snow so soft, that I frequently slipped in 
 between masses of rock up to my chest, or higher, and occa- 
 sionally jerked down, without any warning, into a streamlet 
 that had undermined it. The streams were large and swift ; 
 one of them in fact was a small river, too deep and strong 
 to be waded. Pine and alder woods enclosed this open space 
 on either side. 
 
 On reaching the glacier, its presence was rendered very 
 obvious, by the cracking of the ice, and the careering of the 
 stones from its surface. This was incessant ; now a shower 
 of pebbles, now a few hundredweight of boulders, and now a 
 thimbleful of sand, but always something coming over. The 
 ice — very evidently such, at the cracks where you saw its 
 true colour, and its dripping lower edges of stalactite form — 
 yet appeared for the most part like wet smooth rock, from 
 
 men and natives of the coast) simply means an Englishman, and was 
 originated by the fact that onr first acquaintance with them was made in 
 the Georgian era. " Boston man," or " Boston " simply, stands for an 
 American ; the first vessels bearing the stars and strips, hailed from that 
 
 port. 
 
26 MORAINES AND CREVASSES. [Chap. II. 
 
 the quantity of dirt on its surface. At its termination the 
 glacier must have been three-quarters of a mile in width; 
 it was considerably wider higher up. Whilst sketching it, 
 all around was so supremely tranquil, that its action was 
 very noticeable. Bocks and boulders fell from it sufficient 
 to crush any too eager observer. A great quantity of snow 
 was on its surface, but fast melting and forming streamlets 
 that glistened in the sun, whilst from innermost icy caverns, 
 torrents of discoloured water poured. The day was extremely 
 warm, and the glacier in full activity. It ran east and west, 
 the sun setting behind the grand peaks, from whose snows 
 it derived its existence. 
 
 The terminal moraines were very distinctly marked by 
 pyramids, islands (between the streams), and heaps of boul- 
 ders, some of them a quarter of a mile in advance, on the 
 flat. That these pointed to a former period when the glacial 
 mass extended thus far cannot be doubted. The green pine 
 woods came almost to the glacier in places. Its surface was 
 strewed with boulders, and both the lateral and medial 
 moraines were strongly marked. Here and there a sapling, 
 either detached from the side precipices, or possibly sprung 
 from a wafted seed, was peacefully moving on to its destruc- 
 tion. The crevasses were large and yawning. Square 
 hummocks of ice, forced up by the closing of crevasses, 
 existed in many places on its surface, whilst at the western 
 or upper end, pinnacles, peaks, and pyramids of ice were 
 seen in the distance. I have little doubt that nearly all the 
 features usually observable in connection with glaciers were 
 to be found there. 
 
 The mountains behind were lofty, and one peak was 
 slightly horned ; whilst one immense black mass of rock, 
 
Chap. IT.] SECOND GLACIER. 27 
 
 with precipitous sides, reared itself from the surrounding 
 purity. After spending the day in such crude examination 
 as my time would permit, I returned late in the evening 
 to the camp, where Tellot had remained all day. From his 
 manner, I should suppose that he thought me a fool for my 
 pains, although he showed some little interest in my sketches. 
 
 After joining once more the camp of the road party, and 
 resting there a day or two, I turned my face coastwards — 
 proceeding leisurely to the Ferry station, and sketching in 
 
 the neighbourhood. There I stopped two days with S , 
 
 the man in charge, and later with the Superintendent, and 
 some of the workmen who came down for supplies ; I then 
 started down for the coast with a pack-train then returning- 
 When within eleven miles from the sea, I left them ; and this 
 time proceeded entirely alone to visit a second glacier, which 
 could be seen from the trail, and very much resembled in 
 general appearance the Mer de Glace. This was less trouble- 
 some to reach, but the streams had to be waded constantly. 
 Often an accumulation of drift-wood on a bar or " riffle," as 
 it is termed on that coast, would assist me in crossing ; but 
 the principal stream from the glacier could not be crossed at 
 all, and so turbulent was it that it had swept away a sub- 
 stantial bridge, formerly built over it (at the crossing of the 
 road). 
 
 The ice of this glacier, and the water from it, were com- 
 paratively pure, and it was really a very beautiful sight. 
 The mountains behind it seemed of less height, and more 
 rounded in form, than in the case of the other glacier. One 
 immense slope of dazzling purity was very striking. The 
 ♦ 'lift's and hills, by which it was shut in, were more pre- 
 cipitous. The woods almost extended to its base. The Hat 
 
28 SECOND GLACIEK. [Chap. II. 
 
 in front was strewed with trees swept from the river's banks 
 at times when its waters were unusually swollen, or in some 
 instances doubtless brought down on the glacier itself. The 
 boulders here were neither so large nor so abundanf, but 
 there was more sand. 
 
 As a canoe was to leave Bute Inlet* the following day, and 
 it was getting late, after sketching the glacier, I reluctantly 
 made my way back to the trail, and followed it through the 
 woods to the station at the mouth of the river. 
 
 * In a paper read before the Koyal Geographical Society last session 
 (1868), Bute Inlet was mentioned as the terminal point on the Pacific 
 of a proposed railway and steam-boat route from the Atlantic sea-board. 
 See Appendix (I.). The same scheme has been more recently laid before 
 the British Association. 
 
Chap. III.] REPORTED MURDER. 29 
 
 CHAPTEK III. 
 
 THE TRAGEDY AMONG THE GLACIERS. 
 
 Reported murder — Canoe trip on the sea — Dodd's Narrows — Island on 
 fire — The massacre at Bute Inlet — Reports of survivors — Second 
 massacre — Excitement in the Colony — Expeditions in search of the 
 Indians — Capture of a part of the murderers — The ideal and real 
 Indian — His ultimate extinction — Reasons for it — Indian traders — 
 Proposed semi-secular, semi-missionary settlements — The mission at 
 Metlakahtla. 
 
 I reached the station late in the evening, and, after a little 
 refreshment, turned into my blankets immediately, and was 
 soon fast asleep. Early next morning, whilst I was yet 
 sleeping soundly in company with the packers and two of 
 the workmen who were about to leave the party, some 
 friendly Indians broke into the room without warning, and 
 awoke us, saying, in an excited and disjointed manner, that 
 the man in charge of the ferry (thirty miles higher up the 
 river) had been murdered by the Chilicotens for refusing to 
 give away the provisions and other property in his care. 
 We simply laughed at the idea, knowing that although 
 
 S , the man in question, was sometimes living alone, 
 
 the working-party was near him, engaged in blasting rock, 
 bridging, and otherwise building the road. Moreover, con- 
 stant communication was necessarily held between them, — 
 his station being a temporary depot for provisions, tools, 
 and blasting-pow r der. The pack-train from the mouth of 
 the river made a regular trip to him about every six days, 
 
30 CANOE SEA-TRIP. [Chap. III. 
 
 and we believed that he and the party generally were well 
 armed. 
 
 The superintendent had gladly entrusted letters of import- 
 ance to me, and had in fact rather hurried my departure 
 in order that they should reach Victoria by an early date. 
 I therefore, on the noon of the same day, the 30th April, 
 left the river by canoe, in company with two of the work- 
 men, and one Clayoosh Indian. The latter being the owner 
 of the canoe, proved an inexorable tyrant, and kept us 
 paddling for three days, from early dawn to dewy eve. 
 Although these "light kanims," built of cedar, appear too 
 frail for the sea, we came down the inlet, and crossed the 
 Gulf of Georgia to Nanaimo Point, Vancouver Island, in 
 perfect safety, getting then a fair breeze till the end of our 
 trip. 
 
 I have many times seen the Indians of that coast, when 
 migrating from one village to another, employ two canoes, set 
 a little apart, but parallel to each other, and covered with 
 planks. Their household gods, their strings of clams, and 
 dried fish, are piled on the top of this arrangement, and a 
 man seated in one of the canoes can steer it. It is a capital 
 contrivance for use on the sea: a small sail is often hoisted 
 on the top of the planks. 
 
 As long as the weather is moderate there is nothing more 
 pleasurable than lying at the bottom of a canoe, smoking or 
 dozing, whilst it cleaves through the water, but in a rough 
 or chopping sea one's time is occupied in keeping it baled 
 out, and the Indian's in steering, — a careful and difficult opera- 
 tion. We camped on some of the numerous islands of the 
 Gulf, and had capital weather. Whilst passing through 
 "Dodd's Narrows" we had a near tussle with fate. The 
 
Chap. III.] ISLAND ON FIRE. 31 
 
 water there at ebb or flow comes with the whole force of 
 the tide through a small rocky passage in eddies and currents, 
 and our Indian, usually so impassible, was evidently scared, 
 as we passed between two opening whirlpools, and within a 
 few feet of them. We paddled for life, and got through 
 safely. He afterwards told us, pointing back to the place 
 with a shudder, " Hyu si-wash liyack clattawa keekwully 
 ya-wal" — "Many savages (Indians) had quickly gone to 
 the bottom there," or had found a watery grave. 
 
 At one of our mid-day halts for tea, &c, we set a whole 
 island on fire. Our camp-fire being built at the base of a 
 shelving cliff, set light to some dry grass, which in its turn 
 communicated the flame to the underbrush at a short distance, 
 and in a little while the forest itself, covering the whole 
 island, formed one immense conflagration. The last we 
 saw of it was a cloud of smoke on the horizon some hours 
 afterwards as we skimmed away from it with a favouring 
 breeze. These forest fires are often very grand sights, and 
 burn for weeks. New Westminster, on the Fraser, has had 
 some very narrow escapes from total destruction from them. 
 
 We arrived safely in Victoria without meeting with any 
 further incidents of special interest, and were generally con- 
 gratulated by persons of experience on having made a very 
 quick trip. The distance, 185 miles, had occupied us five 
 days, camping every night. 
 
 But a week after our arrival — on the morning of the 12th 
 May— the writer, in common with all Victoria, was startled 
 and horrified by news just arrived from Bute Inlet via 
 Nanaimo. Fourteen out of seventeen men of the working 
 
32 MASSACRE AT BUTE INLET. [Chap. III. 
 
 party had been massacred by the Chilicotens under circum- 
 stances of peculiar atrocity, on the very morning (the 30th 
 April) that the Indians had awoke us at the station (forty- 
 three miles distant), with the reported death of the ferry- 
 keeper. He, poor fellow, had indeed been killed the day 
 before, but they had not been satisfied with his blood. On 
 the early morning of the day following his murder, whilst the 
 workmen were yet soundly sleeping, the Indians had sur- 
 rounded the camp, cut the tent-poles, and dropped the tents 
 on their victims, firing into them with their muskets, and 
 running knives into their bodies till all but three were 
 despatched. 
 
 One of the survivors, Petersen, a Dane, told the writer that 
 hearing the shots, he jumped out of his blankets, and was 
 immediately struck at by an Indian with an axe ; he stepped 
 aside just to see it fall heavily on the ground, and a few 
 seconds after this was shot in the arm. Faint, and bleeding 
 copiously, he plunged into the river hard by, and its swift 
 waters carried him down half a mile over the stones and 
 " snags," bruising him much. He managed to reach the bank, 
 and was soon after rejoined by Mosley, a man who had 
 escaped almost unhurt, although he had, whilst struggling to 
 release himself from the fallen tent, seen long knives, 
 on either side of him pierce the prostrate bodies of his com- 
 panions. The third man, Buckley, an Irishman, who 
 afterwards joined them, had been stabbed repeatedly by the 
 Chilicotens, and* fell, faint from the loss of blood, remaining 
 unconscious for hours, and they left him, imagining he was 
 dead. These men, sick and down-hearted, on arrival at the 
 rope-ferry found that the boat or " scow " had been cut 
 adrift, and the swift current had carried it away. In their 
 
Chap. III.] MASSACRE AT BUTE INLET. 33 
 
 weak condition, they had no means of crossing till Buckley, 
 who had been a sailor, managed to rig up a " travelling loop," 
 as he termed it, and succeeded in hauling himself over on the 
 cable stretched across the river, which was 200 yards wide 
 at that spot. He then sent over the "travelling block" 
 (formerly attached to ropes fixed to the boat), and Petersen 
 and Mosley were at length brought over safely. They 
 eventually reached the coast, and leaving the river's mouth 
 by canoe, travelled slowly to Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, 
 where they got the mail steamer for Victoria. The superin- 
 tendent, and two others who on the morning of the attack 
 were camped a little way a-head of the main party, had risen 
 early, and were at work "blazing," i.e. marking the trees 
 with an axe to show where the trail should go. They were 
 attacked and shot before they could offer any resistance. It 
 is said that the Indians, glutted with blood, tore the heart 
 out of one of them and ate it ! With these poor fellows I had 
 just been stopping ; with three of them, indeed, I had camped 
 as late as the 28th of April, or but two days before this 
 brutal transaction. I had reason indeed to be grateful for my 
 escape. The Chilicotens were well provided with fire-arms. 
 As it afterwards appeared, a number of guns, sent for the 
 protection of the workmen, had been paid away to these 
 natives for various services, and it. was therefore true that the 
 party was killed by its own weapons. On the other hand, 
 the men were virtually unarmed, having, as it was afterwards 
 shown, but one gun and one revolver among them. These, 
 from the sudden and treacherous nature of the attack, do not 
 appear to have been of the slightest assistance. From the 
 apparent friendliness of the natives, a fatal security had 
 reigned among the party, nor could any of us detect the 
 
 D 
 
34 A SECOND MASSACRE. [Chap. III. 
 
 slightest ground for alarm. I was myself, also, totally 
 unarmed, but got at that time a lesson which I have taken 
 to heart. I have always since carried a trusty revolver, and 
 have found that except in those rare cases where pistols 
 have been traded to natives, they have a wholesome dread 
 of it. 
 
 Alas ! the story is but half told. Three weeks later a 
 large party of packers, with a train of well-laden mules, were 
 attacked by the same tribe on the Bentinck Arm trail,* and 
 
 * Bentinck Arm is on the northern coast of British Colnmbia. A second 
 ronte by a trail exists from the head of this arm of the sea to the Cariboo 
 road. The particulars , of the second massacre were as follows : — " On the 
 17th of May M'Donald and his party started from New Aberdeen, at the 
 head of Bentinck Arm, for Fort Alexandria on the Eraser. They had forty- 
 two pack animals, twenty-eight of which were loaded with goods for the 
 mines, valued at between four thousand and five thousand dollars. On 
 arriving at Nancootioon Lake, about seventy-five miles from the Arm, they 
 met with a party of Indians, composed of the Chilicoten, Tatla, and Sitleece 
 tribes, among the number being two of the murderers of Mr. Waddington's 
 party at Bute. M'Dougall's squaw, who was a daughter of one of the 
 Chilicoten chiefs, here learnt from one of her old tillicums (friends) that 
 the Indians intended to rob and murder the whole party, and at once 
 informed the packers, who, becoming alarmed, began to retrace their steps, 
 when they were attacked by the savages. Two of the number, M'Dougall 
 and Higgins, fell from their horses at the first fire, the latter shot through 
 the breast ; M'Donald's horse was shot under him, on which he at once 
 mounted another, which was also shot down ; he then took to the bush, 
 and when last seen was standing behind a tree, shooting at the Indians with 
 his revolver. Barney Johnson was badly wounded in the face and breast 
 by heavy shot, arid a ball passed through his horse's head, killing the 
 animal and tearing open the rider's cheek. Malcolm M'Leod was wounded 
 with shot, and his hand badly torn by a ball. Grant got a ball through 
 his arm, and his side filled with shot. Frederick Harrison was also con- 
 siderably cut up. Farquharson was the only one who escaped unhurt, 
 although his horse was shot under him. He escaped into the bush, where 
 he was four days wandering about without food, except berries, not daring 
 
Chap. III.] ' CAPTURE OF SOME OF THE MURDERERS. 35 
 
 most of these men were also murdered. It need hardly be 
 said that intense excitement prevailed in the colony ; many 
 settlers having relatives and friends in isolated spots of this 
 thinly settled country, and being apprehensive of further 
 danger from the natives. Great sympathy was naturally 
 expressed for Mr. Waddington, who had, in an almost un- 
 paralleled manner, undertaken a grand work at his own 
 expense, — one which, if completed, would have been of great 
 value to the country. The Colonial Government acted with 
 great promptness. A force of marines, an additional selected 
 and paid body of men, and the New Westminster Volunteers, 
 with the assistance of friendly Indians, endeavoured to catch 
 the murderers. Parties proceeding from the coast at Bentinck 
 Arm and Bute Inlet, and from the interior, attempted to 
 hem them in from all sides, and Governor Seymour himself 
 took a prominent part in these undertakings; but, from 
 the inaccessible nature of the country, a part only of the 
 Indians concerned were ever captured, aud that with the loss 
 of an excellent and well-known Hudson Bay Company's man, 
 — Captain MacLean. He was shot by the Chilicotens whilst 
 
 to return to the trail for fear of being seen by the Indians. He at last 
 made his way back to the head of the Arm. M'Dougall's squaw was also 
 shot by the Indians, and all the horses and property carried off. Grant 
 found his way to Mr. Hamilton's ranch, about twenty-five miles above the 
 settlement, at the head of the Arm, and burst in upon the family, his face 
 and body streaming with blood, telling them of the massacre. They at 
 once packed up a few valuables, and, taking their arms and ammunition, 
 hastened down to the river and embarked in a canoe. They had hardly got 
 afloat when the bloodthirsty villains appeared on the high bank above 
 them. They did not fire, however, being intent on plundering the house, 
 and the little party fortunately made their escape unhurt."' — 'British 
 Colonist,' June 28th, 1864. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THE IDEAL AND REAL INDIAN. [Chap. III. 
 
 incautiously riding in advance of his party. The Indians 
 taken were afterwards tried in due form, and hanged, and 
 among them was old Tellot, my companion to the glacier. 
 
 It may very naturally be asked, What motives led the 
 natives to perpetrate this crime ? 
 
 I believe the answer is a simple one : a strong desire for 
 plunder, accompanied by the knowledge of the improbability 
 in that country of ever being taken and brought to justice. 
 That any provocation had been given them I do not 
 believe ; Mr. Waddington was well known to have been 
 specially indulgent to them. 
 
 The Indian is to this day but little understood. By some 
 he is looked on as an animal, by others as almost a hero 
 of romance. The ideal Ked-skin, the painted and much 
 adorned native with lofty sentiments, is certainly, as far as 
 my experience goes, a very rare being at the present day, 
 if indeed his existence at any time is not to be considered 
 mythical. A creature, half child — half animal, a mixture of 
 simplicity and ferocity, certainly exists ; but though a partial 
 civilization may have varnished his exterior, beneath the thin 
 crust the savage nature lurks, ever ready to break forth, like 
 those volcanic mountains whose pure snows only hide the 
 molten lava within. 
 
 It is easy enough to find natives who have abandoned that 
 simple costume — a blanket, for more decorous clothing, who 
 can swear in broken English, sing " Sally come up ! " and drink 
 all the camphine * whiskey they can obtain, but it is very rare 
 
 * In Victoria, V. I., a comparatively small town, there were between 
 1858-64, inclusive, no less than 336 " whiskey cases," *". e., men taken 
 up on suspicion of having sold ardent spirits to natives, and 240 of 
 the number resulted in convictions. 
 
Chap. III.] EFFECTS OF CIVILIZATION. 37 
 
 to find those who are the better for intercourse with the 
 "pale faces." My experience is decidedly this, that the 
 least degraded Indians were those who had least to do with 
 the white man. 
 
 But the importation of " fire-water " is not the only evil : 
 diseases unknown, or little known before, are introduced, and 
 the mere fact of the white man's presence among the Indians 
 seems to foreshadow their ultimate extinction. This very curi- 
 ous point is carefully discussed by a recent writer, Mr. Sproat, 
 in his ' Scenes and Studies of Savage Life.' He had excel- 
 lent opportunities for a detailed examination of the subject, 
 at his saw-mill settlement of Alberni, Barclay Sound, V. I. 
 He was a large employer of native as well as of white 
 labour, and from personal observation I can confirm his 
 statements with regard to it. The place was conducted on 
 temperance principles, while no violence was used or per- 
 mitted towards the natives. They were perhaps better fed, 
 better clothed, and better taught than they had ever been 
 before. " It was only," says Mr. Sproat, " after a considerable 
 time, that symptoms of a change, amongst the Indians living 
 nearest the white settlement, could be noticed. Not having 
 observed the gradual process, my mind being occupied with 
 other matters, I seemed all at once to perceive that a few 
 sharp-witted young natives had become what I can only call 
 offensively European, and that the mass of the Indians no 
 longer visited the settlement in their former free inde- 
 pendent way, but lived listlessly in the villages, brooding 
 seemingly over heavy thoughts. " Their curiosity had been 
 satisfied, they had been surprised and bewildered by the 
 presence of " machinery, steam vessels, and the active labour 
 of civilized men," and they seemed to have acquired a 
 
38 MR. SPROAT'S TESTIMONY. [Chap. III. 
 
 distrust, nay almost a disgust for themselves. They began 
 to abandon their old habits, tribal practices, and ceremonies. 
 " By and bye," continues Mr. Sproat, " it was noticed that 
 more than the usual amount of sickness existed among the 
 Indians " and " a high death-rate continued during the five 
 years I was there." "Nobody molested them, they had 
 ample sustenance and shelter for the support of life, yet 
 the people decayed. The steady brightness of civilized life 
 seemed to dim and extinguish the flickering light of savageism 
 as the rays of the sun put out a common fire." 
 
 Now supposing these views to be correct, and the Indian 
 to be aware of all this — as he must be if there is truth in it 
 at all — can we wonder if he takes any chance, fair or foul, to 
 expel those whom, at the best, he looks upon as intruders 
 on his native soil ? 
 
 There are few places more favourably situated than 
 Alberni, placed as it is on a secluded canal or arm of the sea, 
 and it was really a model settlement. Yet — if the above 
 statements represent the actual facts of the case, and it is 
 my belief they do— how infinitely worse is it for the Indian 
 in places open to every trader, and where there is no check 
 on him but a half-sustained law. Great corporations like 
 the Hudson's Bay and the Kussian American Companies did 
 not usually sell spirits to natives at all ; but private traders, 
 from the large profits attached to their sale, did,- and do it 
 without hesitation, and the mixtures sold would infallibly 
 kill any ordinary person, — in fact frequently do kill them. 
 For the Indian who has acquired a love of liquor there is 
 little hope, for with him there is no middle course. Catlin 
 concisely summed up our relations with the red men when 
 he said, " White men — whiskey — tomahawks — scalping- 
 
Chap. III.] MISSION AT METLAKAHTLA. 39 
 
 knives — guns, powder, and ball — small-pox — debauchery — 
 extermination." 
 
 The subject is a sad and wearying one, for the Missionary 
 can hope to do but little, in counteracting such influences. 
 Mr. Sproat suggests the formation of half-secular, half-mis- 
 sionary establishments in native villages at a distance from 
 white settlements. He considers that five white men — men 
 of courage, energy, and proved morality, and willing to 
 forego the use of alcoholic drinks — might form such an 
 establishment, and that at least two of them should know 
 a trade. The leader might act as a magistrate ; and, from 
 the writer's observation, he would have enough to do in 
 keeping white traders from the neighbourhood, and in pre- 
 venting such men from overturning the very objects of the 
 settlement. 
 
 Success would depend purely on the earnest, unselfish, and, 
 in a word, Christian efforts of those employed in the work. 
 In the United States, the " Indian Agencies," something 
 very similar in theory, have not been satisfactory in practice, 
 solely owing to the greediness of those engaged, who used 
 them as a means of personal aggrandizement, and left the 
 Indians for whose benefit they were intended "out in the 
 cold." 
 
 The Missionary Duncan, at the Metlakahtla village on 
 the coast of British Columbia, has inaugurated such an experi- 
 ment. Among the natives there are now to be found expert 
 carpenters, builders, gardeners, and road makers. A part of 
 them own a small vessel which takes their produce — oil, furs, 
 and manufactured articles — to Victoria. On her periodical 
 return to the settlement, dividends are declared : on one 
 such occasion, they termed her Ahah, "the slave," signi- 
 
40 MISSION AT METLAKAHTLA. [Chap. III. 
 
 fying that she did the work, and they reaped the benefit. 
 The success of this station is, doubtless, due in part to its 
 isolation from any large white settlement, but Mr. Duncan 
 must have laboured earnestly and incessantly in his noble 
 work. 
 
 I think it is fair to allude to one objection I have heard 
 used — both in and out of the colony — to Mr. Duncan's work. 
 It is this, that — for a missionary — he is "too much of a 
 trader." I cannot say to what extent, or in what sense, this 
 may be true ; I do not myself believe it in any offensive sense. 
 If, however, Mr. Duncan, from a little pecuniary advantage 
 accruing to him, should be induced to prolong his stay 
 among the Indians, and follow out the work of civilization he 
 is engaged in, no one can rightly complain. The majority 
 of missionaries do not stop long enough in any one locality 
 to acquire a thorough knowledge of the native dialects, and 
 this of itself must be a fatal hindrance to their efforts. 
 
 If this gentleman, by giving up a large part of his life lor 
 the benefit of these savages, can at the same time make a 
 fortune, may success attend him ! 
 
Chap. IV.] PLEASURES OF LABOUR. 41 
 
 CHAPTEK IV. 
 
 THE INTEKIOK OF VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Pleasures of labour — Unknown interior of Vancouver Island — Expedition 
 organised — Cowichan River — Somenos — Kakalatza and bis bat-box — 
 Travel up tbe river — Our camps — Camp yarns — Indian version of the 
 Book of Jonah — Cowichan Lake — Eafting experiences — Tbe " Eampant 
 Eaft " — Brown's Camp — Acquisition of a canoe. 
 
 Travelling in the interior of Vancouver Island exhibits 
 little beyond an alternation of various shades of monotony, 
 so that the narrative of one month's experiences is as good, 
 or a good deal better, than the details of five. Notwith- 
 standing the truth of this statement, I count some of the 
 happiest hours of my life in the time spent there. Although 
 no believer in the " dignity " of labour, I can well believe in 
 its pleasures. When a man can enjoy any diet, even one of 
 beans — of a kind at home only given to horses — when he 
 considers tea the best and most refreshing of drinks, it is a 
 pretty good sign that he is in vigorous health, that he sleeps 
 well, and that life is no burden to him. Such was our expe- 
 rience at times when we carried on our backs loads from 
 50 to 120 lbs. in weight, through a rugged country where 
 rivers were mountain torrents, the woods almost a jungle, 
 and where we rarely turned into our blankets at night, 
 except in a wet condition. 
 
 In 1864, but few of the settlers in this colony had pene- 
 trated ten miles back from the towns and settlements of the 
 East coast ; for although Captain Richards (now Hydrogra- 
 
42 EXPEDITION ORGANIZED. [Chap. IV. 
 
 pher to the Navy), Captain Mayne, and Messrs. Pemberton 
 and Pearce had already made very interesting journeys into 
 the interior, yet the results of their explorations were little 
 known. Victoria had been built and sustained by the 
 British Columbian mines, and fluctuated with them. In the 
 spring of the above-mentioned year her citizens woke up to 
 this fact, and an expedition organized by a popular com- 
 mittee, and endorsed by the Colonial Government, was 
 immediately started. A naturalist — Mr. Kobert Brown, of 
 Edinburgh — was unanimously chosen leader. For astronomer 
 we had Mr. P. Leech, formerly of the Eoyal Engineers ; and 
 the writer accompanied the expedition as artist. Our party 
 numbered nine persons exclusive of Indians, and was at 
 a later period slightly increased. The men were selected 
 for special qualifications ; many of them were miners by pro- 
 fession, and the V. I. E. E. had no cause to be ashamed of its 
 members.* 
 
 On the 7th June, 1861, after an address from Governor 
 Kennedy,! himself in truth the originator of the expedition, 
 we left the Hudson's Bay Company's wharf in Victoria on 
 board H.M. Gun-boat 'Grappler,' bound for Cowichan, a 
 settlement thirty-five miles north of Victoria, on the east 
 coast of the island. Her commander, Captain Verney, was 
 
 * Our party comprised the following men, in addition to those named 
 above : — Mr. John Buttle, assistant naturalist ; Messrs. Barnston, Mac- 
 donald, Lewis, Meade, and Foley, pioneers and miners ; and Thomas 
 An torn e, and Lazare de Buscay, half-breed hunters. At a later period 
 Mr. Foley left our party, and Messrs. Drew and Hooper were added 
 to it. 
 
 f Now Sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, C.B., Governor of the West Africa 
 Settlements. 
 
Chap. IV.] COWICHAN RIVER. 43 
 
 also an ardent promoter of the proposed explorations, and to 
 him the writer is indebted for much kindly courtesy. 
 
 On arrival at Cowichan Bay we landed at the pretty little 
 settlement of Comiaken, a place which boasts a Roman 
 Catholic mission and several farms and settlers' houses. 
 In one of the latter we enjoyed so much hospitality that it 
 was a serious question whether some of us would not stop 
 there, and let our travels end where they had begun ! 
 
 On the 9th June, after a " hyas wa-wa " (big talk) with the 
 Indians, Brown at length succeeded in hiring a canoe, and, 
 putting the larger part of the stuff therein, sent it up the 
 Cowichan River in charge of one white man of our party and 
 several Indians. The larger part of us proceeded by land 
 direct to the village of Somenos, where we found several 
 large lodges, or " rancheries," as they are termed in the 
 colony. The natives were drying fish and clams on strings 
 hanging from the rafters of their dwellings, and were by no 
 means anxious to engage in our service. There were two 
 reasons for this reluctance, which was one of the main draw- 
 backs of our journey. The first was simply that they lived 
 so easily, getting salmon, deer, and beaver meat in abun- 
 dance, and consequently were indifferent to anything but 
 extremely high pay. The second and main reason was fear 
 of surrounding tribes, especially those of the west coast, w T ho 
 were accustomed occasionally to kidnap " unprotected males,'' 
 and carry them off as slaves. At length " Kakalatza," an old 
 " tyhee " or chief, of grave but dignified appearance, and who 
 persisted in wearing a battered chimney-pot hat, given to him 
 by some settler, was engaged 'to act as our guide to the 
 Cowichan Lake, but this was on the understanding that we 
 allowed him to take his hat-box with him ; and every night 
 
U OUR CAMPS. [Chap. IV. 
 
 afterwards he carefully deposited his beaver in it, before 
 retiring into his blankets. Kakalatza and his hat were 
 inseparable. Here, too, a half-breed, Thomas Antoine by 
 name, but known elsewhere as " Tomo," joined us, and proved 
 a great acquisition. He could speak any number of Indian 
 dialects, was a good shot, though he had but one arm, could 
 travel or "pack" with the best, and was reliable except 
 when he got hold of some whiskey, when he was a perfect 
 devil. Spirits seem to have even more attraction for the 
 half-breed than for the full Indian, and more influence upon 
 him. 
 
 The succeeding days much resembled each other, most of 
 us proceeding through the forests with packs of no light 
 weight, whilst the canoe was poled up the strong current of 
 the river, — paddles being useless, and oars impracticable. 
 The river was a succession of " riffles," or rapids, — small and 
 large — alternating with comparatively quiet water. Some- 
 times the canoe had to be towed, and sometimes carried 
 bodily; in several places all hands had to make a "portage," 
 or carry the goods over the rocks, to a .higher and better 
 part of the stream. We found the banks thickly timbered, 
 and where the Douglas pine, spruce, and hemlock had grown 
 under favourable circumstances, the place resembled a beau- 
 tiful park ; but for the most part it was a tangle of underbrush, 
 mingled with fallen logs in all stages of decay, and woods in 
 all degrees of luxuriance. But if our travelling was trouble- 
 some, the evening camp more than made up, for all, when a 
 good log-fire, a bed of fir-brush, and a pipe made us happy, 
 and where we could comfortably sleep — for the most part, 
 with no canopy but that of heaven. There is no climate in 
 the world, California not excepted, more delicious than that 
 
Chap. IV. j CAMP YARNS." 45 
 
 of "Vancouver Island. We were generally fortunate, too, at 
 this time in getting grouse or deer meat; and our party 
 thought nothing of polishing off a whole deer at a couple of 
 meals. We had to abandon and leave behind many a rib, 
 and even haunch of venison, it being impossible to carry 
 any more than we already had on our backs in the shape 
 of beans and flour, blankets, frying-pans, pots, and instru- 
 ments. 
 
 And then the yarns of those evening camps! Mac 
 Donald's story — often begun and never ended — the narrative 
 of his eventful life. Born on Eraser Kiver, the son of a 
 Hudson's Bay chief trader, the tedious barter with Indians 
 for their peltries had proved distasteful to him, and he ran 
 away, when quite young, to sea, got shipwrecked and de- 
 tained a prisoner in Japan. Here he was closely confined, 
 but on the whole well treated, till he was rescued from the 
 Japanese by Commodore Perry, U. S. Navy, when he called 
 there on his well-known expedition. After many wanderings 
 Mac brought up in Australia, mined, made money, and 
 spent it; had once kept a gambling-house and dancing- 
 booth at the "diggings." Later the British Columbian 
 mines had attracted him back to his earliest home ; he had 
 " run " a ferry on Fraser Biver, kept a grog-shop at Lillooet, 
 and played the "honest miner" in Cariboo, and now, hale 
 and hearty as ever, was a member of the V. I. E. E. Or 
 else the Indian yarns of Tomo — many of them childish, 
 some incomprehensible, but sometimes showing that the 
 natives have inventive power and a sense of humour. Here 
 is one of them, apparently a native version of the book of 
 Jonah! "An Indian, paddling in his ' frail kanim ' on the 
 great 'salt chuck' or sea, was swallowed — canoe and all — 
 
46 JONAH IN THE PACIFIC. [Cuap. IV. 
 
 by a great fish, and lay down at the bottom of its belly, sad 
 at heart, thinking it was all up with him, and that never 
 more would he see his people. But in the midst of his 
 affliction comfort came to him ; a brilliant idea flashed 
 through his brain, — sweet revenge was at least possible ! 
 and he proceeded to execute a hastily conceived project. 
 He cut his paddles into shavings — 'wittled' them, as a 
 Yankee would say — broke his canoe into fragments, and 
 lighted a great fire on the floor of the creature's stomach. 
 It was not long before the fish showed, by a tortuous uncom- 
 fortable wriggling of his body, that this operation did not 
 agree with him, and he consequently attempted, by swallow- 
 ing wave after wave, to cool his fevered body, but did not 
 succeed in putting out the fire, though our hero was nearly 
 drowned in the operation. Our Indian, averse to water at 
 all times, appeared at this juncture to get in a very bad 
 temper, and drawing his long knife, stabbed the lining of 
 the creature's inside, till the coats of its stomach were in a 
 very dilapidated state. It was evidently expiring fast, and 
 swam ashore on the beach. Here, while it lay in the 
 agonies of death, our friend cautiously crept up its throat, 
 and through its gasping mouth, just in time to avoid the 
 collision of its jaws, which came together with a terrific 
 crash, and the great fish was dead ! " This formed part only 
 of a long story, — many such we had, and varied them by 
 making the woods echo with the latest gems of "nigger" 
 minstrelsy, or even more classical productions. 
 
 The Cowichan Kiver is about forty miles in length ; but a 
 much shorter route to the great lake, its source, is possible 
 by land. In several places it passes through canons, — small 
 rocky gorges, in which the water boils and frets in eddies 
 
Chap. IV.] COWICHAN LAKE. 47 
 
 and rapids over sunken rocks. It was but a type of three 
 parts of the streams on the island. Every locality on its 
 banks had appropriate native names. One fresh verdant 
 spot near a deserted Indian lodge was Saatlam, " the place 
 of green leaves ;" another, an open prairie in the woods, was 
 Qualis, " the warm place." 
 
 On the 15th June we found the forest getting thicker, the 
 trees larger, and the soil evidently richer, a sign that we 
 were nearing the lake ; and later the same day we camped 
 by its placid waters. One cedar near this spot measured 
 thirty-five feet in circumference, at a height of five feet from 
 the ground. In this country very valuable timber is neces- 
 sarily useless at the present time, from the fact that there 
 are in most cases no available means of transport to the 
 coast, — the rivers usually being tortuous, and blocked at 
 intervals by accumulations of drift-wood. One occupation 
 is alone possible — so far as the interior forests are concerned 
 — and that has hitherto attracted little attention on Van- 
 couver Island: I allude to the manufacture of rosin and 
 turpentine. In forests in Oregon, of almost exactly the 
 same character, it has become a profitable employment, and 
 the products are items of export from that country. 
 
 The Indian name for Cowichan Lake, a very calm, 
 beautiful sheet of water, is " Kaatza," and a long peninsula 
 stretching into it, and widening at its termination into a 
 thickly-wooded knoll, is "Kanatze," "the island in tow." 
 One considerable stream and several minor ones enter it. 
 
 After making sundry surveys and explorations, we divided 
 our forces: one party, under Leech, proceeded in as direct 
 a course as might be to Port San Juan ; while Brown, my- 
 self, and four of the men, started for the Nittinaht River, 
 
48 NITTINAHT EIVEK. [Chap. IV. 
 
 in the direction (as we had learnt on Indian authority) of its 
 upper waters. 
 
 Bidding then adieu to "Kakalatza" and his hat, we 
 shouldered our packs, and, travelling through the forests, 
 at length reached a stream flowing in a westerly direction, 
 which we concluded was the one in question. Our supplies 
 were down to starvation point; and we lost no time in 
 commencing the construction of a raft. On the 26th June, 
 this being finished, we started down, going smoothly enough, 
 except when our bark was brought to a standstill on the 
 shallow " riffles." Then all hands lightened her by getting 
 into the water, lifted her over the boulders, and then all 
 aboard! and away we went, shooting some of the deeper 
 rapids very successfully. But at length the distant, though 
 unmistakable roar of a fall, warned us that we must resume 
 our travel by land. It was fortunate that we did so in time, 
 for on examination of the rapid we found it to be one of a 
 serious nature, and, had we proceeded, . it is questionable 
 whether there would have been one left to tell the tale. 
 We resumed our packs, and followed an Indian trail, which 
 brought us at night to a deserted lodge, and there we 
 camped. Near it on the bank lay an old cedar canoe, and 
 we at once set to work to caulk it, and make it as water- 
 tight as possible. Mr. Brown, who had planned the routes 
 with care, knew that an inlet existed at the termination of 
 the Nittinaht Biver; but it was a matter of uncertainty 
 whether we had reached that stream, and it behoved us all 
 to bestir ourselves on account of the state of our supplies. 
 
 On the morning of the 27th, Brown and Barnston started 
 down in this shaky old canoe, which leaked like a sieve ; and 
 an hour or so afterwards MacDonald and myself got on 
 
THE RAM PANT RAFT 
 
Chap. IV.j RAFTING EXPERIENCES. 49 
 
 board a raft of very limited dimensions, to follow them. It 
 was composed of boards and logs, mostly taken from the 
 Indian lodge, and was held together by the ropes of our 
 blanket packs, the necessary holes pierced in some cases by 
 pistol bullets. We left our companions, Buttle and Lewis, 
 to follow through the bush, and to attempt, as they fondly 
 hoped it might prove, a " short cut." We tied our bundles 
 to two upright posts fixed on the raft, poled into the stream, 
 and off we shot. 
 
 We found the river a series of rapids alternating with 
 silent and deep pools. These last gave us really harder work 
 than any other part of our journey. W T e could not usually 
 touch bottom with our poles, whilst it was very difficult to 
 keep the raft in shore. On the "riffles" it was pure fun 
 mixed with a dash of danger. The current acting on the 
 stern of our craft with 300 lb. — MacDonald's weight, as steers- 
 man — took it under water several feet, while the bows were 
 elevated in the air. Several times a curious sight might 
 have been witnessed, that of a raft shooting past at the rate 
 of six or eight miles an hour, and, standing nearly upright in 
 the water, . a " raft rampant," as it were, with a couple of half- 
 drowned explorers hanging on with comical desperation. It 
 need not be stated, that on such a river our bark whirled 
 round in the eddies every few minutes, and the stern became 
 the bows and vice versa. Twice we were directly spilt in the 
 water, and once sucked in beneath a number of huge logs, 
 under which the current swept violently, but we escaped 
 with a few bruises. Accumulations of drift-wood occurred 
 constantly on the river, and made navigation an affair of con- 
 stant watchfulness. 
 
 We often as before brought up against boulders in the 
 
 E 
 
50 REUNION OF OUR PARTY. [Chap. IV. 
 
 river, and had to lighten her, the water meantime rushing 
 past with fury, and then had to scramble on again, or we 
 should have been left behind. A few moments after this 
 the cry, a very constant one, was " Duck your head ! " as we 
 shot under overhanging banks, branches, and half fallen 
 trees. I was reminded ever and anon of early experiences 
 in donkey-riding, when that patient but vicious animal would 
 bruise my legs against every wall, and would run under trees 
 that just allowed him to pass completely, but that nearly 
 swept me from the saddle. Our raft seemed to be " possessed " 
 in like manner. Mac was as usual thoroughly good-tempered, 
 and the events of that day made us faster friends than ever. 
 We went ashore two or three times, and had several luscious 
 though unsatisfying meals of " salmon " and " salall " berries. 
 In other respects our provisions were so low that we were 
 well inclined to make a quick trip. 
 
 We despaired of reaching Brown's camp that evening, 
 when smoke wafting up the river — the grateful smell of a 
 camp fire reached our nostrils, and a few minutes afterwards, 
 turning a bend of the stream, we discovered our friends 
 camped on a flat bar at what was virtually its termina- 
 tion. After their experiences in the canoe they were sur- 
 prised to see us, and as it proved we were more fortunate 
 than the men who followed us. The next afternoon they 
 arrived fatigued and hungry, and perfectly satisfied that 
 "short cuts" in that country were a delusion and a snare. 
 They had like us essayed a raft, but had not been able to 
 manage it. 
 
 Before they arrived our companions had found, at a little 
 distance below the mouth of the river, an uninhabited lodge, 
 and near it a canoe, which was immediately "pressed," says 
 
Chap. IV.] ACQUISITION OF A CANOE. 51 
 
 Brown, in his Keport to the Colonial Government, " into the 
 service of the Expedition, in the name of her most gracious 
 Majesty, Queen Victoria, and her faithful Deputy, his 
 Excellency Arthur Edward Kennedy." We set to work to 
 caulk it with flour-bags and pine-gum, preparatory to an 
 early start on the morrow. 
 
 i: 2 
 
52 NITTINAHT INLET. [Chap. V. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE INTERIOR OF VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Nittinaht Inlet — " Whyack " — The Indians— A.ht tribes — The breakers 
 
 — Port San Juan — ■ Indian yarn — Sooke — Basin and river — Discovery 
 of gold — Gold on Queen Charlotte's Island — Nanaimo — Coal-seam at 
 Comox — Ascent of Puntledge Kiver — Wreck of canoe — Interior lakes 
 
 — Barclay Sound — Game list — Camp-marks. 
 
 Very early the next morning we made a start, a light 
 favourable breeze had risen, and, hoisting a blanket sail, 
 we skimmed away gaily before it. Even now we were 
 not absolutely certain that we had reached the wished-for 
 Nittinaht Inlet, but appearances were in favour of that 
 view. We passed several Indian villages with, however, no 
 signs of life about them, and towards evening found the 
 Inlet narrowing. The tide swept through it in many an 
 eddy and 'whirlpool, and we could hear the noise of breakers 
 outside, a convincing proof that we had almost reached the 
 coast. A few minutes of specially hard paddling took us 
 out of the current into a quiet bay behind the Nittinaht 
 village of " Whyack," where a troop of wild-looking savages 
 watched our approach with evident surprise. 
 
 " Mokoola," the chief, was absent, and a part of his tribe 
 with him ; but those remaining in the village treated us well, 
 and pointed out a flat place behind it for our camp. We 
 were soon engaged in bartering for halibut, &c, and they 
 crowded round to see how we cooked it, and perhaps to 
 watch an opportunity for pilfering. Their blankets give 
 
Chap. V.] THE INDIANS. 53 
 
 an excellent chance for obtaining and concealing anything 
 lying round a camp : we lost two axes and an auger at this 
 place. 
 
 It was on this coast and neighbourhood that Mr. Sproat 
 made the careful studies and observations on Indian habits 
 and character, which he has recently laid before the public. 
 The annexed portrait of an Aht * native is no imaginative 
 production, but is taken from a photograph made on the 
 spot, and gives a fair idea of the type of native we met at 
 this village. The unkempt hair, the wreath of leaves put 
 on much, for the same purpose as they are often put on the 
 heads of cart-horses — to keep off flies and musquitoes, and 
 also for ornament — and the limited amount of costume, are 
 all characteristics of the west coast . natives. The pin stuck 
 in one side of his nostril is simply put there for convenience, 
 when not required for fastening the blanket across his manly 
 bosom! A large number of these people have small holes 
 drilled through the cartilage between the nostrils, in which 
 they not unfrequently wear rings ; it is no uncommon 
 thing for them to insert their blanket-pins in them tem- 
 porarily, for want of a better place. 
 
 But on festive occasions and dances these " nasty Injiens " 
 do not deem themselves sufficiently ugly, and therefore put 
 on masks carved from wood, and often very grotesque and 
 curious. The original of our illustration is nearly two feet 
 in height, but much larger ones are worn, and some of the 
 chiefs have a complete series of "properties" of this kind. 
 
 * Aht is the generic name gives by Mr. Sproat to the tribes of the west 
 :m<l smith coast of Vancouver Island, or rather is the generic termination of 
 must of the native aames; thus Nittinaht, Klaho-qnaht, &c 
 
54 
 
 THE NITTINAHTS. 
 
 [Chap. V 
 
 Some of them are ingeniously constructed, and have strings 
 
 arranged to move the 
 eyes, open the beak, 
 &c. They are com- 
 mon to all the tribes 
 of Vancouver Island. 
 The Nittinahts bear 
 a bad reputation, and 
 owing to the inac- 
 cessible coast round 
 " Whyack," the heavy 
 surf and breakers off 
 the entrance to the 
 Inlet, and the fact 
 that they have stock- 
 aded their village, 
 they consider themselves almost impregnable, and safe from 
 attack. They have in days gone by often waged war on 
 surrounding tribes, and even on those of the opposite coast 
 of Washington Territory. The terrible Bute Inlet massacre 
 was so fresh in our memories that we kept a careful " watch " 
 by turns all night. "Whyack" is famous for the manu- 
 facture of cedar canoes, and we saw many there in course 
 of construction from single logs. The models of these craft 
 were extremely good ; I have not seen better in any other 
 part of the island. 
 
 Next morning, after a couple of hours' haggling, we hired 
 a large canoe and three Indians to manage it. Our goods 
 being put on board, it was hauled to the water's edge, where 
 we all stood more or less in the surf. The right moment 
 at length arrived, the retreating wave lifted our bark, we 
 
 . 
 
 Example of Mask worn by natives of Vancouver Island. 
 
Chap. V.] PORT SAN JUAN. 55 
 
 scrambled on board, and paddled with all our might till 
 clear of the breakers. We then hoisted a mat sail, and, 
 leaving the Indians to manage it, lay down at the bottom of 
 the canoe, and smoked our pipes in comfort. 
 
 We rounded the southernmost end of Vancouver Island, 
 and arrived at Port San Juan, or Pachenah, without 
 accident, finding there Mr. Lawton, a well-known trader, 
 who welcomed us kindly, and immediately spread a meal 
 that seemed a princely banquet after our week of semi- 
 starvation. A few days after our arrival, Leech and his 
 party came in, worn out with fatigue and hunger, and their 
 clothes in tatters. A distance of twenty miles — on the map — 
 had occupied ten days to travel, and they used very strong 
 and emphatic language in regard to an old Admiralty chart 
 on which their route was marked as " level plains " ! Their 
 journey had been of the most difficult nature, over a constant 
 succession of mountains, and through the usual thick forests. 
 To proceed one mile they had to travel five, and when they 
 at length reached the San Juan Kiver, it was found to pass 
 through gorges specially inaccessible, and to be in fact, for 
 the larger part of its course, a brawling torrent. Among 
 other specimens brought in by Leech was a fragment of 
 undoubted plumbago. Coal was also observed by us in the 
 neighbourhood, but in thin seams only. 
 
 Mr. Lawton, then living by himself, and with no white 
 neighbours within thirty or forty miles, was very glad to see 
 us, and had an unlimited budget of yarns. Once during his 
 stay at Pachenah, the Nittinahts had made a warlike excur- 
 sion to the Cape Flattery Indians of the opposite coast 
 (Washington Territory), and had brought home twenty-six 
 human heads as their spoil, which they brought up to his 
 
56 REPULSE OF INDIANS. [Chap. V. 
 
 log house with savage glee. They then left for their own 
 village, and Lawton knew well that a return visit would 
 be made by the outraged tribe, and that they would not be 
 particular whom they attacked, even though they were white 
 settlers. He accordingly, with one white man then with 
 him, barricaded the doors and windows of his house, and 
 kept a constant watch. They had a large quantity of trading 
 guns lying there, and they determined to load every one 
 of them, and give the attacking party a thorough good 
 peppering. They had not long to wait ; but one night 
 elapsed before the plash of paddles was heard approaching 
 in the bay. They stopped opposite the Pachenah Indian 
 lodges ; all was silent as the tomb, the inhabitants had fled. 
 Enraged, they made for Lawton 's house, their hearts full of 
 vengeance, and ready to wreak it on the first man they met. 
 Their canoes were just touching the beach, when the two 
 men inside let fly at them, and took up musket after musket 
 so rapidly, that the Indians thought there must be a large 
 party inside, and, howling with disappointment, made oif in 
 the greatest confusion, paddling for dear life. They never 
 gave any further trouble. 
 
 After the arrival of a sloop from Victoria with provisions 
 for the ensuing month, we left for Sooke Basin or Harbour in 
 two canoes, and in the lovely Straits of Fuca soon got a 
 favourable breeze. This increased so suddenly, that we lost 
 one of our sails by a squall of wind, and we had to make 
 a tent do duty for it. On this trip we noticed fair out- 
 croppings of coal on a low cliff on the coast near Sooke. 
 This may well be considered a continuation of the coal 
 measures already worked on the opposite coast, at Clallam 
 Bay, Washington Territory. 
 
Chap. V.l DISCOVERY OF GOLD. 57 
 
 On the 13th July we commenced the ascent of the Sooke 
 Kiver (" Soak " more nearly expresses the Indian pronuncia- 
 tion), a stream much resembling the Cowichan Eiver before 
 mentioned, but even less navigable. It was there that we made 
 the first important discovery of our expedition, — one that for 
 'a time revolutionised Victoria. In brief, gold was found in 
 paying quantities ; a " rush" took place when the news reached 
 Victoria, and before the end of the season, 100,000 dollars' 
 worth of the precious metal had been taken out. It is 
 admitted that few persons made extremely large "piles" 
 or stakes, but many made for the time very high wages. 
 Board and " shingle " stores, grog- shops, and hotels, were 
 run up in numbers out of all proportion to the wants of 
 the locality, and, as in other places, it was a question 
 whether for every dollar obtained, two had not been spent in 
 the operation ! 
 
 Large numbers of Chinamen eventually worked this ground, 
 and as provisions were tolerably cheap on the spot, especially 
 after trails were made from the nearest road, the discovery 
 was deemed one of value, and a reward in hard cash was 
 voted and paid to us by the Colonial Government. The 
 principal stream was, by the general wish of the members of 
 the expedition, named after Leech, our astronomer. 
 
 As yet nothing equal to these diggings has been found on 
 the island, but from the indications observed by us in innu- 
 merable other places,* and from the well-known yield of the 
 mainland, it cannot r3e doubted that Vancouver Island has 
 
 * On a stream entering Cowichan Lake, on rivers falling into Barclay 
 Sound on the southern side, and on streams falling into the Puntledge 
 Lake, near Comox, very good "colours" of gold were obtained. 
 
58 CHAKACTEE OF THE GOLD-FIELD. [Chap. V. 
 
 other fields of the same character, as yet undeveloped. On 
 Queen Charlotte's Island also, the precious metal is known 
 to exist, although the precise locality of the deposit has 
 never been satisfactorily ascertained. It is stated that a 
 gentleman in the Hudson's Bay service found the Haidah 
 Indians of that island using golden bullets in place of leaden 
 ones! 
 
 For very interesting reports of the explorations once 
 made on Queen Charlotte's Island by Captain Torrens, and 
 also by Major Downie, both gentlemen well known to me, 
 I must refer the reader to Captain Mayne's work on that 
 coast. 
 
 The gold on Vancouver Island was usually found in small 
 specks and scales (dust), but nuggets up to six and a half 
 ounces have been obtained. The great drawback was the 
 scarcity of the " pay-dirt," that is to say, that there were 
 more rocks and boulders, than earth impregnated with gold 
 resting on them ; sometimes in cracks and corners, however, 
 of the former, very nice little " pockets" or accumulations of 
 nuggets were struck. I cannot leave this subject without 
 alluding to the great assistance afforded us in the first 
 discovery by Mr. Foley, then a member of the expedi- 
 tion, a practical miner of considerable experience, who knew 
 more of gold and its whereabouts than any five of the other 
 men. 
 
 On the Sooke Kiver deer were especially abundant, and 
 when once we had arrived at the lake of the same name, one 
 of its sources, we lived for a time in clover, catching some 
 salmon trout in its limpid waters. Owing to the dryness of 
 the weather at this period, our camp fires were on several 
 occasions the means of setting the forest on fire ; and at the 
 
Chap. V.] NANAIMO. 59 
 
 lake we were burnt out of our camp, and Lad to retreat to an 
 island, from which we could watch the conflagration in safety. 
 Here we should have been happy, but for the musquitoes. 
 It has been distinctly stated that they do not exist on Van- 
 couver Island, but the writer knows, from this and subse- 
 quent trips, that they are abundant in the interior, though 
 not perhaps as bad as those in British Columbia. We always 
 kept a pan of smouldering ashes at our tent door, when 
 camped for any length of time in one spot, yet we passed 
 many a restless night from their inflictions. 
 
 From Sooke Lake we proceeded by Skawnigan Lake and 
 Cowichan to Xanaimo, where a delay occurred owing to the 
 difficulty of obtaining Indians. Xanaimo, seventy miles 
 north of Victoria, is the second town in point of size on the 
 island : in fact the list ends here ; there is no third as yet. 
 It owes its existence mainly to the valuable coal deposits 
 which are successfully worked by an English company, and 
 it has had a steadier and more healthy career than Victoria. 
 It lies in a pleasant bay sheltered by islands, and there is 
 depth of water sufficient for large vessels close in shore. A 
 quantity of the coal is shipped to San Francisco, Victoria, 
 and Fraser Eiver, while there is an expectation that the 
 recent annexation of " Alaska " will create a further demand 
 for steam-ship purposes. The main deposit is situated at 
 about a quarter of a mile from the town, and the coal reaches 
 the wharf by means of a railway and locomotive. The 
 principal shaft is a hundred feet in depth, and a "drift" 
 runs in an inclined plane for 1200 feet, sinking in that 
 distance 170 feet, so that the perpendicular depth from which 
 the coal is now taken is 270 feet. The bed has naturally 
 varied considerably in thickness ; in 1S67 it was about five 
 
60 COAL-SEAM AT COMOX. [Chap. V. 
 
 feet through. 150 to 300 tons are taken out daily ; the coal 
 brings an average of six dollars a ton on delivery at the ship. 
 In San Francisco it is retailed at an average price of twelve 
 dollars (or about £2 10s. gold : there are no " greenbacks " 
 accepted in California except at the regular discount). The 
 Hudson's Bay Company, which had formerly a fort at 
 JSTanaimo, were the first to work this seam, hiring Indians 
 to dig it from the outcroppings, and paying them at the rate 
 of one blanket for eight barrels. It is an undoubted fact 
 that the coal of Vancouver Island is its most valuable pro- 
 duction, and that it is abundant. After leaving Nanaimo, 
 we discovered, on a stream entering the Puntledge Eiver near 
 the small settlement of Comox, a very important deposit. 
 A seam from two to eight feet in thickness, disappearing and 
 again reappearing on the rocky walls of a small canon, 
 extended for a mile of its course. This occurred five miles 
 from navigable water, and would require the construction of 
 a tramway through the woods for its successful development. 
 We camped by the principal seam, and made a gigantic fire 
 of the coal, which really appeared to be of excellent quality. 
 The stream on which we observed it was named in honour of 
 our leader, Mr. Brown. 
 
 Our journey from this place up the Puntledge Eiver to the 
 lake of the same name was one of difficulty. We had deter- 
 mined to take a canoe there, and it had to be carried or 
 towed nearly the whole distance. Piles of drift-wood blocked 
 the river, while its bed consisted of boulders of all sizes. We 
 all spent more of our time in the water than out of it ; and 
 often, when dragging the canoe by main force through the 
 shallow but swift current, got into holes out of our depth, 
 and clung to it with great pertinacity, till once more we 
 
Chap. V.] WRECK OF OUR CANOE. 63 
 
 could get a foothold. There were two falls of importance 
 on this river, one of them bearing the poetical name of Ski-ep y 
 " the whirl of waters." At last we reached the lake, one of 
 the most picturesque on the island, and our canoe was 
 of much service to us. Alas ! it was near here that our craft, 
 that had gone through so much, at length came to grief. 
 Descending a tributary of the lake which we had previously 
 examined, owing to the bad steering of one of our party it 
 came broadside on a log, and in a second was cracked up like 
 a nut-shell into a hundred pieces, and we were all spilt in 
 the swift current. We hung on to the larger part of the 
 fragments, and succeeded in getting ashore. After several 
 hours' patching, sewing, and caulking, we managed to rig her 
 up again, but had subsequently to treat her as a very cripple 
 of a canoe, and to get out at all the rapids and shallows and 
 carry her tenderly over. With great care we at length 
 reached our camp by the lake, where doubtless she still lies, 
 the wreck w 7 e left her. 
 
 Between the east coast at Comox and the west coast at 
 Barclay Sound, we found a series of seven lakes, extending 
 almost across the island. One of these, the Central Lake, is 
 about eighteen miles long by one to one and a half in width, 
 and our travelling was spasmodic, constantly making halts to 
 construct rafts. On this rather tedious trip our supplies 
 again got down to a very limited ration of flour, and that 
 "strait," that is to say, unaccompanied by tea, beans, or 
 bacon. W^e varied a diet of soggy bread with a kind of thin 
 paste or soup of flour and water ; not very good " working " 
 grub. It was a sad but true fact, that, when our commissariat 
 department was exhausted, nothing was to be obtained in the 
 way of game or outside supplies ; and we were not sorry 
 
62 "LOGGING CAMP." [Chap. V. 
 
 when on the 23rd September we reached a " logging camp " 
 near the Opichesaht village on the Somass Kiver, where the 
 workmen, who had been expecting us for some time, spread 
 a repast to which we well knew how to do justice. The 
 same day, descending the river, we reached the large saw- 
 mill and lumber establishment of Alberni, Barclay Sound, 
 where Messrs. Johnston and Kaymur, the gentlemen then in 
 charge, received us with great kindness. Two hundred 
 workmen — representing a dozen nationalities, and, including 
 among the number, Kanakas from the Sandwich Islands, and 
 the Indians and half-breeds of many tribes — were busily en- 
 gaged in the mill and neighbourhood. Seven vessels were, at 
 the date of our visit, loading with lumber for England, Califor- 
 nia, Chili, China, and Australia, ^and the settlement presented 
 a lively aspect. 
 
 Our subsequent canoe- trips down Barclay Sound — on 
 streams entering which, we again found the " colour " of 
 gold, — our journey once more across the island to Quali- 
 cum, and thence by canoe to Nanaimo, would, if narrated 
 be little more than a repetition of what has been said 
 above, and I will not enlarge upon them. Our party in 
 detachments had crossed the island in seven directions. 
 
 In the interior game is fairly abundant, and our list 
 included three elk, twenty-five deer, and two beaver, shot 
 mainly at the commencement of our journeys. Owing to the 
 noise made in travelling through the thickets and woods, 
 and the density of the forest itself, we saw but few wild 
 animals, and of those generally only their hind-quarters 
 retreating in the distance. The animals above named, with 
 a few bears, panthers, martens, and coons, are about all that 
 the traveller will see at any time on that island. 
 
Chap. V.] 
 
 CAMP MARKS. 
 
 63 
 
 The future explorer will have no trouble in finding our 
 tracks, for at each camp the trees were " blazed," i. e., marked 
 with an axe, and an inscription affixed as represented below 
 — the artistic part of the work being usually performed by 
 the writer — painter, but not glazier, to the expedition. 
 
 Camp with "blaze," or Camp-mark. 
 
64 ALASKA TERRITORY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 CHAPTEK VI. 
 
 ALASKA TERRITOKY. 
 
 Acquisition of Russian America by the United States — American criti- 
 cisms on the purchase — Coal and gold discoveries — Mock advertise- 
 ments — America for the Americans — Geographical literature of the 
 Pacific — Of Russian America — The Treaty — W. U. Telegraph Expe- 
 dition — Its organization — Preference for young men. 
 
 The recent acquisition of Russian America by the United 
 States Government is one of the events of our day. 400,000 
 square miles of territory have been, under the name of 
 "Alaska,"* added to the already vast domain of Uncle Sam, 
 and Russia has rid herself of an isolated possession of dubious 
 value. 
 
 The purchase was not allowed to be completed quietly. 
 On its announcement the people of the United States were, 
 in fact, taken by surprise ; there was much hostile criticism, 
 and strong political opposition. That has now for the most 
 part passed away, and American enterprise has begun to 
 develop the resources of the country.f For some time, 
 
 * By this purchase the U. S. Government has acquired also one of the 
 largest mountains of the continent, Mount St. Elias. 
 
 f Coal has been discovered at Cook's Inlet, and a recent newspaper para- 
 graph (July 30th, 1868) tells us that " A party of explorers .started some, 
 time hack from the State of Oregon for the Skena River, in Alaska, and 
 were subsequently reported to have been lost in a schooner in Queen 
 Charlotte's Sound. The American consul at Victoria, Vancouver Island, 
 now announces their safety, and adds that they state themselves to have 
 discovered a rich gold-field in the Taquo River, where they are picking up 
 
Chap. VI.] MOCK ADVERTISEMENTS. 65 
 
 indeed, Mr. Seward's position in regard to it — lie being 
 always considered the originator of the project — was any- 
 thing but a desirable one. It was regarded as a bad business 
 and as an unfortunate speculation, and was ridiculed as " our 
 new possession of ' Walrus-sia.' " Mock advertisements — 
 purporting to come from the Secretary of State — appeared 
 in the daily papers of New York and the large cities 
 generally, offering the highest price for " waste lands and 
 worn-out colonies," "submerged and undiscovered islands," 
 icebergs, polar bears, volcanoes, and earthquakes, " provided 
 they should not shake the confidence of the State Depart- 
 ment." In the House of Congress it was made a party 
 question, and therefore the colony was on the one hand 
 described as the tag end of creation, and on the other as 
 an Elysian field. Virtually there was, and is, little known 
 about it ; and the following pages must be regarded simply 
 as an early and superficial contribution to our better know- 
 ledge of it. 
 
 There are, however, many, both in England and America, 
 who look on this purchase as the first move towards an 
 American occupation of the whole continent, and who fore- 
 see that. Canada and British America generally, will sooner 
 
 the precious metal in lumps. This news is credited in Sitka, and every 
 available craft is being brought into requisition to convey adventurers to 
 the spot." Gold has been frequently obtained in the Stekine River, a large 
 stream near the boundary line, running partly through British and partly 
 through Russian America. 
 
 It has also been recently stated that a company was prepared to "take " 
 Alaska, pay 10,000,000 dollars in gold to the United States Govern- 
 ment (nearly 3,000,000 dollars over the sum to be paid to Russia), and 
 leave the supreme authority to Congress. Their object was of course to 
 trade for furs, mine, and otherwise develop the country. 
 
 F 
 
66 LITERATURE OF THE PACIFIC. [Chap. VI. 
 
 or later become part of the United States. Looking at the 
 matter without prejudice, I believe that it will be better for 
 those countries and ourselves when such shall be the case. 
 We shall be released from an encumbrance, a source of ex- 
 pense and possible weakness ; they, freed from the trammels 
 of periodical alarms of invasion, and, feeling the strength of 
 independence, will develop and grow; and — speaking very 
 plainly and to the point — our commercial relations with 
 them will double and quadruple themselves in value. No 
 one now supposes, that, had the United States remained 
 nought but "our American colonies," they would have pro- 
 gressed as they have % done ; and it is equally obvious that 
 our commerce with them must have been restricted in equal 
 ratio. That it is the destiny of the United States to possess 
 the whole northern continent I fully believe. 
 
 The geographical literature of the Pacific is abundant; 
 but that part of it which has reference to Russian America is 
 comparatively restricted. Muller's* narrative of the voyages 
 of Bering and his companions deservedly heads the list. 
 Bering and TschirikofT may be fairly regarded as the dis- 
 coverers of the country, and their names will ever be 
 associated with the North Pacific. Immediately following 
 their adventurous voyages, a number of Russian merchants 
 of Eastern Siberia sent vessels from Ochotsk and neighbour- 
 ing ports on trading excursions, mainly to the Aleutian 
 Islands. " Within a period of ten years," says Coxe,| their 
 historian, " more important discoveries were made by these 
 individuals at their own private cost, than had been hitherto 
 
 * Muller's ' Voyages from Asia to America,' &c. 
 f Coxe's ' Russian Discoveries.' 
 
Chap. VI.] RUSSIAN AND OTHER EXPLORERS. 67 
 
 effected by all the expensive efforts of the Crown." Byron, 
 Carteret, Wallis, and Cook follow next in chronological 
 order ; the latter especially helped to clear np the fogs that- 
 encompassed the coast. Cook's Inlet, Ounalaska, Norton 
 Sound, and Bering Straits were all examined by the great 
 circumnavigator. 
 
 Passing over the illustrious La Perouse, who explored 
 portions of the N.W. coast, adjacent to Mount St. Elias, and 
 several Spanish commanders who did next to nothing for 
 Kussian America, we come to our countryman Vancouver, 
 whose laborious surveys have left their mark on the whole 
 of the coast from San Francisco to Cook's Inlet, and whose 
 great work deserves a fuller recognition from the public than 
 it has ever yet received. 
 
 Kussia has naturally done much towards the exploration 
 of her colony; and some of her naval officers hold a 
 deservedly high rank as geographers. Lisiansky, Kotsebue, 
 and Liitke are names as familiar to men of science as to 
 navigators. Among our own countrymen, Moore, Kellet, 
 Collinson, and McClure, when engaged in the search for 
 Sir John Franklin, also examined some portions of the 
 coasts,* while Captain Bedford Pirn, who made some exten- 
 sive land-trips, is well remembered at some of the (late) 
 Russian posts. But, with the exception of the one visit paid 
 by a Russian, Zagoskin, until our expedition commenced its 
 work, the interior of the country had been little visited, 
 
 * Findlay's ' Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific Ocean ' gives — 
 up to the date of its publication — an exhaustive resume of this subject. 
 Although a little out of date, from the rapid development of the north-west 
 coasts of America, it was used constantly on our vessels, and looked upon 
 as an invaluable work on the subject. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE TEEATY. [Chap. VI. 
 
 except by the traders of the Kussian American Fur Com- 
 pany ; and much valuable information has been hitherto 
 locked up in their archives. By the recent treaty all the 
 documents relating to the territory were to be handed over 
 to the United States Government. Let us hope that they 
 may, in the interests of geography, receive a thorough 
 investigation. 
 
 The treaty between Russia and the United States esta- 
 blishes the eastern and southern boundary lines as arranged 
 by Russia and Great Britain in 1825. The western line 
 includes the whole of the Aleutian Islands; Attou is dis- 
 tinctly named as the most westerly island ceded. The 
 northern boundary is only limited by the ice and snow of 
 the Arctic. 
 
 In 1865, the Western Union Telegraph Company of 
 America, the largest corporation of its kind in existence, 
 commenced the explorations for a proposed overland tele- 
 graph, which, by means of a cable, via Bering Straits, was 
 to unite the old and new world. The project — of itself%ot 
 entirely new — was virtually started by Mr. P. D. Collins, an 
 enterprising American, who had, after several years' persever- 
 ance, obtained the necessary charters and right of way from 
 the British and Russian Governments. The scheme, after 
 an expenditure of three million dollars, was abandoned in 
 1867, owing to the success of the Atlantic cable, and not 
 from any overwhelming difficulties in the way of the under- 
 taking itself. There was, at the date at which our explora- 
 tions commenced, no faith in the great submarine cable, at 
 least among telegraphic engineers.* 
 
 * It is by no means improbable that this enterprise may be again 
 
TCHUKTCHI SKIN CANOE 
 
 FRAME WORK OF TCHUKTCHI HOUSE 
 
Chap. VI.] W. U. TELEGRAPH EXPEDITION. 09 
 
 It is needless to state that an expedition employing several 
 hundred explorers, who examined six thousand miles of 
 country on both sides of the Pacific — from Eraser River to 
 Bering Straits, and thence southward to the A moor — has 
 added something to our knowledge of those countries. In 
 point of fact, five volumes like the present would hardly give 
 a fair idea of the amount of travel undertaken. Much of the 
 information acquired is in the hands of the Telegraph Com- 
 pany, and much more in the possession of individuals, and is 
 virtually lost to the world. I have confined myself almost 
 exclusively to the narration of my own experiences, ranging 
 over nearly two and a half years. 
 
 Colonel Bulkley, engineer-in-chief of the projected line, in 
 the spring of the above-mentioned year, left San Francisco 
 (where the head-quarters of the expedition were established), 
 and paid a preliminary visit to Sitka. He there left Dr. 
 Fisher, the surgeon-in-chief, to collect information while he 
 himself returned to California to organise the expedition. 
 I first had the pleasure of meeting Colonel Bulkley in 
 Victoria, V. I., and immediately volunteered to serve 
 on the expedition. He expressed himself gratified at the 
 idea of an artist accompanying him, and we commenced 
 a friendship that has but increased with better acquaint- 
 ance. Colonel Bulkley inspired affection and esteem in 
 all who knew him. 
 
 revived, if the Atlantic cable or cables should "give out" or work with 
 uncertainty, although it would be an expensive line to construct and to 
 keep in good order. That the soheme is practicable there can be no doubt. 
 Portions of the line which were completed between New Westminster and 
 the Mouth of Quesnelle — both on Eraser River — are now used lor the 
 transmission of messages. See Appendix (!!.)• 
 
70 ORGANIZATION OF THE EXPEDITION. [Chap. VI. 
 
 Our expedition had a military organization, and to each 
 man was assigned a special duty. The principal officers for 
 the first season (1865) were as follow : — 
 
 Col. Bulkley, Engineer-in-Chief (on leave of absence U.S. regular army.) 
 
 Capt. Scammon, Chief of Marine (U.S. Revenue Service). 
 
 Major Wright, Adjutant. 
 
 Major Chappel, Chief Quartermaster. 
 
 Mr. Lewis, Assistant Engineer. 
 
 Dr. Fisher, Surgeon-in-Chief. 
 
 Major Kennicott (in charge of Yukon party). 
 
 Lieut. MacCrea (in charge of Anadyr party). 
 
 Major Abasa (in charge of Siberian party). 
 
 Major Pope (in charge of British Columbian party). 
 
 Capt. Conway (in charge of building party). 
 
 E. K. Laborne, Interpreter. 
 
 Fredk. Whymper, Artist. 
 
 It would occupy an unnecessary amount of space to give the 
 details and numbers of each party, more especially as refer- 
 ence will be made to them subsequently ; but I may add that 
 several collectors for the Smithsonian Institution at Wash- 
 ington accompanied us, among the principal of whom were 
 Messrs. Dall, Kothrock, Bannister, and Elliot. Major Ken- 
 nicott, besides being selected on account of his previously 
 acquired knowledge of the country, was the appointed 
 director of the scientific corps. 
 
 The men selected by Colonel Bulkley were nearly all 
 young, and hardly one beyond the prime of life. He more 
 than once said that no old man (or old woman either) should 
 serve on his expedition, and he could have hardly found a 
 better place than San Francisco for the selection of active 
 and " live " men. There, nearly every one has been more or 
 less a traveller, and knows something of the many acquire- 
 ments valuable in a new country. 
 
 
Chap. VI.] PREFERENCE FOR YOUTH. 71 
 
 Doubtless Colonel Bulkley's preference for youth, activity, 
 and "go" is that of Americans generally. Here, in Eng- 
 land, I have sometimes thought that youth was considered 
 more of a crime than a recommendation, and that you were 
 nowhere until you had — like old port — acquired "body" 
 and " age " ! 
 
72 OUR VOYAGE. [Chap. Vlf. 
 
 CHAPTEE VII. 
 
 A VISIT TO THE CAPITAL OF ALASKA. 
 
 The voyage — Sitka Sound and Harbour — Baranoff — Early history — 
 The town — Water supply — Agriculture — Former Russian settlements 
 in California — Russian American Company — The fisheries — Kalosh 
 Indians — Our experiences of Russian hospitality — Sitka in new hands 
 — Two Sundays in a week — Kodiak ice — Formal transfer of Alaska. 
 
 On the 30th July, 1865, I bade a final adieu to Victoria, 
 joined the W. U. Telegraph Company's steamer < Wright/ 
 and the following day we were en route for Sitka, the then 
 capital of Russian America. 
 
 Our voyage, made in calm summer weather, was not 
 specially eventful. Early in our trip we were unfortunate 
 enough to lose one of the fans of our screw, which of course 
 somewhat diminished the speed of our vessel. At Port 
 McNeil, near Fort Rupert, V. I., we stopped to take on 
 board a small quantity of native coal to test its value for 
 steaming purposes. 
 
 After threading Johnstone Straits we passed to the north 
 of Vancouver Island, and outside Queen Charlotte's Island. 
 I mention this fact because there is well known to be 
 an "inside passage" threading the archipelago of islands 
 north of Vancouver Island. In winter it may possibly 
 be the better route, but it is of a difficult and tortuous 
 nature. 
 
 On the 8th August we reached the intricate and rock-girt 
 shores of Sitka Sound, and soon came to an anchor imme- 
 
Chap. VII.] SITKA. 73 
 
 diately abreast of the town of Sitka. The harbour, though 
 small, is commodious, and the water is usually as smooth as a 
 mill-pond. It is in lat. 57° 2' 45" N., long. 135° 17' 10" W. 
 
 Sitka, or New xirchangel, is as yet the only " city " in the 
 country, and therefore deserves some little notice. Formerly 
 it was exclusively the headquarters of the Kussian American 
 Fur Company ; but has now become a town of some life, and 
 will probably much increase in size. 
 
 The island on which Sitka is built is one of a group or 
 archipelago, discovered in 1741 by Tschirikoff, the companion 
 of Bering, who, unlike that brave commander, lived to return 
 from his adventurous voyage, the third and last of an 
 important series. The island is named in honour of Baranoff, 
 the real founder of the settlement of New Archangel, who 
 for a long period managed the affairs of the Bussian American 
 Company in the days of its early history, — a troubled and 
 eventful time. Baranoff had been a merchant in .Siberia, 
 and was a man of education and superior attainments, with a 
 large amount of courage and perseverance. After the esta- 
 blishment of this post the Kalosh Indians, a neighbouring 
 tribe, gave the Kussians much trouble ; and in 1804, while 
 the commander was absent, they attacked and murdered the 
 larger part of the garrison, one or two Aleuts alone escaping 
 to the island of Kodiak. Baranoff returned shortly after- 
 wards, and with the assistance of a part of Admiral Krusen- 
 stern's fleet, then on a voyage in the North Pacific, attacked 
 and besieged the Kaloshes till they acknowledged themselves 
 beaten; not, however, until they had murdered all the old and 
 helpless of their number who could not go off with them. 
 They have threatened and attacked the town subsequently, 
 and the Russians feared them a trood deal. At the date of 
 
74 SITKA : ITS SITUATION. [Chap. VII. 
 
 our visit, a palisade or stockade divided the Kussian and 
 Indian habitations, and no native, unless working in some 
 private house, was allowed in the town after dark. 
 
 Sitka was not overlooked during our war with Kussia, and 
 after the second visit to Petropaulovski, recorded later in 
 these pages, the English and French admirals, with a portion 
 of the combined fleet, visited the coast. No vessel, however, of 
 the squadron entered the port except Her Majesty's steamer 
 ' Brisk,' and the object of their visit was merely to ascertain 
 whether any naval force belonging to the Czar was to be 
 found there. A compact had been entered into by the 
 British and Kussian Governments, that the property of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, and of the Russian American Com- 
 pany, should be respected. The right of blockade was, how- 
 ever, reserved, although not exercised in this case. The 
 admirals, satisfied that no government vessels or supplies 
 were there, left Sitka undisturbed. No special defences had 
 been prepared.* 
 
 The town is situated on a low strip of land, the Governor's 
 house rising on a rocky height a hundred feet or so above the 
 general level. Snow-capped and peaked mountains, and 
 thickly-wooded hills surround it, and Mount Edgcumbe on 
 Crooze Island immediately opposite the town, an extinct 
 volcano of eight thousand feet in height, is the great land- 
 mark of this port — the most northern harbour on the Pacific 
 shores of America. The colouring of the town is gay, and 
 the surroundings picturesque. The houses yellow, with sheet- 
 iron roofs painted red ; the bright green spire and dome of 
 the Greek Church, and the old battered hulks, roofed in and 
 
 See ' Nautical Magazine,' October, 1855. 
 
Chap. VII.] THE TOWN — CLIMATE. 75 
 
 used as magazines, lying propped up on the rocks at the 
 water's edge, with the antiquated buildings of the Russian 
 Fur Company, gave Sitka an original, foreign, and fossilized 
 kind of appearance. 
 
 Landing at the wharf, and passing a battery of ancient 
 and dilapidated guns, we first saw the stores and warehouses 
 of the Company, where furs of the value of £200,000 were 
 sometimes accumulated. Sitka in itself had but a moderate 
 Indian trade, but was the head-quarters of the Company, 
 whence the peltries of twenty-one different stations were 
 annually brought. After passing the Governor's house, 
 which is perched on a rock, and only reached by a steep 
 flight of stairs, we found the bureau and workshops of the 
 Company, and a number of the better class of houses of 
 employes. On the left of the street a shrubbery, the " Club 
 Gardens," with summer-houses, card and supper rooms, and 
 swings for the children, and a little further the Greek Church 
 with its dome and spire of oriental style overshadowing a 
 plainer Lutheran structure within a few steps of it, attracted 
 our attention. Then came the " Club-house " occupied by 
 unmarried servants of the Company — the school-house, from 
 which scholars of promise were sent to St. Petersburg — and 
 the hospital, a very neat and clean building. Beyond these 
 were a few dozen cottages and shanties, and then — the 
 woods ! with the one promenade of the place running through 
 them. 
 
 Sitka enjoys the unenviable position of being about the 
 most rainy place in the world. Rain ceases only when 
 there is a good prospect of snow. Warm sunny weather 
 is invariably accompanied by the prevalence of fever and 
 pulmonary complaints, and rheumatism is looked upon as 
 
76 SITKA : ITS TEMPEEATURE. [Chap. VII. 
 
 an inevitable concomitant to a residence in the settlement. 
 Doubtless the miasma arising from damp and decaying 
 vegetable matter is one reason why Sitka is more unhealthy 
 in fine weather than in wet : a fact which was constantly 
 stated to us by the inhabitants. The winter is by no means 
 severe : the thermometer rarely standing below 20° Fahr. 
 
 A vast deal of nonsense has been published and republished 
 in the newspapers of the United States relative to the agri- 
 cultural resources of their new acquisition. The reader may 
 take my word for it that the culture of a few potatoes and 
 other vegetables is all that has been done in this way, 
 and that the acres of barley mentioned in some of these 
 high-flown paragraphs are purely mythical. There is not 
 an acre of grain in the whole country. 
 
 For a long period, from 1812 to 1841, the Kussian Com- 
 pany had settlements in California, at Koss, and Bodega, 
 and they have left their name attached to the principal 
 stream in that part of the country — Kussian Kiver. In 1841 
 Captain Sutter, a well-known Californian of the early days, 
 purchased the Company's settlements, stock, &c, for 30,000 
 dollars. These establishments were kept up expressly for 
 the supply of Sitka and the other posts, and were given up 
 when they found it more convenient to purchase from the 
 Hudson's Bay Company on Vancouver Island. For a full 
 account of this the reader is referred to the fifth volume of 
 Wilkes' ' Narrative of the U. S. Exploring Expedition.' 
 
 The white and half-breed population of Sitka was about 
 eight hundred, but has risen since the American occupation to 
 about two thousand persons. A company of Eussian infantry 
 formed the garrison, and the soldiers were allowed to work 
 for the Company, receiving extra pay. 
 
Chap. VII.] THE FISHERIES. 77 
 
 The Eussian American Company, formed on the model of 
 our Hudson's Bay Company, commenced its existence as a 
 chartered corporation in 1799, but had existed as a body of 
 traders and merchants long before that date. Between the 
 two Fur Companies there have been disputes. Latterly 
 the coast, as far as the Chilcat River, had been leased by the 
 former to the latter Company for trading purposes. The most 
 valuable station of the Russians, without exception, was 
 the Island of* St. Paul (Pribylov Groun in Bering Sea), 
 which yielded the larger part of the sea-otter obtained by 
 them. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Sitka extensive fisheries existed, 
 and from 100,000 to 150,000 salmon were annually exported 
 to the Sandwich Islands and elsewhere. Immediately on 
 the arrival of a boat-load of fish at the wharf, a number 
 of the poorer women, some of them Indians, arranged 
 themselves in two long lines, and very rapidly cleaned 
 and gutted the salmon. A few buckets of water w r ere 
 then thrown over the heap, and they were carried to 
 the vats, and put in brine at once. Each woman took 
 as her share a large fish weighing 20 or 30 lbs., and worth 
 — just nothing! It is said that the salmon is so abundant 
 in the streams in the spring time that they impede the 
 passage of boats, and that when a strong south-east wind 
 comes, it drives them ashore, where they lie in piles putri- 
 fying. 
 
 The Kalosh Indians seen at Sitka inhabit the coast between 
 the Stekine and Chilcat rivers. At the date of our visit 
 large numbers were absent, but in winter they are said to 
 congregate to the number of 2500. The Chilcat Indians 
 also come to Sitka. 
 
78 
 
 THE KALOSH INDIANS. 
 
 [Chap. VII. 
 
 These people dwell in a long line of rude houses outside 
 the settlement. Their dwellings are shanties on a large 
 scale, with a small entrance, often circular in shape, and a 
 hole in the roof to let the smoke out. The idea of these 
 constructions must have been derived from the Kussians; 
 in some cases the very unusual circumstance of the sleep- 
 ing rooms being apart from the main chamber was to be 
 observed. 
 
 The Kaloshes are by no means a prepossessing people, and 
 have a bad reputation. Their dress is commonly a blanket, 
 at least in summer time ; they frequently black their faces all 
 over, and sometimes paint themselves in red, black and blue 
 stripes and patches. They wear a pin of bone or metal stuck 
 in their lower lip ; this is said to denote maturity ; it is at 
 least never worn by the young. They appear to be more 
 than usually lazy natives, probably from the fact that Nature 
 
 0\a 
 
 m 
 
 Kalosh Indian Grave-box, 
 
 has been so kind to them; salmon is abundant, deer and 
 bear meat are to be had for the hunting, and the berries 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 RUSSIAN HOSPITALITY. 
 
 79 
 
 are innumerable. Their canoes are much inferior to those 
 of the lower coast, whilst 
 their skin " baidarkes " 
 (kyacks) are not equal to 
 those of Norton Sound 
 and the northern coast. 
 Their grave boxes or tombs 
 are interesting ; they con- 
 tain only the ashes of the 
 dead. These people invari- 
 ably burn the deceased. 
 On one of the boxes I 
 
 Kalosh Indian Grave-box 
 
 saw a number of faces painted, long tresses of human hair 
 depending therefrom. Each head represented a victim of 
 the (happily) deceased one's ferocity. In his day he was 
 doubtless more esteemed than if he had never harmed a fly. 
 All their graves are much ornamented with carved and 
 painted faces and other devices. 
 
 We shall not readily forget the reception given us by 
 the residents of Sitka, who seemed bent on making up for the 
 absence of the Governor, Prince Maksutoff. Eussian hos- 
 pitality is proverbial, and we all somewhat suffered therefrom. 
 The first phrase of their language acquired by us, was 
 "Petnatchit copla" (fifteen drops). Now this quantity — in 
 words so modest — usually meant a good half tumbler of some 
 unmitigated spirit, ranging from Cognac to raw vodka of a 
 ctass which can only be described by a Californian term as 
 " chain lightning," and which was pressed upon us on every 
 available occasion. To refuse was simply to insult your 
 host. Then memory refuses to retain the number of times 
 we had to drink tea, which was served sometimes in tumblers, 
 
80 SITKA IN NEW HANDS. [Chap. VII. 
 
 sometimes in cups. I need not say the oft described samovar 
 was in every household. Several entertainments — balls, 
 suppers, and a fete in the club gardens — were organised for 
 our benefit, and a number of visitors came off daily to our 
 fleet of four vessels, — strangely enough the only ones in 
 harbour, though the Company owned many sailing-vessels 
 and steamers. We found the Kussians there living on terms 
 of great intimacy with their domestics. The latter, almost 
 invariably addressed their masters and mistresses by their 
 Christian names, and often by abbreviations thereof. Thus 
 a gentleman by name " Ivan " (John) would be so called by 
 his servants, and his wife whose name was Maria, but by her 
 husband known as Molly, would be so addressed by the ser- 
 vants, to the great scandal of propriety. 
 
 But Sitka in the hands of the Russian Company, and 
 Sitka in those of its new owners, are already very different 
 things. An Anglo-Russian newspaper, to be printed in double 
 columns, is projected, and is to appear this spring (1868). 
 Town "lots" are held at fabulous prices; for a small log 
 house 10,000 dollars (£2000) is asked, and I should not 
 be surprised to learn that salmon was half a dollar a 
 pound, that a dozen "saloons," hotels, barbers' shops, and 
 " lager bier " cellars had been started, or especially that 
 the Sitka water- works were a great success! Every "cor- 
 respondent's " letter from thence, and I have read a score, 
 agrees in one fact, " that our aqueous supply evinces no 
 sign of failure ! " 
 
 In the " good old Russian times " there were, it is said, about 
 180 church holidays to the year, now they will be confined 
 to Christmas and New Year's days, Washington's birthday 
 and the 4th of July (Independence day). But if the enlight- 
 
Chap. VII.] TWO SUNDAYS IN A WEEK. 81 
 
 ened citizens of the country choose to avail themselves of the 
 privilege, they can enjoy two Sundays each week. Owing 
 to the fact that the Russians came eastward and we came 
 westward, there is of course a day's difference where the two 
 meet, and their Sunday in Sitka falls on our Saturday. 
 " The San Franciscan," says a Californian newspaper, " who 
 arrives at Archangel on Friday night, according to his reckon- 
 ing, will find the stores closed and business suspended on the 
 following morning, and so will lose not only that day, but 
 the next, too, if his conscientious convictions and the force of 
 habit are only strong enough. On the other hand, the pious 
 Alaskan merchant, who belongs to the Greek Church, will 
 look with horror on the impious stranger who offers to trade 
 or swap jack-knives on Sunday, but who on Monday morning 
 suddenly assumes a clean shirt, black broadcloth, a nasal 
 twang, and that demurely self-satisfied air which is our 
 national idea of a religious demeanour." 
 
 As before stated, Sitka itself yielded but a limited quantity 
 of furs ; hence the mistake made last year (1867) by nume- 
 rous Jews and other traders, who thought they could buy to 
 advantage there. By latest accounts you could almost as 
 cheaply* obtain furs in San Francisco ! not one of the places 
 in the world most celebrated for moderate charges, and in 
 consequence the steamers were well filled by disgusted 
 Israelitish traders on their return trips to California. Yet 
 in the north of Russian America — a country that few perhaps 
 will venture into — there is undoubtedly a large trade yet to 
 be developed, and the energy of the American people will 
 hardly let the opportunity pass unimproved, if the difficulties 
 in the way of the transportation of large quantities of trading 
 goods and provisions do not prove of too serious a nature. 1 
 
82 KODIAK ICE. [Chap. VII. 
 
 shall have to allude to this subject again, in the chapters on 
 the Yukon Kiver. 
 
 A San Francisco company leased from the Kussians the 
 privilege of obtaining ice from St. Paul's, Kodiak Island. The 
 Americans, as it is unnecessary perhaps to remark, use ice at 
 table to a far greater extent than we do, and in the Atlantic 
 States it is sold at an almost nominal price. California, about 
 the warmest State in the Union, naturally consumes a large 
 quantity of ice. It is cut from an artificial lake, which has 
 an area of forty acres. The labourers are all Aleuts (Aleutian 
 islanders), and are principally engaged for three or four 
 months of winter, while the ice is firm, in cutting it up and 
 storing it for summer consumption. The larger part of this 
 luxury is consumed in San Francisco, but it finds its way to 
 Mexican, Central, and even South American ports. Kodiak,* 
 which is included in the purchase, is therefore by no means 
 an unimportant acquisition. 
 
 The formal transfer of Eussian America to the United 
 States authorities took place on October 18th, 1867. It is 
 said that the Russian flag showed great reluctance to come 
 down, and stuck on the yard-arm of the flag-staff. A man 
 was sent up to detach the halyards, when it fell on the 
 heads of the Russian soldiers, its appointed defenders ! 
 
 * On September 5th, 1866, at 4 a.m., there was a very violent earth- 
 quake on Kodiak Island. A correspondent of 'The Alta California,' 
 writing thence, said : — " The sensation on shipboard was very terrifying, 
 seeming as though the ship was going at railway speed over- the rocks, 
 while many articles came tumbling down which the most violent gale at 
 sea had not disturbed. Other slight shocks were felt at intervals for four 
 hours in some of the southern portions of the island. Huge rocks were torn 
 from their places, and came tumbling down the mountains ; but no lives 
 were lost." 
 
Chap. VII.] 
 
 A RUSSIAN SOLDIER. 
 
 83 
 
 I present the reader with a representation of one of the 
 Sitka "army," copied from an Indian stone carving in my 
 possession. Although it may seem a caricature, it is really 
 an accurate likeness of the stolid features and antiquated 
 cut of the late defenders of Kussian America.* 
 
 * For some additional notes on Sitka, see Appendix (III.). 
 
 Indian stone carving, representing a Russian Soldier at Sitka. 
 
84 DEPARTURE FROM SITKA. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 VOYAGE IN THE NORTH PACIFIC. 
 
 1865. 
 
 Departure from Sitka — Oukamok — Ounga — Breakers ahead ! — Volcanoes 
 in Ounimak Pass — St. Michael's, Norton Sound, Alaska — Soundings 
 of Bering Sea — Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia — The Tchuktchis — 
 Tents — Canoes — Tchuktchi strength — Children — The irrepressible 
 " Naukum" — Native's idea of the telegraph — The ' Shenandoah ' pirate 
 — Avatcha Bay. 
 
 During our stay at Sitka, Colonel Bulkley, besides collecting 
 much valuable information from the Kussian Company, was 
 engaged in organising the parties for the Anadyr and Yukon 
 rivers. Lieut. .MacCrea, in charge of the former division, 
 was with his party transferred to the schooner 'Milton 
 Badger,' and despatched to his destination. The Yukon 
 party were mostly on board the barque ' Golden Gate,' 
 then considered the "flag-ship" of our expedition, and to 
 this vessel I was myself transferred. I was the guest of 
 Captain Scammon, to whose kindness I owe much. 
 
 We left the harbour of Sitka on the 22nd August, and the 
 entire population turned out to see us depart. They gave us 
 a full though rather irregular salute, which nearly brought 
 down the old wharf, and we returned it in better style. For 
 several days after leaving we kept company with the steamer, 
 being in fact towed by her. On the 28th we again saw land, 
 the grassy slopes and abrupt cliffs of Oukamok Island. There 
 were no trees apparent. On the 29th we sighted the penin- 
 
Chap. VIII.] BREAKERS AHEAD! 85 
 
 sula of Aliaska, a jagged rock-bound coast with many snow 
 peaks, and the next day we got a glimpse of Cape Ivanoff, — a 
 promontory that appeared at a distance to be detached 
 from the mainland. Later in the day we came to an anchor 
 in Zakharovskaia Bay, in the Island of Ounga. Our object 
 in calling there was to examine some coal seams known to 
 exist on the coast. They proved to be lignite of poor quality, 
 and apparently not abundant. The seams have been worked, 
 and the products used on board the Russian American Fur 
 Company's steamers, but not to any great extent. On the 
 31st August we again started in company with the steamer, 
 but the following night our hawser broke, and we parted 
 company in a fog. The next morning, while I was quietly 
 drawing in the cabin, the steward's boy, a wild Irish juvenile, 
 known as "Brick-top," from the red colour of his moppy 
 head, rushed in with the pleasing announcement of " Breakers 
 ahead ! " and that we were all coming to grief. I went on 
 deck, and found some very ugly looking rocks on the star- 
 board side, within a few hundred yards, and the white surf 
 and foam breaking round them. The weather was extremely 
 foggy and thick, and the danger while it lasted was unmis- 
 takable. Captain Scammon, seconded by his officers, soon, 
 however, brought the vessel round, and we passed within a 
 hundred yards of them, our craft rolling and pitching a good 
 deal. It proved to be a reef outside Sanak or Halibut Island, 
 — a known yet dangerous coast. 
 
 On the 3rd September, when tacking and trying to make 
 Ounimak Pass or passage, between Ounimak and Ougamok, 
 two of the Aleutian Islands, we caught a glimpse through 
 the opening mists of the volcano of Chichaldinskoi. This 
 mountain is, on the authority of Liitke, 8935 feet in height, 
 
86 NORTON SOUND. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 and is situated on Ounimak Island. It has a very graceful 
 form. Near it is a second mountain of less elevation, with a 
 jagged double summit, of very odd and irregular appearance. 
 On the evening of the 4th Chichaldinskoi loomed out very 
 distinctly, and when the clouds cleared from it we could see 
 smoke issuing from a large cleft near the summit. In 
 Ounimak Passage a second volcano over 5000 feet in height 
 was seen, and Captain Scammon observed during the night 
 the fire of one on Akoutan Island. The whole chain of the 
 Aleutian Islands is volcanic. They deserve an expedition to 
 themselves. 
 
 We arrived in Norton Sound on the 12th September, 
 having experienced very rough weather in Bering Sea ; in 
 fact, during part of the time we had to " lay to." Approaching 
 for the first time these northern coasts of Kussian America, 
 we observed with surprise the dried up and sunburnt appear- 
 ance of everything on shore. The hills varied much in colour, 
 from shades of crimson and red, to tints of brown and yellow. 
 The summer in this country, though short, is intensely warm 
 while it lasts; late in the season hot days alternate with 
 frosty nights, and the vegetation is much affected thereby. 
 We went into the Sound carefully taking soundings, and 
 indeed it was very necessary, as our later experience will 
 show. We arrived off the Island of St. Michael's at 10 a.m. 
 on the 13th, and found that our steamer had already called 
 there, and had again started for Bering Straits. 
 
 On the Island of St. Michael's, or Michaelovski, is a 
 Eussian trading-post of some importance, which will be 
 hereafter described. Major Kennicott began at once to 
 land his party with their supplies and personal effects, 
 and also to fit up the 'Lizzie Horner,' a small steamer 
 
Chap. VIII.] ST. MICHAEL'S ISLAND. 87 
 
 which had been brought up on the deck of our ship. 
 She was intended for the navigation of the Yukon, but 
 alas ! proved worthless, and in fact never left Norton 
 Sound. 
 
 Major Kennicott found at St. Michael's an Indian whu 
 stated that he had been up the Yukon to its junction with 
 the Porcupine. Colonel Bulkley, before leaving in the 
 steamer ' Wright,' had taken on board a little half-breed boy 
 to give him the advantage of a good education in San Fran- 
 cisco. This was, of course, done with his friends' perfect 
 consent. On leaving, his Indian mother said to the Colonel, 
 " Teach him, sir, nothing but good." Could any mother 
 have said more ? * 
 
 On the 17th we parted from our exploring friends and 
 turned our ship's bows towards the Asiatic coast. Captain 
 Scammon made a series of very interesting soundings on this 
 trip. Bering Sea is well known to be extremely shallow, but 
 few would suppose that the whalers can and do anchor in 
 nearly every part of it on occasions, weather permitting. 
 Between latitudes 64° and 66° N. the average depth is 
 slightly under nineteen and a half fathoms. We passed to 
 the south of the large island of St. Lawrence, and found the 
 bottom very even. * At the starting-point of this voyage 
 — St. Michael's — the soundings gave five fathoms, deepening 
 
 * This boy, with a second taken from Petropaulovski, made good 
 progress in San Francisco. Col. Bulkley's object was, of course, eventu- 
 ally to make these youths of service to the Telegraph Company. They 
 were, at the abandonment of the scheme, returned to their friends. Col. 
 Bulkley also took down a Tchuktchi boy from Plover Bay, who was 
 educated in the same manner, and we had, at different periods, several 
 Aleutian Islanders (Aleuts) as sailors on our vessel!*. 
 
88 PLOVER BAY. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 gradually to twenty-five fathoms off the S.E. end of St. 
 Lawrence Island. From thence to Plover Bay it averaged 
 thirty-five fathoms, and shoaled to nineteen fathoms im- 
 mediately off the bay itself. The bottom was found to 
 consist mainly of a soft mud and sand: one cast off the 
 eastern end of St. Lawrence Island, near a rocky islet, 
 brought up gravel. 
 
 On the 22nd we made the J and off Port Providence, or 
 " Plover " Bay, as it has always been called by the whalers who 
 frequent it, since the winter of 1848-9, when H.M.S. * Plover ' 
 laid up there, when on the search for Sir John Franklin.* 
 It does not derive its name from whaling pursuits, although 
 an ingenious Dutchman of our number persisted in calling it 
 " Blubber " Bay. But we were doomed to disappointment, 
 for when in sight of the Bay a gale of wind rose, and we were 
 driven several hundred miles to the southward, not regaining 
 our position till the 26th, when we went in successfully, to 
 find the ' Wright ' awaiting us. 
 
 Plover Bay, when once you are in it, is a very secure 
 haven. It is sheltered at its southern end by a long spit of 
 land, and it is no uncommon thing to find several whaling 
 vessels lying inside in the summer. It includes two smaller 
 basins ; one known as Emma Harbour, the second to be here- 
 after mentioned. Bare cliffs and rugged mountains hem it 
 in on three sides, the mountains composed of an infinite 
 number of fragments split up by the action of frost. In- 
 numerable and many - coloured lichens and mosses are 
 the only vegetation to be seen, except on a patch of open 
 
 * See Lieut. Hooper's ' Tents of the Tuski ' for a full account of the 
 ' Plover's ' stay. 
 
Chap. VJIL] THE TCHUKTCHIS. 89 
 
 country near Emma Harbour, where domesticated reindeer 
 graze. 
 
 On the spit before mentioned is a village of Tchuktchi 
 natives ; their tents are composed of skin. The remains of 
 underground houses are seen, but the people who used them 
 have passed away. The present race makes no use of such 
 houses. 
 
 Although their skin dwellings appear outwardly rough, 
 and are patched with every variety of hide, — walrus, seal, and 
 reindeer, — with here and there a fragment of a sail obtained 
 from the whalers ; they are in reality constructed over frames, 
 built of the large bones of whales and walrus, and very 
 admirably put together. In this most exposed of villages 
 the wintry blasts must be fearful, yet these people are to 
 be found there at all seasons. Wood they have none, and 
 blubber lamps are the only means they have for warming 
 their tents. The frames of some of their skin canoes are 
 also of bone. On either side of these craft, which are the 
 counterpart of the Greenland " Oomiak," it is usual to 
 find a sealskin blown out tight 'and the ends secured. 
 These serve as floats when the canoe heels over. They 
 have very strong fishing-nets, made of thin strips of walrus 
 hide. 
 
 The Tchuktchis appear to be a strongly-built race, although 
 the inhabitants of this particular village, from intercourse 
 with whaling vessels, have been much demoralized. I have 
 seen one of these natives carry the awkward burden of a 
 carpenter's chest weighing two hundred pounds, without ap- 
 parently considering it any great exertion. They are a 
 good-humoured people, and not greedier than the aver- 
 age of natives, so far as our experience goes. They were 
 
SO THE TCHUKTCHIS. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 of some service to a party of our men who wintered there 
 in 1866-7. 
 
 The children are so tightly sewn up in reindeer-skin 
 clothing that they look like walking bags, and tumble 
 about with the greatest impunity. All of these people wear 
 skin coats, pantaloons, and boots, excepting only on high 
 days in summer, when you may see a few old garments 
 of more civilized appearance that have seen better days, 
 and have been traded off by the sailors of vessels calling 
 there. 
 
 The true Tchuktchi method of smoking is to swallow all 
 the fumes of the tobacco, and I have seen them after six or 
 eight pulls at a pipe fall back completely intoxicated for the 
 time being. Their pipes are infinitely larger in the stem 
 than in the bowl ; the latter, indeed, holds an infinitesimally 
 small amount of tobacco. 
 
 Tchuktchi Pipe. 
 
 It is said that the Tchuktchis murder the old and feeble, 
 but only with the victims' consent ! They do not appear to 
 indulge in any unnecessary cruelty, but endeavour to stupify 
 the aged sacrifice before letting a vein. This is said to be 
 done by putting some substance up the nostrils; but the 
 whole statement must be received with caution, although we 
 derived it from a shrewd native who had been much em- 
 
Chap. VIII.] "NAU-KUM." 91 
 
 ployed by the captains of vessels in the capacity of inter- 
 preter, and who could speak in broken English. 
 
 This man, by name "Nau-kum," was of service on various 
 occasions, and was accordingly much petted by us. Some of 
 his remarks are worthy of record. On being taken down into 
 the engine-room of the 'Wright' he examined it carefully, 
 and then shaking his head, said solemnly, " Too muchee 
 wheel, makee man too muchee think ! " His curiosity when 
 on board was unappeasable. " What's that fellow ? " was 
 his constant query with regard to anything from the 
 "donkey engine" to the mainmast. On one occasion he 
 heard two men discussing rather warmly, and could not 
 at all understand such unnecessary excitement, " That fellow 
 crazy?" said he. 
 
 Colonel Bulkley gave him a suit of clothes, with gorgeous 
 brass buttons, and many other presents. One of our men 
 remarked to him, " Why, Naukum, you'll be a king soon ! " 
 
 " King be d d," was his extremely radical answer ! It is 
 
 of course obvious where he had got his schooling. The 
 whalers use such men on occasions as pilots, traders, and 
 interpreters, and to Naukuni in particular I know as much as 
 five barrels of villanous whiskey have been intrusted, for 
 which he accounted satisfactorily. 
 
 The truth-loving Chippewa, when asked, "Are you a 
 Christian Indian ? " promptly replied, " No, I whishkey Injen! " 
 and the truthful Tchuktchi would say the same. They all 
 appear to be intensely fond of spirits. The traders sell them 
 liquor of the most horrible kind, not much superior to the 
 '• coal oil " or " kerosene " used for lamps. 
 
 They appeared to understand the telegraph scheme in 
 a general way, and had probably been enlightened by the 
 
92 THE 'SHENANDOAH' PIKATE. [Chap. VIII. 
 
 whaling captains before our arrival. "Enoch," a very in- 
 telligent and quiet native, gave us an outline of the project 
 somewhat as follows : — " S'pose lope fixy, well — one Melican 
 man Plower Bay, make talky all the same San Flancisco 
 Melican." Perhaps quite as lucid an explanation as you 
 could get from an agricultural labourer, or a " city Arab," at 
 home. 
 
 We had been expecting to meet at some part of our 
 northern voyage, the famed and dreaded ' Shenandoah.' 
 It is an old story to return to now, but I was an eye-witness 
 of the havoc wrought by her. The whole of the coast was 
 strewed with fragments of the vessels burnt by her, and the 
 natives had several boats and other remains of her wanton 
 doings. She had left the Arctic and Bering Sea at the end 
 of June of the same year (1865), but not till thirty American 
 whaling vessels had been burnt by her. The captains and 
 crews had been for- the most part sent down to San 
 Francisco, and I have since met a gentleman who was one 
 of the victims. He did not complain of ill-usage from the 
 pirate captain, but spoke much of the wholesale destruction 
 of private property. The captain of an English whaler, 
 the ' Kobert Tawns,' of Sydney, had warned and saved some 
 of the American vessels, and he was in consequence threatened 
 by the ' Shenandoah.' 
 
 26th — 29th September. — The weather was now getting cold 
 and brisk, a skin of ice forming on the bay, and icicles 
 hanging from the shrouds and ship's boats. We learnt on 
 good authority, that the whole of Plover Bay was frozen 
 up by the 5th October, in 1864. The smaller bay (Emma 
 Harbour), leading out of the main one, was frozen up at the 
 above dates. 
 
Chap. VIII.] AVATCHA BAY. 93 
 
 On the 29th we got a favourable breeze, and set sail for 
 Petropaulovski. The following days were only remarkable 
 for light breezes, or baffling head winds, and we did not make 
 the entrance to Avatcha Bay till the 14th, October, on which 
 day we got our first glimpse of the grand volcanoes, which 
 are so important a feature of the scenery in the Peninsula of 
 Kamchatka.* On the morning of the 15th we passed through 
 the entrance to the Bay of Avatcha, and soon dropped anchor 
 outside the harbour of Petropaulovski, not, however, before 
 several of the foreign residents had boarded us. 
 
 * The above mode of spelling the word represents the sound in a 
 phonetic sense better than the common version. I had opportunities of 
 becoming familiar with the Russian pronunciation of the word on many 
 occasions, and not merely at this visit. 
 
94 PETROPAULOVSKI. [Chap. IX, 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PETROPAULOVSKI AND OUR RETURN VOYAGE TO SAN 
 FRANCISCO. 
 
 The Harbour — Town — Monuments — The fur trade — Kamchatka 
 generally — The volcanoes — The attack of the Allies in 1854 — Their 
 return in 1855 — The 'General Teste' — Rejoin the steamer 'Wright' 
 — Gale — Incidents of storm — Covert's " smoke stack." 
 
 The Harbour of Petropaulovski is protected by a long spit, 
 an apparently common feature of the coast. Inside it there is 
 a good depth of water, and a vessel, once in, can ride in safety 
 though storms rage outside. The town encircles the haven 
 on the north and east sides, and it is shut in by a hilly 
 promontory on the west. Behind the town is some steep 
 hilly ground, through a gap in which the volcano of Koriatski 
 towers grandly. It is over thirty miles distant, and yet, 
 in clear weather, it does not appear five. 
 
 With the exception of a few decent houses, the residences of 
 the Kussian officials and foreign merchants, the town makes 
 no great show. The poorer dwellings are very rough indeed, 
 and are almost exclusively rude log cabins. The only 
 noticeable building is the old Greek church, which has 
 painted red and green roofs, and a belfry entirely detached 
 from the building. It is to be remarked that the town, as it 
 existed in Captain Gierke's time, was built on the sand spit, 
 but no remains or indications of it were discovered by us. 
 Petropaulovski was once a military post, and had a rather 
 
Chap. IX.] MONUMENTS IN THE TOWN. 95 
 
 larger population than at present. The Cossack soldiers have 
 now been removed to the Amoor. 
 
 There are two monuments of interest in the town : the first 
 in honour of Bering, the other to the memory of La Perouse. 
 
 Monument to Bering, Petropaulovski. 
 
 The former is a cast-iron column of no great pretensions ; the 
 latter, a nondescript erection of octagonal form, constructed 
 of sheet iron. Neither of these navigators is buried in Petro- 
 paulovski. Bering's remains lie on the island where he died, 
 and which bears his name ; while La Perouse, and his unfor- 
 tunate companions, suffered shipwreck, and but little traces 
 were ever found of their expedition. We looked in vain for 
 the monument to Captain Clerke (Captain Cook's successor), 
 which existed as late as the date of Beechey's visit. The 
 spot (in an inclosure belonging to the captain of the port) 
 where once it stood was pointed out to us, much overgrown 
 with nettles and weeds. 
 
96 KAMCHATKA. [Chap. IX. 
 
 The Kussian American Company had at one period stations 
 in Petropaulovski, and other parts of Kamchatka, but aban- 
 doned them, owing doubtless to the competition of private 
 traders. To such a pitch has competition brought the fur 
 trade of that country, that it is now only a very moderately 
 profitable pursuit. As much as thirty dollars — sometimes in 
 hard cash — is paid for one Siberian sable of good quality ; and 
 the merchants have frequently to advance goods to the native 
 traders and hunters a long time before they get any returns. 
 Petropaulovski is one of the centres of this trade, but Nijne 
 (New) Kamchatka is the present capital. Bolcheretsk was 
 considered the principal town formerly, but it has dwindled 
 down to an inconsiderable village, and indeed the population, 
 and with it the products of Kamchatka, are on the decline. 
 Yet the climate is by no means so bad as commonly believed. 
 Colonel Bulkley considered it better than that of some 
 of the New England States and Canada, and it is quite 
 certain that agriculture is possible. The grass round Petro- 
 paulovski ripens into hay during the brief summer, and 
 garden stuff is raised in small quantities in the outskirts of 
 the tow 7 n. 
 
 I am convinced that Kamchatka would repay a detailed 
 examination. It is a partially settled country; the Kam- 
 chatdales are a good-humoured, harmless, semi-civilized race ; 
 and the few Kussian officials and settlers would gladly 
 welcome the traveller. The attractions of the country for 
 the Alpine climber cannot be overstated. The peninsula 
 contains a chain of volcanic peaks of the grandest character, 
 attaining, it is said, in the Klutchevskoi Mountain, a height 
 of 16,000 feet. In the country immediately behind Petro- 
 paulovski, are the three mountains, Koriatski, Avatcha, and 
 
 
Chap. IX.] VOLCANOES. 97 
 
 Koseldskai ; the first of these is between eleven and twelve 
 thousand feet in height, and is an unfailing land-mark for 
 the port. 
 
 From the summit of the steep hills which so nearly en- 
 close Petropaulovski, a grand view of these mountains is 
 obtained; a comparatively level country stretches to their 
 base. It is, however, covered with rank grass and under- 
 brush, and intersected by numerous streams: a journey to 
 them would be more easily made in winter time than in 
 summer. To the S.S.W. of the town a fourth peak — that 
 of Vilutchinski — towers above the coast-line, and is a very 
 beautiful feature in the landscape. Petropaulovski has been 
 frequently visited by earthquake, accompanied sometimes by 
 showers of ashes from these volcanoes. The smoke from 
 Koriatski was several times observed by us ; its pure snows 
 only hid the boiling, bubbling lava beneath. 
 
 The object of our visit was to communicate, by special 
 courier, with Major Abasa, a Kussian gentleman in our 
 Telegraph service who had formed a station at Ghijega at 
 the head of the Ochotsk Sea.* The facilities of travel 
 on the peninsula are superior to those on the coast of the 
 above-mentioned sea. In winter small Siberian horses, rein- 
 deer, and dogs are all employed for sledging purposes. The 
 feeding of the dogs of Petropaulovski took place every 
 evening, and their yelps and bowlings made night hideous. 
 One dried salmon per diem was each dog's allowance, and 
 they were much better off than their Russian- American 
 cousins, who in summer have to forage for themselves. 
 
 * See the ' Proceedings ' of the Royal I reographical Soci< by for Feb. 1 1 1 li 
 L867. 
 
98 ATTACK OF THE ALLIES [Chap. IX. 
 
 The hospitality extended to us was almost unlimited. 
 Dinners, balls, suppers followed each other in rapid succession ; 
 we had a steam-boat excursion in Avatcha Bay. One of the 
 dishes common in Petropaulovski was salmon pie, constructed 
 apparently of eggs and salmon, covered with a crust. Salmon 
 is very abundant in the harbour and neighbouring streams, 
 and some has been put up in salt for export. 
 
 We also got a little sledging, when the snow fell just 
 before our departure. The ice was fast forming in the 
 harbour, and it was often a serious undertaking to row 
 ashore, 
 
 It is well known that in 1855 — during the Crimean war — 
 Petropaulovski was visited by the Allied fleet. The record 
 of that visit has been duly laid before the public, commented 
 on, and forgotten ; but it is not so generally known that our 
 first attack, the previous year, was by no means a subject of 
 congratulation for us, and (although well understood by naval 
 officers, and especially by those who have served on the 
 Pacific station) it has been kept uncommonly quiet. The 
 fact is, that at the first visit, the wretched little town made 
 — greatly to its own surprise — a successful resistance, and is 
 very proud of the fact. The inhabitants look upon the 
 combat at Petropaulovski as one of the decisive battles of 
 the world ! 
 
 The narrative I am about to lay before the reader was 
 obtained on the spot, but not merely from the Kussians. An 
 Englishman — Mr. Fletcher — who had resided there for thirty 
 years, and several of the foreign merchants who were in 
 the town at the date of the attack, confirmed the Muscovite 
 versions of the story. 
 
 In the autumn of 1854 (28th August) six vessels of war — 
 
Chap. IX.] ON PETROPAULOVSKI IN 1854. 99 
 
 French and English — comprising the ' President/ ' Virago,' 
 < Pique' 'La Fort/ < L'Eurydice/ and 'Obligado'— arrived off 
 Avatcha Bay; a gun, placed near the lighthouse at the 
 entrance, was fired by the Eussians, and gave the inhabitants 
 of Petropaulovski notice to be on the alert. Admiral Price 
 immediately reconnoitred the harbour and town, and placed 
 the ' Virago ' in position at a range of 2000 yards. 
 
 The Kussians were by no means unprepared. Two of their 
 vessels, the ' Aurora ' and ' Dwina/ defended the harbour, and 
 a chain crossing the narrow entrance shut it in. There were 
 seven batteries and earthworks, mounting about fifty guns of 
 fair calibre. 
 
 The 'Virago' commenced the action with a well-directed 
 fire, and several of the batteries were either temporarily or 
 entirely disabled. The one furthest from the town, on the 
 western side, was taken by a body of marines landed for 
 the purpose. The guns were spiked. Four of the Allied 
 fleet were specially engaged, and the Eussians returned their 
 fire with spirit. There were three batteries outside and on 
 the spit, two at the termination of the promontory on the 
 western side of the harbour, and one in a gorge of the same, 
 which opens on Avatcha Bay. It is in this little valley 
 that the monument to La Perouse stands. 
 
 The town was well defended both by nature and by art. 
 The hills shut it in so completely, that it was apparently 
 only vulnerable at the rear. There, a small valley opened out 
 into a flat strip of land immediately bordering the bay, and, 
 although there was a battery on it, it seemed an excellent 
 spot to land troops. 
 
 Our vessels having taken up a new position, and silenced 
 the batteries commanding it, 700 marines and sailors were 
 
 n 2 
 
100 REPULSE OF THE ALLIES. [Chap. IX. 
 
 put ashore. Half of them were English, half French ; a 
 large number of officers accompanied them, while they had 
 for guides two Americans, said to know the ground. They 
 appear to have expected a very easy victory, and hurried in a 
 detached and straggling style in the direction of the town, 
 instead of proceeding in compact form, in military order. A 
 number of bushes and small trees existed and still exist on 
 the hill-sides surrounding this spot, and behind them were 
 posted Cossack sharp-shooters, who fired into our men, and 
 either from skill or accident picked off nearly every officer. 
 The men not seeing their enemy, and having lost their 
 leaders, became panic-struck, and fell back in disorder. A 
 retreat was sounded, but the men struggling in the bushes 
 and underbrush (and, in truth, most of them being sailors, 
 were out of their element on land) became much scattered, 
 and it was generally believed that many were killed by the 
 random shots of their companions. A number fled up a hill 
 at the rear of the town. Their foes pursued and pressed upon 
 them, and many were killed by falling over the steep cliff in 
 which the hill terminates. 
 
 The inhabitants — astonished at their own prowess, and 
 knowing that they could not hold the town against a more 
 vigorous attack, were preparing to vacate it — -when the fleet 
 weighed anchor and set sail, and no more was seen of them 
 that year ! The sudden death of our admiral is always 
 attributed to the events of that attack, as he was known not 
 to have been killed by a ball from the enemy.* 
 
 Before the second visit in May and June, 1855, every- 
 
 * See ' Nautical Magazine,' October, 1855. It is there stated that 107 
 English were killed or wounded in the engagement. 
 
Chap. IX.J RETURN OF THE ALLIES IN 1855. 101 
 
 body — except the foreign residents — had vacated the town. 
 Early in the spring of the same year the Eussian squadron 
 had received orders to leave it to its fate at the break-up of 
 the ice. The Kussian Government had indeed given up all 
 idea of defending so worthless a town, and, for two reasons, 
 we also should have left it alone. First, it was an insigni- 
 ficant place, and victory could never be glorious ; whilst, 
 secondly, it has been — from the time of Cook to our own 
 days — famous for the hospitality and assistance extended to 
 our explorers and voyagers.* All is not fair in war. 
 
 When therefore the Allies landed at their second visit they 
 found an empty town.f They, however, captured a Kussian 
 whaler, and burnt some of the government buildings. The 
 latter it is said was done unintentionally, or more probably 
 was the work of some wanton jack-tar. The batteries and 
 earthworks were of course razed to the ground. 
 
 We all visited the battle-field, and found it still strewed 
 with the remains of shells, &c. In getting out ballast from 
 a bank near the town, several cannon-balls were unearthed. 
 The monument to La Perouse was peppered all over with 
 bullet marks. 
 
 It was at that period, that an old French captain, com- 
 manding a whaler named the ' General Teste,' was saved 
 from the Eussian hands by a rather ingenious ruse. He 
 was in a terrible state of mind, when cruising in Bering 
 Sea, expecting hourly to lose his vessel, and the American 
 captains of the whaling fleet, pitying him, came to his aid. 
 
 * See Cook, Cochrane, Bcechey and others. 
 
 f For an account of the second visit in 1855, see Treason's ' Voyage to 
 Japan, Kamschatka,' &c. 
 
102 REJOIN THE ' WRIGHT.' [Chap. IX. 
 
 They induced him first to substitute ' Washington ' for 
 ' Teste.' His vessel then became the ' General Washington.' 
 Next they got him to hoist the " stars and stripes " in place 
 of the " tri-colour." Lastly, they made him, much against 
 his will, keep a bottle of "cocktails" ready mixed for 
 all-comers ; and by these three devices his vessel escaped 
 detection ! 
 
 On the 31st October I again joined my old friends on the 
 < Wright,' and on the 1st November we steamed out of 
 Avatcha Bay. By-the-bye, why will geographers persist in 
 spelling the distinctly pronounced Avatcha as though it were 
 a difficult and excruciating word ? We have it in all shapes 
 — Awatska, Awatscha, Awatcha, and AvatsJca. From long 
 intercourse with educated Bussians I know that Avatcha 
 represents the word phonetically (and it is useless to attempt 
 to render Eussian in any other way). 
 
 During the next fortnight we experienced very bad 
 weather, which culminate'd on the 14th in a gale from the 
 S.E,, in which a series of disasters made us fear for our 
 vessel's safety. The first was a novelty in its way. A rope 
 snapped, our "main boom" swung round and knocked the 
 funnel overboard ! and, as the weather was so tempestuous, 
 we had simply to cut the chains or "guys," which held it, 
 and let it drop to the ocean's bed. A little later, our steering 
 apparatus got out of order, and our little steamer lay in 
 the trough of the sea as helpless as a log, steaming being 
 rendered impossible by these two accidents. The waves 
 washed over her every few minutes, and her bulwarks (or 
 "guards") were so low, that we expected every moment 
 to see the " house on deck " carried overboard. It was stove 
 in in a score of places, and the cabins presented a pitiable 
 
Chap. IX.] EXPOSED TO A GALE. 103 
 
 spectacle, — a wreck of trunks, furniture, and crockery. Sail 
 after sail was carried away by the sudden squalls, and we 
 were at length left with nothing to lie under. A few long 
 streamers of canvas, hanging from the yards, alone showed 
 where they had been. On the 17th we shipped a sea, which 
 threatened to engulf us. A torrent rushed into the aft cabin, 
 down the stairs, and through the skylight, extinguished the 
 lamps and fire, and left us tumbling about in two or three 
 feet of water. This night our vessel seemed to be constantly 
 driving under water, and our sailors were often thrown down 
 and much bruised, although no one happily was lost. Cap- 
 tain Marston behaved with great coolness, lashed himself on 
 deck, and remained there all night, half-frozen, and with 
 seas washing over him every few minutes. We landsmen did 
 not expect to see our native element again, and although 
 I had been in many gales, it was, without exception, the 
 very worst I had experienced. Fortunately, the hull of our 
 vessel was staunch and sound, and our pumps in perfect 
 order. 
 
 The storm lasted for nearly a week, and was not devoid 
 of incident. For part of one day, the sea driving faster than 
 our vessel, acted in such a manner on the screw, that in its 
 turn, it worked the engine at a greater rate than we had ever 
 attained by steam ! In the end the coupling was discon- 
 nected, fearing injury to the machine. 
 
 In the " state room " of the house on deck, occupied by Mr. 
 Laborne our interpreter, and myself, some boxes of soap were 
 stowed away. This being constantly worked about the floor 
 under water, raised one of the most magnificent lathers ever 
 witnessed, which ran through the series of rooms, and did not 
 improve our possessions. After the storm had subsided, 
 
104 CLOSE OF OUR VOYAGE. [Chap. IX. 
 
 we opened the boxes, to find bars of soap, of about eighteen 
 inches in length, reduced to the dimensions of sticks of 
 sealing-wax. 
 
 It became absolutely necessary to rig up something in place 
 of our lost funnel, or " smoke stack," as it is invariably called 
 by Americans. At length Mr. Covert, our chief engineer, 
 hit upon a device. He caused his men to knock out one 
 end of a square water-tank, and, with some extra sheet iron, 
 made a chimney about ten feet high, which gave sufficient 
 draught to the furnaces. Covert's " patent " was a great 
 success, and created some little notice on our arrival in San 
 Francisco, which took place on the 30th November. 
 
 Thus ended the not uneventful voyage of 1865, in which 
 we had gone over 10,000 miles of ocean travel, and we 
 were not sorry to reach our head-quarters in the "Bay 
 City," and have once more a spell of civilized life. 
 
Chap. X.] W. U. TEL. EXPEDITION, SECOND SEASON. 105 
 
 CHAPTEK X. 
 
 VOYAGE IN THE NORTH PACIFIC. 
 
 1866. 
 
 Organization of the expedition — Thirsty medical man — Oar fleet — 
 Voyage — Petropaulovski again — The Kussian corvette — Eussian 
 wedding — Heat — International pic-nic — Voyage north — Bering's 
 voyages — Shipwreck — Death of Bering — Gulf of Anadyr — The 
 " wandering Tchuktchis." 
 
 The winter of 1865-6 was spent by Colonel Bulkley and his 
 staff in San Francisco, and their time was fully occupied 
 in organizing the parties for the following season. A large 
 number of labourers were engaged, and these, with assistant- 
 surgeons,* quartermasters, and foremen, brought our expedi- 
 
 * One of these individuals soon after his engagement showed a decided 
 leaning towards stimulating fluids, and, having drunk up his salary, was at 
 his wit's end to know how to keep up the supply. In each of our com- 
 pany's medicine chests there were a few bottles of wine and brandy, 
 intended exclusively for medicinal purposes. These our doctor, in the 
 discharge of his arduous duties, soon discovered and finished, but — like 
 Oliver — wanted more. Our hero of the bottle next ferreted out a small can 
 of alcohol, which slightly — very slightly — diluted with water, made a 
 drinkable mixture, and enabled him to hold out a day or two longer. The 
 reader may suppose that when this was finished he was nipped in his 
 career. Not a bit of it ! Were there not the ethers, tinctures, and spirits 
 contained in every well regulated chest ? Bottle after bottle, phial after 
 phial, of spirits of lavender, peppermint, and sweet nitre followed each 
 other to the same goal. There was still the camphor and tincture of 
 myrrh, rhubarb, and aloes left, but not for long; ami when there was 
 nothing remaining but the laudanum, that also went the Bame way. 
 About this period his weaknesses were discovered, and he was discharged 
 from the service. 
 
106 OUR FLEET — THE VOYAGE. [Chap. X. 
 
 tion up to a formidable size ; not less than 500 " white men," 
 besides bands of Cossacks in Eastern Siberia, Chinamen in 
 British Columbia, and Indians everywhere, were employed 
 in building telegraph, exploring the route, or transport- 
 ing goods, during the season of 1866 and following 
 winter. 
 
 Our fleet alone made a perceptible difference at the 
 wharves of San Francisco. We had seven sea-going vessels, 
 besides smaller craft; the steamer ' Wright' was refitted, a 
 clipper, the ' Nightingale ' * purchased, and one large and two 
 small river steamers built specially for our service. We had 
 five barques — several of them excellent vessels. 
 
 During the winter, a commissioner from the Russian 
 Imperial Government, M. Paul Anasoff, and Mr. Knox, 
 a well-known "correspondent" of the leading New York 
 papers, arrived in San Francisco. Both of these gentlemen 
 accompanied us on our second voyage. 
 
 On the 23rd June, 1866, we left California, and after an un- 
 eventful trip, made Petropaulovski once more. Our voyage 
 occupied us thirty-one days, the weather being perfect for 
 the whole time, and the ocean unmistakably " Pacific." Our 
 little steamer, now fitted up in the best style, and carrying 
 heavier spars and more sail, was almost equal in accommoda- 
 tion and appearance to a steam yacht, and our trip, taking 
 into consideration the pleasant company on board, was simply 
 
 * The ' Nightingale's ' history had been an eventful one. Built at first as 
 a model clipper, intended for exhibition in London in 1851, she had been 
 for a long period used as a slaver, then captured by the U. S. Government, 
 and employed as a blockading vessel during the war, and was now the 
 " flag-ship " of our expedition. 
 
Chap. X.] RUSSIAN WEDDINGS. 107 
 
 a holiday excursion — the very antithesis of the return voyage 
 in 1865. On the 25th July we arrived in Petropaulovski 
 Harbour, and found a Russian corvette, the ' Yariag,' awaiting 
 our arrival. She was a fine steam vessel of 2156 tons, and 
 her commander Captain Lund immediately reported, in 
 accordance with his instructions, to Colonel Bulkley, our 
 eDgineer-in-chief. 
 
 The day of our arrival had been fixed for the celebration 
 of two Russian weddings, and a general invitation was at once 
 sent on board. The ceremony commenced at 5 p.m. in the 
 old Greek church, and was rather long and fatiguing. 
 The congregation stood: in fact there were no seats in the 
 church. It is the custom for the bride and bridegroom to be 
 crowned. In this case the brides wore elaborate head-dresses, 
 and considerate male friends — the " best men " of the occasion 
 — held the crowns for three-quarters of an hour a few inches 
 above the ladies' heads. I imagine they were rejoiced when 
 the pairs were satisfactorily spliced ; I know that we were, for 
 we were in tight uniforms, extremely gorgeous, and equally 
 uncomfortable. 
 
 It is the fashion apparently — when the persons, as in this 
 case, are in the lower walks of life — to ask some more 
 wealthy individual to be master of the ceremonies, and it is 
 understood that he stands all the expenses ! On this occasion 
 the victim was M. Phillipeus, a merchant, who brings his 
 vessels annually from Hong Kong to Kamchatka, and the 
 neighbouring coasts.* He accepted the burden willingly, 
 
 * M. Phillipeus took his more valuable furs, &c, annually to St. Peters- 
 burgh, via theAmoor and Siberia, returning thence to Hong Kong vid Sue/.. 
 Be had made this lengthened journey live times al the date of our visit. 
 
108 NUPTIAL MERRY-MAKING. [Chap. X. 
 
 and gave a very liberal entertainment to the whole town, the 
 officers of the ' Variag,' ourselves, and the captains of several 
 small vessels lying there. So many were invited that no one 
 house was large enough for the purpose. The party was 
 therefore divided, and the guests occupied two buildings, one 
 on either side of the main street. The band of the ' Yariag ' 
 played outside, and a messenger was kept constantly running 
 between the two houses to keep the merry party in either 
 informed of the nature of the toasts. Such rousing cheers 
 and "tigers" had never been heard before in that usually 
 sleepy, half-dead town. 
 
 After the feast, we adjourned by invitation, to the house 
 of the Captain of the Port, where dancing was kept up with 
 great vigour till the small hours next morning. The brides 
 had to dance with everyone present, and it was amusing to 
 see them change from one gentleman to another : during 
 the time occupied by one waltz they had ten or a dozen 
 partners. Petropaulovski had not nearly ladies enough 
 for the invited males, and, in consequence, a number of 
 very clean and sedate Kamchatdale peasant women were 
 asked for the occasion. Our efforts at conversation with 
 the latter were ludicrous and extremely unsatisfactory; but 
 with our Eussian friends of the 'Variag' we got along 
 capitally, and found them splendid fellows.* The following 
 
 * These gentlemen all spoke, more or less fluently, French, and English, 
 or rather American. The reader is doubtless aware that at the termination 
 of the Crimean war, French — once the court language in Eussia — got out of 
 favour there ; but he may not know that the American tongue was ordered 
 to be taught in 'place of English at the universities and schools — a distinc- 
 tion without a difference. So, at least, I was informed by an intelligent 
 Russian officer. 
 
Chap. X.] INTERNATIONAL PIC-NIC. • 109 
 
 clay the brides and their relations paid return complimentary 
 visits. 
 
 We found Petropaulovski in its brief summer garb ; wild 
 flowers, coarse grass, and musquitoes all abundant. The 
 thermometer stood at 80° in the shade, and the writer found 
 himself nodding over his out-door sketching, which was 
 perhaps partly due to the constant round of festivities. 
 Three months of Eussian hospitality would kill most men; 
 and the fortnight spent on this visit was the hardest work 
 I have ever done in my life ! — done, too, at a time when 
 the summer heat was intense, and when every one who 
 could, got into silk, duck, or alpaca clothing — like that worn 
 in tropical countries. Our pre-conceivecl ideas of Kamchatka 
 were entirely upset. 
 
 I shall never forget an " international " pic-nic held during 
 our stay, in which the representatives of six or eight countries 
 took part. There were European and Asiatic Russians, — 
 from the Finlander to the Kamchatdale ; Americans, North- 
 erners and Southerners ; Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans, 
 and an Italian. 
 
 Chatting in a babel of tongues, we walked leisurely by an 
 upland path, skirting beautiful Avatcha Bay, till we found 
 a grassy opening, pleasantly shaded, where the servants and 
 sailors were beginning to unpack the hampers. The weather 
 was perfect, there was scarcely a ripple on the blue water 
 below us, flowers made the air fragrant, and, but for an occa- 
 sional musquito, we should have forgotten we were on earth 
 at all ! And then — bliss of blisses ! — we not merely raised a 
 cloud of balmy smoke, but were encouraged therein by the 
 sanction of our lady friends, some of whom joined us. At all 
 their entertainments, or at quieter family parties, cigars and 
 
110 • VOYAGE NOETH. [Chap. X. 
 
 cigarettos were always served with the tea and coffee, and the 
 ladies retained their seats with us. Would it were so in our 
 own otherwise — more or less — happy land ! When we were 
 tired of games — one of them a Eussian version of " hunt the 
 slipper" — and toasts and songs, an al fresco repast was served ; 
 and we did not leave the place till long after twinkling stars 
 studded the heavens. 
 
 It would be a serious undertaking to acknowledge duly all 
 the kindness lavished upon us by the Kussians and foreign 
 residents. Messrs. Pflueger, Peirce, and Hunter, of the 
 German and American houses, did everything to make our 
 stay agreeable. 
 
 Messrs. Anasoff and Knox now left us, and were conveyed 
 to various points on the Ochotsk Sea on board the ' Variag,' 
 and eventually went to Nicolaiefski at the mouth of the 
 Amoor. From thence Mr. Knox made the trip via Siberia 
 to St. Petersburgh. 
 
 We left Petropaulovski on the 6th of August, and then 
 steamed up the coast, keeping in sight of land for several 
 days. Not merely is it a grand and rugged coast-line, but 
 the ever-recurring volcanic peaks are a great source of beauty 
 and interest. 
 
 Many of these mountains appeared at this season to be 
 very bare of snow. The volcano of Koriatski — which as we 
 had seen it, in the late autumn time of the previous year, 
 was one vast sheet of snow — now showed immense sterile 
 rocky sides. 
 
 On the 8th August we passed the promontory which 
 terminates in the two capes Kamchatka and Stolbovoy. It 
 had the appearance of two islands detached from the main- 
 land, the intervening country being low. This — a circum- 
 
Chap. X.] RIVER KAMCHATKA. Ill 
 
 stance to be constantly observed on all coasts — was perhaps 
 specially noticeable on this. The island of St. Lawrence in 
 Bering Sea, which I have passed twice, was a very prominent 
 example. It has always appeared to me that the apparent 
 gradual rise of a coast, seen from the sea as you approach it, 
 affords a far better proof of the rotundity of the earth, than 
 the illustration usually employed, that of a ship, which you 
 are supposed to see by instalments, from the main-royal sail 
 (if not from the " sky-scraper " or " moon-raker "), to the hull. 
 The fact is that the royal and top-gallant sails of a vessel on 
 the utmost verge of the horizon may be, in certain lights, 
 barely distinguishable, while the dark outline of an irregular 
 and rock-bound coast can be seen by any one. First, may be, 
 appears a mountain-peak towering in solitary grandeur above 
 the coast-line, and often far behind it, then the high lands 
 and hills, then the cliffs and lowlands, and lastly the flats and 
 beaches. 
 
 Immediately by Cape Kamchatka the river of the same 
 name empties into Bering Sea. 
 
 It was from this river that Bering sailed on his first 
 voyages, and his name will ever be associated with the coast. 
 He deserves to rank among the great adventurers of the last 
 century ; yet his voyages are little known. He was a Dane 
 drawn into the Kussian service by the fame of Peter the 
 Great, and his expeditions had been directly organized by 
 that sagacious monarch. Peter did not, however, live to 
 carry them out. Their principal object was to find out 
 whether Asia and America were one, or whether any part of 
 their coasts were contiguous. Miiller, the historian of Bering's 
 life, who accompanied him on land, but does not appear to 
 have made any sea voyages with liim whatever, says, K The 
 
112 BERING'S VOYAGES. ;; [Chap. X. 
 
 Empress Catherine, as she endeavoured in all points to 
 execute most precisely the plans of her deceased husband, in 
 a manner began her reign with an order for the expedition to 
 Kamtschatka." Vitus Bering was to be commander, and 
 to be assisted by two lieutenants, Martin Spanberg, and 
 Alexei Tschirikoff. They left St. Petersburgh on the 5th of 
 February, 1725, and proceeded to the Ochotsk Sea via Siberia. 
 It gives some idea of the difficult nature of the overland route 
 in those days, to find that it occupied them over two years to 
 transport their outfit to Ochotsk. From thence, after a vessel 
 had been specially built for them, they crossed to Bolcheretsk 
 in Kamchatka, and the following winter transported their pro- 
 visions and naval stores to the town of Nishni (New), 
 Kamchatka. " On the 4th of April, 1728 " says Miiller, "a 
 boat was put upon the stocks, like the packet-boats used in 
 the Baltick ; and on the 10th of July was launched, and named 
 the boat Gabriel " On the 20th of the same month they 
 went to sea. Bering followed the E. coast of Kamchatka and 
 Siberia, and discovered the island of St. Lawrence. He 
 reached as far north as lat. 67° 18', and then found the coast 
 trend to the west, whereon he seems to have come to the 
 conclusion that he had reached the extremity of Asia, and 
 that there was no connection between the continents. In the 
 main point, of course, he was right ; but he was totally wrong 
 in his conclusion as to the Asiatic coast commencing its 
 westward course from the point reached by him. He re- 
 turned to the Kamchatka River without serious injury to his 
 vessel. The second voyage of his first expedition calls for little 
 remark, as he was unable, from contrary winds, to carry out 
 his plans, which were virtually to attempt the discovery of 
 the Pacific shores of America. He eventually sailed round 
 
Chap. X.] BERING'S SECOND EXPEDITION. 113 
 
 the south promontory of Kamchatka and returned by Ochotsk 
 to St. Petersburgh. 
 
 But it is to the second expedition of Bering that we must 
 look for adventure and interest. He with his two faithful 
 lieutenants proposed it ; and they were all promoted, a number 
 of naval lieutenants and midshipmen being ordered to join 
 them. Miiller says, " The design of the first voyage was not 
 brought on the carpet again upon this occasion, since it was 
 looked upon as completed ; but instead of that, orders were 
 given to make voyages, as well eastward to the continent of 
 America as southward to Japan, and to discover if possible, 
 at the same time, through the frozen sea the north passage, 
 which had been so frequently attempted by the English and 
 Dutch. The Senate, the Admiralty Office, and the Academy 
 of Sciences all took their parts to complete this important 
 undertaking." Several scientific professors volunteered to 
 accompany Bering (John George Gmelin, Lewis de Lisle de 
 la Croyere, S. Muller, and Steller, a student), and were nomi- 
 nated for the purpose. Two of these individuals never went 
 to sea, but confined themselves to various researches in 
 Siberia. One of Bering's subordinates — Spanberg — made at 
 this time a voyage from Ochotsk to Japan ; but it is aside 
 from the narrative of Bering's life. 
 
 After much trouble in transporting their goods and building- 
 ships, they at last, on the 4th of July, 1741, went to sea ; their 
 port of departure being this time, Petropaulovski. On the 
 20th of the same month the vessels of their little fleet got 
 separated during a storm, and each had to prosecute the 
 voyage alone. They discovered many of the Aleutian and 
 other islands nearer the American coast, and had many 
 adventures with the natives. At length the semw made its 
 
 i 
 
114 FATE OF BEKING- AND HIS CREW. [Chap. X. 
 
 appearance among them, and Bering turned back to try and 
 make the coast of Kamchatka. The sickness increased, and 
 so weakened the crew that "two sailors who used to be at 
 the rudder were obliged to be led in by two others who could 
 hardly walk. And when one could sit and steer no longer, 
 another in little better condition supplied his place. Many 
 sails they durst not hoist, because there was nobody to lower 
 them in case of need." At last land appeared, and a council 
 was held ; they determined to sail towards it, and getting near 
 it they dropped anchor. A violent storm rose, and the ship 
 was driven on the rocks, which she touched ; they cast their 
 second anchor ; its cable was torn in pieces before the anchor 
 took ground. A great sea pitched them clean over the rocks ; 
 behind which, however, they found quieter water, and the 
 crew having rested, at last put their boat overboard, and 
 some of them went ashore. There was but little drift-wood, 
 and no trees on the island ; hence they came to the deter- 
 mination to roof over some small ravines they found near the 
 beach. On the " 8th of November a beginning was made to 
 land the sick, but some died as soon as they were brought 
 from between decks in the open air, others during the .time 
 they were on the deck, some in the boat, and many more as 
 soon as they were brought on shore." 
 
 On the 9th of November the Commander Bering — himself 
 prostrated by scurvy — was brought ashore on a hand-barrow, 
 and a month later died on this island, which now, in con- 
 sequence, bears his name. " He may have been said to be 
 buried half alive, for the sand rolling down continually from 
 the side of "the ditch in which he lay, and covering his feet, 
 he at last would not suffer it to be removed, and said that he 
 felt some warmth from it, which otherwise he should want in 
 
Chap. X.] GULF OF ANADYR. 115 
 
 the remaining parts of his body ; and thus the sand increased 
 to his belly, so that after his decease they were obliged to 
 scrape him out of the ground in order to inter him in a 
 proper manner." 
 
 Their vessel, lying unguarded, was wrecked in a storm, and 
 the larger part of their provisions lost. They subsisted for a 
 Ions: time on dead whales that had been driven ashore. At 
 last, in the spring, they came to the conclusion to try and 
 break up the wreck and construct a smaller vessel from its 
 remains, which was done, and they left the island. At last, to 
 their great joy, they reached the coast of Kamchatka. The 
 previous autumn Tschirikoff, the companion of Bering, had 
 arrived at Petropaulovski, with the loss of twenty-one men 
 by scurvy, and the Professor de la Croyere, who had lingered 
 to the end of the voyage, died before they could get him 
 ashore.* 
 
 Late in the evening of the 13th Aug. we reached the Gulf 
 of Anadyr (pronounced Andrder, and not "Annie, dear," as 
 some of our men persisted in calling it), and anchored till day- 
 light next morning. The land round it was low, and, in spite of 
 the heat of the weather, a good deal of ice and snow remained 
 packed on the beach. We steamed slowly up the gulf, and 
 very soon some Tchuktchi natives came off, and convinced 
 us that they were men and brethren by asking for " lum " 
 (rum) and " tabak." On approaching the entrance to Anadyr 
 Bay there is a very curious island, to which we gave the name 
 
 * In the above narrative I have followed Miiller exclusively. A second, 
 and not very different account was given to the world in the journal of 
 Heller, which is to be found, translated in an abbreviated form, in the 
 fourth edition of Coxe's 'Russian Discoveries.' 
 
 i 9 
 
116 A TCHUKTCHI VILLAGE. [Chap. X. 
 
 of "Sarcophagus," from a supposed resemblance. The en- 
 trance to the bay is about a mile and a half wide at the 
 narrowest point. 
 
 We came to anchor off a Tchuktchi village similar to that 
 in Plover Bay before described. On shore large herds of 
 domesticated reindeer were peacefully grazing. It need not 
 be stated that we immediately bargained for some. These 
 constitute the wealth of the " wandering Tchuktchis ;" some 
 of them own many thousands, and employ their poorer coun- 
 trymen in herding them. They wander from place to place 
 with their deer, and may be regarded as Arctic patriarchs. 
 
Chap. XL] BOAT EXPEDITION TO THE ANADYR. 117 
 
 CHAPTEK XL 
 
 THE ANADYR RIVER AND PLOVER BAY, EASTERN SIBERIA. 
 
 Tchuktchi with letter of recommendation — Boat expedition to the river 
 
 — Our explorers — Their experiences — The Anadyr Paver — Tchuktchi 
 thieves — Plover Bay — Naukum again — Advertising in Bering Straits 
 
 — Telegraph station erected — Foraging with a vengeance — Whaling — 
 Norton Sound — Alaska — Death of Major Kennicott. 
 
 One of the Tchuktckis, immediately on our arrival, hastened 
 on board with a letter. It was from Mr. MacCrea, the officer 
 in charge of the explorations at the Anadyr, and stated that 
 " a bigger liar never walked the earth " than the gentleman 
 who delivered the epistle, and cautioned us against him. He 
 bore the euphonious title of " O-cock-cray." 
 
 On the 15th a boat expedition to the mouth of the Anadyr 
 Kiver was organised, and I obtained permission to accompany 
 it. The second mate of the steamer, Mr. Laborne, and 
 myself, with three sailors, formed the party. We had nothing 
 to guide us but a sketch chart, constructed the preceding- 
 year by two of our captains, and there is little reliable in- 
 formation on any part of the country. On the eastern side of 
 the bay, Mount Dionysius, a mountain of no great height, is 
 the only landmark of the district. We steered due west from 
 it. The weather was foggy and showery, but a favouring 
 breeze helped us on, and we proceeded steadily for several 
 hours, when we noticed an opening in the land, a little to the 
 south of west, and immediately put our boat's head for it 
 
118 " CAMP MacCREA." [Chap. XL 
 
 Soon we found the bay getting very shoal, so much so that 
 in sailing we left a "tail" of discoloured water behind us, 
 from constantly touching bottom on sand-bars. Sometimes 
 we stuck, and had to lower the sail, and get out in the water 
 to help our boat off. We then had to tack and keep off, and 
 by this we lost much time. In the evening we had to give up 
 for the time being, and ran in to a spit of land to the south 
 of the opening. It was raining hard, and we found it rather 
 difficult to raise a fire from the scanty underbrush and drift- 
 wood. We at length succeeded, and the sailors rigged up a 
 shelter tent from the oars, mast, and sail. But for the rain 
 the musquitoes would have been out in full force, for even 
 as it was they gave us very decided intimations of their 
 existence. 
 
 Inside the spit there appeared to be a second bay, and 
 from the number of " snags " and small trees stuck on the 
 sand-bars, it was evident that a river entered there. Early 
 the next morning we again started. Laborne's recollections 
 of a trip the preceding year made him decide, as it proved 
 rightly, that the Anadyr must be farther to the west. About 
 9 A.M. we found the right opening, and a little later reached 
 " Camp MacCrea," at the mouth of the river. 
 
 The journey had been undertaken in order to leave a 
 notice for the explorers there, but we did not expect to meet 
 any of them, so that on entering their log house we were 
 much surprised to find four of our old friends. They had 
 been subsisting for about two months on an exclusive diet of 
 salmon, which fish is abundant in the river. They had almost 
 given up expecting to see any of the expedition ; we, on the 
 other hand, believed them to be at the Ochotsk Sea. Three 
 of these gentlemen, MacCrea, Harder, and Smith, belonged 
 
Chap. XL] EXPERIENCES OF OUR EXPLORERS. 119 
 
 to this section, but my astonishment was great to find with 
 them Mr. Bush, who had made the entire journey from the 
 Amoor Biver to the mouth of the Anadyr the preceding 
 winter. His trip of at least 2500 miles, deserves to rank as 
 the most remarkable of the many undertaken by members of 
 our expedition. Nearly the first thing our friends asked, was, 
 " Have you brought any grub ? " and we soon satisfied them 
 on the point by fetching up a supply of bread, tea, and salt 
 meat from the boat, and spreading an extempore lunch. 
 They had. got heartily sick of " toujours " salmon, and. in- 
 finitely preferred salt pork ! 
 
 As we all very naturally wished to reach the steamer before 
 night, we stopped but an hour or so and then started, back, 
 leaving Harder, by his own agreement to keep camp. We 
 rowed the entire distance, thirty miles, while it rained inces- 
 santly; but we made the time pass very quickly in a most 
 animated and disjointed conversation. Our friends had. been 
 absent a year from civilization, and we were curious in regard 
 to their travels, and, as each asked, for what came uppermost, 
 our spasmodic discussion would have puzzled a stranger. 
 Now it was dog-sleighing, or reindeer riding ; now the policy 
 of the President, or the last opera ; now the latest events in 
 California, or those of the Anadyr. Tchuktchi, Lamutki, or 
 Koriak lore was mixed with inquiries for absent friends, and 
 nitro-glycerine explosions with Anadyr scandal. 
 
 The Anadyr River, as we learnt from these gentlemen, is 
 subject to violent freshets in the spring ; it then rises fifteen 
 to twenty feet above its usual level, flooding the country in all 
 directions. It is navigable for 300 miles, and has no rapids 
 of importance in that distance. A considerable amount of 
 light timber was found on its banks. Our explorers had 
 
120 NATIVE THIEVES' BOOTY. [Chap. XI. 
 
 constructed eight log-houses, at intervals of twelve miles 
 apart, and we found them in a very tolerable building at the 
 mouth of the river. The logs for the latter had been rafted 
 down forty miles. Mr. Bush told me that the natives catch 
 and dry a quantity of salmon, and that deer are abundant. 
 The latter, crossing the streams in herds, are speared in the 
 Avater. The Tchuktchis have small canoes constructed of 
 three planks, called " vetkas," which are used mainly for this 
 purpose. Geese are plentiful, and when moulting are driven 
 ashore by the natives, and knocked on the head by others 
 remaining there. Musquitoes are a great pest in the short 
 summer season. The lowest cold experienced by our friends 
 during the preceding winter of 1865-6 was — 52° Fahr., or 
 84° below freezing. 
 
 We were also informed that the opening in the land mis- 
 taken by us for the Anadyr Eiver was the mouth of a large 
 river called by the natives the " Arnoura." A third stream 
 enters Anadyr Bay from the north, and the effect of so much 
 river water falling into what would otherwise be an arm of 
 the sea is to render it entirely fresh. Our steamer watered 
 from the bay itself, the hose being simply put overboard, and 
 the pumps set to work at filling the tanks. 
 
 During Mr. MacCrea's absence on lengthened explora- 
 tions, the natives had broken into his hut, and had stolen 
 a quantity of powdered arsenic intended for the preservation 
 of specimens. They probably mistook it for sugar. The 
 result was never known. They also carried off a bottle of 
 liniment, supposing it to be whisky. It was composed 
 of turpentine, sugar of lead, &c. ; the native who drank it 
 will never steal again ! One man was known to have been 
 killed by it. 
 
Chap. XI.] PLOVER BAY. 121 
 
 On the 16th we left the Anadyr direct for Plover Bay, 
 and here we met several of onr vessels. My good friend, 
 Major Wright, though but just risen from a bed of sickness, 
 had made a very successful exploration through the barren 
 country- towards Pentigu Gulf. The irrepressible " Naukum," 
 the native spoken of at our first visit, had accompanied him. 
 "Nothing," said Wright, speaking of this trip, "that the 
 ' white man ' did could astonish him or make him for an 
 instant lose his gravity, except the introduction of pepper- 
 sauce into his food. The taste of this was a novelty, and 
 after an experiment nothing could induce him to repeat it. 
 He says: 'Me sabe good deal, but me no sabe white man 
 eat fire on meat.' Having been presented with a complete 
 suit of woollen clothing, he sported it with much dignity, 
 varying his costume now and then by wearing his drawers 
 about his neck. His tent may easily be found by any enter- 
 prising traveller, as over the door is one of Heuston and 
 Hastings' signs, while the door-post is ornamented with a 
 poster directing everybody to go to Lamott's for hats, 
 caps, &c." 
 
 This was a fact. The signs of several San Francisco 
 houses were taken up — as a joke, — and left in various parts 
 of the coast, where some future traveller may perhaps see 
 them. In this instance it attracted a good deal of notice 
 from the whalers who frequent the bay, itself within sight of 
 Bering Straits. After this the enterprising advertisers who 
 plastered the Pyramids and Palmyra with their posters must 
 hide their diminished heads. 
 
 Colonel Bulkley caused a small house of planks to be con- 
 structed for "Naukum," and made him many presents. My 
 friend Grob — a mechanical draughtsman attached to us, and 
 
122 TELEGRAPH STATION ERECTED. [Chap. XL 
 
 a genius in every form of sketching — made a drawing, " a 
 dream of the future." It represented the interior of Nau- 
 kum's dwelling. Madame, seated on a whiskey barrel, was 
 playing the piano, Mr. Naukum engaged in a game of billiards 
 in a further apartment, and a small boy, of blubbery aspect, 
 handing him the " cock-tails " on a salver. The room was 
 picturesque with paddles, skins, preserved-meat cans, dogs, 
 and children ; but civilization was triumphant ! I am sorry 
 that I cannot include this sketch among my illustrations. 
 
 My kind friend, Mrs. Scammon, had accompanied her 
 husband on this voyage, and she invited "Naukum" into 
 the cabin to look at some pet canaries. Although he had 
 never seen such birds, he preserved a gentlemanly apathy, 
 and would show no surprise whatever. Some one, a little 
 piqued perhaps that he would not be astonished, said, 
 "Why, Naukum, they are worth ten dollars each in San 
 Francisco ! " — " Ah," replied he, shrugging his shoulders, 
 " too muchee ! " 
 
 We stopped the larger part of a month in Plover Bay, our 
 carpenters and labourers being engaged in the construction 
 of a station. When the flooring and foundations were ready, 
 the National and CompaDy's flags were raised on a tall tele- 
 graph pole, a salute fired, and the health of Kelsey, the 
 captain in charge, drunk enthusiastically. Fourteen men 
 were left with him for the winter of 1866-7, and immediately 
 commenced the erection of the line through a most rugged 
 and difficult country. 
 
 In spite of the proximity of Plover Bay to the Arctic, very 
 little snow remained on the barren country round it, except 
 on the distant mountains, or in deep " gulches " or gullies, 
 where it has lain for centuries. " That there snow," said one 
 
Chap. XL] FORAGING WITH A VENGEANCE. 123 
 
 of our sailors to me, pointing to such a spot, " is three hun- 
 dred years old if it's a day. Why, don't you see the wrinkles 
 all over the face of it?" Every one has noticed the 
 wrinkles and ridges in snow ; but the idea of associating age 
 with them was rather original. 
 
 Of course, when our men were landed at their destinations 
 it was frequently found that some trifles, necessary to their 
 comfort, had been omitted in the hurry of preparation. One 
 of the leaders of an exploring party said to his men at the 
 last moment, " I haven't time to tell you all you want, but 
 look round, and take all you can get." Now, although there 
 was much bonhommie generally, and every one, at some time 
 or another, helped his acquaintances, not knowing how soon 
 his turn might come, it was not pleasant to miss one's 
 favourite coat or boots, knife, or scissors, as the case might 
 be, from the cabin ; and there were those who took an undue 
 advantage of the circumstances, to beg, borrow, or steal all 
 they could lay their hands on. One man was caught going 
 over the side of the vessel with five caps as the results 
 of bis loot; they were unmistakably for age caps. Several 
 individuals, whose packages had been very limited in extent 
 in San Francisco, went ashore with quite a handsome 
 collection of baggage, and were taken by the natives to 
 be persons of much distinction. I am afraid that some 
 liberal free-hearted members of our expedition, who re- 
 turned to San Francisco, were considerably out of pocket in 
 consequence. 
 
 In Plover Bay the whalers often succeed in capturing their 
 prey in quiet water. We had opportunities of seeing their 
 boats in pursuit of white grampus, and afterwards of true 
 whale. Each boat is known by a distinguishing mark on 
 
124 WHALING.— NORTON SOUND. [Chap. XI. 
 
 its sail, such as red stripes or a cross ; they can then be told 
 at a distance by the vessels to which they respectively belong. 
 When the whale is harpooned, and floating dead in the water, 
 it is usual to plant a small flag in it. After the leviathan is 
 towed alongside the vessel, it is cut up into large chunks, 
 and it is a very curious sight to witness the deck of a whaling 
 vessel covered with great masses of blubber. Eventually it 
 is cut up into " mincemeat," in order that all the oil may be 
 extracted, and chopping-knives and even mincing machines 
 are employed for the purpose. The oil is boiled out on 
 board, and, if not otherwise informed, a stranger seeing a 
 whaler a little way off with volumes of smoke and steam 
 arising from it, would suppose that the vessel was on fire. 
 On these occasions the sailors have a feast of dough-nuts 
 cooked in boiling whale-oil, whale-brain fritters, and other 
 joints. My friend, Captain Bedfield, a very successful whaler 
 well known in San Francisco and Honolulu, invited me, when 
 in Plover Bay, to witness the deck of his vessel with the 
 blubber lying on it, and gave me every chance of tasting 
 wbale in various shapes. I don't think that I wish to repeat 
 the experiment. 
 
 On the 20th we left Plover Bay for Norton Sound, Eussian 
 America, arriving there on the 24th. We anchored under 
 the lee of Whale Island, and later at an anchorage within 
 four miles of our destination, the Island of St. Michael's... 
 Norton Sound* is so shallow that vessels frequently touch 
 
 * Norton Sound was surveyed roughly by Captain Cook. It was named, 
 in the fashion of those days, after Sir Fletcher Norton, once Speaker of the 
 House of Commons (afterwards Lord Grantley), and a near relation of 
 Captain King, to whom Cook entrusted the exploration. 
 
Chap. XL] DEATH OF MAJOR KENNTCOTT. 125 
 
 bottom at a mile or more from the coast. The wind, blowing 
 off land, reduces its depth very perceptibly, and completely 
 bares sand-bars at the mouths of the rivers entering it. The 
 wind, too, very quickly raises a bad sea. On the night of 
 the 28-29th a strong gale blew from the north-east, and our 
 largest vessel, the ' Nightingale ' (drawing 16 feet), touched 
 bottom at stern or bows each time she pitched. Men on 
 board were thrown off their feet, and out of their berths, 
 and but for the soft mud bottom she must have sustained 
 injury. 
 
 Here we met the explorers left the preceding season ; and 
 very shaggy and unkempt they looked, though, with one or 
 two exceptions, in excellent health. But with the pleasure of 
 meeting them was mingled one sad regret. Poor Kennicott 
 had died suddenly at Nulato, on the Yukon, on the 13th 
 May, 1866. His kind-heartedness, zeal, and earnestness, had 
 endeared him to all of us who knew him, and it was believed 
 that anxiety for the welfare and success of his party bad 
 accelerated his death. 
 
 Kennicott's name, by no means unknown in England, is 
 much better known in the United States as that of an inde- 
 fatigable traveller and collector. In 1859 he started on a 
 prolonged exploration of the Hudson's Bay territory, and spent 
 nearly four years in his favourite pursuit as a naturalist. The 
 results of his labour have enriched the collections of the 
 Smithsonian Institute, at Washington, and the Chicago 
 Academy of Sciences. Through the former institution (which 
 owes its existence to the bequest of an Englishman, Mr. 
 Smithson), other museums, in both the old and new world, 
 have benefited ; and his services in the cause of Science 
 entitle him to the grateful remembrance of his fellow men. 
 
126 CLOSE OF THE SEASON. [Chap. XI. 
 
 His party had followed out his instructions to the letter. 
 Ketchum and Labarge had made the first trip through from 
 the coast to Fort Yukon, and Ennis had explored the country- 
 north of Norton Sound as far as Port Clarence. 
 
 On the 1st October, we saw the last of the Telegraph fleet, 
 and watched the 'Nightingale' till she was out of sight, 
 knowing that for nearly a year our vessels could not return. 
 The lateness of the season admonished us to make a rapid 
 move for Unalachleet — the head-quarters of this section — as 
 " between the seasons " there would be a period when travel- 
 ling would be much impeded or wholly stopped. We there- 
 fore immediately commenced our preparations for leaving 
 St. Michael's. 
 
Chap. XIL] KEDOUBT ST. MICHAEL'S. , 127 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 
 RUSSIAN AND INDIAN SETTLEMENTS. — NORTON SOUND. 
 
 St. Michael's — The fort and its inhabitants — The " Provalishik " — 
 Russian steam-bath — " Total immersion " — The island — Incident of 
 break-up of ice — Arrival of dead Indian sledge-driver — Steamboat trip 
 — Steamer laid up — Russian post at Unalachleet — Malemute and 
 Kaveak Indians — Skin clothing — Inter-tribal commerce — Trade with 
 the Tchuktchis — Underground houses — Fishing through the ice. 
 
 Redoubt St. Michael's, or Michaelovshi, the principal station 
 of the Russian American Fur Company in this northern 
 section of " Walrus-sia," deserves something more than a 
 passing notice. It is not merely the best point * for a vessel 
 to touch at, in order to land goods for the interior, including 
 that great tract of country watered by the Yukon ; but it has 
 been, and is, to a great extent, a central post for Indian trade, 
 and for the collection of furs from distant and interior posts. 
 It has been already proposed — since the American occupa- 
 tion — to make it a military station ; we may, not impro- 
 bably, live to hear of a town springing up on the borders of 
 the Arctic, and within 200 miles of Berine; Straits. 
 
 * After what has been said about the shallow nature of Norton Sound, 
 this might be considered open to doubt ; the practical experience of our 
 expedition proved, however, that both the mouths of the Yukon, or 
 Kwich-pak, and the northern part of Norton Sound, were even worse, and 
 St. Michael's was for over two years our base of supplies. Port Clarence 
 was too far north for the goods intended for the Yukon, but is for certain 
 parts of the country an excellent place for a station. See Appendix (IV.), 
 
128 
 
 THE FORT AND ITS INHABITANTS. [Chap. XII. 
 
 Fort St. Michael's, or Michaelovski. 
 
 St. Michael's is (on the authority of Zagoskin) in lat. 
 63° 28' N., and long. 161° 44' W. of Greenwich. It is situated 
 on the south-east side of the island of the same name, and 
 was founded in 1833, by Michael Tebenkoff, an energetic 
 employe of the Eussian Fur Company. 
 
 The station is built on the model of a Hudson's Bay Co.'s 
 Fort, with enclosure of pickets, and with bastions flanking it. 
 Inside are the store-houses and dwellings of the employes, 
 including the "casine" (caserne), or general barrack, bath and 
 cook-houses. These painted yellow, and surmounted by red 
 roofs, gave it rather a gay appearance. 
 
 The inhabitants of the fort — all servants of the company — i 
 were a very mixed crowd, including pure Kussians and Fin- 
 landers, Yakutz, from Eastern Siberia, Aleuts, from the 
 islands, and Creoles from all parts. They were not a very 
 
Chap. XII.] THE " PROVALISHIK." 129 
 
 satisfactory body of men; in point of fact, it is said that 
 some of them had been criminals, who had been convicted in 
 St. Petersburgh, and offered the alternative of going to prison, 
 or into the service of the Kussian American Company ! We 
 found them — as did Zagoskin years before — much given to 
 laziness and drunkenness. Fortunately, their opportunity for 
 this latter indulgence was limited, usually, to one bout per 
 annum, on the arrival of the Kussian ship from Sitka with 
 their supplies ; whilst the " Provalishik," Mr. Stephanoff, the 
 commander of this fort, who had charge of the whole district, 
 stood no nonsense with them, and was ever ready to make 
 them yield assistance. His arguments were of a forcible cha- 
 racter : I believe the knout formed no part of his establish- 
 ment, but he used his fists with great effect ! To this 
 gentleman we were all very much indebted, for enforcing the 
 orders of the Kussian Company in our behalf; often to 
 the sacrifice of his own comfort, to say nothing of the skin 
 from his knuckles. The Kussian American Company, how- 
 ever, gave these men salaries proportioned to their deserts: 
 1J poods of coarse flour (about 60 pounds) per month, and 
 from 5d. to 10 J. per day was the average allowance, and most 
 of them were hopelessly in debt to the Company. Fish and 
 game at this post were not reliable resources ; and their pay 
 would barely keep them in tea, sugar, tobacco, and clothing. 
 The tea used was of a superior and expensive kind (worth 5s. 
 to 5s. lOd. a pound in the Company's store). 
 
 The true " Russian steam-bath " was always to be obtained 
 at these posts, as at every other settlement we visited, and it 
 was very popular among us. The bath-house consisted always 
 of two or more chambers, the first used for undressing, &c. The 
 inner room had a stone furnace, in which a fire was lighted 
 
 K 
 
130 KUSSIAN STEAM-BATH. [Chap. XII. 
 
 till it was intensely hot, and large barrels of hot and ice- 
 cold water were always ready. Water was from time to time 
 thrown on the heated stones, keeping the room full of steam, 
 almost to suffocation. Entering, we invariably threw a bowl 
 of cold water over our heads, and then reclined on shelves or 
 benches provided for the purpose, till w r e were thoroughly 
 steamed, then washed in hot water. On leaving the room it 
 was very essential to throw cold water again over the head 
 and whole person, or headache would result. The transition 
 from the inner to the outer room, the latter sometimes having 
 a temperature considerably below zero, was very sudden, and 
 made us rub with great vigour, but we found ourselves much 
 refreshed. The Kussians invariably take a nap after the bath. 
 Persons with apoplectic tendencies, or weak lungs, would pro- 
 bably suffer from their use ; I have seen men frequently sit 
 or stoop down on the floor to get a cool gasp of air ; owing, 
 perhaps, to the bath-house being too full of steam. 
 
 Outside the post, besides other buildings, there was a small 
 chapel, in which, on " Prasniks," or holidays of the Church, 
 and on each Sunday, a service was performed. A priest of 
 the Greek Church, resident at the " Mission," on the Lower 
 Yukon, comes down occasionally to baptize the natives. The 
 Greek Church practises, it may be observed, total immersion, 
 and when an infant is christened it is dipped bodily. In the 
 case of Indians, they are baptized in the sea at this fort, and 
 rumour says that some of them have been so christianized 
 many years in succession, in order that they may obtain small 
 gilt crosses, and other presents given them at such 'times. It 
 becomes an interesting question, whether such a zealous con- 
 cert, counts — in the missionary's reports — as one person, or 
 &sfour or five, as the case may be? 
 
Chap. XII.] ISLAND OF ST. MICHAEL'S. 131 
 
 St. Michael's, though threatened by distant Indians, has 
 never been seriously attacked. A small village of Indian 
 houses — underground, or excavated in the hill — exists near 
 the fort. A similar and larger village of natives of the same 
 tribe will be hereafter described. 
 
 The Island of St. Michael's is mainly composed of a porous 
 lava rock, riddled with holes (air bubbles ?) innumerable. 
 This formation apparently extends to the Yukon, and cliffs 
 of a similar nature, but rather more crumbling in character, 
 were observed by us at the station known as the " Mission " 
 (Missie), t on the lower part of the great river. Zagoskin says 
 that the Indians have a tradition that St. Michael's was up- 
 heaved from the sea — an occurrence at least possible. A large 
 rocky island (in the chain of the Aleutian Islands), known by 
 the Kussians as the Bogoslov Volcano, rose from the sea 
 in 1796. The same writer says that the spot where the fort 
 now stands has been covered by the sea within the memory of 
 Indians living at the date of his visit, 1842-3. The water 
 of pools and creeks on the island is extremely nauseous, and 
 our men always thought they could detect a sulphurous taste 
 in it, probably from the decomposition of the rocks just 
 mentioned. In fact, all the water used at the fort, in summer 
 time, is brought from a spring on the mainland. The island 
 is thick with moss, covering up, in some places, a bed of clay; 
 berries in summer are abundant, and can be obtained fresh in 
 winter by digging through their thick covering of snow. 
 There are no trees whatever, and the fort is dependent on 
 drift-wood from the mouths of the Yukon or Kwich-pak, 
 which is fortunately landed in large quantities by the pre- 
 vailing winds and currents, all over the shores of Norton 
 Sound. A garden at the fort (perhaps 10 it. by 3 It. in size !). 
 
 K 2 
 
132 BREAK-UP OF ICE. [Chap. XII. 
 
 which yields a few radishes and turnips, proves the practica- 
 bility of growing something there. 
 
 The ice in Norton Sound forms early in October, but is 
 frequently broken up and carried to sea till late in winter. 
 On Christmas Eve some of the telegraph employes arrived at 
 St. Michael's from Unalachleet, having travelled on the ice, 
 sometimes at a distance of a mile or two from the coast. They, 
 as usual, were invited in at once by the Kussians to "chi- 
 peat," or drink tea, &c. After this was over, they sauntered 
 outside the fort, to smoke their pipes, and look after the clogs. 
 What must have been their surprise to find that the ice, as 
 far as the eye could reach, that they had last travelled on, was 
 broken up, and gone on a cruise ! Had they been half an 
 hour later, they would have gone with it, and would have 
 been floating about Bering Sea on a field of ice.* 
 
 On the coast, although the thermometer usually stands 
 rather higher than in the interior, the climate is really more 
 felt. Nearly all the cases of frost-bite among our men 
 occurred whilst travelling in and north of Norton Sound. 
 Again, whilst clear ice — that is, ice free from a covering of 
 snow — is scarce on the rivers, except very early in winter, it 
 is common for a long period on the coast. When your sledge 
 arrives at such ice, the dogs will often start off at a great 
 rate, although, but a few minutes before, they may have been 
 proceeding with difficulty. At such a time, it is usual to 
 jump on and take a ride, and you have to look sharp to do it. 
 Now, if there is much wind at such a time, however warm you 
 may be from previous exercise, you chill very readily. Under 
 
 * Norton Sound was not clear of ice till the third week in June, 
 1867. 
 
Chap. XII.] DEAD INDIAN SLEDGE-DRIVER. 133 
 
 exactly such circumstances as these, the Kussians at St. 
 Michael's were once horrified at the arrival of a sledge with 
 an Indian on it — sitting erect — but perfectly dead. Unable 
 to stop his dogs, the poor fellow had jumped on his sledge, 
 and had probably frozen to death in a few minutes. Such 
 incidents are rare ; but it is common enough to find Indians 
 with faces much disfigured, and having lost part of their 
 ears or noses. It has been the universal testimony of 
 Arctic travellers, that comparatively moderate cold, with 
 wind, was more to be feared than the most extreme 
 temperature without it. 
 
 By noon, on the 2nd October, we had loaded up a 
 " baidarre," a whale-boat, and a little steamer, the * Wilder,' 
 left for our use, and, by detachments, we set off for Una- 
 lachleet, a distance of sixty miles. 
 
 I took passage on the steamer, and found her crowded with 
 freight and passengers to her utmost capacity. She was but 
 sixty feet long, with a perfectly flat bottom, and a house of 
 planks, covering two-thirds of her deck. Outside, the ther- 
 mometer stood at about 10° Fahr. ; inside the house we were 
 at fever heat. We anchored at night off the Indian village of 
 Taupanica, and early the next morning resumed our trip, 
 soon reaching the sand-bars outside the Unalachleet Eiver, 
 immediately opposite Besborough Island, where we grounded, 
 and the steamer had to bs unloaded by Indians in " baidarres." 
 The same evening she entered the mouth of the river safely, 
 but it proved her last trip for the season. 
 
 On the 7th she was beached for the winter, about eighty 
 telegraph men, Kussians and Indians, assisted in hauling her 
 high and dry. The river was almost completely frozen up. and 
 Our little craft a mass of ice from stem to stern. It was no 
 
134 UNALACHLEET TRADING-POST. [Chap. XII. 
 
 small work to break up and clear the space round her in 
 the river, before she could be moved. 
 
 At the mouth of the Unalachleet River, on the north bank, 
 is the most northern settlement on the coast, a Russian trad- 
 ing post, founded in 1840, and bearing the same name. It is 
 in lat. 63° 53' 33" N., and long. 160° 30' 16" W., and resembles 
 St. Michael's in being enclosed by a picket, but is otherwise 
 on a much smaller and poorer scale. The " bidarsbik," or 
 head man, had but one room for himself and family. The 
 "casine" was occupied by several men with families, and by 
 
 Malemute Native. 
 
 an immense number of cockroaches, apparently with families 
 also! A large " pitchka," or oven, occupied an important 
 position in this establishment. The windows did not, as at 
 
Chap. XII.] 
 
 MALEMUTE INDIANS. 
 
 135 
 
 St. Michael's, aspire to the dignity of glass, but were of the 
 gut of fur seal, white and translucent, if not transparent. 
 
 To the N.W. of the post was a large village of Malemute 
 and Kaveak Indians, a race of tall and stout people, but in 
 other respects much resembling the Esquimaux. The men 
 very generally shaved the crown of the head, and wore the 
 ornaments known as the To-took, pieces of bone run through 
 holes on either side of the face, immediately below the 
 mouth. The women were generally tattooed on the chin, 
 and wearing ornaments of beads from their hair, and leaden 
 or iron bracelets. All adopted skin clothing; the true Male- 
 
 .a; .,1 
 
 Female. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Malemute Skin Clothing. 
 
 mute coat or shirt is square cut at the bottom, is of but 
 moderate length, and has a hood almost invariably. The 
 woman's dress is longer, and has a rounded shape at 
 
136 MALEMUTE CLOTHING. [Chap. XII. 
 
 the lower part of it. Into the composition of these dresses 
 many furs may enter; the hood is almost invariably wolf- 
 skin, the long hairs of which shelter and half cover the 
 face. Inside it is sometimes a lining of soft, white Arctic 
 hare-skin. The body may be squirrel, mink, marten, seal, 
 or reindeer skins, but, in point of fact, is nearly always of the 
 latter. This, again, varies much ; it may be the thick cover- 
 ing of an old buck, or the but half-developed skin of a faivn 
 that has never lived. Zagoskin tells us how it is obtained, 
 by practising a great cruelty: the poor doe, known to be 
 with young, is driven from place to place by the natives, till 
 her offspring is prematurely born. Then again it may be of 
 the wild, or domesticated reindeer, shot by themselves, 
 or imported from the Tchuktchis of the Asiatic coast, with 
 whom they carry on a very extensive native trade. The 
 Tchuktchis have large herds of tame reindeer (some of which 
 I have mentioned at the Anadyr Kiver, and elsewhere), whilst 
 the animal is never met with in Kussian America but in a 
 wild state. I shall have to allude to this trade subsequently. 
 The edges of coats and boots are often trimmed with strips of 
 the much-prized wolverine-skin. This animal, the "carcajou" 
 of the trappers, is well-known to be so wary and cunning that 
 it is but rarely taken, and its fur is valued more highly than 
 any other, without exception, by the natives of the whole 
 coast and interior. 
 
 Pantaloons of seal or reindeer skin are worn by both sexes ; 
 the women's often have the socks attached, and in one 
 piece. Their boots vary in length, and in the material 
 used for the sides, but all have soles of "maclock," or 
 seal-skin, with the hair removed. Fur socks, with the 
 hair turned inside, are very common, and mits or gloves 
 
Chap. XII.] MALEMUTE BOATS. 137 
 
 are made of all shapfcs and sizes. I have a pair made 
 from dog-skin, two feet in length, and coming up far above 
 the elbow. 
 
 These natives almost universally use a very unpleasant 
 liquid for cleansing pfurposes.* They tan and soften the seal- 
 skin used for boot soles with it. 
 
 The seal is perhaps their most useful animal, not merely 
 furnishing oil and blubber, but the skin used for their canoes, 
 thongs, nets, lassoes, and boot-soles. Their " baidarres," 
 similar to the " oomiak " of the Greenlander, vary in size 
 from those intended for three or four persons to others capa- 
 ble of holding fifteen or twenty persons. With them they 
 go to sea, and cross the narrow part of Bering Straits. Their 
 " baidarkes " are similar to the Greenland " kyack," but are 
 more commonly constructed with three holes than with one. 
 Both are admirably made; the frames light and strong, 
 the skin covering sewn with sinew, and the seams rendered 
 watertight by rubbing fat into them. The skin is prepared 
 in the first instance, while yet the hair is on it, by spreading 
 fermented fish-spawn over it, and allowing it to remain till 
 the hair rots off. It is then stretched on a frame, and satu- 
 rated with the liquid before alluded to, when it becomes 
 translucent. The fat is removed with bone or stone knives, 
 metal being considered likely to cut it. 
 
 In spite of the Russian posts in Norton Sound, a large part 
 of the Indian trade was carried on with the American whaling 
 vessels, who annually visited Port Clarence, Kotsebue Sound, 
 and adjacent coasts, and paid much larger prices than the 
 tariff fixed by the Fur Company. Another important part 
 
 * The scientific reader is referred to a paper by the author m the 
 'Transactions of the Ethnological Society ' for L868. 
 
138 INTER-TRIBAL COMMERCE. [Chap. XII. 
 
 of the commerce leaves the country by the hands of the 
 Tchuktchis before mentioned, who cross from the coast of 
 Siberia by the narrow part of Bering Straits, and generally 
 meet the Kaveaks and Malemutes in Port Clarence. It is 
 said that the natives from either side also meet on the Dio- 
 mede Islands in the straits. 
 
 Inter-tribal commerce goes on to such an extent that 
 clothing worn hundreds of miles up the Yukon, and in other 
 parts of the interior of Eussian America, is of Tchuktchi 
 origin, and is made up by the women of the coast tribes, who 
 sew better than those of the interior. This trade is princi- 
 pally for tame reindeer skins, of which the Tchuktchis have 
 an overplus, and in exchange they receive bone, oil, and the 
 furs of smaller animals. By constant inquiry I found that 
 marten (American or Hudson's Bay sable of commerce), 
 beaver, and fox skins, taken high up the Yukon, traded to 
 the Co-Yukons, from them to the coast natives, and again 
 from them to the Tchuktchis, eventually reach Russian 
 traders on the Anadyr River, Eastern Siberia, or the Ameri- 
 can whaling vessels on the coast. 
 
 One object of Zagoskin's mission was to promote the esta- 
 blishment of an additional fort near Bering Straits, in order 
 to put a stop to this trade, and he favoured the idea of placing 
 it in Kotsebue Sound. This was, however, never accomplished, 
 and from our party, who wintered in Port Clarence, I learnt 
 that the larger part of the furs leave the country by that outlet. 
 In spring several hundred natives meet there, and, in all 
 probability, some station may now be formed in that neigh- 
 bourhood by its American owners.* 
 
 * In 1867, Port Clarence was not clear of ice till the third week in June. 
 
Chap. XII.] TRADE WITH THE TCHUKTCHIS. 139 
 
 A large proportion of "these natives have guns — both flint- 
 lock and percussion-cap — obtained in trade. Guns, obtained 
 as far off as the Hudson's Bay Company's fort at the junction 
 of the Porcupine, find their way to the coast by inter-tribal 
 barter. The smaller animals — hares, grouse, marten, &c. — are 
 generally snared. The berries in summer are obtained in 
 large quantities, and are eagerly sought. Varieties resem- 
 bling blue-berries, huckle-berries, and a kind of dwarf rasp- 
 berry (resembling in other respects the " salmon-berry " of 
 Vancouver Island, &c.,) are all abundant. These mixed with 
 seal-oil are considered a luxury, and are gathered in quan- 
 tities for winter use. I have often obtained them in winter, 
 from beneath the snow, and in almost as fresh a state as 
 when they were first buried. Reindeer fat, raiv, is always 
 considered a treat, and an Indian cannot better show his 
 esteem, for a white visitor than by presenting him with a 
 piece of buck-fat. 
 
 Their houses are usually underground, the roof only rising 
 above the surface ; the entrance is by a kind of tunnel or 
 passage, by which you crawl into the room, and a hole in the 
 roof lets out the smoke. This, when there is no fire on the* 
 floor of the room, is covered tightly with a skin. Nearly 
 every dwelling has a stage for hanging furs or fish on, and 
 a small wooden house or " cache " perched in the air on four 
 poles, with a notched log for a ladder, is used to stow away 
 supplies, and keep them safe from their dogs, or from wild 
 animals prowling round the village. Canoes not in use are 
 generally raised above the ground on trestles. 
 
 We frequently saw the Indians at this place engaged in 
 fishing through holes made in the ice, catching quantities of 
 a small kind of " white-fish." If we gave fish-hooks to the 
 
140 FISHING THROUGH THE ICE. [Chap. XII. 
 
 natives, they usually tried to cut o'ff the barbs; they took 
 the fish so readily that they could afford to lose a few from 
 the hook. Involuntarily I thought of patient anglers by the 
 brook-side at home, waiting a day for a tenth part of the fish 
 caught there by an Indian in the same time, and could not 
 help coming to the conclusion that the Indian has the best 
 of it. In windy weather, they frequently erect a screen of 
 skins, &c, and stakes. 
 
Chap. XIIL] INDIAN DANCES. 141 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 UNALACHLEET — NORTON SOUND. 
 
 Indian town-hall — Preparations for dance — Smoke-consuming Indians — 
 Feast — Dance — Chorus — The Malemutes and Kaveaks — The chiefs 
 — " Parka-mania " — Erection of quarters — Preparations for sledge 
 journey. 
 
 In the village at Unalachleet, as in most others of the coast, 
 there are buildings set apart for dances and gatherings of the 
 people ; at other times, indeed, they are used for occupations 
 requiring space, as the manufacture of sledges or snow shoes. 
 These buildings may be regarded as the natives' town hall ; 
 orations are made, festivals and feasts are held in them, and 
 the passing stranger is sometimes accommodated in them, as 
 in an Eastern caravanserai. 
 
 I witnessed several of their public dances ; they are 
 constantly, indeed, held during winter, and it is surprising 
 to see how long and how much the older people are pleased 
 by such very monotonous performances. In some of them 
 the actors imitate and burlesque the motions of birds and 
 quadrupeds, and of course here there is some scope for fun, 
 while some of their songs are said to have some meaning, 
 although on this point I cannot speak positively ; the only 
 ones I heard were the same words repeated over and over 
 again. 
 
 To one dance we were specially invited. On arriving at 
 the doorway we found a narrow subterranean passage, two 
 
142 
 
 SMOKE-CONSUMING INDIANS. 
 
 [Chap. XIII. 
 
 and a half feet high, crawling through which we at last 
 reached the room, itself partly underground, and dimly 
 lighted by blubber lamps. 
 
 The Indians who were to take part in the dance, chiefly 
 young men, were engaged in dressing, and bathing them- 
 selves in the liquid not before mentioned. All were nude 
 to the waist, and wore seal, deer skin, or cotton pantaloons, 
 with the tails of wolves or dogs hanging behind, and 
 feathers and cheap handkerchiefs round their heads. The 
 elders sat on a bench or shelf, running round the entire 
 building, and looked on approvingly, whilst they consumed 
 their own smoke, as is the manner of the Tchnktchis, by 
 swallowing all they made, and getting partially intoxicated 
 thereby. Their pipe-bowls were on the smallest scale, and 
 they even diluted their tobacco by mixing willow shavings 
 "fine cut" with it. 
 
 Example of Pipe used by the Malemute 
 
 Meantime the women were bringing in contributions of 
 berries and fish in large " contogs," or wooden bowls, varying 
 in shape from a deep dish to an oblong soup-tureen. 
 
 The performance commenced by the actors ranging them- 
 
Chap. XIII.] INDTAN DANCE. 14H 
 
 selves in a square, and raising these dishes of provisions to 
 the four cardinal points successively, and once to the skies 
 with a sudden noise like "swish! " or the flight of a rocket. 
 May- be it meant an offering to the seasons and to the Great 
 Spirit. Then came the feast; and that over, a monotonous 
 chorus, with an accompaniment of gongs was started. The 
 gongs were made of seal-gut stretched on a circular frame, and 
 were struck with a flat stick. The words of the song com- 
 menced, " Yung i ya, i ya, i ya ! " and continued throughout 
 " Yung i ya ! " Then a boy sprang out on the floor, he was 
 speedily joined by a second, then a third, till a circle of 
 twenty was formed. Now they appeared violently attracted 
 together, and now as much repelled ; now they were horrified 
 at one another's conduct, and held up their arms in warning 
 gestures, and again all were friends and made pantomime of 
 their happiness. In this performance there was nearly as 
 much done by arms and bodies as with the feet. When 
 there was a lull in the entertainment, small presents were 
 brought round to all the strangers present ; mine was a pair 
 of boot soles of seal-skin. 
 
 So decided an odour at length pervaded the ball-room that 
 we one by one dropped off from the festive scene ; the Indians 
 kept it up for hours afterwards. 
 
 The Malemutes and Kaveaks intermingle considerably, and 
 have therefore been spoken of here as one people. Their 
 habits, manners, and customs are identical, but they speak 
 different dialects* and inhabit different parts of the country. 
 The former extend from the Island of St. Michael's to Sound 
 Golovnin, whilst the latter occupy a still more northern coun- 
 
 * For a brief vocabulary of Malcinutr words, Bee Appendix (V). 
 
144 MALEMUTES AND KAYEAKS. [Chap. XIII. 
 
 try adjacent to Port Clarence and Bering Straits. Although 
 so much resembling the Esquimaux in habits, they are a 
 larger, finer race, and it is by no means uncommon to find 
 men of six feet in height ; some, perhaps, over that standard. 
 Nearly all the women are stout and blubbery in aspect, but 
 have good-humoured features. Both sexes were employed 
 in various ways by our expedition, and they were universally 
 considered far above the average of Indians in every respect. 
 The Malemute chief " Aleuyanuk " was a fine-looking old 
 man, erect and soldierly, and wearing a moustache and im- 
 perial; his manners would not have disgraced a civilized 
 assembly. " Comokin," the Kaveak chief, was as useful to 
 us as he had been many years before to some of the expe- 
 ditions engaged in the search for Sir John Franklin. 
 
 From our first arrival at Unalachleet, the men had very 
 naturally a strong desire to obtain skin clothing for winter 
 use, and also as curiosities, and, in the excessive competition 
 for the limited supply in the hands of the Bussians and 
 Indians, prices went up about 200 per cent. ! This was 
 generally known as the "Parka mania" (from parka, Bussian 
 for skin shirt or coat) and was a great benefit to some of the 
 more enterprising Bussians, who set their Indian wives to 
 work making up coats, boots, caps, and fur-socks in great 
 variety, whilst they reaped themselves a harvest of five-dollar 
 pieces. We all became extremely well informed on the 
 different names and styles of furs. Of rein-deer alone, we 
 distinguished three varieties : the ordinary thickly furred skin 
 was in Bussian simply * Alany scoora ; Nederist was that of 
 
 * It is impossible to represent in English anything but the sound of a 
 Russian word, as there are thirty-six letters in the Russian alphabet. 
 
Chap. XIII.] ERECTION OF QUARTERS. 145 
 
 fawns of a few months old, while Veperat was the half- 
 developed covering of the unborn young. We all acquired 
 some little of the Kussian language, or rather that patois 
 of it spoken among the low-class Russians and half-breeds, 
 many of whom had been born in Eussian America. 
 
 During my stay at this station, all the men were em- 
 ployed in putting up quarters for winter use. A rude 
 erection of earth and logs had been built for the Tele- 
 graph explorers the previous season, and now that a party 
 of nearly forty were to winter there and commence the 
 line, it was necessary to remodel the establishment. All 
 hands then set to work with a will, and officers and men 
 alike showed a determination to prove the energy of their 
 race : besides, while some were shivering by night in tents, 
 others were occupying the Russian employes' quarters, much, 
 doubtless, to the disgust of the latter, although they took 
 it philosophically. 
 
 The writer soon became au fait at building sod walls, and 
 was consequently allowed to follow the natural bent of his 
 genius, and each man, as far as possible, did that which he 
 could do best. In consequence, we soon had a double- 
 roomed house, well earthed round, and with a large open 
 fire-place in one chamber. This fact is mentioned to show 
 that an ordinary house on the surface, where, as in this 
 neighbourhood, there is sufficient wood for fuel, can be 
 successfully used in an Arctic climate. The other chamber, 
 used as a kitchen, had an American cooking-stove; one of 
 those excellent little institutions which will bake, boil, stew, 
 fry, and broil, in the best manner, with the smallest possible 
 expenditure of fuel. 
 
 The officers occupied (with the cockroaches) every avail- 
 
 L 
 
146 PREPARATION FOR SLEDGE-JOURNEY [Chap. XIII. 
 
 able corner and bastion of the Fort, and several small rooms 
 were lined with deer-skins, making very cosy little places 
 of them. 
 
 During a portion of the time passed by me at this place we 
 had extremely bad weather, with strong N". and N.E. winds. 
 The thermometer invariably rose during the prevalence of 
 wind : it stood at points ranging between + 7° and -f- 32° 
 during our stay. 
 
 • Col. Bulkley, our Engineer-in-chief, had very kindly left to 
 me the privilege of selecting my own course of travel, with 
 due regard to the interests of the Company. I had the 
 previous year volunteered to accompany Major Kennicott; 
 but his party had been completely organized before I joined 
 the expedition, and my request could not be granted. I was, 
 however, determined to visit the unknown Yukon country, 
 which had been, from the commencement of our explorations, 
 more spoken about than any other. Ketchum, who had made 
 his very adventurous trip the previous summer, promised me 
 every facility, and kept his word. Indeed I can say, with 
 much gratitude, that I received every possible attention from 
 all the officers of the expedition, and am especially indebted 
 to Messrs. Ennis, Dennison, Dyer, Labarge, and the gentle- 
 man just mentioned. 
 
 We knew that early winter was not a favourable time for 
 travelling ; the snow, but just fallen, is not " set " as it is at a 
 later period, and some parts of the rivers are not completely 
 frozen up. We, however, determined to lose no time, and 
 commenced our preparations. These included the selection 
 and purchase of sledges, dogs, harness, and skin-clothing, and 
 the division of the " spoil " that fell to our share, in flour, tea 
 and sugar, dried apples, bacon, beans, and rice. By the 26th 
 
Chap. XIII.] TO THE YUKON KIVER. 147 
 
 of October everything was ready for a start, and on the next 
 morning we commenced our journey, by the shortest known 
 route from the coast, to the Yukon Eiver.* 
 
 * Captain Bedford Pirn made — when engaged in the search for Sir John 
 Franklin — a very adventurous journey through a country of almost identical 
 nature lying between Kotsebue Sound, Unalachleet, . and St. Michael's. 
 Many of the Eussians and half-breeds remembered his visit, and he had 
 evidently left a very pleasant impression behind him. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 SLEDGES AND DOGS. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 CHAPTEK XIV. 
 
 SLEDGE JOURNEY TO THE YUKON. 
 
 Boutes to the Yukon — Sledges and dogs — Our start — Our party 
 — Unalachleet Biver — Brought to a standstill — Dogs desert — In- 
 gelete Indians — Underground-houses, &c. — Beans versus rice — 
 Indian cleanliness — Medical aid — Ulukuk — The river — Indian 
 trading. 
 
 The distance to that portion of the Yukon we were about to 
 visit is, by the mouths of the river, 700 miles, but a land route 
 to it is always employed in winter by the Kussiaus travelling 
 from Norton Sound. By the latter route the total distance 
 from St. Michael's does not exceed 230 miles, and from 
 Unalachleet is approximately 170 miles. 
 
 The Russo-Indian form of sledge adopted by us was a very 
 light construction of birch wood, the knees alone sometimes 
 made of spruce, whilst it commonly had bone runners. Be- 
 hind it were usually two guiding poles, and the general 
 appearance when loaded will be seen represented on our title 
 page. A lower and inferior kind, which may be regarded as 
 purely Indian, was occasionally used by us for very light 
 loads. 
 
 Although our expedition was well fitted out in the absolute 
 essentials of travel, no provision had been made with regard 
 to either sledges or dogs, it having been very naturally 
 supposed that the country itself was the best source from 
 whence to obtain these. We found, however, that the dogs 
 were neither plentiful nor of a good class. They were hardly 
 
Chap. XIV.] OUR START. 149 
 
 above the average of the sneaking, snarling Indian curs 
 of Oregon and British Columbia, and it was very difficult to 
 make them attached to you, — a proof to my mind that they 
 had as much of the wolf as the dog in them. I have always 
 succeeded in making a good dog my friend, and was much 
 chagrined at my want of success among these animals. They 
 are very hairy, are of all colours, iron grey predominating, 
 have wolfish features and short legs, but their immense bushy 
 tails make up for all deficiencies. Taking them all in all, 
 they did good service in transporting our goods, and with 
 them all of us made many lengthened journeys. Captain 
 Ennis twice made the trip from Norton Sound to Port 
 Clarence, Bering Straits ; and the journey on the ice from 
 St. Michael's to Unalachleet was made a score of times, while 
 that to Nulato must have been made a dozen times during 
 the winter of 1866-7. The more remarkable journey of 
 Ketchum and Labarge will be mentioned hereafter. 
 
 On the morning of the 27th October, at eleven o'clock, we 
 bade adieu to our friends, some of whom persisted in accom- 
 panying us a little way on the frozen surface of the Unalach- 
 leet Biver, whilst the others honoured us with a grand, but 
 rather irregular volley of blank-cartridge from revolvers, 
 muskets, and the old battered cannon of the Bussian post. 
 Our party comprised nine persons, as follows : — Captain 
 Ketchum and Lieutenant Labarge, his right-hand man, 
 Mr. Dall, a collector for the Smithsonian Institute, myself, 
 and Pickett, a man detailed for our service. Mr. Francis, 
 engineer of our little steamer, started with us on an excursion 
 trip, and three Indians completed our list. We took four 
 sledges, each drawn by five dogs, and very well laden 
 with a miscellaneous collection of boxes, barrels, tools, furs. 
 
150 UNALACHLEET RIVER. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 blankets, and snow shoes. Each load averaged 350 lbs. 
 weight. 
 
 The day was beautifully calm and clear, the temperature 
 just before starting was -J- 5° Fahr., but got much colder 
 during the day. As we had to run alongside of, or behind our 
 sledges, we soon found that the heavy fur clothing, so very 
 comfortable when stationary, was infinitely too much for us 
 when in violent exercise, and we accordingly divested our- 
 selves of much of it. Many of our workmen wore ordinary 
 thick woollen clothing during the greater part of winter, but 
 native skin-boots were always adopted by us. 
 
 The record of this trip will be presented to the reader 
 mainly as it stands in my journal. We found the frozen river, 
 on whose surface we travelled all day, for the most part well 
 covered with snow. In a few patches the wind had bared the 
 ice, and there we could observe its true colours ; sometimes 
 glassy green and transparent, so that we could see the pebbly 
 bottom of the shallow stream, in other places dark, opaque, 
 and colourless, with the shaded water underneath it giving 
 the impression of infinite depth. Some few parts of the 
 stream were not completely frozen ; this generally occurred 
 on bars or small rapids, where the water ran swiftly. The 
 river was of moderate size, — as large as the Thames at 
 Hampton, but (excepting in the early spring freshets) even 
 more shallow. Within a few miles of the Kussian station we 
 had just left we found spruce-fir and birch abundant on the 
 banks of the river, and a certain amount of drift-wood — the 
 wreck of larger trees swept from the skirts of the woods at 
 times of flood — is brought down by the swollen waters at the 
 break-up of the ice. 
 
 A few small accidents varied the day's travel, such as the 
 
Chap. XIV.] BROUGHT TO A STANDSTILL. 151 
 
 bone runners of our sledges cracking off, or the dogs getting 
 loose and making a break for the woods. At four o'clock in 
 the afternoon we stopped for a rest, raised a good fire of drift- 
 wood on the surface of the ice, and then cooked our bacon 
 and made some refreshing tea. We then resumed our trip by 
 starlight, hoping to make the Indian village of Igtigalik the 
 same evening. About six o'clock we came to a standstill ; a 
 great patch of the river was entirely open, nor could we see a 
 way round. Attempting to creep round the shelving banks 
 our sledges were half-buried in the soft snow, and as the 
 night was very dark, and we did not wish to risk losing our 
 loads in the river, we came to the conclusion that we must 
 camp. We unloaded the sledges, tied up the dogs, cleared a 
 space in the snow at the top of the bank, and raised a magni- 
 ficent log-fire. We spread a quantity of fir-brush on the 
 ground, made up our beds on it, and slept closely packed 
 together, with a large deer-skin robe covering us. 
 
 We had unfortunately relied on the next village for a 
 supply of dog-feed. The Russian post we had just left was 
 famous for " ukalee," an inferior kind of salmon dried for this 
 purpose; but our men wintering there would, we knew, 
 require so much of it that we had determined to obtain ours 
 on the route. Our sledges, too, were otherwise filled to their 
 uttermost capacity. The poor dogs passed a hungry night, 
 howling dismally. We had to place everything eatable out 
 of their reach, and as they did not object to skin clothing 
 or old boots, and would readily devour their own harness, it 
 was a somewhat difficult task. 
 
 28^. — In the morning we found that four of our dogs, 
 disgusted and hungry, had deserted from our service, and w 1 1 
 were sure that they had " made tracks " for the Russian post. 
 
152 UNDEEGEOUND HOUSES. [Chap. XIV, 
 
 We made an early start in the brisk cold morning (temp. 
 — 6° Fahr.), and reached the village without any trouble, 
 after we had passed round the edge of the open water just 
 mentioned. There, however, the thin ice cracked beneath 
 the weight of our sledges, and we " kept moving/' expecting 
 a ducking every moment. 
 
 On the right bank of the river we found a number of 
 Indian summer dwellings, — simply wooden shanties, built 
 above ground, with a small doorway, sometimes circular, and 
 a hole in the roof to let out the smoke. Behind them on 
 posts were the fish-houses, or " caches," as before described. 
 
 On the left bank were a few underground houses, intended 
 for winter use. These were simply square holes in the 
 ground, roofed in, and earthed over. The entrance of each 
 was always a rude shanty of logs or planks, passing into 
 which we found a hole in the ground, the entrance to a sub- 
 terranean passage. Into this we dropped, and crawled on our 
 hands and knees into the room. " Amilka," the owner of one 
 
 Diagram of Underground House. 
 
 of these houses, put half his floor at our disposal, and we 
 cleared it of dirt and encumbrances, and spread our skins 
 over it. A part of us stopped there some days, studying 
 the manners and customs of the people. Their manners 
 might pass, but some of their customs were decidedly nasty. 
 
Chap. XIV. INGELETE HOUSES, &c. 153 
 
 Igtigalik (known by^the Russians as Nove, or New Ulukuk, to 
 distinguish it from a neighbouring place of a similar name) was 
 inhabited by a totally different tribe from that we had met at 
 Unalachleet, and called the Ingelete people. Although only 
 twenty-five miles from the Malemute village, they speak an 
 entirely different dialect, one — as we afterwards discovered — 
 nearly allied to the Co- Yukon. These people were a fine stout 
 race, with fair intelligence, and generally appeared to be very 
 good humoured. Many of the men were above the average 
 in stature, and their general appearance much resembled the 
 coast natives. Polygamy exists, but not to any great extent, 
 and occasionally a man discharges his wife and takes another, 
 if the first proves barren, or disappoints with too many girls. 
 Daughters are at a discount. 
 
 Their houses at this time were full of baskets for fish, traps, 
 frames for snow shoes, and parts of sledges in course of 
 manufacture. 
 
 The passage way into these houses was in wet mild 
 weather nothing but a sewer. The fire was built on the floor 
 in the centre of the chamber, and when it burnt low the 
 embers and sticks were always thrown out of the smoke-hole 
 in the roof by the natives inside, and it was then covered 
 with a skin. This process effectually shut in all the warmth, 
 but with it a good deal of smoke and carbonic acid gas. The 
 entrance hole was also usually covered with a deer skin, and 
 the mixture of close smells inside the house, arising from 
 more or less stale fish, meat, old skin clothes, young dogs, dirt 
 and smoke, was very sickening. The dogs scrambling and 
 fighting on the roof above, sometimes tumbled through the 
 smoke-hole on to the fire below, upsetting all the cooking 
 arrangements, and adding a new smell to those above 
 
154 INGELETE MANNERS, &c. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 mentioned, — that of singed hair ! It need not be said that 
 they retreated with great alacrity, yelping and snarling as 
 they went. 
 
 In place of soap these people use for cleansing purposes 
 the liquid before mentioned as adopted by the Malemutes. 
 The little children are plump and good tempered, suck a 
 stick of ice as though it were barley-sugar, and are totally 
 unacquainted with the use of the pocket-handkerchief. They 
 seemed to be cowardly. If a strapping youngster tumbled 
 down, and bruised or scratched himself, the women gathered 
 round, gesticulating, and making a great fuss. If a few 
 drops of blood appeared, they hid their eyes in their hands, 
 as though it were something too terrible to behold. 
 
 Both men and women smoke ; the latter, however, do so 
 only on occasions. Many, like the Malemutes and Tchukt- 
 chis, swallow the smoke; and their pipe-bowls only hold a 
 pinch of tobacco. They also use snuff, rubbing up the 
 Kussian leaf-tobacco in a kind of wooden pestle and mortar. 
 This is simply a circular cup, roughly cut out from a knot 
 of wood, and is held in the left hand, whilst the right grasps 
 a stout round stick, the top of which is weighted with a 
 stone. They have small oval-shaped wooden or bone snuff- 
 boxes, and sniff the powdered tobacco into their nostrils 
 through a small wooden tube. 
 
 At this, and other Ingelete villages, our goods lay un- 
 guarded in our absence ; and I cannot recall a single case of 
 proved dishonesty among them, although we found them 
 gradually becoming more greedy in their demands for 
 payment. Here we obtained a few Arctic grouse (ptarmigan) 
 and dried deer-meat. We all became, from constant prac- 
 tice, accomplished cooks ; nor do I think an epicure, especially 
 
Chap. XIV.] BEANS versus RICE. 155 
 
 after a day's travel in that appetizing climate, would have 
 despised our " Telegraph " stews, flavoured and thickened 
 at the right moment, with salt, pepper, and flour. 
 
 It was in Igtigalik that Francis and myself engaged in a 
 great discussion — known afterwards as a cause celebre — " beans 
 versus rice." Francis, but recently arrived from China, was 
 persuaded that rice was the staff of life, and that millions 
 of Chinamen lived on little else. On the other hand, I 
 contended that beans were more nourishing and glutenous, 
 and that the miners and travellers of the Pacific coast 
 swore by them as the most portable and satisfying of food. 
 Francis pointed out the short time taken to cook rice ; but 
 I showed that beans, when cooked, were more inviting food. 
 Beans fried a la mineur, baked a la Yankee, or boiled a la 
 clod-hopper, were lively food, compared with insipid rice. 
 We advanced our opinions with deep feeling and earnestness 
 on either side, yet I fear left each other, and our listeners, 
 exactly where they were before ! 
 
 A propos of Indian cleanliness, a brief anecdote may be 
 narrated. The previous winter an Ingelete had applied to 
 Mr. Frederick Smith, a member of our expedition, asking 
 him for medical assistance, stating at the same time that 
 his chest pained him. A powerful blister was prescribed, 
 applied, and left on all night. In the morning it was 
 expected that his breast would be raw ; but the only effect 
 it had on his skin was to leave a clean space, the exact 
 impression of the plaster ! The man got better imme- 
 diately. 
 
 A little Indian boy, playing with other children, received 
 a gash in the cheek from a knife, and came to us for 
 medical aid. A large piece of sticking-plaster was put over 
 
156 MEDICAL AID. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 the wound, and the child was told that he must neither 
 cry, talk, nor eat, as it would interfere with the charm of 
 the application. The little fellow complied perfectly, would 
 not utter a word, and starved himself for a week, so that 
 his cut, being absolutely undisturbed, soon healed up, and 
 our reputation was established. A small stock of simple 
 medicines would be very useful to any future traveller; 
 among them should be included pills, capable of acting 
 powerfully, for natives who had over-gorged themselves. 
 Healing ointments, for outward application, would, with 
 sticking-plaster and lint, be of real service, as a great many 
 of the natives suffer from skin diseases. 
 
 During our stay at the village, on October 30th and 31st, 
 and on the 1st November, a thaw set in; the thermometer 
 standing at points between -f 32° and + 35° Fahr., and the 
 wind south. Snow also fell. On the 2nd, Dall and Francis 
 returned to Unalachleet, with the hope of recovering our 
 dogs, several more of whom had left our service. Many of 
 them had been borrowed from the Indian village, and very 
 naturally preferred their lazy life there, to hard work with 
 us. I saw no dogs in Russian America equal to the picked 
 teams in Petropaulovski ; but they had been selected from 
 the best breeds of the whole peninsula. It was the intention 
 of Colonel Bulkley to import a number from thence for our 
 use, had the expedition continued for another season. Before 
 leaving, Ketchum and myself purchased a small skin boat — 
 which was subsequently used on my Yukon trip, and served 
 for 1200 miles of river travel. We paid five dollars in 
 American silver, and an axe worth two and a half dollars, so 
 that it was not an expensive craft. 
 
 On the 3rd we started with four sledges for the upper 
 
Chap. XIV.] ULUKUK. 157 
 
 village of Ulukuk, a distance of fifteen miles. Our route 
 lay mainly on a "peronose" (as theKussians term a portage), 
 over land thickly covered with soft snow, in which our dogs, 
 sledges, and selves were half buried. On the top of an 
 ordinary sledge load we carried our skin canoe, and had no 
 small work in helping it aloug, more especially at snow 
 banks. We crossed many small streams, on which the ice 
 was not thoroughly formed, slipping into rather cool water 
 up to our waists. We carefully lifted our sledges over such 
 places to prevent wetting our goods. On some of the 
 tributaries of the river the route was like a well-made road, 
 with but a slight covering of snow, and we occasionally got a 
 few minutes' ride. It was, however, a luxury but rarely 
 attained. In the woods, through which our course partly 
 lay, the dogs invariably ran the sledges against the trees 
 and stumps, and there they would remain, till two or three 
 of us could clear them. Late in the day we arrived at the 
 Ulukuk Kiver, which was still open. Kapids abound in it ; 
 and there are warm springs in the neighbourhood, so that 
 this stream is but rarely quite frozen up. The Ingeletes 
 have availed themselves of this chance, by placing one of 
 their principal villages near it. They have large fish-traps 
 in the stream ; and the village is very prettily situated on 
 an open space in the woods hard by the river. In the 
 distance is to be seen the range of the Ulukuk Mountains, 
 which are seen from the coast, and will be hereafter men- 
 tioned. Ulukuk is the paradise of this part of the country 
 in regard to salmon, salmon-trout, grouse, and deer meat ; 
 and a larger number of Ingeletes congregate there than in 
 any other of their villages. There is no fear of your dogs 
 deserting from such a place. 
 
158 INDIAN TRADING. [Chap. XIV. 
 
 The common native mode of cooking is roasting by the 
 fire ; some of them have, however, bought iron pots from 
 the Kussians. Salmon cooked on a stick placed near the fire, 
 and occasionally turned till " done brown," is luscious. 
 
 On the 4th a terrible snow-storm occurred, with a strong 
 N.E. wind. We were fortunately at that time in an under- 
 ground house, exhibiting our treasures in magnetic com- 
 passes, pencils, note-books, &c, to an admiring crowd, and 
 trading with them for dried fish for our dogs. It would be 
 worth the traveller's while to take with him a small stock 
 of toys and instruments of a simple nature, in place of so 
 much of the conventional rubbish usually brought for Indian 
 trade. Beads and bracelets are all very well, but burning- 
 glasses, multiplying-glasses, kaleidoscopes, whistles, and small 
 things in cutlery are novelties to them. Generally speaking, 
 we found that the natives very sensibly preferred useful to 
 ornamental things ; and axes, knives, powder, caps, flints, 
 and bullets were by far the best goods for trading. Yet, if 
 they did become violently in love with a novelty, of however 
 trifling a nature, there was no price they would refuse to 
 give ; and the traveller who has, above everything, to con- 
 sider the portability of his goods, may, by selecting those 
 small things which please even grown-up children here, save 
 himself the trouble of transporting more unwieldy and less 
 attractive goods. On several occasions we "astonished the 
 natives " by lighting " Pharaoh's serpents," a novelty at that 
 time even in San Francisco. A few small fireworks (packed 
 in tin or zinc for safe transportation) would be much 
 appreciated by the Indians, when gathered at their spring 
 meetings. 
 
Chap. XV.] 
 
 CEOSS THE ULUKUK. 
 
 159 
 
 CHAPTEE XV. 
 
 sledge journey to the yukon. — Continued. 
 
 Cross the Ulukuk River — Walking on snow shoes — Ulukuk Mountains 
 
 — Land travelling — Versola Sofka — Patent camp — Our frozen 
 breath — Indian honesty — The use of snow shoes — Warm springs 
 
 — First glimpse of the Yukon — Coltog — Old " Stareek " — Travel 
 on the Yukon — Alikoff's " barabba " — Meet a Kussian sledge-train 
 
 — Arrival at Nulato. 
 
 On the morning of the 5th we turned our skin canoe to good 
 account by using it to cross the Ulukuk Eiver. By making 
 several trips, we transported to the opposite bank our sledges, 
 dogs, and goods. At Ulukuk I essayed my first pair of 
 snow shoes, to the amusement of the natives, who wondered 
 where a man could have been all his life who had not 
 become familiar with their use ! 
 
 Snow Shoe. 
 
 On the 6th we made a start, taking two sledges, an 
 Indian man, and a boy ; the latter we named " Tommy." 
 We "cached" our skin-boat; it was to be brought up for 
 us at a later period. The day was pleasant — temperature 
 -f 23° Fahr. ;— but the snow was fresh and soft, and all of 
 our party wore snow shoes. After a little use, I became 
 
160 WALKING ON SNOW SHOES. [Chap. XV. 
 
 quite proficient. The only secret in wearing them is to 
 strive to forget you have them on at all, and to walk exactly 
 as you would anywhere else. The snow shoe then moves 
 forward with the foot, but is not lifted much above the 
 snow, and the lashings are so arranged that the toe remains 
 fixed, while the rest of the foot moves up and down in the 
 usual manner. Of course, the great object in using them 
 is to diffuse your whole weight over a large surface, and they 
 are usually of a good length, sometimes five and a-half feet 
 long and upwards. An average length is four and a-half 
 feet. All used in this part of the country are rounded and 
 bent upwards in front, and pointed behind. They are made 
 of birch-wood, covered at either end with a fine network of 
 gut ; the lashings for the foot are strips of hide. 
 
 We travelled N.N.E. magnetic, and followed pretty closely 
 the base of the Ulukuk Mountains which in themselves are 
 hills of inconsiderable altitude, not usually exceeding 3000 
 feet in height; they are, however, conspicuous landmarks 
 in a country which is otherwise comparatively level. These 
 mountains run north and south for 100 miles. One of their 
 outlying hills, the "Versola Sofka," has a very graceful 
 rounded form. To the west were hills and mountains of 
 apparently greater altitude. 
 
 We occasionally stopped for a draught of ice-cold water. 
 After breaking a hole in the ice of a creek, I noticed tha^ 
 our Indian invariably filled it up with loose snow before 
 stooping down on hands and knees to drink. This was done to 
 filter the water, and to prevent some little red worms, said to 
 infest it, from being swallowed. Our route again lay through 
 a " peronose," or portage, and presented alternations of open 
 spaces, and light woods of spruce-fir, birch, and willow. At 
 
Chap. XV.] EVENING CAMP. 161 
 
 4 p.m. we reached the base of the " Versola Sofka " Mountain, 
 where we found a large frozen stream. We camped hard by 
 it, and made a glorious fire and a bed of aromatic fir-brush ; 
 a screen of canvas, fixed behind our camp to the trees, and 
 our snow shoes stuck in the ground, sheltered us from the only- 
 enemy we feared — the wind. We found from experience that 
 tents were not in winter as comfortable as these open camps, as 
 they could not be with safety placed sufficiently near the fire. 
 After having arranged the camp, unloaded the sledges as 
 far as necessary, and fed our dogs, we divested ourselves 
 of our damp fur socks and skin boots, and hung them up to 
 dry at a moderate distance from the fire. Our Indian mean- 
 time took the pots, and went to break a hole in the nearest 
 frozen stream, to get the water for our tea. One of us sliced 
 the bacon, got out a bag of " hard bread," or biscuit, or set to 
 work concocting a stew of dried deer-meat or fresh grouse. 
 Soon our meal was over, the ever grateful pipe smoked by 
 one and all of us, and we turned into our blankets and furs, 
 the stars looking down calmly upon us 
 
 " Because they'd nothing else to do/' 
 
 and in a few minutes we were soundly sleeping. We woke 
 in the morning to find our breath congealed in masses of 
 ice on our moustachios and other hairy appendages. So 
 ^great a nuisance was this, that many of our men shaved 
 closely all winter. A merchant I had met the previous 
 summer in Petropaulovski had once narrowly escaped suffo- 
 cation from the ice forming in this way on his luxuriant 
 beard and moustache. While travelling, he was unfortunate 
 enough to wander into the woods, and lose his reckoning. 
 He remained there a whole night, and in the morning, when 
 
 M 
 
162 INDIAN HONESTY. [Chap. XV. 
 
 found by his anxious friends, the ice had almost completely 
 glued up his nostrils and mouth. We always had to break 
 up the clotted ice formed on our faces in this way, and then 
 to perform our limited toilet by taking a little snow in our 
 hands, and rubbing it over our faces, — a very refreshing opera- 
 tion. We then hastily cooked the breakfast, and were 
 soon on our way again. We, once or twice, made a stew, 
 and left it simmering all night at the camp fire. 
 
 We left the " Versola Sofka" on the morning of the 7th, 
 and, finding the loads too great for our dogs under the cir- 
 cumstances, we raised an erection of poles, and deposited 
 some bags thereon. I may here say, once for all, that 
 our men often left goods, consisting of tea, flour, molasses, 
 bacon, and all kinds of miscellaneous items — scattered in 
 this way over the country, and that they remained untouched 
 by the Indians, who frequently travelled past them. It 
 would require some faith in one's species to do the same 
 in St. James's Park! This clay's travel was especially 
 troublesome, the snow was deeper and softer than before, 
 some little having recently fallen, and our sledges were 
 perpetually upsetting. In order to make a track for our 
 dogs, we frequently with the Indian, walked on a-head, 
 returned, and again started forward, thus going over the 
 ground three times. At night, after crossing a stream still 
 open, we came to a small and very dilapidated Indian shanty, 
 not much better than an open camp, known by the Kussians 
 as "Ivan's barabba" (house). It was a very wretched place, 
 and we found it temporarily occupied by an Indian, with 
 wife and child, whose apparent possessions no beggar could 
 covet. Yet they appeared happy; for did they not know that 
 on the morrow the hares and ptarmigan could be snared, the 
 
Chap. XV.] USE OF SNOW SHOES. 103 
 
 deer hunted with a little more exertion, and that if they 
 were positively " hard up " they could get all they wanted 
 for subsistence at the nearest village ? A little tobacco and 
 a few trifles were given them, and from them we obtained 
 a light sledge, standing no more than fifteen inches above 
 the ground, to be used by us for transporting our blankets 
 and light possessions. 
 
 On the 8th snow fell thickly, and travelling was so difficult 
 that with our best exertions we did not make ten miles 
 during the day. We camped thoroughly worn out. Although 
 the use of snow shoes renders travelling possible, where other- 
 wise it would hardly be so, they are very fatiguing in soft or 
 soggy snow. The difference may be stated thus : — whereas 
 without them you might sink in three or four feet, with them 
 you only sink as many inches. But in certain conditions of 
 climate the snow shoes get loaded with adhering snow and 
 ice, and then every time you raise you foot you have to lift 
 10 or 15 lbs. extra. The shoes have to be constantly shaken, 
 or otherwise cleared, at such times. 
 
 The morning of the 9th broke fine and clear, with a tem- 
 perature of + 4° Fahr., and we travelled with greater ease 
 through level country diversified by low rises from which 
 we could see the break in the hills towards the Yukon." 
 Our Indian, proceeding a good way a-head, shot several 
 ptarmigan, and we made a fair day's journey of eighteen 
 miles before camping. The next morning a north wind 
 blew, and made us feel the cold very decidedly. It is 
 wonderful how searching the wind is in this Arctic climate : 
 each little seam, slit, or tear in your fur or woollen clothing 
 makes you aware of its existence; and one's nose, ears, and 
 angles generally, are specially the sufferers. We passed this 
 
 M 2 
 
164 FIRST GLIMPSE OF THE YUKON. [Chap. XV. 
 
 day over a rather more hilly country (in a north-east direc- 
 tion), and in the valleys observed many warm springs which 
 are said never to freeze in winter. I examined one, and 
 found bubbles of gas rising to the surface. The temperature 
 of the water was one degree above freezing, while the air was 
 twenty-three degrees colder. Towards night it got down to 
 zero, and the wind died out. 
 
 We made an early start jiext morning, travelling E.N.E., 
 and later in a more northerly direction. About noon, from 
 a slight eminence, we could see a faint streak of blue over 
 the trees; we travelled hard to reach it, and at sundown 
 broke from the woods, shot down a steep bank, and stood 
 on an immense snow-clad field of ice, — the mighty Yukon ! 
 Hardly a patch of clear ice was to be seen,--— all was covered 
 by a wintry mantle. Large accumulations of hummucks 
 had been in many places forced on the surface before the 
 river had become thoroughly frozen, and even now the water 
 was still open, and running swiftly in a few isolated and 
 detached streaks. From bank to bank was not less than a 
 mile, and several islands were visible in either direction. 
 Let the reader think of a river 2000 miles long, and any- 
 where, at this part of its course, from one to four or five miles 
 wide, one unbroken mass of snow-covered ice, from its source 
 to its mouth, and he will then have pictured to himself the 
 Yukon in winter. I had been prepared to see a large stream, 
 but had formed no conception of the reality. Neither pen 
 nor pencil can give any idea of the dreary grandeur, the vast 
 monotony, or the unlimited expanse we saw before us.* 
 
 * The artist will understand me when I state that it would be necessary 
 in a sketch of this river to make its width out of all proportion to its 
 
Chap. XV.] VILLAGE OF COLTOG. 165 
 
 My first acquaintance with the Yukon, in common with 
 several of my companions, was made sliding down the bank 
 at the rate of " 2.40 " (to use an Americanism *), comfortably 
 seated on my snow shoes. At such snow banks it is a very 
 common thing far the sledge to shoot down faster than the 
 dogs, who then get entangled in their harness, run over, and 
 mashed in the snow. They frequently break loose at such 
 times. The driver often throws himself down, and hangs on 
 to the sledge to act as a drag. In Siberia, as I learnt from 
 my friends who had wintered there, it is usual for the driver 
 of a sledge, when riding on it, to have a pole or stake which 
 he uses to impede its progress, driving it down into the snow 
 every few seconds. 
 
 A quarter of an hour's travelling over this expanse of snow 
 brought us to the Ingelete village of Coltog, where we again 
 made a halt, and stopped in one of the largest underground 
 houses we had seen ; one inhabited by several families. The 
 owner of this dwelling, old " Stareek," received us well, 
 and produced white ptarmigan and berries. They were 
 unfortunately short of dog-feed. This is one of the con- 
 stant drawbacks in travelling, and stands much in the way 
 of the transportation of large quantities of goods. The 
 dogs, of course, weaken quickly without regular feed, and 
 very naturally prowl about seeking something to devour. 
 Provisions, even when packed up in boxes or barrels, arc nol 
 Bafe where there are many dogs. The previous yoav they 
 maDaged to burst open a keg of oil, and in a very short 
 
 height, and therefore as a picture it could nol be satisfactory. This is my 
 excuse for not reproducing more of my Bketchesof the Yukon. 
 
 * Two minutes forty seconds is the time taken by a high da^s trotting 
 horse to run a mile. 
 

 166 OLD " STAREEK." [Chap. XV. 
 
 time there was nothing left but a few scattered staves and 
 hoops ; on this trip one had gorged himself on half a ham, 
 and was in consequence very unwell. 
 
 We stopped over the 12th and 13th at this village ; both 
 days being very gusty and stormy. Old "Stareek" harangued 
 his neighbours by the hour together, and they brought us a 
 fair amount of supplies. The poor old man — probably the 
 " oldest inhabitant " of this district — with his shrivelled form, 
 wrinkled face, long scattered hair, stubbly chin, and toothless 
 mouth, wagging about in the most uncertain and eccentric 
 manner, was a pitiable object ; but we made his ancient heart 
 rejoice by presenting him. with cotton-drill, powder, and 
 balls. Our teams, passing and repassing, would have to 
 halt at this village constantly during winter. In " Stareek's " 
 house several of the Indians slept on shelves or benches 
 built round the walls, and by this means four or five families 
 were packed into one room. "When camped at these places, 
 after taking our own meals, we invariably filled up the tea- 
 kettle, and handed round to each of those natives who had 
 done us any service, a cup of weak tea with a little broken 
 biscuit floating on the top of it. Some of them have acquired 
 from the Russians a taste for tea, but more especially for 
 sugar. As these things were not articles of trade at the 
 Eussian Fur Company's posts, they rarely got a taste of 
 either, nor do I believe that tea, per se, was much cared for 
 by them, but that they simply liked it when hot and sweet. 
 
 W^e started up the Yukon on the 14th. An occasional 
 patch of open water, running perhaps at the rate of three 
 knots an hour, alone showed us that it was a river at all, 
 and the dreary expanse of snow almost made us forget that 
 we were on a sheet of ice. The river winds considerably, 
 
Chap. XV.] AKKIVAL AT NULATO. 167 
 
 and our course was often therefore from one point of land 
 to another. We several times crossed from bank to bank to 
 cut off corners and bends, and, although we met with some 
 obstructions from masses of ice of all forms and shapes piled 
 wildly and irregularly around, travelling was on the whole 
 immeasurably easier than on the land portage. Many cliffs 
 abutted on the river, and islands of sombre green forest 
 studded it in all directions. We made about twenty-five 
 miles, then camped in a new but empty Indian house, know 7 n 
 by the Russians as "AlikofT's barabba." The temperature at 
 sunset was — 2° Fahr. 
 
 On the morning of the 15th we rose early, and, after 
 travelling seven miles or so, met a large train of sledges 
 accompanied by several Russians and Indians. They had 
 been sent down by the head man, or " bidarshik " of Nulato, 
 to transport their own winter supplies, and to assist us. As it 
 was arranged that some of our men should make the return 
 journey to Norton Sound, a few days later, the Russians 
 turned round, and went back with us. After about eight 
 miles' travel we reached Nulato, our destination, and made 
 a grand entry with much noise and fun, and the firing of 
 innumerable discharges. All hands helped the sledges up 
 the incline leading up to the station, and a few minutes 
 later we were lunching at the " bidarshik's " table on raw 
 salt-fish and bread. It need not be said that the " samovar " 
 had been prepared as soon as they sighted us in the distance. 
 The poorest Russian never neglects the sacred rite of hos- 
 pitality, and we pledged each other in massive cups of strong 
 tea. Later in the day we had something stronger. 
 
 Thus ended our trip to Nulato, a journey made by our 
 men later in the winter in much less time when the snom 
 
168 NULATO. [Chap. XV. 
 
 was well packed, and when they could sometimes travel 
 without snow shoes. 
 
 We found the quarters appropriated to our use — a low 
 building forming one of the boundaries of the courtyard — to 
 be large and reasonably comfortable. The place had been 
 cleaned out, a large fire lighted in the "p^tchka," or oven, 
 straw laid on the floor, and, in short, everything done that 
 was possible with the limited means at command. Later 
 in the day we took a delicious steam-bath, and soon came to 
 the conclusion that, after all, life in Kussian America was 
 perfectly endurable. 
 
Chap. XVI.] FIRST YUKON EXPLORERS. 169 
 
 CHAPTEK XVI. 
 
 LIFE AT NTJLATO — YUKON EIVEK. 
 
 First explorers of the Yukon — Nulato — Our quarters — Water sledge — 
 Fish traps — Winter sketching ■ — Frozen provisions — Coldest day — 
 Departure of a sledge train — Dinner party — Indian arrivals — Shortest 
 day — Merry Christmas — Bill of fare — Aurora — Temperatures — 
 Supplies — Principal winter trip of our explorers. 
 
 Employes of the Kussian-American Fur Company were 
 certainly the first explorers of the Yukon. MalakofT, in 
 1838, and Derabin, the following year, reached this portion 
 of the river ; the latter in the autumn of 1842 commenced 
 the establishment of the post at Nulato, which, in conse- 
 quence, long bore his name. In the early winter of 1843, 
 Zagoskin, of the Kussian Imperial Navy, arrived, having 
 reached Nulato by the route just described, and he himself 
 assisted at the building of the fort."* 
 
 Nulato is the most inland, and also most northern of all 
 the Eussian Fur Company's posts ; on Zagoskin's authority it 
 is in lat. 64° 42' 11" N., and long. 157° 58' 18" W. (of Green- 
 wich). It is on the north bank of the Yukon, and is situated 
 on a flat stretch of comparatively open land, bounded on the 
 south-west by the Nulato River, a tributary of the Yukon, 
 
 * Zagoskin's work contains nearly all the information we possess on the 
 Lower Yukon. It was translated by Mr. E. K. Laborae, the interpret* c of 
 our expedition, but was not printed. It exists in a German form. 
 
170 NULATO. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 — a stream one of whose mouths is at least seventy yards in 
 width. 
 
 A smaller stream, also falling into the great river, bounds 
 this open patch of land on the north-east. Trees of good 
 average growth, and sufficiently large for building purposes, 
 are to be found in the woods at a moderate distance from the 
 fort, and the soil, a rich vegetable mould, with clay under- 
 lying, though swampy in spring, might possibly be turned to 
 some account. Luxuriant grass and innumerable berries 
 grow up and ripen in the brief summer-time. 
 
 The post resembles those before described, and differs only 
 in having two watch-towers. It is surrounded by a picket, 
 and during our stay the gate was always shut at night, and 
 Indians excluded when present in large numbers. Before 
 our arrival a " watch " had been kept regularly at night, for 
 reasons that will afterwards appear. The log building occu- 
 pied by us formed a part of one side of the fort square. The 
 windows of our room were of seal-gut, and, as the days were 
 now about two hours in length, our light inside was none of 
 the best. We slept wrapped up in fur-lined blankets and 
 skins, on a platform raised about two feet above the floor, * 
 which latter we had caulked with moss and covered with 
 straw and skins. Even then, although our room w r as gene- 
 rally warm enough, the floor was sometimes intensely cold. 
 I once hung up some damp cloth to dry ; near the rafters it 
 steamed, within a foot of the ground it froze firmly, with 
 long icicles hanging therefrom. The air near the floor has 
 shown a temperature of -f- 4° when the upper part of the 
 room was -j- 60° or + 65° Fahr. 
 
 Our supply of water was obtained from a hole kept con- 
 stantly open — or as open as nature would allow it to be — 
 
Chap. XVI.] YUKON FISH-TRAPS. 171 
 
 through the ice of the Yukon, at a distance of a quarter of a 
 mile from the post. The " water-sledge " was one of the 
 institutions of the place, and a large barrel was taken down 
 and filled with water — and a good deal of broken ice — and 
 brought back for the supply of the station. It was generally 
 dragged by men, and sometimes by Indian women, as it 
 would have taken more dogs than the place possessed to 
 move it. It may very naturally be asked, Does not a 
 river like the Yukon freeze to the bottom ? and the answer 
 is, most emphatically, " No ; excepting only in extremely 
 shallow places." We saw ice nine feet thick and upwards, 
 but it was not produced by the natural process of gradual 
 freezing and thickening, but had been forced up on other 
 ice before the river was completely and firmly frozen. I 
 think an average of five feet of ice will form where there 
 is sufficient depth of water. Its universal covering of snow 
 has, doubtless, the effect of preventing the formation of 
 extremely thick ice ; the current of the river has the same 
 effect. 
 
 I have before mentioned the Indian mode of fishing through 
 holes in the ice, but had not been prepared to see it practised 
 on the large scale common on the Yukon. Early in the 
 winter large piles or stakes had been driven down through 
 the ice to the bottom of the river ; to these were affixed traps, 
 consisting simply of a wicker-work funnel leading into a long 
 basket, not unlike the eel-pots to be seen on the Thames, but 
 on a larger scale. Oblong holes above them were kept open 
 through the ice by frequent breaking, and sometimes a great 
 number of " white fish" and a large black fish (known by the 
 Kussians as Nalima) were taken, and we fell in for a share. 
 The last-named is mainly used for dog-feed, but its very 
 
172 
 
 WINTER SKETCHING, 
 
 [Chap. XVI. 
 
 rich and oily liver was much eaten by the Kussians, and 
 was not despised by us. 
 
 Fish-traps on the Yukon. 
 
 In November and December I succeeded in lnakino- 
 sketches of the fort and neighbourhood at times when the 
 temperature was as low as thirty degrees below zero. It was 
 done, it need not be said, with difficulty, and often by instal- 
 ments. Between every five strokes of the pencil, I ran about 
 to exercise myself, or went into our quarters foi vrarmth. 
 Several times I skinned my fingers, once froze my left ear, 
 which swelled up nearly to the top of my head, and I was 
 always afraid that my prominent nasal organ would get 
 bitten. The use of water-colours was of course impracticable 
 —except when I could keep a pot of warm water on a small 
 fire by my side— a thing clone by me on two or three occasions, 
 when engaged at a distance from the post. Even inside the 
 house the spaces near the windows— as well as the floor— were 
 often below freezing-point. Once, forgetful of the fact (and 
 
Chap. XVI.] FROZEN PROVISIONS —COLDEST DAY. 173 
 
 it is a fact of which you do become forgetful), I mixed some 
 colours up with water that had just stood near the oven, and, 
 wetting a small brush, commenced to apply it to my drawing- 
 block. Before it reached the paper, it was covered with a 
 skin of ice, and simply scratched the surface, and I had to 
 give up for the time being. One of our number going 
 into a store-house to do some carpenter's work, put a large 
 iron nail between his lips — to hold it for a moment — 
 and, before he thought anything more about it, found them 
 glued together, and had to go and thaw himself out by 
 the fire ! 
 
 The effect of intense cold on our stores in the magazine 
 was a very interesting study ; our dried apples were a mass 
 of rock, and had to be smashed up with an axe, our nlolasses 
 formed a thick, blackpaste, and no knife we had would cut a 
 slice of ham from the bone, till it was well thawed in our 
 warmer room. Our preserved meats, would, with a continua- 
 tion of those times, have been preserved for ever, and would 
 have made, as Kane says, excellent "canister shot." After 
 purchasing grouse or hares from the Indians, they would 
 remain, uneaten, for a month or longer period, in as good 
 condition as ever, and there was no fear of their getting too 
 "high " in that climate. 
 
 Our coldest day for the whole season occurred in December. 
 On the 26th of November the thermometer fell suddenly 
 from the comparatively moderate temperature of -f- 2° to 
 — 18°, and continued lowering steadily — day by day — till 
 it reached (on the 5th December) — 58° Fahr., or ninety 
 degrees below freezing. But the weather was lovely; no wind 
 blew or snow fell during the whole time, and we did not Peel 
 the cold as much as at main other times. Meantime the 
 
174 SLEDGE TRAIN. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 barometer rose rapidly, and stood at slightly above thirty 
 inches on our coldest day. 
 
 On the 7th of the same month, the barometer fell consider- 
 ably, the thermometer rose to — 24° and later — 16°, when 
 snow fell thickly. The spirit thermometer used by myself 
 (although by a San Francisco maker) agreed perfectly with a 
 standard mercurial thermometer supplied by the Smithsonian 
 Institute, as far down as — 40° (below which, as the reader 
 doubtless knows, a mercurial instrument is of no further value) : 
 other thermometers showed a much lower temperature ; one, 
 in the hands of an explorer, then travelling up to Nulato, 
 showed on the 5th a temperature of — 68°, but this was not 
 a reliable instrument. 
 
 A few extracts from my journal will give — in perhaps the 
 briefest form — an insight into some other of our experiences 
 at this time : — 
 
 Nov. 18th (temperature at sunrise — 16° Fahr.). — Labarge, 
 with Indians, started down to bring up another load from 
 Unalachleet, and the Eussians accompanied him. No less 
 than ten sledges were employed, and the court-yard pre- 
 sented a lively scene, the men chattering with, or bidding 
 adieu to their friends, shouting, and dragging their dogs 
 to the " narta " (sledge) ; the dogs impatient, and ever 
 and again trying to make a break for the frozen river. 
 Here and there one was found who didn't want to go 
 at all, and was seized by the scruff of the neck, and half 
 carried, whining piteously the while, to his harness, which 
 he then tried to chew to pieces. At last all was ready, 
 and the fort gate opened; they ran down the incline 
 made in the bank, and were soon lost to sight in the 
 distance, their light loads enabling their drivers often to 
 
Chap. XVI.] DINNER PARTY. 175 
 
 ride, and make quick time. They would not return quite 
 so pleasantly. 
 
 19th (temp. — 32°). — Small supplies begin to arrive. 
 "Larrione" a Co-Yukon, and his brat, who carried a gun 
 twice his own length, brought us sweet fat melted into birch- 
 bark boxes and some Arctic grouse (ptarmigan), and we, of 
 course, returned the compliment, and both paid them and 
 gave them some tea and bread. 
 
 This day we gave a dinner-party to " Ivan," the bidarshik, 
 and his clerk "Iagor." Ivan, a half-breed, had been pro- 
 moted to his present position from the fact that he was a 
 good trader ; in other respects he was an ignorant man, 
 able neither to read nor write. We found him a pretty good 
 fellow. Our banquet of baked ptarmigan and fried ham, 
 pancakes (known, reader, by the poetical name of " flap-jacks ") 
 molasses (known by us as "long-tailed sugar"), and coffee, 
 pleased our Eussian friends well, but our tea was not to their 
 standard. They universally use a very superior kind. In 
 Petropaulovski, a merchant told me that he had once 
 imported a quantity of second-rate tea, and had to re-export 
 it, for the poorest Kamchatdale would neither buy it nor 
 take it as a gift. 
 
 17 th December. — The first arrival of Indians from a dis- 
 tance ; among them came an old chief from JSTuclukayette, 
 240 miles up the river. He brought with him eight marten- 
 robes of twenty-four skins each, and was consequently a big 
 man with the Kussians. We made him some presents — a coat, 
 a can of powder, and some balls, and a few trinkets — and he 
 harangued his companions in a peculiarly high-pitched voice, 
 as is the mode of the Upper Yukon Indians. Had wo not 
 known that his speech was in our favour, wo should have 
 
176 MERRY CHRISTMAS! [Chap. XVI. 
 
 supposed that he was making a war oration, in order to incite 
 them to murder and revenge. He was not a bad featured old 
 man, and our object in making friends with him was for the 
 very good reason that we should afterwards — in the spring- 
 pass his village, and probably be glad to get supplies from 
 him. I tickled his fancy by slipping a plug of tobacco into 
 his hand, when he had it extended in a theatrical manner in 
 the middle of his speech, like Brutus pausing " for a reply." 
 The reply was in this case satisfactory. 
 
 21st. — Our shortest day, the sun rose at 1040 A.M., and set 
 soon after 12*30 p.m. The interval is given correctly, but we 
 had no " Greenwich time " to go by, and, therefore, it is only 
 the duration of sun-light that is to be depended upon. 
 
 25th. — Merry Christmas ! not the first by a good many that 
 I had spent away from home and kindred. We all tried to 
 be jolly, and were moderately successful, yet there was a 
 slight " back current " of regret, and a tinge of melancholy 
 in our proceedings. We decorated our room with flags and 
 Indian trading goods, and spruce-fir brush, in place of holly ; 
 got out the newest and brightest of our tin plates and pewter 
 
 spoons, raised a big fire of logs in the oven ! and Dall set 
 
 to work vigorously in the manufacture of gingerbread and 
 pies, but it could not quite put out of mind the dear ones at 
 home, and what we well knew they were about. We, again, 
 had our Eussian friend Iagor with us, but the " bidarshik " 
 was away on a trip. Our little company was composed of 
 Ketchum, a jolly New Brunswicker; Labarge, a French 
 Canadian, who had lived in the States most of his days, and 
 was a gay free-hearted fellow, the favourite of all ; Dall, a 
 Bostonian, an enthusiastic collector and student of natural 
 history, always ready to assist to the best of his power ; and 
 
Chap. XVI.] BILL OF FARE. 177 
 
 myself. Our Indian servant, Kuriler, might have passed for 
 a Russian, as he had been brought up in the Fort, and spoke 
 the patois of the employes better than his own tongue. He 
 was over six feet high, very steady and good tempered, a 
 pretty fair cook, and a good shot, and had only one failing. 
 He could never resist shooting at anything where there was 
 the most remote chance of hitting it, even though it were 
 a crow or a gull. As long as his powder held out — and we 
 were obliged to put him on allowance — he would blaze away 
 at the slightest provocation, and, like the Indians of the whole 
 course of the river, was very fond of saluting any arrivals at 
 the fort with blank discharges from his flint-lock gun. 
 
 But I am forgetting Christmas. About five o'clock in the 
 afternoon, the table neatly covered with cotton drill, and set 
 out with the " plate " provided by the company, in the shape 
 of iron mess-kettles, tin platters, and cups, was ready, and we 
 sat down to a repast — to use a Californianism — of a " high- 
 toned and elegant nature." 
 
 BILL OF FARE. 
 
 Soupe a la Yukon. 
 
 Arctic Grouse — roast. 
 
 Alaska Eeindeer Meat. 
 
 Nulato Cranberry Sauce. 
 
 California (preserved) Peas and Tomatoes. 
 
 Dried-Apple Pudding. 
 
 Pies. Gingerbread a la Dall. 
 
 Iced Cheese. 
 
 Coffee. Tea. 
 
 Iced Water. 
 
 Winding up with a limited supply of rum punch, and pipes 
 
 ad libitum! 
 
 N 
 
178 AURORA. [Chap. XVI. 
 
 Not a bad dinner of itself ; the iced cheese was 
 novelty I can recommend ; only the traditional pudding was 
 missing. 
 
 We passed the evening singing and reciting. Dall read 
 an original poem ; and I brought out a MS. story (still 
 there !), entitled the " Missing Mummy ! " * 
 
 21th. — Just as we were turning in for the night a fine 
 auroral display in the N.W. was announced, and we all 
 rushed out to witness it from the roof of the tallest building 
 in the Fort. It was not the conventional arch, but a 
 graceful, undulating, ever- changing " snake " of electric 
 light ; evanescent colours, pale as those of a lunar rainbow, 
 ever and again flitting through it, and long streamers and 
 scintillations moving upward to the bright stars, which 
 distinctly shone through its hazy, ethereal form. The night 
 was beautifully calm and clear, cold, but not intensely so, 
 the thermometer at +16°. A second one was seen by us 
 on the 13th January (1867), which had the arched form, 
 but not of tfeat exact nature which has been so often re- 
 presented; and later we witnessed other displays, though 
 not so frequently as we had expected. 
 
 The new year of 1867 began cold, and with some varia- 
 tions in the interval, reached as low as — 49° on the 15th. 
 January was our coldest month, and included three days in 
 which the thermometer showed a temperature below the 
 freezing-point of mercury ; but although the mean tempera- 
 ture of the month was lower, the exceptional days in Decem- 
 
 * Our men at Unalachleet organized some private theatricals, and an 
 original piece, called ' Roderick Doo, and how He was Done,' was played 
 with great success. 
 
Chap. XVI.] TEMPERATURES. — SUPPLIES. 179 
 
 ber had been even more intensely cold. In December there 
 were six days in which the thermometer fell below the 
 freezing-point of mercury ; eleven such days occurred during 
 the winter. 
 
 Our supplies from the resources of the country, though 
 very variable, were not at times inconsiderable ; occasionally 
 we were down to flour "strait," but more commonly got 
 enough of either Arctic grouse, hares, or fish. Very little 
 deer meat came in for several months. We carefully pre- 
 served the white soft skins of the hares to cover our blankets ; 
 and all of us there luxuriated in such by night. It takes forty 
 to cover an ordinary blanket. Our indefatigable quarter- 
 master, Mr. Dyer, looking a-head for the future, got together 
 at the end of winter about 800 of these skins. It must not, 
 however, be supposed that our small party had eaten that 
 number of hares ! The larger part of them were purchased 
 from the Indians, who were ready enough to sell us the skins, 
 but preferred to eat the meat themselves. 
 
 Many an excursion on the frozen river was made by us, 
 many a visit to the fish-traps, or to the snares set in the 
 woods by the Indian women of the Fort. The river at 
 Nulato is, by measurement, from bank to bank, a mile and a 
 quarter, and to an island opposite the station 1000 yards ; 
 and often did we cross it in pursuit of health, exercise, 
 natural history specimens, our daily food, or for sketching 
 purposes. A large log building was put up at a mile from 
 the post, and was intended to serve as a telegraph station ; 
 we all, more or less, took part in the erection of this 
 building. Some future traveller may reap the benefit. 
 
 The principal event of the winter was, undoubtedly, the 
 trip made by Ketchum and Labarge from Nulato to Fort 
 
 x '1 
 
180 PRINCIPAL WINTER TRIP [Chap. XVI. 
 
 Yukon. On the 2nd March, Labarge arrived from TJna- 
 lachleet, bringing with him twenty-two dogs, and " ukalee," 
 or dried salmon, enough for twenty-five or thirty days' use. 
 As it was necessary to keep all of this for the trip, it was 
 no easy matter to feed so many hungry dogs ; nevertheless, 
 we were determined they should start in good condition. 
 We therefore got together every eatable thing that was 
 available, and made a soup for them, as the Russians also do 
 at times, of oil, fish, scraps of meat, bran, and rice. We 
 even sacrificed our last beans for their benefit, and found — 
 contrary to Dr. Kane's experience — that they would eat 
 them, when properly softened. This concoction was stewed 
 slowly on a moderate fire, and when ready, was allowed to 
 cool partially ; it was then turned into a long wooden trough, 
 round which the dogs scrambled and fought, until the last 
 morsels and drops were licked up. It evidently suited them ; 
 they fattened on it. 
 
 Two Ingelete Indians, who had promised to accompany 
 Ketchum, backed out at the last moment, doubtless afraid of 
 travelling so far from their own villages; and their place 
 was filled by Co-Yukons, with the addition of two boys, 
 one of whom proved the best of the batch. At last, on the 
 11th, all their preparations were made, and they started 
 with four sledges ; one of these being exclusively filled with 
 dried fish, and another with the lighter necessaries. We 
 all feared that the trip had been attempted too late ; snow 
 had but recently fallen, and the surface of the river was 
 in as soft a condition as it had been in the early winter. 
 We gave them a good start, helping the sledges through 
 the soft snow ; while Dyer almost brought down one of the 
 old watch-towers, by firing off a rusty unused piece of 
 
Chap. XVI.] OF OUR EXPLORERS. 181 
 
 artillery which he found lying there. The result of this trip 
 I must leave to its proper place in the narrative. 
 
 In place of interspersing the numerous references to 
 Indians among other matters, as in my journal, I have 
 massed them together in the succeeding chapter. As 
 Indians come to Nulato, even from a distance of several 
 hundred miles, we had much opportunity of intercourse 
 with them. 
 
182 CO-YUKON TRIBE. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE CO-YUKON INDIANS. 
 
 Co-Yukon tribe — Fashions — The Nulato massacre — Incidents of the 
 attack — Indian murders — Mourning observances — " Wake " — Four- 
 post Coffins — Superstitions — " Corralling " deer — News travels fast — 
 Furs and trading — Indian women — Indian "goggles." — Children's dolls. 
 
 ' The Co- Yukon is the largest tribe on the Yukon River, and 
 extends virtually from the confluence of the Co-Yukuk 
 River to Nuclukayette at the junction of the Tanana with 
 the Yukon; for, although some of the intervening tribes 
 have local names, yet they speak one dialect, and may fairly 
 be considered as one people. They also inhabit the banks 
 of the Co-Yukuk, and other interior rivers. 
 ( In general appearance they somewhat resemble the In- 
 geletes before mentioned ; but have a wilder and more 
 ferocious cast of feature. -The true Co- Yukon dress is a 
 double-tailed coat, one tail before, and one behind. If the 
 reader will imagine a man dressed in two swallow-tail 
 coats, one of them worn as usual, the other covering 
 his stomach, and buttoned behind, he will get some idea 
 of this garment! Owing to inter-tribal commerce, Male- 
 mute clothing is much seen on the Yukon; but the style 
 just mentioned is regarded as a Co- Yukon fashion, and, 
 with various modifications, is adopted by the other tribes 
 on the upper Yukon for at least a thousand miles of its 
 course. The women's dress is more squarely cut ; and they 
 adopt very much a long ornament of Hy-a-qua shells 
 
Chap. XVII.] NULATO .MASSACRE. 183 
 
 (Dentalium), obtained from both the trading companies on 
 the river. This is worn on the nose, and runs through a 
 hole made in the cartilage between the nostrils. Strange 
 to say, higher up the river, as will be mentioned hereafter, 
 it is the men exclusively who adopt this ornament. The 
 Co-Yukon winter dwellings are underground, the same as 
 those already described. 
 
 These people are much feared by surrounding tribes, and 
 gave the Russians much trouble in the early history of 
 Nulato. Behind the post there is a small burial-ground, 
 where lies one brave Englishman, a lieutenant of our Navy, 
 and a member of Captain (now Admiral) Collinson's ex- 
 pedition, who, in the search for Sir John Franklin, met 
 his death at the hands of these Indians. The narrative 
 of this occurrence, as learnt from the Eussians, is as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Lieutenant Barnard was landed at St. Michael's on October 
 12th, 1850, and remained there till the Commander of the 
 post at Xulato came down in the early winter. He then 
 accompanied this Russian up to the Yukon, travelling there 
 by the route used by ourselves. Mr. Adams, an Assistant- 
 Surgeon, R.N., and one seaman, were left at St. Michael's. 
 On arriving at Nulato, Lieutenant Barnard despatched one 
 of the employes of the Fur Company and an Indian to 
 Co-Yukuk to make some inquiries. The Russian, on arrival 
 there, fell asleep on his sledge, and in the absence of his 
 Indian servant, was killed by the Co-Yukons. The Indian, 
 who had but gone a little way to obtain water, on his 
 return found his master dead, and immediately ran away 
 affrighted. The others beckoned him back, saying they 
 had no intention of injuring him. lie, believing them, 
 
184 NULATO MASSACRE. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 returned, and as he approached, was shot by arrows, and 
 killed also. 
 
 The murderers — numbering, it is said, more than a hundred 
 men — then started down for Nulato. About forty Nulato 
 Indians were congregated in some underground houses, near 
 the mouth of the Nulato Kiver, and not more than a mile 
 from the post. The Co-Yukons surrounded these dwellings, 
 heaped wood, broken canoes, paddles, and snow shoes over 
 the entrance and smoke-holes, and then set them on fire. 
 All of the unfortunate victims below were suffocated, or 
 shot in attempting to escape. Only five or six solitary 
 Nulatos are now in existence. 
 
 Early the next morning the Co-Yukons swarmed into the 
 court-yard of the fort, which then had no picket fence 
 surrounding it. A fatal security reigned among the Kussians, 
 and they had not even secured the doors ; it is said that an 
 Indian woman in the fort knew of the occurrence of the 
 night before; but was afraid to impart her knowledge to 
 the others. Finding the commander outside, they stabbed 
 him in the back repeatedly. He lived for a few minutes, 
 only just managing to stagger into his own doorway. The 
 Indians then rushed into the room where Barnard and 
 another man, an interpreter, were still lying on their beds. 
 They jumped up and grasped their guns and pistols. The 
 Englishman fired several shots, but without much effect, and 
 a powerful struggle ensued. His double gun was afterwards 
 found broken in the stock. At last, numbers overpowered 
 him, and they threw him on the bed, stabbing him re- 
 peatedly. The interpreter was also severely wounded. 
 
 As they came out from this house a Kussian shot at them 
 from the building opposite through a hole in one of the gut 
 
Chap. XVII.] MYSTERY OF THE BUTCHERY. 185 
 
 windows. Instantly an Indian raised his bow and arrow in 
 position, when the Russian again fired and shot him so dead 
 that he fell with the bow and arrow stiff in his grasp. The 
 others immediately dispersed. 
 
 An Indian " Lofka " was at once despatched to St. Michael's 
 with a letter for Mr. Adams, the surgeon there. This native 
 put the paper in his skin boot, and was on the road con- 
 fronted by the Co-Yukons, who examined his blankets and 
 clothes ; they, however, overlooked his boots, and did not 
 therefore discover his ruse. Mr. Adams at once started 
 up; but arrived too late to be of any assistance. The 
 cross and inscribed board on the grave, put up by this 
 gentleman, were last summer (1867) in good preservation. 
 
 The Commander of 2sulato is said to have ill-used these 
 Indians ; but their reason for this wholesale butchery is in- 
 volved in mystery. Admiral Collinson very kindly put his 
 notes of this transaction at my disposal, and I found no 
 essential difference in the two versions of this sad story, 
 excepting only as to whether the Indian murders preceded or 
 followed those of the white men. 
 
 AVe heard of recent brutal murders among themselves; 
 and although we got along well enough with them, they are, 
 undoubtedly, a wilder and more savage race than those of 
 the coast. In the autumn of 1865, an Indian of this tribe 
 went hunting in the mountains with two men, brothers, 
 inhabitants of the same village as himself. In the woods he 
 got them apart on some pretence, and succeeded in killing 
 both. He returned to the village, seized their possessions in 
 fish and furs, and bullied the widow of one of them into 
 living with him. Some of the murdered men's relatives 
 came from a distance to punish this monster; but he learnt 
 
186 . MOURNING OBSERVANCES. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 of their approach in time, and escaped to the forest, taking 
 the woman with him ; up to the time of our leaving he 
 had not been caught, but will eventually meet his reward, 
 as the Indians round were much exasperated at his villany. 
 
 These tribes mourn for the dead one year, and the women 
 during that time often gather together, talking and crying 
 over the deceased. At the expiration of that term, they 
 have a feast or "wake," and the mourning is over. One 
 such entertainment took place at Nulato during our stay, 
 and by special request was allowed to be held in the general 
 barrack of the fort. It was to commemorate the death of a 
 Co- Yukon child, and was a queer mixture of jollity and grief. 
 
 The poor old mother and some of her friends wept bitterly, 
 while the guests were gaily dancing round a painted pole, on 
 which strings of beads and some magnificent wolf skins were 
 hung. They kept up singing, dancing, and feasting to a 
 fashionable hour of the morning ; and one little savage, who 
 had been shouting at the top of his lungs for hours, got up 
 the next day without any voice at all — a case of righteous 
 retribution. The decorations of the pole were divided among 
 those who took part in the " wake." So vigorously did they 
 dance, that the old oven, used in warming the building, 
 shook to its foundations, and part of it fell in. 
 ' They do not inter the dead, but put them in oblong boxes, 
 raised on posts, sometimes decorated with strips of skin hang- 
 ing over them ; sometimes with the possessions of the deceased 
 (as a "baidarre," or other canoe, with paddles, &c.) on the 
 top of the box. Small possessions are often put inside with 
 the corpse. The tomb cannot be better described than as a 
 four-post coffin ! These are common to the coast tribes also. 
 
 They have certain superstitions with regard to the bones of 
 
Chap. XVII.] 
 
 COKEALLING" DEK1J. 
 
 187 
 
 animals, which they will neither throw on the fire nor to the 
 dogs, but save them in their houses or caches. When thev 
 
 Co-Yukon Four-post Coffin. 
 
 saw us careless in such matters, they said it would prevent 
 them from catching or shooting successfully. Also, they will 
 not throw away their hair or nails, just cut short, but save 
 them, sometimes hanging them in packages to the trees. 
 
 The mode of fishing through the ice practised by the 
 Russians is much in vogue with them, and they also have an 
 ingenious mode of catching reindeer in the mountain valleys. 
 A kind of corral, or enclosure, elliptical in form, and open at 
 one end, is made on a deer-trail, generally near the outlet of 
 a wood. The further end of the enclosed space is barricaded ; 
 the sides are built of stakes, with slip-nooses or loops between 
 them. Herds of deer are driven in from the woods, and, 
 trying to break from the trap, generally run their heads into 
 
188 NEWS TRAVELS FAST. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 the nooses, tighten them, and so get caught, or are shot, 
 whilst still bewildered, and running from side to side. Near 
 the opening it is 'common to erect piles of snow, with " port- 
 holes," through which natives hidden shoot at the passing 
 deer. 
 
 It is surprising, in this thinly inhabited country, how fast 
 news of any kind will travel from tribe to tribe. Should a 
 vessel call at St. Michael's, in a week or two it will be known 
 on three parts of the Yukon. During winter false rumours 
 reached our men at the coast station that we had been 
 attacked by Indians, and Captain Ennis immediately sent 
 up, offering assistance. On the other hand, reports, equally 
 false, reached us with regard to the coast parties ; all being 
 probably caused by some petty disagreement, exaggerated 
 from mouth to mouth. 
 
 We once said, jokingly, that if supplies did not come in 
 faster, we should have to eat up the plump babies of the 
 settlement. Before many days elapsed, it was spread all over 
 the country that we were cannibals, and devoured children 
 wholesale! and many a serious enquiry was made about it. 
 Generally speaking, we found it answered our purpose to joke 
 sing, and affect gaiety with them, but we had to be very care- 
 ful what statements we advanced. We told them confidently, 
 however, of the expected advent of a big steamer for the 
 Yukon, as, indeed, we ourselves believed at the time ; but, 
 unless some private individuals do what our Company 
 proposed to do, I am afraid the Indians will think us terrible 
 liars. Many of them went down to see our little steamer, 
 then at the mouth of the Unalachleet Kiver, and it excited a 
 good deal of interest, as they spread the news throughout the 
 country. Few individuals, even of the Co-Yukons, have ever 
 
■ 
 

Chap. XVIL] FURS AND TRADING. 189 
 
 tasted "fire-water." How long that happy state of things 
 will last, remains to be seen. Their smoking habits are the 
 same as those of the coast peoples, modified, of course, by 
 the introduction of pipes of a larger growth, introduced 
 by the trading companies and ourselves. 
 
 The women are often passably pretty, and when living in 
 the forts often improve in habits. They are there sometimes 
 allowed a "steam-bath." They are very fond of playing 
 together, behaving at such times like children, snow-balling 
 each other, rolling each other in the snow, or sliding down 
 banks on sledges or snow shoes. I think they treat their 
 children well, and the young mothers are certainly very fond 
 of their first-born. 
 
 One day in summer, Dall gallantly presented a wild rose to 
 a young Indian damsel. She accepted it graciously, but did 
 not appear to know what to do with it. He put it up to her 
 nose, when she turned away with a "pull ! " as contemptuous 
 as Hamlet's ! It will not, perhaps, do to put this down as a 
 national trait. Of the furs obtained by them, a portion only 
 reached the Eussian forts. Some were accumulated till 
 spring, when at Nuclukayette they could trade them to their 
 neighbours, or to the Hudson's Bay Company. Another 
 part of the trade reaches the coast, and eventually the 
 Tchuktchi natives, as before mentioned. 
 
 Still, in one season at Nulato, the Eussians have taken 
 5000 marten, and large quantities of beaver, with an occa- 
 sional black or silver-grey fox. They did not trade guns or 
 ammunition on the Yukon, and the Indians were very dis» 
 satisfied with both their tariff and goods. Our powder and 
 balls, with some additional supplies contributed by Dall, were 
 invaluable. 
 
190 INDIAN GOGGLES. [Chap. XVII. 
 
 With regard to beads, it was required that they should 
 not be fragile — a strong large porcelain bead was the cor- 
 rect thing; combs were much desired, and looking-glasses 
 were not bad things for trade ; cotton, of various kinds, was 
 much in demand, while trinkets went for very little. They 
 commonly tested beads by rapping them sharply on wood, on 
 the table, &c. If they were not broken, all was well. Flints 
 and steels, knives, and scissors, were all in demand, and 
 soaps and matches would both have been, could we have 
 spared any. Our needs were chiefly confined to the purchase 
 of supplies and skin clothing ; special services were paid for 
 by larger rewards, guns, blankets, or clothing. 
 
 The Co- Yukon dialect is — with slight variations — spoken 
 by the tribes of the middle and lower Yukon, for several 
 hundred miles of its course. The Ingelete dialect, as before 
 mentioned, is closely allied to it. It appears to be totally 
 distinct from those of the coast peoples. In the brief 
 vocabularies of Co- Yukon and Malemute words to be found 
 in the Appendix (V.), there is hardly a word which seems to 
 have a common origin. That the coast natives of Northern 
 Alaska are but Americanised Tchuktchis from Asia, I myself 
 have no doubt ; but where shall we look for the stock from 
 which the Yukon Indians came ? They appear to be more 
 nearly allied to the true North American Indian. These 
 natives very constantly reminded me of Catlin and the older 
 writers, and they almost appeared like old friends. 
 
 In spring, the Co-Yukons, in common with all the sur- 
 rounding tribes, adopt wood "goggles" when hunting or 
 travelling. These are used to prevent the glare of the sun- 
 light on the snow from producing blindness. These " specs " 
 are made of many shapes, all having a narrow slit through 
 
Chap. XV IT.] 
 
 PRECOCIOUS YOUTH. 
 
 191 
 
 which the wearer can see with sufficient distinctness. We 
 wore coloured glasses for the same purpose. 
 
 For the amusement of children, the women manufacture 
 dolls, often very fair copies of themselves or the men, in 
 dress and general appearance. But the children soon 
 develop into men and women ; and, at ten years old, a boy 
 may possess and know how to make good use of a gun, while 
 a girl, at fifteen, may have a husband, or, at all events, be 
 setting snares for one ! 
 
 Co-Yukon Gossles. 
 
192 SPRING. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 CHAPTEE XVIII. 
 
 CANOE JOUKNEY. — ASCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Spring — Thaw — Break-up of the Yukon — Preparations for journey — 
 Our canoes — Start — Dangerous condition of river — Its size — Current 
 
 — Perilous navigation — Submerged islands — Co-Yukuk — Birch-hark 
 fleet — Sachertelontin — Lagoon — Newicargut — Purchase of supplies 
 
 — Tooth-brush experiences — Medicine-making — Indian dissipation — 
 Child's birch-bark chair. 
 
 Although snow covers the ground, and the rivers are frozen, 
 for nearly eight months of the year in Northern Kussian 
 America, winter can hardly be said to exist for that time. As 
 early as April 5th, a thaw occurred, and, though it again got 
 cooler, it proved to us that spring was fast approaching. 
 On the 9th, flies made their appearance, the court-yard of the 
 post became a swamp, and, on the 10th, I found the willows 
 and smaller trees budding. The Kussians at last became con- 
 vinced that winter was over, and commenced clearing the 
 fast-melting snow from the roofs and yard. The houses 
 leaked much, and trenches had to be dug in the enclosure, 
 and round the fort. It was amusing to watch the lazy 
 employes of the Fur Company : their mode of proceeding was 
 somewhat as follows. One Kussian shoveled a few pounds of 
 snow on to a hide. Two others then — with great appearance 
 of fatigue — dragged it slowly to the edge of the bank and 
 dropped it over. This unparalleled exertion rendered it 
 necessary for the trio to sit down and smoke. After an in- 
 terval of repose — and the " bidarshik " making his appearance 
 
Chap. XVIIL] BREAK-UP OF THE YUKON. 193 
 
 — with great zeal and alacrity they started to work again. 
 The "bidarshik," satisfied that they w r ere indefatigable 
 servants of the Company, went in himself to take a nap, or 
 to play a game of cards with his clerk. They repeated the 
 process, and cleared up a few inches more ; it was then time 
 to " chi peat " (drink tea), and they adjourned for the 
 purpose. Their mode of working was on economical princi- 
 ples, each doing as little as he could ; the Company paid 
 them in exact proportion. 
 
 From the 11th to the 25th of April, the weather got 
 cooler, with slight falls of snow. After the latter date, 
 .however, the thermometer rarely fell below freezing point, 
 and, by comparison with our winter experiences, it seemed 
 quite warm. On the 28th of the same month, the first goose 
 from the south arrived, and " Kuriler " was in his element. 
 He frequently scrambled across the opening and fast- 
 thawing ice of the river, to the island opposite our station, 
 remaining there all night, and never returning empty- 
 handed. 
 
 On the 5th May, the Xulato River made a decided break- 
 up ; it had shown many signs of it before, but its ardour 
 had been nipped in the bud. This time it burst in good 
 earnest, and on the 12th it opened still more, and ran out on 
 the top of the Yukon ice, for more than a mile up the great 
 river. In many places the rain had bared the ice from 
 its usual covering of snow ; it is, without doubt, a powerful 
 agent in breaking up these great rivers. The general 
 effect was mess and confusion; the ice dirty, and mixed with 
 logs and debris, and the water, in tortuous streams, running 
 all over its surface. Several person- belonging to the fort, 
 who had been shooting on the island opposite, had much 
 
194 APPEARANCE OF THE YUKON. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 difficulty in getting back ; and Ivan, the " bidarshik," almost 
 came to grief, getting wedged in between loose ice, and 
 up to his neck in water. He was rescued by canoes from 
 the fort. Indians have been carried away, and drowned by 
 an unexpected break-up of the river, and the fish-traps are 
 invariably swept away. 
 
 On the 12th, musquitoes made their first appearance, 
 and on the 13th the swallows arrived, and were flitting 
 round the fort, or building under the eaves of the roof. The 
 indefatigable Kuriler bagged six geese, and, the following 
 day, ten more. The weather was now so warm and sunny, 
 that we felt enervated and oppressed by it. 
 
 19th. — First real break-up of the Yukon, the ice coming 
 down in a steady flow at the rate of five or six knots an hour. 
 For several days afterwards this continued, and was an excit- 
 ing scene after the monotony of the winter. A constant 
 stream of broken ice passed the station, now surging into 
 mountains as it met with some obstacle, now grinding and 
 crashing on its way, and carrying all before it. Whole trees 
 and banks were swept away before its victorious march, 
 and the river rose some fourteen feet above its winter level. 
 On the 22nd, a quantity of "black ice," i.e. ice discoloured 
 by some very dark-looking earth, went by. By the 24th, the 
 river was beginning to clear. 
 
 The varied conditions in which we found the ice would 
 make a very interesting study. Some of it was beauti- 
 fully clear, representing perfect ice, whilst a larger pro- 
 portion seemed to be in a sodden, half water-logged state. 
 One variety appeared to be riddled or honeycombed, whilst 
 a very common kind appeared to be in a rotten, yet crystalline 
 condition. When this struck against a second floating lump. 
 
Chap. XVIII.] PREPARATIONS FOR JOURNEY. 195 
 
 it cracked into a thousand fragments, and there was a constant 
 sound as of the smashing of glass. As before stated, much 
 dirt, and that of many shades, was mingled with the ice, and 
 the water was as discoloured as that of the Thames at London. 
 Much well-packed snow still remained on the miniature 
 floating bergs ; and trees, whole or in fragments, came down 
 imbedded in them. The Russians often dragged quantities 
 of this drift-wood ashore, and kept it for fuel and building 
 purposes. Our man Pickett was set to work in the same 
 way, and succeeded in collecting a good quantity. 
 
 All was now activity: the Russians preparing for their 
 spring trading excursion, Dall and myself for our projected 
 trip, and Mr. Dyer for his journey down the river to its 
 mouths, where he expected to meet Mr. Everett Smith — a 
 gentleman of our service, employed in taking soundings 
 there. Provisions and goods had to be selected, weighed 
 out, and packed : guns and pistols cleaned : and oars and 
 paddles manufactured by the dozen. 
 
 The skins from our " baidarre " and Mr. Dyer's three-holed 
 " baidarke " were taken off their frames, re-patched in rotten 
 places, soaked in water, &c, and then again put on, well 
 oiled, and fat rubbed into the seams. By the 25th we were 
 all ready and anxious to get away. Although it was raining 
 hard on the morning of the 26th, at 7 a.m.. Mr. Dyer, with 
 two Indians, left us to descend the river, and by eight 
 o'clock the Russians and ourselves made our start up. The 
 Russians, with Indian workmen, numbered eight persons, 
 under the direction of our friend " Ivan," the head man and 
 trader of the Nulato Fort. Their skin boat was of large 
 size, had a rudder, mast, and large square-sail : it carried 
 over two ions of goods and provisions. Our craft \n as a much 
 
 o 2 
 
196 DESCRIPTION OF THE YUKON. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 smaller skin boat, yet carried five persons, a tent, blankets, 
 cooking utensils, and guns, two bags of biscuit (100 lbs.), 
 150 lbs. of flour, with smaller packages. Our crew comprised 
 Kuriler, as steersman, and two Indians, — one a representative 
 of the Ingeletes, the other, of the Co-Yukons. Dall and 
 myself paddled usually, while the others rowed: we also 
 carried a sail, but no rudder; Kuriler steered us with a 
 paddle, and helped us along at the same time. The river was 
 still full of ice and drift-wood, and navigation was difficult. 
 The only way of ascending the stream was by keeping near, 
 generally very near the banks. We had frequently to cross 
 and recross the .stream to get into quieter water, and at such 
 times exerted ourselves specially, so that we might not lose 
 much by the operation. As it was, we usually drifted down 
 half a mile or so. 
 
 How shall I, in few words, describe this immense stream, 
 one that our men were wont to compare with the Mississippi ! 
 At Nulato, which is 600 miles above its mouths — as before 
 stated, — it is from bank to bank one mile and a quarter 
 wide, while in other places it opens out into lagoons, four 
 to five miles in width, studded with innumerable islands. 
 Our explorers have travelled up it 1800 miles. Its tribu- 
 taries — to be hereafter mentioned — would be lame rivers in 
 Europe, and I can therefore understand the proud boast 
 uttered by a native of its banks, and translated for our 
 benefit, — " We are not savages, we are Yukon Indians ! " 
 
 About a mile above Nulato, steep cliffs abut on the west 
 side of the river, showing a sandstone formation, with shale 
 intermingled, and with numerous plants and ferns growing at 
 their base. About noon we stopped for tea ; a fire was soon 
 made on a very shelving bank, not selected from choice, but 
 
Chap. XVIII.] DANGERS OF THE NAVIGATION. 197 
 
 from necessity. A small creek of limpid ice-cold water was 
 near it, and we enjoyed a simple lunch, and then resumed 
 our trip. 
 
 We had proceeded but a short distance when we came to 
 turns of the river, round which logs and ice, and drift-wood, 
 were sweeping at a great rate. It was absolutely necessary 
 for one man at this time to stand in the bows of the canoe, 
 with a pole shod at one end with iron, to push away the 
 masses of ice and tangle of drift wood, lest a collision should 
 ensue. We saw large trees pass under the Kussians' canoe, 
 and positively lift it for a moment out of the water, although 
 it weighed at least three tons and had eight men on board. 
 This can be understood by taking into consideration the 
 great momentum that a floating mass acquires when sweep- 
 ing at the rate of six or eight miles an hour, and itself 
 somewhat sunken by the rapidity of the current. Had the 
 same logs struck the canoe broadside, or directly in the bows, 
 in all probability a serious disaster would have occurred. 
 We could often feel the ice and logs rolling and scraping 
 under the keel of our canoe, and it was a very uncomfortable 
 sensation. It was not the thickness of a plank between us 
 and destruction, but simply that of a piece of seal-skin, an 
 eighth or a tenth of an inch thick. Still a skin boat has 
 its advantages ; the tough flexible skin will give for several 
 inches without necessarily tearing. It is in such a river 
 infinitely safer, and will stand more wear and tear than 
 the cedar canoes of British Columbia ; and birch-barks — 
 at least while there is yet a flow of ice in the water — are 
 evidently very unsafe craft. On the other hand, we found 
 that the seams where the skins were sewn together were 
 very liable to rip, — especially on the flat bottom of the 
 
198 PUT ON OUR METTLE. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 canoe, — when passing over logs and ice, or stones and 
 " snags," in shallow water. 
 
 At one of the above-mentioned bluffs so difficult was it 
 to proceed, that the Kussians, after vainly struggling against 
 the current, gave in, drifted down a little way, and then 
 camped. Our steersman grinned, and asked whether we 
 also meant to turn back, or whether we would run all 
 risks, and try to cross the great torrent into quieter water 
 by the other bank. We immediately saw a brilliant chance 
 of distinguishing ourselves, and told him we would proceed. 
 The Kussians had rather pooh-poohed the notion of Dall 
 and myself — both comparatively young men — ever reaching 
 Fort Yukon ; so we were on our mettle, and paddled and 
 rowed with great vigour. We had many a close shave 
 with the floating ice and wood, and sometimes had to stop 
 and drift down to let some more than usually cumbersome 
 mass pass on its way; but by Kuriler's excellent steering 
 we crossed safely, and then travelled along the bank for some 
 distance a-head of our Muscovite friends. Nothing could 
 exceed the glee of our Indians, and they could not under- 
 stand how Dall and myself could show 7 no more excitement 
 about it, overjoyed as we evidently were. We at length 
 came to a comparatively dry spot on some low ground, and 
 made our camp. It was on the east side of the river, and the 
 land was level for some distance back. It terminated at a 
 distance of thirty miles in the snow-capped range of the 
 T'Kitske Mountains. We had included a tow-line in our 
 apparatus, but no tracking was possible for a week after this 
 date ; many of the lower banks and islands were submerged. 
 We erected our tents, and indeed needed them, as it rained 
 incessantly. 
 
Chap. XVIIL] BIfiCH-BARK FLEET. 199 
 
 27th. — Started at 3 a.m., and proceeded with rather less 
 difficulty, finding* the water comparatively quiet between 
 the numerous islands. Many of them were entirely sub- 
 merged, and we floated over some of the lesser tree-tops. 
 At noon, we arrived at the Co-Yukuk village and river : 
 stopped at the home of our Co- Yukon boatman, and bought 
 a large pike there — a not uncommon fish on the river. Hard 
 by was an Indian four-post grave-box inclosed with rails, and 
 a flag waving over it. 
 
 Near this spot the "Co-Yukuk Sofka," or mountain, 
 terminated on the river in a very grand and steep sand- 
 stone bluff of castellated appearance, perpendicular strata 
 taking the place of the more usual horizontal formation. 
 Round its rugged base the water swept with terrific force, 
 and we had again to cross the river, which at this point 
 makes a great bend to the eastward. 
 
 We passed several, small encampments of Indians, and 
 were accompanied by a fleet of canoes, their owners all 
 bound for the annual trading meetings at Newicargut and 
 Nuclukayette. Their canoes were of birch-bark, covering 
 a well constructed and light frame of willow and birch, and 
 varied in length from eight to sixteen feet, according as 
 they were intended for one or three persons. The seams 
 of these frail barks are sewn with the finer roots of spruce- 
 fir, and are caulked with spruce-gum. When a leak is 
 discovered, they go ashore, light a small fire, warm the 
 gum, — of which they always carry a supply, — turn the canoe 
 bottom upwards, and rub the healing balm in a semi-fluid 
 state into the seam until it is again water-tight. Single 
 paddles are usually adopted; double ones, like those used 
 by the Greenlander in his "kyack," are occasionally sen. 
 
200 OUR TRAVELLING COMPANIONS. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 It is a common thing for them to use no paddles at all in 
 shallow water, but simply stakes or poles (like small stilts) 
 in either hand; and they will sometimes stand up when 
 progressing in this way. 
 
 Each man had some little dried meat, but trusted mainly 
 to finding something by the way. They surrounded our 
 camp with hungry looks ; our plan was to give to those 
 only who worked for us. Occasionally we allowed our 
 Indians, when fatigued, to change with some of the owners 
 of these birch-barks, and so kept our crew fresh. Steady 
 exertion is foreign to them, and they made a great fuss 
 over any trifling blisters raised on their hands in the un- 
 accustomed exertion of rowing. Still, they behaved better 
 than I had expected, and little Mikeshker, our Ingftlete, 
 was a capital fellow, the first to volunteer in anything 
 that was to be done. Some of the Indians travelling up 
 with us had cotton -drill tents made by themselves in imita- 
 tion of the Eussians ; our own men usually rigged up our 
 sail into a shelter tent. 
 
 Ivan, in the evening, gave us some wild -duck eggs he had 
 obtained in trading; they were not plentiful at this part 
 of the river. We camped on the east side of the river, 
 after a long search for a spot of dry land. 
 
 28£A. — Made an early start, 1 a.m., and crossed the river 
 three times, once where it was two miles wide. A light 
 breeze enabled us to use our sail with fair effect. We found 
 at this part of the river some tall straight poplars, all, how- 
 ever, with a curious bend, or " kink," near the top. We 
 passed several Indian graves and camps. The Russians, on 
 nearing any Indian locality, announced their arrival by 
 firing a large flint-lock gun, something of the calibre of a 
 
Chap. XVIII.] SACHERT ELOXTIN. - LAGOOX. 201 
 
 whaling gun. We camped about 2 p.m.' on a steep bank. 
 Kain fell in tlie evening, and it was almost welcomed, as 
 it kept off the musquitoes. 
 
 On the 30th we waited over a whole day in camp to 
 regrease our "baidarre." The Eussians did the same, and 
 our Indian friends also, *so that there was a large encamp- 
 ment. It rained incessantly. 
 
 olst. — We passed the fishing-village of Sachertelontin. 
 
 From this point I kept a constant running survey (bearings 
 
 * 
 
 and apparent distances). Our only authority — the map of 
 Zagoskin — terminates about this point. (With many wind- 
 ings, the general direction to Fort Yukon is N.E. magnetic ; 
 and so little does it vary from this that my notes contain 
 little else but points ranging from N. to E.) 
 
 1st June. — We arrived at a large opening or lagoon on 
 the river, about eight miles long, and five wide. It ran 
 in an easterly direction, and had several large islands in it. 
 At its termination the river again narrowed. Sandstone 
 bluffs and some crasrs of conglomerate bordered the lasfoon. 
 Within three days we obtained one heron, two or three 
 ducks and geese, and a few eggs; also some beaver-meat. 
 The heron was decidedly tough eating ; the beaver-meat was 
 very musk-like in flavour ; the tail alone excepted, which is 
 the trapper's greatest luxury, and was really delicious. 
 
 The natives here, when very short of supplies, eat the 
 flesh of marten, owls, hawks, &c, but it is from necessity 
 rather than choice. They "ken eat crow, tho' they don't 
 hanker arter it." In point of fact, I noticed these luxuries 
 generally fell to the lot of the old people, who do not have a 
 very pleasant time of it, if they happen to get feeble or 
 <l<erepit. They arc not ill used. Imt simply neglected. 
 
202 THE MELOZECAKGUT RIVER. [Chap. XV1IL 
 
 At this part of the river's banks, we found the spruce-fir 
 unusually large, and the river itself was full of great natural 
 rafts of trees and drift-wood, which came whirling down with 
 great rapidity in the ever varying current. Now they would 
 seem to be gliding along steadily, when, all at once, they got 
 into an eddy and spun round, so that you could not answer for 
 their course. They frequently scraped and jarred against 
 our canoe, and steering had to be an ever watchful 
 operation. 
 
 2nd. — Large mountains to the N.N.E.,— the Suquonyilla 
 range. We reached the mouth of a large stream, the Melo- 
 zecargut Kiver, which enters, from the N. W. (the termination 
 cargut simply means "small river" in the Co- Yukon dialect; 
 be it observed that the Melozecargut is only small by com- 
 parison with the Yukon). We passed a large log of maple 
 lying on the beach ; our men found none growing below 
 Fort Selkirk, so that it must have travelled from some point 
 very near the head- waters of the Yukon. The afternoon was 
 so intensely warm that we slept for several hours on the 
 bank, resuming our trip in the evening, and travelling till 2 
 a.m. on the 3rd. On this latter day we started early, and 
 camped with the Kussians, in the early afternoon, opposite 
 Newicargut, one of the most important halting-places on the 
 river. The chief came over to us in the night, and invited us 
 at once to the village, and we broke camp, and returned with 
 him. On the S.E. side of the Yukon, we found a compara- 
 tively narrow opening, leading into a kind of bay, into which 
 the Newicargut Kiver empties itself. The Russians and our- 
 selves saluted the village with a miscellaneous discharge from 
 revolvers, carbines, and shot guns, as is the delight of all the 
 Indians of the country, and they returned the compliment 
 
Chap. XVIII. j NEWICAPGUT— PURCHASE OF SUPPLIES. '203 
 
 with great zest. Our man, Kuriler, blazed away, until we 
 had to threaten to take away his powder-flask. 
 
 Here we met about 150 
 Indians, of a highly deco- 
 rated and painted kind, 
 wearing almost universally 
 the double - tailed coat, 
 much ornamented with bead 
 trimmings, and elaborately- 
 worked fire - bags, knife- 
 sheaths, and belts. They 
 were almost all of them 
 living in either cotton-drill 
 tents made by themselves, 
 or in open booths, con- 
 structed of poles set up and 
 tied together, roof fashion ; 
 a few green boughs, pieces 
 of birch bark and skins 
 covering them. Little fires 
 were burning everywhere, 
 to keep off the musquitoes. 
 The weather was intensely 
 warm, the thermometer 
 standing at 72° in the shade. 
 
 While the Kussians were busily trading for beaver, 
 marten, and other furs, Dall purchased about 250 lbs. of 
 dried deer and moose meat and fat, and also a kind of 
 native pemmican. He very kindly undertook this part 
 of the performance, my line of business was exclusively 
 managing the crew and the travelling arrangements. An 
 
 Yukon- Fire-bag, Knife and Sheath, &<\ 
 
204 MEDICINE-MAKING. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 extra canoe was bought, and two Indians engaged to navi- 
 gate it; it was a sort of tender to our craft. We were 
 not well provided with trading goods, and both Dall and 
 myself had, in common with many of our men elsewhere, to 
 find a good deal for the necessary payments, presents to 
 chiefs, &c. Spare shirts, socks, pocket or sheath knives, and 
 other possessions, gradually melted from our gaze. At this 
 place, the Newicargut chief asked me for my towel and soap, 
 and as he had been useful in whipping up supplies for us, I 
 let him have them, knowing that Dall was pretty well pro- 
 vided in this matter. But here it did not rest, he saw me 
 with a tooth-brush, and wanted that also. I need not say 
 he did not get it ; but the future traveller should either cut 
 down his own kit to the lowest standard, or take all the 
 little luxuries of life by the dozen. Much the same sort of 
 thing once befell me in an airy board-and-shingle "hotel" 
 in Cariboo, where I found a miner (evidently from Pike 
 County, Missouri) who was engaged in cleaning up quartz 
 specimens with my tooth-brush, of the use of which he was 
 totally ignorant. Seeing a just perceptible shade of annoy- 
 ance flitting over my face, he asked me whether I wanted 
 it ? I assured him I had done with it for ever. 
 
 In the evening of the 4th, " Larrione," a Co-Yukon, made 
 medicine over a sick man. A group of Indians encircled the 
 invalid; in the midst of them burnt a dim fire. A mono- 
 tonous chorus in an undertone was kept up, whilst Larrione 
 went through an elaborate performance, some details of 
 which would be unfit for the reader's perusal. Now he 
 appeared to draw the evil spirit from the sick man, and, 
 wrestling with it, throw it on the fire, and then repelled, ran 
 wildly from it with mock terror and affright. Now it had 
 
Chap. XVIII.] INDIAN DISSIPATION. 205 
 
 possession of him, and he gesticulated, groaned, and frothed 
 at the mouth — the whole accompanied by a recitative, 
 artistically managed in connection with the chorus. The 
 affair was not unlike a weird scene in a sensation drama, 
 taking into consideration the accessories — the overhanging 
 trees, the twilight, the dim fire. 
 
 At last, the performance assumed a gayer tinge, the chorus 
 
 « 
 
 grew louder and livelier; the man was supposed to be dis- 
 possessed, and he hobbled from the scene. I should imagine 
 that the Indians were very divided in opinion on Larrione's 
 skill ; some, from the expression of their faces, were appa- 
 rently impressed, others seemed to laugh his pretensions to 
 scorn, and to look on the whole thing as a farce. 
 
 The Indians on the river had, in the summer time, a 
 peculiarly haggard appearance, caused apparently from in- 
 cessant dissipation! They were constantly dancing, sing- 
 ing, or eating, and slept but little. The perpetual day- 
 light of the short summer has a wakening tendency, except 
 when one is thoroughly fatigued, and the natives seemed to 
 feel it. 
 
 I saw at this village, and elsewhere on the river, small 
 chairs composed of birch-bark, intended for the use of 
 children. The engraving explains their shape, and shows 
 the arrangement of a piece of wood so placed that the child's 
 limbs are not likely to become bow-shaped ! The infant sits 
 comfortably on a layer of moss, and is often carried on 
 the maternal back on such a contrivance. The sketch is 
 respectfully dedicated to the mothers of England, and any 
 enterprising Oxford-street baby-jumper or rocking-chair 
 maker is welcome to the idea. 
 
 If birch-bark is not to be obtained, let him substitute papier 
 
206 
 
 CHILD'S BIRCH-BARK CHAIR. [Chap. XVIII. 
 
 mache or gutta percha. Through the child's nose will be 
 seen a miniature ornament, like that already described in 
 connection with Indian children of a larger growth. In this 
 case also " all rights are " not " reserved." 
 
 Indian Child's Birch-bark Chair. 
 
Chap. XIX.] MEET A DESERTER. 207 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 canoe joueney {continued) — ASCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Meet a deserter — Indian taste for " Nigger " minstrelsy — Tracking — 
 Lagoon — Piles of drift-wood — Nuclukayette — Unsophisticated Indians 
 — Ceremony — Leave the Russians — The Indian's head — Mountain 
 gorge — Indian dogs — Canoe leak — The rapids — The " Ramparts " — 
 Moose-hunting — Islands — Overhanging banks — Shallows — Shortest 
 night — First English Indians — Porcupine River — Fort Yukon. 
 
 June 5 th. — We got off about 5 a.m., and travelled till the 
 noonday heat compelled us to camp for a time. The evening 
 and early morning are the only times for travelling in this 
 country during the brief summer. Few would believe that here, 
 almost in the latitude of Bering Straits, it was nearly 80° in 
 the shade, and the effect was nearly doubled by the fact that 
 this heat followed so closely on the intense cold of winter. 
 We wished, as far as possible, to accompany the Eussian 
 traders, or we would long ere this have travelled exclusively 
 by night ; but they preferred the day, for reasons best known 
 to themselves. After we left them we followed our own ideas 
 in this matter. 
 
 In the cooler afternoon we again started, and were pro- 
 ceeding steadily, when we were surprised to see — a little 
 way ahead — a large fire on the beach. Irfdians rarely make 
 such, but prefer to sit — even in winter — shivering over a 
 few sticks, and we felt sure that it must be the camp of a 
 white traveller or travellers. We landed, ran up to the 
 
208 THE DESERTER'S HE 
 
 place, and found standing there a deserter from the Hudson 
 Bay Company's fort. He had, with one Indian, descended 
 the river thus far, when his canoe had upset, and his few 
 worldly possessions, including his gun, had gone to the bottom. 
 He and his companion had managed to get ashore, clinging 
 to the canoe, and were now calmly drying their clothes, wait- 
 ing for something to " turn up." We of course fraternised, 
 and supplied them with a few necessaries. The " white man " 
 — very slightly the whiter of the two, by-the-bye — declared 
 that our supper that night beat anything he had eaten for 
 years. Ivan, who camped near us, immediately asked him to 
 " chi peat," and gave him a blanket. We tried to induce 
 him to return with us, which he would have done willingly 
 enough, but for the fear of being treated as a deserter. Poor 
 fellow, he had experienced a hard life for many years, and 
 some real or fancied grievance at Fort Yukon had caused him 
 to take this step. He had been in the Company's service for 
 a long period, and had entered it when quite a youth. 
 
 We learnt subsequently that he made his way to St. 
 Michael's, and got away on a vessel touching there. As he 
 had been through a large part of the Hudson Bay and 
 Russian American Companies' posts from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific, he had certainly made the " North-west-passage " by 
 land with a vengeance. 
 
 6th. — Bidding adieu to the stranger in the afternoon, we 
 travelled steadily till 4 a.m. on the 7th. There was no dark- 
 ness whatever — night was no night : a subdued twilight 
 stood in its place, and the sunset glow never left the horizon 
 till it merged in sunrise. The Indians worked steadily for 
 Indians ; we did our best to keep them in a good humour, 
 and they were specially fond of harmony. I will guarantee 
 
Chap. XIX.] TRACKING. 209 
 
 that any future traveller on the river, within the next few 
 years, will hear snatches of " nigger " minstrelsy which we 
 taught them. They readily acquired simple tunes; their 
 great favourites were " Marching through Georgia," and 
 " Excelsior." The latter, with its insane chorus of Upidee- 
 idee-ida ! is well adapted for any nation, people, or tongue. 
 
 The water had now fallen several feet, and we began to 
 get a good deal of tracking. Our Indians were sometimes 
 barefooted, but more commonly wore the water (or summer) 
 boots of the country, i. e., boots made entirely from seal-skin 
 well greased, and waterproof, and varying only in length. 
 The work was no joke ; now they were floundering in slimy 
 mud, now climbing over logs or round small rocky bluffs, 
 with the line fixed to their shoulders, and the current making 
 the canoe drag on them. The steersman had enough to do 
 to keep the boat off shore or out of too shallow water. We 
 again entered a lagoon of the river, running in a northerly 
 direction for twenty-five miles, with high bluffs on the east 
 side, and, as usual, full of islands. Rounding one of these 
 appeared an interminable journey, and Dall seriously asked 
 me to turn the canoe round ; he considered we were in some 
 tributary of the Yukon! We at last reached the main 
 stream, however ; the island was fifteen miles in length. 
 
 On the 7th we passed low swampy land, whose principal 
 production appeared to be musquitoes, and early on the 
 8th reached the mouth of a large stream entering from the 
 W., and known by the Indians as the Towshecargut River. 
 At the confluence we found an immense pile of drift-wood, 
 perhaps fifty feet high, the accumulation of ages. We 
 lighted our fire near it, took our regular dose of tea, and 
 then proceeded on our journey. We again got a favourable 
 
210 UNSOPHISTICATED INDIANS. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 breeze for a short time. The river there was very wide, with 
 many islands. / In the evening we made the junction of the 
 Tanana River and the Yukon, between which, on a tongue of 
 land, Nuclukayette, an Indian trading ground of importance, 
 is situated.— We purposely passed it by nearly two miles, and 
 then, with the Russians and a whole fleet of Indian canoes, 
 crossed the river, so that with drifting down we should just 
 make the village. On arrival the Russians fired their large 
 gun, and we kept up a running volley from our miscellaneous 
 collection of arms. 
 
 /This place is the furthest point ever reached by the 
 Russian traders, and is about 240 miles above Nulato. 
 Within the last two or three years some of the Hudson 
 Bay Company's men have also come down with trading 
 goods to this village. Hither come Indians from all quarters. 
 Co-Yukons, JSTewicarguts, Tananas, and even the Kotch-a- 
 kutchins from Fort Yukon. On some occasions their gather- 
 ings have numbered 600 persons. The Tananas had not 
 arrived, but we met a number afterwards. I believe them 
 to be the most unsophisticated Indians to be met with at the 
 present day. They were gay with painted faces, feathers in 
 their long hair, patches of red clay at the back of their heads 
 covered with small fluffy feathers, double-tailed coats and 
 pantaloons of buckskin much adorned with fringes and beads, 
 and elaborately-worked fire-bags and belts.— They reminded 
 me of the ideal North American Indian I had read of but 
 never seen. 
 
 On landing at this village a ceremony had to be gone 
 through, possibly to test whether we had "strong hearts" 
 or not. The Indians already there, advanced, whooping, 
 yelling, and brandishing their guns till they reached us, and 
 
TAN AN A INDIAN 
 
Chap. XIX.] LEAVE THE RUSSIANS. 211 
 
 then discharged them in the air. We, with the Indians just 
 arrived, returned the compliment, and then the chief whose 
 acquaintance we had made during winter came forward and 
 welcomed us. This man had treated Ketchum and Labarge 
 very well in their trip in the winter, and they had left a 
 letter for us, asking us to give him powder, &c. We found 
 this place almost bare of provisions ; the Indians dancing and 
 singing all the same with empty stomachs, knowing that the 
 season for moose-hunting was at hand. The chief and some 
 others brought us small quantities of sweet fat. 
 
 We had expected to meet Antoine Houle, a half-breed 
 interpreter from the English fort ; but he had left the day 
 before we arrived, having traded all his goods. He had 
 virtually been starved out of this village. We despatched an 
 Indian " express " after him, to ask him to wait and bear us 
 company; but the man returned without succeeding in reach- 
 ing him, having delayed by the way to shoot two moose. 
 
 9th. — We rested here till half-past three o'clock in the 
 afternoon, and then bade adieu to our Kussian friends. We 
 hired an Indian from the Nuclukayette village, in place of 
 one of those from Newicargut ; and he proved a good, sturdy, 
 steady-going native, with an intimate acquaintance with the 
 great river. Several canoes again accompanied us, each with 
 a wooden bowl or birch-bark basket of embers on board, the 
 smoke from which kept off the musquitoes, and enabled the 
 travellers to raise a fire ashore at camp time, or when their 
 craft required repairs. Among our Indian escort at this time 
 were # some Tananas. I have spoken of the patches of red clay 
 stuck on the back of their heads, and their purpose, which 
 is one of adornment. But when they are not in full dress, 
 when the feathers have tumbled out and left a mass of fluff 
 
212 THE INDIAN'S HEAD. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 and dirt in the hair, it has a very disagreeable appearance. 
 The first time I observed it I supposed the man had some 
 terrible head disease, and offered him a small piece of soap, 
 requesting him at the same time to keep out of my tent till 
 he had washed himself. He took the soap, smiled at my 
 ignorance of the fashions, and went away. I suspect his 
 head is unwashed to the present day. It is a question 
 whether he had ever before seen soap. 
 
 Immediately above Nuclukayette the river narrows, and is 
 shut in by wooded hills and craggy heights. From this 
 point we travelled exclusively by night, or by what stood in 
 its place. As we had two men navigating our birch-bark ten- 
 der, we were able to change our crew occasionally, and keep 
 all pretty fresh. Birch-barks are so easily navigated that I 
 should adopt them exclusively if travelling in that country 
 again. The dogs belonging to the Indians with us went the 
 ^larger part of the journey by land, and often had a good deal 
 of trouble in getting round the cliffs jutting into the river. 
 When we crossed the stream — an event of constant occur- 
 rence — they swam after us through very swift rapids, and 
 where there was a width of half or three-quarters of a mile. 
 These dogs had a better time of it, though, than those at 
 the Kussian forts, where it was usual in summer to let 
 them forage for themselves. Here they always got some- 
 thing given them, and often fed luxuriously. They proved 
 of a good deal of use, as they constantly scoured the woods 
 for something eatable. In the evening they found a 
 young moose, which they surrounded till the Indians, were 
 enabled to kill it. We travelled this night about twenty-six 
 miles. 
 
 Early in the morning of the 10th we found our skin 
 
Chap. XIX.] THE EAPIDS. 213 
 
 boat leaking badly from having touched on rocks. We 
 immediately went ashore, and found too large slits ripped 
 in the seams. Fortunately, Indian women among those 
 accompanying us were ready to sew the places for a con- 
 sideration of a (penny) looking-glass, and a few trifles, to 
 which we added a cup of tea with a little broken biscuit 
 floating on the top of it — a ruse worthy of the traveller's 
 notice whose supply may be limited. The biscuit swells 
 considerably, and looks imposing, while it serves to disguise 
 the weakness of the tea ! 
 
 10th, 11th. — Started about 2 p.m., and again tracked the 
 larger part of the distance. Travelled generally in a N.N.E. 
 direction. In the evening we came to the " Rapids ;" an exag- 
 gerated account of which, derived from the Russians, had made 
 us fear that we might find great difficulty in passing them. 
 The river here is comparatively narrow, and a long island 
 of rocks, at that time submerged, makes an obstruction, 
 and the water boils, fumes, and frets around them. But 
 there is a clear channel on either side ; that on the west 
 side is especially good. There were other rocks more or 
 less submerged, and the water was very strong, running 
 perhaps seven knots. For the greater part of the way we 
 tracked from rocks on the west side, occasionally having 
 to take our Indians on board, and -paddle with great vigour. 
 It would be easy to make this a sensational affair, but in 
 truth we passed them without great difficulty. A steamer 
 could go through them, except perhaps for the first fort- 
 night in June, when the water is at its strongest. A good 
 deal, however, depends on the height of the water. Ket- 
 chum, the previous year, found it ten feet higher, and 
 therefore could not track from the rocky bank. The water 
 
214 THE "RAMPARTS." [Chap. XIX. 
 
 had fallen at this time at least twelve feet (from its highest 
 point of the season). 
 
 The heights surrounding the gorge we were now passing 
 through are known (at Fort Yukon) as the "Kamparts," 
 from crags and rocks of castellated structure which tower 
 grandly above the river. 
 
 The Indians brought Dall a fossil tooth of a large size, 
 and there is little doubt that some interesting collections 
 might be made in this direction. See Appendix (VI.). 
 
 A small stream enters the Yukon about six miles above 
 the " Kapids " on the west side, known as the Klakin- 
 ikot Kiver. The dogs found a porcupine, and one of the 
 Indians shot it. 
 
 We camped at 4 a.m., finding wild gooseberry and currant 
 bushes on the bank. I had previously seen a quantity of 
 wild rhubarb, which the Indians gather in quantities, and 
 it really was very little inferior in flavour to the cultivated 
 kind. The wild rose was everywhere abundant. 
 
 11th, 12th. — We made a start at half-past 4 p.m., still 
 passing through a mountain gorge, but of a more open 
 nature. About 9 p.m. found we. had again damaged our 
 canoe, and stopped to repair it. 
 
 This part of the river abounds with moose. At this 
 season the musquitoes in the woods are a terrible scourge, 
 and even the moose cannot stand it. He plunges into the 
 water, and wades or swims as the case may be, often making 
 for the islands.* This is therefore a favourite part of the 
 Yukon for the Indian hunter. The moose are scarce below 
 
 * In some cases the Indians in numbers surround an island known to 
 have moose or reindeer on it, and a regular battae ensues. 
 
Chap. XIX.] MOOSE-HUNTING. •> 1 5 
 
 Nuclukayette, and never known as low as Nulato. They 
 must, however, be abundant on the smaller rivers ; as, for 
 example, on the Newicargut, where the meat obtained was 
 nearly all of this animal. In winter, it is said, the Indians 
 can, by following them on snow shoes, tire them out, and 
 so get near enough to kill them. 
 
 Later in the evening the dogs found one near the river, 
 and fastened on him, and he was soon despatched. In the 
 water he is a very clumsy animal. The meat is excellent; 
 far above deer or even reindeer meat, and its nose, properly 
 stewed down, is a great luxury ; better to my mind than the 
 other extremity of the beaver, its tail, which is everywhere 
 considered something specially delicious. 
 
 But for the occasional excitement of hunting, our trip 
 on this part of the river would have been very monotonous. 
 
 On the 13th June the dogs again routed a moose out of 
 the woods, and we easily shot it. Early the next morning 
 we shot a second. On the evening of the 15th we were 
 proceeding steadily when we saw a cow-moose with a calf 
 following her, swimming for the very bank that we must 
 pass, and paying no attention whatever to us, although we 
 made a good deal of noise. I instantly jumped ashore, 
 and ran along the beach, but the mother was too quick 
 for me, and managed to get into the woods. I shot the 
 calf, with some qualms of conscience, I must admit. It 
 proved the very finest meat we had tasted ; others were shot 
 subsequently by us, and one was killed in the water by the 
 knife of an Indian. The natives do not always waste powder 
 and shot over them, but get near the moose, manoeuvring 
 round in their birch-bark canoes till the animal is fatigued, 
 and then stealthily approach and stab it in the heart or 
 
216 
 
 SHOKTEST NIGHT. 
 
 [Chap. XIX. 
 
 loins. When full grown they weigh 700 lbs. and upwards, 
 and have been obtained 1200 lbs. in weight. 
 
 As long as we were among the 
 "Bamparts" we tracked constantly 
 from the beach, but on the 15th 
 we emerged from the gorge, and 
 found the river again opening out 
 into lagoons and shallows with in- 
 numerable islands. The banks are 
 much worn away and undermined 
 by the current. It is no uncommon 
 thing to find trees growing with 
 their roots dangling in the air, and 
 only supported by a little moss- 
 bound earth. These are, of course, 
 frequently falling in. It was some- 
 times difficult to avoid getting our 
 canoe half-filled with loose earth 
 which was slipping from these " lean- 
 ing" banks, and the edges of the 
 river were much obstructed by half- 
 sunken trees and logs. We fre- 
 quently tracked from the water, our men proceeding care- 
 fully for long distances in apparently interminable shallows. 
 Our baidarre seams ripped frequently, and needed constant 
 sewing ; and travel was therefore somewhat harassing. 
 
 19£A, 20tA.— The water alternately strong and shallow, 
 sometimes both together. Early on the 20th a terrific rain 
 cloud burst over us : at last we gave in from sheer fatigue, 
 drenched to the skin. We soon made all right by raising a 
 gigantic fire near a pile of driftwood. On other American 
 
 Yukon Indian's Knife. 
 
Chap. XIX.] PORCUPINE RIVER. 217 
 
 rivers wood for a steamer is sometimes a matter of difficulty ; 
 here it is ready, only requiring to be cut into lengths. 
 
 21st, 22nd. — We knew that we could not be far from our 
 destination, and travelled hard to make it. This was the 
 shortest night of the year : the sun setting at a few minutes 
 after 11, and rising about a quarter to 12. How near we 
 were to the Arctic circle I leave to those who thoroughly 
 understand the subject ; suffice it to say, the sun was absent 
 from our gaze not over forty-five minutes. 
 
 Towards 7 o'clock in the morning we met the first of 
 the Upper Indians, a branch of the Kotch-a-kutchins. They 
 were camped by a " slough " of the river, engaged in drying 
 fish, some of which they were glad to trade for our tobacco — 
 the supply at Fort Yukon having been exhausted. They 
 were apparently better provided with guns, clothing, and 
 tents, than the "Russian" Indians. They were cleaner, 
 and better mannered. In the course of the morning their 
 chief — "Sakneota" (known as "Senitee" at the fort) — 
 arrived, and immediately made us a present of moose-meat, 
 and we returned the compliment in some trifles. 
 
 22nd, 23rd. — We determined this night to make our 
 destination, and let nothing stop us ; and therefore halted 
 twice for rest and refreshment in place of once as hereto- 
 fore. 
 
 We travelled very steadily, refusing to listen to our 
 Indians, who were very fatigued, and wished to camp; and 
 a little before noon we made the mouth of the Rat or Por- 
 cupine River, entering the Yukon from the North. Halt* a 
 mile's paddling brought us in sight of Fort Yukon, and we 
 gave vent to our jubilant feelings in a volley of fire-arms, 
 which was immediately answered from shore. As to Knriler, 
 
218 FORT YUKON. [Chap. XIX. 
 
 he blazed away till we were all deaf, but for once we let 
 him have his way. Landing, we found two young Scotch- 
 men, and a French half-breed, the sole occupants of the 
 Fort, the commander and many of his men being absent 
 on the annual trip for supplies. A large crowd of Indians, 
 awaiting their return, were camped outside. We shook 
 hands with everybody — including the Indians — and were 
 soon installed in a room of the Fort. Thus ended a journey 
 of 600 miles, occupying twenty-nine days ; twenty-six of which 
 had been engaged in actual travel. 
 
 
Chap. XX.] LIFE AT FORT YUKON. 219 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 FORT YUKON. 
 
 Return of the Commander and Missionary — Information received from 
 them — Mackenzie and the Yukon — The Indians — Numerous tribes — 
 The furs — Fictitious "black fox — Missionary work — Return of our 
 explorers from the Upper Yukon — Fort Yukon sledges, &c. 
 
 On the 26th June the commander — Mr. MacDougall — re- 
 turned, and with him the Rev. Mr. MacDonald, a missionary 
 of the Church of England stationed there. Both of these 
 gentlemen welcomed us warmly, and in their society we 
 spent many pleasant hours. 
 
 Their news from the outer world was later than ours. 
 Copies of ' The Nor-wester,' a paper published in Red River 
 Settlement, and of dates up to the end of 1866, told us of the 
 successful working of the Atlantic cable, and many other 
 events of the day. 
 
 Our new friends did all that was possible to make our 
 stay agreeable, and as they had just brought in their season's 
 goods, we fared luxuriously for such an out-of-the- world place 
 Our stores, too, were of some assistance ; yet we had a taste 
 of the kind of life they endure year after year. Moose-meai 
 boiled, varied by boiled moose-meat, alternating with the 
 meat of moose boiled, was our staple diet! This fort is bo 
 inaccessible that little else but trading goods are brought in. 
 The commander, and one or two of the men, gel a small 
 allowance of flour, and all get a Few pounds of tea, bu1 
 
220 
 
 SUPPLY OF FORT YUKON. 
 
 [Chap. XX. 
 
 the quantity is so small, that it does not hold out more than 
 two or three months, and for the remainder of the year they 
 return to the eternal moose. Everything brought to this 
 station is transported through the whole series of forts from 
 York Factory in Hudson's Bay ; the men of each post con- 
 tributing something towards their transmission. The em- 
 ployes of Fort Yukon fetch their goods* from La Pierre's 
 house, a small post on the upper part of the Porcupine Kiver, 
 a distance of BOO miles. The trip occupies them twenty 
 days ascending the Porcupine, camping regularly, and but 
 five or six days descending it without camping. Between 
 La Pierre's house and the Peel Biver, a tributary of the 
 Mackenzie, mountains intervene, and a long portage of eighty 
 miles has to be made, over which the goods are packed on 
 men's shoulders for the greater part of the distance. The 
 nearest station on Peel Biver is Fort McPherson, which is 
 situated thirty miles above its confluence with the Mackenzie. 
 The nearest fort on the Mackenzie is Fort Simpson, distant 
 1500 miles from Fort Yukon. 
 
 The Porcupine or Bat Biver is undoubtedly that mentioned 
 in Mackenzie's ' Voyages/ When on the great stream that 
 now bears his name, he was told of a river " in comparison of 
 which," he says, "that on whose banks we then were Was 
 
 * I took the measurements of the boats used for this trip, thinking that it 
 might prove an item of importance to some future expedition. The boats, 
 when loaded with a hundred " pieces," or packages of an average weight of 
 ninety pounds, draw only 2 to 2h feet of water, and are of the following 
 dimensions : — 
 
 Total length .. 41 feet. 
 
 Length of keel 29 „ 
 
 Depth from gunnel to keel 3 feet 2 inches. 
 
 Width of beam 9 feet 6 inches. 
 
Chap. XX.] FORT YUKON. ±21 
 
 but a small stream, that the natives were very large and 
 very wicked, and kill common men with their eyes," thai 
 they were "adorned with wings," and that they could eat 
 " a large beaver at a single meal." His informants also de- 
 scribed it as falling into a great lake or sea. Now the Por- 
 cupine, with its virtual continuation the Yukon, answers well 
 enough to this ; but it need hardly be said that the people 
 — as we found them — were comparatively commonplace 
 after this description. 
 
 Fort Yukon was founded in 1847. The present erection 
 was, however, commenced in 1864, and was in an unfinished 
 condition last year (1867). The older fort was built a mile 
 higher up the river, but the bank on which it was placed 
 had been gradually undermined by the strong current, and 
 the process of destruction had almost reached the gate of the 
 station. It may fairly be considered as the most remote of 
 the Hudson Bay Company's Forts, and is in approximately the 
 high latitude of 66° K It is well known to be within 
 the boundary line of Russian- America, and the Hudson's Bay 
 Company did for a time, at least, pay the Russian-American 
 Fur Company for the privilege of trading within their 
 territory. 
 
 After our experience of the rather dirty Russian forts, it 
 was quite a relief to find newly plastered walls, glazed 
 windows, capital floors, open fire-places, and a general appear- 
 ance of cleanliness. In addition to the dwellings of the 
 commander and men, there were magazines, stores, for room. 
 fur press, ice and meat wells. 
 
 The river near the fort has no loss than five distinct 
 channels, and intervening islands prevent your Beeing from 
 bank to bank.. 
 
222 MUSTER OF INDIANS. [Chap. XX. 
 
 After a few days the Indians mustered very strongly; 
 canoe after canoe arrived, and there was a constant blazing 
 of musketry, as though the fort was in a state of siege. Over 
 500 natives were at one time congregated outside the station. 
 They erected tents, open booths, and "lodges;" the latter 
 being constructed of poles and moose-hides, and usually 
 placed two together, the doorways facing each other, with 
 a small fire burning between them. Each male, on arrival 
 at the fort, received a present of a small cake of tobacco and 
 a clay pipe ; and those who were out of provisions drew a 
 daily ration of moose-meat from the commander, which rather 
 taxed the resources of the establishment. Indian hunters 
 are attached to the fort, and some of the canoes brought in 
 large loads of fresh and dried meat. 
 
 There was a decided difference between the Upper and Lower 
 Yukon forms of clothing. At this place we saw quantities of 
 buck-skin dresses ; and mocassins were commonly worn. The 
 leading men of the tribes assembled wore mock uniforms, 
 presented to them by the Company ; old " Eed Leggings " in 
 particular, one of the Kotch-a-kutchin chiefs, was gorgeous 
 in one with immense gilt epaulets, brass buttons, and trim- 
 mings, and had as many coloured ribbons hanging from his 
 cap as would stock ten recruiting sergeants for life. Many 
 had " capotes," shirts, and coats of civilized appearance, pur- 
 chased in the store. In winter these people wear moose- 
 skin shirts or robes, with the hair turned inwards. 
 
 We here met the representatives of many tribes. The 
 Kotch-a-kutchins* (or lowland people) are the Indians of 
 
 * In the Appendix (V.) will be found a full vocabulary of the Kotch- 
 a-kutchin dialect made by the late Major Kennicott, whose death whilst 
 
Chap. XX.] HY-A-QUA SHELLS. 
 
 ■IT, 
 
 the immediate neighbourhood. Higher on the Yukon (or 
 Pelly as it has been long marked in our maps) dwell two 
 tribes, the " An Kutchins " and the " Tatanchok Kutchins." 
 The former are known by the " voyageurs" of the Company 
 by the flattering epithet of Gens defoux, and the latter bear 
 the name of Gens de bois. Some of the Gens de bouleau, or 
 Birch Eiver Indians, and Gens de rats or Eat (or Porcupine) 
 Eiver Indians were also present. Large numbers of the 
 Tan ana Indians, Gens de butte (or knoll people), the original 
 " mountain men," mustered on this occasion, and were, as I 
 have before stated, undoubtedly the most primitive people 
 we met. Their clothing was much be-fringed with beads, 
 and many of them wore through the nose (as did most 
 of the other Indian men present), an ornament composed of 
 the Hya-qua shell (Dentalium entalis or Entails vulgaris). 
 Both of the Fur Companies on the river trade with them, 
 and at very high prices. These shells* were formerly used, 
 
 engaged in our service I have already recorded. It was compiled long 
 before, during his visit to the territory in 1859-62, when he passed through 
 the larger part of the Hudson's Bay Company's posts. He never lived to 
 make the trip nearest his heart — that from the Pacific (Norton Sound, 
 Bering Sea) to Fort Yukon, the journey above described. His lengthened 
 journey just mentioned was made from the Atlantic States, and Port 
 Yukon was the furthest point he reached. 
 
 * See the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London,' March 8th, 
 1864, where specimens, brought home by J. K. Lord, Esq., are com m. nted 
 on by Dr. Baird. Mr. Lord says, speaking of their use among the inhabit- 
 ants of Vancouver Island and British Columbia and adjoining i 
 "The value of the Dentalium depends upon its length. Ti. Dting 
 
 the greater value are called, when strung together end to end, I ' Hi-qua;' 
 but the standard by which the Dentalium is calculated to be lit 
 'Hiqua' is that twenty-five shells placed end to end must make a fathom, 
 or six feet in length. At one time a 'Hiqua' would purchase a male 
 
224 MISERLY INDIANS. [Chap. XX. 
 
 and still are to some extent, as a medium of currency by 
 the natives of Vancouver Island, and other parts of the 
 north-west coast. I saw on the Yukon fringes and head 
 ornaments, which represented a value in trade of a couple 
 of hundred marten skins. 
 
 Of the great river on which the Tanana people dwell we 
 know nothing. From information derived at Fort Yukon I 
 infer that its upper waters are not far from the Upper Yukon. 
 The Tananas sometimes cross to Fort Yukon by a land route. 
 From the diminished volume of the Yukon water above the 
 confluence of the Tanana Eiver, the latter must evidently be 
 a very grand stream. 
 
 The women of all these upper tribes dress more simply 
 than the men, and wear few ornaments. They do more 
 drudgery than the females of the Lower Yukon and coast of 
 Kussian-America. They adopt a loose sack garment very 
 plainly cut, with large loose sleeves. In the fort some of the 
 Indian women wore European clothing. 
 
 It is said that some of the chiefs and " big Injiens " of these 
 tribes, have large piles of beads — of which they make no use 
 — secreted miser-like in the woods. They had bought them, 
 not knowing how better to invest their capital, after acquiring 
 all the guns, blankets, knives, and pots they needed. Gene- 
 rally they appeared to thrive under the auspices of the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, who I believe treat them better 
 
 slave, equal in value to fifty blankets, or about 50?. sterling." These shells 
 are generally obtained from the west coast of Vancouver Island. 
 
 Although I have, in the above quotation, followed Mr. Lord in his 
 method of spelling the word "Hiqua," I must lean to my own mode 
 printed in the text as conveying a closer approximation to the usual pro- 
 nunciation of the word. 
 
Chap. XX.] PURS — TRADING. 225 
 
 than they do their own employes at these inaccessible | 
 The first Indian who brings furs can get anything there Is in 
 the fort: the men can only draw a fixed amount of clothing 
 and tobacco, and get the poorest kind of provisions. I am 
 well aware that this is not the case in the larger forts and 
 factories, but at a place like Fort Yukon — which must be, by 
 the way. a profitable station — no provisions worth speaking 
 of are brought in at all. although large quantities of heavy 
 goods, hardware, guns, &c, are transported thither. 
 
 The fur room of the fort was a sight not to be witm 
 every day; thousands of marten skins hanging from the 
 beams, and huge piles of common furs lying round. They 
 also get a very respectable number of silver-grey and black 
 foxes. Apropos of the latter I once heard an anecdote, bearing 
 rather heavily oh the Hudson's Bay Company. A man in their 
 service purchased — in the hurry of trading — a fictitious black- 
 fox skin; one that had been originally white, but that had 
 been dyed by Mr. Indian, perhaps as a grim joke on the 
 Company. Of course the fraud was eventually discovered, 
 but it did not end there. The full commercial value of the 
 fur was charged against the salary of the unfortunate trade]-. 
 who thus paid more pounds than it had cost shillings at the 
 time of purchase. If this be true, comment is superfluous. 
 
 The wolverine is specially valued by all the Indians, on 
 account, doubtless, of the difficulty in capturing it. ] 
 furs— in commerce nearly worthless — arc yet boughl by the 
 Hudson's Bay Company, who then entrust them to Cndians 
 well known at the forts, to trade at a distance for marten or 
 other skins. Mr. Red-skin is allowed half prof 
 
 The tariff fixed for Fort Yukon was rather higher than 
 that of the Russian posts. A gun nominally worth a 
 
 Q 
 
226 MISSIONARY WORK. [Chap. XX. 
 
 forty shillings brought twenty " skins." This term is the old 
 one employed by the Company. One "skin" (beaver) is 
 supposed to be worth two shillings, ( ! ) and it represents two 
 marten, and so on. You heard a great deal about "skins" at 
 Fort Yukon, as the workmen were also charged for clothing, 
 &c, in this way. If we asked the worth of a pair of unmen- 
 tionables, we were told six "skins:" a pair of common 
 mocassins represented one skin, and so on. 
 
 During our stay, the Kev. Mr. MacDonald, who is a repre- 
 sentative of our Church Missionary Society, held several ser- 
 vices with the Indians, addressing them sometimes directly, 
 and sometimes through the fort interpreter, Antoine Houle, 
 — a man who speaks French, English, and any number of 
 Indian dialects. They listened with apparent attention, and 
 joined in some singing. This gentleman has taught some of 
 the .younger people to read English, and his influence is 
 doubtless good. I could not, however, help thinking, that 
 with an audience of Indians, representing half-a-dozen dif- 
 ferent tribes, speaking as many dialects, it must be very 
 questionable whether they all understand the missionary's 
 words. As in other places, so here, there is a general jargon 
 called " broken slavee," used for purposes of intercourse ; but 
 such a bastard dialect will barely express the language of 
 common life, how much less then the figurative language 
 of the Bible ! * One of the great difficulties in Mr. Mac- 
 
 * We find in our own land that the Oriental tinge, the metaphors and 
 parables of the Bible, render it somewhat hard to be understood, though 
 we are addressed by teachers of our own race, who have a perfect command 
 of our own language. The missionary, with at the best a foreigner's know- 
 ledge of a strange tongue, addresses those who have no collateral education 
 to assist them, and who know little of anything but their own immediate 
 
Chap. XX.] THE UPPER YUKON. W 
 
 Donald's way in this place, is that the Indians are for the 
 larger part of the year scattered all over the country, hun- 
 dreds of miles apart. Of the gentleman himself, I can only 
 speak in the highest terms; he is an undoubtedly earnest and 
 zealous missionary, and he has one point in his favour, that 
 so far, no whisky trader has come in to interfere with the 
 good work in which he is engaged, and that no rival sect — so 
 far as Fort Yukon is concerned — is present to unsettle the 
 minds of his converts. 
 
 It is worthy of mention that minute specks of gold have 
 been found by some of the Hudson's Bay Company's nun 
 in the Yukon, but not in quantities to warrant a "rush " to 
 the locality. 
 
 On the 29th June, Ketchum and Labarge returned from 
 their trip to Fort Selkirk. It will be remembered that in 
 the winter they left us at Nulato, and were to proceed on the 
 frozen Yukon to the Hudson's Bay Fort. This trip they had 
 performed, but with great difficulty. It had occupied them 
 nearly two months, owing mainly to the softness of the snow, 
 and insufficient dog-feed. The river, too, commenced its 
 break-yp before they reached Fort Yukon, and their journey 
 lay through rotten ice and water. 
 
 As soon as the river broke up fairly, and at about the 
 same time that we started for Fort Yukon, they started for 
 Fort Selkirk (always known as Mr. Campbell's Fort), now 
 
 surroundings. I have shown before how a phenomenon of nature had do 
 name in the Chinook jargon, and that the phrase "children of the : 
 could only be translated in a manner to excite the Indian's laughter. It ia 
 not, then, difficult to understand how the poetry of the Bible might 
 become the subject of a jest, and its imagery be wholly unintell 
 
228 THE UPPEK YUKON. [Chap. XX 
 
 an abandoned station. Great difficulty had been experi- 
 enced by the Hudson's Bay Company in keeping that 
 fort supplied with trading goods; and Indians coming from 
 a distance, and unable to sell their furs, had threatened 
 the garrison on several occasions. After it was deserted, the 
 natives had burnt it down ; Ketchum brought us a piece of 
 its blackened remains. 
 
 He found the Upper Yukon running for the most part 
 through mountain gorges, but navigable for the whole 
 distance (600 miles). Their supplies of meat and game 
 had been good, the Indians everywhere peaceable and 
 desirous of seeing more of the white man : their trip had 
 been made in twenty-nine days, ascending and camping 
 every night, and four days descending the stream (without 
 camping). The general course of the river agreed with 
 that laid down on Arrowsmith's maps. Ketchum gave 
 me two fir-cones, brought from Fort Selkirk, which Dr. 
 Hooker kindly examined, and determined to be Pinus con- 
 torta — a variety never observed by us on the lower course 
 of the Yukon, much of which is, be it observed, in a higher 
 latitude. 
 
 I had, in conversation with the Kev. Mr. MacDonald, learnt 
 that the Indians from the Chilcat Kiver (N.W. coast of 
 Kussian America, about lat. 59° N.) sometimes came across 
 to the Yukon, at Fort Selkirk, in fifteen or twenty days. 
 Ketchum's enquiries elicited the same fact, which has been 
 confirmed since my return to England by information ob- 
 tained from Captain Dodd, of the 'Beaver'* by Admiral 
 
 * The old ' Beaver,' now temporarily used as a surveying vessel on the 
 coast of British Columbia, was the first steam- vessel on the Pacific. She 
 
Chap. XX.] THE RAT INDIANS. 229 
 
 Collinson, C.B., who has very obligingly laid before me 
 extracts from his private journal (kept on H.M.S. ' Enterprise 1 
 when engaged in the search for Sir John Franklin). [Jp 
 to the present time, I believe, no white man has ever made 
 the journey. Mr. Campbell used, by means of the natives, 
 to communicate with Captain Dodd on board the 'Beaver 1 
 in Lynn Canal. A copy of a chart, rudely drawn by the 
 natives, was obtained by Admiral Collinson. This sketch- 
 map showed a river, emptying into the West branch of 
 Lynn Canal, which the natives ascended, and then made 
 a land journey to a lake which itself was the source of 
 the Lewis Kiver, a tributary of the Yukon. The return 
 journey occupied them fifty days, much of it being against 
 the stream. 
 
 The Eat Indians (the natives on the Eat or Porcupine 
 Eiver, who trade at Fort Yukon) also communicate — 
 mainly via the Mackenzie Eiver — with the coast natives. 
 In an extract from Admiral Collinson's journal (July 24th, 
 1851, Camden Bay), I find the following note. Speaking of 
 some delay, he says, " It was so far fortunate as it enabled 
 our Baxter Island friends (the Esquimaux) to pay us 
 another visit, and we soon found out that they had several 
 strangers with them, the chief of whom produced a paper 
 on which was written, 'The printed slips of paper delivered 
 
 was taken out in 1835 (via Cape Horn) by the Hudson's Bay Company, 
 and this fact deserves to be recorded, as it was not til! L838 that the ' 
 Western' — the pioneer of our ocean service to America — made her first (rip 
 across the Atlantic. The " Beaver" is now commanded by Lieut. Pender, 
 R.N., who has been so often honourably mentioned in connection with this 
 survey by Sir Roderick I. Murchison, in his annual addresses to th< 
 Geographical Society. 
 
230 FORT YUKON SLEDGE. [Chap. XX. 
 
 by. the officers of H.M.S. "Plover," on the 25th April, 
 1854, to the Eat Indians, were received on the 27th 
 June (of the same year), at the Hudson's Bay Company's 
 establishment, Fort Yukon.' The Eat Indians are in the 
 habit of making periodical trading excursions to the Esqui- 
 maux along the sea-coast. They are a harmless, inoffensive, 
 set of Indians, ever ready and willing to render every 
 assistance they can to whites." This paper was signed by 
 Mr. Hardisty, then clerk in charge of Fort Yukon, now 
 commander of the whole district (Mackenzie Eiver, northern 
 department). These facts may be of some value to the 
 future traveller in that country. 
 
 The sledge used at this fort, and generally through the 
 Hudson's Bay territory, at this part of the continent, is perhaps 
 the simplest in the world. It is nothing but a plank twelve 
 to sixteen feet in length, one end bent upwards, in a prow- 
 like form, having been softened by steam for the purpose. 
 Thongs keep the curved end in its place, and a few cross 
 pieces and lashings complete it. It is a kind specially 
 adapted for soft snow. Eunners are occasionally, but by no 
 means universally, added. The snow shoes commonly adopted 
 were shorter than those employed by the Eussians, and were 
 pointed at either end. 
 
 Fort Yukon Sledge (loaded). 
 
Chap. XXL] DRIFTING DOWN STREAM. 23] 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 DESCENT OF THE YUKON. 
 
 Drifting down the stream — Yukon salmon — Arrival at Nulato — Over- 
 dose of arsenic and alcohol — Trip resumed — Indian music — Anvie — 
 The mission — Earthquake on the ivater — Andreavski — The mouths of 
 the Yukon — Smith's observations — Pastolik — St. Michael's— Pn 
 of the telegraph — Frozen soil — Scurvy — Arrival of our barque — 
 Plover Bay — Return to San Francisco. 
 
 On the 8th July, our " baidarre " having been repaired, we 
 took two additional birch-bark canoes, and all started down, 
 determined to travel day and night to Nulato. Bidding 
 adieu to our friends, who honoured us with a grand salvo of 
 musketry, we pushed out into the stream, and soon found we 
 should have little need to exert ourselves. The current took 
 us at the rate of 100 miles a day (of twenty-four hours); and 
 usually our canoes were all lashed together, with sometimes 
 a rude awning erected over all three, under which we smoked 
 and dozed. We slept and ate our frugal meals on board, 
 only going ashore twice or thrice a day, to boil our tea and 
 fry our fish. This was indeed a holiday excursion, and all 
 the more appreciated after our experience of ascending the 
 stream. All that was necessary was for one man to si 
 and, except when we drifted out of the current, or stack on 
 a bar, our trip was made without trouble of any kin 1. I do 
 not, of course, propose to narrate tlie incidents of our return 
 journey to Nulato, as it was over the same pari of the river 
 
232 YUKON SALMON. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 that we had already passed over. On the 10th we arrived 
 at the " Kapids " above Nuclukayette, and found the island 
 of rocks looming out of the water very distinctly, and the 
 current much less strong than before. Early on the 11th 
 we reached JSTuclukayette ; the Indians had separated, and 
 only a few remained on the opposite side of the river, 
 drying fish. 
 
 The Yukon salmon is by no means to be despised. One 
 large variety is so rich that there is no necessity, when frying 
 it, to put fat in the pan. They are taken all down the river 
 in weirs set in shallow places, in hand-nets of circular form, 
 and by spearing. We saw the very pretty sight of a whole 
 fleet of birch-barks, proceeding together as regularly as a 
 company of soldiers. At a given signal the owners of each 
 dipped his round hand-net into the water, and if, on raising 
 it, a big salmon came up struggling to get away, there 
 was a general shout of derision. I saw so much harmless 
 fun and amusement among these Indians, and they evi- 
 dently find so much enjoyment in hunting and fishing, that 
 I could only wish they might never see much of the white 
 man, and never learn the baneful habits and customs he 
 is sure to introduce. 
 
 There are at least two, and I think three, varieties of 
 Yukon salmon.* The larger kind] sometimes measures five 
 feet. I have seen boots whose sides were made of the tough 
 skin ; they are, however, not common, and are confined to 
 the Lower Yukon and coast. On the 13th we arrived at 
 
 * Two varieties of Yukon salmon (obtained through the Hudson's Bay 
 Company), Salmo consuetus and Salmo dermatinus, are described in the 
 ' Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Herald: 
 
Chap. XXL] ARRIVAL AT NULATo. 283 
 
 Nulato. Our journey had occupied but five days t\. 
 hours for 600 miles.* Here we received an indefinite com- 
 munication with regard to our company ; one part of it was 
 however plain, — that every thing portable was to be brought 
 to St. Michael's. 
 
 In our absence P , a workman, had stolen some 
 
 arsenical ly prepared alcohol, intended for the preservation 
 of natural history specimens. Wishing to ingratiate him- 
 self with the Kussians, and, as we charitably presumed, 
 believing the alcohol to be pure, he gave some of them 
 a good drink. The result can be imagined. Our poor 
 Muscovite friends suffered severely from inward gripes and 
 colic ; had it not been for the large quantity they had 
 taken they would have been killed. The overdose saved 
 them. 
 
 Before leaving we obtained a larger skin boat and two 
 extra Indians, and at half-past eleven of the evening of the 
 15th July we made a start down the great river, determining 
 to travel as before without camping. Before six o'clock 
 next morning we passed Coltog, the point where we had in 
 our sledge journey first struck the Yukon. This, a distance 
 of forty -five miles, was made within seven hours, a result due 
 partly to our vigorous rowing, partly to the swift current 
 We passed many Indian villages, at which the Ingeletes 
 were drying fish. Our Indians, as well as ourselves, made 
 the hills and river-banks echo with songs; all of us feeling 
 "gay and festive," as the Americans say, and cheerfully 
 looking forward to seeing our ships. I could not help 
 
 * It will be remembered that the same distance had taken as tunny- 
 six days ascending the stream. 
 
234 INDIAN MUSIC. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 remarking the air of an Indian chorus sung by our boat- 
 men — usually in unison — which is here presented to the 
 reader, a " song without words." 
 
 Lento. Tremolando. 
 
 It was said to be an obsolete song, for the words were not 
 intelligible to the present people of the Yukon. 
 
 On the 17th, at 3 a.m., we reached Yakutzkelignik, an 
 Indian village then uninhabited, and later in the day we 
 passed several small villages, among the principal of which 
 was Shaglook, which is situated on the western bank, opposite 
 the mouth of a river of the same name, and where a great 
 " slough " of the Yukon exists. At several of the villages we 
 obtained salmon, dried and fresh, and one white swan, which 
 proved very tough eating. In the evening we came to 
 rapids, of which the Kussians had given us a very exaggerated 
 account. A steep bluff abutting on the river, and no beach, 
 makes " tracking " from the bank difficult, but the current is 
 simply unusually strong, and we saw no falls whatever. 
 
 On the 18th a head wind impeded us, and we stopped at 
 the village of Anvic, at the mouth of the river of the same 
 name. It is one of the largest Indian settlements of the 
 Lower Yukon. There we saw native pots and jars of clay, 
 well fashioned, and used by the Indians for cooking purposes. 
 The natives there, and generally on the lower river, were 
 of miserable appearance and badly clothed ; they see less of 
 traders than even the upper Indians. They were very easily 
 satisfied with our payments for fish, &c. For five needles, 
 or less than that number, we could buy a thirty-pound 
 
Chap. XXL] CLERGY OF THE GREEK CHURCH. 
 
 salmon, and tobacco went further than we had ever knowD 
 it do before. Glazoonav, the first Eussian explorer of the 
 Yukon, reached this point from the northern mouth of 
 the river in 1835. 
 
 19th. — Head wind. We passed three villages, at one of 
 which the wooden bowls, or "contogs" used all over the 
 country, are manufactured. The tribe inhabiting this part 
 of the country is known as the "Primoske" people. On 
 the 20th, at half-past four in the morning, we reached the 
 " Missie," or Mission, once exclusively what its name implies, 
 but now both the residence of a priest of the Greek Church 
 and the sole Eussian trading post on the lower river. We 
 met the priest, or "pope," as the Eussians term him, after- 
 wards at St. Michael's, and a very saintly and heavily- 
 bearded individual he was, but said to be by no means 
 averse to the bottle. The inferior clergy of the Greek 
 Church generally are, as far as my experience goes, a con- 
 vivial and social set of men. At Petropaulovski, on one 
 festive occasion, the most inebriated person present was one 
 of these representatives of the Church. It struck us as a 
 very curious thing to hear the foreign merchants at the 
 
 above town speaking of Madame , the "pope's wife," 
 
 although we were well aware that the Greek clergy were 
 allowed to marry. I had the honour of daucing, on one 
 occasion, with the " pope's " daughter. 
 
 The Eussians had centralized their forces at the Mission, 
 and had withdrawn them from Andrea vski — to be hereafter 
 mentioned — and from the Kolinakoft" Redoubt oil 1' 
 quim Eiver. From this place they made periodical tra 
 ( xcursions. 
 
 Most of the Eussians were abeenl on their annual trip 
 
236 THE MISSION. [Chap. XXI- 
 
 to St. Michael's, but those remaining — three in number — 
 soon placed the " samovar " on the table, and we went 
 through the indispensable rite of drinking tea together. 
 They had experienced a shock of earthquake the night 
 before ; we had felt it on the water as though our canoe had 
 suddenly come into collision with a rock or "snag." The 
 cliff at the Mission is of rock, riddled with holes — like that of 
 St. Michael's — but of a more crumbling nature. The settle- 
 ment comprises a chapel with two buildings attached, the 
 property of the priest, and three log houses appertaining to 
 the Fur Company. There is no fort or enclosed space. 
 Immediately adjoining is a Primoske village, with houses 
 on the surface, much resembling those we had seen at 
 Sitka. 
 
 We stopped there about three hours, and then resumed 
 our journey, passing more Indian houses and one village like 
 that just mentioned. The. Indians brought alongside our 
 large boat, fish, ducks, and geese, and always appeared 
 contented with what we paid them, asking for no presents — 
 a circumstance that surprised and gratified us, as we were 
 nearly out of trading goods. All were poorly clothed, and 
 rich in nothing but fish, their staple diet summer and winter. 
 It is so abundant that they rarely hunt, although the country 
 looks like a good locality for deer. It is wooded, with hills 
 more or less bare. 
 
 We travelled almost exclusively on the west side of the 
 river from Nulato downwards. The night of the 2 0-2 1st we 
 drifted into a heavy fog, so that we could not see the bows 
 of our canoe, and trusted ourselves entirely to the current. 
 The morning broke fine, and cleared up for a hot day, 76° 
 Fahr. in the shade. The banks of the lower river are much 
 
Chap.XXIJ andeeavski. -s.\- 
 
 wooded. Long stretches of uninviting country, islands, and 
 "sloughs" innumerable, made our travelling monotonous. 
 The current was more sluggish, yet certainly averaged three 
 knots an hour. In spring it is much more rapid. A si 
 of good power, capable of going ten or twelve knots, and 
 built in the American manner, as most suitable to a swift 
 shallow river, with flat bottom and stern-wheel, could pro- 
 ceed 1800 miles on the Yukon, and sap the entire fur- 
 trade of the country. Such an experiment has been pro- 
 jected by traders in San Francisco. If the United States 
 Government would — in the interests of exploration — under- 
 take this, a comparatively inexpensive survey of the whole 
 Yukon and surrounding country might be very easily accom- 
 plished. 
 
 On the early morning of the 22nd we reached the aban- 
 doned fort Andreavski (Andreas Adanotchke), and found 
 there one solitary white man with an Indian. He was — 
 for a Kussian — in a very deplorable plight — he was quite 
 out of tea ! and, as we were enabled to supply him with a 
 little, we made his heart rejoice. He soon busied himself 
 in getting out" some coarse bread and raw salt-fish. This 
 place had a regular enclosure, but had no bastions. Two 
 old cannon were lying rusty and unused in the yard. 
 
 We borrowed the Eussian's sole companion to show OS 
 the opening to the " Aphoon," or northern mouth of the 
 Yukon. The course followed was approximately X.N.W. 
 to the sea, but the other mouths trend much to the W. and 
 S.W. At half-past 8 o'clock, on the morning of the 23rd, 
 we entered it. This mouth is distinguished from the others 
 by willows and larger trees on its banks; the other openingB 
 are larger, and more shallow, and have little vegetation on 
 
238 . MOUTHS OF THE YUKON. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 the islands and banks. The Aphoon mouth is a passage of a 
 narrow and intricate nature ; streams enter it, and passages 
 from the Kwich-pak mouth. There is water enough for 
 a clumsy sloop or "barkass" brought up annually by the 
 Kussians. It has a tide. 
 
 Mr. Everett Smith — a sailor by profession and a member 
 of our expedition — very carefully examined the Kwich-pak* 
 or Yukon mouths, and from his notes, obligingly put at my 
 disposal, I glean the following information. 
 
 Mr. Smith found that while the " Koosilvac " mouth gave 
 soundings of from two and a half to nine fathoms, a vessel 
 could only enter it by going out first some distance to sea. 
 The intermediate mouths were too shallow, and he came 
 to the conclusion that the Aphoon mouth was the only 
 available one. His sketch map (which I have incorporated 
 with my own) shows innumerable passages running between 
 the mouths. He found them blocked with ice till the 
 1st of June. Generally the water outside was extremely 
 shoal ; Smith found it fresh ten miles out at sea, and there 
 is little doubt that this is true for a greater distance. 
 The Indians drive the "balouga," or white grampus, into 
 the shallow water of the Kwich-pak, and there spear them. 
 On native authority, it is said that whales from Bering Sea 
 
 * Kwich-pak (pronounced Kwif-pak) is the name given to the river by 
 the Indians of the neighbourhood, and the term was adopted by the 
 Kussians. On the upper river the Co-Yukons and other natives call it 
 "Yukona," and the Hudson's Bay Company adopted their name. Both 
 signify "big river." Perhaps "Yukon" would better represent the true 
 pronunciation of the word. It has not yet become a familiar name to 
 geographers, and, in consequence, may be found spelled in all ways — 
 Yukon, Yucon, Youcon, and Youlcon. 
 
Chap. XXI. J PASTOLIK — ST. MICH A EL'S. 
 
 go into the mouths to calve. Geese and ducks are for a 
 season extremely abundant; some breed there, but a I 
 number take their flight to the Arctic. Smith, in three 
 days, shot 104. My friend, Mr. Dyer, our Nulato quart* r- 
 master, who accompanied Smith for a part of the time taken 
 up in this examination of the mouths, told me that wild 
 fowl and geese eggs were so plentiful, that he could purchase 
 from the Indians ten for a needle! and obtain them by the 
 hundred. 
 
 23rd. — We reached Pastolik, a village on the coast at 
 the outlet of the Aphoon mouth, sixty-five miles from St. 
 Michael's, and, for the first time after leaving Nulato, slept 
 ashore. This place is celebrated for the manufacture of 
 skin boats, and among the natives we saw a number of small 
 bone carvings, some of which we purchased for needles, &c. 
 On the morning of the 24th we hired a second and more 
 sea-worthy "baidarre," and, dividing our crew, sailed in 
 company ; passing the Magemute village of Pikrnigtalik, we 
 reached in the evening the "canal" (as the Russians term 
 it, and it is really little more) which separates the island 
 of St. Michael's from the mainland. We tracked through 
 some parts of it, and proceeding without camping at night, 
 arrived at Redoubt St. Michael's at 3 p.m. on the 25th. Our 
 journey of nearly 1300 miles had occupied us but fifteen 
 and a half days (i.e. nine and a half days from Nulato, added 
 to five days twenty hours from Fort Yukon to Nulal 
 
 Our friends of the expedition gave us a warm reception, 
 and informed us that Major Wright had called at St. 
 Michael's in the barque 'Clara Bell' to give Qfl aoti 
 get ready for an immediate departure — that the Telegraph 
 Enterprise had been abandoned. 
 
240 ABANDONMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 Our men during winter had been employed in building 
 telegraph, and camping out for weeks together at tempera- 
 tures frequently below the freezing point of mercury! In 
 such a climate this work was no joke, and the simple 
 process of digging a hole to receive the telegraph pole 
 became a difficult operation when the ground was a frozen 
 rock with five feet of snow on the top of it, and where 
 the pick and crow-bar were of more use than the spade 
 or shovel. Frequently the snow drifted over these holes 
 lightly, and many amusing incidents had occurred of men 
 tumbling down into them head first, or slipping in and 
 getting half buried in holes that they had dug them- 
 selves. Their depth was usually three feet, varying some- 
 what with the nature of the soil ; to dig six such, and 
 clear the over-lying snow, was considered a good day's 
 work. In the autumn of 1865, Colonel Bulkley visited 
 both sides of Bering Straits. In Grantley Harbour, Port 
 Clarence (Eussian America), he found that the ground, 
 covered with a heavy growth of moss in detached bunchy 
 masses, was itself only thawed to about ten inches beneath 
 the surface, and below that was frozen solid. Light soil 
 on the Yukon was, we found, in summer thawed to fifteen 
 or eighteen inches, whilst on the Siberian side of Bering 
 Straits the loose broken debris of rocks was thawed to a 
 depth of three feet. The latter was almost devoid of vegeta- 
 tion. 
 
 Then, again, our men had found that their axes and other 
 tools constantly lost their edges, when used on frozen wood 
 or soil, and cracked to pieces from the influence of intense 
 cold. Yet they had persevered, and had put up a large 
 piece of the line; and I can sympathize with the feeling 
 
Chap. XXI.] PLOVER BAY. g 1 1 
 
 that prompted some of them at Unalachleet, Norton Bound, 
 on hearing of the withdrawal of our forces, to hang blacfe 
 cloth on the telegraph-poles, and put them into mourn- 
 ing! 
 
 Some few of the workmen had suffered from frost-bite 
 and scuiwy. A propos of the latter terrible scourge, it is 
 to be remarked, that our men at Port Clarence, the worst 
 fed of all our parties, who had lived for a long time on 
 a native diet of walrus and seal blubber, had not suffered 
 from it at all, while those in Norton Sound, who got a fair 
 amount of flour, &c, from the Kussian posts, suffered severely 
 from the disease. 
 
 On the 18th August, after many a false alarm of a " ship 
 outside," the i Clara Bell' arrived, and on the 29th of the 
 same month we were all gathered once more in Plover 
 Bay on the opposite Asiatic shore, awaiting the arrival of 
 our largest vessel, the ' Nightingale.' 
 
 In Plover Bay were now encamped 120 men who had 
 wintered at places as widely apart as the Anadyr, Plover 
 Bay itself, and Kussian America; and Major Wright and 
 Captain Norton, of the 'Clara Bell,' deserved great credit 
 for the energy with which they had accomplished the task 
 of collecting them. To most of the stations they had paid 
 two visits; the first, of course, to give notice to the employes 
 in the interior. Of the men who wintered in these almost 
 Arctic spots, but one had died, while a second, smitten by 
 the charms of some lovely squaw, had determined to remain 
 — a voluntary exile in Eastern Siberia! Captain rlelsey, 
 who had charge of the Plover Bay station, did all in his 
 power to make the parties comfortable in their temporal] 
 camps. Rude erections of canvas, sails, poles, and plank-. 
 
242 BROACHING A KEG OF SPECIMENS. [Chap. XXI. 
 
 lined the shores of the little harbour, and our stay at 
 " Kelsey-ville " (as it has been already inserted on a map 
 issued by the Department of State at Washington) will not 
 soon be forgotten by us. During our stay, Captain Kedfield, 
 of the c Manuella,' arrived ; and, after he had got through 
 his trade with the natives, gave them a display of fireworks 
 and blue lights — a thing frequently done by the whalers. 
 The exhibition took place on a lovely evening, and the calm 
 water of the bay gave double effect to the scene. 
 
 Whilst stopping in Plover Bay, some of our men found 
 a keg of specimens preserved in alcohol, belonging to one 
 of our Smithsonian collectors. Having had a long abstinence 
 from exhilarating drinks, the temptation was too much for 
 them, and they proceeded to broach the contents. After 
 they had imbibed to their hearts' content, and become 
 "visibly affected thereby," they thought it a pity to waste 
 the remaining contents of the barrel, and, feeling hungry, 
 went on to eat the lizards, snakes, and fish which had been 
 put up for a rather different purpose ! Science was avenged 
 in the result, nor do I think they will ever repeat the ex- 
 periment. 
 
 I was informed by my friends, Bush, MacCrea, and Farn- 
 ham, that at the Anadyr Kiver blinding snow-storms had 
 been prevalent during winter, and between log houses no 
 more than a hundred yards apart, it had been found neces- 
 sary to stretch a guiding rope for the men. One of our 
 barques, the ' Golden Gate,' had been wrecked in Anadyr 
 Bay the previous autumn, in the following manner. She 
 had grounded on a sand-bar, and the ice had formed round 
 her before she could be got off. At a later period, a gale 
 of wind raised a bad sea, and the ice, smashing up round 
 
Chap. XXI.] RETURN TO SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 her, stove in an immense leak, and she was eventually much 
 broken up in the hull. All her stores, rigging, and sails 
 were stripped from her, but fortunately no one was lost 
 or injured by her wreck. They had obtained supplies of 
 meat in quantities. On one occasion they purchased 150 
 head of reindeer, and preserved the venison frozen for 
 several months. The herds belonging to the Tchuktchis of 
 that part of Siberia were numbered by the thousand. 
 
 On the 6th September, Colonel Bulkley arrived in the 
 * Nightingale,' and, as soon as everything and everybody 
 was on board, we set sail for San Francisco, and made an 
 excellent run there in twenty-two days. 
 
244 THE VALUE OF ALASKA. Chap. XXIT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 THE VALUE OF ALASKA. — THE ORIGIN OF THE ESQUIMAUX 
 OF NORTHERN ALASKA AND GREENLAND. 
 
 The value of Alaska — The furs and fisheries — The purchase, an act of 
 justice to Eussia — The Aleutian Islands — Volcanoes — Bogoslov Island 
 — The Asiatic origin of the Esquimaux — The Tchuktchis — Sea-going 
 canoes — The voyages of two Japanese junks — The connecting links 
 between the Tchuktchis and the Esquimaux — Language — Degeneration 
 of the Esquimaux — Community of goods — The " Schaman " and the 
 "Angekok." 
 
 That Russian America is likely to prove a bad bargain to the 
 United States Government, I cannot believe. The extreme 
 northern division of the country may, indeed, be nearly 
 valueless; but the foregoing pages will have shown, that, 
 in the more central portions of the territory, furs are abun- 
 dant, and that the trade in them, which may probably be 
 further developed, must fall into American hands. The 
 southern parts of the country are identical in character 
 with the neighbouring British territory, and will probably 
 be found to be as rich in mineral wealth ; whilst the timber, 
 though of an inferior growth, owing to the higher latitude, 
 will yet prove by no means worthless. 
 
 The fisheries may become of great value. There are 
 extensive cod-banks off the Aleutian Isles, and on many other 
 parts of the coast. Salmon is the commonest of common 
 fish in all the rivers of the North Pacific, and is rated accord- 
 
Chap. XXII.] FISHERIES. jj;, 
 
 ingly as food only fit for those who cannot get better. In 
 Alaska, as in British Columbia, the fish can be obtained in 
 
 vast quantities, simply at the expense of native labour. To 
 this add the value of salt (or vinegar), barrels and freight, and 
 one sees the slight total cost which would be incurred in 
 exporting to benighted Europe that which would there be 
 considered a luxury.* 
 
 There is a further reason why the United States have done 
 well to purchase this territory. It is an act of justice to 
 the Russian Government. For the past twenty years the 
 whalers in Bering Sea and the Arctic — who are mainly 
 Americans — had traded at certain parts of the coast, and 
 had thereby considerably reduced the profits of the Russian 
 American Fur Company. Although nominally whalers, they 
 were nearly all traders also. The Kussians, albeit always 
 hospitable, were naturally very averse to these vessels putting 
 into their ports, and may-be trading under their very noses. 
 A large part of the whaling captains had consequently never 
 visited, many of the larger Eussian settlements, such as 
 Sitka, Ounalaska, St. Paul's, or St. Michael's. Now, all these 
 and many other ports are perfectly open to them, whilst the 
 
 * In Petropaulovski a merchant told me that he had made in this v..n 
 G000 dollars in one season, at no more trouble to himself than that incurred 
 in a little superintendence of the natives employed. The enterprising 
 American is the last man to neglect this source^of profit. 
 
 A recent newspaper "Correspondent" expresses surprise at the lato Bl news 
 from Sitka, which states that the carcass of a deer may still Ih« pap 
 there for three or four dollars (12s. to lG.s.); a grouse or a Balmoo for 26 
 cents (Is.). But they are worth no more at this day in \ ictoi B (V. [.), 
 in the towns of the Columbia or Fraser rivers, and, at the date ol my visit 
 to Sitka, were to be obtained for a castaway coat, a Btring of beads, OX ■ few 
 charges of powder. 
 
246 THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. [Chap. XXIL 
 
 cargoes of furs, walrus tusks, oil, &c, will enter San Fran- 
 cisco, or any other port in the United States, duty free — an 
 important consideration to them. 
 
 The chain of the Aleutian Isles, comprising four groups (the 
 Fox, AndreanofT, Eat, and Blignie islands *), is a valuable 
 part of the new purchase. The world owes their first discovery 
 to Bering (in 1741). Almost immediately after this (from 
 the year 1745) Kussian merchants of Siberia commenced 
 trading on them, and to them we owe the discovery of the 
 larger part of the chain. 
 
 It tells us plainly how valuable were the cargoes of furs, 
 &c, then obtained, when we find that out of eleven recorded 
 voyages t from 1745 to 1778, five were decidedly unfortu- 
 nate, either ending in shipwreck or in the murder of part 
 of the crews, and that, nevertheless, the Eussians persevered 
 in the trade. Now-a-days the Aleuts are often to be found 
 serving as sailors on whaling and other vessels in the North 
 Pacific. Until recently, they were looked upon as the imme- 
 diate subjects of the Eussian-American Fur Company, and 
 each male was required to pass three years in its service. 
 The Company had several stations on these islands, the 
 principal of which was Ounalaska. 
 
 The Aleutian Islands, besides having some commercial 
 importance, yielding, as they still do, the furs of amphibious 
 animals to a large amount, have many points of interest. On 
 nearly all of them active or passive volcanoes exist, and on 
 
 * SarytschefT (who accompanied Billing's Expedition in 1791-2) deter- 
 mined the geographical positions of many of these islands. Cook, Kotsebue, 
 Ltitke, and others, have all done more or less towards the same end. 
 
 t Coxe's ' Russian Discoveries.' 
 
Chap. XXII.] VOLCANOES, &c. 347 
 
 one or two, geysers and hot springs have been discovered. 
 There are records of very severe shocks of earthquake fell 
 by the Knssian traders and natives dwelling on them. It is 
 more than probable that large deposits of sulphur, as in 
 Sicily, may be found there. On the following islands of the 
 group, large volcanic mountains, &c, exist : — 
 
 Ounimak. (See p. 85.) The volcano of Chichaldinskoi (this mountain 
 emits smoke). A second near it, apparently unnamed hitherto. The 
 Pogrommoi volcano. 
 
 Akoun. One (smoking) volcanic peak : hot springs. 
 
 Akoutan. One active volcano. (See p. 86.) 
 
 Oumnack. Vcevidovsko'i and Toulikskoi volcanoes : geysers. 
 
 Bogoslov Island (Joan Bogoslov). (Seep. 131*). 
 
 Amoukta. Extinct volcanoes. 
 
 Segouam. Smoking mountains : hot springs, &c. 
 
 Atkha. Several, among which are the Korovinskoi and Klutchevsku'i 
 mountains. 
 
 Kanaga. Smoking volcano. 
 
 Tanaga. Extinct (?) volcanoes. 
 
 Goeeloy. Volcano of the same name, said to be the highest on the 
 chain of the Aleutian islands. 
 
 Semisopochnoi. Several volcanoes. 
 
 The authorities for the above list will be found cited in 
 
 * "To the northward of Oumnack is a long reef stretching for twi 
 six miles in a nearly north (true) direction, at the outer point of which is 
 the Ship JRocJc. It was so named by Cook, and is in the form of a i 
 
 " At 200 fathoms within the Ship Buck is the small island of Joan I 
 lov. It is of volcanic origin, and did not appear till 17:"'', aft r an earth- 
 quake. The length of this small island, from X.W. 1>\ V bj S., 
 is li mile. Its breadth is about the half of its length. A chain of 
 projects two miles beyond its N.W. extremity, and another a mile 1 
 its N.E. point. According to the observations of Captain Wasailieflf, the 
 peak in the centre of the island is L'l'in feel high. Thia ialan 
 stated, is connected with Oumnack by a reef of rocks, which doubt 1. 
 their origin to a similar cause ; for, in 177s, Cook, and, tlnm | 
 
248 VOLCANOES. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 Findlay's ' Directory for the Navigation of the Pacific 
 Ocean/ and comprise, among the number, the works of 
 Krusenstern, Lutke, and Cook. 
 
 It need not be said that the Aleutian Islands, lying as 
 they do so closely together, could be very easily examined by 
 a scientific traveller who should take up his abode on one of 
 them for a year or two. That they deserve such an examina- 
 tion can hardly be doubted. 
 
 The allusions to the Tchuktchis, to the trade across Bering 
 Straits, and to the coast peoples of Northern Alaska, scattered 
 at intervals throughout many of the previous chapters, serve, 
 
 Sarighscheff, sailed between the Ship Eock and the island of Oumnack." 
 Baranoff (the founder of Sitka) furnished Krusenstern, in 1817, with some 
 account of this phenomenon, which the latter has recorded in his celebrated 
 * Memoires Hydrographiques.' It is briefly as follows : — In 1806 the peak 
 just mentioned was first observed ; and, on May 1st in that year, " a vio- 
 lent tempest from the north occurred, and, during its force, a rumbling 
 noise, and distant explosions, similar to thunder-claps, were heard at 
 Ounalashka. At the commencement of the third day the tempest abated, 
 and the sky became clear. They then observed, between Ounalashka and 
 Oumnack, to the north of the latter, a flame jetting out of the sea, and 
 soon after, smoke, which continued for ten consecutive days. After this, a 
 white body, of a round form, was observed to rise out of the water, and 
 increase rapidly in size. At the end of a month the flame ceased, but the 
 smoke increased considerably, and the island kept on increasing. On June 
 1st, 1814, they sent a baidar to examine it, but they could scarcely land, 
 on account of the violent currents and the pointed rocks. The island was 
 formed by precipices, covered with small stones, which were being con- 
 tinually ejected from the crater. In 1815, a second expedition found the 
 island very much lower than in the previous year, and its appearance entirely 
 changed. The precipices had fallen, and were continually crumbling 
 away." — Findlay's ' Directory,' &c. 
 
Chap. XXII.] ASIATIC OKIGIN OF THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 at least, to confirm the observations and theories of many 
 previous travellers and authors. 
 
 / Scientific men are now agreed on the Asiatic origin of ftis 
 Esquimaux, even of those who have migrated as far as Green- 
 land.* Of the Mongolian origin of the Tchuktchis thems* 1 res, 
 no one who has seen individuals of that people would for a 
 moment doubt. A Tchuktchi boy taken by Col. Bulkley (our 
 engineer-in-chief) from Plover Bay to San Francisco, and 
 there educated and cared for in the family of a kind-hearted 
 lady, was, when dressed up in European clothes, constantly 
 taken for a civilised Chinaman ; and two of our Aleutian 
 sailors were often similarly mistaken. This happened, it must 
 be observed, in a city which is full of Chinese and Japanese. 
 That the Aleuts, also, are of an Eastern stock, is to my mind 
 undoubted. 
 
 / The inter- tribal trade carried on so regularly every year 
 via Bering Straits (which is likely now to receive a decided 
 check from the American traders, who will crowd into the 
 country) proved with how little difficulty a colony of " Wan- 
 dering Tchuktchis " might cross from Asia and populate the 
 northern coasts of America. - Open skin canoes, capable of 
 containing twenty or more persons with their effects, and 
 hoisting several masts and sails, are now frequently t<> be 
 observed among both the sea -coast Tchuktchis and the 
 inhabitants of Northern Alaska. I have seen others that 
 might be called " full-rigged " canoes, carrying main, gaffj 
 and sprit-sails, but these were probably recenl and foreign 
 innovations, t 
 
 * See Markham "On the Greenland Esquimaux," ' Journal oi tin 
 Geographical Society,' 18G5. 
 
 t In a recent number of ' Harper's (^New York) 1 
 
250 SEA-GOING CANOES. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 I may be excused if I here allude to two well- authenticated 
 and oft-quoted facts. In the years 1832-3, two remarkable 
 and unintentional ocean voyages — one of them terminating 
 in shipwreck— were made from Japan to the north-west 
 coast of America,* and to the Sandwich Islands, by junks. 
 
 Mr. Knox — who accompanied us across the Pacific in 1866 — tells us that 
 he heard, during his stay in Siberia, of a peculiar mode of effecting marine 
 insurance, which is said to be in vogue amongst the Tchuktchis, and 
 which, says he, "I do not think will ever be popular among American 
 sailors." In crossing Bering Straits, the captain and owner of the boat — 
 bearing in mind the Dutch proverb " zelf is de man " — when a storm arises, 
 throws his crew, one by one, overboard, reserving his goods to the last. 
 They allow themselves to be drowned with a complacency unknown to 
 Christian nations. I will not vouch for the story, nor would, I think, 
 Mr. Knox. 
 
 t * See Washington Irving's ' Astoria ; ' also Sir Edward Belcher's . 
 ' Voyage of the Sulphur,' (quoted by Findlay), wherein he says : — " We 
 received from the officers of the Hudson's Bay establishment several 
 articles of Japanese china, which had been washed ashore from a Japanese 
 junk, wrecked near Cape Flattery. Mr. Birnie knew little of the details of 
 the event ; but in the Appendix to Washington Irving's * Eocky Moun- 
 tains,' vol. i., p. 240, is the following account of it, in a letter from Captain 
 Wyeth: — 'In the winter of 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked on .the 
 jST.W. coast, in the neighbourhood of Queen Charlotte's Island, and all but 
 two of her crew, then much reduced by starvation and disease, during a 
 long drift across the Pacific, were killed by the natives. The two fell into 
 the hands of the Hudson's Bay Company, and were sent to England. I 
 saw them on my arrival at Yancouver in 1834.' Mr. Birnie states that 
 it was at Cape Flattery, and not as above ; and on this point, his local 
 knowledge makes him the best judge. * There were,' he says, ' two men 
 and a boy purchased from the natives. As soon as it was known that 
 some shipwrecked people were enslaved among the natives, the Hudson's 
 Bay Company sent their vessel " Lana," Captain M'JSTeil, to obtain them 
 by barter ; and there was some trouble in redeeming the boy. They were 
 subsequently sent to England, and then home, but their countrymen 
 refused to receive them.' Further my informant could not acquaint 
 me." 
 
Chap. XXIT.] VOYAGES OF JUNKS. 251 
 
 The last mentioned is known to have been ten or eleven 
 months at sea, and had nine Japanese on board, who n< 
 theless arrived safely, anchoring in the harbour of Waialea, 
 Oahu. The Sandwich Islanders (Hawaians, or, as they are 
 called in California, &c, "Kanakas"), when they saw these 
 strangers, much resembling themselves in many respects, said, 
 "It is plain, now, we come from Asia." How easily, then, 
 could we account for the population of almost any island or 
 coast in the Pacific. 
 
 Such facts as these — the passage of comparatively frail 
 vessels, blown away from their native coasts by typhoons or 
 other unusually violent gales, buffetted about for lengthened 
 periods, yet eventually reaching foreign coasts thousands of 
 miles from their own — should, I think, make us very cautious 
 in our ideas on the limitation of native migrations. 
 
 At what time, or by what route, the adventurous, discon- 
 tented or rebellious Tchuktchi, Onkilon, or Tunguse, first wan- 
 dered, sledged, or paddled on his way to Greenland, it behoves 
 not me to say. The subject has already engaged the consitl (ra- 
 tion of able and travelled writers, and no one has more clearly 
 treated the subject than Mr. Markham ('Journal of the 
 Koyal Geographical Society,' 1865). He has shown us that 
 the native migrations, which have peopled the i 
 northernmost America and Greenland, commenced at tin 4 
 period when Togrul Bey, Zengis Khan, and other chi< 
 less celebrity, troubled Asia with their lust for conquest 
 "Year after year the intruding Tartars continued to pn a 
 Sheibani Khan, a grandson of the mighty Zengis, led 1 
 families into these northern wilds, and their descendants, 
 thelakhuts (?Yakutz) pressed on still farther north, until 
 they are now found at the mouths of riv< rs falling into the 
 
252 CONNECTING LINKS BETWEEN THE [Chap. XXII. 
 
 Polar Ocean." Neither were they the first inhabitants of the 
 country along the banks of the Kolyma or Anadyr. Other 
 and older people, who have now disappeared, have left their 
 traces (rained yourts, &c.) in the whole of that country as 
 far north as Bering Straits and Cape Chelagskoi.* 
 
 Mr. Markham believes, in common with a large number' of 
 our best Arctic authorities, f in the existence of land round or 
 near the Pole, and which may nearly connect Siberia with 
 Greenland, and sees in that land the route probably taken by 
 the adventurous wanderers. Between the traces of former 
 life found at Cape Chelagskoi, and those observed on the 
 Parry Islands, a gap of 1140 miles indeed intervenes, in 
 which no such have been observed ; but this is, in all proba- 
 bility, simply owing to our ignorance of those latitudes. 
 
 The Greenland ers may indeed have taken such a route, 
 but the natives of Northern Alaska doubtless crossed by the 
 " direct short-sea " passage, via Bering. Straits. 
 
 In comparing notes with my brother, who was pursuing his 
 researches in Greenland during a part of the time that I. was 
 in Alaska, &c, we have noticed many points of similarity 
 between the Esquimaux, on the one hand, and the Malemutes 
 or Tchuktchis on the other. Some resemblances are, of course, 
 simply on the surface, are obvious at first sight, and have been 
 discussed before. Their food, costume, houses, implements, 
 and weapons are closely allied in character, and the resem- 
 blances could well enough arise from identity of wants, and 
 from the similar nature of the countries they inhabit. Were 
 
 * Yon Wrangell (Mrs. Sabine's translation), p. 372. See also p. 89 of 
 this work. 
 
 f See Captain Sherard Osborn's Paper in the ' Proceedings' of the Koyal 
 Geographical Society, May 7th, 1868. 
 
Chap. XXII.] TCHUKTCHIS AND THE ESQUIMAUX. 
 
 we to transplant a colony of Europeans to such countries, 
 and shut them off from foreign and outside supplies, in a 
 generation or two they would be living much as these natives 
 do. These superficial points can never, therefore, prove 
 much. Many of our older Arctic explorers, and our more 
 recent telegraph explorers, have been in those countries more 
 or less clothed, fed, and housed in native fashion. 
 . It is rather to physical characteristics, — languages (genuine 
 and not imported) customs, and tribal practices — that we must 
 look for information. The Tchuktchi language is said to 
 have a great resemblance to that of the Greenland Esqui- 
 maux. On this point I will say nothing, as my visits to the 
 Siberian coast were hurried, and of short duration, while 
 the subject has been already discussed by those who are 
 excellent authorities.* But I would call the attention of 
 those interested in this matter to the very close similarity 
 of some of the words in my Malemute (Northern Alaska) 
 vocabulary, to be found in the Appendix, with those in the 
 best Esquimaux vocabularies which we possess.t Thus : — 
 
 
 Malemute. 
 
 Greenland Esquimaux. 
 
 I - - 
 
 Wounga - 
 
 U-anga. 
 
 He - 
 
 Oona 
 
 Una, 
 
 We - 
 
 "Wurgut - 
 
 - U-agut. 
 
 You - 
 
 Itlepit 
 
 - - Iblet. Illipse. 
 
 Man - 
 
 Inuet 
 
 Angut. Innuit. 
 
 * Billings (quoted by Wrangell, p. 372, Mrs. Sabine's translation). 
 also Wrangell elsewhere. Hooper's 'Tents of the Tuski.' M a rfrh a m 
 ('Journal of the Royal Geographical Society' for 1865> Balbi'a ' Atlas 
 Ethnographique,' and Klaproth's ' Sprach Atlas,' quoted in Wash! 
 'Esquimaux Vocabulary, &c, for the use of the Arctic Expeditions. 1 
 
 t My brother reminds me that the Greenland Esqnimam vocabularies 
 were often acquired through Danish media, and that they have, thftl 
 been written in English witli a foreign accent. 
 
254 
 
 DEGENEBATION OF GREENLANDERS. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 
 
 Malemute. 
 
 
 
 
 Greenland Esquimaux. 
 
 Woman 
 
 _ 
 
 Achanuk - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Arnak. 
 
 Day - 
 
 _ 
 
 - Oblook - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Utlok. 
 
 Sun - 
 
 - 
 
 Sickunyuk 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Sekkinek. 
 
 Water - 
 
 - 
 
 Imuk 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Imek (salt water, Imak). 
 
 Snow - 
 
 _ 
 
 - Kanik 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kannik. 
 
 Ice 
 
 - 
 
 - Seko 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Sikko. 
 
 Head - 
 
 - 
 
 Neakuk - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Niakok. 
 
 Face - 
 
 - 
 
 Keenyuk 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kenak. 
 
 Mouth - 
 
 - 
 
 Kanuk 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kannek. 
 
 Teeth - 
 
 - 
 
 Keeutik - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kigutit. 
 
 Wood - 
 
 - 
 
 Kushuk - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kessuk. 
 
 Canoe - 
 
 - 
 
 Omeuk-puk 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Oomiak. 
 
 And so on. I am fully aware that attention has been called 
 to this point before, but a special vocabulary of Malemute 
 (Norton Sound) words has never been before published, 
 although we have those of neighbouring dialects — that of 
 Kotsebue Sound, &c. 
 
 That the Greenland Esquimaux has somewhat degenerated 
 — in both physical and mental characteristics — I can well 
 believe. The average height of the Greenlander of to-day 
 is under the European standard, while many individuals, at 
 least, of the Tchuktchis, are over it. This point is of itself 
 of no importance whatever. Greenland, may-be, is not a worse 
 country than Northern Siberia; but who knows what these 
 races endured on their way thither — especially if they went 
 by Mr. Markham's North Polar route ! — and how far less 
 food, and intenser cold, than they were accustomed to, with 
 untold hardships superadded, may have stunted and dwarfed 
 them ? I am told that they are excessively simple and child- 
 like, that they live in much harmony, quarrel rarely, and 
 have many other good features ; and the reader has only 
 to turn to Hooper's ' Tents of the Tuski ' to find the same 
 thing stated with regard to the Tchuktchis, and some of my 
 
Chap. XXII.] COMMUNITY OF GOODS. 
 
 previous pages to find similar statements with regard to the 
 Alaskan peoples. 
 
 My brother says much of the community of goods enjoyed 
 amongst them, how the industrious hunter supplies the whole 
 village crowd, as a matter of course, taking and getting no 
 credit for it ; and how the more he gets, the worse he is oft*. 
 This, which is more or less a feature of all the coast tribes 
 in the North Pacific, is specially true in Northern Alaska, 
 on the Yukon, and in Norton Sound, where the chiefs, who 
 are invariably good hunters or fishermen, often attain and 
 keep their position by periodical distributions of their effects. 
 They are themselves often the worst clothed and worst 
 fed members of their own villages. Generosity is among 
 them the rule, and not the exception. No man, woman, 
 or child among them goes unfed, unhoused, or unwanmd, 
 if there is food, dwelling, or fire in the settlement. 
 
 The " Schaman " (pronounced exactly like our word " show- 
 man," a very appropriate title!), the conjuror-priest, the 
 " medicine man " of the Tchuktchis (and also of the North 
 Alaskan peoples, who use the same term) was, and apparently 
 still is, represented in Greenland by the * Angekok," who 
 held similar powers, and was reverenced or feared accord- 
 ingly. My brother says "the Danish pastors and missionaries 
 believe that the Angekok is extinct. Publicly, he appeals 
 to be so, but the natives are known to hold Becref meetings, 
 about which, strange to say, none of the Panes are able to 
 learn details, and at these it is believed Angekokism is 
 still practised." Their profession, besides including medicine 
 and exorcism, made a prominent feature of rain and wind 
 making. 
 
 In Greenland, the former Esquimaux practice of burying 
 
256 MODES OF BUEIAL. [Chap. XXII. 
 
 the dead under a pile of stones, has been abandoned, and 
 they have adopted Danish customs. At the Anadyr Eiver I 
 saw Tchuktchi graves which were covered by piles of rein- 
 deer horns. The " four-post " coffins, described in connection 
 with the Northern Alaskan peoples, and which are probably 
 a later inspiration, have been perhaps adopted for this 
 reason : — stones are less common — at least in Norton Sound, 
 Port Clarence, and on the Yukon — than soil ; whilst the 
 latter is frozen at a few inches beneath the surface at all 
 seasons. Hence the real difficulty of making a grave— 
 superadded to their natural indolence — has caused a new 
 form of sepulture to be adopted. 
 
 That some future North Polar Expedition will clear up 
 every mystery hanging over the route taken by these wan- 
 derers from one desolate clime to another, I, for one, can- 
 not fail to believe, but the question has more of interest 
 about it than of importance. 
 
Chap. XXIII.] EXPLORATIONS IN ASIA. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 W. U. TELEGRAPH EXPLORATIONS IN ASIA. 
 
 Major Abasa appointed Chief — Arrival in Petropaulovski — Travels in 
 Kamchatka — Ghijega — The town, &c. — Route between Ghijega and 
 Ochotsk — The explorations of Mahood and Bush — Nicolaiefski, Mouth 
 of the Amoor — Travel to Ochotsk — Reindeer riding — The Tunguse — 
 Ayan — Ochotsk — MacCrea and Arnold's wanderings among the Tchuk- 
 tchis — Anadyrsk. 
 
 The explorers of our W. U. Telegraph service made many 
 important and interesting journeys in Asia, which certainly 
 deserve to be recorded. I cannot pretend to narrate their 
 experiences fully. The following brief account of their travels 
 may, however, be depended upon: it has been derived 
 directly from themselves, with some additions from the 
 published articles of my friend Mr. Knox, of New York, 
 who, it will be remembered, accompanied us in 1866. 
 
 In 1865, Major Abasa — a very cultivated and energetic 
 Eussian gentleman, who had travelled much, especially in 
 the United States— was appointed chief of the Asiatic ex- 
 plorations proposed to be made by our Company. On the 
 8th August, of the same year, that gentleman, in company 
 with Messrs. Kennon, Mahood and Bush, arrived al Petro- 
 paulovski, on the brig 'Ochotsk' from San Francisco, our 
 headquarters. The two latter explorers were immediately 
 despatched, by sen, to the Amoor River, whilst the Major, 
 Mr. Kennon, and a third employi of the expedition, d 
 
258 TEAYELS IN KAMCHATKA. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 their preparations for an early start — their destination being 
 Ghijega (Ghijinsk on old maps) at the head of the Ochotsk 
 Sea. This they proposed to reach by land, via Kam- 
 chatka. 
 
 Major Abasa and his companions left Petropaulovski on 
 the 25th of August, — a month which in Kamchatka is often 
 extremely warm, and when there is no snow whatever on 
 the lowlands. They followed the eastern shore of the pen- 
 insula till, at the village of Sharon, they reached the Kam- 
 chatka Eiver, — a tortuous stream of no great size, which has 
 been already mentioned in connection with the narrative 
 of Bering's life. Their route so far was principally over 
 undulating plains, covered by much moss, grass, and under- 
 brush, but with a limited amount of poorly grown timber. 
 It is one of the peculiarities of Kamchatka that the forests 
 get thicker and the trees larger the farther north you proceed. 
 It is, moreover, constantly stated, and apparently believed 
 also by the foreign residents in the country, that the soil 
 is warmed by the volcanic fires beneath, and that the cul- 
 tivation of grain in the brief summer is thereby rendered 
 impracticable, as it sprouts before its time. It is known 
 that, in winter, the snow, in places, sometimes melts where 
 it is in contact with the earth, while a foot or so above it 
 there is the usual wintry covering. This snow, undermined 
 as it were, frequently tumbles in when travellers are passing 
 over it, and they " find their level " a little lower than they 
 expected. 
 
 After following for a short distance the Kamchatka Eiver, 
 the party turned westward, to cross a much more rugged 
 country, in order to reach the village of Tigil, on the coast of 
 the Ochotsk Sea. Here they met with many difficulties. 
 
Chap. XXIII.] TRAVELS IN KAMCHATKA. 
 
 The route was an alternation of rocks and swamps, with 
 much rotten snow overlying them, and even the sure-f 
 little Siberian pack-horses, which were well loaded with the 
 personal effects, &c, of the party, were constantly in trouble. 
 Now they were stuck in sloughs of unknown depth, now they 
 were half carried away by the swift mountain-streams they 
 were attempting to ford, and now and again they came down 
 on their knees or haunches when attempting to clamber over 
 the slippery rocks. But at length they reached Tigil, which, 
 by the route they had travelled, was 1200 versts (800 
 miles). 
 
 From Tigil, Major Abasa wrote to the "Ispravnik" (Civil 
 Governor) of Ghijega, notifying him that he was on the way, 
 and asking him to issue orders to the inhabitants under his 
 jurisdiction to render every assistance. The letter was sent 
 to Sessnoi, the last Kamchatdale village on the route, and 
 from there passed from one tribe of Koriaks to another, until 
 it reached its destination. Abasa had taken the precaution 
 to send on word that he would " remember" any natives who 
 had facilitated the delivery of his message, and the letter 
 therefore reached Ghijega very quickly. The Ispravnik 
 immediately issued the necessary orders. 
 
 From Tigil to Sessnoi, the party travelled by or near the 
 sea coast, and reached the latter place successfully. North 
 of Sessnoi the route was known to be extremely difficult ; 
 they therefore divided their forces, the Major and one of his 
 men (with natives) proceeding in a whale-boat and skin 
 canoe by sea, whilst Kennon attempted to take the | 
 train, &c, across the mountainous coast. They, ho* 
 were unfortunate at this part of the trip; the party on the 
 sea experienced bad weather, whilst Kennon found the Latelj 
 
260 SESSNOI. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 fallen snow too soft and deep for his horses. They therefore 
 returned to Sessnoi, to wait till the season became a little 
 more advanced, and employed their time in purchasing dogs 
 from the natives, and in the manufacture of sledges, &c. 
 They found great difficulty in inducing the Kamchatdales to 
 part with their dogs. A sum of 200 silver roubles (over 
 £30), for a team of ten dogs, was often refused. 
 
 While in Sessnoi, Major Abasa had some very interesting 
 interviews with chiefs of the Koriak and Tchuktchi tribes. 
 It was the period of their annual migration southward, when 
 they go to hunt the sable on the plains and in the mountains 
 of Kamchatka. In January they gather around Tigil, to 
 exchange their furs for tea, sugar, coffee, powder, lead, &c. 
 Bad weather detained the party in Sessnoi, and by a judicious 
 distribution of presents they succeeded in making them com- 
 municative. They advised the Major in proceeding from 
 Sessnoi not to follow the sea-coast, but to incline to the east- 
 ward and pass through a country comparatively little known 
 to the whites. Everything being ready, the party left Sessnoi 
 on the 20th of October, passing over the mountains and 
 finding a very bad road. Four days later they reached 
 Bodkaguernaya, having found the temperature at night from 
 forty to forty-five degrees below zero. North of Bodkaguer- 
 naya the mountains gradually diminished, and the country 
 was found to be cut up into plains covered with moss, and 
 ridges on which there was a growth of low bushes that some- 
 times attained to the dignity of small trees. $ Viewed from 
 an elevation, the whole region had a very desolate appearance. 
 The country was found to be inhabited by the Koriaks, 
 some of the tribes wandering from place to place, and 
 the others remaining in fixed localities. The wandering 
 
Chap. XXIIL] GHIJEGA. 261 
 
 Koriaks were kind, hospitable, and peaceable, but the settled 
 Koriaks were the reverse. A stronger and more efficacious 
 representation of the Kussian Government was needed anions 
 them. The Koriak country and the Ghijega and Anadyr 
 districts are all supposed to be under the direction of the 
 Ispravnik at Ghijega, who has only twenty-five Cossacks 
 under him, and neither time nor ability to visit a hundredth 
 part of his immense territory. 
 
 Major Abasa exchanged his dogs for reindeer at the first 
 Koriak camp, a hundred versts from Bodkaguernaya, and 
 travelled with the latter animals to Kammenoi, where the 
 party arrived on the 16th of November. The Major wished 
 to go to Anadyrsk from this place, but the natives refused to 
 take him there ; they were willing to go to Ghijega, and in fact 
 had received orders from the Ispravnik to go there if the 
 party desired it. The Kussian traders were at Kammenoi, 
 on their way to the coast of Bering Sea. and the Koriaks were 
 anxious to accompany them, but were ordered not to do so 
 until after Major Abasa had proceeded on his way. They, 
 at length, after a harassing journey, reached Ghijega on the 
 22nd of November, where the Major established permanent 
 quarters. He had thus traversed the whole peninsula of 
 Kamchatka. 
 
 This insignificant village, of two or three hundred people, 
 has a little more importance than its size would lead us 
 to believe. It is, first, the seat of local government ; it 
 is, next, a centre with regard to the fur trade of the district ; 
 and it is, lastly, the only place for several hundred miles round, 
 where the poor Eussian settler, or semi-civilized Kamch.it- 
 dale, can get any tea, sugar, or vodka (whisky). Ae dka it 
 occasionally to be got there, it need not be stated thai a irener- 
 
262 GHIJEGA TO OCHOTSK. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 able "pope" (priest) of the Greek Church stops there 
 permanently. 
 
 Ghijega is situated on the river of the same name, about 
 eight miles from the coast of Ghijinsk Gulf, — an arm of the 
 Ochotsk Sea. Mr. Knox does not describe it as a terrestrial 
 paradise. Speaking of his visit, in the summer of 1866, he 
 says, " the flat plains or tundras were covered with water 
 in many concealed and unconcealed holes. Every little 
 bunch of moss was like a well filled sponge. I returned 
 from a pedestrian excursion with my top-boots as thoroughly 
 soaked as if they had been used for water-buckets. There 
 was not a wheeled vehicle of any kind, and there were but 
 three horses for fifty miles. There was no steamboat on the 
 river, and balloons had not been introduced." 
 
 Major Abasa, having despatched Kennon and Dodd to 
 Anadyrsk, to meet and co-operate with MacCrea, turned his 
 attention to the but-little-known country lying between 
 Ghijega and the town of Ochotsk. In winter the intercourse 
 between Ghijega and Ochotsk is quite limited. The yearly 
 mails, and a dozen sledges with goods for a few Eussian 
 traders, are the only passengers over this distance, and there 
 is, consequently, no regular road, — travellers following no 
 track, but going in certain directions, guided by the position 
 of the mountain-streams and forests. Sometimes snow- 
 storms and fogs conceal the signs which guide the traveller, 
 and force him to remain stationary for days, and even for 
 weeks at a time. No means have been taken by the 
 inhabitants to make the road practicable. They themselves 
 know very little of the country within forty or fifty miles of 
 their homes. The settled population of the few villages 
 along the coast consists of a mixture of Kussians, Koriaks, 
 
Chap. XXTIL] ARRIVAL OF MAHOOD AND BUSH. 263 
 
 and Yakutz. There is a floating population, known as 
 Tunguse, who wander through the mountain and forest regions 
 from Kolyma nearly down to the Amoor. These tribes 
 rarely use sledges, but perform their migration on the backs 
 of reindeer, of which they have not a very large number, 
 barely sufficient for their necessities. The Koriaks are much 
 more wealthy, some of them owning from one to two 
 thousand deer. 
 
 The Tunguse have therefore been unwilling to let the 
 Kussians know the best routes through the country, and have 
 maintained secret paths of their own. Major Abasa did not 
 find them badly disposed toward the Telegraph enterprise, 
 but fearful that it might impair the value of their hunting 
 grounds. He succeeded in establishing friendly relations 
 with them, and convinced them that the damage, in that 
 respect, would be more than made good by the supplies they 
 would be enabled to obtain by the establishment of the 
 Company's forts among them. Their indolence and careless- 
 ness operated only in a negative manner, in preventing 
 them from being actively useful in building the line. 
 
 On the 22nd of February (1866), Mahood and Bush— who, 
 it will be remembered, had been despatched to the Amoor 
 Kiver — arrived in Ochotsk from Nicolaiefski.* The com- 
 
 * Nicolaiefski, a town of very modern growth, is at the month of the 
 Amoor, — a river with which, thanks to the published travels of Atkins* id and 
 others, we are somewhat familiar. " It is," says Mr. Knox, " ( mphatically 
 a government town, three-fourths of the inhabitants being directlj or in- 
 directly in the service of the Emperor. It has a ' port ' or naval establish- 
 ment, containing dock-yards, machine-shops, foundries, and all thi 
 and ends of sheds, warehouses, and factories accessary to the 
 
 a naval station." "All the houses in the town are of wood 
 
 the great majority are of logs, cither rough or hewn." M I i from 
 
264 REIN-DEER RIDING. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 mancler of the sea-coast provinces of Eastern Siberia, 
 (Governor Fulyhelm) had given them all the assistance in 
 his power, but the route from the Amoor, northwards, had 
 been one of the most rugged character. Captain Mahood, 
 moreover, struck out a new and more direct line for himself 
 than that usually followed by the Eussians, having in view 
 the requirements of the Telegraph service. 
 
 Governor Fulyhelm sent to the Tunguse, a hundred versts 
 to the northward, ordering them to procure reindeer for 
 Captain Mahood's expedition. Those were to be forwarded to 
 Orelle Lake, north of the Amoor, and to this point the party 
 proceeded when all preparations were completed. There 
 they found the Tunguse, who were awaiting them with 
 twenty deer. After a little delay in arranging the loads, the 
 expedition started; each of the men riding a deer, while 
 twelve of the animals were required to carry the baggage 
 and provisions. The saddle for a reindeer is placed on the 
 animal's withers, the back not being strong enough to sustain 
 the weight of a man. The saddle is a mere pad, and has no 
 stirrups, so that it requires constant care to retain one's 
 balance — a novice in this kind of travelling being sure to get 
 many tumbles before he learns to manage his new beast of 
 burden. The deer is guided by a halter and a single line. 
 
 the river, the streets begin grandly, and promise a great deal that they 
 do not perform. Tor one or two squares they are all good, the third 
 square is passable, the fourth is full of stumps, and when you reach the 
 fifth and sixth, there is little street to be found. I never saw a better 
 illustration of the road that commenced with a double row of shade trees 
 (a la boulevard) and steadily diminished in character until it became a 
 squirrel-track and ran up a tree." — 'Harper's Magazine' (New York), 
 August, 1868. 
 
 There are now a large number of steamers on the Amoor. The season 
 when the river is open is limited to about half the year. 
 
Chap. XXIII.] DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVELLING. 2G5 
 
 One is required to exercise considerable dexterity to mount 
 a reindeer without the assistance of stirrups. A staff is 
 always used to assist one in mounting. The pack-saddle is 
 placed on the shoulders of the animal and the reindeer will 
 carry a load of from seventy-five to one hundred pounds in 
 this way. A Tunguse rides one deer, and leads a pack-train 
 of four to a dozen animals; the halter of each deer being 
 fastened to the one that precedes him. 
 
 Between the Amoor and the Ochotsk there is not, nor has 
 there ever been, any kind of a road; but the guides and 
 travellers follow whatever route they think proper, always 
 keeping their general course in view. The reindeer go 
 through the forest, 'over hills and along wide stretches of 
 barren land. The rivers are forded where shallow, and when 
 too deep for this, rafts are built for men and baggage, while 
 the deer are forced to swim over. In winter the ice affords a 
 secure foothold, and, for this reason, travelling is much better 
 in the cold season than in summer. Keindeer food grows on 
 most parts of the route ; so that, in summer or winter, it is 
 only necessary to turn them out at night, and they will be 
 found well fed in the morning. 
 
 Captain Mahood's journal makes frequent mention of 
 crossing rivers, climbing over mountains, and traversing 
 forests and tundra, or long stretches of barren land. Several 
 times he was delayed by being unable to procure a sufficient 
 number of deer for his purposes, some having " given out," 
 and the term for which others were employed having expired. 
 Sometimes guides were lacking, and it was necessary to Bend 
 a considerable distance to obtain them. 
 
 At Ayan it was found that the Russian-American Company, 
 which formerly maintained a post there, had departed, having 
 
266 MacCEEA AND ARNOLD'S [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 given up all business on this coast. The agent of the 
 Company still remained, with a single clerk ; both of whom, 
 with the officials, were ready to lend all assistance. The 
 former sent at once to the " sartost " of Nelkan, ordering him 
 to have deer and men ready to assist the party on its way to 
 Ochotsk, where they at length arrived, as above stated. 
 
 Ochotsk is a place of which the glory has somewhat 
 departed, owing principally to the establishment of the 
 newer town of Nicolaiefski. It is said to have about 500 
 inhabitants — if you count the dogs, who outnumber the 
 human part of the population. Its most interesting asso- 
 ciations are those connected with the narrative of Bering's 
 voyages. 
 
 The third, and last, journey undertaken in our service 
 which I am enabled to record, is that made in 1865-6, 
 by Messrs. MacCrea and Arnold, from the mouth of the 
 Anadyr Eiver to Anadyrsk and Ghijega. Some brief men- 
 tion has been already made of the camp established at the 
 Anadyr by the former gentleman. 
 
 After MacCrea and his party had erected temporary 
 quarters at the mouth of the Anadyr, they began immediately 
 to prepare for their exploration. About the 1st of November 
 there was sufficient snow for sledging. Captain MacCrea 
 hoped to set out soon after, and attempted to purchase 
 reindeer for that purpose. The Tchuktchis have a superstition 
 about selling live reindeer, though they have no hesitation 
 about killing them and selling their carcasses. Captain 
 MacCrea was, at first, unable to purchase deer, but finally 
 negotiated with one of the native chiefs for transportation to 
 Anadyrsk by way of the Tchuktchi villages south of Anadyr 
 Bay. After some delay, this personage took Captain MacCrea 
 
Chap. XXIII.] WANDERINGS AMONG THE TCHUKTC1 US. 267 
 
 and Lieutenant Arnold to the great Deer Chief, who invited 
 these gentlemen to join the Tchuktchis in a winter excursion 
 to Anadyrsk. As there was no other way to make the journey 
 they accepted the proposition, and, after some delay, moved 
 away. The progress was slow, — about eight miles a day, — 
 the Tchuktchis having no particular appreciation of time, and 
 not understanding how any one can ever be in a hurry. The 
 journey occupied forty-two days, in addition to twenty-two 
 consumed in reaching the Deer Chief's camp ; making sixty- 
 four days that MacCrea and Arnold passed among the 
 Tchuktchis. They were kindly treated, though the accom- 
 modations were not of the finest character, and the cuisine 
 was not suited to civilized tastes. Added to the slow mode 
 of travelling, the route was very circuitous, and thus the 
 journey was made longer than it would otherwise have been. 
 
 There are two large villages, about twenty versts apart, 
 and three smaller ones in the neighbourhood, all know T n by 
 the name of Anadyrsk; the former beiug designated the 
 Crepass (fortress), and the second, farther up the river, the 
 Markova. When Captain MacCrea reached the Markova, he 
 found there the other members of his party, who had been 
 brought up from the mouth of the river by the direct route. 
 
 From there MacCrea and Arnold proceeded to Ghijega. 
 Above the Markova, the Anadyr is well wooded. 
 
 It will be remembered that Kennon and Dodd left Ghijega 
 for Anadyrsk; and it was on this trip that the former 
 discovered a river, named the Myan, which, rising in the 
 mountains near the Penjinsk River, eventually forma one of 
 the principal tributaries of the Anadyr. Mr. Bush, as before 
 mentioned (p. 119), who also travelled from Ghijega t.» the 
 mouth of the Anadyr, was enabled to make a Longer direct 
 
268 ANADYRSK. [Chap. XXIII. 
 
 journey than any others of our explorers, — that from 
 Nicolaiefski to Anadyr Bay. Later, in 1866-7, many of the 
 gentlemen just mentioned, with others, went over various 
 parts of the same country, but their journeys were made 
 more with reference to the business of the Company, the 
 transportation of goods, &c, than with a view to exploration. 
 I have simply recorded the outlines of these Asiatic 
 journeys : it is for those engaged in them to give us a fuller 
 narrative, or narratives ; and I trust that some of them may 
 yet do so. 
 
Chap. XXIV.] CALIFORNIA OF TO-DAY. 2C9 
 
 CHAPTEE XXIV. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 California in 1849 — To-day — Agricultural progress — Wine manufacture 
 — Climate — Lower California — San Francisco — No paper money — 
 Coinage — Growth — General prosperity — Scarcity of labour — Hiring 
 a domestic — Luxuries of the land — "The Mission" — Hotel ca 
 Home for the Inebriates — Immigration desired — Newspapers — Chinese 
 population — "John's" status — John as a miner — Dead Chinamen — 
 Celestial entertainment — Merchant's pigtail. 
 
 Twenty years ago, California, one of the richest and most 
 fertile countries of the globe, was lying absolutely unheeded, 
 with but a few indolent Spanish settlers, and a still smaller 
 number of Americans, scattered at long intervals over its 
 surface. Now it has a population of half a million, and the 
 cry is " still they come." 
 
 When the gold excitement* in 1849 broke out in full force, 
 it called attention to the country ; and thousands, drawn there 
 by the universal magnet, remained to become prosperous and 
 permanent settlers. There are few who know California who 
 do not become warmly attached to it, and, in the country 
 itself, it is a well-known and oft-remarked fact, that m< 
 those who, after a lengthened sojourn, leave it for their old 
 
 * It is well known that the first gold discovery of important 
 in 1848 by Marshall, a man in the employ of Captain Snt1 
 who first settled there in 1839. But Californianfl usually date the 
 the country from 1S49. 
 
270 WHEAT-GROWING— WINE MANUFACTURE. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 homes in other parts of the world, soon return to their " first 
 love," finding no other like it. 
 
 An impression prevails in England that we know all about 
 this happy land, because, in its early history, book after book 
 issued from the press, telling of the gold, of the restless 
 spirits who gathered from all points in its search, of the law- 
 lessness that prevailed, and of the unheard-of prices of the 
 necessaries of life. Some there were, too, who told us of 
 the natural wonders of the country, of the geysers, of the 
 grand Yosemite Valley, and the " big trees " of Calaveras 
 and of Mariposa. All admitted it was a fruitful land, but 
 we then heard little or nothing of the chances of its ever 
 becoming a grand field for agriculture. 
 
 Yet, although at the present time, gold, silver, mercury, 
 and coal all yield abundant returns, they are eclipsed by 
 the more solid progress of the country in the cultivation 
 of the soil. So much grain is raised, that not merely 
 does it help to supply Europe, but it is forwarded even to 
 the " Eastern " or Atlantic States, often via that expensive 
 route the Isthmus of Panama. In the State statistics for 
 1866, the amount of wheat* grown is set down at 14,000,000 
 bushels, and of barley nearly as much. The wine manufac- 
 ture is fast becoming a leading branch of industry ; over 
 3,000,000 gallons is now the annual produce of California, 
 and the quantity will largely increase. The culture of the 
 vine and the art of wine-making are, of course, in their 
 infancy in a country itself so young ; but some of the wines 
 
 * " In California one seeding and one cultivation suffice for two crops. The 
 1 volunteer ' crop of the second year is, perhaps, one-fifth less in quantity, 
 but it is all profit." — ' Overland Monthly,' San Francisco, August, 1868. 
 
Chap. XXIV.] CLIMATE — GROWTH OF THE CITY. 271 
 
 would compare favourably with French and German pro- 
 ductions, although Californians are said to prefer sending 
 their wines to Boston and New York, and drinking foreign 
 wines themselves ! This is, to an extent, true of San Fran- 
 cisco, but not of the people of the wine districts, who evidently 
 thrive on their own produce. Many kinds are made, — white, 
 red, and sparkling. The manufacture of grape brandy has 
 also been commenced on a large scale. Raisins, figs, prunes, 
 peaches, and apples are now dried in quantities. The climate 
 of California is such that the most tender varieties of Euro- 
 pean grapes, with the olive, orange, and almond, will ripen 
 in the open air. In Lower California, where there is almost 
 a tropical climate, the culture of coffee, cocoa, palms, and 
 bananas has been attempted successfully. In that part of 
 the country — as yet very thinly settled — the inhabitants are 
 said, but not on the best authority, to read the morning 
 papers (when they get them!) up to their necks in water — 
 where they are lucky enough to find any. Towels are an 
 unnecessary luxury, the heat of the sun causing immediate 
 evaporation. If you hang up a string of candles, in a few 
 hours the grease runs off them, and there is nothing left but 
 the wicks, and they are always, therefore, kept in ice till 
 required. Droughts are common, and whisky is said to be 
 cheaper than water, which, if true, may account for some 
 of the other statements ! 
 
 The writer has from 1862-7, inclusive, repeatedly revisited 
 San Francisco, finding each time marked and rapid chai 
 The once disorderly village of shanties and tents is now an 
 orderly city of 140,000 souls. Its best streets are almost 
 Parisian, its public buildings would be a credit to any city, 
 and its hotels are better kept and furnished than thi a 
 
272 COINAGE — POPULATION. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 New York, and that is saying much. A sea wall and docks, 
 both long needed, are now in course of construction. 
 
 The State of California has steadily resisted the introduc- 
 tion of a " greenback " currency, or " shin plasters," as they 
 are irreverently called, and those who attempt to pay their 
 debts in this paper money at its nominal value, are advertised 
 in all the papers of the country. There is still no money in 
 circulation under a ten-cent piece, or " bit," as it is termed, 
 while Californians can boast the handsomest gold coin in the 
 world in their twenty-dollar piece. In the early days there 
 was a still larger coin, one worth over 101. sterling, a fifty- 
 dollar piece, an octagonal "slug" of gold, not unlike a 
 Japanese coin. They were made so carelessly that they 
 frequently contained a dollar or two in gold above their 
 supposed value. The Jews used to file and " sweat " them 
 till they were not worth forty dollars ; their coinage was in 
 consequence discontinued. 
 
 The only city of the United States, outside of New York, 
 which can compare with San Francisco in rapid increase of 
 population, is Chicago in Illinois. San Francisco is as much 
 the centre of American interests on the Pacific, as is New 
 York of those on the Atlantic, and her present population is 
 as great as was that of the latter city in 1820, two hundred 
 years after her first settlement. 
 
 If it were possible to galvanize the Mexican ports of that 
 coast into life, or if Victoria, Vancouver Island, had a good 
 country round or near it, San Francisco might have a suc- 
 cessful rival ; as it is, she stands alone, and must be the 
 commercial emporium of the coast. Again Fr'isco (as her 
 
 citizens often lovingly call her) is the terminal point of that 
 
 * 
 great enterprise the Pacific Kail way, and by 1870, in all 
 
 
Chap. XXIV.] PROSPERITY — NO BEGGARS. 273 
 
 probability, the Chinese, Japanese, and Oriental trade for the 
 States, and some of that for Europe, will pass through her. 
 A line of splendid steamers is even now running from San 
 Francisco to China and Japan. 
 
 The general prosperity of the people is very apparent. 
 Where else in the world do you find the labourer on the 
 docks, or the advertising " medium " walking with his boards 
 a la sandwich, jauntily smoking a ten-cent cigar? Where 
 else do you find no beggars dogging you in every street, and 
 no crossing sweeper bothering you at every corner? Men- 
 dicity is not def endue, it does not exist ! There was certainly 
 the " Emperor Norton," a kind of half-witted fellow, clothed 
 in regimentals, who issued pompous proclamations, and sub- 
 sisted by levying black mail on those who were amused by 
 his fooleries, or on the " free lunches " of the bar-rooms. 
 There was certainly a huge Mexican female eternally smoking 
 cigarettos or munching fruit, the while she extended one 
 hand for alms ; but beggary of that painful kind, which is so 
 largely developed in every old country, is not known there. 
 Except in the sailors' quarters, in the lower part of the town, 
 no fallen women accost or molest the passing stranger ; there 
 are many of them, indeed, as elsewhere, but they are not 
 reduced to that depth of degradation. Servant girls still get 
 their twenty-five dollars a month, and usually " engage " their 
 mistresses! The labourer on a farm, or "ranch," as it is 
 invariably called, gets his thirty dollars, and is "found" 
 in board and lodging; the skilled mechanic averages four 
 dollars a day. 
 
 Indeed, so scarce is female labour as yet, that [-believe 
 the following anecdote — taken from a Califonuan newspaper 
 — may be regarded as true : — 
 
 T 
 
274 HIRING A DOMESTIC. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 "A well-to-do citizen of San Francisco, happening to be 
 short of servant girls, was requested by his wife to call on a 
 young lady who had expressed her willingness to engage, for 
 a consideration, to spend a portion of her time in the resi- 
 dence of some highly respectable family, ' references ex- 
 changed,' &c. He called on the interesting female, and 
 found her all his fancy painted her, and more, too ; in fact, 
 a masterpiece of the milliners', hair-dressers', jewellers', 
 painters', plasterers', and chemists' art, and as airy as a red- 
 wood palace with cloth and papered walls, on Telegraph Hill. 
 A few minutes' conversation satisfied him that he had opened 
 the negotiation on a wrong basis, and in fact he was the 
 party to be engaged, not the high-toned lady before him 
 who answered no questions at all, and questioned him with 
 all the nonchalance of a practised horse-buyer, cheapening a 
 three-legged nag at a Government sale. The interview closed 
 as follows : — 
 
 " Female. — Where do you live ? 
 
 " Citizen. — Well, out pretty near the Mission Dolores.* 
 
 " Female. — (With a doubtful shake of her head.) That is a 
 
 * This is the quarter round the old Mission San Francisco, erected in 
 1775-6 by the Spaniards, and which is repeatedly mentioned by all the 
 old writers on the coast — Vancouver, Humboldt, "Wilkes, Beechey, Forbes, 
 &c. The old church still exists, and a quantity of Spanish MSS. and 
 old books are to be found there. It is about two miles from the heart 
 of San Francisco, but now forms an integral part of it. There are 
 horse and steam " cars " running out to it, as to every other part of the 
 city. Amusing stories are told of the Mission's early days, when the 
 Indians would only keep working in the manufacture of adobes (sun-dried 
 bricks) so long as the good Fathers kept singing to them. As late as 
 1849, large boilers were to be seen, in which oxen were sometimes boiled 
 whole (I had almost said " in one joint ! ") for the Indians' consumption. 
 See Hutching's ' Scenes, &c, in California.' 
 
Chap. XXIV.] IMMIGRATION DESIRED. 275 
 
 long way from Montgomery-street ; almost too far, I am 
 afraid ! How many children have you in the family ? 
 
 " Citizen. — (Modestly.) We have four, madam. 
 
 " Female. — Four ! That is a great deal too many. 
 
 " Citizen. — (Abashed and humbled, taking his hat in his 
 hand, nervously.) Well, madam, clo you think you could get 
 along with two or three children ? 
 
 " Female. — I suppose I might, but you say you have four. 
 
 " Citizen. — (Edging towards the door.) Yes, madam, I did 
 say four, but rather than giye you offence and risk a failure 
 of the negotiation, I did not know but my wife might be pre- 
 vailed on to drown one or tivo of them ! 
 
 "With a look of insulted dignity the female rose and 
 waved her hand, as much as to say, * You won't do ! Get 
 from my sight ! ' and the citizen went out of her presence, 
 feeling, as he avows, at least a thousand per cent, meaner 
 and more contemptible, in his own opinion, than he had ever 
 felt or had cause to feel before. He says he is entirely satis- 
 fied with his experience in the line of hiring servant girls, 
 and don't want to try his hand at the business again." 
 
 Even if the above is not true in fact, it is in spirit. Let 
 those who expect to get domestics on the same easy terms as 
 at home, or to make them " keep their place " with deferen- 
 tial awe, stay where they are. So rare are female servants, 
 that a Chinaman or two forms a part of every large household 
 in city or country. Those who are lucky, get an [rish 
 "Biddy" or Kathleen, may-be, but it is very rare indeed to 
 find a native American in any menial employment what- 
 ever. 
 
 A tide of immigration is much needed and desired by ( 'ali- 
 fornians; the want of labour often seriously impedes the 
 
 T 2 
 
276 HOTEL "CAKTE." [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 progress of the country. The man who now goes there with 
 a little cash in hand may soon become a prosperous land- 
 owner himself. He will go to a country whose climate is that 
 of Italy, or the South of France, whose common productions 
 are the luxuries of other lands. The writer cannot name 
 edibles more abundant in their season in the San Francisco 
 market than salmon, venison, turtle, peaches, and grapes, — 
 things the very idea of which makes an epicure's mouth water. 
 The first is generally retailed at eight or ten cents a pound, 
 and the last are often sold five pounds for twenty-five cents 
 (about a shilling). But if these are not good enough, a 
 " royal " dish, the sturgeon, is to be had by any one who likes 
 that rather tough and indifferent diet. 
 
 The carte at a first-class San Francisco hotel contains, 
 in one harmonious whole, the delicacies of London, Paris, 
 New York, and — New Orleans. The verdant foreigner can 
 — till dyspepsia brings him back to sanity and plain living — 
 revel in waffles, buck-wheat and flannel cakes, fried and 
 boiled mush, hominy, corn bread, French and Spanish ome- 
 lettes, the national fish-ball, gumbo soup, terrapin stews, 
 clam and cod-fish chowders, potatoe salad, sweet potatoes, 
 oyster plants, green corn, elk meat, California quails, squash 
 pie, floating island, ice creams, and rose candy (candies and 
 sweetmeats often figure in the dessert of a dinner bill of 
 fare). The price of board and lodging at such houses is 
 two and a half to three dollars a day, (or by the month about 
 fifty-five to sixty dollars). This is one-third lower than the 
 New York charges. There are no extras (wines, &c, of course 
 excepted). Servants are never charged, nor — excepting for 
 special services — do they expect payment. Indeed, if you 
 offered a San Francisco waiter any remuneration (at the 
 
Chap. XXIV.] HOME FOR INEBRIATES — NEWS? API-: Its. 277 
 
 European standard) he would probably punch your head, 
 or leave you to wait on yourself. He would, however, readily 
 " take a drink " with you. 
 
 Although San Francisco is full of bar-rooms, "saloons," 
 and Dutch lager bier cellars (the German family are all 
 called Dutchmen in San Francisco, and the same title is 
 given usually to Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes, — I have 
 even known a Switzer called a Dutchman !), there is little 
 drunkenness to be observed. This is doubtless partly due 
 to the prevailing American style of drinking — " small doses 
 — and often" ! There is one institution in the city — which 
 is, I believe, peculiar to it — 'the "Home for the Inebriates." 
 It is what its name implies — a temporary hospital for 
 violent or incapable drunkards, or for those who are the 
 victims of delirium tremens. We have, or had, an asylum 
 for " homeless dogs," but we are not quite so lenient to our 
 inebriates ! 
 
 San Francisco has eight daily papers and a dozen weeklies.* 
 One of these contains a new feature : " Divorces " are in- 
 serted in the column with "Births, Marriages," &c, and it 
 reads, " Births, Marriages, Divorces, and Deaths " ! In 
 point of fact, the new heading is well supported ! A Fenian 
 paper, said to be printed in green ink, the writer was never 
 able to discover. 
 
 The Chinese population is a great feature of this country, 
 
 * ' The Alta California,' ' The Bulletin,' and 'The Sacramento Qnion,' 
 are papers of a very superior class, and are much a-lu-ad of thi 
 York and Boston journals, in paper and type. A azine, ' Tin- 
 
 Overland Monthly,' very similar in appearance to 'The Atlantic Monthly,' 
 has just (July 1868) reached England. It has commenced its existence 
 with much spirit. 
 
278 
 
 "JOHN CHINAMAN.' 
 
 [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 and is said to be 60,000 strong. "John Chinaman" you 
 find everywhere; he is house-servant, cook, farm labourer, 
 miner, even railway " navvy." * He does most of the 
 laundry business, and it is a curious and rather unpleasant 
 sight to witness him ironing out clothes, with a great open 
 pan of hot charcoal, and sprinkling them by filling his mouth 
 with water, and squirting it over them in a fine spray, 
 through his clenched teeth. Their signs, Gee Wo, Hop 
 Chang, or Cum Sing (actual names), are seen on every 
 secondary street. And very strong-smelling is the special 
 Chinese quarter, with its curious little shops, eating-houses, 
 and laundries, where nine persons out of ten you meet are 
 from the "Flowery Land," and wandering in which, you 
 might imagine that you had lost yourself in Canton or 
 Pekin. 
 
 These gentry have several "joss houses," and two theatres, 
 where the performances are of an interminable nature, as 
 they take the reign of an emperor, and play it through 
 in detail night after night. Their gambling-houses are 
 numerous, and their attractions are enhanced by (Chinese) 
 
 * Several thousands are now employed in building the Pacific Eailroad. 
 A late number of the San Francisco ' Bulletin ' says : — " As a tunnel-cutter 
 he was especially invaluable. During the progress of the great ' Summit ' 
 tunnel (through the Sierra Nevada Mountains) there was a strike in some 
 of the Nevada mines, and a number of Cornishmen came up to work for the 
 Company. But it was found that the Chinamen could do considerably 
 more work and stand the fatigue and foul air of underground work much 
 better. The Cornishmen tried it a while, but concluded to leave the work 
 of boring through granite mountains to the more adaptable Celestial, and 
 went away in disgust." 
 
 Three hundred are engaged at the " Mission " Wool Mills in San Fran- 
 cisco, in the manufacture of cloths, flannels, and blankets from Californian 
 wool. 
 
Chap. XXIV.] "JOHN" AS A SERVANT. 279 
 
 wine, women, and opium. The police have some trouble 
 with these establishments, from brawls not of a "celestial'' 
 nature. It is said that opium smoking is more general 
 among them here than even in their own land ; the facilities 
 for obtaining it are probably greater, and, like many a better 
 man, "John" is cut off from his own kindred, and is more de- 
 pendent on his own resources to while away his leisure hours. 
 
 The larger part of the poor Chinese in California have 
 been "imported" by some five or six companies composed 
 of their wealthier countrymen, and it is a well-known fact 
 that for a long time after their arrival they are in a species 
 of bondage ; paying off, in fact, their passage money, &c. 
 
 A tax of four dollars a head per month is imposed by the 
 state on every Chinaman, and, though he forms an undoubtedly 
 useful part of the population, it cannot be said that he has a 
 very pleasant time in California. The " poor white man " 
 looks on him as an interloper, who lowers the price of 
 wages, and is consequently deserving of the worst forms of 
 persecution ; the " dead broke " or " busted " gambler in the 
 mines, comes round with a bundle of papers and an inkhorn, 
 collecting from his unsuspecting victim a " tax " on his own 
 account, to enable him to start a monte, or faro bank, once 
 more ; and the Indian looks on him as his rightful prey, and 
 murders him when the opportunity occurs. It is to be 
 remarked that the Indians of the coast generally, as far as 
 my experience goes, look on the negro also as a thoroughly 
 inferior being to themselves. As a servant "John" i- 
 certainly better than the negro ; he attends to hi- business, 
 and is not so fussy. On the new China steamship line 
 from San Francisco, Chinese waiters are employed exclu- 
 sively. 
 
280 "CELESTIAL" ENTERTAINMENT. [Chap. XXIV. 
 
 In the mining districts " John Chinaman " is to be seen 
 travelling through the country, carrying his traps on either 
 end of a long pole, in the style depicted on the tea chests, 
 familiar to us from earliest childhood. In this manner he 
 "packs" much larger loads than the ordinary traveller. 
 The writer well remembers a Chinaman he met, carrying at 
 one end of his stick a bag of rice, a pick and shovel, a pair of 
 extra pantaloons, a frying pan, and a billy-pot ; whilst from 
 the other depended a coop of fowls and chickens, of which 
 " John " is devotedly fond. In this respect he is wiser than 
 his betters; for while the ordinary "honest miner" is feeding 
 on beans, bacon, and tea, he lias eggs and chickens with his 
 rice, and is very diligent in searching out and utilising wild 
 onions, berries, and roots. In 1865, a number of Chinamen 
 arrived at intervals, in several vessels, in Victoria, V. I., and 
 a few hours after landing they invariably found their way 
 into the woods, or on to the sea-beach, where they collected 
 shell fish and many kinds of sea-weed, which they stewed 
 and fried in various shapes. 
 
 But though " John " has no objection to live in California, 
 and often has to die there, he will not consent to be buried 
 away from the " Flowery Land," and every vessel for Hong 
 Kong and Shanghai takes a cargo of defunct Chinamen ; the 
 wealthy ones put up in spirits, or embalmed. 
 
 Large and influential firms or companies of a better class 
 of these people exist in the city, and they sometimes offer 
 entertainments to. "distinguished arrivals." In June, 1866, 
 one was held in honour of the U.S. ministers to China and 
 Japan, then waiting for a vessel to convey them to their 
 destination, and was, in Californian phraseology, a "high 
 toned and elegant " affair. The "carte" included sharks' 
 
Chap. XXIV.] CHINESE "CHIGNONS." 281 
 
 fins, birds' nest soup, reindeer sinews, geranium and violet 
 cakes, samshoo and rose wine, but was not deficient in the 
 good things of our cuisine, accompanied by an unlimited 
 supply of champagne. A toast to the minister to China, 
 concluded with a thoroughly Oriental sentiment, — " We wish 
 your Excellency ten thousand golden pleasures, and a happy 
 voyage to the Central Flowery Empire ! " 
 
 The wealthier Chinese merchants — many of them very 
 intelligent men — often wear European clothing, and their 
 pig-tails are then coiled up in neat chignons (I believe this 
 is the correct word ?) at the back of their heads. But the 
 tail is always there! and nothing would induce them to 
 part with it. When their hair is naturally short or scanty, 
 fine black silk, and sometimes real hair, is woven into it 
 to make up the deficiency. I have heard of something not 
 very dissimilar in vogue recently among our countrywomen, 
 but do not, of course, believe it ! 
 
282 SOCIETY IN SAN FRANCISCO. [Chap. XXV. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 califoenia — Continued. 
 
 San Francisco society — Phraseology — Ladies of Fr'isco — Sunday in the 
 city — Free criticism on parsons — Site — Steep streets — San Francisco 
 calves — Earthquakes — House moving — Fire companies — " Wells 
 Fargo's Express " — The three-cent stamps — The men of the Pacific. 
 
 Society in the " Bay City/' though still a little " mixed " — 
 to use a Californian phrase, is, taking it altogether, a much 
 heartier, jollier, sincerer thing than elsewhere. Californians 
 will have none of the airs of the high and mighty ; they call 
 it " putting on frills," they say that sort of thing is " played 
 out," and recommend such to " vamoose the ranch," or get 
 from their sight. Ask them how they are, and the answer is 
 pat, " Oh, gay and festive," with probably the affirmative posi- 
 tive, " you bet," or may-be " you bet your boots." If a preacher, 
 actor, or writer, indulges in an exaggerated manner, they 
 say " he piles on the agony " too much, has a " spread eagle " 
 or " high-falutin " style about him. The derivation of the 
 last term is involved in mystery. Many of the common 
 expressions are taken from mining operations and expe- 
 riences. " It panned out well " means that " it gave good 
 returns." " Show," or " colour," from the indications of gold 
 in gravel or sand, are words used in various shapes. " I have 
 not a show " means I have no chance. " We have not seen 
 the ' colour ' of his money " means, he has not paid up a 
 farthing. " Prospect " — to search for gold — is used in many 
 ways ; ask if a speculation promises well, they may answer, 
 " It prospects well, if we can only make the riffle," the last an 
 
Chap. XXV.] CALIFORNIAN PHRASEOLOGY. 283 
 
 allusion to successfully getting over a " rapid " or " riffle " on 
 a river. Or, if the thing has disappointed, it may be, " w< i 
 got down to the ' bed rock,' and found it a ' bilk,' " — Cali- 
 fornian for a humbug. 
 
 If one looks anxious, they say, " There's a heap of trouble 
 on the old man's mind ; " and if one is got up elaborately in 
 a " biled shirt " (i. e., white shirt), a " stove-pipe " (or as we 
 say, " chimney-pot ") hat, and a suit of new broadcloth, one 
 is apt to be asked, " You've rather spread yourself, haven't 
 you ? " It is common for men to shave a good deal, and the 
 city is full of barbers' shops, where you can get yourself 
 shaved and your boots blacked at one and the same time. 
 These establishments are often luxuriously fitted up, and 
 beat anything of the kind to be seen in the " Eastern " States. 
 Beards are termed " chin whiskers," and our " whiskers " are 
 distinguished as " side whiskers." The terms for most things 
 are on a more magnificent scale than with us. A bar-room 
 is invariably a " saloon," an eating-house, a " restaurant" (pro- 
 nounced in an Anglicised manner), and a shop is a " store." 
 A good substantial repast is known as a " square " meal, all 
 over this coast, and the same term is applied to many other 
 things. A "square" drink is a "deep, deep draught," and a 
 good "square fight" is an encounter or "muss" where the 
 opponents were in earnest. Some of these terms arc common 
 to the "Western" States and outlying "territories.*' but can- 
 not be regarded as full-blooded Americanisms. Tiny attract 
 just as much notice from "Eastern" men travelling in Cali- 
 fornia as they do from Europeans. 
 
 Listen to a quarrel in the streets: one oallfl the other 
 a "regular dead beat!" at which he, in return, threatens 
 to "put a head on him!" whereupon, the tir>t sneeringl] 
 
284 CALIFORNIA^ PHRASEOLOGY. [Chap. XXY. 
 
 retorts "up a flume," trie equivalent of a vulgar cockney's 
 " over the left." If one or the other " weakens," or shows 
 signs of "caving" in and leaving, he is said to "get up 
 and dust." It is then the business of his opponent to 
 " corral " him in a corner, — a term taken from the Spanish 
 for catching and shutting up cattle in an enclosure. This 
 last phrase is used in a variety of ways. A police officer 
 "corrals" an offender, a greedy man at table "corrals" all 
 the delicacies, and a broker "corrals" all the stock of a 
 company, and controls the market, and so on. 
 
 But in justice to Californians, it must be stated that many 
 of these phrases are — among the better classes— only known 
 to be avoided. A stranger might be a long time in the 
 country before he heard the whole of the above. A portion 
 of them are, however, common enough. 
 
 A San Franciscan would doubtless detect something 
 equally strange in the current " slang " of London, which we 
 all know to be by no means confined to the lower classes, but 
 which constantly crops out in the conversation of young men 
 and even, alas ! in that of the young ladies " of the period." 
 
 Although things have changed since the time when a 
 miner would walk twenty miles to catch a glimpse of a 
 female, — and when the steamboats advertised "Four lady 
 passengers to-night ! " as a sure bait to travellers, — they are 
 still by no means at a discount, and in no place in the 
 world does woman hold a higher place. Perhaps, in conse- 
 quence, there is rather more heard and seen of her vanity, 
 weakness, and extravagance. I have the best authority for 
 stating that " Perhaps in no other American city would the 
 ladies ' invoice' so high per head, when they go out to the 
 opera, to party, or ball." But though there is a dash of 
 
Chap. XXV.] LADIES OF FR'ISCO. 285 
 
 " fastness " on the surface, ladies, refined, educated, and vir- 
 tuous, are as abundant here as they are elsewhere, and the girk 
 born in California will bear the palm in a country famous for 
 its pretty girls, whilst their mothers, at a given age, are more 
 plump and blooming than those of the Atlantic States. 
 
 Here and there, it is true, you will find some prominent 
 citizen, who in early days "took unto himself" his washer- 
 woman, no better being then available ; and I have native 
 authority for saying, that the men seem of a higher grade 
 than the women. Nevertheless, I am sure that a mixed 
 assembly of San Franciscans would compare favourably with 
 a similar one of New Yorkers, where the " shoddy " and 
 " petroleum aristocracies " have rather too much sway. In 
 the country districts, ladies who attend to their dairies and 
 gardens in the day, and in the evening are able to delight 
 you with the best and latest music, or tell you far more than 
 you know yourself of current literature, are by no means 
 uncommon. 
 
 In San Francisco Parisian fashions dominate, and any fine 
 afternoon a rich display of furs is to be seen on Montgomery 
 Street, (reader, it is always on not in a street in this country), 
 which might seem out of place in so warm a climate, but for 
 the fact that a cool wind blows into the city, with periodical 
 regularity, in the latter part of the day, more especially in 
 summer time. The winter season is by some preferred t<> 
 the summer, but the climate of San Francisco and in 
 immediate neighbourhood is not equal to that of California 
 generally. This is doubtless owing to the proximity of the 
 former to the ocean. 
 
 Sunday in this city has a decidedly foreign tinge, although 
 there is a large church-going public. When the writer \\.i> 
 
286 SUNDAY IN THE CITY. [Chap. XXV. 
 
 first there, mock " bull-fights " and balloon ascensions usually 
 took place on the Sabbath ; brass bands paraded the streets, 
 and it was a favourite day for excursions of every kind. 
 Some of this has been a little modified : indeed, if you took 
 the number of churches and chapels, Episcopal, Presbyterian, 
 Methodist, Congregational, Unitarian, and Koman Catholic, 
 San Francisco might be considered a very pious place indeed. 
 The Koman Catholics, considered as one sect, predominate : 
 the Jews are very strong ; one of their synagogues is a pro- 
 minent building in the city. 
 
 The demand in San Francisco is for liberal clergymen of 
 high culture, and it is indispensable that they shall have 
 good powers of oratory. Judging from what I have seen, 
 sect is of little consequence, and, in point of fact, you will 
 meet Koman Catholics at the houses of Methodists, and 
 vice versa, and mingling as the best of friends. Before 
 leaving this subject, one point must be mentioned, — the 
 very free criticism the preacher gets, both in private circles 
 and from the press. In an American work, now lying before 
 me, the writer, alluding to a Kev. Dr. , says, he " is mak- 
 ing his debut as pastor of one of the Presbyterian societies, and 
 is drawing good houses " ! The only objection that can fairly 
 be made to the preachers of California, and indeed of the whole 
 United States, is, that they are rather given to mixing politics 
 with their religion, — a very curious fact in a country where 
 Church has absolutely no connection with State. 
 
 The site of the " Golden City " was chosen rather for its 
 " water front " than for any excellence in itself. It is " built 
 on the sand," and this is ever before and also in your eyes ; 
 it is one of the dustiest places on the globe, though other- 
 wise a clean, bright-looking city. In the suburbs you may 
 
Chap. XXV.] SITE — DUST HILLS. 287 
 
 see an enclosed, but unoccupied " lot," with the sand drifted 
 up to the top bars of the fence; and although the principal 
 streets are well covered in with stone, wood-blocks, and 
 asphalte, yet whenever they are taken up for repairs you 
 see the true foundation of the city. The main business 
 streets are level, but the side streets and suburbs run up 
 the hills, at angles often of thirty degrees, and it is even 
 troublesome to keep your footing on the wooden pave- 
 ments or " side walks." The houses seem, in places, to be 
 holding on with difficulty, as though a storm or earthquake 
 might shake them down in a general heap to the bottom. 
 Now-a-days, when the streets are being " graded," it frequently 
 happens that the older dwellings are left perched up in the 
 air on a rocky bluff fifty or a hundred feet above the road- 
 way, and their owners, who formerly walked from it direct 
 to their front doors, now have to climb a series of zigzag 
 steps to reach them. 
 
 This exercise has a beneficial effect on San Franciscan 
 legs, and no where are children's calves better developed! 
 As the ladies of " Fr'isco " do not put holland trousers on the 
 legs of their pianos and dining-room tables — as it is said 
 their more prudish sisters in the New England States are 
 in the habit of doing — this allusion may be permitted. San 
 Francisco would be an excellent place for a Pacific Alpine 
 Club to train in. 
 
 A propos of earthquakes, San Francisco has had many a 
 fright from feeble shocks, which have cracked walls and 
 brought down chimneys, but have hitherto done lit tic 
 damage. But just as these latter sheets are going to press, 
 the telegraph informs us of the occurrence (on Od. 21st) of 
 an earthquake in California, of a more serions nature. I 
 
288 EAKTHQUAKES. [Chap. XXV. 
 
 hope, and believe, that the damage stated to have been done 
 to property in San Francisco, will prove to have been ex- 
 aggerated, and that the uncertain allusions to loss of life, 
 will turn out to have no foundation in fact. The recent 
 terrible earthquakes in Peru, &c, will be fresh in the minds 
 of every reader. The force of the subterranean disturbances, 
 on the West coast of the American continent, appears to 
 diminish as it proceeds northwards, though more or less 
 alarming shocks are common, in point of fact, all over the 
 Pacific, North and South. The writer has experienced such 
 in California, Yancouver Island, and Kussian America.* A 
 theory was started recently in San Francisco, that these were 
 simply the result of thunder-clouds rolling over the land! 
 but few could be induced to see them in that light, f 
 
 * It is well known that shocks have been felt almost simultaneously in 
 California, Oregon, British Columbia, and the Sandwich Islands. In 1865, 
 when one of the worst earthquakes which have frightened San Francisco 
 occurred — one of the two peaks of Mount Baker (a very fine volcanic 
 mountain in Washington Territory, seen from most parts of the Gulf of 
 Georgia, &c.) fell in partially. Smoke and vapour rise from this mountain, 
 but there is, I believe, no record of lava or ashes issuing from it. Mr. E. T. 
 Coleman of Victoria, Y. I., a worthy pioneer of the Alpine Club of London, 
 of which he is an original member, has twice essayed the ascent of Mount 
 Baker, and although he has not yet reached its summit, I have no doubt he 
 means to do it. The difficulties he encountered — dense forests, mountain 
 torrents, and a lack of guides — are a fair sample of those which will beset 
 all travellers in these half-developed countries. There will be almost as 
 much trouble to reach the base of a mountain as its summit. 
 
 f A recent New York paper publishes the following telegram from 
 California : — " On the 15th August (1868), a singular tidal phenomenon 
 occurred off San Pedro, Southern California. A series of waves commenced 
 flowing upon the coast, causing the tide to rise sixty-three or sixty-four feet 
 above the ordinary high-water mark, which was followed by the falling of 
 the tide an equal distance below the usual low-water mark. The rise and 
 fall occurred regularly every half-hour for several hours, creating con- 
 siderable alarm among the inhabitants along the coast in that vicinity." 
 
Chap. XXV.] HOUSE MOVING — FIRE COMPANIES. 289 
 
 All well-situated property in this city is held at a very high 
 value, and the expense of housekeeping induces thousands 
 of well-to-do people to live in the hotels, which are certainly 
 equal to those of any country. But, notwithstanding this, 
 the suburbs are full of cottages, villas, and mansions of a 
 superior class, often surrounded by very handsome grounds. 
 As the streets improve, the older board- and-shingle " frame 
 buildings" are moved to the outskirts on rollers, and often 
 on large, wide, low carts, with small wheels, drawn by fifteen 
 or twenty horses. Sometimes the family continues to occupy 
 it as usual, and you see the smoke issuing from the " stove 
 pipe," or chimney, as it travels through the streets. The 
 furniture and carpets remain " as they were," and are carried 
 bodily with the house. A travelling hawker's caravan creates 
 more notice here in England than this " house moving " does 
 in San Francisco ; it is a common occurrence in all Western 
 and Pacific towns. A house is often deposited at the corner, 
 or in the middle of a street, for the night. 
 
 The "fire-men" of San Francisco were long one of its 
 most interesting and worthy features, and their brightly 
 painted, brass and silver mounted, steam and other fire- 
 engines and apparatus, rivalled the best that were to be 
 seen in other American cities. The earlier buildings were 
 all of wood, and even now in the suburbs are commonly 
 of the same material. Fires of a terrible nature have 
 devastated the city; it was, in its young days, three limes 
 almost destroyed. 
 
 It is obvious, that the "Fire Companies" were then, in- 
 stitutions of no common value; they numbered, in their 
 palmy days, three parts of the best citizens of the plfl 
 all volunteers. There were "crack" companies loo, t«> which 
 
 i 
 
290 "WELLS FARGO'S EXPRESS." [Chap. XXV. 
 
 it was an honour to belong, whilst the " Chief Engineer " of 
 the city was a very distinguished individual. But as San 
 Francisco increased in size, these rather deteriorated in 
 quality, and the "rowdy" element became rampant. In 
 consequence, it was not uncommon for several rival fire 
 companies to meet and fight at the corner of a street, 
 or before the fire, sometimes using revolvers and knives, 
 while the conflagration itself remained unchecked, and it 
 became obvious that some other arrangement must be 
 made. There is now a regularly organized, and paid Fire 
 Department, which works in a satisfactory manner. It is 
 an occurrence of every week, and frequently of every day, 
 to hear the fire-bells tolling suddenly. The quarter of 
 the town, in which the fire exists is indicated by the 
 number of the strokes. 
 
 One of the prominent " Institutions " of California, as of 
 the whole coast, and in a lesser degree of the whole United 
 States, is certainly the famous Wells Fargo's Express. An 
 American writer before quoted,* says truly, "a billiard- 
 saloon, a restaurant, and a Wells Fargo's office, are the 
 first three elements of a Pacific Coast mining town." They 
 forward goods everywhere, convey nearly all the " treasure " 
 in gold or silver; do a general banking business, and are 
 infinitely more trusted by the public with the transmission 
 of mail matter than the Government Post Office. This 
 great firm, or corporation, has first to buy the Government 
 stamp, and then add their own to the envelope they sell 
 you. In 1864, they purchased this way 2,500,000 of three- 
 
 * Bowles, * Across the Continent.' 
 
Chap. XXV.] MEN OF THE PACIFIC. '201 
 
 cent stamps,* and 125,000 of higher value. The quantity 
 has now doubtless considerably increased. Their messengers, 
 armed and wide awake, ride through the outlying unsettled, 
 and more or less lawless, districts, and «,re met on every 
 steamer of the coast. 
 
 From this rough sketch, it will be seen that the Pacific 
 Coast is not behind the times, and that all the elements 
 of life, energy, and civilization are represented. An early 
 writer on California told us that " San Francisco exhibited 
 an immense amount of vitality compressed into a small 
 compass," and that " people lived more there in a Aveek than 
 they would in a year in most places." This is still true. 
 It is a thoroughly "live" place. But it has still better 
 features. Nowhere will you find a mass of more reliant, 
 hopeful, kind-hearted, and generous men than on this coast : 
 nearly all of whom have at some time "gone through the 
 mill," and have come out strengthened by the process ; 
 and the writer, remembering the pleasant days spent among 
 them, would conclude this chapter by saying, from the depth 
 of his heart, and in their own language, "Long may they 
 wave ! " 
 
 * The three-cent postage-stamp of the United States is equal to the 
 penny stamp of Great Britain. Affixed to a letter it will frank it from one 
 extreme of the country to the other — from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 We are justly proud of our cheap postage, but we have hardly attained 
 that degree of cheapness— 3000 miles for three cents ! At the pi 
 time, too, that charge is hardly in advance of our own ; throe cents— paper 
 — is little more than an English penny. But there is one terrible draw- 
 back; excepting in the large Atlantic cities, letters are not del, 
 but have to be called for, Every business man has his private pigeon-hole 
 box at the Post Office, in which his letters are deposited. 
 
 i 2 
 
292 EARLY OPINIONS ON CALIFORNIA. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 OHAPTEE XXVI. 
 
 CALIFOENIA AS A FIELD FOR EMIGRATION. 
 
 Early American opinions of the country — California steamers — The 
 public lands — Extent — Price — Labour — Wages — The wine inter- 
 ests — Table of temperatures — Vineyards, &c. — Classes suitable for 
 immigrants — Education — Schools — School ma'ams — Investments. 
 
 That California is a desirable country wherein to dwell, no 
 one who has visited it will be disposed to doubt ; yet for a 
 long period, even in America itself, it was looked upon as of 
 dubious value. A writer in one of the leading San Francisco 
 newspapers, 'The Alta California,' speaking of his own 
 countrymen last year, said, "The greatest number of those 
 who returned East (i. e. to the Atlantic States), from 1849 to 
 1855, reported the State as, in the main, a barren desert, 
 deluged with rain in winter, parched up with heat in summer 
 and autumn, and wholly unfitted by nature for the uses of 
 the farmer. At that early day, such opinions were common, 
 and hardly to be wondered at, for the farming capabilities of 
 the State had scarcely been tested. Our first peaches came 
 into the market in 1854, and the man at that time, who 
 would have ventured the prediction that this State might 
 excel any State west of the Alleghanies in fruits, and any 
 country on the continent in grapes, would have been rated a 
 fool : for, four years later, we still imported the great bulk 
 of flour, meal, bacon, butter, lard, beans, &c, from the 
 
Chap.' XXVI.] EARLY OPINIONS ON CALIFORNIA. 293 
 
 States * or from Chili. Not that it would not have been pro- 
 fitable to produce these articles here, but because the vast 
 majority of the people did not believe in the capacity of the 
 country to produce them. Mankind are slow to surrender 
 the prejudices and habits of early life ; and if heaven itself 
 were offered to an Esquimaux, clad in the waving verdure 
 and flowery vestments which charmed the eye of Dante as he 
 gazed upon it from the banks of Lethe, he would probably 
 esteem it a wretched country without the regular complement 
 of darkness, icebergs, and walrus-fat. The total absence of 
 rain from May to November, and the want of his regular 
 treat to thunder and lightning every two or three days, were 
 things altogether strange to the Western farmer, whose corn 
 and hemp, and vegetables, he thought could not possibly 
 mature without them. 
 
 "And so it came to pass that California had more de- 
 
 * The " States" and the " East" are terms which signify simply — when 
 used by Californians — the Atlantic States of America. California is as 
 much a State as any other, but, as large parts of its population are from 
 New York and the New England States, they look to them as their old 
 home, — and proudly call them " The States." 
 
 There are a large number, also, of Western frontier men in the country, 
 whose lives have been spent like that of John Brown — in " marching on." 
 Born, say in Missouri, they commenced life by taking up land — clearing 
 and improving it for a year or two — and then selling it; they then moved 
 on to a fresher and wilder locality, repeating the process over and over 
 again, till they reached the "Farthest West" in California, Bu1 civiliza- 
 tion has no charms for them, and some of them having | erhaps Been inure 
 of it in a week in San Francisco than in their whole lives befort — and 
 become much disgusted thereby — have started back on the n turn Jo 
 across the continent! But such men as these will make a howling wilder- 
 ness smile. They are the true pioneers of civilization, though they ily 
 before it, as does the wild Indian before them. 
 
294: EXPENSE OF REACHING CALIFORNIA. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 tractors than eulogists for the first ten years after the 
 discovery of gold. She was regarded as a very good gold- 
 mine — nothing better;" and that view of the case did not 
 assist in settling the country. 
 
 But now things are changed. When I left California last 
 November (1867), there were three distinct lines of steamers 
 for New York : the Mail and Opposition boats (via Panama) 
 and the old Opposition (via Nicaragua). In addition, there 
 was the regular stage-line across the continent, and every one 
 was looking forward to the completion of the Pacific Eailroad. 
 Yet, with all these facilities for travel, the united population 
 of the States of California, Oregon, and Nevada, with the 
 Territory of . Washington, does not yet number a million 
 souls. That number — one-third of the population of London 
 — is diffused over territories larger than those inhabited by 
 the whole German family of sixty millions ! 
 
 The expense* of reaching California is, of course, one great 
 hindrance to a rapid increase of its population. The steam 
 vessels on " both sides " of the Isthmus of Panama are of a 
 very superior class, and usually charge accordingly. It has 
 been proposed to employ a supplementary service of screw- 
 steamers for emigrants and freight. Should this be done, 
 
 * This varies considerably. I have known the price of passage from 
 San Francisco to New York range from 75 dollars (say 151. 10s.) to 300 
 dollars (611. 10s.) for first cabin accommodation. Owing to excessive com- 
 petition, a steerage passage has been as low as 35 dollars (71. 3s. 6c?.), and 
 at that rate was a loss to the Company. The transit across the Isthmus of 
 Panama is always included in the charges. When the Pacific railroad is 
 completed, the steamer fares will probably be much reduced. These boats 
 have, on occasions, carried 2000 passengers, and very frequently 1000 
 or 1500. 
 
Chap. XXVI.] AVAILABLE PUBLIC LANDS. 295 
 
 and the Panama Kailroad Company reduce its exorbitant 
 fare — twenty-five dollars (£5), for a distance of forty-seren 
 miles! — which they charge every passenger, of whatever 
 class — California may get the labour she so much needs. 
 
 Last autumn, a number of Southerners, disgusted with 
 politics, disgusted with negro supremacy in places where they 
 themselves had reigned, wrote to the mayor of San Francisco, 
 for information about the country ; and, as the answers 
 returned were printed in the Californian papers, I propose to 
 clip from them a few items of general interest. The firsl 
 query was this, — " Are the public lands entirely absorbed ? " 
 and the answer (returned by the Immigration Society, to 
 whom it was referred) w T as as follows : — 
 
 " No. There are millions upon millions of acres yet in the 
 keeping of the Federal Government officers, which can be 
 had for one dollar an acre in gold. Only in the neighbour- 
 hood of the great thoroughfares, the navigable rivers, the 
 fragments of railways yet constructed, the mining camps and 
 the like, has ever the Government Surveyor yet erected his 
 theodolite. There are plenty of good spots where small 
 colonies of immigrants may squat and await for years the 
 coming of the Federal Government Surveyor; and when he 
 shall come, the dollar an acre demanded by the Government 
 will have, long before, been realized out of the land 
 
 " In the San Joaquin Valley, sixty miles bark from Stock- 
 ton (a town of about 5000 inhabitants and one night's journey 
 by steamer from San Francisco), plenty of land can be 
 for one dollar in gold per acre, from the Government office 
 in Stockton. This valley is about 100 miles long, by a width 
 varying from ten to thirty miles, through which streams, 
 navigable for flat boats, flow down to the & <<• River. 
 
296 LOWER CALIFORNIA. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 The soil is deep and rich, and the bottoms near the water 
 are exceedingly fertile, and able to support abundance of 
 kine. This valley would absorb 100,000 settlers." 
 
 The Sacramento Valley also — especially in its upper por- 
 tions near the source of the river — is a very promising field 
 for the new comer, while — 
 
 " In the counties south of San Francisco — Monterey, for 
 instance, two days' journey by stage from San Francisco — 
 large tracts of the richest land, owned by easy-going people 
 of Spanish descent, can be purchased or rented upon very 
 advantageous terms: purchased for a dollar or two an acre, 
 or rented on shares for one-fourth of the annual produce 
 of the land. The chief and greatest cost is the expense of 
 fencing. 
 
 "In many places the old Spanish settlers own tracts of 
 thirty to fifty thousand acres, unfenced and undivided, over 
 which numberless flocks of sheep and cattle roam, and breed, 
 and die, without control or much care from the proprietors, 
 who live in rude ease and almost secluded from the outside 
 world. Their slumbers will soon be broken by the hum of 
 busy immigrants, who will come crowding by sea and land 
 into their fruitful territories. Farther south, towards Los 
 Angeles, the best lands can be purchased from those old- 
 fashioned settlers for a dollar ah acre, or even less. There 
 is very little timber to be cleared from any of these lands. 
 
 ^To go upon those lands, several families should form 
 themselves into villages, or companies, and go out together 
 on the land and help each other. This cooperative system 
 is sure to make the immigrants happy and prosperous." 
 
 The second prominent question related to the demand for 
 labour, and the reply was so truthful, and at the same time 
 
Chap. XXVI.] IMMIGRATION. 2S7 
 
 so properly guarded from exaggeration, that 1 print it as 
 it stands : — 
 
 " We are full of the great idea of inviting an extensive 
 immigration from Europe, and from the Southern and 
 Eastern States, to the Pacific slope, but we shudder at the 
 thought of misleading any one. It is almost unnecessary to 
 repeat that we have room and work for millions of people 
 in our fields and mines, but the great trouble is to support 
 people while they are finding the work suited to their 
 strength, their habits, and their experience. The idea that 
 fills the minds of many persons in making towards California 
 is, that they shall go a gold-hunting in the mines, make 
 lucky hits, and return at some distant clay to their old homes 
 in Europe or the Atlantic States fo enjoy their good fortune. 
 This idea has been the unseen rock that has wrecked many 
 an immigrant to this golden land. None should come to 
 the Californian mines but miners* 
 
 " On the first discovery of gold in California, and for several 
 years afterwards, every kind of labourer went to the mines, 
 and many of them did very well; but of late years the 
 Chinese have got in and have swarmed over the ' placer' 
 or stream mines, and, as they work in well-organised com- 
 panies, and live upon little, they are able to scrape a living 
 from the oft-washed sands in the older washing-grounds of 
 the earlier miners. The principal mining now carried on 
 in California is quartz mining, which is as like coal 01 Iron 
 mining as possible — penetrating the bowels of the earth 
 
 * A large number of Welsh and Cornish miners have— from the < arliest 
 days of Californian history— settled in the country, and are much est 
 as practical men. 
 
298 LABOURERS' WAGES. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 several hundred feet — men working in gangs, in ' watches ' 
 of eight hours each shift, so that the work never stops, night 
 or day. For this kind of work miners get four dollars a day. 
 Their board and lodging in the neighbourhood of those quartz 
 mines comes high, about eight or ten dollars a week, as a 
 general rule ; two and a half days' wages is required to pay 
 for a miner's board and lodging for a week. A great deal of 
 the work on the Pacific Kailroad on our side of the Rocky 
 Mountains is performed by Chinamen, under white overseers. 
 They get about a dollar a day for their labour. White men 
 could get such wages with board, but they won't work for it. 
 A dollar a day is the lowest notch which the strong man's 
 labour has touched in any part of California. Common 
 labour, according to skill, ranges up to one and a half and 
 two dollars a^day. We are not now talking of skilled me- 
 chanical labour, such as carpenters, bricklayers, plasterers, 
 smiths, machinists, foundry-men, tailors, shoemakers, and the 
 like. The labour of such men brings three to five dollars 
 a day in all the cities and in all the towns of the Pacific 
 Coast. As to clerks and light porters,* and those who are 
 always waiting for an easy berth or something to ' turn up,' 
 there is little encouragement for them. The cities are full 
 of them. This kind of helpless people are the production of 
 an erroneous system of education, which has weaned the 
 boy from labour, and left the man a helpless, pitiable 
 mendicant. 
 
 " You are, doubtless, impatient to learn, then, what sort of 
 
 * " Light porter " is a term often used in California, to designate one 
 who prefers an easy, half-lazy employment to more manly pursuits. It is 
 not generally used in a very flattering sense. 
 
Chap. XXVI.] WAGES — PRODUCE. 299 
 
 people are likely to do well here, and we answer, any aarl 
 who are thoroughly determined to work — men and women, 
 young and old. 
 
 " The lowest wages for labour amongst us is about twice the 
 wages of New York, and four times the wages obtained in 
 Great Britain, Ireland, or Germany. The price of wheaten 
 flour is about one-half what it is in Liverpool or New York — 
 eight dollars a barrel of 196 pounds just now. Tea, sugar, 
 and coffee about the same as in England or New York. 
 Clothing and house-rent about double the English rates, and 
 about the same as in New York. All the foregoing rates are 
 in gold. 
 
 " The total produce of our gold and silver mines may be set 
 at fifty to sixty millions of dollars a year. Our farming and 
 general agricultural products will very soon, if they do not 
 now, foot up to fifty million dollars' worth a year. The 
 value of the wheat and flour shipped from California since 
 last harvest conies up to nine million dollars ; and as fast as 
 good ships come into the harbour they are engaged to take 
 out wheat and flour, wool, hides, &c. The general demand 
 for all sorts of mechanics in this city, and throughout the 
 State, was never better. The wages, as we have said, range : 
 for Chinamen, one dollar a day; common labourers, two 
 dollars a day ; skilled mechanics, three to four dollars a day : 
 some of superior skill, five dollars a day; female servant-, 
 fifteen to twenty -five dollars a month, and board; farm 
 labourers, thirty dollars a month, and board."" 
 
 * For precise and reliable information on the country, the reader is 
 referred to Hittell's 'Eesources of California,' and Oronise'e 'Natural 
 Wealth of California.' These works, the latter of which Lb a wn 
 
300 
 
 WINE INTERESTS — TEMPERATUEE. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 The wine interests, destined to become one of the most 
 profitable pursuits, are at the present time beset by serious 
 obstacles, from the high price of labour, materials, and 
 especially of casks ; but the climate, soil, and enterprise are 
 there, and success is certain. 
 
 There are considerable variations between the mean tem- 
 peratures of places in the country (and this, of course, affects 
 the variety of grape most in vogue in each locality) ; a table 
 of such temperatures is here given * (extracted from a recent 
 number of * The Alta California,' and including some Euro- 
 
 production, are both published in San Francisco, but can be obtained in 
 London. 
 
 * Table of Tempeeatuees. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 63 
 
 71 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 
 73 
 
 62 
 
 67 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 68 
 
 83 
 
 67 
 
 71 
 
 49 
 
 52 
 
 62 
 
 71 
 
 61 
 
 66 
 
 
 ► 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 s? 
 
 CH 
 
 ■a 
 
 ft 
 
 S- 
 
 
 « 
 
 £ 
 
 3 
 
 * 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 ^ 
 
 s* 
 
 a" 
 
 a> 
 
 a" 
 
 sr 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 Dijon 
 Bordeaux 
 Marseilles 
 Madeira 
 Los Angeles 
 San Diego 
 Monterey- 
 San Francisco 
 Humboldt Bay- 
 Fort Yuma . 
 Fort Miller . 
 Sacramento . 
 Grass Valley . 
 Sonoma .. 
 \ Meadow Valley 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 58 
 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 61 
 
 52 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 73 
 
 47 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 62" 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 51 
 
 59 
 
 27 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 51 
 
 53 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 62 
 
 53 
 
 43 
 
 35 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 67 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 75 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 70 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 69 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 56 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 50 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 86 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 90 
 
 83 
 
 76 
 
 67 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 66 
 
 64 
 
 52 
 
 45 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 43 
 
 36 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 58 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 68 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 
 32 
 
 52 
 57 
 58 
 65 
 
 62 
 55 
 54 
 57 
 73 
 66 
 59 
 46 
 58 
 
Chap. XXVI.] VINEYARD CULTURE. 301 
 
 pean districts for comparison). The figures represent the 
 mean monthly heat in degrees of Fahrenheit (without frac- 
 tions). 
 
 This table includes places which represent the furthest 
 extremes of the State. The observations on Sonoma tem- 
 peratures were taken by my friend Major Snyder, who has 
 one of the most highly-cultivated vineyards in the country. 
 There, and at the vineyard of a second friend, Mr. Craig, 
 where I have passed many pleasant days, and at others in 
 the same beautiful valley, I have had an opportunity of 
 witnessing the culture of the grape under favourable circum- 
 stances. Mr. Craig, besides capital white and red wines, 
 has succeeded in making some of the best grape brandy in 
 the State ; while Major Snyder's wines, some of them four 
 and five years old, closely resembled high class Burgundy 
 and Ehine wines* It would astonish those who look upon 
 California as not yet " of age " — which, in fact, she hardly is 
 — to see the wine-presses of scientific construction, the wine- 
 houses and cellars of Sonoma and Los Angeles. Most of the 
 vineyards in Sonoma were in the valley, but the hill-sides 
 will sooner or later be utilized ; the vines of all varieties, 
 and mainly European, were all dwarfed, staked, and kept 
 carefully pruned. 
 
 Los Angeles (Pueblo de los Angeles), "the abode of the 
 Angels," is also the abode of a large number of wine growers, 
 who, if not angels, are at least jolly fellows ! It is situated on 
 the southern coast, and the county yields the largest returns 
 
 * Time has worked wonders. Wilkes, in 1841, "found the wines of 
 the country miserable stuff, which would scarcely he takes for the juice 
 of the grape." 
 
302 IMMIGRANTS. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 of wine ; Sonoma standing second, and Santa Clara County 
 third. It is much warmer, as our table shows, than Sonoma, 
 and the most delicate and tender grapes ripen there to per- 
 fection. The native American grapes (Delaware, Clinton, 
 Perkins, King, &c, all hardy varieties) are not much prized 
 in California, but in one or two counties the Catawba is 
 a great favourite. The Muscatelle, Isabella, and Mission 
 grapes are the commonest varieties grown in large quantities. 
 The grape vines when five years old yield plenteously. I 
 have before me a story of a vine of the Isabella variety, 
 which, in its fourth year, bore 1500 bunches, weighing 
 420 lbs. The " wonderful gooseberry " of periodical recur- 
 rence must evidently hide its diminished head, or burst with 
 rage ! * 
 
 Hops and tobacco are now raised in fair quantities, while 
 experiments have been made in the culture of cotton, and 
 the rearing of silkworms. 
 
 As I have before stated, immigrants are much desired 
 in California, and the question naturally arises which classes 
 of our population might most profitably venture there. 
 First and foremost stands the farmer. Farming in England 
 — though not quite so unprofitable as some grumblers would 
 have us believe — is, to the small tenant at least, no very 
 
 * Hittell tells us, in his ' Resources of California/ that in 1765, — 
 " Senora Dominguez, a native of Mexico, and a resident of Santa Barbara 
 County, rode from Monterey to her home, and, before starting, she picked 
 up a grape-cutting for a switch. When she had ridden twenty miles, she 
 saw that her switch was budding ; she took care of it, and after getting 
 to her house at Montecito, planted it in the garden. The vine grew, and 
 now its trunk is 16 inches in diameter, and its branches are supported by 
 an arbour 114 feet long and 78 feet wide. Its annual yield of grapes is 
 three or four tons." 
 
Chap. XXVI.] POLITICS— EDUCATION. 303 
 
 paying pursuit. Our small farmers, if possessed of a little 
 capital to start with, would soon rise to competence in 
 California. Next comes the man with a definite profession, 
 business, or trade ; especially the skilled mechanic, who is 
 safe anywhere on the Pacific coasts, and specially so in 
 California, or Oregon ; and, lastly, the labourer, and female 
 servant, who are perfectly sure of remunerative employ- 
 ment. Young men brought up in idleness, men of no definite 
 profession or business, petty clerks, counter-jumpers, and 
 the devotees of "genteel" callings, had better stay where 
 they are. California is no home for them, unless they mean 
 to mend their ways. The market even there is over-stocked 
 with such persons. 
 
 Although California was a loyal State during the late 
 civil war in America, there is much liberality of sentiment 
 there, and politics do not run as high as in the Atlantic 
 States. The Englishman* will find numbers of his country- 
 men, and there is no reason why he should not venture there. 
 If he goes, he will assuredly never reproach the writer for his 
 recommendation. 
 
 In the matter of education — one of so much importance to 
 the man who brings a family with him — California is by no 
 
 * With regard to the wine manufacture and the culture of the vino, it 
 is obvious that foreigners from the wine districts of the Continent — from 
 small proprietors to peasants — would each and all be specially welcomed, 
 and could very readily find remunerative employment in tbe vineyards of 
 California, and, sooner or later, become proprietors themselves, i 
 go with a reasonable amount of capital, they ran I 
 Already there are many intelligent Germans, Frenchmen, and Hungarians, 
 but the labour employed is mainly Chinese. Men capable of superintend- 
 ing vineyards arc much desired. 
 
304 "SCHOOL MA'AMS" — INVESTMENTS. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 means behind the rest of. the country, and the United States 
 may fairly boast of her school system. In addition to any 
 number of private schools and colleges, the public free-schools 
 are of the most efficient kind, and in them the children of 
 well-to-do citizens — as well as those of a lower grade — are 
 frequently to be found, side by si<Je. The Lincoln school-house 
 in San Francisco, which accommodates 1000 scholars, is a build- 
 ing which would attract notice anywhere, and 9000 children 
 attend the public schools of that city. They are instructed by 
 a corps of 180 teachers, male and female, the larger part of 
 whom hail from Boston, the centre — in the United States — 
 of culture, refinement, and education. To the other features of 
 their school system is added that of furnishing a tolerably 
 well paid employment to a large number of young women. 
 The "school ma'ams" — as they are popularly known — are 
 usually certificated, highly educated young ladies, who in 
 the cities teach the younger children, but in the country 
 sometimes take complete charge of a school, and often prove 
 more successful than the rougher sex. But it is hard work, 
 as the jaded, fagged-out looks of some of these ladies prove ; 
 and I always rejoiced when I heard of the transformation of a 
 " school ma'am " to wife, — not a very uncommon proceeding ! 
 In justice to California, it should be stated that these well- 
 informed, sensible — occasionally a little " blue " — but often 
 very attractive young ladies are at a premium. I have no 
 doubt that such would be equally so here in England if we 
 had a similar system, and that the " girl of the period " 
 — if she is indeed a fact — would be completely cut out. 
 
 With regard to the investment of capital in San Francisco, 
 the central portions of the city are now extremely valuable. 
 Still any new comer can readily acquire a "lot" in the 
 
Chap. XXVL] INVESTMENTS. 305 
 
 suburbs. Many building and land associations — like those of 
 our own country — exist. The usual price of an ordinary 
 plot of land for building purposes (in the outskirts of the 
 city) is from two to three hundred dollars (about £40 to 
 £60).* 
 
 The water frontage of San Francisco does not exceed nine 
 miles in length, and is, of course, very valuable, and likely to 
 become infinitely more so. San Franciscans who believe 
 that their city will — as the best port of the coast, and the 
 virtual centre of commerce and manufactures — rival New 
 York, wish that the water front were larger. Bad, however, 
 as is the site in some respects, there is no better on the Bay, 
 and therefore the growth of the city must undoubtedly follow 
 its present course, and those who can afford to invest in 
 outside property, and wait ten or fifteen years, will most 
 assuredly reap a rich reward. One of the finest sites in San 
 Francisco was purchased, in the early days, by a sailor who 
 left the coast for years, and who turned up one fine day, to 
 find himself — much to his own surprise — a wealthy man. 
 The sand-heap he is said to have bought in a drunken frolic, 
 and which next morning; he probably thought was a worth- 
 less bargain, is now in the very heart of the city, covered 
 with handsome buildings, enclosing a public "Plaza" with 
 shrubbery, &c. The value of property in New York has 
 constantly doubled and re-doubled during the last thirty 
 
 * No respectable man will find any difficulty in getting a house pal up 
 for him by the Societies above mentioned, to be paid for by monthly instal- 
 ments, little exceeding the ordinary rent of a similar dwelling. General 
 expenses are rather high in San Francisco, and the rents of ordinary 
 cottages or villas in the suburbs will average twice those of such buildinga 
 in the outskirts of London. 
 
306 CONCLUSION. [Chap. XXVI. 
 
 years, and in spite of all unbelievers — and there are croakers 
 even in California — that of San Francisco will do the same. 
 
 The timid and doubting in such matters may advan- 
 tageously read the following New York anecdote, which I 
 recently clipped from an American paper : — 
 
 " A lot on Broadway, 25 by 100 (feet), and well up town, had 
 been sold for one hundred thousand dollars. Several prudent, 
 well-to-do citizens, were discussing the purchase, and, of course, 
 were certain that the price was greatly above the value, and 
 that the purchaser and his money had parted company for 
 ever. An elderly gentleman, sitting by, waited until all had 
 expressed their opinions, and then quietly said: "I have 
 known that lot ever since it was farming land. When first 
 sold as a lot it brought three hundred dollars. As the city 
 grew it changed hands many times, and brought two thousand, 
 ten thousand, thirty thousand, sixty thousand, and now one 
 hundred thousand dollars, and every time the buyer has been 
 called a fool ! " 
 
 I trust that these pages will have proved that California, 
 and the Pacific coast generally, afford a wide and a fresh 
 field to the scientific man, the artist, and traveller, as well as 
 to the capitalist, the agriculturist, and the emigrant. When 
 London is within sixteen days, and New York within a week's 
 travel of San Francisco — as they will be on the completion 
 of the Pacific Kailroad — we may reasonably hope to see the 
 coast become as well known as it certainly deserves to be.* 
 
 * Bayard Taylor states, in his recent work on * Colorado,' that the 
 Pacific railroad track is being in some places extended at the rate of a mile 
 and a half a day. " Recently," says he, " Two miles and seventeen-hundred 
 feet were laid in a single day — the greatest feat of the kind in the history 
 of railroad building ! " 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. — The Proposed Overland Koute from the Atlantic to the 
 
 Pacific, through British Territory. 
 II.— The W. U. Telegraph Scheme. 
 III. — Notes on Sitka. 
 IY. — Port Clarence, Northern Alaska. 
 
 V. — Indian Dialects of Northern Alaska. 
 VI. — Notes on the Geology of the Yukon. 
 
( 309 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. — THE PEOPOSED OVEBLAND EOUTE FEOM THE 
 ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC, THROUGH BEITISH 
 TEEEITOEY. 
 
 Me. Waddington's scheme for a railway and steamboat route 
 from Canada to British Columbia, recently laid before the Eoyal 
 Geographical Society, &c, has attracted some notice from the 
 press. I do not, of course, propose to go into details ; suffice it 
 to say that by following the chain of the great Canadian lakes, 
 the course of the Saskatchewan Eiver for a distance of 1249 
 miles, and Eraser Eiver, in British Columbia, for 260 or 280 
 miles — Mr. Waddington would take us 2400 miles, by water, 
 out of the 3490 from Montreal to the head of Bute Inlet (British 
 Columbia). By this route the fertile settlement of Eed Eiver, 
 now detached and isolated, would be connected with civilization 
 and the outer world. 
 
 The project has been branded as premature, and, judging by 
 our standard at home, it is so. The construction of a railway 
 here always presupposes a string of cities, towns or villages. 
 In America it has been often otherwise : the railway has been 
 the forerunner of population. Here the country makes the rail- 
 way; there frequently the railway makes the country. The 
 Illinois Central Eailroad, and many others in the United Stat< s, 
 furnish examples. The State through which the line passes 
 concedes to the railway company large tracts of Land at in- 
 tervals on either side of the route, and the first dividends are 
 paid out of the sale of that very land, itself much increased in 
 value by the construction of the iron road. Land only worth a 
 nominal price, which could be obtained previously foi a dollar 
 an acre, suddenly rises to ten or twenty dollars an acre, or much 
 
310 PROPOSED OVERLAND ROUTE [Ami. 
 
 more. Eligible spots are selected for town-sites, and a popula- 
 tion rapidly springs up along the line. Such roads are often 
 roughly, too roughly, made : a single pair of rails is all that is 
 deemed necessary: no expenses are incurred with regard to 
 elaborate, or even commodious, stations and termini. But, as 
 the district improves, the railway is sure, for its own interests, 
 to follow suit. 
 
 Taking into consideration that the proposed line would connect 
 Canada with British Columbia and the North Pacific — would 
 pass through the prosperous and fast-improving Eed River and 
 Saskatchewan districts — such a project has points in its favour 
 under any circumstances, and has more, in the first instance, to 
 recommend it than many a similar line in the United States. 
 
 In the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Wad- 
 dmgton's paper at the Eoyal Geographical Society's meeting, 
 Dr. Eae pointed out the shallowness of the Saskatchewan Eiver. 
 It would ill become me to criticise the statements of a tra- 
 veller who has seen as much, or probably a great deal more, of 
 northernmost America than any other man. Nevertheless, no 
 one who is familiar with American river-steamers would lay 
 much stress on this point. I have seen flat-bottomed, stern- 
 wheel steamers built to draw no more than a foot or fifteen 
 inches of water. On the Upper Missouri, on the Columbia and 
 Eraser rivers, such steamers are common. I well remember, in 
 British Columbia, passing through a " slough," as it was called, 
 at which the passengers were asked to walk from one side of the 
 boat to the other to assist it in wriggling through, and where a 
 part of the crew and passengers got out into the water to help 
 it on, much as we did with our rafts on the rivers of Vancouver 
 Island. There are creeks in California where something similar 
 happens, and where, if you are on the bank, a little way from 
 the stream, the steamer appears to be travelling on land. (On 
 this point, see an engraving and descriptive letterpress in 
 Hutching's ' Scenes, &c, in California.') 
 
 In a paper read before the Eoyal Geographical Society, Nov. 
 25th, 1867, John Collinson, Esq., O.E., &c, mentioned, incident- 
 
App. I.] FROM THE ATLANTIC TO THE PACIFIC. 311 
 
 ally, steamers drawing, when laden, no more thrn ten inch 
 water. 
 
 With regard to rapids — often a worse obstacle than any other 
 on the rivers of the northern continent of America — it may yei 
 safely be stated, that nearly all or any of them are amenable 
 to the influence of a little engineering skill. They owe their 
 existence, of course, to either sunken rocks, accumulations of 
 drift-wood, or sand-bars. A few hundred pounds of powder have 
 often turned a brawling dangerous rapid into a comparatively 
 quiet part of the stream. But here, again, the American-built 
 steamers, of good power, often get over rapids which seem almost 
 impassable. It is not many years ago that it was pronounced 
 impossible to reach Fort Yale, Fraser Eiver, on account of 
 rapids (at Emory's Bar), and, in consequence, Fort Hope was, for 
 a long time, the head of the navigation. This rapid is now ] i 
 many times a week, in both directions. A few rocks, &c, were 
 removed at a low stage of the water, and flat-bottomed .steamers 
 of greater power were constructed for the route. In common 
 with most visitors to British Columbia, I have passed over that 
 part of Fraser Eiver, have seen the steamer stick for half an 
 hour together, wriggle from side to side of the stream, the while 
 all her timbers quivered, and every available pound of steam 
 was "got up." But art triunrphed over nature — at the risk, 
 perhaps, of blowing us all to destruction — and we " made the 
 riffle." The excitement of the thing was worth half the 
 money ! 
 
 To Mr. Waddington belongs the credit of drawing attention 
 to a comparatively easy route across the continent, and, alt h. >ugh 
 the Pacific railroad will be built and finished while this proj< «t 
 is being discussed, there is no reason why we should SU] 
 that one railway between the Atlantic and the Pacific would 
 suffice for all that vast country. Most of Qfl will, probably, 
 live to hear of more than one such line in the United Si 
 and Canada, backed by England, oughl at ono< t" 1" up and 
 moving in the same direction. 
 
312 THE W. U. TELEGRAPH SCHEME. [App. II. 
 
 II— THE W.U. TELEGKAPH SCHEME. 
 
 (RUSSIAN EXTENSION.) 
 
 Gkeat doubts were at times thrown on the practicability of this 
 project, and it has for the present, at least, been completely 
 superseded by the success of the Atlantic Cable. The work 
 proposed was virtually the same — to unite the old and new 
 worlds. The line, as proposed, was to extend the already 
 constructed line in British Columbia, northwards through 
 Eussian America, across Bering Strait, and then proceed south- 
 wards through Eastern Siberia, till a junction should be made 
 with the Russian lines already built to the Amoor. New York 
 being in constant communication with San Francisco, and San 
 Francisco with British Columbia, the connexions would have 
 been complete. 
 
 I propose to notice some of the objections which have been at 
 various times raised, but many of which entirely disappeared 
 when our explorers had examined the country. 
 
 1st. " The difficulty of keeping up a line running through a 
 more or less Arctic, thinly populated, and barren country." 
 
 Already, in the United States, some of the principal and pay- 
 ing lines run through country of doubtful value and ■ thinly 
 populated. The Russians, moreover, have a great line which 
 enables them to communicate from St. Petersburgh to Irkutsk 
 and the Amoor ; and our proposed line hardly ran through 
 wilder or more barren countries than those just mentioned. 
 The W. U. line was to have followed, more or less closely, the 
 courses of great rivers in many places : hence our explorations 
 on the Fraser, on the Yukon, on the Anadyr. Such rivers 
 furnish means of rapid transit in summer (by canoe), and 
 almost equally rapid transit in winter (by sledging). Stations 
 
App. II.] THE W. U. TELEGRAPH SCHEME. 313 
 
 were to be erected at moderate intervals along the course of 
 the line, and there was infinitely less to fear from Indian or 
 other native depredations in Alaska and Eastern Siberia, than 
 on telegraph routes which are already open in the United 
 States. Furthermore, it has been found, that in lines passing 
 through an alpine district, notably in those crossing the Sierra 
 Nevada Eange (California, Nevada, &c), the poles, once firmly 
 planted, remained in better order than those crossing countries 
 enjoying a warmer climate. 
 
 2nd. With regard to the cable across Bering Strait, it was 
 urged that icebergs would infallibly ground on it, and cut it 
 up. The answer to this is direct : icebergs, properly so called, 
 are never seen in Bering Sea or Strait. The prevailing 
 currents set strongly into the Arctic Ocean — not from it. 
 Floating ice, in deep packs, is, of course, abundant in the early 
 summer ; and for this reason, Colonel Bulkley, after a detailed 
 examination, selected for the cable " landings," the deepest and 
 most protected harbours he could discover. Port Clarence was 
 selected for the American side. It has a good entrance, ten 
 fathoms of water and a mud bottom. On the Asiatic .side, 
 Pentigu Gulf (or Aboleschef Bay), Seniavine Straits, waa 
 selected for similar advantages. St. Lawrence and Mechigme 
 Bay were considered too exposed. 
 
 A part of the numerous soundings, taken by members of our 
 expedition, in Bering Sea, have been already recorded on pages 
 87, 88. The moderate depth of the whole sea, and its soft bottom, 
 seem points in favour of the proposed cable crossing. 
 
 A late Victoria (V. I.) newspaper states that the telegraph 
 line already constructed from New Westminster to the town at 
 the mouth of Quesnelle Eiver (which was the firsl Bed ion of our 
 overland telegraph), is to be extended to Caul'". Those 
 inaccessible mines, which seemed, a few years ago, as isolated 
 from civilization as is Spitsbergen, will then be in direol com- 
 munication with San Francisco, New York, and Europe. 
 
314 THE W. U. TELEGRAPH SCHEME. [App. II. 
 
 The real obstacle in the way of our enterprise, especially in 
 British Columbia and the larger part of Alaska, was the ex- 
 istence of densely timbered ground, where, in wintry storms, 
 or by the processes of natural decay, the trees might be expected 
 to fall on the telegraph line. To obviate this, it became neces- 
 sary to clear a wide " track " on either side of the line — a 
 work necessarily of some expense. But no part of the proposed 
 line passed through a worse country, in that respect, than the 
 first portion already constructed to the mouth of Quesnelle; 
 and, as it has been since kept in good working order, the 
 objection is not a fatal one. 
 
 It has been proposed to extend the same line to Sitka. 
 
App. III.] NOTES ON SITKA. 316 
 
 III.—NOTES ON SITKA. 
 
 Lisianski, Kotsebue, and Sir George Simpson are the only 
 authorities on Sitka which we possess. Mr. Eobert Brown, 
 of Edinburgh, kindly informs me that the flora of Sitka was 
 described by Bongard (in the 'Memoires de l'Acadeniie, &c, 
 de St. Petersbourg,' and also in a separate work), but the 
 country generally has not been overdone by travellers. 
 
 Until last year (1867), Sitka was an inaccessible place, and 
 there were no regular means of communication from an} r point. 
 Now all this is changed; steamers, touching at Vancouver 
 Island, ply between San Francisco and Sitka, once or twiot a 
 month. In summer, this trip is likely to be a pleasant one ; 
 late in the autumn, it may sometimes be very much the re- 
 verse. The distance from San Francisco is (approximately) 
 1500 miles. 
 
 Sitka, itself built on an island, has no roads whatever from it, 
 and the traveller must, therefore, thread the forests as we did 
 on Vancouver Island, charter a canoe for trips in the imme- 
 diate neighbourhood, or take his own yacht or other vessel. 
 At irregular periods, there will, doubtless, be facilities for com- 
 munication with the northern coast, the Aleutian [elands, &o. 
 For these points, however, San Francisco, California, and 
 Honolulu, in the Sandwich Islands, arc the best starting-points. 
 The whalers and traders almost invariable Leave those poi I 
 the north in the early spring. 
 
316 PORT CLAEENCE, NORTHERN ALASKA. [App. IV. 
 
 
 IV.— POET CLARENCE, NORTHERN ALASKA. 
 
 Port Clarence and Grantley Harbour (an inner basin), 
 were first explored and named by Captain Beechey in 1827. 
 Point Spencer, the extremity of a long spit, which shuts it in, 
 was determined by him to be in Lat. 65° 16' 40" N., Long. 
 166° 47' 50" W. It was frequently visited during the search 
 for Sir John Franklin. H.M.S. 'Plover' (Captain Moore) 
 wintered there in 1851-2, and H.M.S. * Kattlesnake ' (Com- 
 mander Trollope) in 1853-4. See the numerous ' Blue Books' 
 on Arctic Explorations, &c. 
 
 During the winter of 1866-7, and following summer, Captain 
 Libby, of our Telegraph Service, with nearly forty men, stopped 
 at this inaccessible place. At Grantley Harbour, a good station, 
 and other houses (which have been left there), and portions of 
 the telegraph line, were built by these men. It was, as before 
 stated, the spot intended for the Bering Strait cable "landing " 
 on the American side, and it has been already mentioned as the 
 central point at which the natives of Kotsebue and Norton 
 Sounds, and the neighbouring country, meet the Tchuktchis 
 from the Siberian coast. Many whalers annually visit this 
 harbour for trading purposes, and I expect to hear of a per- 
 manent white settlement being formed there. The experience of 
 the earlier Arctic explorers, as of our telegraph men, shows that 
 it is a good spot to winter in. Some of our men there, at one 
 time very short of provisions, lived for months at an Indian 
 village near Cape Prince of Wales. Supplies from the resources 
 of the country were very uncertain. In 1866-7, the natives in 
 the neighbourhood were almost starving, and were at one time 
 reduced to boiling down their old boots and fragments of hide, 
 in order to sustain life. " Yet," said a correspondent (a member 
 
Arp. VI.] GEOLOGY OF THE YUKON. 329 
 
 VI.— NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE YUKON. 
 
 My companion on the Yukon, MrJDall, published a few notes 
 on the geology of the region in ' Silliman's American Journal,' for 
 January, 1868, some extracts from which are here given. 
 
 Speaking of the mountains known as the " Eamparts," &c, he 
 says : — " They were entirely composed of azoic rocks, of whicli a 
 silvery greenish rock of talcose appearance, but very hard, pre- 
 dominates. Quartz in seams, slates and quartzite rocks, are 
 abundant, and a rock resembling granite — but with a superfluity 
 of feldspar, and no mica — is rare. The slates generally have a 
 north-westerly dip. 
 
 " True granite appears only once, near the termination of the 
 Eamparts, and forms a ledge extending across the river, and 
 making a rapid ; not, however, a dangerous one. Fifty miles or 
 less below the rapid the Eamparts terminate ; the Tanana River 
 (or Eiver of Mountains) comes in ; and from this point to the 
 mouth, as a rule, the river is wide, with the right bank high and 
 the left bank low, but occasionally with mountains in the 
 distance, or a bluff on the river. From the end of the Eamparts 
 to Co-yukuk Eiver (250 miles) the right bank presents, in their 
 order, conglomerate, quartzite, bluffs of yellow gravel, blue 
 talcose slate conglomerate, hard blue slates and quartzose r 
 blue sandstones and a soft green rock (Plutonic), with light 
 stellate spots in it. Granite is very rare, and mica also. I have 
 found fine specimens of obsidian on the beach, and jnsi above 
 the Eamparts, pebbles of Niagara limestone, with its charac- 
 teristic fossils. From the bend we find the following strata: 
 blue sandstone (unfossiliferous), brown sandstone in b d> a1 
 500 feet thick, containing vegetable remains in boi 
 and, rarely, casts of mollusca,— all, as far a- 1 have colli 
 Lamellibranchs. Thirty miles below the bend is a mi. all ooa 
 
330 GEOLOGY OF THE YUKON. [App. VI. 
 
 torted seam of coal between two thin layers of shale containing 
 very poor vegetable remains, and underlaid by the brown sand- 
 stone which overlies the blue sandstone, which, in its turn, I 
 think, covers the blue slates. The coal seam is very limited, 
 being on the extreme point of a bluff, and the greater part of it 
 has been denuded. The fossils are very poor, vegetable, and 
 resemble fuci. The coal is of good quality, bituminous, non- 
 caking, and leaves a gray ash. The seam is sixteen inches wide. 
 
 " The sandstones continue down the river some forty-five miles, 
 more generally with a N.W. dip, and always in gentle undula- 
 tion, sometimes continuous for miles, and often broken short off. 
 Below, the rocks for 300 miles are slates and eruptive rocks 
 of a pink colour, sometimes containing spathose minerals. The 
 formation changes at the Eussian Mission from hard blue slate to 
 a volcanic rock, full of almond-shaped cavities, which are empty ; 
 but certain parts of the rock are quite solid. It is black, and 
 contains minute crystals (of olivine ?). [It is roughly columnar 
 on Stuart's Island, Norton Sound, in five-sided columns on the 
 beach]. From this to the sea the banks are mostly low; but 
 when they approach the river they are invariably of blue, hard, 
 slaty sandstone, or sandy slate, the rock passing from one into 
 the other imperceptibly. This formation extends to St. Michael's, 
 nearly where the before-mentioned volcanic rock takes its place, 
 and continues up the shore of Norton Sound some thirty miles, 
 when it is replaced by the hard slates and sandstone, and I 
 have followed them up for thirty miles more to Unalachleet 
 Eiver. Here you cross in winter to the Yukon, 200 miles of 
 portage. 
 
 " The entire country is sprinkled over with remains of pliocene 
 animals, — (?) Elejphas, Ovibos moschatus, &c. Beds of marl exist 
 near Fort Yukon, consisting of shells (fresh- water) still found 
 living in the vicinity. The Kotto Eiver, emptying into the 
 Yukon above Fort Yukon, is held in superstitious dread by the 
 Indians, on account of the immense number of fossil bones 
 existing there. The Inglutalic Eiver, emptying into Norton 
 Sound, has a somewhat similar reputation. 
 
Apr VI.] GEOLOGY OF THE YUKON. 331 
 
 " I have carefully examined the country over which I haree 
 
 passed for glacial indications, and have not found any effects 
 attributable to such agencies. 
 
 " My own opinion, from what I have seen of the west coast, 
 though yet unproved, is that the glacier field never extended in 
 these regions to the westward of the Rocky Mountains, although 
 small single glaciers have and still do exist between spurs of the 
 mountains which approach the coast. Xo boulders, such as are 
 common in New England, no scratches or other marks of 
 ice-action, have been observed by any of our party, though care- 
 fully looked-for." 
 
 THE EXD. 
 
 LONDON: PBINTI i> BS v.. OLOWXB am> BOBS 
 • M) QHABOre • 
 
App. IV.] PORT CLARENCE, NORTHERN ALASKA. 317 
 
 of our expedition), writing from thence, "the party under 
 Captain Libby, although without bread or flour for some weeks, 
 escaped the scurvy entirely. The generally received opinion 
 that scurvy is generated from want of flour, does not seem 
 to be correct. At the station (Fort St. Michael's), where plenty 
 of flour was received, and freely used, they were afflicted with 
 this disease ; while at Port Clarence, where they were almost 
 entirely dependent upon the resources of the country for some 
 weeks, living upon walrus and seal meat, without flour or 
 bread, no symptom of scurvy made its appearance." 
 
 Very severe snow storms, called "poorgas," swept across the 
 open and barren country, at times, during winter ; but, never- 
 theless, our men persevered in what, eventually, proved a thank- 
 less task. They were often camped out at temperatures below 
 the freezing of mercury. At the station, among other devices 
 for passing the long winter evenings, our men concocted a MS. 
 newspaper, which was entitled 'The Esquimaux.' This was 
 afterwards printed in San Francisco, as a memento of the 
 expedition. 
 
318 
 
 MALEMUTE VOCABULARY. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 V.— INDIAN DIALECTS OF NOETHERN ALASKA, 
 
 (LATE RUSSIAN AMERICA). 
 
 MALEMUTE VOCABULARY. 
 
 Wards from the dialect of the Malemutes, Norton Sound, Northern 
 Alaska. — Whympee. 
 
 I - - - 
 
 - - Wounga. 
 
 Mouth - - 
 
 - Kanuk. 
 
 He - - 
 
 - - Oona 
 
 Teeth - - - 
 
 - Keeutik. 
 
 We - - 
 
 - - Wurgut. 
 
 Arm - - - 
 
 - Talik. 
 
 You - - 
 
 - - Itlepit. 
 
 Leg - - - 
 
 - Neeyu. 
 
 Man - - 
 
 - - Inuet. 
 
 Hand - - - 
 
 - Ashigite. 
 
 "Woman - 
 
 - - Achanuk. 
 
 Window - - 
 
 - Egalook. 
 
 Child- - 
 
 - - Kakooshka. 
 
 House - - 
 
 - Topek. 
 
 Brother - 
 
 - - Ungarunga. 
 
 Wood - - - 
 
 - Kushuk. 
 
 Sister - - 
 
 - - Nooga. 
 
 Canoe, Ship 
 
 - Omeuk-puk. 
 
 Day - - 
 
 - - Oblook (see also 
 
 Knife- - - 
 
 - Chowik. 
 
 
 Sleep). 
 
 Spoon - - 
 
 - Athrotik. 
 
 Night - 
 
 - - Niptiga. 
 
 Cup - - - 
 
 - Culoot. 
 
 Morning - 
 
 - - Oblaam. 
 
 Pot - - - 
 
 - Klipseen. 
 
 Noon - - 
 
 - - Kolwachtook. 
 
 Tree - - - 
 
 - Napaktuk. 
 
 Evening - 
 
 - - Nakekiluskuk. 
 
 Gun - - - 
 
 - Shupon. 
 
 Month - 
 
 (see Moon). 
 
 Powder - - 
 
 - Agara. 
 
 Sun - - 
 
 ■ - Sickunyuk. 
 
 Caps (percus- 
 
 Moon - - 
 
 • - Tachkut. 
 
 sion) - 
 
 - Cabiloo. 
 
 Star - - 
 
 - Obloat. 
 
 Bullet - - 
 
 - Cagarook. 
 
 Land - - ■ 
 
 - Noona. 
 
 Shot - - - 
 
 - Cagariya. 
 
 Water - ■ 
 
 - Imuk. 
 
 Skin coat - 
 
 - Atigee. 
 
 Sea - - ■ 
 
 - Tagaiuk. 
 
 Skin trousers 
 
 - Nellikak. 
 
 Lake - - ■ 
 
 - Nasuuk. 
 
 Skin boots - 
 
 - Camook. 
 
 River - - - 
 
 - Coke. 
 
 Skin cap - - 
 
 - Nasota. 
 
 Snow - - - 
 
 - Kanik. 
 
 Skin gloves or 
 
 
 Ice - - - 
 
 - Seko. 
 
 mitts 
 
 - Akatook. 
 
 Rain - - - 
 
 - Ebwinuktuk. 
 
 Hay - - - 
 
 - Eweek, Penikiruk 
 
 Head - - - 
 
 - Neakuk. 
 
 Rope - - - 
 
 - Akloonuk. 
 
 Face - - - 
 
 - Keenyuk. 
 
 Chief- - - 
 
 - Amaleek. 
 
App. V.] 
 
 MALEMUTE VOCABULARY. 
 
 319 
 
 Pipe - - 
 
 - - Queenuk. 
 
 What- - 
 
 - - Schuman. 
 
 Tobacco - 
 
 - - Tabac. 
 
 Where 
 
 - - Nami. 
 
 Needle - 
 
 - - Mitkin. 
 
 Here - - 
 
 - - Mani. 
 
 Thread - 
 
 - - Evaloot. 
 
 Now - - 
 
 - - Puckmumini. 
 
 Bag - - 
 
 - - Powuskuk.. 
 
 By-and-by 
 
 - - Atachta. 
 
 Dance 
 
 - - Poolaruk. 
 
 Who - - 
 
 - - Keena. 
 
 Sleep - - 
 
 - - Shineek (used to 
 
 How much 
 
 ?- - Capsenik. 
 
 
 count time. So 
 
 Don't know 
 
 - - Ki-yume. 
 
 
 many " sleeps"). 
 
 Come here 
 
 - - Cakinee. 
 
 Bread - - 
 
 - - Kakook. 
 
 Go away - 
 
 - - Aunee. 
 
 Fish - - 
 
 - - Ekathcthlook. 
 
 Go on a journey Alachtuk. 
 
 Bird - - 
 
 - - Ekashika. 
 
 Work - - 
 
 - - Chawitka. 
 
 (Eeindeer) 
 
 meat Naga. 
 
 See' - - 
 
 - - Touktook. 
 
 Sugar - - 
 
 - - Kapsitaak. 
 
 Give - - 
 
 - - Aichilunger. 
 
 Whisky - 
 
 - - Tanuk. 
 
 Buy - - 
 
 - - Etauchsik. 
 
 Berries - 
 
 - - Asheuk. 
 
 Sell - - 
 
 - - Keepuchuk. 
 
 Grease - 
 
 - - Ookarook. 
 
 Laugh 
 
 - - Kachkuktuk. 
 
 Beaver - 
 
 - - Palouktuk. 
 
 Talk - - 
 
 - - Ocaktuk. 
 
 Sable (mar 
 
 ten) Kavaitchuk. 
 
 Tell - - 
 
 - - Kanucktuk. 
 
 Mink - - 
 
 - - Tagiakpuk. 
 
 Bring - - 
 
 - - Taishke. 
 
 Bear - - 
 
 - - Aoutkluit. 
 
 Kill - - 
 
 - - Takootka. 
 
 Squirrel - 
 
 - - Chikirik. 
 
 Shoot- - 
 
 - - Shoopega. 
 
 Reindeer - 
 
 - - Toontook. 
 
 Understand 
 
 - - Tookshiruk. 
 
 Dog - - 
 
 - - Camukter. 
 
 Steal - - 
 
 - - Tigaliktook. 
 
 Musquito 
 
 - - Keektagiuck. 
 
 How much 
 
 for 
 
 Whale - 
 
 - - Akiwik. 
 
 that? 
 
 - - Cliimuk. 
 
 Seal - - 
 
 - - Oogarook. 
 
 Thank you 
 
 - - Koyana. 
 
 Walrus - 
 
 - - Aiwik. 
 
 - - Amaouk. 
 
 
 
 Wolf - - 
 
 
 Yes - - 
 
 - -Waa. 
 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 No, Not 
 
 - - Peechuk. 
 
 1 - - 
 
 - Atousik. 
 
 Big - - 
 
 - - Ungidooruk. 
 
 2 - - 
 
 - Ipar. 
 
 Little- - 
 
 - - Mikidooruk. 
 
 3 - - 
 
 - Peeniuk. 
 
 Few - - 
 
 - - Ekeektuk. 
 
 4 - - 
 
 - Seetimat. 
 
 Plenty - 
 
 - - Amalacktook. 
 
 5 - - 
 
 Talimanuk. 
 
 Good - - 
 
 - - Nakuruk. 
 
 6 - - 
 
 ■ Echukerit. 
 
 Bad - - 
 
 - - Ashuruk. 
 
 7 - - 
 
 • Malounik shcpnelik. 
 
 Quick 
 
 - - Kelumuk. 
 
 8 - - 
 
 ■ Pecncsliiiuk hsepnelik 
 
 Slow - - 
 
 - - Sikichuk. 
 
 9 - - 
 
 ■ Kollngneotilik. 
 
 Cold - - 
 
 - - Allopar. 
 
 10 - - 
 
 - Kolit. 
 
 Hot - - 
 
 - - Allopar peechuk (not 
 
 11 - - - 
 
 10 and 1 do. &o. 
 
 
 cold). 
 
 20 - - - 
 
 Enuennk. 
 
 Crooked - 
 
 - - Chakoonaruk. 
 
 
 
 Straight - 
 
 - - Nalooruk. 
 
 
 
320 
 
 CO-YUKON VOCABULAKY. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 CO-YUKON VOCABULAKY. 
 
 Words from the Oo-yukon dialect, spoken (with slight variations) on the 
 Yukon River for at least 500 miles of its lower and middle course. 
 (Ingelete, a variety of same dialect.) — Whymper. 
 
 Good Spirit - 
 
 - Kanuckertoltoi. 
 
 Gun - - - 
 
 - Eltudla. 
 
 Bad Spirit - 
 
 - Tcheklaker. 
 
 Caps (percus- 
 
 I . . - . 
 
 -Se. 
 
 sion)- - 
 
 - Onunkadadoi. 
 
 Thou - - - 
 
 -Ne. 
 
 Powder - - 
 
 - Kau koon. 
 
 He - - - 
 
 - Ecossee. 
 
 Bullet - - 
 
 - Kautla. 
 
 We - - - 
 
 - Seyer. 
 
 Shot - - - 
 
 - Koon 
 
 You - - - 
 
 -She. 
 
 Knife- - - 
 
 - Kakikltaun. 
 
 They - - - 
 
 - Nun. 
 
 Pipe - - - 
 
 - Koniuk. 
 
 Man - - - 
 
 - Tenalo. 
 
 Tobacco - - 
 
 - Tabac. Tacona (fire). 
 
 Woman - - 
 
 - Salturn. 
 
 Coat - - - 
 
 - Taiak. 
 
 Child- - - 
 
 - Tenaiyusa. 
 
 Trousers - - 
 
 - Katchee. 
 
 Brother - - 
 
 - Skitla. 
 
 Shoes - - - 
 
 - Kakatauch. 
 
 Sister - - - 
 
 - Stadsa. 
 
 Cap - - - 
 
 - Kakadalaion. 
 
 Head - - - 
 
 - Se woiyer. 
 
 Kettle - - 
 
 - Oclock. 
 
 Face - - - 
 
 - Senun. 
 
 Axe - - - 
 
 - Mukalklalla. 
 
 Forehead 
 
 - Sekata. 
 
 Flour - - - 
 
 - Klatsmitze. 
 
 Eye - - - 
 
 - Se noga. 
 
 Fire - - - 
 
 - Tacona. Kletcle. 
 
 Ear - - - 
 
 - Se tsa. 
 
 Water - - 
 
 -Too. 
 
 Nose - - - 
 
 - Se nee. 
 
 Ice - - - 
 
 - T'un. 
 
 Mouth - - 
 
 - S'alotte. 
 
 Snow - - - 
 
 - Nootaga. 
 
 Tongue - - 
 
 - S'acloula. 
 
 Sun - - - 
 
 -S'o. 
 
 Tooth- - - 
 
 - S'uwyer. 
 
 Moon - - - 
 
 - Taltolla. 
 
 Neck - - - 
 
 - S'ukugl. 
 
 Star - - - 
 
 - K'lune. 
 
 Arm - - - 
 
 - Sekaner. 
 
 Day - - - 
 
 - K'lut. 
 
 Hand - - - 
 
 - Se lur. 
 
 Night- - « 
 
 - Kliltahl. 
 
 Body - - - 
 
 - S'kotit. 
 
 Morning - - 
 
 - Kadamatona. 
 
 Leg - - - 
 
 - Sowool. 
 
 Evening - - 
 
 - Lalaatsun. 
 
 Foot - - - 
 
 - Se ka. 
 
 Summer - - 
 
 - Saner. 
 
 Bone - - - 
 
 - K'lun. 
 
 Winter - - 
 
 - Koidau. 
 
 Heart - - - 
 
 - Se naiyitz. 
 
 Wind - - - 
 
 - Atse. 
 
 Chief- - - 
 
 - Kooka. 
 
 Bain - - - 
 
 - Al'corn. 
 
 House - - 
 
 - Konaugh. 
 
 Kiver - - - 
 
 - Suckener. (Small) Se- 
 
 Village - - 
 
 - Zadlecle. 
 
 
 cargut. 
 
 Canoe - - 
 
 - Metaui. 
 
 Mountain - 
 
 - Klehl. 
 
 Paddle - - 
 
 - Tauloi. 
 
 Island - - 
 
 - Taash. New. 
 
 Bow - - - 
 
 - Klintun. 
 
 Valley - - 
 
 - Tekalculcul. Kona 
 
 Arrow - - 
 
 - K'au. 
 
 
 kon. 
 
App. V.j 
 
 CO-YUKON VOCABULARY. 
 
 321 
 
 Stone. Rock 
 
 - L'orna. 
 
 Far - - - 
 
 - Neelot. 
 
 Tree - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Chooma. 
 
 Who - - - 
 
 - Tewa. 
 
 Wood - - 
 
 - 
 
 - K'aut. 
 
 Where - - 
 
 - Hough tee. 
 
 Swamp - 
 
 - 
 
 - Munacut. 
 
 Yesterday - 
 
 - Katona. 
 
 Birch-tree 
 
 - 
 
 -Ki'e. 
 
 To-day - - 
 
 - Autakut. 
 
 Spruce - 
 
 - 
 
 - Chuma. 
 
 To-morrow - 
 
 - Katooman. 
 
 Bowl - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Kluck. 
 
 Yes - - - 
 
 -Ha. 
 
 Beads- - 
 
 - 
 
 - Neltilla. 
 
 No, not - - 
 
 - Micullah. 
 
 Blanket - 
 
 - 
 
 - T'suda. 
 
 Sleep - - - 
 
 - Littern. 
 
 Needle - 
 
 - 
 
 - Klatakona. 
 
 Sit - - - 
 
 - Litto. 
 
 Bag - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Melketla. 
 
 Give - - - 
 
 - Entar. 
 
 Berries - 
 
 - 
 
 - Keeka. 
 
 Talk - - - 
 
 - Tini. 
 
 Fat - - 
 
 - 
 
 - N'kau. 
 
 Shoot- - - 
 
 - Teltudla. 
 
 Reindeer - 
 
 - 
 
 - Anoyer. 
 
 Work - - - 
 
 - Konitine. 
 
 Reindeer tongue Kakloula. 
 
 Now - - - 
 
 - Atakauch. 
 
 Moose 
 
 - 
 
 - Tanaiger. 
 
 By-and-by - 
 
 - Kl'at. 
 
 Rabbit - 
 
 - 
 
 - Kaugh. 
 
 Quick - - 
 
 - Tow-wer. 
 
 Bear - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Klaousa. 
 
 All --- 
 
 - Etedsun. 
 
 Marten - 
 
 - 
 
 - Carkayousa. 
 
 Hungry - - 
 
 - Kutlakat. 
 
 Mink - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Tauchkousa. 
 
 Enough - - 
 
 - Koodar. 
 
 Beaver - 
 
 - 
 
 - Carka. 
 
 Come here - 
 
 - Orni. 
 
 Dog - - 
 
 - 
 
 - K'lick. 
 
 Go away - - 
 
 - Antouger. 
 
 Wolf - - 
 
 - 
 
 -Yes. 
 
 How much ? 
 
 - Tenaltai. 
 
 Grouse - 
 
 - 
 
 - Telerbucker. 
 
 Thank you - 
 
 - Marci. 
 
 Duck - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Nintaal. 
 
 How are you 
 
 p 
 
 Goose - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Titsena. 
 
 (salutation) 
 
 - Koyana. 
 
 Fish - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Telamachkur. 
 
 Don't know - 
 
 - Testini. 
 
 Musquito- 
 
 - 
 
 - Kl'g. 
 
 
 
 Big - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Nekau. 
 
 
 
 Small- - 
 
 - 
 
 - Nacoutza. 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 Strong - 
 
 - 
 
 - Kootclear. 
 
 1 - - - 
 
 Ketlcket. 
 
 Old - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Klokee. 
 
 2 - - - 
 
 Unte\ 
 
 Young - 
 
 - 
 
 - Ataltahai. 
 
 3- - - 
 
 TaunkG. 
 
 Good - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Nazoon. 
 
 4- - - 
 
 Tinike. 
 
 Bad - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Satklaka. 
 
 5 - - - 
 
 Kctsnala. 
 
 Dead - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Tultlun. 
 
 6- - - 
 
 five one. 
 
 Alive - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Toitlala. 
 
 7 - - - 
 
 five two. 
 
 Cold - - 
 
 - 
 
 - Azoo. 
 
 8- - - 
 
 five three 
 
 Warm 
 
 - 
 
 - Azoo micullah (not 
 
 9- - - 
 
 live four. 
 
 
 
 cold) 
 
 10- - - 
 
 Nekoshnala. 
 
 Many - - 
 
 
 - Lorn. 
 
 
 
 V* For some brief observation* on thes< dialects, eee tin- writer's Paper on the 
 'Natives of the Yukon River,' in (Jo ' Transaction* of tin Ethnological 
 Society of London' for 1868 
 
322 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULARY. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULAKY. 
 
 Words from the language of the Kotch-a'-Kutchins — the Indians of 
 Yukon River, at the mouth of the Porcupine River, in Northern 
 Alaska. — Kennicott. 
 
 Good Spirit - ■ - 
 
 Ti'h-hu-gun. (Lit., "My old friend;" supposed to 
 inhabit the sun and moon, and to be powerless for 
 good or evil.) 
 
 Bad Spirit 
 
 Chu't-sai n - (This seems to be merely the spirit of death, 
 and only for this reason bad. To it go all souls, 
 good and bad.) 
 
 Man - 
 
 Tin'-ji. 
 
 Woman - 
 
 Boy - - - - 
 
 Girl - - - 
 
 Trin'-joh. 
 T'tsi-ah. 
 
 Ni-chit. 
 
 Infant - 
 
 Tri-ny'm'. 
 
 Father - 
 
 Ti'h ; my father, ti'h-e ; thy father, ne-tih ; his or her 
 father, ve-tih. 
 
 Mother - 
 
 Hun (same as river ;) my mother, na'-ah. 
 
 Husband 
 
 Kai-ih; my husband, se-kai-ih ; thy husband, ne-kai-Ih ; 
 her husband, ve-kai-ih. 
 
 Wife - - - 
 
 At. 
 
 Son (of father) 
 
 Tin'-ji ; (lit. man.) My son, if spoken by the father, or 
 as relating to him, se'-tm-jl ; thy son, ne'-tm-ji ; his 
 son, ve'-tin-ji. 
 
 Son (of mother) 
 Daughter (of father) 
 
 Zuh; my son, si '-zuh; thy son, ni'-zuh ; her son, vi'-zuh. 
 Chi ; my daughter, se'-chi ; thy daughter, ni-chi ; his 
 daughter, ve-chi. 
 
 Daughter (of mother) 
 Brother (elder) 
 
 Ge'-tsI ; my daughter, si'-ge-tsl ; thy daughter, ni-ge- 
 
 tsi ; his daughter, vi-ge-tsi. 
 De ; my elder brother, sun '-de ; thy elder brother, nun- 
 
 de ; his or her elder brother, vun-de. 
 
 Brother (younger) - 
 
 Chah; "young," se'-ehah; thy younger brother, ne- 
 chah ; his or her younger brother, ve-chah. 
 
 Sister (elder) 
 
 Chih; my elder sister, se'-chih; thy elder sister, ne- 
 chih ; his or her elder sister, ve-chih. 
 
 Sister (younger) 
 An Indian 
 
 Chidh; my younger sister, se'-chidh; thy younger 
 sister, ne-chidh ; his or her younger sister, ve-chdlh. 
 Tm-jl. 
 
App. V.] 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULARY. 
 
 323 
 
 People - 
 
 Indian fashion, or in 
 the manner of In- 
 dians - 
 
 White man 
 
 Head - 
 
 Hair - 
 
 Face 
 
 Forehead 
 
 Ear - 
 
 Eye - 
 
 Nose 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Tongue 
 
 Tooth 
 
 Beard 
 
 Neck 
 
 Arm 
 
 Hand 
 
 Fingers 
 
 Nails 
 
 Body 
 
 Belly 
 
 Leg - 
 
 Tin-ji. 
 
 Tin-ji-zub. 
 Man-o-tlit. 
 Ti'-chih ; my head, ti'-chih ; thy head, ni-chlh ; his or 
 
 her head, vi-chih. 
 E-geh. (In speaking of a man's hair, " head hair,'' chlli- 
 
 geh is always used ; my hair, sl'-chih-geh ; thy hail 
 
 ni-chih-geh ; his or her hair, vi-chih-g'jh. 
 Chi'-neh ; my face, si'-neh ; thy face, ni-neh ; his, hers, 
 
 or its face, vi-neh. 
 Tchun'-t'tsut ; my forehead, sun'-t'tsut; thy forehead, 
 
 nun-t'tsut ; his, her, or its forehead, vun-t'tsut. 
 ChS'-tzeh ; my ear, se'-tzeh ; thine ear, n6'-tzeh ; his, 
 
 her, or its ear, ve-tzeh. 
 Chm'-deh ; my eye, sm'-deh ; thine eye, nm'-deh ; his, 
 
 her, or its eye, vln-deh. 
 Chin'^tsih ; my nose, sin'-tsih ; thy nose, nm-tsih ; his, 
 
 her, or its nose, vin-tsih. 
 Che-zh!k ; my mouth, se-zhik ; thy mouth, ne-zhlk ; 
 
 his, her, or its mouth, ve-zhik. 
 Chi-cha; my tongue, se-cha; thy tongue, ne-cha ; his, 
 
 her, or its tongue, v6-cha. 
 Cha'-goh ; my tooth, sa'-goh; thy tooth, na-guh : his, 
 
 her, or its tooth, va-gi3h. 
 Chi-te'-ai-geh ; my beard, sl-te'-ai-geh ; thy beard, ni- 
 
 te-ai-geh ; his, her, or its beard, vi-te-ai-geh ; (ohin 
 
 hair.) 
 Che'-koh ; my neck, se'-koh; thy neck,ne-koh; his, 
 
 her, or its neck, ve-koh. 
 Che'-ki-in; my arm, sS-kl-in; thy arm, ne-kT-iu : his, 
 
 her, or its arm, ve-ki-Tn. 
 Chin-ll ; my hand, sin'-li ; thy hand, nin-li ; his, her, or 
 
 its hand, vin-li. 
 La'-t'thuk; my fingers, sin-la '-t'thuk ; thy fingers, nin- 
 
 la'-t'thuk; his, her. <>r its fingers, vin-la'-t'tliuk. 
 Che'-kaih ; my nails, s&'-kaih ; thy nails, n6-kaih ; his, 
 
 her, or its nails, \v-kaih. 
 ChC'-zuk-iaili ; my body, sC-'-zuk-taih ; tliv body, m- 
 
 zuk-taih; his, her, or its body, 76-znk-taih. 
 Ch6'-vut; my belly, se"-vnt; thy belly, ofi-vut; his, 
 her, or its belly, 76-vut 
 
 ('hi'-dlmdh ; my Leg, B6'-dhudh; thy leg, n.-dlmdh : 
 
 his, her, 01 its Leg, vfi-dhndh. 
 
 J 
 
324 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULAE^. 
 
 [App. V. 
 
 Foot 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Che'-keh ; my foot, se'-keh ; thy foot, ne-keh ; his, her, 
 or its foot, ve-keh. 
 
 Toes 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Che'-keh-chi' ; my toes, se'-keh-chi' ; thy toes, ne-keh- 
 chi ; his, her, or its toes, ve-keh-chi. 
 
 Bone 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 T'thun ; my bone, se-t'thun ; thy bone, ne-t'thun ; his, 
 her, or its bone, ve-t'thun. 
 
 Heart 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Chi'-t'tri ; my heart, si-t'trl ; thy heart, ni-t'tri ; bis, 
 her, or its heart, vi-t'tri. 
 
 Blood 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Tah ; my blood, se'-tah ; thy blood, ne-tah ; his, her, or 
 its blood, ve-tah. 
 
 Chief 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Kah-keh'. 
 
 Warrior 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 (No name.) 
 
 Friend 
 
 '- - 
 
 - 
 
 Se'-chi-ah. (Lit., "My companion.") 
 
 House 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Zeh. (Originally, an Indian lodge was probably Zeh). 
 
 Indian Lodge - 
 
 - 
 
 Ni-vl-ah'-zeh. (Ni-vi'-ah is " lodge cover") 
 
 Village 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Zeh-keh. (Lit., " Many houses," or " many lodges.") 
 
 Kettle 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Ti'-ah. (Nearly like father — a pot or cup is chu n -ti-ah.) 
 
 Arrow 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Ki'-e. 
 
 Bow - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Uhl'-ti n - 
 
 Axe - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Ta'-i n h. 
 
 Knife 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Esih ; my knife, si'-rzih ; thy knife, ni'-rzih ; his or her 
 knife, vi'-rzih. 
 
 Canoe 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 T'-trih. 
 
 Paddle 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Tah-i n h. (Very nearly the same as axe.) 
 
 Boat - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 T'trih-cho'h. (Lit., " Big canoe.") 
 
 Eaft - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Hka°- 
 
 Indian Shoes - 
 
 - 
 
 Keh-trih. 
 
 Bread 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kli'-uth-chu. 
 
 Flour 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kli'-uth. 
 
 Ashes 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kli'-uth. 
 
 Earth 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Kli-uth. (Flour, ashes, and earth called precisely the 
 same word. ) 
 
 Pipe 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Se-tid-chi; my pipe, set'-se-fid'-chi. (Lit., "Tobacco 
 stone." 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 - - 
 
 - 
 
 Se'-tid. 
 
 Sky- 
 Horizon 
 Cloud 
 Sun - 
 Moon 
 Star - 
 Day - 
 Light 
 
 Zi'-e. 
 
 Zi-e-ba n h. 
 
 K'k5h. 
 
 Drin-ur'-zih. 
 
 Tudh-ur-zih. 
 
 Su«- 
 
 Drin. 
 
 A-t'tri. 
 
App. V.] 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULARY. 
 
 :;20 
 
 Night 
 
 _ 
 
 -1 
 
 Hkah. 
 
 Darkness - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 Tudh. 
 
 Morning - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Tun. (Almost the same as " Lake.') 
 
 Evening - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Na-chl-ai™- (Lit., " Sun-set.'") 
 
 Spring 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Tai»- 
 
 Summer - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 S'sin. 
 
 Autumn - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Hkain'-sun. 
 
 Winter 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Hkaih. 
 
 Wind 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 A'kh-traih. 
 
 Lightning 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Nah-tun'-kun. (Lit., " Thunder -lire.") 
 
 Thunder - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Nan-tun'. 
 
 Rain - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 Tsin. 
 
 Snow 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Zah. 
 
 Hail - - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Chm-luh. 
 
 Fire - - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 KG 11 
 
 Aurora Borealis 
 
 - 
 
 Ya-kai n - 
 
 Water 
 
 - 
 
 
 Ghu n 
 
 Ice 
 
 - 
 
 
 T'tun. (A fragment of ice or floating ice is Thin.; 
 
 Land, Earth 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 Nun. 
 
 Sea - - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Cho n -ch6h. (" Big water.") 
 
 River - 
 
 - 
 
 
 Hun. 
 
 Lake - 
 
 - 
 
 
 Vun. 
 
 Valley 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Ku-na'-tri. 
 
 Mountain - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 D'dhah. 
 
 Island 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Njuh. 
 
 Stone, Rock 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Chi. 
 
 Copper 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 The'tsra" 
 
 Iron - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Chi-tsih. 
 
 Tree - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Te-chun'. 
 
 Wood 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Te-chun' or Tsroh. 
 
 Leaf - 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 Chit-un. 
 
 Bark - - 
 
 ~ 
 
 "" 
 
 Bii-tri. (The bark of the birch, however, is always 
 
 K'klh. 
 
 Grass 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 K'kir.h. 
 
 Poplar 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 T'toh. (Populus tremnloides, T'toh-aoh; P. balsami- 
 Pera (?) T'toh.) 
 
 Birch 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Hka'-t'toh; alder, koh. 
 
 Willow - 
 
 
 
 Knili-tluk'. This is the oommon upland willow; 
 another species on the low lands, and of which the 
 Indians sometimes eal the soft, m. w wood, is kaih- 
 t/.u'li perhaps the true generic name for willow is 
 
 kaili.) 
 
328 
 
 KOTCH-A'-KUTCHIN VOCABULARY. 
 
 [App. V 
 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 
 1 - 
 
 - Ckih'-thluk. 
 
 9 " 
 
 - Men'-chudh-ne-kdh'-kwa. 
 
 2 - 
 
 - Ne'-kai n - 
 
 10 - 
 
 - Chi-thluk'-cho-t'i-m. 
 
 3 - 
 
 - Tl'-ik. 
 
 11 - 
 
 - Clri-tliluk'-vi-da-tuk. 
 
 4 - 
 
 - Tang. 
 
 12 - 
 
 - Ne'-kai n -vi-da-tuk. 
 
 5 - 
 
 - Chih'-tluk-im'-ll. 
 
 13 - 
 
 - Tl'-ik-vi-da-tuk. 
 
 6 - 
 
 - Nih'-ki-ti'-ik. 
 
 20 - 
 
 - Ne-kai n -cho-ti'-m. 
 
 7 - 
 
 - E'tse-de'-tse-ne-kai n 
 
 30 - 
 
 - Tl-ik-cho-ti'-m. 
 
 8 - 
 
 - Nih'-ki-taiig'. 
 
 
 
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